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HYPNOTISM: 


INCLUDING  A   STUDY  OF  THE  CHIEF 

POINTS  OF   PSYCHO-THERAPEUTICS 

AND  OCCUI-TISM. 


db.  albert  moll. 


THE   CONTEMPORARY  SCIENCE  SERIES, 

Edited  by  HAVELOCK  ELLIS. 


HYPNOTISM. 


lAHE  UBRARY.  STANFORD  UNIVERSIT 


PREFACE 

TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 

My  numerous  other  duties  have,  unfortunately,  delayed 
the  appearance  of  this  edition  of  my  book,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  third  has  long  been  sold  out.  In  the 
present,  fourth  edition,  I  have  completely  revised  my 
former  work  and  made  many  important  additions 
thereto.  I  have  endeavoured  to  bring  it  into  line  with 
our  present-day  knowledge,  and  have  laid  special  stress 
on  the  universal  importance  which  has  become  attached 
to  hypnotism  and  suggestion  during  the  last  ten  years. 
I  have  given  the  narrowest  limits  possible  to  the  concept 
suggestion,  with  the  view  of  better  differentiating  sug- 
gestion from  other  psychic  process  than  was  formerly 
done.  Relatively  speaking,  the  fewest  alterations  have 
been  made  in  the  chapters  on  symptomatology  and 
post-hypnotic  suggestion.  Very  little  has  been  added 
to  our  knowledge  of  these  questions  during  the  last  few 
years,  and  it  would  appear  that  this  branch  of  hypnotic 
research  is  fairly  exhausted,  though,  of  course,  it  may 
one  day  happen  that  it  will  have  to  go  through  a 
searching  revision  which  will  prove  instructive. 

In  the  chapters  which  treat  of  the  various  theories 
of  hypnotism  I  have  endeavoured  to  throw  fresh  light 
on  the  experiments  I  originally  made  for  the  purpose 
of  explaining  the  phenomena.  But  I  adhere  to  the 
position  I  primarily  assumed — to  wit,  that  certain 
premises    must    be    accepted    if   we    are    to    explain 


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«t  from  the  yogis  and 
ong  various  peoples  in 
rom  Abyssinia  we  are 
lined  to  detect  crime, 
'd  to  be  able  to  detect 
One  of  them  is  stated 
stopping,  and  then  to 
arrived  at  his  hiding- 
nnamites  employ  hyp. 
es  hypnosis  is  attained 
ummg  sticks  attached 
i  his  head.  Hypnotic 
mcivilized  peoples,  as 
nformation  of  many 
late  Professor  Bastian, 
relationship  of  many 
tions  to  hypnotism. 
'dy  of  hypnotism  by 
ervice  to  ethnological 
spontaneously  among 
Lrefully  examined  and 

comprehensive  work, 
Psychologie,  a  second 
many  details  concern- 
copies  and  in  various 
specially  of  hypnosis, 
il,  to  which  Stoll  gives 
«stances  are  given  of 
jnotic^  orauto-hvonotir- 


viil  PREFACE. 

hypnotism.     We  shall  be  far  more  likely  to  arrive  at 
a  proper  conception   of  hypnosis   by  reasoning  from 
analogy    than    by    paying    any    attention    to    misty 
psychological   concepts  or    physiological    experiments 
which   our   present    knowledge    of    ultimate    cerebral 
processes  is  quite  unable  to  explain.     I  have  added  a 
chapter    dealing    with     the    general    influence    that 
hypnotism   and    suggestion    have    had    on   medicine: 
the. first  part  of  it  is  devoted  to  theoretical  medicine 
and    the   far-reaching    effects  of    hypnotism    on    this 
branch  of  the  question ;    the  second  part  contains  a 
study  of  the  salient  points  of  psycho-therapeutics.     I 
have  done  this  because  psycho-therapeutics  seems  to 
me  to  be  a  developmental  outcome  of  hypnotic  and 
suggestive  therapy,   and  ought,   therefore,   to   be  dis- 
tinguished   from    hypnotic    therapeutics,   which    only 
constitutes  a   small  branch  of  general   psycho-thera- 
peusis.      Attention   is  also   drawn   to  the  connection 
that  subsists  between  hypnotism  and   the  science  of 
psychology,  especially  with  regard  to  the  important 
part  played  by  suggestion  in  all  psychological  investi- 
gations.    I  have  also  discussed  the  influence  of  sug- 
gestion on  other  questions,  such  as  art,  superstition, 
ethnology,  etc.,  much  more  fully  than  in  the  earlier 
editions  of  this  work.     My  reason  for  doing  this  is  the 
tendency  nowadays  to  overlook  the  influence  of  modern 
hypnotism  on  the  most  varied  branches  of  science  and 
the  different  phenomena   they  present.     The  revised 
chapter  on   the   legal   aspect    of    hypnotism   will    be 
found  to  contain  much  fuller  details  than  in  former 
editions.      I   have   shown    in   it   the    close    historical 
connection   that   subsists   between   the   psychology  of 
testimony  and  hypnotism. 
-  The -last  section  of  the  book — that  dealing  with  the 


PREFACE.  IX 

most  important  points  connected  with  occultism — has 
been  considerably  enlarged.     I  felt  bound  to  extend  this 
chapter:   first  of  all,  because   hypnotism  has  brought 
to  light  many  sources  of  error  in  this  connection,  and 
secondly,   because    real   criticism   affords  us  the   best 
means  of  stemming  the  tide  of  the  uncritical  advocacy 
of    occultism.      It    cannot    be    denied    that    belieif  in 
occultism   has   increased   in   recent   times.     I   do   not 
assume  this  merely  from  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
occultistic  societies  and  periodicals,  but  rather  because 
private  conversation  has  convinced  me  of  the  fact.     I 
have  also  observed  an  increased  tendency  on  the  part  of 
the  public  to  mystery-mongering.     I  need  only  recall 
the  epidemic  of  "faith-healing,"  the  sensation  caused  by 
the  so-called  "sleep-dancers,"  the  way  in  which  many 
people  were  upset  by  the  doings  of  the  horse  "  Clever 
Hans,"  the  uncritical  praise  bestowed  on  the  divining- 
rod,  and  the  medical  miracles  of  such  individuals  as 
Kneipp,  etc.,  etc.     The  fact  that  so  many  worthy  men 
of  science  have  taken  to  this  mystery-mongering  is  not 
calculated  to  make  future  generations  have  much  respect 
for  the  present  age.     That  a  man  like  Crookes  should 
believe  that  Home  could  overcome  the  force  of  gravity 
without  employing  any  mechanical  means,  that  Lom- 
broso  should  believe  that  Eusapia  Palladino  could  move 
objects  by  the  action  of  her  will  alone,  that  Stumpf 
should  believe  that  a  horse  could  be  educated  like  a 
child   and    be    influenced    by   telepathy,   that   Riebet 
should  believe  that  the  murder  of  the  Servian  royal 
family   was   foretold   in    Paris   by   occult    means — all 
these  things  are  but  instances  of  the  errors  that  other- 
wise competent  investigators  may  make.     For  they  are 
nothing  but  cases  of  error,  not  because  the  investigators 
attempted  to  explain  the  impossible,  but  because  they 


X  PREFACE. 

based  their  conclusions  on  imperfect  data,  and  did  not 
see  the  pitfalls  before  them.  These  scientists  and 
others  like  them,  prove  that  a  man  may  be  proficient  in 
his  own  special  branch  and  yet  quite  incapable  of 
criticizing  other  methods  of  research.  In  spite  of  these 
and  other  authors  who  express  a  belief  in  occultism  and 
spiritism,  I  can  safely  say,  not  only  as  the  result  of  my 
own  experiments  but  also  from  a  careful  study  of 
numerous  occultistic  and  spiritistic  works,  that  I  have 
never  come  across  even  one  single  experiment  carried 
out  under  strictly  scientific  conditions  that  could  be 
said  to  justify  the  assumption  that  occult  forces  eiist. 
One  of  the  biggest  swindles  perpetrated  by  occultists  is 
the  way  in  which  they  promise  beforehand  strict 
adherence  to  scientific  conditions,  and  then  do  their 
utmost  to  prevent  such  conditions  being  observed. 

In  spite  of  my  most  earnest  endeavours,  I  have  never 
been  able  to  detect  even  the  slightest  approach  to  occult 
phenomena,  provided  strict  conditions  were  observed; 
in  all  these  investigations  the  assumption  of  animal 
magnetism,  telepathy,  clairvoyance,  etc.,  was  altogether 
superfluous.  I  am,  of  course,  just  as  willing  in  the 
future  as  I  always  have  been  in  the  past  to  investigate, 
under  the  conditions  enjoined  by  science,  all  cases  of 
mediums,  magnetizers,  etc.,  etc.,  who  profess  to  possess 
occult  powers,  for  I  consider  ä  priori  negation  just  as 
unscientific  as  those  swindles  and  frauds  connected  with 
occultism  which  I  have  so  strongly  condemned. 

ALBERT  MOLL. 

St.  Helier,  Jersey. 


CONTENTS. 


rAGB 

^     XVCtf  AT  4A^^£tO  ••»  •••  ••■  «*•  •••  ••«  •••  V 

CHAPTER  I. 
History  of  Hypnotism  i 

Empirical  period  (i) — The  first  scientific  systems  (5) — Mesmer 
(6) — Animal  magnetism  in  France  (7) — In  Germany  (8) — 
Decline  of  animal  magnetism  (11). 

The  scientific  development  of  Hypnotism  (14) — Braid  (14) — 
Electro-Biology(i5)—Li^beault  (17)— Charcot  (17)— TheSchool 
of  Nancy  (18) — International  spread  of  hypnotism  (19) — 
Germany  (23) — Hypnotism  in  medicine  (24) — Hypnotism  and 
the  law  (25) — Psychology  (25) — Theologians  and  hypnotism  (26) 
— The  study  of  suggestion  (27). 

Congresses  (28) — ^Journals  devoted  to  hypnotism  (29) — 
Lectures  on  hypnotism  (30) — Documentary  evidence  (31) — 
Popularization  of  hypnotism  (31) — Literature  (32) — Art  (32). 

CHAPTER  IL 
General  Considerations         34 

Examples  of  hypnosis  (34) — Terminology  (37) — Production  of 
hypnosis  (38) — Psychical  methods  (38) — Auto-hypnosis  (39) — 
Physical  methods  (40) — Combined  methods  (45) — Drugs  (45) 
— The  magnet  (46)-^The  awakening  (47). 

Disposition  to  hypnosis  (48) — Hysteria  (49) — Mental  apti- 
tudes (49) — Nationality  (51) — Age  (51) — Frequency  of  experi- 
ments (52) — External  conditions  (52). 

Hypnosis  without  the  consent  of  the  subject  (54) — Hypnosis 
induced  in  sleep  (55) — Percentage  of  hypnotizable  persons  (56) 
— Stages  of  hypnosis  (58) — Max  Dessoir's  groups  (59) — Captiva- 
tion  and  pseudo-hypnosis  (61) — Suggestibility  (61) — Thought- 
reading  (62) — The  concept  "suggestion"  (64) — Auto-cugges- 
tion  (67). 


xil  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 


PAGE 


The  Symptoms  of  Hypnosis 69 

Division  into  physical  and  psychical  symptoms  (69). 

(i)  Physiology. — ^Voluntary  muscular  action  (69) — Move- 
ment induced  or  prevented  by  suggestion  (70) — Fascination  (73) 
— Gestures  (73) — Music  (74) — Catalepsy  by  suggestion  (75) — 
Mesmeric  passes  (75) — Contractures  (77) — Continuous  move- 
ments (77) — Active  and  passive  hypnosis  (78) — Ocular  symptoms 
(78) — Combination  of  muscular  abnormalities  (80) — The  reflexes 
(81) — Charcot's  stages  (81) — Physical  reflexes  (84) — Psychical 
reflexes  (86) — Echolalia  (86) — Phreno-hypnotism  (86)— Hemi- 
hypnosis  (86) — Increase  in  functional  capacity  (87) — Dynamo- 
metric  investigations  (88) — The  muscular  sense  (88) — Electric 
excitability  (89) — Patellar  reflex  (90) — The  pupil  of  the  eye  (90). 

Sense-perceptions  (92) — Sensation  without  suggestion  (92) — 
Sensation  of  pain  (94) — Anaesthesia  by  suggestion  (96) — Hyper- 
aesthesia  (97) — Suggested  hallucinations  (loi) — Negative  hallu- 
cinations (104) — Common  sensation  (105) — Involuntary  muscular 
action  (106) — Circulation  and  respiration  (107) — The  blood- 
vessels (109) — The  heart's  action  (no) — Peristalsis  (in) — 
Vomiting  (in). 

Secretion  (in). 

Metabolism  (113). 

Anatomical  changes  produced  by  suggestion  (114) — Menstru- 
ation (114) — Haemorrhage  (114)— Burns  (115)^ — Suggested  epis- 
pastics  (116) — Critical  examination  of  the  experiments  (120). 

(2)  Psychology. — Memory  (121) — Post-hypnotic  memory 
(122) — Hypermnesia  (124) — Separate  chains  of  memory  (126) 
— Double  consciousness  (126) — Retro-active  suggestions  (128) — 
Paralysies  systimatiques,  aphasia  (128) — Loss  of  memory  in 
respect  to  whole  periods  of  life  (129) — Reproduction  of  earlier 
periods  of  life  (129) — Change  of  personality  (131) — Grapho- 
logical  studies  (132) — Activity  of  the  intellect  (132) — Associations 
(132)— Logical  thinking  (133). 

Isolated  rapport  {i'^^) — Attention  (136) — Reaction-time  (136) 
Increased  functional  activity  (137). 

Feelings  and  emotions  (138) — Impulses  (139) — Suggestion 
€p attitude  (139) — Zones  ioUogenes  (141)— Consciousness  (142)— 
Correction  of  sense-delusions  (145) — Negative  hallucinations 
(146) — Activity  of  the  will  (148) — Resistance  on  the  part  of 
hypnotics  (i49)-^Spontaneous  action  (152). 

Hirschlaflf's  abnormal  hypnoses  (153) — Training  (156) — 
Differencts  of  character  (157). 


.  CONTENTS.  xiii 

CHAPTER   IV. 

PAGE 

Post-hypnotic  Suggestion       i6o 

History  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion  (i6o) — Continued  post- 
hypnotic suggestion  (i6i) — Estimation  of  time  (162) — Condition 
whilst  carrying  out  a  suggestion  (165) — Points  from  which  to 
judge  of  the  subject's  condition  (166) — Condition  between 
awakening  and  carrying  out  the  suggestion  ( 167) — Reasons  given 
for  the  execution  of  the  suggestion  (172) — Utilization  of  post- 
hypnotic suggestions  (174) — Post-hypnotic  suggestion  without 
loss  of  memory  (i75). 

CHAPTER  V. 
Cognate  States  ...         ...         ...        '. ..         ...         ...     176 

Sleep(i76) — Origin  of  dreams  (178)— Con  tents  of  dreams  (179) 
Number  of  dreams  (182) — Logic  in  dreams  (182) — Movements 
in  sleep  (183) — Rapport  in  sleep  (185) — Analogy  with  post- 
hypnotic suggestion  (186) — Difference  between  sleep  and 
hypnosis  (189) — Mental  derangements  (193) — Hysteria  (194) 
— Other  neuroses  (194) — Suggestion  in  the  waking  state  (196) 
— Hypnosis  in  animals  (199) — Fakirs  (203). 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Simulation  ...         ...  ...         ...         ...     205 

General  principles  (205) — Charcot's  objective  symptoms  (207) 
Physical  symptoms  (207) — Psychical  symptoms  (213) — Limits 
of  trustworthiness  of  objective  symptons  (215) — Probable  signs 
of  simulation  (219) — Difficulty  in  judging  the  question  of  simu- 
lation (222). 

CHAPTER  VIL 
The  Theory  of  Hypnotism     224 

Limits  to  the  possibility  of  explaining  hypnosis  (224). 

Facts  concerning  our  mental  life  (226) — Credulity  (227) — 
Effects  of  belief  (228) — Personal  influence  (232)-^Feeling  of 
incapacity  to  resist  (233) — Dream-consciousness  (233) — Disturb- 
ance of  movement  (234) — Hallucinations  (236) — Rapport  (239) 
— Negative  hallucinations  (240) — Memory  (243) — Max  Dessoir's 
theory  of  the  Double-Ego  (244) — Post-hypnotic  suggestions 
without  (251)  and  with  (254)  loss  of  memory — Adherence  to 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

appointed  time  (256) — Analogies  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion 
(258) — Post-hypnotic  sense-delusions  (261). 

Other  attempts  at  explanation  (263) — Psychological  theories 
(264) — Normal  suggestibility  (264) — Inhibitory  processes  (265) 
— Changes  in  attention  (266) — Theories  of  association  (267). 

Physiological  theories  (268) — Heidenhain's  theory  (269) — 
Theory  of  localization  (271) — Histological  theories  (271) — 
Theories  based  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  brain  (273) 
— Cappie's  theory  (275) — Wundt*s  theory  (276) — Vogt's  theory 
(277)— Preyer's  theory  (278). 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Medical  Aspects  of  Hypnotism  280 

Importance  of  suggestion  (280) — Objections  to  suggestive 
therapeutics  (281)  —  Authorities  ät  variance  (283)  —  Ewald's 
objection  (285) — The  element  of  mystery  (286)  —The  dangers 
of  hypnosis  and  their  prevention  (287) — Hypnosis  superfluous 
(295)  —  Further  objections  (298)  —  The  curative  factors  in 
hypnosis  (299). 

Indications  (302) — Hysteria  (303) — Special  indications  (305) 

—  Mental  diseases  (310)  —  Organic  diseases  (311)  —  Contra- 
indications (320) — Cases  (320). 

Laymen  as  hypnotizers  (327) — Medical  specialists  for  hypnosis 
(328) — Rules  for  treatment  (330)— Collective  hypnosis  (333) 
— Utilization  of  hypermnesia  (335) — The  cathartic  method 
(335) — Use  of  hypnosis  in  diagnosis  (337). 

Hypnosis  in  surgery  (339) — and  obstetrics  (341). 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Medical  Aspects  of  Hypnotism  {Continuation)    343 

1.  Theoretical  Medicine. — Importance  of  suggestion  in 
medical  investigations  (343) — Exaggeration  in  respect  to  sugges- 
tion (347) — Homoeopathy  (348) — Traumatic  neurosis  (348) — 
Hysteria  (349) — Idiosyncrasies  (351)— History  of  medicine  (351) 
—Quackery  (353)— Superstition  (354)— History  of  medical 
culture  (355). 

2.  Psycho-therapeutics  —  Ancient  treatises  on  psycho- 
therapeutics (358)  —  Psycho-therapeutics  developed  from 
hypnotism  (360) — Modern  works  on  psycho- therapeutics  (363) 

—  The  therapeutics  of  suggestion  (365)  —  Instructional 
therapeutics  (367) — Volitional  therapeutics  (373) — Importance  of 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

habit  (379) — Diversion  of  the  attention  (380) — Utilization  of  the 
feelings  and  emotions  (381) — Occupational  therapeutics  (383) — 
Professional  work  (388) — Treatment  in  institutions  (390) — 
Isolation  (392) — Religion  (393). 

Indications  (394)  —  Euthansia  (395)  —  Combination  of 
remedies  (396) — Psycho-hygiene  (397) — The  personality  of  the 
physician  (399). 

CHAPTER  X. 
The  Legal  Aspects  of  Hypnotism 402 

Historical  (402) — Crimes  committed  on  hypnotized  subjects 
(402) — Offences  against  morality  (402) — False  accusations  (405) 
— ^Judicial  decisions  (407) — Bodily  injury  (409) — Manslaughter 
(411) — Illegal  acquisition  of  property  (412) — Illegal  detention 
of  the  person  (413) — Mistaken  assumption  that  a  person  has 
been  hypnotized  (414). 

Crimes  committed  by  hypnotized  subjects  (415) — Importance 
of  the  question  (416) — Cases  cited  from  the  literature  of  the 
subject  (417) — Legal  decisions  (419). 

The  importance  of  hypnosis  in  civil  law  (423) — Falsification 
of  testimony  (427) — Psychology  of  testimony  (430). 

Forensic  utilization  of  hypnotism  (433) — Refusal  to  give 
evidence  or  information  (433) — Utilization  of  hypnosis  in  cases 
of  loss  of  memory  (435) — Method  of  procedure  (436) — Proposed 
legislation  (439) — Public  exhibitions  (440). 

General  forensic  importance  of  hypnotism  (443). 

CHAPTER  XL 
Hypnosis  and  Psychology       445 

General  importance  of  hypnosis  (445) — Vogt's  investigations 
(446) — Importance  of  the  secondary  consciousness  (450) — The 
problem  of  free-will  (451) — The  planning  of  psychological 
experiments  (453) — Stumpfs  experiments  with  "Clever  Hans'* 
(455) — The  psychology  of  crowds  (459) — The  benefits  conferred 
on  psychology  by  hypnotism  (460) — The  importance  of  hypnotism 
for  the  physiology  of  the  brain  (461). 

CHAPTER  XIL 
Some  Further  Aspects  of  Hypnotism        464 

Superstitions    (464)  —  Belief    in    witchcraft    (464)  —  Auto- 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

somnambulists  and  ecstatics  (465) — Spiritism  (467) — Stigmati- 
sation (467)  —  Lourdes  (469)  —  Biblical  miracles  (470)  — 
Ethnology  (471) — Educational  employment  of  hypnosis  (473) 
—  Hypnotism  and  Art  (475)  —  The  sleep-dancers  (475)  — 
Practical  use  of  hypnosis  (478). 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

wCCULTISM  >••  •••  ..•  •••  ...  ...       4^0 

Oceultism  on  the  increase  (480) — Lombroso,  Wallace,  Stumpf, 
Crookes  and  Zollner  self-deluded  scientists  (481) — The  duty  of 
science  (485). 

Definition  of  animal  magnetism  (486) — Effects  of  animal 
magnetism  (487) — Theories  (492) — Erroneous  views  of  mes- 
merists (493) — Methods  employed  in  magnetizing  (495). 

The  magnetopaths  (496). 

Action  of  the  magnet  (500) — Deflection  of  the  magnetic 
needle  (501) — Harnack's  experiments  (503)— Transference  (507) 
— Polarization  (508) — Influence  on  the  respiration  (508) — 
Babinski's  experiments  (509) — Influence  of  non-metallic 
bodies  (509).  , 

Telepathy  (510) — Apparition  of  dying  persons  (512) — In- 
voluntary signs  (515). 

Clairvoyance  (519) — Treatment  by  somnambulists  (520) 
— Berlin  seeresses  (524) — Transposition  of  the  senses  (525) 
— Action  at  a  distance  (527) — Ths  divining  rod  (527) — Action 
of  drugs  at  a  distance  (528) — Spiritism  (530) — Criticism  of 
occultism  (531) — Sources  of  error  on  the  part  of  the  medium 
(535) — Sources  of  error  ascribable  to  the  action  of  the  audience 
(536)— Unreliability  of  the  reports  (547)— The  untrust worthi- 
ness of  spiritistic  authorities  (551)— The  necessity  of  applying 
objective  tests  (552). 

Bibliography       ...  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  555 

Index  of  Subjects 563 

Index  of  Authors,  etc  ...         ...         581 

Corrections        ...  ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  611 


HYPNOTISM. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE   HISTORY   OF    HYPNOTISM. 

In  order  to  understand  the  gradual  development  of  modern 
hypnotism  from  animal  magnetism,  we  must  distinguish  two 
points :  firstly,  the  belief  that  there  are  human  beings  endowed 
with  a  power  not  acting  by  suggestion,  but  by  means  of  which 
they  can  exercise  an  unwonted  influence  over  others,  either 
by  direct  contact  or  even  from  a  distance;  and  secondly,  the 
fact  that  a  particular  psychical  state,  which  we  term  hypnosis, 
can  be  induced  in  human  beings  by  means  of  certain  actions. 
This  second  fact  has  long  been  known;  it  was  frequently 
interpreted  in  a  fallacious  manner,  and  was  utilized,  more 
especially  by  Oriental  peoples,  for  religious  purposes  and 
superstitious  customs.  Kiesewetter  attributes  the  early  sooth- 
saying by  means  of  precious  stones  to  hypnosis,  which  was 
induced  by  steadily  gazing  at  the  stones.  This  is  also  true  of 
divination  by  gazing  into  vessels  and  crystals,  as  the  Egyptians 
have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  doing  (Rossi),  and  as  has  often 
been  done  in  Europe — by  Cagliostro,  for  example.  Bonfigli 
believes  that  his  essay  on  Cagliostro  proves  that  the  well-known 
adventurer  was  fully  acquainted  with  the  means  of  inducing 
hypnosis,  and  surmises  that  Cagliostro  had  been  taught  in  his 
youth  how  to  hypnotize  by  Althotas,  since  the  latter  was  versed 
in  physical  science,  Oriental  languages,  and  the  hypnotic  art  of 
the  fakirs.  The  hypnotic  phenomena  are  also  found  to  have 
existed  several  thousand  years  ago  among  the  Persian  Magi,  as 
well  as  up  to  the  present  day  among  the  Indian  yogis  and 
fakirs,  who  throw  themselves  into  the  hypnotic  state  by  fixation 
of  the  gaze.  Relying  on  a  statement  of  Stein,  Preyer  believes 
that  the  condition  of  a  Japanese  religious  leader,  who  lived  long 
before  Christ,  was  also  an  auto-hypnosis,  and  that  this  kind  of 

I 


6  HYPNOTISM. 

could  be  utilized  for  the  curing  of  diseases  (sympathetic  cures); 
also  men  could  cure  themselves  of  diseases  by  transferring  them 
to  animals  and  plants.  A  remnant  of  this  system  developed  by 
Maxwell  still  exists  in  country  places,  where  people  occasionally 
apply  excreta  to  their  wounds.  Adolf  Witke,  in  his  work  on 
popular  German  superstitions  of  to-day,  treats  in  detail  of  the 
transference  of  djsease  from  one  person  to  another;  as,  for 
example,  the  prevalent  belief  among  Thuringians  that  if  a  person 
suffering  from  nasal  catarrh  wrap  up  a  copper  coin  in  a  piece 
of  paper  into  which  he  has  blown  his  nose,  and  throw  it  back- 
wards over  his  shoulder  into  the  street,  then  the  cold  will  be 
transferred  to  the  individual  who  may  happen  to  pick  up  the 
packet.  Maxwell  also  assumed  the  existence  of  a  vital  spirit  of 
the  universe  (spiriius  vita  lis),  by  means  of  which  all  bodies  are 
related  to  each  other;  a  theory  we  meet  later  on  in  Mesmer's 
universal  fluid.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  we 
find  Santanelli  in  Italy  asserting  a  like  proposition.  Every- 
thing material  possesses  a  radiating  atmosphere,  which  acts 
magnetically.  Santanelli,  however,  recognized  the  great  influ- 
ence of  the  imagination  (Ave  Lallemant). 

Although  the  foundation  of  the  doctrine  of  animal  magnet- 
ism was  thus  laid,  universal  attention  was  first  drawn  to  it  by 
Mesmer,^  a  Viennese  doctor  (i 734-1 815).  He  studied  in 
his  dissertation  the  influence  of  the  planets  on  human  bodies. 
In  the  year  1775  he  sent  out  a  circular-letter  particularly 
addressed  to  several  academies.  In  this  he  maintained  the 
existence  of  animal  magnetism,  by  means  of  which  persons 
could  influence  each  other.  He,  however,  distinguished 
animal  magnetism  from  the  magnetism  of  minerals,  which  he 
at  first  used  in  the  treatment  of  diseases,  but  later  on  ceased 
to  employ.  The  only  academy  which  replied  to  him  was  that 
of  Berlin,  at  Siilzer's  instigation,  and  its  reply  was  unfavour- 
able. However,  about  this  time  Mesmer  was  nominated  a 
member  of  the  Bavarian  Academy. 

Mesmer  made  much  use  of  "animal  magnetism"  in  the 
treatment  of  disease.      He   cured  at   first   by   contact,   but 

^  The  name  is  often  written  '*  Messmer,"  instead  of  **  Mesmer";  the 
latter  spelling  is,  however,  decidedly  the  correct  one.  At  least  it  is  so 
found  in  the  book  which  Mesmer  himself  brought  out,  General  Explana- 
tions of  Magnetism,  by  Mesmer;  Carlsruhe,  181 5.  Mesmer's  friend, 
Wolfart,  and  his  biographer,  Justinus  Kerner,  also  write  the  name  with 
one**s." 


HISTORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  7 

believed  later  on  that  different  objects  of  wood,  glass,  iron, 
and  so  forth,  were  also  capable  of  receiving  the  magnetism. 
Consequently  he  made  use  of  these  as  means  for  conveying 
his  magnetism,  especially  later  in  Paris,  where  he  went  in 
1778,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  enmities  he  had  aroused 
in  Vienna.  In  Paris,  Mesmer  constructed  the  baquet,  which 
was  magnetized  by  him,  and  which  was  supposed  to  transmit 
the  magnetism.  Bailly  represents  it  as  a  very  complicated 
apparatus :  an  oak  chest  with  appendages  of  iron,  etc. 
Mesmer  found  many  adherents  in  Paris,  but  he  also  en- 
countered many  opponents.  Dr.  Deslon,  a  Parisian  physician, 
became  one  of  his  chief  adherents,  and  was  ruthlessly  attacked 
by  his  colleagues  in  consequence.  The  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
in  particular,  was  most  severe  in  its  attacks  on  the  new 
teaching,  and  when  thirty  physicians  continued  to  practise 
magnetism  in  spite  of  warning,  issued  the  following  circular- 
letter  : — "  In  future  no  doctor  will  be  allowed  to  write 
favourably  of  animal  magnetism,  or  practise  the  same,  on 
penalty  of  losing  his  professional  privileges"  (Ochorowicz). 
From  this  we  perceive  how  intense  the  intolerance  of  the 
medical  schools  of  those  days  was,  and  with  what  bitterness 
heretics  were  persecuted.  Several  scientific  commissions 
which  examined  the  question  pronounced,  in  1784,  against 
the  existence  of  animal  magnetism — more  particularly  that  of 
which  Bailly  was  reporter.  One  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission, Jussieu,  made,  however,  a  report  that  was  not 
considered  decisive.  No  one,  however,  denied  that  far- 
reaching  effects  were  produced  by  imagination;  it  was  only 
denied  that  there  was  a  physical  force  resembling  the  magnet- 
ism of  minerals.  In  spite  of  all  attacks  Mesmer  made 
disciples.  His  pupils  and  successors  are  generally  called 
mesmerists,  and  the  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  is  also 
called  mesmerism,  vital  magnetism,  bio-magnetism,  thera^^ 
peutic  magnetism,  or  zoo-magnetism. 

I  do  not  wish  to  join  the  contemptible  group  of  Mesmer*s  professional 
slanderers.  He  is  dead,  and  can  no  longer  defend  himself  from  those  who 
disparage  him  without  taking  into  consideration  the  circumstances  or  the 
time  in  which  he  lived.  Against  the  universal  opinion  that  he  was 
avaricious,  I  remark  that  in  Vienna,  as  well  as  later  in  Mörsburg*  and 
Paris,  he  always  helped  ihe  poor  without  reward.  I  believe  that  he  erred 
in  his  teaching,  but  think  it  is  just  to  attack  this  only,  and  not  his  personal 

^  Also  spelt  Meersburg. 


8  HYPNOTISM. 

character.  Let  us  consider,  however — for  I  deem  it  right  to  uphold  the 
honour  of  one  who  is  dead — more  closely  in  what  his  alleged  great  crime 
consisted.  He  believed  in  the  beginning  that  he  could  heal  by  means  of 
a  magnet,  and  later  that  he  could  do  so  by  a  personal  indwelling  force 
that  he  could  transfer  to  the  haqttet.  This  was  evidently  his  firm  con- 
viction, and  he  never  made  a  secret  of  it.  Others  believed  that  a  patient's 
mere  imagination  played  a  part,  or  that  Mesmer  produced  his  effects  by 
some  concealed  means.  Then,  by  degrees,  arose  the  legend  that  Mesmer 
possessed  some  secret  by  means  of  which  he  was  able  to  produce  effects  on 
people,  but  that  he  would  not  reveal  it.  In  reality  the  question  was  not 
at  all  of  a  secret  purposely  kept  back  by  him,  since  he  imagined  that  he 
exercised  some  individual  force.  Finally,  if  he  used  this  supposititious 
force  for  the  purpose  of  earning  money,  he  did  nothing  worse  than  do 
modern  physicians  and  proprietors  of  institutions  who  likewise  do  not 
follow  their  calling  from  pure  love  of  their  neighbour,  but  seek  to  earn 
their  own  living,  as  they  are  quite  justified  in  doing.  Mesmer  did  not 
behave  worse  than  those  who  nowadays  discover  a  new  drug,  and  regard 
the  manufacture  of  it  as  a  means  of  enriching  themselves.  Let  us  be  just 
and  cease  to  slander  Mesmer,  who  did  only  what  is  done  by  the  people 
just  mentioned,  against  whose  procedure  no  one  raises  a  word  of  protest, 
even  when  the  drugs  they  extol  possess  no  therapeutic  properties  whatever. 
Further,  Colquhoun,  who  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  events 
of  the  period,  opines  that  Mesmer  never  made  nearly  as  much  money  as  he 
is  said  to  have  done  (Sinnett).  That  those  who  defame  Mesmer  know  the 
least  about  his  teaching  and  the  particulars  of  his  life,  is  very  clearly  shown 
by  a  whole  series  of  modern  books  on  hypnotism. 

A  follower  of  Mesmer,  Chastenet  de  Puysegur,  discovered 
in  1784,  a  stale  which  was  named  artificial  somnambulism. 
Apart  from  some  falsely  interpreted  phenomena  (thought- 
transference,  clairvoyance,  etc.)  the  chief  characteristic  of  this 
jstate  was  a  sleep,  in  which  the  ideas  and  actions  of  the 
magnetized  person  could  be  directed  by  the  magnetizer. 
Whether  Mesmer  knew  of  this  condition  or  not  is  uncertain, 
but  it  seems  to  me  probable  that  he  did.  About  the  same 
time  Petetin,  a  doctor  of  Lyons,  occupied  himself  with 
magnetism;  besides  catalepsy,  Petetin  describes  phenomena 
of  sense-transference  (hearing  with  the  stomach).  The  French 
Revolution  and  the  wars  repressed  the  investigation  of  magnet- 
ism in  France  until  about  the  year  18 13. 

In  Germany,  animal  magnetism  was  recognized  at  the  same 
time  in  two  difTerent  places — on  the  Upper  Rhine  and  in 
Bremen.  In  the  year  1786  Lavater  paid  a  visit  to  Bremen, 
and  exhibited  the  magnetizing  processes  to  several  doctors, 
particularly  to  Wienholt,  through  whom  Albers,  Bicker,  and 
later  on  Heineken,  were  likewise  made  acquainted  with  mag- 
netism (Sierke,  Wienholt).      Bremen  was  for  a  long  time  a 


HISTORY   OF   HYPNOTISM.  9 

focus  of  the  new  doctrine  ;  the  town  was  often  even  brought 
into  bad  repute  in  the  rest  of  Germany  on  account  of  the 
general  dislike  to  animal  magnetism.  About  the  same  time 
the  new  doctrine  spread  from  Strassburg  over  the  Rhine 
provinces;  Böckmann,  of  Carlsruhe,  and  Gmelin,  of  Heil- 
bronn,  occupied  themselves  with  it ;  later  on  they  were  joined 
by  Pezold,  of  Dresden.  Getting  encouragement  from  Bremen, 
people  began  to  make  experiments  in  other  parts  of  Germany. 
Seile,  of  Berlin,  brought  forward,  in  1789,  a  series  of  experi- 
ments made  at  the  Chariie,  by  which  he  confirmed  a  part  of 
th^  alleged  phenomena,  but  excluded  all  that  was  supernatural 
(clairvoyance).  In  Berlin  magnetism  was  taken  up  by  the 
Court.  According  to  Vehse,  magnelizers  flocked  to  the  palace 
where  Frederick-William  II.  lay  ill ;  and  one  of  them  in 
particular,  a  Parisian  named  de  Beaunnoir,  tried  to  induce 
Countess  Lichtenau  to  obtain  his  admission  to  the  sick- 
chamber.  He  advised  the  imposition  of  a  magnetic  hand  to 
ensure  the  king's  recovery,  and  asserted  that  his  own,  or  the 
Parisian  de  Puyegsur's,  or  Count  Briihl's  would  suffice. 

Notwithstanding  the  early  dislike  to  it,  magnetism  finally 
gained  ground  in  Germany.     It  flourished  very  much  during 
the  first  twenty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  many 
journals  were  devoted  to  its  advocacy.      In  Austria  only  it 
made  no  progress ;  indeed  the  exercise  of  animal  magnetism 
was  forbidden  in  the  whole  of  Austria  in  181 5.     In  the  rest  of 
Germany,  however,  many  doctors  began  to  occupy  themselves 
with   the   question,   and   at   first    in   a   thoroughly   scientific 
manner.     I  do  not  enter  more  fully  into  the  details  of  the 
teaching  of  difierent  individuals,  as  they  have  no  close  con- 
nection with  hypnotism.     In  the  main  two  different  tendencies 
can  be  distinguished — one  critical  and  scientific,  and  the  other 
mystical.      While   the   first   had    the    preponderance   in   the 
beginning,  later  on  the  last  came  to  the  fore  and  proved  fatal 
to  magnetism.       Besides   the  scientific  investigators  already 
mentioned  I  may  name  Treviranus,  Kieser,  Passavant,  Kluge ; 
also   Pfaff",   who    attacked    clairvoyance    in    particular;    and 
further,  Stieglitz,  Fr.   Hufeland,  and  C.  W.  Hufeland.     The 
last,  who  was  at  first  an  opponent,  acknowledged  certain  facts 
later  on,  but  excluded  all  that  was  supernatural,  and  thus  drew 
upon  himself  the  hatred  of  the  mystics.     Even  in  1834  C.  W. 
Hufeland  expressed  himself  as  recognizing  the  existence  of 
anmial   magnetism   and   its  value   in   healing.      Among  the 


lO  HYPNOTISM. 

mystics  I  may  mention  Schelling,  Ziermann,  Eschenmayer, 
Justinus  Kerner,  the  well-known  poet  and  editor  of  the 
Seeress  of  Frevorst, 

In  the  year  1812  the  Government  sent  Wolfart  from  Berlin 
to  Mesmer  at  Frauenfeld,  in  order  that  he  might  there  make 
himself  acquainted  with  the  subject.  Wolfart  came  back  a 
thorough  adherent  of  Mesmer,  introduced  magnetism  into  the 
hospital  treatment,  and  afterwards  became  a  professor  at  the 
university.  A  prize  which  was  offered  by  the  Berlin  Academy 
of  Sciences,  at  the  request  of  the  Prussian  Government,  for 
an  essay  on  Animal  Magnetism  was,  it  appears,  withdrawn. 
However,  animal  magnetism  flourished  to  an  extraordinary 
extent  at  that  time  in  Berlin,  and  Berlin  physicians  placed  a 
monument  on  Mesmer's  grave  at  Mörsburg.  The  well-known 
physician  Koreff,  also,  of  whom  Cuvier  said  later  if  he  were  not 
already  in  Paris  he  must  be  entreated  to  come  there,  interested 
himself  much  in  magnetism,  and  often  made  use  of  it  for 
healing  purposes  so  long  as  he  lived  in  Berlin.  Virchow 
complained  in  his  address  as  Rector  of  the  University,  in  1893, 
that  the  Chancellor  of  State,  Hardenberg,  had,  in  18 16  and 
again  in  181 7,  with  the  full  concurrence  of  William  v.  Hum- 
boldt, expressed  an  earnest  wish  to  promote  Wolfart  and 
Koreff,  the  chief  representatives  of  animal  magnetism  in 
Berlin.  The  extent  to  which  animal  magnetism  had  gained 
ground  in  Berlin  at  that  period  may  be  judged  from  the  fact 
that  theological  students  received  instruction  in  physiology, 
pathology,  and  the  treatment  of  sickness  by  vital  magnetism. 
It  was  Mesmer's  idea  to  teach  magnetism  to  the  clergy,  and 
this  may  account  for  the  assumption  on  the  part  of  a  few 
individuals — Nicolai  and  Biester  in  Berlin,  for  instance — 
that  the  only  object  of  Mesmer's  teaching  was  to  restore  their 
lost  power  to  the  Church  and  the  Jesuits. 

The  attitude  of  the  Catholic  Church  to  animal  magnetism  has  often  been 
discussed.  Clerical  authorities  were  frequently  asked  if  the  use  of  animal 
magnetism  in  the  treatment  of  disease  were  permissible.  Such  a  ques- 
tion was  propounded  in  Rome  in  1842,  and,  according  to  Gousset,  the 
Grand  Penitentiary  Castracane  replied  in  the  following  somewhat  evasive 
terms : — A  hasty  decision  might  endanger  the  honour  of  the  Holy  Chair, 
and  the  question  was  not  of  a  nature  to  necessitate  an  immediate  con- 
clusion being  come  to,  because  no  danger  would  be  run  by  postponing 
judgment.  The  Catholic  Church  had  raised  no  general  objection  to  the 
use  of  animal  magnetism  in  individual  cases,  but  had  tacitly  permitted  it, 
though  she  had  protested  against  many  abuses. 


HISTORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  II 

In  the  rest  of  Germany,  also,  many  investigators  occupied 
themselves  with  animal  magnetism;  in  several  universities  a 
knowledge  of  the  phenomena  was  spread  by  means  of  lectures 
— for  example,  by  Wolfart  in  Berlin,  and  by  Bartels  in 
Breslau.  In  182 1,  Fritze,  the  Magdeburg  physicist,  began  to 
occupy  himself  with  magnetism,  and  in  1853  Varges,  who  had 
commenced  his  investigations  at  the  same  time  as  Fritze, 
published  the  result  of  his  experiences  since  182 1.  In  South 
Germany  also  the  importance  of  animal  magnetism  began  to 
be  better  recognized,  and  in  18 18  Haberl,  of  Munich, 
employed  it  in  the  treatment  of  disease  in  the  hospital  of  that 
town.  As  many  authors  inform  us,  a  royal  order  in  February 
181 7  made  magnetization  in  Prussia  the  privilege  of  physicians 
only ;  but  in  the  official  code  of  laws  nothing  is  to  be  found 
on  the  subject.  At  the  same  time  such  laws  were  enacted  in 
other  countries.  Magnetism  was  introduced  everywhere, 
especially  in  Russia  and  Denmark,  in  which  countries  medical 
men  were  bound  to  report  periodically  to  the  authorities  the 
results  they  had  obtained  with  animal  magnetism  (Brandis). 
In  Holland  such  distinguished  physicians  as  Bakker,  Wolthers, 
and  Hendriksz  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  animal 
magnetism ;  but  in  Switzerland  and  Italy  it  was  at  first 
received  with  less  sympathy. 

After  Mesmer  had  left  France  in  the  time  of  the  Revolution, 
in  order,  after  prolonged  travels,  to  settle  himself  at  his  native 
place  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  magnetism  only  regained  its 
importance  in  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  In 
Germany  it  was  chiefly  the  medical  profession  which  turned 
to  the  study  of  animal  magnetism.  True,  a  number  of  French 
doctors  experimented  with  it,  and  Esquirol  states  that  in  181 3- 
16  he  made  use  of  it  in  eleven  cases  of  mental  disorder,  but 
without  producing  even  the  slightest  improvement  in  the 
condition  of  the  patients.  Nevertheless,  in  France  mesmerism 
for  the  most  part  fell  into  the  hands  of  laymen.  Here  Deleuze 
may  be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  earnest  investigators.  But 
the  whole  doctrine  received  a  great  impetus  through  the  Abbe 
Faria,  who  came  to  Paris  from  India.  In  18 14-15  he  showed 
by  experiments,  whose  results  he  published  in  part  in  18 19, 
that  no  unknown  force  was  necessary  for  the  production  of  the 
phenomena:  the  cause  of  the  sleep  was  in  the  person  who  was 
to  be  sent  to  sleep — all  was  subjective.  This  is  the  main 
principle  of  hypnotism  and  of  suggestion,  of  which  Faria  made 


12  HYPNOTISM. 

use  in  inducing  sleep.  General  Noizet  allowed  the  Abbe  to 
experiment  on  him,  and  even  if  he  did  not  fall  into  a  deep 
sleep,  a  condition  which  we  nowadays  call  the  lighter  degree 
of  hypnosis  was  induced.  The  General  relates  that  he  was 
unable  to  open  his  eyes  until  Faria  allowed  him  to.  Shortly 
afterwards  the  Abbe  was  suspected  of  fraud,  simply  because 
he  was  tricked  by  an  actor  who  had  been  persuaded  to  feign 
sleep  while  pretending  to  submit  honestly  to  the  process  of 
hypnotizing.  Thus  Faria,  a  thoroughly  honourable  man,  was 
set  down  a  swindler,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  for  a  long  time  he 
alone,  almost,  held  the  only  true  view  of  mesmerism;  while, 
as  Ochorowicz  reproachfully  states,  not  a  single  scientist  gave 
himself  up  to  a  study  of  the  question.  Later  on,  in  France, 
Noizet,  whom  we  have  mentioned  above,  and  a  physician 
named  Bertrand,  paved  the  way  for  the  doctrine  of  suggestion, 
in  spite  of  much  inclination  to  animal  magnetism.  In  1820, 
experiments  were  begun  in  the  Paris  hospitals,  chiefly  under  the 
direction  of  Du  Potet.  At  the  proposal  of  Foissac,  and  at  the 
recommendation  of  Husson,  the  Paris  Academy  of  Medicine 
in  1826  appointed  a  Commission  to  examine  the  question  of 
animal  magnetism.  The  Commission  worked  for  six  years,  and 
pronounced  a  favourable  opinion  in  1831;  but  the  Academy 
was  evidently  not  convinced.  In  spite  of  several  further 
experiments — for  example,  those  of  Berna — no  other  result  was 
obtained.  Particularly  because  the  chief  emphasis  was  laid  on 
the  mystical  side  of  the  question,  the  struggle  was  made 
substantially  easier  to  the  opponents  of  mesmerism,  among 
whom  Dubois  was  prominent.  The  candidates  for  the  cele- 
brated Burdin  prize  for  clairvoyance,  Pigeaire,  Hublier,  and 
Teste,  failed  to  obtain  it;  and  in  1840  the  Academy  declined 
to  discuss  the  question  further.  Nevertheless,  animal  mag- 
netism retained  numerous  adherents  in  France,  particularly  in 
lay  circles;  and  in  the  following  years  several  works  were 
published  on  the  question.  I  may  mention  those  of  Aubin 
Gautier,  who  made  many  valuable  contributions  to  the  history 
of  animal  magnetism,  and  Ricard's  exhaustive  treatise  on  the 
theoretical  and  practical  bearing  of  the  doctrine.  Baron  du 
Potet,  too,  must  be  mentioned.  In  brief,  the  doctrine  retained 
many  adherents,  not  only  in  Paris  but  in  other  French  towns 
as  well — for  example,  Havre. 

Meanwhile,  in  Germany  a  few  investigators  still  busied  them- 
selves with  mesmerism.     I  And  that  in  18 18  the  University  of 


HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  1 3 

Leipzig  published  a  graduation  thesis  by  Wendler,  entitled 
De  Magnetismi  animalis  efficacia  rite  dijudicanda ;  and 
another  in  1826,  by  Volkmann,  Observationes  bioiogicce  de 
Magnetistno  animalL  But  in  the  main,  after  about  1820,  the 
belief  in  animal  magnetism  declined.  This  retrogression  was 
caused  as  much  by  the  rise  of  the  exact  natural  sciences  as  by 
the  unscientific  and  uncritical  hankering  after  mystical  pheno- 
mena, which  could  not  but  revolt  serious  investigators. 
Mesmerism  flourished  relatively  the  longest  in  Hamburg  and 
Bremen,  where  Siemers  was  its  advocate;  and  also  in  Bavaria, 
where  Hensler  and  Ennemoser,  between  the  years  1830  and 
1840,  still  represented  it;  and  as  late  as  1857  Wurm,  a  Munich 
physician,  published  an  enthusiastic  book  on  mesmerism  in  the 
treatment  of  disease.  In  other  towns  we  likewise  find  a 
number  of  thoughtful  inquirers,  who  allowed  themselves  to  be 
influenced  neither  by  the  passion  for  the  wonderful  nor  by  the 
attacks  of  the  principal  opponents  of  magnetism,  and  who 
sought  to  defend  their  position  in  a  thoroughly  scientific 
manner;  Most,  Fr.  Fischer,  and  Hirschel  may  be  mentioned. 
A  series  of  philosophers  and  philosophical  writers  also  has 
believed  firmly  and  persistently  in  the  reality  of  the  pheno- 
mena, although  not  much  regard  has  been  paid  to  this 
fact;  for  example,  Schopenhauer,  Carus,  Pfnor,  and 
Wirth. 

About  the  middle  forties  of  last  century  the  waning  fire  of 
animal  magnetism  burst  somewhat  more  strongly  into  flame 
in  several  towns  simultaneously.  In  Vienna,  on  Eisenstein  s 
recommendation,  a  Commission  of  Investigation  was  appointed, 
on  which  Güntner,  Schuh,  Dumreicher,  and  other  Viennese 
physicians  sat;  but  according  to  the  report  published  by  Gouge, 
the  commission  expressed  itself  as  vigorously  against  the  exist- 
ence of  animal  magnetism  as  Czermak  had  done  a  short  time 
before.  The  excitement  also  caused  at  that  time  by  Reichen- 
bach's  theory  of  the  **0d"  could  not  help  bringing  fresh 
adherents  to  the  cause  of  animal  magnetism.  Fechner,  in  his 
reminiscences  of  the  last  days  of  the  theory  of  the  Od,  thus 
defines  the  Od  itself: — "According  to  Reichenbach,  the  Od 
is  an  imponderable  force,  analogous  to  electricity  and  to 
magnetism,  but  differing  more  or  less  from  the  latter  in  the 
phenomena  it  exhibits,  and  in  following  its  own  special  laws." 
Considering  the  close  relationship  that  subsists  between  the 
theory  of  the  Od  and  that  of  animal  magnetism,  it  is  easy  to 


14  HYPNOTISM. 

understand  that  the  promulgation  of  the  former  necessarily 
brought  fresh  friends  to  the  latter. 

Although  magnetism  gradually  lost  nearly  all  its  adherents 
in  the  scientific  world,  among  the  people  the  belief  in  the 
mysterious  force  continued  prevalent.  In  Germany,  however, 
as  well  as  Austro-Hungary,  where  Counts  Szäpary  and 
Mailäth  were  well  known  in  this  connection,  but  more  par- 
ticularly in  France,  a  whole  series  of  laymen  continued  to  use 
animal  magnetism  for  healing  purposes.  The  more  science 
drew  back,  the  louder  became  the  clamour  of  the  quacks. 
But  the  more  intentional  fraud  and  cheating  increased,  the  less 
incUned  were  seriously-minded  persons  to  interest  themselves 
in  these  questions. 

In  England,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  many  physicians, 
particularly  Elliotson  and  Ashburner,  the  theory  of  animal 
magnetism  could  get  no  footing  in  the  scientific  world,  as  it 
had  done  on  the  Continent.  A  succession  of  experimenters 
and  writers,  however,  actively  pursued  the  matter;  for  example, 
Townsend,  Scoresby,  and  Edwin  Lee.  When  the  French 
^magnetizer,  Lafontaine — a  grandson  of  the  poet,  according  to 
Ochorowicz — exhibited  magnetic  experiments  in  Manchester 
in  1841,  Braid,  a  doctor  of  that  place,  interested  himself  in 
the  question.  He  showed,  like  Faria,  that  the  phenomena 
exhibited  by  the  person  experimented  on  were  of  subjective 
nature,  and  were  not  induced  by  any  magnetic  fluid.  By 
carefully  fixing  the  eyes  on  any  object  a  state  of  sleep  was 
induced,  which  Braid  called  "hypnotism."^  Braid  did  not 
straightway  consider  the  hypnotic  state  to  be  identical  with 
mesmerism,  but  for  a  time,  at  least,  left  the  latter  in  an  inde- 
pendent position  by  the  side  of  hypnotism. 

In  the  foregoing  I  have  followed  the  phenomena  of  animal 
magnetism  down  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  The 
historical  development,  as  I  have  traced  it,  begins  with  the 
popular  opinion  that,  in  the  first  place,  there  are  human  beings 
who  can  exercise  a  personal  influence  over  others,  and  that,  in 
the  second  place,  peculiar  psychical  conditions  can  be  called 
forth  by  means  of  certain  manipulations.  The  scientific 
development  of  hypnotism  now  begins.  In  this  we  see  the 
relationship  of  modern  hypnotism  to  animal  magnetism,  in 

^  The  name  was  not,  however,  altogether  new,  as  already  Renin  de 
Cu villers  had  talked  of  "hypnoscope"  and  "hypnobat,"  with  reference 
to  magnetic  states  (Max  Dessoir). 


HISTORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  15 

that  both  are  called  forth  by  the  influence  of  one  man  on 
another;  but  nowadays  this  influence  is  held  to  be  psychical, 
and  in  no  way  connected  either  with  a  magnetic  fluid  or  the 
mineral  magnetism. 

Braid  now  set  to  work  to  investigate  the  symptomatology  of 
hypnosis,  and  in  1843  published  his  Neurypnology,  a  treatise 
on  the  subject.  He  was  acquainted  with  the  cataleptic 
phenomena  and  certain  suggestions,  and  used  hypnotism 
therapeutically;  in  particular,  he  used  it  to  perform  painless 
surgical  operations,  just  as  mesmerism  had  been  made  use  of 
in  former  times.  Compared  with  his  earlier  works,  Braid's 
later  writings  show  great  progress ;  in  them  he  lays  far  greater 
emphasis  on  the  psychical  significance  of  hypnosis  than  had 
been  his  wont.  In  this  connection  I  may  mention  his  work 
entitled  Magic^  Witchcraft^  Animal  Magnetism^  Hypnotism^ 
and  Electro-Biology^  a  third  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1852. 
In  the  result  we  see  Braidism,  as  the  state  investigated  by  him. 
is  sometimes  called,  occasionally  used  for  therapeutic  purposes, 
but  more  particularly  for  the  performance  of  painless  surgical 
operations.  Among  those  who  used  hypnotism  in  surgery, 
tlie  following  deserve  to  be  mentioned: — Loysel,  Fontan,  and 
Toswel  in  London;  Joly,  Ribaud,  Kiaro  (according  to  Max 
Dessoir),  Varges,  and  Herzog.  The  last-named  had  acquired 
his  knowledge  of  animal  magnetism  from  Colonel  Bruce-Bey, 
of  Stockholm,  who  had  long  resided  in  the  East.  Yet  in  spite 
of  these  individual  efforts,  and  although  distinguished  men  of 
science  like  the  well-known  physiologist  Carpenter,  as  well  as 
Laycock,  James  Simpson,  Mayo,  and  others,  confirmed  the 
facts,  hypnotism  found  no  general  acceptance  either  in  medi- 
cine or  in  any  other  branch  of  science.  It  remained  an 
isolated  phenomenon. 

The  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  was  not,  however,  entirely 
forgotten  :  in  lay  circles,  at  least,  it  retained  many  permanent 
adherents.  This  was  particularly  the  case  in  England,  for 
Carl  Scholl  tells  us  that,  somewhere  about  1852,  his  attention 
was  drawn  to  the  meeting-places  of  mesmerists  by  bills  and 
notices  posted  at  the  street  corners.  One  Haddock,  by  name, 
acquired  a  certain  amount  of  distinction  among  English 
mesmerists  by  reason  of  a  book  which  he  wrote  on  the  pheno- 
mena of  vital  magnetism.  This  work  was  translated  into 
German  by  Merkel,  who,  in  a  preface,  advised  his  readers  to 
send  either  their  autograph  or  a  lock  of  their  hair  to  Haddock, 


1 6  HYPNOTISM. 

who  would  then  be  able  to  put  them  en  rapport  with  Emma, 
the  clairvoyante.  Dr.  George  Barth,  also,  was  a  well-known 
London  magnetizer.  A  similar  state  of  affairs  obtained  on  the 
Continent.  In  Paris  the  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  con- 
tinued to  flourish  extensively  in  lay  circles.  Scholl,  whose 
writings  have  already  been  mentioned,  describes  the  public 
sessions  of  one  of  the  societies  of  mesmerists.  In  Germany 
also  a  few  individual  adherents  of  the  old  doctrine  were  always 
to  be  found,  and  from  time  to  time  some  magnetizer  appeared 
there  in  public — as,  for  example,  the  French  magnetizer,  Laurent, 
who,  with  Miss  Prudence,  the  lady  upon  whom  he  operated, 
created  a  certain  amount  of  excitement  in  Wiesbaden  in  1850. 

In  America,  meanwhile,  animal  magnetism  had  gained 
adherents ;  New  Orleans  was,  for  a  long  time,  its  chief  centre. 
Kiernan  has  collected  a  number  of  historical  notes  treating  of 
the  position  of  American  psychiatry  in  respect  to  animal 
magnetism.  In  his  book  on  the  Treatment  of  Insanity^  which 
appeared  in  1846,  Gait,  of  Virginia,  expresses  very  sceptical 
views  as  to  the  value  of  animal  magnetism  in  the  treatment  of 
mental  disease;  and  Brigham  states  that  in  1841  he  experi- 
mented on  five  patients,  but  without  success.  Mitchell  also, 
whose  reports  are  more  detailed,  found  only  one-seventh  of  the 
persons  experimented  on  responsive  to  mesmeric  manipulation. 
No  serious  case  was  cured,  though  it  was  found  that  temporary 
improvement  could  be  obtained  in  some  nervous  states.  In 
1843,  Estes,  of  Columbus,  Miss.,  and  others  made  similar 
experiments. 

A  few  years  later  than  Braid,  Grimes  appeared  in  North 
America,  and,  independently  of  Braid,  obtained  like  results. 
The  states  produced  by  Grimes  were  called  electro-biological. 
Among  his  adherents  Dods  and  Stone  must  be  mentioned. 
Electro-biology  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  Darling  and  a 
French  physician  named  Durand  de  Gros.  The  latter  had 
lived  in  America,  where  he  wrote  under  the  pseudonym 
Philips.     He  returned  to  Europe  in  1853. 

Braid's  discovery  was  first  made  known  in  Bordeaux  by  Azam, 
in  1859.  Encouraged  by  Bazin  and  mocked  at  by  others, 
Azam  made  some  hypnotic  experiments;  he  communicated  the 
results  to  Broca,  in  Paris.  The  latter  discussed  hypnotisni 
before  the  Acadimie  des  Sciences,  It  was  soon  made  use  of  to 
perform  painless  operations;  Velpeau,  Follin,  and  Gu6rineau 
in  particular  made  experiments.     Other  physicians,  Demarquay 


HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  1 7 

and  Giraud-Teulon,  as  well  as  Berend  in  Berlin,  Pincus  in 
Glogau,  and  Heyfelder  in  St.  Petersburg,  showed  the  slight 
value  of  hypnotism  for  surgery.  In  consequence  of  this  it 
found  no  acceptance  in  medicine  at  that  time.  The  experi- 
ments of  Lasegue  in  1865,  when  he  obtained  cataleptic 
phenomena  by  closing  the  eyes,  aroused  no  particular  interest. 
In  the  following  years  we  only  find  here  and  there,  especially 
in  some  English  scientific  works,  brief  notices  of  hypnotism  or 
mesmerism,  as  in  Thomas  Watson's  Lectures  {iZ^  <^\  in  Tanner's 
Practice  of  Medicine  (1875),  and  in  Quain's  Dictionary  of 
Medicine,  in  which  Bastian  wrote  on  Hypnosis,  and  urged  the 
need  for  further  investigation  (Felkin). 

Meanwhile,  Li^beault,  who  later  removed  to  Nancy,  had 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  and 
animal  magnetism.  The  last  he  endeavoured  to  refute,  and  he 
became  the  real  founder  of  the  therapeutics  of  suggestion. 
His  book  published  in  1866  {Du  Sommeil,  etc.\  which  is  even 
to-day  very  well  worth  i-eading,  contains  his  ideas;  it  remained 
little  known,  and  the  author  was  much  laughed  at. 

Suggestion  had  undoubtedly  been  applied  before  Liebeault's  time,  in  the 
waking  as  well  as  in  the  hypnotic  condition.  We  find  in  the  literature  of 
mesmerism  many  indications  that  the  followers  of  animal  magnetism 
frequently  regarded  speech  as  the  bearer  of  magnetism;  for  example, 
Ennemoser  and  Szapary.  As  Bramwell  very  properly  reminds  us,  there  is 
frequent  reference  in  Braid's  writings  to  the  great  influence  of  verbal 
suggestion.  It  was,  however,  Liebeault  who  first  utilized  suggestion 
methodically.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  also  that  it  was  through  Liebeault, 
as  we  shall  see,  that  Bernheim  was  induced  to  turn  to  the  study  of  hyp- 
notic suggestion,  while  through  Bernheim  the  attention  of  many  other 
investigators  was  called  to  hypnosis.  The  later  historical  development  of 
hypnosis  begins  with  Liebeault.  That  some  earlier  writers,  however,  knew 
much  that  he  more  fully  worked  out  cannot  be  doubted. 

Independently  of  Liebeault,  Charles  Riebet  came  forward 
in  Paris  in  1875  ^^  contend  for  the  real  existence  of  hypnosis, 
which  he  called  "  Somnambulisme  provoque."  In  the  year 
1878  Charcot  began  his  demonstrations,  in  which  he  directed 
attention  to  the  physical  states  of  hystero-epileptics  during 
hypnosis;  in  1881  Paul  Richer  published,  in  his  book  on 
Z.a  grande  Hysterie^  many  experiments  performed  on  the  lines 
of  Charcot.  Among  the  pupils  of  Charcot  I  may  name,  ir^ 
addition,  Binet,  Feri,  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  Babinski,  Barth, 
Bourneville,  Regnard. 

2 


l8  HYPNOTISM. 

About  1880  many  investigators  in  Germany — particularly 
Weinhold,  Opitz,  and  Rühlmann  in  Chemnitz,  Heidenhain 
and  Berger  in  Breslau — occupied  themselves  with  the  question; 
and  Rosenbach,  moreover,  pointed  out  the  psychical  character 
of  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  at  about  the  same  date.  Other 
contemporary  investigators  to  be  mentioned  are: — Möbius, 
Benedikt,  Eulen  burg,  Senator,  Adamkiewicz,  Börner,  Meyer- 
sohn, Bäumler.  The  investigation  of  hypnosis  in  animals,  pub- 
lished by  Czermak  in  1872,  and  after  him  by  Preyer,  aroused 
no  lasting  interest.  The  movement  of  1880  also  soon  ceased, 
although  Preyer  often  pointed  out  the  importance  of  hypnotism. 

Many  opinions  of  early  investigators  in  the  field  of  hypnotism  have  been 
refuted  in  later  times.  Of  some  authors  scarcely  a  single  conclusion  has 
been  left  standing.  Even  Charcot  must  be  reckoned  among  these.  Never- 
theless, I  consider  we  owe  thanks  to  all  the  serious  early  investigators  of 
hypnotism,  on  account  of  the  attention  they  drew  to  the  matter,  even  if  all 
their  conclusions  are  refuted.  It  is  much  easier  to  push  on  a  work  which 
is  already  well  advanced  than  to  lay  the  first  stones  on  which  the  structure 
must  be  erected.  Among  the  investigators  who,  in  my  opinion,  deserve 
enduring  gratitude,  although  a  greater  part  or  nearly  all  their  results  are 
surpassed  by  later  workers,  must  be  reckoned  Charcot  and  Heidenhain. 
It  will,  I  am  sure,  be  admitted,  that  recent  investigators  have  a  right  to 
demand  exemption  from  spiteful  attack  and  calumny  on  the  part  of  those 
of  their  forerunners  whose  opinions  they  have  refuted.  Benedikt,  for 
example,  though  an  early  inquirer  into  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis,  has 
offended  in  this  respect  ever  since  his  views  were  upset  by  the  Nancy 
school  of  investigators. 

The  researches  of  Charcot  likewise  had  little  effect  upon  the 
further  pursuit  of  the  inquiry — as  little  as  had  the  book  of 
Prosper  Despine  on  somnambulism,  which  appeared  in  1880. 
It  is  true  that  in  some  hospitals  investigations  were  undertaken, 
particularly  by  Dumontpallier  in  Paris,  by  Pitres  in  Bordeaux, 
also  by  Ladarae  in  Geneva,  and  later  by  Binswanger  in  Jena. 
These  researches  were,  however,  sporadic. 

Only  when  a  second  medical  school  in  France — that  of 
Nartcy — approached  the  subject  did  the  interest  become  more 
general.  Professor  Bernheim,  of  Nancy,  who,  incited  by 
Dumont,  had  studied  the  question  with  Liebeault,  and  had 
accepted  the  latter's  views,  published  a  book.  De  la  Suggestion^ 
etc.^  in  1886.  He  gave  in  it  examples  of  the  curative  effects  of 
hypnosis,  the  phenomena  of  which,  he  says,  are  entirely  of  a 
psychical  nature.  Besides  which,  at  Nancy,  Beaunis  worked 
at  the  physiology  of  hypnosis,  and  Liegeois  at  the  forensic  side 


HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  .  IQ 

of  the  question.  Then  followed  in  France  the  contest  between 
the  schools  of  Charcot  and  of  Nancy,  in  which  the  latter,  how- 
ever, has  gained  ground  more  and  more,  and  has  at  length 
received  just  recognition  at  the  hands  of  the  Academy  of 
Medicine,  Paris,  thanks  to  the  exertions  of  Proust.  Whereas 
Charcot,  and  Heidenham  in  Breslau,  emphasized  the  importance 
of  the  somatic  symptoms,  the  Nancy  school  and  its  adherents 
held  that  all  the  phenomena  were  caused  by  suggestion; 
according  to  the  latter,  hypnosis  presents  no  purely  physical 
changes  which  are  not  produced  by  suggestion.  As  already 
stated,  the  importance  of  the  psychical  element  in  hypnosis, 
particularly  in  respect  to  suggestion,  continued  to  gain  ad- 
herents, and  Charcot's  views  were  almost  totally  superseded. 
In  only  a  few  rare  instances — for  example.  Schaffer  of  Buda- 
Pesth,  Paul  Magnin  of  Paris,  Micheline  Stefanowska  in 
Russia — do  we  find  views  expressed  which  approximate  to  the 
somatic  conception  of  hypnosis  put  forward  by  Charcot  and 
Heidenhain.  One  thing  is  certain,  Charcot  never  adequately 
recognized  the  importance  of  suggestion. 

People  began  to  busy  themselves  with  hypnotism  in  other 
countries  as  well  as  in  France,  chiefly  on  the  lines  of  the  school 
of  Nancy.  It  is  true  that,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  the 
study  of  hypnotism  had  been  begun  in  various  countries  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  Charcot.  As,  however,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  rather  one-sided  standpoint  of  these  investiga- 
tions, the  different  inquirers  failed  to  find  any  lasting  satisfaction, 
even  the  name  of  Charcot  was  powerless  to  establish  a  lasting 
interest  in  the  study  of  hypnotism.  Only  when  the  school  of 
Nancy  created  a  surer  basis  for  hypnotism  by  a  profounder 
psychological  conception  could  people  begin  to  devote  them- 
selves on  a  larger  scale  to  the  study  of  it.  Among  French 
investigators  I  should  name  A.  Voisin,  Jules  Voisin,  Bdrillon, 
Dejerine,  Luys,  Cullerre,  Nizet,  Laloy,  Regnault,  Paul  Farez, 
Lebailly,  Grasset.  Numerous  other  experimenters  occupied 
thenciselves  with  the  question,  and  even  those  who  had  at  first 
considered  the  experiments  of  Charcot  to  be  of  higher  value 
later  on  turned  in  large  numbers  to  the  school  of  Nancy.  Of 
course,  attention  was  not  directed  exclusively  to  medical 
questions;  the  psychological  and  forensic  aspects  of  hypnotism 
were  studied  as  well.  Among  those-  investigators  who  worked 
at  the  pliysiology  of  hypnosis  I  must  mention  Pierre  Janet, 
Riboty  and  in   more  recent  times  Paul  Farez  and  Regnault. 


20  HYPNOTISM. 

On  the  forensic  side  we  have  Mesnet,  who  investigated  offences 
against  morality  committed  on  persons  in  the  hypnotic  state, 
and  many  others  to  whom  I  shall  refer  in  the  section 
dealing  with  the  legal  aspects  of  hypnotism.  How  existing 
French  law  affects  the  practice  of  hypnotism  has  been  worked 
out  by  Halgan  in  his  graduation  thesis,  LHypnotisme  devant  la 
loi\  Paris,  1901. 

Hypnotism   found  an   entrance   to  many  other  countries. 
In  Switzerland  it  gained  numerous  adherents,  among  whom  I 
may  mention  Bleuler,  Ringier,  Bonjour,  Liengme,  but  more 
particularly  Forel,  who,  as  the  most  determined  follower  of  the 
Nancy  school,  enthusiastically  supported  the  theory  of  hypnotic 
and  non-hypnotic  suggestion.    In  Belgium  the  eminent  psych- 
ologist Delbceuf,  of  Lifege,  smoothed  the  way  for  it.     Several 
lawyers,  like  Bonjean  and  Mallar,  interested  themselves  in  the 
new  science,   especially  in   its   forensic  aspects;  and  among 
physicians  may  be  mentioned  Moreau,  Velsen,  Maes,  Crocq,  and 
Spehl.     Perhaps  greater  progress  was  made  in  Holland,  where 
Stephanas  objective  treatment  of  the  question  threw  light  upon 
a  subject  which  might  have  been  obscured  by  Cattle's  opposi- 
tion.   Numerous  physicians  made  use  of  hypnotism  in  Holland 
for  curative  purposes.     Among  the  Dutch  pioneers  of  hypno- 
tism we  must  reckon  Renterghem  and  Eeden,  of  Amsterdam,  and 
de  Jong,  of  The  Hague.     Of  the  numerous  Dutch  physicians 
who  made  practical  use  of  hypnotism,  I  may  mention  Reeling 
Brouwer,  of  The  Hague;  Breuking,  of  Scheveningen;  Hekma, 
of  Groningen;  and  Stigter,  of  Leyden.     Other  advocates  of 
hypnotism  to  be  named  are  Deventer  and  Jelgersma.     At  the 
second  Congress  of  Hypnotists,  held   in   1900,  Renterghem 
published  a  list  of  Dutch  physicians  who  practise  hypnotism 
for  curative  purposes,  from  which  I  have  extracted  some  of  the 
details  given  above.     In  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  we 
find   also  a  series  of  inquirers — Johannessen,    Sell,    Fränkel, 
Carlsen,  Schleisner,  Reiersen,  Velander,  Geijerstam,  and  most 
particularly  Wetterstrand,  of  Stockholm,  who  uses  hypnotism 
therapeutically   to   a   very  great   extent;    also    Lehmann,    of 
Copenhagen,    an    earnest    advocate    of    the    psychology    of 
hypnotism;  also  in  Russia,  where  Stembo,  Michailow,  Tokarski, 
Bechterew,  Rossolimo,  Meyer,  Rybakoff,  Orlitzky,  Brodowski, 
Repman,  Matveef,  and  Wiazemsky  of  Saratoff,  are  to  be  men- 
tioned, although  the  Government  have  put  many  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  studying  hypnotism.     In  Greece  and  Spain,  where 


HISTORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  21 

Pulido  used  suggestion  therapeutically  many  years  before 
Bernheim,  hypnotism  has  gained  in  importance.  E.  Berträn 
Rubiö,  of  Barcelona,  has  published  a  comprehensive  work 
entitled  Hypnotismo  y  Suggestion.  Among  Italian  investi- 
gators may  be  mentioned  Lombroso,  Belfiore,  Morselli, 
Tonoli,  Ottolenghi,  as  well  as  Olinto  del  Torto,  the  editor 
of  Magnetismo  e  Ipnottsmo,  Ellero,  Cantani,  and  Ehren- 
freund. 

In  England  there  exists  a  scientific  society — the  Society  for 
Psychical  Research — which,  besides  examining  certain  mystical 
phenomena,  also  does  much  to  promote  the  study  of  hypnotism. 
The  members  of  this  society  are  all  men  of  high  scientific  and 
social  standing,  of  whom  I  need  only  mention  Ramsay,  Stanley 
Hall,  and  the  late  Professor  Sidgwick.  Gurney  and  Frederick 
Meyers  must  here  be  especially  mentioned  as  promoters  of  the 
study  of  hypnosis  in  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research. 
Before  this  Hack  Tuke  had  often  called  attention  to  hypnotism 
in  England.  He  was,  however,  unable  to  excite  any  enduring 
interest  in  the  matter;  nor  were  Gamgee,  who  in  1878  reported 
on  his  observations  of  Charcot's  experiments,  and  Whitehead, 
who  in  1885  wrote  concerning  some  experiments  at  Manchester, 
more  successful  (Felkin).  At  the  same  time,  as  Felkin  remarks, 
numerous  works  dealing  with  hypnotism  appeared  from  time 
to  time  in  England;  as  by  Gasquet  in  1887,  by  Karl  Grossmann 
in  1888,  by  Foy,  and  especially  by  Preyer,  who  spoke  on 
hypnotism  at  the  British  Medical  Association  meeting  in  1880. 
Among  more  recent  investigators  in  England  I  may  mention 
Lloyd  Tuckey,  of  London,  who  has  made  many  therapeutic 
applications  of  hypnosis  on  the  lines  of  the  Nancy  school;  as 
well  as  Kingsbury,  Hart,  Vincent,  and  Coates.  Special  mention 
must  here  be  made  of  Bramwell,  who  by  a  series  of  contribu- 
tions extending  over  a  number  of  years,  and  more  particularly 
by  his  recent  book  Hypnotism,  has  done  so  much  to  promote 
the  study  and  therapeutic  application  of  hypnosis.  In  Scotland, 
Felkin  has  done  much  for  hypnotism  in  a  small  but  careful  and 
interesting  book  on  the  question ;  also  George  Robertson,  who 
advocated  the  use  of  hypnosis  in  the  treatment  of  mental  diseases. 
As  Bramwell  mentions,  Sir  Francis  Cruise  remained  about  the 
only  writer  on  hypnotism  in  Ireland.  At  all  events,  in  spite  of 
numerous  opponents,  among  whom  Norman  Kerr  and  Burney 
may  be  named,  hypnotism  has  thus  won  citizenship  in  England. 
Moreover,  at  the  Birmingham  meeting  of  the  British  Medical 


22  HYPNOTISM. 

Association  in  1890,  a  committee  of  physicians  was  appointed 
to  test  hypnotism  psychologically,  physiologically,  and  thera- 
peutically. This  committee,  which  included  among  its  members 
Hack  Tuke,  Langley,  Needham,  Broadbent,  Kingsbury,  and 
Clouston,  presented  its  report  in  1892.  In  this  report  not 
only  was  the  reality  of  hypnotism  recognized  and  its  symptoms 
described,  but  hypnosis  was  warmly  recommended  for  thera- 
peutic purposes,  especially  for  insomnia,  pain,  and  numerous 
functional  disorders.  The  results  in  dipsomania  were  men- 
tioned as  peculiarly  encouraging. 

In  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  especially  in  America,  it  had 
also  awakened  great  interest.     Beard  had  already  long  ago 
occupied  himself  with  the  question.     Unfortunately,  his  in- 
vestigations are  not  known   to  the  extent  they  deserve.     In 
1 88 1  Beard  also  attempted,  at  the  International  Congress  of 
Physicians   in   London,  to   interest  European   physicians   in 
hypnotism.    The  results  he  obtained  were  the  opposite  of  those 
he  desired,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  writings  of  various  eye- 
witnesses, Mortimer  Granville,  Donkin,  and  Crichton  Browne, 
in  the   British  Medical  fournal^   although    the    first-named, 
Granville,  at  the  International  Medical  Congress  in  London  in 
1 88 1,  had  referred  to  the  possibility  of  hypnotizing  the  insane. 
Although  Beard's  exertions  were  at  first  fruitless,  at  a  later 
period  many  in  America  occupied  themselves  with  the  problem 
of    hypnosis.     Among    recent    investigators    may   be   named 
Funkhouser,  Hamilton  Osgood,  William  Lee,  Howard,  Pope, 
Gerrish,    Fitzgerald,   Clark    Bell,    Hülst,    Hammond,    Dana, 
Vermeren,  Axtell,  Booth.     Sidis  made  special  investigations 
into  the  psychology  of  suggestion  as  a  means  of  studying  per- 
sonality, and  in  this  was  to  an  extent  under  the  guidance  of 
William  James,  of  the  University  of  Harvard;  he  published  a 
monograph  on  the  Psychology  of  Suggestion^  but  the  work  is  not 
based  entirely  upon  observations  made  upon  persons  in  the 
hypnotic  state.     In  various  universities  and  colleges  of  the 
United  States  the  study  of  hypnotism  has  been  carried   on  ; 
for  example,  at  Wellesley  College,  as  Whiton  Calkins  reports. 
A  scientific  association,  the  American  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  now  affiliated  to  the  English  Society,  has  also  been 
formed  in  the  United  States.    In  several  of  the  South  American 
States  serious  inquirers  have  turned  to  the  study  of  hypnotic 
phenomena;  for  example,  Octavio  Maira  and  David  Benavente 
in  Chili;  Barreto,  Fajardo,  and  Jaguaribe  in  Brazil.     In  Cuba 


HISTORY   OF   HYPNOTISM.  23 

the  physicians  Villamonga  and  Diaz  may  be  named.    Damoglou, 
of  Cairo,  also  has  studied  hypnotic  suggestion. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  hypnotism  very  soon  began  to  arouse 
greater  interest  in  Germany.  Although  the  investigations 
incited  by  the  exhibitions  of  Hansen  had  left  no  lasting 
impress,  yet  from  time  to  time  individual  inquirers,  such  as 
Obersteiner  of  Vienna,  Fränkel  of  Dessau,  and  Möbius,  had 
endeavoured  to  draw  att*ention  to  hypnotism  in  Germany  by 
clear  and  impartial  reports.  Experiments  in  therapeutics  had 
also  occasionally  been  made;  for  example,  by  Creutzfeldt, 
Wiebe,  E.  L.  Fischer,  Berkiian.  But  no  general  interest  was 
aroused  until  1887,  when  I  delivered  an  address  on  the  ques- 
tion before  the  Medical  Society  of  Berlin,  in  which  I  related 
my  own  experiences  and  certain  observations  I  had  made  at 
Nancy.  Certainly  the  address  was  not  at  all  favourably  re- 
ceived, and  two  men,  who  were  obviously  only  acquainted  with 
Charcot's  investigation  and  not  with  those  of  the  Nancy  school, 
opposed  me.  Ewald  objected  altogether  to  such  a  method 
of  treatment  being  designated  medical,  and  Mendel  attacked 
hypnosis  on  account  of  its  manifold  dangers.  As  a  natural 
consequence  an  exaggerated  mistrust  of  hypnosis  was  en- 
gendered, and  only  gave  way  when  a  more  objective  conception 
of  the  question  made  itself  felt.  This  occurred  when  Forel, 
who  had  been  giving  instruction  in  hypnosis  in  Switzerland  in 
connection  with  the  Nancy  school,  insisted  on  the  importance 
of  the  subject,  and  at  the  same  time  especially  denounced  the 
manner  in  which  Ewald  and  Mendel  sought  to  settle  the  question. 

A  really  stirring  activity  now  set  in  in  Germany  also.  The 
importance  of  suggestion  for  hypnosis  was  recognized;  and 
many  physicians,  following  the  example  of  the  Nancy  school, 
commenced  therapeutic  experiments  with  hypnosis  in  Germany. 
Among  them  may  be  named  Sperling,  Nonne,  Michael,  Hess. 
I  must  further  especially  mention  Schrenck-Notzing,  who  was 
one  of  the  very  first  pronounced  advocates  for  the  therapeutical 
application  of  hypnosis;  alro  Hösslin  and  Baierlacher,  who 
discovered  the  reaction  of  degeneration,  but  who  unfortunately 
died  shortly  after  turning  his  attention  to  hypnotism.  Among 
those  who,  in  Germany,  either  employed  or  recommended  the 
therapeutical  application  of  suggestion  may  also  be  mentioned 
Corval,  Schuster,  Hirt,  Ad.  Barth,  Brügelmann,  Hecker,  Max 
Hirsch,  Scholz, Gerster,  Stein,  Seif,  Tatzel,  Stadelmann,  Placzek, 
Gumpertz,  Delius,  Steiner,  Schütze,  Herzberg,  Sjöström,  Steg- 


24  HYPNOTISM. 

mann.  We  must  also  remember  Loewenfeld,  on  account  of 
his  various  contributions  to  the  therapeutical  side  of  hypnosis 
and  kindred  questions,  as  well  as  for  his  detailed  treatise  on 
hypnotism.  I  must  here  mention  several  other  Berlin 
physicians  who,  by  their  individual  investigations,  furthered  the 
therapeutical  side  of  the  question,  and  by  so  doing  were  able 
to  illuminate  the  broader  domain  of  psychology  and  psycho- 
therapy— for  example,  Vogt  and  Hirschlaff.  The  former,  aided 
by  several  of  his  pupils,  notably  Brodmann,  essentially  im- 
proved the  technique  of  medical  hypnotism.  Others  to  be 
named  are  Georg  Flatau,  of  Berlin;  Georg  Wanke,  of  Friedrich- 
roda;  Hilgef,  of  Magdeburg;  and  Dölken,  of  Marburg. 

We  find,  likewise,  a  number  of  physicians  in  Austro- 
Hungary  active  in  the  same  field.  Here  Obersteiner  con- 
tinued his  earlier  investigations,  but  special  mention  must  be 
made  of  Krafft-Ebing  and  his  pupil  Alfred  Fuchs,  who,  like 
Schrenck-Notzing,  laid  stress  on  the  importance  of  hypnotic 
suggestion  in  the  treatment  of  cases  of  sexual  perversion.  I 
may  also  mention  Freud  and  Breuer,  who  recommend  a 
peculiar  method  of  treatment,  the  cathartic;  also  Frey, 
Schnitzler,  F.  Müller,  Donath,  Mosing. 

Ziemssen,  Nothnagel,  Seeligmüller,  Benedikt,  Köberlin, 
Richter,  Schnitze,  Windscheid  and  others  set  their  faces 
most  decidedly  against  the  therapeutic  use  of  hypnosis. 
Some  emphasized  its  dangers,  while  others  gave  prominence  to 
its  uselessness.  The  cursory  nature  of  the  work  upon  which 
many  of  these  assumptions  were  based  was  soon  demonstrated. 
For  example,  it  was  shown  by  Schrenck-Notzing  that  Friedrich, 
a  pupil  of  Ziemssen's,  who  had  particularly  animadverted  on 
the  dangers  of  hypnotism,  was  himself  **a  transgressor  against 
the  most  elementary  demands  of  those  who  advocated  hypno- 
therapeutic  interference  in  the  treatment  of  disease." 

Putting  aside  the  numerous  works  which  deal  exclusively 
with  hypnotism,  we  find  this  subject  discussed  in  many  books 
chiefly  concerned  with  other  themes.  I  may  mention  the 
various  works  on  nervous  and  mental  diseases.  Hirt  and 
Möbius,  likewise  Cowers  and  Oppenheiner,  have  inserted 
'more  or  less  comprehensive  chapters  on  hypnotism  in  their 
works.  The  same  is  true  of  many  writers  on  psychiatrics ;  for 
example,  Krafft-Ebing  and  Kraepelin,  both  of  whom  mention 
the  therapeutic  value  of  hypnosis  in  their  books.  The  value 
of  hypnosis  when  other  means  fail  is  admitted  by  Sommer 


HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  2$ 

though  Kirchhoff,  in  his  Psychiatrie^  treats  hypnosis  as  being 
more  a  psychological  phenomenon. 

We  also  find  hypnotism  discussed  in  works  dealing  specially 
with  nervous  diseases ;  in  Müller's  Handbuch  der  Neurasthenie 
there  is  an  extensive  chapter  by  Schrenck-Notzing  on  hypnotic 
and  especially  suggestive  therapeutics.  Borel,  also,  in  his 
book,  Nervosisme  ou  NeurasthSnie y  deals  briefly  with  treatment 
by  suggestion,  which  he  conditionally  allows;  as  also  does 
Loewenfeld  in  his  book  on  hysteria  and  neurasthenia. 
Hypnotism  is  fully  dealt  with  by  Pitres  in  his  work  on 
hysteria  and  hypnotic  treatment,  by  Binswanger  in  his  great 
treatise  on  the  same  subject,  in  which  he  justly  only  covers  a 
portion  of  psycho-therapeutics. 

Occasionally  we  find  hypnosis  thoroughly  discussed  in  other 
medical  works;  for  example,  in  Eulenburg  and  Samuel's 
comprehensive  treatise,  Allgemeine  Therapie^  in  which  the 
section  on  psycho-therapeutics  is  written  by  Ziehen.  The 
question  is  similarly  treated  in  Eulenburg's  Real-Enzyklopädie^ 
and  in  the  Enzyklopädischen  Jahrbücher^  which  are  supple- 
mental to  the  former.  For  these  Corval  and,  later  on, 
Schrenck-Notzing  have  contributed  diligent  and  detailed 
criticisms  of  the  most  recent  works  on  the  subject.  In 
Penzoldt  and  Stinzing's  Handbuch  der  Speziellen  Therapie^  the 
section  in  question  has  been  prepared  by  Liebermeister,  who 
writes  with  reserve  on  hypnosis,  and  gives  preference  to 
suggestion  applied  when  the  patient  is  awake. 

Other  authors  worked  at  the  particular  subjects  which  have 
a  relation  to  hypnotism  without  laying  special  stress  on  its 
therapeutic  value,  as  we  have  already  seen  was  the  case  with 
many  French  investigators.  As  far  as  Germany  is  concerned 
the  works  of  Lilienthal,  Rieger,  Drucker,  Heberle,  Loos, 
and  Neumeister  must  here  be  named,  which  inquired  into 
the  legal  side  of  the  question.  Krafft-Ebing  published  an 
extremely  detailed  experimental  study  of  two  cases;  Max 
Dessoir  compiled  a  valuable  bibliography  of  modern  hypnot- 
ism, with  appendix ;  further,  Nussbaum,  Nonne,  Bleuler,  Otto 
Effertz,  Huckel,  Kocks,  Maack,  D.  Weiss,  Sallis,  Binder, 
Dreher,  Moravcsik,  Heboid,  Hitzig,  William  Hirsch,  Straaten 
and  Trömner  must  be  named.  A  short  but  useful  book  on 
hypnotism  was  long  ago  produced  by  Minde,  who  rescued 
from  oblivion  many  little  known  facts  contained  in  ancient 
and  modern  literature. 


26  HYPNOTISM. 

Here,  too,  we  must  specially  mention  various  works  on 
psychology  in  which  hypnotism  is  also  discussed,  such  as 
Wundt's  Grundzüge  der  Physiologischen  Psychologie^  and  the 
same  author's  Grundriss  der  Psychologie  \  likewise  James's 
books  on  psychology;  also  the  new  edition  of  Volkmann's 
Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie  by  Cornelius,  and  the  works  of 
Paul  Carus,  Kiilpe,  Hoefler,  Münsterberg,  Lipps,  and  finally 
Heilmann  and  Jahn's  Psychologie  als  Grundwissenchaft  der 
Pädagogik. 

It  would  be  altogether  a  mistake  to  fix  the  therapeutic  value 
of  hypnosis  as  the  standard  by  which  it  is  lo  be  judged,  for 
that  would  lead  to  the  neglect  of  other  factors ;  for  example, 
the  psychological  importance  of  the  subject.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  a  series  of  investigators  have  recognized  the  great  value 
of  hypnotism,  particularly  in  this  direction — above  all,  Krafft- 
Ebing,  Forel,  Max  Dessoir,  and  Ribot  In  Germany  many 
scientific  societies  have  made  valuable  contributions  to  this 
branch  of  the  subject.  Such  are  the  Psychological  Society  in 
Munich  and  the  former  Society  for  Experimental  Psychology 
in  Berlin,  to  which  we  owe  a  series  of  remarkable  works  by 
Max  Dessoir,  Bastian,  Hellwald  and  Bentivegni.  Later  on, 
Vogt,  of  Berlin,  called  special  attention  to  hypnosis  as  a 
means  of  psychological  research.  By  some  psychologists — 
Wundt,  for  example — it  is  denied  that  hypnotism  is  of  value 
in  experimentgj  psychology.  At  the  same  time  Wundt 
admits  that,  like  dreaming  and  insanity,  it  is  a  proper  object 
for  psychological  observation  ;  but  its  value  to  the  psychologist 
is  not  equal  to  its  high  value  to  the  physician. 

I  may  here  briefly  mention  that  considerable  space  is 
devoted  to  hypnotism  in  many  philosophical  works,  and  in 
such  as  deal  with  the  history  of  civilization,  but  particularly 
in  those  treating  of  occultism  and  superstition.  To  the  latter 
category  belong  the  works  of  Lehmann  and  Hennig. 

The  theologians  have  not  been  able  to  leave  hypnotism 
alone  altogether,  although  they  sometimes  attribute  it  to  the 
agency  of  the  devil.  Among  the  authors  who  have  dealt  with 
hypnotism  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Church,  I  may  name 
Franco,  Meric,  Finlay,  Haas,  and  Cocconier,  of  whom  the 
last  named,  though  condemning  hypnotism  as  a  rule  on  moral 
grounds,  justifies  its  use  in  a  good  cause.  I  may  further 
mention  that  Rohnert,  an  Evangelical  pastor,  condemns 
hypnotism  from  the  Christian  standpoint  even  when  it  proves 


HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  2J 

an  effective  therapeutic  agent,  and  Schütz  describes  it  as 
illegal  and  objectionable  on  rational  grounds.  On  the  other 
hand,  Ziegler  would  grant  its  use  to  physicians  expert  in 
hypnosis. 

The  domain  of  suggestion,  though  not  identical  with 
hypnosis,  is  intimately  and  historically  connected  therewith. 
Formerly  the  two  were  studied  together,  but  of  recent  years 
suggestion  has  been  dealt  with  separately.  It  is  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge  that  treatment  by  suggestion  has  been 
developed  from  the  therapeutical  employment  of  hypnosis.  I 
may  here  mention  one  of  the  larger  treatises  in  which  the 
important  part  played  by  suggestion  in  the  causation  and 
cure  of  disease  is  discussed — Les  Phinomenes  de  Suggestion 
et  d'Auto-Sug^estion  (1903),  by  Lefevre,  a  Belgian  army 
surgeon.  Other  inquirers  also  have  investigated  the  domain 
of  suggestion  apart  from  medical  considerations.  The 
general  significance  of  suggestion  for  social  life  as  well 
as  for  art  and  science,  has  been  treated  in  Die  Psychologie 
der  Suggestion  (1892),  by  Schmidkunz,  assisted  by  Gerster, 
a  physician.  Although  the  book  betrays  mystical  tend- 
encies, it  is  replete  with  valuable  suggestions  and  historical 
references.  In  a  small  work  entitled  Personality-Suggestion^ 
published  in  1894,  J.  Mark  Badwin  called  attention  to  the 
difference  in  the  suggestive  influence  exerted  by  different 
persons  on  children.  The  educational  value  of  suggestion  in 
general  has  been  discussed  by  T.  Felix  Thomas,  in  his  book, 
La  Suggestion,  son  Pole  dans  rEdu^.ation,  published  in  1895; 
and  the  general  social  importance  of  suggestion  by  Becterew. 
Grohmann  has  dealt  with  suggestion  by  letter,  and  demon: 
strated  the  dangers  of  character-reading  by  advertizing  grapholo- 
gists. In  1 900;  Binet  published  a  book.  La  Suggestibility,  in 
which  the  susceptibility  of  children  to  non-hypnotic  suggestion 
is  discussed ;  the  author  also  furnishes  historical  data  on  the 
gradual  differentiation  of  suggestion  from  hypnotism,  and  at 
the  same  time  demonstrates  that  the  classification  of  personal 
characteristics,  as  given  by  Tissie,  Bolton,  and  Lapouge,  is 
based  entirely  upon  suggestibility.  Numerous  other  investi- 
gators have  dealt  with  suggestion  and  suggestibility  from  the 
psychological  point  of  view;  among  them  I  may  mention 
Hellpach,  who  dwells  upon  the  connection  subsisting  between 
suggestibility  and  hysteria.  But  it  is  to  Lipps  that  credit  is 
particularly  due  for  having,  in  a  lucid  and  stimulating  dis- 


28  HYPNOTISM. 

course,  attempted  to  give  a  psychological  basis  to,  and  a 
delimitation  of,  the  problem  of  suggestion.  I  must  here  again 
mention  the  American  investigator,  Boris  Sidis,  whose  work, 
The  Psychology  of  Suggestion^  is  directed  to  the  elucidation, 
not  only  of  hypnotic,  but  more  especially  of  non-hypnotic 
suggestion. 

In  order  to  facilitate  a  general  discussion  of  the  most 
important  questions  in  the  domain  of  hypnotism,  a  congress 
met  in  Paris  in  August  1889,  at  which  nearly  all  civilized 
nations,  including  Germany,  were  represented,  and  at  which 
many  important  matters  were  cleared  up.  In  general,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  views  of  the  Nancy  school  carried  the  day. 
A  second  congress  met  in  Paris  in  1900.  Raymond,  Charcot's 
successor,  attempted  in  his  introductory  address  to  represent 
the  congress  as  a  reconciliatory  meeting  of  Charcot's  school 
with  that  of  Nancy,  and  many  speakers — B^rillon,  Crocq, 
Magnin — emphasized,  on  the  lines  of  Charcot's  teaching,  the 
similarity  subsisting  between  certain  phases  of  hysteria  and 
many  of  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis.  Still,  on  the  whole,  the 
views  of  the  Nancy  school  prevailed  at  this  congress.  More 
recently  many  congresses  and  scientific  assemblies  have 
occupied  themselves  with  hypnotism.  Only  a  few  need  be 
mentioned.  At  the  Olten  meeting  of  the  Swiss  Medical 
Association  in  1888,  Forel  delivered  an  address  on  the  thera- 
peutics of  suggestion.  At  the  International  Congress  for 
Psychiatrics,  held  at  Paris  in  1889,  Ladame  spoke  of  the 
therapeutic  value  of  suggestion,  but  was  opposed  by  Benedikt. 
At  the  Congress  of  Russian  Physicians  in  St.  Petersburg  in 
1889,  Tokarski  and  Danillo  introduced  an  interesting  discus- 
sion in  the  neurological  section.  In  1890,  Bdrillon  discussed 
the  therapeutics  of  suggestion  at  the  International  Medical 
Congress  in  Berlin.  At  the  meeting  of  the  British  Medical 
Association  held  at  Bournemouth  in  1891,  A.  Voisin  addressed 
the  Section  of  Psychiatry  on  the  criminal  importance  of 
hypnotic  suggestion;  and  at  the  International  Medical  Con- 
gress, Moscow,  1897,  Bernheim  called  attention  to  the 
importance  of  hypnotism  and  suggestion  for  medical  juris- 
prudence. At  the  three  International  Congresses  for  Experi- 
mental Psychology,  interesting  communications  on  hypnotism 
were  brought  forward;  the  London  Congress  of  1892  was 
divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  was  specially  devoted 
to  hypnotism,  F.  Myers  being  its  secretary,  and  Eeden  read 


HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  29 

a  long  paper  on  the  principles  of  psychotherapeutics.  Hyp- 
notism was  also  discussed  at  the  third  International  Congress 
of  Psychology,  in  Munich  in  1897;  and  at  the  Congress  of 
Psychology  held  in  Rome  in  1905,  both  hypnotism  and 
suggestion  were  dealt  with.  At  the  Congress  of  Criminal 
Anthropology  held  in  Brussels  in  1892,  hypnotism  was  dis- 
cussed. In  1894,  at  the  International  Medical  Congress  in 
Rome,  Hirt  introduced  the  subject  of  hypnosis;  Sollier  and 
Benedikt  appeared  as  opponents,  and  the  chief  advocates  of 
the  value  of  hypnotic  therapeutics,  besides  Hirt,  were  Hitzig 
and  Berillon.  In  1897,  a  Congress  of  Neurology,  Psychiatry, 
Electro-therapeutics,  and  Hypnology  met  in  Brussels.  Li^geois 
addressed  the  congress  on  criminal  suggestion,  Bramwell  on 
the  therapeutic  value  of  hypnotism,  Castelain  on  suggestion  in 
everyday  life,  and  Aime  on  the  value  of  hypnotic  suggestion 
in  the  waking  state.  The  question  of  using  hypnotism  and 
suggestion  in  the  treatment  of  children  considered  criminals, 
but  in  reality  psychopathic,  was  discussed  by  Jules  Voisin  and 
Berillon  at  the  Congress  of  Criminal  Anthropology  held  at 
Amsterdam  in  1901,  and  the  value  of  hypnosis  and  suggestion 
in  relation  to  the  psychology  of  crowds  was  outlined  in  the 
reports  handed  in  by  Jelgersma  and  Sighele.  At  the  Congress 
of  the  South-Western  Association  of  German  Alienists  which 
was  held  in  Stuttgart  in  1902,  a  discussion  on  hypnotism  and 
psycho-therapeutics  followed  on  an  address  by  Franck  and 
a  communication  by  Bezzola,  in  which  Krehl  and  Hecker 
took  part.  Hypnotism  was  also  discussed  at  the  Thirteenth 
Congress  of  French-speaking  Alienists  and  Neurologists  in 
Pau,  in  1904. 

Under  the  title  of  La  Sociiie  d' Hypnologie  et  de  Psychologie^ 
a  scientific  society  was  formed  in  1889,  in  Paris,  for  the  special 
cultivation  of  hypnotism;  its  first  president  was  Dumontpallier, 
a  post  now  held  by  Jules  Voisin.  A  similar  society  has  recently 
been  founded  in  Moscow.  The  existence  of  other  scientific 
societies  interested  in  hypnotism  may  be  briefly  mentioned. 

Various  journals  are  now  devoted  to  hypnotism.  While  in 
France  the  Revue  de  V Hypnotisme^  edited  by  Berillon,  has  been 
published  for  nineteen  years,  in  Germany  a  Zeitschrift  für 
HypnotisjHus  was  founded  in  1892,  but  ceased  to  appear  on 
the  completion  pf  the  tenth  volume  in  1902.  Simultaneously 
with  the  demise  of  the  Zeitschrift^  the  Journal  für  Fsycliologie 
und  Neurologie  began  to  appear;  it  is  published  by  Forel  and 


30  HYPNOTISM. 

Oskar  Vogt,  edited  by  Brodmann,  and  treats  the  domain  of 
hypnotism  from  a  broad  point  of  view.  It  embraces  a  wider 
field  than  the  Zeitschrift^  taking  in  those  special  psychological 
questions  which  are  of  interest  to  the  neuro-biologist.  Certainly 
a  succession  of  interesting  and  valuable  articles  has  appeared 
in  these  periodicals.  There  have  been,  of  course,  other 
periodicals  devoted  to  hypnotism,  but  most  of  them  have 
gone  under  after  a  brief  existence.  Another  French  journal, 
the  Annales  de  Psychiatrie^  must  here  be  mentioned.  In  Italy 
we  find  Magnetismo  e  Ipnotismo,  a  journal  edited  by  Olinto 
del  Torto,  which  was  at  the  same  lime  the  organ  of  an  Italian 
scientific  society  occupied  with  the  questions  of  animal 
magnetism  and  hypnosis.  America  also  has  produced  numer- 
ous periodicals  dealing  with  hypnotism,  but  like  many  published 
in  Europe,  they  cannot  be  accredited  with  much  scientific 
worth.  When  founding  the  Zeitschrift  für  Hypnotismus 
Sommer  referred  to  the  danger  lest  the  connection  between 
hypnosis  and  psycho-pathology  generally  be  lost  sight  of  The 
manner  in  which  Vogt  and  Berillon  have  edited,  and  continue 
to  edit,  their  respective  German  and  French  journals  shows 
that  this  assertion  is  not  well  grounded. 

Hypnotism  has,  moreover,  been  frequently  made  the  study 
of  medical  students;  from  1888  to  1890  lectures  were  delivered 
about  it  in  Berlin  by  the  late  Professor  Preyer,  and  in  Freiburg- 
in-Baden  by  Münsterberg.  It  was  more  frequently  mentioned 
in  lectures  on  other  subjects,  as,  for  example,  by  Jolly  in  his 
clinical  discourses  on  psychiatrics.  But  as  a  rule  hypnotism 
did  not  maintain  a  prominent  position  in  university  lectures, 
any  more  than  psychology,  psycho-therapeutics,  and  medical 
psychology  in  general.  Hypnotism  and  suggestion  were  for 
the  most  part  taught  in  classes  held  independently  of  the 
universities.  Among  lecturers  on  the  subject  in  Berlin  I  may 
mention  Hirschlaff,  Vogt,  Georg  Flatau,  and  J.  Grossmann. 

In  the  winter  of  1904-05  I  myself  gave  a  series  of  lectures 
on  psycho-therapeutics  in  connection  with  the  course  promoted 
by  the  central  committee  for  post-graduate  students;  in  those 
lectures  I  dealt  with  the  methods  of  treatment  by  hypnosis 
and  suggestion. 

In  other  countries  also  lectures  on  hypnotism  have  been 
given  at  universities,  as  at  Zürich  by  Forel.  In  Paris,  Berillon 
has  delivered  lectures  on  hypnotism  in  conjunction  with 
Jennings  and  Farez.     Lehmann,  a  distinguished  psychologist 


HISTORY   OF    HYPNOTISM.  3 1 

at  Copenhagen,  has,  in  his  lectures  there,  dealt  with  the  psycho- 
logical significance  of  hypnotism.  Joire  has  lectured  on 
hypnology  in  Lille,  and  Tokarski  in  Moscow.  In  short,  we 
find  universal  and  strenuous  endeavours  to  throw  the  light  of 
science  on  hy{)notism,  and  attract  fresh  investigators  to  this 
field  of  inquiry. 

Much  documentary  evidence  in  favour  of  hypnotism  has 
been  collected  in  Germany.  The  propriety  of  utilizing  hypnosis 
in  the  production  of  a  literary  work  has  been  discussed  by 
Franzos,  who  collected  and  publiiihed  a  number  of  opinions 
on  the  subject.  Unfortunately,  Franzos,  to  further  his  object, 
made  use  of  many  highly-esteemed  names  in  the  German 
professional  world,  among  others  that  of  Helmholtz,  who 
openly  admitted  that  he  had  never  troubled  his  head  about 
the  matter.  At  the  same  time  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the 
instructive  and  detailed  work  which  we  owe  to  Forel,  Eulen- 
burg,  Krafft-Ebing,  and  Preyer.  Another  collection  of  docu- 
ments, dealing  more  especially  with  the  therapeutic  side  of  the 
question,  was  published  by  J.  Grossmann.  This,  I  am  sorry 
to  say,  omits  some  names — for  example,  Preyer*s — but  several 
of  the  papers  contained  in  it  are  of  great  value.  In  1902  the 
Prussian  Minister  of  Education  invited  the  Council  of  Prussian 
Physicians  to  institute  an  inquiry  into  the  therapeutic  value  of 
hypnosis.  At  the  same  time  the  presidents  of  the  various 
governmental  districts  were  requested  to  report  on  the  extent 
to  which  hypnosis  was  carried  on  by  unqualified  persons. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  hypnosis  is  frequently  practised  by 
laymen,  and  that,  too,  in  a  very  unscientific  manner.  I  need 
only  point  to  the  public  exhibitions  of  hypnotism  which  take 
place  from  time  to  time  in  spite  of  all  prohibitive  measures. 
Advertisements  announcing  instruction  in  hypnotism  con- 
stantly appear  in  the  daily  press,  both  at  home  (Germany) 
and  abroad.  There  is  an  American  institute  which  has,  un- 
doubtedly, been  the  greatest  offender  in  this  respect;  for  years 
past  its  widespread  advertisements  have  held  out  to  prospective 
pupils  a  means  of  learning  the  art  of  hypnotizing,  whereby  they 
should  be  able  to  influence  their  fellow-men  in  wondrous  wise. 
This  institute  offers  its  instruction  in  written  and  in  printed 
form.  But  putting  on  one  side  this  unscientific  treatment  of 
hypnotism,  we  must  not  forget  that  numerous  popular,  and  at 
the  same  time  excellent,  treatises  have  appeared  on  the  subject, 
and  popular  exposition  must  not  be  confused  with  unscientific 


32  HYPNOTISM. 

exploitation.  Many  of  the  authors  of  these  popular  works  are 
scientists  of  some  repute,  as,  for  instance,  Eisler,  the  author  of 
Zur  Psychologie  der  Hypnose^  an  essay  which  appeared  in 
a  South-German  paper;  there  are  many  other  popularizers  of 
hypnosis  who  could  be  mentioned,  but  I  need  only  name  such 
men  as  Max  Hirsch,  Sjöström,  and  Newbold  of  Philadelphia. 

Hypnotism  has  not  been  without  its  votaries  in  literature. 
In  former  days  animal  magnetism  formed  material  for  romances. 
I  need  only  call  to  mind  a  short  play  by  Iffland,  called  Der 
Magnetismus ;  or  to  the  writings  of  Alexandre  Dumas  and 
Balzac,  the  latter  an  enthusiastic  upholder  of  animal 
magnetism,  as  evinced  in  his  story  of  Ursule  Miroiiet. 
According  to  Witkowski,  Ben  Jonson's  comedy,  The  Magnetic 
Lady,  was  produced  one  hundred  years  before  Mesmer  was 
thought  of,  and  in  it  a  somnambulistic  clairvoyante  played  a 
prominent  part.  Novelists  of  a  later  date  have  also  brought 
hypnotism  into  play.  This  we  see  in  Claretie's  Jean  Mornas, 
Belot's  Alphonsine,  and  Achille's  Un  Raffini,  Others  to  be 
mentioned  are  Epheyre  and  Valdes,  the  latter  for  his  La  Prise 
du  Regard,  But  without  doubt,  George  du  Maurier's  Trilby 
caused  most  stir.  Of  German  productions  of  a  similar  nature 
I  may  mention  Meding's  Unter  fremden  Willen  and  PrölFs 
Moderner  Totentanz,  Haas  teils  us  that  Catholic  literature 
has  been  influenced  by  hypnotism,  but  according  to  our 
authority  the  modus  operandi  seems  to  have  been  somewhat 
incomprehensible.  Hypnotism  has  often  been  utilized  by 
playwrights;  for  example,  in  Sardou's  Sorcilre,  a  piece  in  which 
Sarah  Bernhardt  appeared.  Other  plays  to  be  mentioned 
in  this  respect  are  Kurt  Abel's  Der  Hypnotiseur  and  Dr. 
Feodoroff's  comedy,  Die  Hypnotische  Suggestion,  sl  play  pro- 
duced in  1896  for  a  Russian  charity,  and  in  which  all  the 
doctors  connected  with  the  fund  appeared.  It  stands  to 
reason  that  caricaturists  and  satirists  have  not  failed  to  make 
use  of  the  humorous  side,  and  certainly  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  a  subject  lending  itself  more  readily  to  caricature.  This 
fact  has  kept  many  a  person  from  studying  hypnosis.  A 
number  of  pretty  songs  depicting  hypnotism  from  a  humorous 
point  of  view  is  to  be  found  in  Korb's  well-known  Song-book 
for  German  Physicians  and  Scientists, 

In  art,  also,  hypnotism  has  played  a  certain  part.  Charcot 
and  Richer  in  their  work,  Les  Dimoniaques  dans  VArt,  have 
given  illustrations  depicting  attacks  of  hysteria,  and  considering 


HISTORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  33 

the  close  connection  between  hysteria  and  hypnosis  maintained 
by  those  authors,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  them  attempting 
to  establish  a  similar  connection  between  art  and  grand 
hypnotisms  I  may  here  mention  that  in  the  Paris  Salon,  not 
long  since,  a  picture  was  exhibited  by  Brouillet  called  "  Une 
Legon  clinique  ä  la  Salp^triere";  and  I  will  take  this  oppor- 
tunity of  calling  to  mind  that  when  mesmerism  flourished,  it 
was  made  use  of  in  illustrative  art,  but  more  particularly  for 
satirical  purposes.  K.  F.  H.  Marx  mentions  in  his  treatise 
on  the  connection  of  illustrative  art  with  the  art  of  healing,  a 
work  by  Chodowiecki  entitled,  A  Magnetic  Manipulation^  and 
a  satirical  sketch  of  Mesmer's  magnetism  by  Fr.  Sergent.  Of 
a  somewhat  different  nature  is  the  connection  between  hypnosis 
and  art,  as  recently  discussed  by  Rochas  and  Otto  Schultze, 
with  whom  Schrenck-Notzing  and  Lcewenfeld  agree  to  some 
extent.  The  three  last-mentioned  inquirers,  writing  in  refer- 
ence to  the  exhibitions  given  by  the  "sleep-dancer"  Magdeleine, 
give  prominence  to  the  question  as  to  how  far  the  power  of 
expressing  the  emotions  during  hypnosis  may  be  utilized  for 
artistic  purposes. 

Certainly  all  the  references  to  hypnotism  and  the  numerous 
works  on  it,  mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph,  demonstrate  the 
general  nature  of  the  interest  which  has  been  brought  to  bear 
on  the  question;  and  it  may  not  be  superfluous  to  draw 
attention  to  the  fact  that  hypnotism  has  not  remained  without 
influence  on  our  daily  speech.  When  we  say  that  a  man  seems 
"  hypnotized,"  we  mean  that  his  whole  interest  is  so  concen- 
trated on  one  point  that  he  neglects  every  other  important 
question.  Similarly  we  employ  the  word  "suggestion"  to 
describe  the  means  by  which  one  person  may  exercise  undue 
influence  over  another. 

We  thus  see  how  hypnotism  has  gained  in  significance,  how 
it  has  gradually  developed  itself  out  of  animal  magnetism,  and 
what  an  important  branch  of  modern  science  it  has  become. 
Finally,  it  would  be  an  omission  on  my  part  if  I  did  not 
mention  that  animal  magnetism,  as  distinct  from  hypnotism, 
has  retained  some  of  its  adherents  in  the  scientific  world — 
Ochorowicz,  Myers,  and  Riebet.  Naturally,  I  ignore  the 
numerous  uncritical  and  unscientific  persons  who  express  a 
belief  in  this  magnetism. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 

In  order  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  phenomena  of 
hypnotism,  it  will  be  best,  first  of  all,  to  describe  a  few  experi- 
ments. The  phenomena  will  in  this  way  be  made  more 
comprehensible  than  by  means  of  any  number  of  definitions. 

First  Experiment, — I  begin  the  experiments  with  a  young  man  of 
twenty.  I  request  him  to  seat  himself  on  a  chair,  and  give  him  a  button 
to  hold,  telling  him  to  look  at  it  fixedly.  After  three  minutes  his  eyelids 
fall;  he  tries  in  vain  to  open  his  eyes,  which  are  fast  closed;  his  hand, 
which  up  till  now  has  grasped  the  button,  drops  upon  his  knee.  In 
answer  to  my  question  as  to  how  he  feels,  he  replies  that  he  is  tired.  I 
assure  him  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  open  his  eyes.  (He  makes  vain 
efforts  to  open  them.)  I  now  say  to  him,  "  Your  hands  are  stuck  fast  to 
your  knee;  you  cannot  possibly  raise  them."  (He  raises  his  hands,  how- 
ever.) I  continue  to  converse  with  him;  I  find  that  he  is  perfectly  con- 
scious, and  I  can  find  no  essential  change  in  him  whatever.  I  raise  his 
right  arm;  directly  I  let  go  he  drops  it  as  he  pleases.  Upon  which  I  blow 
upon  his  eyes,  which  open  at  once,  and  he  is  in  the  same  state  as  before 
the  experiment.     The  young  man  remembers  all  that  I  have  said  to  him. 

The  only  striking  thing  is,  therefore,  that  he  could  not  open 
his  eyes,  and  that  he  felt  a  certain  degree  of  fatigue. 

Second  Experiment. — This  is  a  woman  of  fifty-three.     When  she  has 
seated  herself  on  a  chair  I  place  myself  before  her;   I  raise  my  hands  and 
move  them  downwards,  with  the  palms  towards  her,  from  the  top  of  the 
head  to  about  the  pit  of  the  stomach.     I  hold  my  hands  so  that  they  may 
not  touch  her,  at  a  distance  of  from  two  to  four  centimetres.     As  soon  as 
my  hands  come  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  stroke  1  carry  them  in  a  wide 
sweep  with  outspread  arms  up  over  the  subject's  head.     I  then  repeat 
exactly  the  same  movements — that  is,  passes  from  above  downwards,  close 
to  the  body,  and  continue  this  for  about  ten  minutes.     At  the  end  of  this 
time  the  subject  is  sitting  with  closed  eyes,  breathing  deeply  and  peace- 
fully.    When  I  ask  her  to  raise  her  arms,  she  raises  them  only  slightly ; 
they  then  fall  down  again  heavily.     When  I  ask  her  how  she  feels,  she 
explains  she  is  very  tired.     I  forbid  her  to  open  her  eyes.     (She  makes 
useless  attempts  to  open  them.)     Now  I  lift  up  her  right  arm;  it  remains 
in  the  air  even  after  I  have  let  go.     I  command  her  to  drop  her  arm.     She 
drops  it.     I  lift  it  again,  and  again  it  remains  in  the  air;  upon  which   I 
request  her  to  drop  her  arm,  declaring  at  the  same  time  that  she  cannot  do 

34 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  35 

it.  She  now  makes  vain  efforts  to  drop  her  arm,  but  it  remains  in  the 
air.  The  same  thing  happens  with  the  other  arm;  when  I  forbid  her  she 
is  unable  to  drop  it.  She  cannot  pronounce  her  own  name  directly  I  have 
assured  her  she  is  dumb.  She  only  makes  movements  with  her  mouth, 
without  producing  any  sound.  I  tell  her  now  she  can  speak.  She  speaks 
at  once.  I  say  to  her,  **  You  hear  music."  The  woman  shakes  her  head 
to  show  she  hears  r\o  music.  I  wake  her  by  passes  from  below,  upwards, 
over  the  surface  of  her  body,  turning  the  back  of  my  hand  towards  her. 
She  opens  her  eyes,  and  can  control  her  movements  as  before  the  ex- 
periment. 

We  see  here,  then,  that  not  only  are  the  eyes  closed  during 
hypnosis,  but  that  all  sorts  of  different  movements  become 
impossible  to  the  subject  when  I  forbid  them. 

Third  Experiment, — Here  is  a  boy  of  sixteen,  whom  I  have  hypnotized 
several  times.  I  request  him  to  look  me  straight  in  the  eyes.  After  he 
has  done  this  for  some  time  I  take  him  by  the  hand  and  draw  him  along 
with  me.  Then  I  let  go,  but  our  eyes  remain  fixed  on  each  other's.  Then 
I  lift  up  my  right  arm.  (The  boy  does  the  same. )  I  make  him  under- 
stand by  a  gesture  that  he  must  kneel  down.  (He  does  so.)  He  tries  to 
rise,  but  does  not  succeed  so  long  as  I  look  at  him,  and  fix  him  to  the  floor 
by  a  movement  of  the  hand.  Finally,  I  cease  to  look  at  him;  the  charm  is 
at  once  broken. 

We  see  here,  then,  a  young  man  whose  movements  take  the 
character  of  imitation,  and  whose  eyes  at  the  same  time  are 
wide  open  and  fixed  upon  mine. 

Fourth  Experiment, — Mr.  X.,  forty-one  years  old,  seats  himself  on  a 
chair.  I  tell  him  he  must  try  to  sleep.  "  Think  of  nothing  but  that  you 
are  to  go  to  sleep."  After  some  seconds  I  continue :  **Now  your  eyelids 
are  beginning  to  close ;  your  eyes  are  growing  more  and  more  fatigued ; 
the  lids  quiver  more  and  more,  and  get  gradually  closer.  You  feel  tired 
all  over;  your  arms  go  to  sleep;  your  legs  grow  tired ;  a  feeling  of  heavi- 
ness and  the  desire  for  sleep  take  possession  of  your  whole  body.  Your 
eyes  close ;  your  head  feels  duller;  your  thoughts  grow  more  and  more  con- 
fused. Now  you  can  no  longer  resist;  now  your  eyelids  are  closed. 
Sleep."  After  the  eyelids  have  cid&ed  I  ask  him  if  he  can  open  them. 
(He  tries  to  do  so,  but  they  are  too  heavy.)  I  raise  his  left  arm  in  the  air. 
(It  remains  in  the  air,  and  cannot  be  brought  down  in  spite  of  all  his 
efforts.)  I  ask  him  if  he  is  asleep.  "Yes."  "Fast  asleep?"  "Yes." 
"Do  you  hear  the  canary  singing?"  "Yes."  "Do  you  hear  the 
concert?"  "Certainly."  Upon  this  I  take  up  a  black  cloth  and  put  it 
into  his  hand.  "You  feel  this  dog  quite  plainly?"  "Quite  plainly." 
"  Now  you  can  open  your  eyes.  You  will  see  the  dog  clearly.  Then  you 
will  go  to  sleep  again,  and  not  wake  till  I  tell  you.  (He  opens  his  eyes, 
looks  at  the  imaginary  dog  and  strokes  it. )  I  take  the  cloth  out  of  his 
hand  and  lay  it  on  the  floor.  (He  stands  up  and  reaches  out  for  it.) 
Although  he  is  in  my  room,  when  I  tell  him  he  is  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens  he  believes  it,  and  sees  trees,  the  water,  the  children  playing, 
and  so  on. 


36  HYPNOTISM. 

We  have  here  a  case  in  which  a  man  is  thrown  into  the 
hypnotic  state  by  my  arousing  in  his  mind  an  image  of  the 
sleep.  This  manner  of  hypnotizing  was  introduced  by  the 
Nancy  school  of  investigators,  and  may  be  termed  the  method 
of  Nancy.  It  is  not  only  possible  in  his  case  to  prevent  the 
most  various  movements  by  a  mere  prohibition,  but  I  can  also 
control  his  sense-perceptions.  On  my  assurance  he  thinks  he 
hears  a  canary,  or  hears  music.  He  takes  a  black  cloth  for  a 
dog,  and  believes  himself  to  be  in  the  Zoological  Gardens 
when  he  is  in  my  room. 

But  the  following  phenomenon  is  still  more  striking.  X. 
hears  all  that  I  say  to  him,  and  allows  himself  to  be  influenced 
by  me  in  every  way.  Yet  two  other  men,  A.  and  B.,  who  are 
present,  appear  not  to  be  observed  by  the  hypnotic  at  all.  A. 
lifts  up  the  arm  of  the  subject;  the  arm  falls  loosely  down,  and 
when  A.  desires  the  arm  to  remain  in  the  air  the  subject  takes 
no  notice.  He  obeys  my  orders  only,  and  is  en  rapport  with 
me  only.  In  order  to  wake  him  I  now  call  to  him  :  "  Wake 
up !"  He  wakes  up  at  once,  but  only  remembers  going  to 
sleep;  of  what  happened  during  the  sleep  he  knows  nothing. 

Fifth  Experiment. — The  woman  seated  on  the  chair  is  thirty  years  of 
age.  She  is  highly  hysterical.  Directly  she  stares  intently  at  any  glittering 
object,  and  I  at  the  same  time  speak  to  her  as  I  did  to  X.  in  the  last 
experiment,  she  falls  into  a  kind  of  sleep.  Her  eyes  close,  and  she  sits 
there  in  an  apparently  passive  condition.  When  called  upon  to  open  her 
eyes,  she  attempts  to,  but  cannot  so  long  as  I  assure  her  it  is  impossible 
for  her  so  to  do.  I  suggest  that  she  is  on  board  ship.  (The  suggestion 
takes  effect  and  she  immediately  feels  unwell;  she  declares  she  is  sea-sick.) 
I  let  her  sit  still  for  a  few  seconds,  when  she  suddenly  jumps  up  and  asserts 
that  fire  has  broken  out.  She  can  only  be  calmed  with  difficulty.  Her 
breathing  is  very  rapid,  and  every  expression  of  her  features  betokens 
dread  of  the  fire.  It  is  not  possible  to  explain  how  she  came  by  this  idea, 
as  nothing  leading  to  it  was  said  to  her.  You  will  observe  that  although 
the  patient  has  hardly  recovered  from  a  state  of  abject  fear,  her  face  now 
assumes  a  look  of  contentment ;  she  begins  to  laugh,  and  when  asked  the 
cause  of  her  hilarity,  explains  that  a  tramcar  has  just  passed,  and  it  was  so 
funny  to  see  an  elegantly  dressed  gentleman  stumble  in  the  mud.  It  is 
anything  but  easy  to  free  the  patient  from  auto-suggestive  influence,  and  it 
has  cost  me  much  time  and  trouble  to  bring  her  into  a  state  of  quiet,  and 
apparently  dreamless,  sleep.  I  now  ask  her  to  wake  up,  but  she  declares 
that  she  is  terribly  tired  and  does  not  want  to  wake  up  yet.  Further 
remarks  addressed  to  her  lead  to  her  opening  her  eyes,  at  first  partially, 
then  completely.  She  was  told  that  on  awaking  she  would  be  quiet, 
cheerful,  and  contented ;  nevertheless  she  gives  one  the  impression  of  being 
exhausted  and  worn  out.  Her  eyes  close;  she  sleeps  again;  it  takes  an 
hour  before  she  is  thoroughly  awake  and  free  from  lassitude.  She  only 
complains  that  her  head  troubles  her. 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  37 

We  have  here  a  case  of  hypnosis  in  which  auto-suggestion 
plays  an  important  part.  It  is  true  that  the  woman  resembles 
X.  of  the  previous  experiment  in  that  she  can  be  influenced  by 
suggestion;  but  left  to  herself,  even  for  only  a  short  time,  auto- 
suggestion exerts  itself  and  produces  the  scenes  we  have 
witnessed.  Also,  it  is  to  be  noticed,  that  the  woman  cannot 
be  so  speedily  and  surely  awakened  as  in  the  case  of  X. 
Further,  on  waking,  the  woman  does  not  feel  quite  well,  and 
it  takes  considerable  trouble  to  efface  the  phenomena  set  up  by 
hypnosis. 

I  interrupt  here  for  a  time  the  description  of  the  experiments; 
I  shall  describe  others  in  the  course  of  this  work,  and  shall 
occasionally  return  to  those  already  depicted.  To  sum  up,  in 
all  these  experiments,  however  different  they  might  be,  the 
voluntary  movements  were  always  inhibited,  that  in  the  last 
two  cases  hallucinations  of  the  senses  could  be  induced,  and 
that  it  was  possible  for  me  in  all  cases  to  converse  with  the 
subject,  and  we  could  understand  each  other.  I  wished  to  bring 
forward  these  examples  in  order  that  the  reader  might  under- 
stand to  a  certain  extent,  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  living 
subjects,  what  different  states  are  included  in  the  idea  of 
hypnosis — how  those  states  are  induced  and  how  terminated. 
The  experiments  described  above  are  typical;  they  can  be 
reproduced  by  any  one  who  knows  how  to  experiment  correctly. 

At  the  conclusion  of  these  experiments  I  add  a  short  termin- 
ology, which,  however,  is  by  no  means  complete,  as  some 
particular  ideas  can  only  be  made  clear  in  the  further  course  of 
the  work. 

By  hypnosis  I  mean  the  state  into  which  the  subjects  were 
thrown  during  the  experiments  described  above. 

Hypnotism  is  not,  as  Braid  defined  it,  the  name  of  the  state 
itself,  but  of  the  whole  science  which  deals  with  the  pheno- 
mena of  this  state. 

A  person  in  the  hypnotic  state  is  called  a  hypnotic^  or  subject 

A  hypnotist  is  a  man  who  hypnotizes  for  scientific  purposes. 
A  hypnotizer  is  a  man  who  makes  hypnotism  a  profession. 

Hypnosigenesis  is  the  technical  term  for  the  act  of  inducing 
hypnosis.  Hypnosigen  is  the  means  employed.  Hypnogen, 
a  term  frequently  used,  only  leads  to  confusion.  It  is  derived 
from  vTTv^xr — sleep — and  is  often  used  for  "  sleep-producing." 
Hypnosigen  is  derived  from  hypnosis. 


38  HYPNOTISM. 

The  different  commands  which  are  given  to  the  subjects  in 
the  experiments  described,  the  prompting  and  persuasion,  are 
called  suggestion,  I  shall  use  the  phrase  "  to  suggest "  for  the 
giving  of  these  hints  and  promptings.  If  the  suggestion  takes 
effect  it  is  said,  from  the  point  of  view  of  hypnotism,  that  the 
subject  is  under  the  influence  of  suggestion. 

As  is  often  the  case  in  other  branches  of  science,  the 
terminology  of  hypnotism  is  very  defective.  Preyer  pointed 
this  out  long  ago.  Many  terms,  such  as  post-hypnotic,  are 
hybrids,  and  have  been  justly  condemned.  The  second 
Congress  of  Hypnotists,  held  in  Paris  in  1900,  appointed  a 
committee  to  devise  a  sound  terminology.  Oskar  Vogt  was  a 
member.  The  work  of  the  committee  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  over-fruitful,  for  Dr.  Vogt  tells  me  that  although  five 
years  have  elapsed  since  its  constitution  he  has  failed  to  hear 
anything  of  it 

There  are  several  methods  of  inducing  hypnosis,  as  can  be 
gathered  from  the  above  examples.  In  order  to  make  a 
systematic  survey,  we  divide  these  methods  into  two  groups — 
the  mental  and  the  physical. 

The  mental  methods  induce  hypnosis  by  giving  a  particular 
direction  to  the  subject's  imagination ;  this  is  done  either  by 
concentrating  the  attention  on  an  arbitrary  point  (Braid),  or  by 
raising  an  image  of  the  hypnotic  state  in  a  patient's  mind. 
The  latter  is  most  easily  done  by  speech,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  fourth  of  the  examples  given  above.  This  process 
deserves  particular  attention,  as  by  the  use  of  it  unpleasant 
accompanying  phenomena  are  more  surely  avoided.  As  a 
matter  of  course,  the  methods  are  slightly  modified  to  suit 
special  cases,  because  individual  character  plays  an  incom- 
parably larger  part  in  mental  states  than  in  ordinary  physiolo- 
gical investigations.  It  is,  of  course,  quite  possible  to  call  up 
the  image  of  the  hypnotic  state,  and  thereby  induce  hypnosis 
by  other  means  than  speech;  upon  this  fact  depends  the 
influence  of  imitation.  The  hypnotic  state  is  occasionally 
induced  by  the  mere  sight  of  others  in  that  condition,  as  well 
as  by  speech.  The  recollection  of  earlier  hypnosis  has  the 
same  effect ;  upon  this  fact  depends  the  induction  of  hypnosis 
by  means  of  letters  or  by  the  telephone  (Liegeois). 

In  many  instances  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  taking 
the  patient  by  surprise  (Sperling,  Forel,  Eeden,  Renterghem). 


GENEIRAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  39 

Vogt  prefers  a  method  which  he  terms  fractional  hypnosis. 
This  consists  in  the  rapid  repetition  of  experiments,  allowing 
the  patient  short  intervals  in  which  to  relate  his  experiences 
and  feelings,  and  thereby  enabling  the  experimenter  to  modify 
his  procedure  if  necessary.  This  method  is  said  to  have 
greatly  increased  the  roll  of  somnambulists.  Lcewenfeld  also 
has  developed  a  particular  method  of  his  own.  The  person  to 
be  hypnotized  is  first  of  all  requested  to  keep  on  counting 
from  I  to  I  GO,  slowly  and  gently.  Lcewenfeld  then  proceeds 
to  verbal  suggestion  on  the  lines  of  the  Nancy  school,  but,  as 
a  rule,  precedes  this  by  a  brief  fixation  of  the  gaze.  He  does 
not  straightway  suggest  the  symptoms  of  fatigue  as  evinced  by 
the  eyes,  but  rather  attempts  to  bring  about  a  condition  of 
rest  and  tiredness. 

It  is  certain  that  these  mental  influences  play  a  large  part  in 
hypnosigenesis.  It  is  equally  sure  that  they  suffice  in  many 
cases  to  produce  hypnosis,  particularly  when  the  person  con- 
cerned has  already  been  hypnotized.  Many  even  consider  the 
mental  factor  as  indispensable  to  hypnosis;  they  hold  the 
opinion  that  all  the  other  methods  mentioned  below  only 
succeed  when  they  are  of  a  kind  to  call  up  the  picture  of 
hypnosis.  Yet  the  other  point  of  view  has  many  adherents,  a 
fact  which  may  easily  be  overlooked  nowadays.  Crocq,  the 
most  decided  exponent  of  the  view  that  every  case  of  hypnosis 
is  not  necessarily  the  result  of  suggestion,  supports  this  con- 
tention on  the  corroborative  opinions  of  many  other  investi- 
gators, among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Charcot,  Richer, 
Pitres,  Boirac,  Sanchez  Herrero,  Marot,  Azam,  A.  Voisin, 
Beaunis,  Bremaud,  Lajoie,  David,  and  others. 

Faria  formerly  made  use  of  a  mental  method  to  obtain  hypnosis.  After 
he  had  strained  the  attention  of  the  subject  as  much  as  possible  he  called 
out  suddenly,  **DormezI"  ("Sleep!").  Li^beault  substantially  de- 
veloped and  completed  this  process ;  Bernheim  made  it  more  universally 
known. 

Here  also  belongs  auto-hypnosis,  or  self-hypnosis.  In  this 
the  idea  of  hypnosis  is  not  aroused  by  another  person  (hetero* 
hypnosis),  but  the  subject  generates  the  image  himself,  either 
voluntarily  or  involuntarily.  Just  as  the  will  is  otherwise  able 
to  produce  particular  thoughts,  so  it  can  allow  the  idea  of 
hypnosis  to  become  so  powerful  that  finally  hypnosis  is 
induced;    this  is,  however,  rare.      Hypnosis  generally  takes 


40  HYPNOTISM.       . 

place  in  consequence  of  some  incident  by  means  of  which  the 
idea  of  hypnosis  is  induced;  this  often  happens  when  the 
subject  has  been  frequently  hypnotized.  Certainly  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  make  a  sharp  distinction  between  auto- 
hypnotism  and  hetero-hypnosis.  It  is  possible  that  some 
states  of  sleep  which  are  generally  considered  pathological, 
belong  to  auto-hypnosis. 

I  will  now  speak  of  the  physical  means,  which  for  a  long 
lime  were  the  only  ones  used.  They  consist  of  certain  stimuli 
of  sight,  hearing,  and  touch.  Taste  and  smell  (Binet,  Ferd) 
have  rarely  been  tried,  and  have  generally  given  negative 
results. 

The  best  known  is  the  so-called  method  of  Braid,  in  which 
hypnosis  is  caused  by  a  fixed  gaze  at  some  object  or  other. 
It  is  of  little  consequence  whether  the  object  is  bright  or  not 
(Gigot-Suard,  Durand  de  Gros).  Later,  Braid  gave  up  placing 
the  object  so  close  as  to  cause  convergence.  It  is  considered 
advantageous  to  hold  the  object  so  high  that  the  eyelids  are 
strained  as  much  as  possible  in  keeping  the  eyes  open.  Instead 
of  a  lifeless  object,  the  experimenter  can  make  use  of  his  finger 
for  the  purpose,  or,  as  the  professional  magnetizers  prefer  to 
do,  of  his  eye  (du  Potet). 

Luys  proposed  the  use  of  a  rapidly  revolving  mirror,  in  order  to  produce 
speedy  and  extreme  fatigue  of  the  eye.  Lemoine,  Joire,  and  others  have 
pointed  out  that  Luys's  method  enables  us  to  hypnotize  some  hysterical 
and  mentally  afflicted  patients,  in  whom  hypnosis  cannot  otherwise  be 
induced.  The  original  apparatus  designed  by  Luys  has  since  been 
subjected  to  many  modifications,  more  especially  at  the  hands  of  Berillon 
and  Pau  de  Saint- Martin.  Berillon  states  in  his  brochure  on  the  Psycho- 
Physiological  Institute  of  Paris  that  he  has  exhibited  various  other 
instruments  designed  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  hypnosis,  such  as  that  of 
Ch.  Verdin ;  also,  Aubry's  magnesium  lamp  and  Gaiffe's  Casque  vibrant. 
Bellemaniere  introduced  a  further  modification  by  means  of  which  sight 
and  hearing  could  be  stimulated  simultaneously. 

Just  the  same  effect  can  be  produced  by  hearing  as  by 
sight ;  for  this  the  ticking  of  a  watch  is  preferred  (Weinhold, 
Heidenhain).  Among  uncivilized  races  particular  instruments 
are  used  to  produce  analogous  states ;  for  example,  the  sound 
of  a  magic  drum  among  the  Lapps;  among  other  races  the 
monotony  of  uniform  rhythm  in  song  (Bastian).  Instead  of 
these  continuous,  monotonous,  weak  stimulations  of  the 
senses,  we  also  see  sudden  and  violent  ones  made  use  of; 
for  example,  in  the  Salpetriere,  the  field  of  Charcot's  work,  the 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  4 1 

loud  noise  of  a  gong  or  a  sudden  ray  of  the  Drummond  light. 
However,  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  these  sudden 
strong  physical  stimuli,  without  any  mental  effort,  can  induce 
true  hypnosis.  Perhaps  we  have  here  to  do  with  states  in 
which  paralysis  from  fright  is  intermixed  with  hypnosis;  at 
least,  subjects  thus  hypnotized  often  wear  an  expression  of 
fear  (Richer).  The  effect  can  also  be  produced  through  the 
sense  of  touch,  even  by  a  gentle  stroking  of  the  skin,  or  by 
pressure  upon  it.  We  know  that  Celsus  was  acquainted  with 
this  latter  fact.  Some  have  also  sought  to  induce  hypnosis 
by  the  stimulus  of  heat— ^.^.,  warm  plates  of  metal  (Berger). 

I  here  mention  in  particular  the  so-called  mesmeric,  mes- 
merizing, or  magnetic  passes,  upon  which  Riebet  sets  great 
value.  I  have  already  shown  and  described  above,  in  the 
second  experiment,  how  they  are  made.  It  is  not  certain 
whether  the  stimulation  of  temperature,  as  Heidenhain  and 
Berger  suppose,  or  the  slight  motion  of  the  air,  or  the  mental 
influence,  is  the  efficient  agent  in  this  case.  I  myself  consider 
it  most  likely  that  the  various  agencies  combine,  but  that  the 
mental  factor  is  the  most  important  It  is  not  necessary  to 
assume  the  existence  of  any  peculiar  force,  such  as  the 
magnetic  fluid  of  the  mesmerist. 

I  may  here  mention  that  the  method  of  so-called  "mesmeric  passes" 
was  not  used  by  Mesmer;  it  is  true  that  he  endeavoured  to  influence  by 
touch,  but  these  peculiar,  monotonous,  long- continued  passes  which  I 
have  described  above  were  unknown  to  him. 

Pitres  maintains  that  certain  portions  of  the  body  are 
particularly  sensitive  to  stimulation  of  the  skin.  The  zones 
hypnoghus  described  by  him  sometimes  exist  only  on  one 
side  of  the  body,  sometimes  on  both.  Stimuli  applied  to 
them  are  said  to  produce  hypnosis  in  certain  persons,  as  is 
indeed  maintained  of  other  parts.  Among  these  parts  of  the 
body  the  crown  of  the  head,  the  root  of  the  nose,  the  elbows 
and  the  thumbs  are  mentioned.  Crocq,  of  Brussels,  is  in 
agreement  with  Pitres  as  to  the  ** zones";  but  he  says  he  has 
found  other  spots  which  vary  with  the  individual.  Crocq 
thinks  that  this  enables  him  to  eliminate  "  suggestion." 

According  to  Chambord  and  I^borde  a  gentle  scratching  of  the  skin  of 
the  neck  induces  hypnosis.  I  myself  have  seen  many  persons  who 
maintained  that  they  became  hypnotized  only  when  I  touched  their  fore- 
heads.    It  is  often  stated  that  touches  on  the  forehead  induce  a  peculiar 


42  HYPNOTISM. 

sleepy  condition  in  many  persons  (Purkinje,  Spitla).  An  Englishman 
named  Catlow  magnetized  by  means  of  gentle  stroking  of  the  forehead 
( Bäumler).  I  also  know  some  persons  who,  in  order  to  go  to  sleep  more 
easily,  cause  other  parts  of  the  body  to  be  gently  stimulated — the  head,  or 
soles  of  the  feet,  for  example.  Eulenburg  maintains  that  pressure  on  the 
cervical  vertebrae  induces  hypnosis.  Boyd  asserts  that  he  once  saw 
hypnosis  induced  by  the  introduction  of  a  catheter  into  the  male  urethra  ; 
this  was,  of  course,  only  a  case  of  drowsiness  in  which  sleep  supervened 
later  on.  Herzog,  commenting  on  Boyd's  statement,  has  very  properly 
pointed  out  that  there  could  be  no  question  of  hypnosis  in  the  case,  which 
he  explains  as  I  have  done.  Petersen  includes  ihe  ovaries  in  the  hypnosi- 
genetic  zones. 

Finally,  I  mention  the  action  of  the  electric  battery,  whose 
influence,  according  to  Weinhold,  has  the  same  effect  as 
mesmeric  passes ;  but  Weinhold,  however,  does  not  consider 
that  mental  influences  are  in  this  case  excluded.  Eulenburg 
obtained  a  lethargic  condition  by  galvanizing  the  head;  but 
the  person  experimented  on  had  already  had  attacks  of 
lethargy.  More  recently  Harrison  Low  states  that  he  has 
seen  hypnosis  induced  by  the  Röntgen  rays.  But  we  are 
justified  in  assuming  that  in  all  these  cases  in  which  hypnosis 
is  supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  the  means  just  mentioned, 
the  hypnosis  has  only  come  on  because  the  subject  believed 
that  the  means  employed  induced  hypnosis.  Hirt  often  uses 
electricity  in  this  way,  but  it  is  at  the  same  time  perfectly 
certain  that  it  is  not  the  electricity,  but  the  subject's  belief  in 
its  effect,  that  produces  the  hypnosis. 

To  conclude,  I  further  mention  stimulations  of  the 
muscular  sense,  such  as  the  cradle-rocking  used  to  send  little 
children  to  sleep;  I  leave  on  one  side  the  question  as  to 
whether  hypnosis  can  be  attained  by  this  means.  Similar 
states  are  said  to  be  produced  among  uncivilized  people  by 
violent  whirling  or  dancing  movements :  the  movements  are, 
however,  accompanied  by  music  and  other  mental  excitations. 
The  best  known  are  the  Aissaouas,  in  Algiers  (Figuier,  Bert, 
Delphin).  "They  carry  on  their  business  chiefly  in  the 
Algerian  town  of  Constantine.  They  are  able  by  means  of 
dancing  and  singing  to  throw  themselves  into  a  state  of 
ecstasy  difficult  to  describe,  in  which  their  bodies  seem  to  be 
insensible  even  to  severe  wounds.  They  run  pointed  iron  into 
their  heads,  eyes,  necks,  and  breasts,  without  injuring  them- 
selves" (Hellwald).  The  same  thing  is  related  of  the 
Buddhist  convents  in  Thibet  (Hellwald,   Gabriel  Hue).      It 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  43 

has  often  been  pointed  out  that  the  monotonous  singing  and 
uniform  whirling  movements  of  the  dervishes  induce  hypnosis 
in  the  performers.  I  have,  however,  myself  often  watched  the 
howling  and  dancing  dervishes  at  Cairo  and  Constantinople 
without  being  able  to  detect  any  indication  of  hypnosis. 

I  have  hitherto  only  spoken  of  sense-stimuli  among  the 
physical  methods.  But  it  must  also  be  mentioned  that  the 
absence  of  these  stimuli  is  likewise  specified  as  an  expedient 
for  hypnosigenesis.  Jendrässik,  of  Buda-Pesth,  expresses  the 
opinion  that  fixed  attention  is  only  effective  because  it  causes 
fatigue  of  the  nerves  of  sight,  and  consequently  produces 
insensibility  to  stimulation.  Strümpell  observed  a  case  in 
which  a  person  fell  asleep  immediately  on  the  cessation  of 
sense-stimulation.  A  case  of  Ballet's,  in  which  sleep  and 
suggestibility  were  induced  by  closing  the  eyes  and  stopping 
the  ears,  probably  belongs  to  the  domain  of  hypnosis  induced 
by  suggestion ;  and  I  think  that  the  same  is  true  of  the 
method  described  by  Hartenberg  in  Paris,  in  1900,  by  means 
of  which  hypnosis  is  supposed  to  be  induced  without  sug- 
gestion being  called  int(>  play.  Hartenberg  lets  the  patient 
be  comfortably  seated,  and  then  applies  one  electrode  to  his 
forehead  and  the  other  to  his  chest.  The  faradic  current  is 
then  started,  but  without  including  the  patient  in  the  circuit. 
The  subject  is  then  told  to  take  deep  inspirations,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  concentrate  his  whole  attention  on  his  breathing ; 
as  soon  as  he  begins  to  blink  the  experimenter  closes  his 
eyelids.  All  these  details  of  the  procedure — the  enforced  rest, 
relaxation  of  the  muscles,  the  closing  of  the  eyes,  the  mono- 
tonous tapping  of  the  induction  hammer,  but  more  particularly 
the  deep  inspirations  are  intended  to  induce  hypnotic  sleep 
without  the  aid  of  suggestion.  As  far  as  the  deep  inspirations 
are  concerned,  Hartenberg  considers  that  they  set  up  a  certain 
amount  of  hypersemia  of  the  thoracic  viscera  with  concomitant 
cerebral  anaemia,  which  latter  promotes  the  onset  of  sleep. 
Although  Hartenberg  avoids  using  the  words  sleep  and 
hypnosis,  the  action  of  suggestion  is  not  excluded  from  his 
procedure,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  considerations  given 
below. 

The  classification  of  hypnogenetic  expedients  into  psychical 
and  physical  is  merely  theoretical  (Forel,  Levillain),  and  that 
for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  we  cannot  regard  body 
and  mind  as  two  factors  which  are  independent  of  one  another. 


44  HYPNOTISM. 

Sense-Stimuli,  which  affect  the  body,  nearly  always  exercise  a 
certain  influence  on  the  mind;  tlie  mind,  on  the  other  hand, 
can  act  upon  nothing  that  has  not  previously  entered  it  by 
means  of  the  organs  of  sense.  In  the  second  place,  in  practice 
several  hypnosigenetic  processes  are  used  at  the  same  time. 
This  will  become  perfectly  clear  if  the  hypnotized  person  is 
watched;  let  him  be  told  that  he  must  concentrate  his  whole 
attention  on  the  idea  of  sleep,  and  he  will  then,  in  order  to 
obey  the  command,  look  steadily  at  some  point,  or  at  once 
shut  his  eyes,  in  order  as  much  as  possible  to  prevent  distrac- 
tion of  thought. 

Thus  Bernheim  occasionally  uses  fixed  attention  in  addition  to  the 
mental  methods.  Braid,  again,  who  made  use  of  fixation  almost  entirely, 
considered  a  particular  mental  activity  also  necessary.  This  is  to  be 
particularly  noticed,  because  some  people  nowadays  believe  that  they  are 
using  the  method  of  Braid  when  they  tell  the  subject  to  look  steadily  at 
something.  In  reality.  Braid  considered  a  steady  attention  as  well  as 
a  steady  gaze  indispensable  if  hypnosis  were  to  be  attained ;  the  subject 
must  think  steadily  of  the  thing  he  was  looking  at,  and  must  not  allow 
himself  to  be  diverted  from  it.  According  to  Braid,  one  can  hypnotize 
even  in  the  dark. 

But  even  theoretically  we  cannot  always  keep  these  things 
apart.  Closing  of  the  eyes,  with  perhaps  slight  pressure  upon 
them,  often  leads,  as  Lasegiie  showed,  to  hypnotic  states. 
How  these  come  about,  whether  through  the  cessation  of  the 
sense-stimulation  or  through  the  idea  of  sleep,  which  the 
closing  of  the  eyes  certainly  easily  calls  up,  cannot  be  decided. 

After  these  details,  the  much  discussed  and  disputed  question 
must  be  answered,  whether  a  person  can  be  hypnotized  with- 
out his  knowledge ;  whether  any  one  can  be  thrown  into  the 
hypnotic  state  merely  by  sense-stimuli,  without  these  arousing  an 
image  of  the  hypnosis.  For  a  long  time  such  an  occurrence  was 
held  to  be  possible,  until  the  Nancy  school  demonstrated  an 
important  source  of  error — viz.,  the  possibility  that  suggestion 
may  be  used  quite  inadvertently.  At  ail  events  I  know  of  no 
well-authenticated  case  in  which  sense-stimulation  has  produced 
hypnosis  by  a  purely  physiological  action.  Most  people  upon 
whom  such  experiments  are  made  know  that  an  attempt  is 
being  made  to  hypnotize  them;  they  have  been  already 
hypnotized,  and  the  stimuli  arouse  conscious  or  unconscious 
mental  images  of  the  hypnosis;  or  they  have  seen  the  same 
experiments  with  others,  or  have  heard  of  them.     Even  when 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  45 

this  is  not  the  case,  the  objection  raised  by  Bernheim  and 
Forel  remains  to  be  considered — that  the  sense-stimuli  induce 
a  feeling  of  fatigue,  and  through  this  induce  the  hypnosis. 

Which  of  the  above  methods,  or  which  combination  of  them 
is  the  best  for  practical  use,  is  a  question  the  answer  to  which 
cannot  readily  be  supplied.  When  we  find  that  Riebet  thinks 
he  can  throw  nearly  everybody  into  the  hypnotic  state  by 
means  of  mesmeric  passes,  that  Liebeault,  Bernheim,  and 
Forel  hypnotize  nearly  all  their  patients  by  the  Nancy  process, 
Vogt  by  his  fractional  method,  and  that  Braid  hypnotized  ten 
out  of  fourteen  by  means  of  fixation,  we  see  that  different 
methods  bring  about  nearly  identical  results.  From  this  it 
follows  that  the  success  or  failure  of  an  experiment  does  not 
depend  solely  on  the  external  influences  which  may  be  brought 
into  play.  The  mental  susceptibilities  of  the  individual  to  be 
experimented  on  are  of  far  greater  importance,  and  con- 
sequently in  each  individual  case  that  method  should  be 
selected  which  is  most  suited  to  the  mental  condition  of  the 
subject,  for  some  persons  appear  refractory  to  one  method 
while  another  succeeds.  I  have  found  persons  insusceptible 
to  the  use  of  fixed  attention,  or  to  the  method  of  Nancy,  while 
I  obtained  results  by  mesmeric  passes.  Evidently  this  proves 
nothing  against  mental  action,  for  many  persons  believe  they 
can  only  be  influenced  by  some  particular  process.  On  the 
other  hand,  I  have  seen  that  intense  fixity  of  gaze  sometimes 
induces  hypnosis  when  other  methods  are  useless,  perhaps 
because  the  subjective  expectation  of  the  hypnosis  is  sooner 
aroused  by  the  long,  intense  stare  than  by  verbal  orders. 

Chambard  reckons  chloroform,  ether,  etc.,  among  hyp- 
nosigenic  agents.  Certainly  many  phenomena  analogous  to 
those  of  hypnosis  have  been  observed  in  the  sleep  induced  by 
these  agents;  but  F.  Myers,  however,  considers  it  better  to 
distinguish  the  conditions  thus  produced  from  hypnosis. 
Attempts  have  recently  been  made,  more  particularly  by 
Wetterstrand  and  Schrenck-Notzing,  to  study  these  pheno- 
mena. They  conclude  that  by  chemical  substances  like 
chloroform,  morphine,  haschisch,  hypnosis  can  be  attained  in 
persons  who  are  insensitive  to  other  methods.  Farez  advocates 
the  use  of  somnoform — a  mixture  of  ethyl  chloride,  methyl 
chloride,  and  methyl  bromide — for  the  purpose  of  inducing 
narcosis,  during  which  suggestion  may  be  used.  Bernard, 
Feuillade,  and  Wiazemsky  report  good  results  from  the  use 


46  HYPNOTISM. 

of  somnoform.  It  would,  however,  be  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  cases  in  which  deep  sleep  is  first  obtained  by  the 
use  of  drugs,  and  hypnosis  from  this  condition,  as  Coste  de 
Lagrave  advises,  and  those  cases  in  which  the  hypnotic  pheno- 
mena are  primary.  I  have  myself  often  produced  hypnotic 
phenomena  with  post-hypnotic  suggestions  by  the  use  of 
chloral  hydrate. 

Stoll  has  given  detailed  accounts  of  the  connection  between  drugs  and 
suggestion  as  used  by  uncivilized  peoples.  It  is  not  my  intention  here  to 
deal  with  the  part  played  by  suggestion  in  the  therapeutic  action  of  drugs, 
but  I  must  certainly  refer  to  the  hallucinations  and  conditions  resembling 
hypnosis  which  are  set  up  by  certain  vegetable  substances.  Stoll,  in  the 
course  of  his  dispute  with  Diinschmann,  has  proved  conclusively  that  such 
vegetable  substances  do  not  necessarily  cause  a  state  of  intoxication,  but 
frequently  induce  a  condition  resembling  hypnoiis  by  an  action  which  can 
only  be  described  as  purely  suggestive.  StoU's  authority,  the  botanist 
Schinz,  told  him,  amongst  other  things,  that  when  he  smoked  Indian 
hemp  in  quantities  not  employed  by  the  natives,  he  did  not  experience  any 
toxic  effects.  On  the  other  hand,  a  puff  of  a  pipe  filled  with  hemp 
invariably  produced  such  effects  on  the  Bushmen,  driving  them  at  times  to 
distraction.  Stoll  gives  an  even  more  convincing  proof  of  his  contention : 
"Schinz  tells  me  that  when  the  supply  of  hemp  runs  short  the  Bushmen 
smoke  the  dung  of  elephants  and  antelopes,  substances  to  which  even 
Diinschmann  will  hardly  ascribe  a  toxic  action;  and  yet  the  smokers  pass 
through  the  same  phases  of  intoxication  as  when  smoking  hemp.  My 
friend  Schinz  is  therefore  equally  convinced  with  me  that  suggestion  plays 
the  chief  part  in  producing  the  symptoms  mentioned  above,  and  that 
tradition  and  a  greedy  anticipation  of  enjoying  the  hemp  are  the  active 
factors  in  inducing  the  hypnosis.''  But  the  question  still  remains,  are  we 
justified  in  referring  to  hypnosis  all  those  cases  in  which  we  find  toxic 
symptoms  accompanied  by  the  phenomena  usually  met  with  in  hypnosis? 
Somewhat  analogous  to  the  instances  mentioned  by  Schinz  and  Stoll,  are 
those  cases  in  which  patients  who  are  about  to  be  chloroformed  fall  asleep 
before  they  have  hardly  inspired  one  breath  of  the  anaesthetic. 

According  to  Landouzy,  Proust,  and  Benedikt,  the  magnet  also  has  a 
hypnotizing  action;  but  my  own  numerous  experiments  in  this  direction 
have  been  altogether  unsuccessful.  Ranschburg,  nevertheless,  opines  that 
the  magnet  is  frequently  of  value  for  inducing  hypnosis  by  suggestion ;  in 
fact,  he  regards  it  as  a  thoroughly  reliable  implement  when  used  in  this 
respect.  From  time  to  time  new  methods  of  hypnotizing  have  sprung  up, 
in  which  some  artifice  is  employed  which  seems  to  facilitate  the  induction 
of  hypnosis  in  some  cases.  Many  of  these  artificial  means  have  been 
already  described  in  the  older  literature  of  animal  magnetism,  a  study 
of  which  teaches  us  that  many  of  the  so-called  modern  discoveries  were 
well  known  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  To  this  class  belongs, 
for  instance,  the  method  of  hypnotizing  described  by  Moutin,  who  seizes 
the  finger  of  the  subject  seated  opposite  to  him,  then  presses  the  knees 
close  together,  etc.,  a  method  often  used  by  the  mesmerists  of  former 
times. 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  47 

The  waking^  from  hypnosis  (dehypnotization)  can  also  occur 
in  two  ways — through  immediate  action  on  the  imagination,  or 
through  sense-stimulation.  It  is  nearly  always  possible  to  put 
an  end  to  the  hypnosis  by  mental  means — that  is,  by  the 
command  to  wake  up  at  once,  or  to  wake  up  at  a  particular 
signal.  It  is  hardly  ever  necessary  to  use  other  means,  such 
as  forcibly  opening  the  eyes,  fanning,  sprinkling  with  water, 
excitation  by  means  of  the  faradic  current,  loud  calls,  etc. 
Just  as  the  mesmerizing  passes  induce  hypnosis,  so  the  de- 
mesmerizing  passes — as  I  used  them  in  the  second  experiment 
described  above^cause  it  to  disappear.  Even  if  the  cool 
current  of  air,  which  is  nearly  always  thereby  generated, 
expedites  the  awakening,  the  belief  of  the  subject  that  he 
must  wake  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  process.  Other 
processes  which  have  been  given,  and  which  were  supposed 
to  induce  awakening  by  physical  means,  such  as  bringing  char- 
coal near  the  patient,  have  only  a  mental  eflfect,  as  they  are 
understood  as  a  command  to  awake.  In  rare  cases  these 
artificial  means  of  awakening  do  not  succeed  quickly;  a  feeling 
of  fatigue  then  continues,  as  we  occasionally  experience  when 
waking  out  of  a  natural  sleep.  After  deep  and  long  hypnosis 
a  temporary  state  of  drowsiness  often  supervenes,  in  which 
certain  hypnotic  phenomena  continue.  The  latter  condition, 
however,  occurs  exclusively,  or  almost  exclusively,  in  the  case 
of  hysterical  patients  (cf,  p.  37). 

If  the  awakening  is  not  brought  about  by  artificial  means, 
persons  in  a  light  hypnotic  state  such  as  is  described  in  the 
first  two  experiments,  habitually  wake  of  their  own  accord 
after  'a  few  minutes,  or  even  seconds;  this  especially  happens 
when  the  continuance  of  the  state  has  not  been  expressly 
ordered.  Some  people  wake  directly  the  experimenter  leaves 
them,  as  they  then  no  longer  think  themselves  under  his 
influence.  Others  wake  of  their  own  accord  even  out  of  deep 
hypnosis  if  they  hear  an  unexpected  and  loud  noise,  or  have 
exciting  dreams.     Thus,  I  once  saw  a  grown-up  person  wake 

^  I  shaU  adhere  throughout  to  the  terms  waking,  awakening,  and 
the  waking  state.  They  have  not  yet  been  superseded  by  any  better 
expressions.  It  should  not,  however,  be  forgotten  that  hypnosis  is  not 
invariably  a  state  of  sleep.  Consequently,  when  I  speak  of  a  person 
waking  from  hypnosis,  it  must  be  understood  that  I  imply  that  an  end  has 
been  brought  to  a  state  in  which  a  possibly  conscious  person  was  unable  to 
perform  certain  actions. 


\m.  LIBRARY.  STANFORD  UNIVf 


48  HYPNOTISM. 

herself  by  screaming,  because  in  the  hypnotic  state  she  had 
believed  herself  to  be  a  little  child,  and  in  that  character  had 
begun  to  cry.  The  awakening  which  comes  about  without  any 
apparent  cause  is  remarkable  (mouvement  psychique).  The 
same  thing  is  sometimes  observed  in  natural  sleep,  especially 
at  the  beginning;  O.  Rosenbach  traces  it  to  increase  of  the 
reflexes.  Generally,  however,  the  deep  hypnoses  continue  for 
some  time  when  they  are  not  artificially  terminated.  Some- 
times many  hours  pass  before  the  subject  wakes. 

The  old  mesmerists  (du  Potet,  Lafontaine)  describe  as  a 
rare  occurrence  in  hypnotic  experiments  a  state  of  lethargy  in 
which  artificial  awakening  was  impossible.  After  some  time 
there  was  a  spontaneous  awakening,  and  no  evil  consequences 
were  to  be  observed.  Guermonprez  described  lately  how  a 
person  had  remained  three  days  in  hypnosis,  nobody  being 
able  to  wake  him.  These  incidents  have  only  been  observed 
among  hysterical  subjects.  Again,  many  of  these  cases  have 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  hypnosis — are  more  probably 
instances  of  a  state  of  lethargy.  One  thing  is  certain :  there 
can  be  no  question  of  hypnosis  when  rapport  of  any  kind  and 
all  possibility  of  suggestion  are  wanting.  Even  a  lethargic 
state  occurring  in  a  person  being  hypnotized  must  be  held  as 
something  quite  distinct  from  hypnosis.  If  we  wish  to  make 
a  rational  comparison  between  two  conditions  we  must  con- 
sider the  similarity  of  the  symptoms  they  present,  not  the 
nature  of  the  cause  which  has  produced  them. 

Who  is  hypnotizable  ?  In  order  to  settle  this  question  with- 
out hypnotic  experiments,  Ochorowicz  has  invented  a  special 
instrument — the  hypnoscope;  it  is  an  iron  magnet  in  the  form 
of  a  ring,  which  the  person  to  be  tested  puts  on  his  finger. 
Hypnotizable  persons  are  supposed  to  experience  certain 
sensations  in  the  skin  or  twitchings  of  the  muscles,  while  with 
the  insusceptible  nothing  of  the  kind  takes  place.  The  re- 
searches of  other  investigators  have  not  confirmed  this  (Ober- 
steiner,  Gessmann,  Grasset,  Bottey).  Other  signs  which  are 
supposed  to  indicate  susceptibility  to  hypnotism  I  consider 
untrustworthy. 

Neither  neurasthenia  nor  pallor,  neither  hysteria  nor  general 
feebleness  of  health,  produce  a  disposition  to  hypnosis.  Our 
ordinary  hysteria,  with  its  variable  characteristics  of  headache 
and  the  feeling  of  a  lump  in  the  throat  (globus),  combined 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  49 

with  the  general  hysterical  desire  to  be  interesting  and  to 
exaggerate  the  sufiferings  endured,  produces,  according  to  my 
experience  and  that  of  others,  no  special  disposition  to 
hypnosis.  Certainly  Charcot  held  that  hysteria  predisposed  a 
sufferer  from  that  malady  to  hypnotic  influence,  and  some 
more  recent  investigators  (Hirschlaff,  Gumpertz)  have  ex- 
pressed a  similar  opinion  with  respect  to  the  deeper  hypnotic 
state.  I  consider  such  opinions  erroneous.  The  mistaken 
notion  that  hysterical  or  nervous  patients  are  particularly  sus- 
ceptible to  hypnotism  results  from  the  fact  that  most  physicians 
have  experimented  with  them  only;  besides  which  it  is  very 
easy  to  discover  in  all  persons  something  which  may  be  ex- 
plained as  a  hysterical  symptom  if  we  only  try  to  do  so.  This 
reminds  one  of  the  hereditary  taint  which  we  so  easily  detect 
in  nearly  every  one.  If,  however,  we  consider  every  one  who 
submits  himself  to  a  hypnotic  experiment  to  be  "nervous" 
(Morand),  then,  naturally,  only  nervous  persons  can  be  put 
into  the  hypnotic  state.  In  reality,  as  Sperling  has  rightly 
pointed  out,  if  we  are  to  take  a  pathological  condition  of  the 
organism  as  a  necessary  condition  for  hypnosis,  we  shall  be 
obliged  to  conclude  that  everybody  has  a  mental  twist — is  not 
quite  right  in  the  head.  For  the  rest,  the  old  mesmerists 
(Brandis,  Lichtenstädt,  Wirth,  and  others)  maintained  that  a 
healthy  individual  could  not  be  mesmerized.  In  opposition  to 
the  assumption  that  general  weakness  is  a  predisposing  factor, 
I  may  mention  that  Hansen  always  preferred  muscular  persons 
for  his  experiments,  and  I  have  myself  hypnotized  many 
muscular  individuals,  in  some  instances  men  of  athletic 
build. 

With  regard  to  mental  aptitudes,  Forel  believes  that  every 
mentally  healthy  human  being  is  hypnotizable.  In  Liebeault's 
opinion  heredity  plays  a  great  part  in  the  disposition  to 
hypnosis.  It  is  universally  agreed  that  the  mentally  unsound, 
especially  idiots,  even  if  not  wholly  insusceptible,  are  still 
very  much  more  difficult  to  hypnotize  than  the  healthy.  How- 
ever, A.  Voisin  succeeded  in  hypnotizing  ten  per  cent,  of  the 
mentally  unsound,  by  exercising  the  necessary  patience.  But 
apart  from  this  I  do  not  believe  that  intelligence  plays  any 
important  part.  Of  course  we  are  justified  in  assuming  that 
the  dull  and  stupid  are  not  easily  influenced,  just  as  there  are 
others  who  let  their  imagination  come  into  play  on  the  slightest 
provocation.     On  the  other  hand,  I  think  that  susceptibility  to 

4 


50  HYPNOTISM. 

hypnotic  influence  should  not  be  considered  a  gauge  of  the 
patient's  intelligence.  Mental  excitement  frequently  prevents 
hypnosis.  Inhibition  is  also  often  brought  about  by  the 
subject's  urgent  desire  to  be  hypnotized.  Emotional  influences 
may  also  account  for  the  fact  that  persons  who  are  occasionally 
refractory,  at  other  times  readily  submit  to  hypnotism. 

It  is  altogether  a  mistake  to  consider  the  disposition  to 
hypnosis  a  sign  of  weakness  of  will.  Without  doubt  the 
ability  to  maintain  a  passive  state  has  a  predisposing  eflect 
This  is  why  soldiers  are  in  general  easy  to  hypnotize.  The 
ability  to  direct  one's  thoughts  in  a  particular  direction  is  also 
very  favourable.  This  ability  to  give  the  thoughts  a  certain 
prescribed  direction  is  partly  natural  capacity,  partly  a  matter 
of  habit,  and  often  an  affair  of  will  Those,  on  the  contrary, 
who  can  by  no  possibility  fix  their  attention,  who  suffer  from 
continual  absence  of  mind,  can  hardly  be  hypnotized  at  all.  It 
is  specially  among  the  nervous  that  many  of  this  class  are  to 
be  found — persons  in  whom  a  perpetual  wandering  of  the  mind 
predominates.  The  disposition  to  hypnosis  is  also  not  par- 
ticularly common  among  those  persons  who  are  otherwise  very 
impressible.  There  are  plenty  of  people  who  believe  all  that 
they  are  told,  yet  they  often  offer  a  lively  resistance  when  an 
effort  is  made  to  hypnotize  them. 

Hilger  has  attempted  to  ascertain  the  bearing  of  distinct 
mental  factors  on  the  general  susceptibility  of  the  individual 
to  hypnotic  influence.     He  hopes  by  these  means  to  deter- 
mine the  possibility,  or  otherwise,  of  hypnotizing  any  particular 
person.     Among  the  many  factors  incidental  to  the  induction 
of  hypnosis  which  Hilger  has  examined,  the  amount  of  con- 
fidence displayed  by  a  patient  in  his  doctor,  and  the  treatment 
pursued,  may  be  mentioned.     Hilger  examined  295  cases  in 
this  respect,  and  found  that  an  increase  in  confidence  was 
invariably  accompanied  by  a  rise  in  the  percentage  of  those 
persons  susceptible  to  hypnotism,  especially  where  deep  and 
rapid   hypnosis   could   be  attained.     Moreover,   he   did   not 
neglect  the  question  of  habitual  or  temporary  docility  on  the 
part  of  his  patients.     The  percentage  of  those  hypnotizable,  or 
susceptible  of  deep  hypnosis,  appears  to  have  increased  in  283 
cases  examined  by  him.     Hilger  puts  his  somnambulists  into 
three  catagories,  in  the  lowest  of  which  we  get  10.64  P^r  cent., 
in  the  second  34.07  per  cent.,  and  in  the  third  50.49  per 
cent. 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  51 

The  old  mesmerists  attempted  to  fix  on  certain  signs  as  indicative  of 
susceptibility  to  magnetic  influence.  Any  lack  in  this  respect  was  ex- 
plained on  various  grounds.  Dechambre  tells  us  how  Prince  Henry,  the 
brother  of  Frederick  the  Great,  once  came  to  Paris  and  attended  the 
seances  given  by  a  French  officer  who  indulged  in  magnetism.  Mesmer 
appeared  on  the  scene  and  proposed  to  magnetize  the  prince,  but  the  latter 
*'no  more  slept  than  "he  did  at  Friedberg  or  at  Breslau.  He  did  not  even 
experience  any  of  those  sensations  which  magnetization  is  supposed  to 
induce."  Of  course  the  ill-success  of  the  experiment  was  finally  attributed 
to  the  countervailing  influence  of  "  royal  blood.'' 

Nationality  (Ewald),  or  local  surroundings  (Brugia),  have 
no  influence  upon  susceptibility  to  hypnotism.  Forel  in 
Zürich,  Renterghem  in  Amsterdam,  and  Wetterstrand  in 
Stockholm,  have  shown  that  Teutonic  peoples  are  as  easy  to 
hypnotize  as  Latin.  Besides,  Braid's  experiences  in  London 
show  nearly  the  same  thing;  on  one  occasion  in  London,  he 
was  able  to  hypnotize  sixteen  out  of  the  eighteen  persons  he 
experimented  on.  Recently  it  has  been  pointed  out  in  many 
quarters  that  Russians  are  more  easily  hypnotized  than  any 
other  people.  At  all  events  the  fact  remains  that  susceptibility 
to  hypnosis  is  not  a  special  characteristic  of  the  Latin  races. 
It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  Ringier  and  Terrien  have  shown 
that  rural  populations  are  easily  hypnotizable. 

With  regard  to  age,  infants  under  three  years  of  age  can 
hardly  be  hypnotized  at  all,  and  even  up  to  six  years  of  age 
children  can  only  be  hypnotized  with  difficulty.  Although 
children  are  otherwise  easily  influenced,  their  thoughts  are  so 
readily  distracted  that  they  cannot  fix  their  minds  on  a  pre- 
scribed picture,  such  as  that  of  hypnosis.  Old  age  is  by  no 
means  refractory  to  hypnosis.  According  to  the  experiences 
of  the  Nancy  school,  with  which  mine  agree,  older  persons 
more  often  remember,  after  hypnosis,  all  that  has  happened 
than  do  younger  ones.  Sex  has  no  particular  influence;  it  is 
a  mistake  to  suppose  that  women  are  better  adapted  than  men} 
though  Loewenfeld  may  possibly  be  right  in  stating  that  deep 
hypnosis  is  more  easily  induced  in  woman  than  in  man. 

Besides  this,  individual  observers  (Bremaud,  Maack)  mention  some 
points  which  may  be  favourable  or  unfavourable.  Bremaud,  for  example^ 
mentions  alcohol  as  favourable,  Maack  as  unfavourable.  But  universal 
conclusions  should  not  be  drawn  from  a  few  isolated  observations.  For  the 
same  reason  I  question  the  accuracy,  of  some  of  Ringier's  statements, 
though  the  rest  of  his  remarks  are  of  great  practical  value.  According  to 
him  hypnosis  is  less  easily  induced  in  winter  than  in  summer,  because  cold 
is  supposed  to  be  unfavourable;  thus  persons  who  were  easily  hypnotized 
in  summer  became  refractory  in  winter. 


52  HYPNOTISM. 

The  frequency  with  which  an  attempt  should  be  made  on 
the  same  person  is  of  considerable  importance.     While,  accord- 
ing to  Hähnle,  only  one  person  in  ten  proves  susceptible  on 
the  first  attempt,  the  proportion  increases  with  the  frequency  of 
the  sittings.     This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  from  the  excite- 
ment shown  by  many  people  in  the  beginning.     And  as  it  is 
most  important  to  hypnosis  that  the  attention  should  not  be 
distracted,  many  people  are  first  of  all  obliged  to  learn  to  con- 
centrate their  thoughts.     I  doubt  whether  continued  attempts 
render  everybody  hypnotizable,  though  some  earnest  investi- 
gators hold  such  to  be  the  case.     I  have  myself  made  forty  or 
more  attempts  with  some  persons  without  obtaining  hypnosis. 
Perhaps  by  even  longer  continued  efforts  a  result  would  have 
been  obtained,  as  indeed  has  happened  to  me  many  times 
even  after  forty  vain  attempts.     Any  one  may  possibly  win  the 
big  prize  in  the  lottery  provided  he  lives  long  enough  and 
keeps   on   buying  fresh  tickets.      In   other  cases   the  exact 
opposite  occurs,  and  the  oftener  the  attempt  is  made,  the  less 
successful  it  is ;  by  a  process  of  auto-suggestion  a  person  per- 
suades himself  that  he  is  not  hypnotizable.     There  are  cases 
in  which  we  get  evanescent  symptoms  of  hypnosis.     Similarly, 
there  are  people  who   at  first   willingly  submit  to   hypnotic 
experiments,  but  later  on  become  intentionally  refractory  and 
thereby  exclude  the  possibility  of  being  hypnotized. 
I    Besides  these  subjective  conditions  there  are  some  objective 
ones.     Thus,  for  example,  disturbing  noises  at  the  first  experi- 
ment have  power  to '  prevent   hypnosis :    they   draw   off  the 
attention,  and  thus  interfere  with  the  mental  state  necessary  for 
hypnosis.     When  once  hypnosis  has  been  induced,  noises  are 
less   disturbing    in    subsequent    experiments.      Further,    the 
environment  of  the  subject  must  be  considered.     Any  sign  of 
mistrust  on  the  part  of  lookers-on  may  easily  spoil  the  experi- 
ment; and  it  is  well  that  the  subject  should  live,  as  it  were,  in 
an  atmosphere  of  suggestion.     It  is  well  known  that   many 
persons  can  be  speedily  hypnotized  when  the  above  conditions 
are  fulfilled,  and  that,  as  a  rule,  such  precautions  enhance  the 
possibility  of  hypnotizing  new  subjects.     Again,   the  suscep- 
tibility of  a  whole  town  or  populace  may  be  influenced  to  a 
remarkable  degree   by  the  manner  in  which  the  hypnotizer 
presents  himself  to  the  general  public.     This,  in  itself,  accounts 
for  the  great  variations  in  susceptibility  to  hypnosis  which  have 
shown  themselves  at  different  times  and  places.     It  is,  conse- 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  5^ 

quently,  not  surprising  that  on  one  occasion  ten  persons,  one 
after  the  other,  are  hypnotized,  while  on  another  occasion  ten 
other  persons  all  prove  refractory. 

Experience  and  a  knowledge  of  the  mental  conditions  of 
mankind  are  indispensable  for  the  hypnotizer,  for  he  has  to 
gauge  each  individual  subject  and  work  upon  his  susceptibilities. 
In  this  respect  practice  naturally  plays  an  important  part. 
Practice  and  a  gift  for  observation  enable  the  right  stress  to  be 
laid  at  the  right  moment  either  on  fixed  attention  or  on  the 
closing  of  the  eyes.  The  experienced  experimenter  knows  how 
to  judge  whether  it  is  best  in  any  particular  case  to  attain  his 
aim  by  speaking,  or  whether,  as  sometimes  happens,  speech 
would  be  a  hindrance,  and  the  chief  stress  would  be  best  laid 
on  mesmeric  passes,  etc.  A  person  who  is  easily  hypnotized 
can  be  hypnotized  by  any  one,  but  one  who  is  hypnotized  with 
difficulty  can  only  be  thrown  into  hypnosis  by  a  good  experi- 
menter. The  factors  which  play  a  part  in  inducing  the 
hypnosis  cannot  always  be  recognized  at  once.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  a  person  A.  can  be  hypnotized  by  B.,  while  he 
remains  refractory  to  the  efforts  of  C.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
may  happen  that  D.  can  be  influenced  by  C,  but  not  by  B. 
This  shows  that  the  influence  of  one  person  over  another 
depends  on  the  individuality  of  both.  We  find  the  same  in 
life,  in  the  relation  of  teacher  to  pupil,  and  of  pupil  to  teacher, 
in  the  reciprocal  relations  of  friends,  or  lovers. 

That  there  exists  an  individual  aptitude  for  hypnotization, 
and  for  making  the  suggestions — to  which  I  lay  no  claim — is 
certain.  It  is  true  we  must  not  think  of  this  ability  as  did  the 
older  mesmerists,  who  considered  it  a  peculiar  physical  force 
possessed  by  certain  persons.  We  must  rather  represent  this 
natural  ability  to  ourselves  as  we  do  many  others,  when  we 
have  to  do  with  particular  mental  aptitudes.  I  need  only 
remind  my  readers  of  the  preacher  who  brings  a  whole  com- 
munity under  his  influence;  of  the  doctor  whose  presence  in 
the  sick-chamber  immediately  inspires  the  patient  with  con- 
fidence; of  the  great  men  in  history,  such  as  Napoleon  I.,  the 
magic  of  whose  personal  influence  has  led  him  to  be  called  a 
great  master  in  the  art  of  suggestion.  It  is  possible  to  analyze 
some  of  the  personal  qualifications  which  confer  an  aptitude 
for  hypnotization — patience,  calm,  presence  of  mind;  others 
elude  analysis. 


54  HYPNOTISM. 

The  question  whether  hypnosis  can  be  induced  against  the 
will  of  the  subject  is  one  of  importance.     We  must  distinguish 
here  whether  the  subject  complies  with  the  prescribed  condi- 
tions or  whether  he  does  not.     If  he  does — if,  for  example,  he 
sufficiently  concentrates  his  attention — then  hypnosis  may  be 
produced  at  the  first  attempt,  even  against  the  wish  of  the 
person  experimented  .on.     However,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  a  person  who  does  not  intend  to  allow  himself  to  be  hypno- 
tized will  hardly  place  himself  in  the  necessary  mental  state ; 
he  will  fix  his  eyes,  but  will  allow  his  attention  to  wander. 
Nevertheless,  I  think  that,  granted  special  conditions,  many 
persons  can  be  hypnotized  at  the  first  attempt,  even  against 
their  will.     This  occurs  most  readily  when  the  general  surround- 
ings are  of  a  nature  calculated  to  suggest  hypnosis.     Some 
persons  can  be  speedily  hypnotized  against  their  wish,  if  only 
taken  unawares  directly  after  witnessing  a  public  exhibition  of 
hypnotism.     Heidenhain  hypnotized  soldiers  in  the  presence 
of  their  officers,   who  had  strictly  forbidden  them  to  sleep. 
Such  a  command,  coming  from  an  officer,  would  have  as  much 
effect  on  a  soldier  as  the  personal  wish  not  to  be  hypnotized. 
It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  many  people  who  have   been 
frequently  hypnotized  can  be  re-hypnotized  against  their  will. 
Post-hypnotic  suggestion,  of  which  I  shall  speak  later,  is  also 
a  means  of  sending  persons  to  sleep  against  their  wish.     There 
is  a  third  possibility — namely,  that  no  wish  should  exist  in  either 
direction.     The  conditions  necessary  for  hypnosis  may  occur 
occasionally  by  chance,  without  the  subject  being  conscious  of 
them  (Max  Dessoir).     For  example,  some  one  over  his  work 
is  obliged  to  look  fixedly  at  a  certain  point;  this  suffices  to 
induce  hypnosis  (sometimes  after  earlier  unfit  experiments) 
without  the  person  thinking  of  it.     In  this  case  the  will  is 
neither  interested  for  nor  against  it.     The  statement  of  Preyer, 
that  persons  being  photographed  sometimes   remain   sitting 
rigidly  still  after  the  taking  of  the  photograph  is  finished,  may 
be  referred  to  a  hitherto  unsuspected  hypnotic  state,  brought 
on  by  the  fixed  stare  necessary  to  the  process.     I  have  already 
mentioned  that  some  of  the  inmates  of  the  Salpetriere  in  Paris 
suddenly  fall  into  catalepsy  in  consequence  of  some  loud  un- 
expected   noise.      There    is    an    interesting    case    of   a    girl 
who  had   often   been   hypnotized   by  loud  noises,  and  who 
went  to  a  drawer  to  appropriate  some  photographs  out  of  it. 
The  casual  beating  of  a  gong  threw  her  into  a  cataleptic  state, 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  55 

SO  that  she  stood  motionless  in  the  act  of  carrying  out  her 
theft,  and  was  discovered.  Hack  Tuke  remarks  that  it  is  a  pity 
all  thieves  cannot  be  taken  as  easily. 

Certain  mysterious  and  not  altogether  credible  reports  have  recently 
reached  Europe  concerning  hypnotism  in  Japan.  It  is  said  that  the 
Japanese  have  a  special  method,  called  jiu-jitsu,  by  means  of  which 
hypnosis  is  induced.  It  is  taught  to  police  officials  and  others  in  a  special 
school  in  Yokohama.  The  details  of  the  method  are  kept  a  secret. 
According  to  these  accounts,  the  greater  the  opposition  offered  by  an  un- 
skilled person  to  the  expert  pitted  against  him,  the  more  easily  does  the  latter 
vanquish  the  former;  a  simple  touch  and  the  victim  is  paralyzed — rendered 
absolutely  helpless.  It  will  not  cause  very  much  surprise  if  we  are  pre» 
sently  told  that  the  great  military  successes  of  the  Japanese  were  due  to  their 
skill  in  the  art  of  hypnotization.  Is  it  possible  that  a  diminutive  police- 
man can,  by  means  of  a  simple  jiu-jitsu  touch,  render  a  sailor  of  colossal 
proportions  incapable  of  further  resistance  ? 

As  Bertrand  related,  with  certain  persons  natural  sleep  can 
be  transformed  into  magnetic  sleep.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  do  this  in  later  times.  Baillif,  Gscheidlen, 
Berger,  Bernheim,  Forel,  and  Manfronie,  but  more  particularly 
Farez,  have  made  such  experiments,  occasionally  employing 
the  therapeutics  of  suggestion  at  the  same  time.  Some  in- 
vestigators certainly  mention  the  suggestions  they  made  use  of 
during  the  subjects'  ordinary  sleep;  one  thing  is  certain,  natural 
sleep  can  only  be  transformed  into  the  hypnotic  state  when  the 
suggestions  are  made  in  the  manner  mentioned.  Some  of  the 
experiments  in  which  natural  sleep  was  transformed  into 
hypnosis  were  made  on  persons  who  had  never  before  been 
hypnotized,  or  who  on  previous  occasions  had  proved  refractory 
to  hypnotic  influence.  I  myself  have  been  able  to  make  some 
observations  of  this  kind.  One  person  concerned  was  a 
gentleman  whom  I  had  already  frequently  hypnotized,  and 
whom  I  often  threw  into  the  hypnotic  state  while  he  was  taking 
his  afternoon  sleep,  without  waking  him.  In  another  case  I 
succeeded  in  producing  various  movements,  as  raising  of  the 
arms,  through  slight  suggestions,  to  a  gentleman  who  was  in 
his  afternoon  sleep.  I  was  obliged  to  speak  in  a  whisper  to 
avoid  waking  him.  It  is  doubtful  whether  such  experiments 
would  succeed  with  persons  who  had  never  heard  of  hypnotism. 
Schrenck-Notzing  reports  a  case  in  which  hypnosis  «'as  produced 
from  post-epileptic  coma.  Cases  in  which  conditions  of 
hysterical  sleep  have  been  led  on  into  hypnosis  have  been 
described  by  Loewenfeld  and  others.     I  may  refer  here  to  the 


56  HYPNOTISM. 

question  already  raised,  whether  hypnotic  states  ca[n  be  pro- 
<iuced  by  chemical  substances,  such  as  chloroform,  etc. 

In  any  case,  however,  previous  consent  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  production  of  hypnosis,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  people  who  are  refractory  in  spite  of  a  decided 
wish  to  be  hypnotized.  In  general,  however,  the  intentional 
resistance  of  the  subject  hinders  hypnosis,  because  a  person 
who  is  willing  to  be  hypnotized  complies  more  easily  with  the 
necessary  conditions  than  another.  Consequently,  it  is  not 
astonishing  that  patients  who  come  to  a  doctor  on  purpose  to 
be  hypnotized,  particularly  when  they  come  with  full  con- 
fidence, are  more  easy  to  hypnotize  than  others.  These  others 
often  allow  an  attempt  to  be  made  with  them,  with  the  silent 
resolution  that  "they  are  not  to  be  caught,"  or  they  submit 
themselves,  as  Nonne  says,  "only  for  fun." 

As  so  many  different  circumstances  influence  the  induction 
of  hypnosis,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  proportion  of  hyp- 
notizable  persons  should  be  differently  stated.  If  Ewald  in  the 
Women's  Hospital  at  Berlin  can  only  hypnotize  two  persons, 
while  Liebeault  hypnotizes  92  per  cent,  of  his  patients,  the 
reason  of  this  enormous  difference  must  lie  in  the  disparity  of 
the  conditions.  The  insufficient  mental  preparation  of  Ewald's 
subjects  is  particularly  to  blame  for  his  failure.  Bottey  gives 
30  per  cent,  as  susceptible.  Otto  Binswanger  more  than  50  per 
cent,  Morselli  70  per  cent.,  and  Delboeuf  more  than  80  per 
cent.  The  latter*s  data  appear  to  me  of  great  value,  having 
been  evidently  collected  with  critical  care.  As  he  excludes 
simulators,  he  appears  to  me  more  sceptical  than  the  investi- 
gators at  Nancy.  The  highest  percentage  of  successes  w^as 
obtained  by  Vogt,  who  states  he  did  not  find  one  thoroughly 
refractory  case  in  119  subjects  experimented  on  by  him. 
Bramwell  makes  a  similar  statement  with  regard  to  a  particular 
section  of  his  patients,  Bernheim  refuses  the  right  to  judge  of 
hypnotism  to  all  hospital  doctors  who  cannot  hypnotize  at  least 
80  per  cent,  of  their  patients.     Forel  fully  agrees  with  him. 

An  international  investigation  on  aptitude  for  hypnosis  has 
been  made  by  Schrenck-Notzing,  who  applied  to  numerous 
investigators  in  various  countries — England,  Sweden,  Germany, 
France,  Algiers,  Canada,  and  Switzerland.  Among  8,705 
persons  covered  by  the  investigation,  only  6  per  cent,  were 
completely    refractory.      The   remaining   94   per  cent,    were 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  57 

divided  by  Schrenck-Notzing  into  three  groups,  according  to 
ForeFs  classification,  of  which  I  shall  soon  have  to  speak:  29 
per  cent,  attained  to  somnolence,  49  per  cent,  to  hypotaxis, 
15  per  cent,  to  somnambulism. 

The  oftener  hypnotic  experiments  are  made  the  sooner  is 
hypnosis  generally  induced.  The  first  attempt  often  takes  five 
minutes  or  more,  although  on  many  occasions  a  few  seconds 
suflßce.  When  the  experiment  has  succeeded  a  few  times,  a 
few  moments  are  nearly  always  enough  to  attain  the  result. 
This  is  because  the  remembrance  of  the  earlier  hypnosis 
esseritially  favours  its  return.  Besides  this,  the  strongest 
hindrance  has  been  overcome  by  the  earlier  hypnosis — which 
is  the  belief  of  the  subject  that  he  is  not  hypnotizable,  a  belief 
which  often  prevents  hypnosis.  The  certainty  with  which 
well-known  hypnotizers  hypnotize  people,  rests  partly  on  the 
fact  that  these  subjects  believe  that  some  hypnotizers  possess 
a  greater  aptitude  for  hypnotizing  them  than  others  do.  On  the 
other  hand,  Rosenbach  and  Eschle  go  too  far  in  their  conten- 
tion that  **the  nimbus  of  the  hypnotizer  "  is  the  essential  factor 
in  producing  hypnosis.  *'  It  is  to  the  mysticism  of  the  subject 
to  be  hypnotized,  in  the  form  of  a  naive  but  firm  belief,  and  not 
to  that  of  the  hypnotizer,  that  we  must  look  for  an  explanation 
of  the  fact  that  the  former  person  submits  to  the  influence  of 
the  latter."  This  is  Eschle's  opinion,  but  auto-hypnosis  forbids 
an  all-round  acceptance  of  this  view. 

Although  we  have  seen  that  the  disposition  to  hypnosis 
increases  the  oftener  experiments  are  made,  it  may  also  dis- 
appear when  the  experiments  have  been  discontinued  for  a  long 
time.  But  the  disposition  to  hypnosis  can  generally  be  repro- 
duced if  a  few  attempts  are  made.  Still,  I  have  seen  cases  in 
which  subjects  who  were  at  one  time  easily  hypnotized  later  on 
become  altogether  refractory,  and  for  no  apparent  reason. 
• 

From  the  above  examples  it  appears  that  the  various  hypnotic 
states  differ  much  from  one  another,  especially  where  the  depth 
of  the  hypnosis  is  concerned.  This  suggested  that  in  order  to 
obtain  a  general  survey  an  attempt  at  classification  must  be 
made. 

A  well-known  classification  is  that  of  Charcot,  who  supposes 
three  stages — the  cataleptic,  lethargic,  and  somnambulic.  I 
shall  go  into  more  details  as  to  these  later,  but  will  remark 
here   that  this  classification  has  no  universal  value.     Pitres 


S8  HYPNOTISM. 

partly  follows  Charcot,  but  accepts  so  many  different  kinds  of 
hypnotic  states  that  a  general  view  is  thereby  rendered  only  more 
difficult.  The  classification  made  by  Gurney — alert  and  deep 
stages — is  only  accurate  for  a  few  cases.  In  the  same  way 
the  three  stages  supposed  by  Riebet,  Fontan,  and  Segard  are 
not  sufficiently  well  defined  for  practical  use.  According  to 
Delbceuf,  there  are  two  stages  in  hypnosis,  one  with  and  the 
other  without  analgesia.  As,  however,  complete  insensibility 
to  pain  is  very  rare,  and  as  the  transitions  are  vague,  insensi- 
bility to  pain  does  not  seem  to  me  to  be  a  suitable  distin- 
guishing characteristic.  The  classifications  made  by  Liebeault, 
Bernheim,  and  Forel  are  well  known.  As  they  agree  in  the 
main,  only  differing  in  the  number  of  stages — according  to 
Liebeault,  6;  according  to  Bernheim,  9;  according  to  Forel, 
3, — I  shall  only  cite  that  of  Forel : — 

S/a^e  I.  Drowsiness:  the  patient  can  resist  suggestions  only 
with  great  effort. 

S/age  2.  Hypotaxy  ("ckarme"):  the  eyes  are  fast  closed 
and  cannot  be  opened;  the  subject  is  obliged  to  obey  various 
suggestions. 

Sfage  3.  Somnambulism:  it  is  characterized  by  a  loss  of 
memory  on  waking,  and  also  by  post-hypnotic  phenomena. 

The  classifications  of  Liebeault,  Forel,  and  Bernheim  rest 
chiefly  on  loss  of  memory,  as  a  particular  group  (Forers  3rd 
stage)  of  hypnotic  states  with  loss  of  memory  is  placed  in 
contrast  with  the  others  (ForeFs  ist  and  2nd  stages),  in  which 
no  amnesia  exists. 

Those  hypnotic  states  in  which  loss  of  memory  exists  are  called  somnam- 
bulism by  the  authors  above  named.  Wienholt  also  has  already  said 
that  the  magnetic  states  with  ensuing  loss  of  memory  may  be  called 
somnambulism. 

It  would  be  better,  however,  not  to  make  our  .estimate  of 
the  stages  of  hypnosis  dependent  on  loss  of  memory,  but  on 
the  phenomena  which  appear  during  the  hypnosis  itself. 
Memory  after  hypnosis  is  dependent  on  many  other  factors 
which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis.  A 
chance  view  of  any  external  object  will  suffice  to  arouse  a  whole 
chain  of  mental  images  implanted  in  the  memory;  further,  we 
shall  see  that  memory  is  influenced  by  suggestion.  Delbceuf, 
who  often  experimented  with  profound  hypnoses,  declares  that 
the  subjects  after  the  awakening  were  able  to  give  an  account 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  59 

of  all  the  hypnotic  incidents.  I  should  consequently  prefer  to 
judge  of  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis  only  from  the  phenomena 
of  the  hypnosis  itself. 

The  numerous  subdivisions  given  by  Lidbeault  and  Bernheim 
are  not  easy  to  utilize,  because  there  exists  no  uniform  principle 
for  such  classification.  For  example,  one  stage  is  distinguished 
by  the  complete  closing  of  the  eyes,  and  a  deeper  stage  by 
motor  disturbances  in  the  arms.  As  these  last,  however,  can 
also  occur  when  the  eyes  are  open,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as 
a  sign  of  the  deepening  of  the  stage  in  which  the  eyes  are  closed; 
for  in  the  deepening  all  the  phenomena  of  the  previous  and 
lighter  stages  must  appear  (Max  Dessoir). 

In  order  to  avoid  these  difficulties,  Max  Dessoir  has  published 
a  classification  of  the  stages  of  hypnosis  which  is  as  simple  as 
it  is  comprehensive  and  clear,  and  which  I  still  consider  to  be 
the  best,  just  as  I  did  many  years  ago.  According  to  this  the 
states  fall  into  two  large  groups,  which  are  divided  from  each 
other  by  the  extent  of  the  functional  disturbances.  In  the 
first  group  merely  the  voluntary  movements  show  changes; 
in  the  second  group  abnormalities  in  the  functions  of  the  sense 
organs  are  added.  The  principle  of  this  classification  was 
already  known  to  Kluge.  If  we  accept  Dessoir's  classification, 
the  minority  of  subjects  belong  to  Group  II. ;  thus,  assuming 
75  per  cent,  to  be  susceptible,  55  per  cent,  belong  to  Group  I. 
and  20  per  cent  to  Group  II.  According  to  Kron  this  latter 
percentage  is  perhaps  too  high.  He  conjectures  that  through 
practice  and  other  factors  these  figures  might  vary  considerably. 
The  results  which  Vogt  has  obtained  are  simply  marvellous — 
99  cases  of  somnambulism  in  119  subjects  experimented  on. 

It  will  be  understood  that  in  Dessoir's  two  groups  many 
stages  and  types  can  be  distinguished.  For  example,  we  see 
that  many  a  hypnotic  state  belonging  to  Group  I.  is  merely 
characterized  by  the  closing  of  the  eyes,  which  the  subject 
cannot  voluntarily  open,  as  in  the  first  experiment  (p.  34.). 
This  state  used  to  be  considered  as  a  particular  stage  of 
hypnosis,  but  according  to  the  explanation  given  above  it  takes 
its  place  as  merely  a  particular  form  of  Group  I.  It  was 
frequently  represented  as  a  particular  stage  of  hypnosis, 
because  in  many  cases  hypnosis  is  ushered  in  by  a  closing  of 
the  eyes,  while  other  muscles  are  only  affected  later  on. 
However,  this  may  be  a  pure  accident  (Max  Dessoir);  we  have 
accustomed  ourselves  more  and  more  to  induce  hypnosis  by 


6o  HYPNOTISM. 

affecting  the  eyes,  and  to  provoke  a  closing  of  them  as  quickly 
as  possible ;  but  this  is  nothing  but  a  habit,  resulting  from  the 
identification  of  hypnosis  with  sleep.  Hypnotists  exist  who 
induce  hypnosis  when  the  eyes  are  wide  open,  as  is  the 
case  in  ''fascination,"  which  will  be  discussed  later  {cf  3rd 
experiment,  p.  35).  Loewenfeld,  also,  has  elaborated  a  method 
in  which  any  effect  on  the  eyes  is  only  of  secondary  importance. 
I  myself  have  met  many  people  in  whom  it  was  impossible  to 
bring  about  any  abnormality  in  the  movements  of  the  eye, 
while  other  muscles  were  easily  affected.  For  this  reason,  I 
think  the  assertion  of  Michael  that  hypnosis  can  only  be  proved 
when  the  eyes  are  completely  closed  is  entirely  mistaken. 
Certainly  he  is  perfectly  right  when  he  says  that  we  should  not 
ascribe  to  hypnosis  the  states  of  fatigue  and  giddiness  which 
ensue  after  long  attention,  unless  other  phenomena  typical  of 
hypnosis  also  appear. 

It  is  clear  that  the  two  groups  cannot  be  sharply  divided 
from  one  another.  Also  the  transition  from  a  normal  state  to 
hypnosis  is  gradual,  and  certainly  not  so  sudden  as  some  think. 
We  find  many  stages  even  before  we  arrive  at  the  closing  of 
the  eyes,  which  certainly  does  not  indicate  a  deep  hypnosis; 
at  first  only  heaviness  of  the  eyelids,  then  a  desire  to  close 
the  eyes,  then  a  difficulty  in  opening  them,  and  finally  their 
complete  closure.  All  possible  stages  are  displayed.  Further, 
a  deep  hypnosis  is  not  always  attained  at  once;  the  light  states 
are  often  passed  through  before  the  deepest  appears.  It  is 
naturally  difficult,  through  all  these  different  transitions,  to 
decide  the  exact  moment  of  the  appearance  of  hypnosis.  A 
deep  sigh,  which  often  ushers  in  the  beginning  of  hypnosis,  is 
by  many  wrongly  considered  as  diagnostic  of  the  moment, 
particularly  as  this  symptom  is  easily  spread  by  imitation 
(Delboeuf).  The  movements  of  swallowing  which  appear, 
especially  after  long  fixation,  have  equally  little  significance. 

As  already  shown,  the  word  "  hypnosis  "  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  vttvos,  and  this  might  induce  one  to  conclude  that  the 
term  hypnosis  should  only  be  used  to  describe  a  condition 
resembling  sleep.  In  reality,  however,  the  cases  in  the  first 
group  show  no  resemblance  to  sleep  or  a  loss  of  consciousness. 
And  yet  there  is  a  very  prevalent  notion  amongst  laymen  that 
there  can  be  no  hypnosis  without  sleep  and  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, and  persons  holding  this  view  do  not  refer  the  conditions 
exhibited  by  the  first  group  to  hypnosis.     But  this  is  not  a 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  6l 

question  of  what  the  layman  thinks  or  believes;  as  Vogt  has 
rightly  pointed  out  what  may  or  may  not  be  ascribed  to 
hypnosis  can  only  be  decided  by  those  persons  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  a  critical  study  of  the  whole  subject. 
To  prevent  any  confusion  which  might  possibly  arrise  from 
the  etymological  resemblance  of  the  words  "hypnos"  and 
"hypnosis,"  it  has  been  proposed  to  distinguish  those  cases  in 
which  there  is  no  semblance  of  sleep  and  in  which  conscious- 
ness remains  normal,  from  deep  hypnosis,  by  a  distinct 
appellation.  Max  Hirsch  has  proposed  for  such  superficial 
conditions  the  term  Captivation.  Hirschlaff  also  would  like 
to  see  the  aforesaid  conditions  distinguished  from  hypnosis, 
and  terms  them  pseudo-hypnotic.  We  might  even  agree  with 
Hirschlaff  on  this  point  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  some  of 
his  theoretical  explanations  of  the  question  raise  considerable 
doubts  in  one's  mind.  It  must,  however,  be  pointed  out  that 
it  is  quite  usual  to  find  that  the  etymological  signification  of  a 
word  no  longer  covers  all  the  uses  to  which  it  was  originally 
applied,  or  that  in  time  it  gains  a  much  wider  meaning.  I 
may  refer  to  the  word  electricity,  which  now  scarcely  reminds 
any  one  of  electron,  amber.  We  need  not  stay  to  consider 
Bernheim's  somewhat  oracular  statement  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  hypnosis,  but  only  suggestion.  Pierre  Janet  has  justly 
pointed  out  that  because  there  are  many  transitions  from  the 
normal  state  to  the  hypnotic,  we  are  not  therefore  entitled  to 
say  that  there  is  no  special  condition  of  hypnosis.  A  condition 
which,  on  waking,  leaves  no  recollection  behind,  as  in  the 
fourth  case,  and  in  which  the  subject  becomes  a  mere  puppet 
in  the  hands  of  the  experimenter,  must  be  considered  a 
condition  altogether  distinct  from  the  normal. 

One  peculiar  quality  of  consciousness  we  shall  often  find  in 
hypnosis:  what  is  called  suggestibility;  or,  better,  increased 
suggestibility.  I  shall  so  often  use  the  word,  and  words 
connected  with  it,  that  it  will  be  well  to  define  exactly  what  is 
meant  by  it.  For  this  purpose  I  must  make  a  little  digression, 
remarking  at  the  same  time  that  many  works — excellent  in 
their  way — which  have  been  written  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
a  clear  definition  of  what  is  meant  by  suggestion,  will  not  be 
dealt  with  by  me  at  this  juncture;  but  I  may  as  well  mention 
the  names  of  certain  authors  in  this  connection  : — Bernheim, 
Forel,  William  Hirsch,  Bergmann,  Lipps,  Schrenck-Notzing, 
Parish,    Vogt,    Brodmann,    Loewenfeld,    Döllken,    Hellpach^ 


62  HYPNOTISM. 

Hirschlaff,  Sidis,  Bechterew.  The  works  of  these  and  other 
authors  are  valuable  from  a  psychological  point  of  view,  and  I 
shall  refer  to  them  later  on  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  the 
theory  of  hypnotism.  It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  discuss 
them  here  at  any  length,  as  my  object  is  to  arrive  at  the 
briefest  definition  of  suggestion  possible. 

Every  concept  in  human  beings  has  a  particular  action, 
which  is  to  be  recognized  by  an  external  or  internal  effect. 
For  example,  by  the  laws  of  association,  one  concept  calls  up 
another.  The  idea  of  St.  Helena  at  once  awakens  that  of 
Napoleon  I. 

This  peculiar  arousing  of  ideas  by  other  ideas  was  called  the  law  of 
suggestion  by  a  great  school  of  Scotch  psychologists  (Thomas  Brown  and 
others),  and  Paul  Janet  thinks  that  this  expression  induced  Braid  to  introduce 
the  term  "to  suggest"  for  an  analogous  phenomenon — the  suggestion 
cTatiitude  which  we  shall  discuss  later  on, — though  Brandis  used  it  earlier 
in  his  Psychische  Heiiffiitiel,  to  denote  processes  which  ideas  arouse 
during  magnetic  sleep. 

A  concept  can,  moreover,  produce  an  effect  by  arousing 
feeling;  if  any  one  thinks  of  a  dead  relative,  he  feels  grief, 
and  the  thought  of  a  joyful  event  awakens  a  feeling  of  happiness. 
Inclinations  are  called  up  in  the  same  way ;  the  idea  of  an  object 
for  which  one  has  a  great  longing  awakens  the  desire  to  possess 
it.  Sensations  can  also  be  produced  in  the  same  manner.  We 
have  an  example  in  the  itchings  which  many  persons  feel 
directly  fleas  are  talked  of.  These  ideas,  feelings,  sensations, 
and  desires,  aroused  by  another  idea,  form  internal  processes, 
which  we  recognize  by  internal  experience.  But  an  idea  can 
have  an  effect  which  displays  itself  externally — for  example, 
thoughts  call  up  certain  movements. 

Let  us  here  consider  a  proceeding  which  is  called  thought- 
reading,  which,  as  the  "  willing  game,"  was  for  a  long  time  a 
favourite  society  game  in  England  in  a  somewhat  modified 
form,  and  which  became  popular  in  Germany  through  the 
exhibitions  of  Cumberland.  A  person  A.  is  made  to  leave  the 
room  ;  among  those  who  remain,  B.  is  chosen  to  think  of  some 
object  present,  which  A.  is  to  find.  A.  comes  back,  takes  B.'s 
hand  and  demands  that  he  shall  think  steadfastly  of  the  chosen 
object ;  let  us  say  it  is  the  lamp.  B.  thinks  steadfastly  of  it, 
and  it  is  seen  that  A.  and  B.  go  together  towards  the  lamp,  till 
A.,  pointing  to  it,  says,  "That  was  the  object  thought  of." 
Simple  as  this  process — explained   by  Beard,  Gley,  Riebet, 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  63 

Oberstöiner,  Pieyer,  and  known  about  sixty  years  ago  to 
Chevreul  and  Braid — may  be^  it  appeared  enigmatical  to  many 
at  first  The  usual  explanation  of  thought-reading  is  the 
following : — B.  thinks  steadily  of  the  place  of  the  lamp,  and  has 
at  the  same  time  slight  movements  of  the  body,  and  particularly 
of  the  muscles  of  the  arm,  in  the  direction  of  the  lamp.  A. 
feels  these  muscular  moTcments  and  follows  them,  he  permits 
himself  to  be  directed  by  them,  and  in  this  way  finds  the 
object  thought  of.  B.,  naturally,  did  not  make  the  movements 
intentionally,  consequently  they  were  involuntary  and  un- 
conscious. All  the  same,  the  movements  were  strong  enough 
to  show  A.  the  way.  This  example  shows  us  the  following : — 
B.  had  a  certain  idea  (namely,  that  of  the  lamp)  in  his  head, 
and  this  concept  called  up  the  movements.  The  movement  of 
the  lips  which  occurs  where  one  thinks  intensely  of  a  word,  is 
of  analogous  character  (Strieker). 

We  see,  then,  from  the  foregoing,  that  ideas  aroused  in  us 
have  an  effect  which  sometimes  shows  itself  as  other  concepts 
(ideas,  sensations,  and  so  forth),  and  sometimes  externally  as 
movement;  in  many  cases,  perhaps  in  all,  there  is  both  an 
internal  and  an  external  effect.  What  effect  appears,  what  idea, 
what  feeling,  what  movement  will  be  induced  by  the  first 
concept,  depends  upon  the  individuality  of  the  person,  upon 
his  imagery,  upon  his  character,  his  habits,  and  upon  the  species 
of  the  concept. 

In  many  cases  a  person,  A.,  is  able  to  attain  some  particular 
effect  intended,  by  rousing  in  B.  a  definite  concept ;  and  this 
effect  is  often  obtained  independently  of  B.'s  will,  or  even  against 
it  We  see  an  example  of  this  in  a  juggler.  He  wants  to  take 
some  object  or  other  in  his  right  hand  without  being  seen  by 
the  public ;  to  attain  this  he  looks  at  another  point — for  example, 
his  left  hand.  The  eyes  of  the  spectators  involuntarily  follow 
his.  By  glancing  at  his  left  hand  the  juggler  has  caused  the 
spectators  to  look  in  the  same  direction.  He  has  aroused  in 
the  spectators  the  idea  that  something  is  going  on  in  his  left 
hand ;  and  this  idea  has  had  the  effect  of  making  the  spectators 
look  at  his  left  hand.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  the  spectator 
should  be  conscious  of  the  idea  which  is  being  impressed  on 
him.  Habit  impels  him  to  look  in  any  direction  indicated, 
without  further  consideration;  and  thus  spectators  are  often 
induced  to  look  in  the  direction  desired  by  the  jtiggler,  in  order 
that  he  may  be  able  to  change  or  hide  some  object  unobserved. 


64  HYPNOTISM. 

Naturally,  the  juggler  takes  great  care  not  to  direct  the  spectators 
to  look  in  any  particular  direction.  If  he  were  to  do  this  the 
spectators  would  discover  his  object,  and  would  not  look  at  the 
spot  which  the  juggler  wishes,  and  the  latter  would  not  attain 
his  end. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  also  cases  in  which  a  desired 
effect  is  attained  siraply  by  assuring  the  person  concerned  that 
the  effect  would  appear.     In  most  cases  he  is  able  to  present 
arbitrarily  the  appearance  of  such  an  effect;  but  not  always, 
however.      An  example  brought  forward  by  Bonniot  should 
make  this  clear.     One  says  to  a  person  who  is  embarrassed, 
'*  You  are  getting  red  in  the  face  now  ! "     It  is  well  known  that 
many  people  really  blush  when  the  conviction  that  they  are 
blushing  is  aroused  in  their  minds.     Now,  a  proceeding  of  this 
nature  is  called  a  suggestion,  and  should  enable  us  to  form  a 
conception  of  what  "suggestion"  really  means.     We  have  seen 
that  an  effect  (blushing)  has  been  produced  by  merely  suggest- 
ing the  idea  of  it.     If  we  base  our  conception  of  suggestion  on 
the  process  just  mentioned,  then  suggestion  itself  is  a  method 
of  producing  an  effect  by  calling  the  imagination  into  play. 
This  definition,  which  I   laid  down   long   ago,  considerably 
restricts  the  whole  conception  of  what  is  meant  by  suggestion, 
when  compared  with  other  definitions.     For  example,  when 
Bernheim  so  defines  suggestion  as  to  include  Vacte  par  lequel 
une  idee  est  introduiie  dans  le  cerveau  et  acceptie  par  iut\  we 
cannot  under  any  circumstances  in  the  present  day  accept  such 
a  wide  concept.     Other  authors  also,  such  as  Berillon,  go  much 
too  far  in  their  definition  of  suggestion :  according  to  them  we 
should  eventually  be  compelled  to  include  every  possible  kind 
of  influence — reason,  tuition,   enlightenment — in  our  idea  of 
suggestion.     In  spite  of  this,  Hirschlaff  objects  that  my  defini- 
tion is  much  too  wide  in  its  scope.     Hirschlaff  thinks  it  would 
include  the  source  of  many  convictions  which  are  brought  about 
in  a  perfectly  normal  manner,  and  which  have  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  the  process  of  suggestion.    "  P'or  example,  if  I  say  to 
an  acquaintance,  *Some  one  has  just  told  me  that  fire  has  broken 
out  in  your  house  during  your  absence,'  my  friend's  motor  and 
emotional  spheres  are  both  affected  by  the  conviction  which 
my  statement  has  brought  home  to  him.     But  that  is  not  a 
case  of  suggestion."     This  last  remark  is  perfectly  correct,  but 
in  nowise  contradicts  the  definition  given  above.    In  Hirschlaff's 
case  the  motor  and  emotional  results  did  not  occur  because 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  65 

external  influence  had  aroused  the  notion  that  such  results 
would  occur,  but  rather  that  the  person  in  question  was  logically 
convinced  from  previous  experience  that  what  he  had  been 
told  could  be  believed,  his  informant  having  no  interest  in 
telling  an  untruth,  being  therefore,  so  far,  trustworthy.  As 
Bechterew  also  has  insisted,  the  most  important  point  in 
suggestion  is  that  the  influence  must  be  of  a  direct  nature, 
because  it  is  not  the  Ego  of  the  subject  which  brings  about 
logical  convictions  and  the  like.  Consequently,  if  the  above 
deflnition  be  properly  interpreted,  there  is  no  necessity  to  add 
to  it.  It  must,  of  course,  be  admitted  that  misapprehensions 
are  always  possible :  this  we  have  seen  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  objections  raised  by  Hirschlaff".  Still  that  is  no  reason  why 
we  should  not  join  William  Hirsch  and  Lipps,  and  include  the 
production  of  an  effect,  even  when  the  conditions  are  inadequate, 
among  the  characteristics  of  hypnosis.  If  I  tell  a  person  on 
whose  forehead  a  fly  has  settled  that  he  feels  an  itching  in  that 
region,  and  he  does  really  experience  the  sensation,  that  is  not 
a  case  of  sViggestion.  For  here  we  have  the  adequate  condition 
— the  irritation  caused  by  the  fly.  Even  if  in  the  case  just 
stated,  the  person  concerned  were  so  lost  in  thought  that  he 
did  not  feel  the  itching  until  I  called  his  attention  to  it,  we 
should  not  be  justified  in  speaking  of  suggestion.  The  mere 
fact  of  attracting  his  attention,  coupled  with  the  irritation  caused 
by  the  fly,  would  be  quite  sufficient  to  make  him  feel  the 
itching.  Similarly  in  Hirschlafl'^s  case,  the  man's  belief  that 
fire  had  broken  out  in  his  house  was  aroused  by  conditions 
which  must  be  considered  adequate ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  he 
had  been  sitting  hypnotized  in  his  room  and  had  believed  the 
room  to  be  on  fire  because  he  was  told  that  such  was  the  case, 
the  physical  conditions  would  not  have  been  adequate.  Any- 
way, in  order  to  avoid  any  misunderstanding,  we  may  formulate 
our  definition  as  follows : — Suggestion  is  a  process  by  means  of 
which  an  effect  may  be  produced,  even  when  the  necessary 
physical  conditions  are  absent,  by  arousing  the  notion  that  the 
desired  effect  is  about  to  be  produced. 

What  is  understood  by  inadequate  conditions  has  been 
discussed  by  Lipps  in  his  well-known  essay,  Zur  Psychologie  der 
Suggestion,  "Sense-stimulation  is  undoubtedly  the  adequate 
condition  for  arousing  perception.  As  far  as  the  conclusion 
arrived  at  is  concerned,  there  are  various  adequate  conditions 
or  means.     Thus  perception,  reflection,  or  the  persuasion  of 

S 


66  HYPNOTISM. 

anothier  may  all  be  considered  adequate  conditions  for  my 
arriving  at  a  conclusion.  I  can  sum  all  this  up  in  single 
expression — the  adequate  condition  for  arriving  at  a  conclusion 
is  *a  rational  basis.'  Consequently,  when  a  conclusion  is 
induced  by  suggestion  the  rational  basis  is  wanting.  Finally, 
consciousness  of  the  value  of  any  object — the  pleasure  it  may 
produce,  its  utility,  or  iis  ethical  or  aesthetic  worth — is  sufficient 
to  bring  about  a  voluntary  action.  It  is  possible  that  custom 
and  some  other  factors  may  here  play  a  part." 

It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  there  is  no  definite  limit  to 
"  inadequate  conditions,"  since  they  depend  so  much  on  the 
individuality  of  the  subject:  As  Lipps  points  out,  the  special 
value  of  anything  may  prove  an  adequate  means  of  inciting  a 
voluntary  action.  But  the  concept  of  value  differs  with  different 
individuals.  In  spite  of  all  this,  it  must  be  admitted  that  by 
recognizing  these  "  inadequate  conditions  "  we  can  more  easily 
grasp  the  notion  suggestion  process. 

Many  other  attempts  have  been  made  to  define  suggestion, 
but  in  some  instances  theory  and  definition  have  been  confused. 
To  a  certain  extent  this  objection  applies  to  those  definitions 
in  which  the  associative  disposition  is  held  to  be  the  chief 
characteristic  of  suggestion.  The  definitions  given  by  Schrenck- 
Notzing,  Schaffer,  Loewenfeld,  and  Wundt  belong  to  this 
category,  although  they  contain  much  that  is  valuable  from  a 
theoretical  point  of  view.  There  are  also  other  definitions 
which  do  not  differ  very  much  from  that  laid  down  by  Lipps. 
For  example,  Hirschlaff  considers  the  production  of  an  effect 
without  a  tangible  cause  to  be  the  most  important  point  in 
suggestion.  He  lays  stress  on  the  absence  of  motive,  while 
others,  like  Dubois,  consider  that  the  effects  of  suggestion  are 
produced  in  a  somewhat  mysterious  manner.  Vogt  holds 
suggestion  to  be  the  abnormally  powerful  action  of  the  desire 
to  attain  an  end.  I  myself  believe  that  the  definition  I  have 
given  will  suffice  to  carry  us  through  our  further  investigations. 

We  shall  now  see  that  suggestion  plays  an  extraordinarily 
great  part  in  hypnosis,  and  it  may  be  remembered  I  have 
already  given  numerous  instances  of  suggestion  in  cases  I  have 
referred  to.  The  Nancy  method  of  inducing  hypnosis  is  of  a 
similar  nature;  an  effort  is  made  to  induce  the  patient  to 
believe  that  he  is  going  to  be  hypnotized,  and  when  the  effort 
is  successful  hypnosis  follows. 

Now,  there  are  cases  in  which  the  notion  of  an  effect  may 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.  6j 

apparently  arise  spontaneously,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
second  person,  and  the  effect  itself  be  produced,  even  when 
the  subject  is  unwilling.  We  often  meet  with  this  in  disease. 
I  have  already  mentioned  the  case  of  a  man  blushing  because 
he  was  firmly  convinced  that  he  was  blushing.  -  But  there  are 
cases  in  which  people  blush  without  anybody  interfering  with 
them.  The  notion  of  blushing  is  to  a  certain  extent  personal, 
and  is  called  by  pathologists  the  "fear  of  blushing."  Fear  and 
imagination  here  run  hand  in  hand.  As  soon  as  such  a  person 
imagines  that  he  or  she  may  blush,  then  he  or  she  blushes. 
Here  the  idea  of  blushing  is  not  aroused  by  a  second  party ;  it 
is  purely  personal,  and  we  therefore  term  it  a  case  of  auto- 
suggestion in  contradistinction  to  a  notion  aroused  by  some 
other  person,  which  Bentivegni  calls  external  or  hetero- 
suggestion.  Auto-suggestion  of  this  nature  plays  an  important 
part  in  certain  pathological  conditions.  There  are  many 
stammerers  who  only  stammer  when  they  think  they  are  going 
to  stammer,  but  who  can  speak  quite  well  when  they  do  not 
think  about  stammering.  Many  an  impulsive  idea  may  be 
ascribed  to  auto-suggestion,  although  Lipps  attempts  to  draw  a 
distinction  between  the  two.  For  example,  a  patient  suffering 
from  agoraphobia  is  filled  with  the  fear  that  he  cannot  cross 
an  open  space  alone.  No  reasoning  is  of  avail  here;  the 
patient  acknowledges  its  justice  without  permitting  it  to  influ- 
ence him.  Often — but  not  always — logic  is  for  the  most  part 
powerless  over  these  auto-suggestions.  Many  hysterical  paralyses 
are  also  auto-suggestions;  the  patient  cannot  move  his  legs 
because  he  is  convinced  that  movement  is  impossible.  If  this 
conviction  can  be  shaken,  movement  is  at  once  practicable. 

Auto-suggestion  may  be  called  up  by  some  external  cause. 
Charcot  referred  some  isolated  traumatic  paralyses  to  some- 
thing of  this  kind.  According  to  this  view,  a  violent  blow  on 
the  arm,  with  its  resultant  disturbances  of  sensibility,  may 
produce  in  the  person  concerned  a  conviction  that  he  cannot 
move  his  arm.  As  the  conviction  was  called  up  by  the  blow, 
this  case  stands  somewhere  between  external  suggestion  and 
auto-suggestion.  We  will  call  all  cases  in  which  the  auto- 
suggestion did  not  arise  spontaneously,  but  was  the  secondary 
result  of  something  else,  such  as  a  blow,  indirect  suggestions, 
as  opposed  to  direct  suggestion,  which  arouses  a  certain  idea 
immediately,  of  which  I  have  already  given  several  examples. 
It  is  not  always  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  conscious 


68  HYPNOTISM. 

mental  act  in  suggestion;  individuality  and  habit  sometimes 
replace  this,  and  play  a  great  part  in  the  training  of  the  subject, 
of  which  we  have  still  to  speak.  If  some  external  sign,  such 
as  a  blow  on  the  arm,  has  several  times,  by  means  of  a  conscious 
mental  act,  produced  the  auto-suggestion  that  the  arm  is 
paralyzed,  then  the  auto-suggestion  may  repeat  itself  later 
mechanically  at  every  blow  without  any  conscious  thought  of 
the  effect  of  the  blow. 

A  particular  psychical  state,  disposing  to  suggestion,  is  a 
necessary  condition  of  its  appearance.  The  disposition  to 
suggestion  is  called  "  suggestibility." 

We  shall  now  see  that  we  can  in  this  way  obtain  many  effects 
by  employing  suggestion  during  hypnosis.  We  shall  also  see 
that  we  can  produce  these  effects  not  only  during  hypnosis 
(hypnotic  or  intra-hypnotic  suggestion),  but  that  they  extend  to 
the  time  following  hypnosis.  This  is  post-hypnotic  suggestion. 
By  means  of  this  we  can  tell  the  person  in  the  hypnotic  state 
that  after  his  awakening  a  particular  result  will  follow.  We  can 
also  distinguish  another  kind  of  suggestion :  something  may  be 
suggested  to  the  subject  before  the  hypnosis  which  is  to  follow 
in  that  state.    This  is  pre-hypnotic  suggestion  (Maack,  Stembo). 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE   SYMPTOMS   OF    HYPNOSIS. 

I  NOW  come  to  the  symptomatology  of  hypnosis.  In  order  to 
make  as  complete  a  survey  as  possible,  and  only  for  that 
reason,  I  must  arrange  the  subject-matter  under  the  headings  of 
Physiology  and  Psychology.  It  must  not  be  thought,  however, 
that  we  have  to  do  with  a  real  division;  of  that  there  can  be 
no  question.  For  the  bodily  functions  show  a  deviation  from 
the  normal  purely  as  a  consequence  of  changes  in  the  psychical 
state.  Just  as  a  man  paralyzed  by  fright  cannot  move  in  con- 
sequence of  a  mental  shock,  and  not  from  any  injury  to  his 
muscles,  so  people  in  a  state  of  religious  excitement  have 
visions,  not  because  their  eyes  are  abnormal  in  visual  function, 
but  because  they  are  in  an  abnormal  mental  state;  thus  in 
hypnosis  the  muscles^  the  organs  of  sense,  etc.,  are  abnormal  in 
function  only  because  the  mental  state  is  altered.  Only  from 
this  point  of  view  is  the  division  made  in  what  follows.  As 
we  shall  see  later  on,  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  exist  in 
hypnosis  any  primary  bodily  abnormalities. 

In  consequence  of  the  close  tie  which  exists  between  the 
mental  and  bodily  phenomena,  it  will  not  be  surprising  if,  in 
discussing  the  latter,  I  am  often  obliged  to  refer  to  the  former 
and  vice  versa;  a  thorough  separation  is  not  possible.  In  order 
not  to  destroy  the  inner  unity  for  merely  external  considera- 
tions, I  shall  occasionally  deviate  from  the  purely  tabular 
arrangement. 

(i)  Physiology, 

We  will  now  pass  to  a  discussion  of  the  functions  of  the 
individual  organs.  The  alterations  which  we  find  in  hypnosis 
affect  the  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles,  the  organs  of 
sense,  common  sensation,  the  secretions,  metabolism,  and  in 
rare  cases  also  the  cell  power  of  organization. 

69 


70  HYPNOTISM. 

The  voluntary  muscles  show  the  most  frequent  abnormalities, 
and  suggestion^  exercises  an  extraordinary  influence  over  their 
functions.  When  no  ideas  are  aroused  by  suggestion  during 
hypnosis,  we  find  the  greatest  differences  in  the  behaviour  of 
the  voluntary  muscles,  according  to  the  method  of  hypnotiza- 
tion  selected,  and  according  to  the  character  of  the  subject. 
Some  are  able  to  move  with  perfect  freedom  till  the  command 
of  the  experimenter  inhibits  some  particular  movement :  many, 
on  the  contrary,  look  as  if  they  were  asleep  from  the  com- 
mencement. In  this  case  we  see  no  movements,  or  very  rare 
ones,  which  are  slow  and  laboured.  When  we  discuss  the 
phenomena  of  suggestion,  we  shall  see  that  this  incapacity  for 
movement  cannot  in  certain  cases  be  removed  by  the  command 
of  the  hypnotist.  Between  these  extreme  cases  there  exist  all 
sorts  of  transitional  stages.  It  is  all  the  same  which  of  these 
characters  has  the  preponderance;  muscular  activity  can  nearly 
always  be  influenced  in  a  high  degree  by  suggestion.  By 
means  of  it  we  can  make  movements  impossible,  or  else  induce 
movements. 

I  have  already  shown  (page  34)  how  easily  I  can  make  the 
second  subject's  arm  powerless  to  move  simply  by  arousing  in  her 
the  conviction  that  her  arm  is  powerless.  In  just  the  same  way 
the  movements  of  the  legs,  trunk,  larynx,  etc.,  escape  the  subject's 
notice.  "You  cannot  raise  your  arm;  cannot  put  out  your 
tongue."  This  suffices  to  make  the  forbidden  movement  im- 
possible. In  some  cases  the  inability  to  move  arises  because 
the  person  cannot  voluntarily  contract  his  muscles,  and  his  arm 
consequently  hangs  limp;  while  in  other  cases  a  contracture  of 
the  antagonistic  muscles  makes  every  attempt  at  a  voluntary 
movement  useless  (Bleuler).  In  the  same  manner  the  leg  will 
lose  the  power  of  motion  at  command.  We  have  seen  (page 
34)  in  the  second  experiment  how  the  power  of  speech  can 
be  taken  away.  And  it  is  even  possible  to  allow  the  muscles 
to  contract  for  one  particular  purpose  only.  If  we  say  to  a 
hypnotic  subject,  **You  can  only  say  your  own  name;  for  the 
rest  you  are  absolutely  dumb,"  the  desired  effect  will  be  pro- 
duced. In  the  same  way  it  is  possible  to  prevent  movements 
of  the  arm  for  any  particular  purpose.  Thus  we  can  make  it 
impossible  for  a  person  to  write,  though  he  will  be  able  to  do 

^  For  the  sake  of  brevity  I  shall  for  the  future  use  ** suggestion"  for 
** external  suggestion"  when  the  contrary  is  not  expressly  stated,  and  I 
shall  treat  cognate  terms  in  a  similar  manner. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  Ji 

any  other  kind  of  work.  The  subject  can  sew,  play  the  piano, 
etc.,  but  all  efforts  to  write  are  vain.  As  a  rule,  the  movements 
only  become  possible  when  the  experimenter  gives  permission. 
It  is  remarkable  that  in  some  persons  one  set  of  muscles  is 
easier  to  influence  by  suggestion,  and  in  others  another  set. 
We  can  make  a  person  dumb  by  suggestion,  while  all  the  other 
muscles  obey  his  will  in  spite  of  suggestion.  Another,  again, 
loses  the  power  of  moving  his  arms,  while  his  speech  remains 
unaffected. 

In  just  the  same  way  as  muscular  movements  are  prevented 
by  suggestion,  so  can  movements  be  induced  by  it  against,  or 
without,  the  will  of  the  subject.  VVe  have  seer>  (page  35) 
how  the  subject  in  the  third  experiment  knelt  down,  followed 
me,  and  so  forth.  I  say  to  another  person,  "  You  are  lifting 
your  right  arm  to  lay  it  on  your  head";  this  happens  at  once. 
I  would  insist  that  it  must  be  decided  whether  these  move- 
ments take  place  without  or  against  the  wilP  of  the  subject,  as 
in  the  latter  case  an  increase  of  sensibility  is  already  demon- 
strated. I  say,  "  Your  left  arm  will  now  rise  up  in  the  air "; 
and  the  arm  rises  as  if  drawn  up  by  a  string,  although  the 
subject  makes  no  voluntary  movement ;  but  neither  does  it 
occur  to  him  to  resist.  The  movements  without  the  subject's 
will  can  often  be  distinguished  from  those  against  it  by  a 
certain  steady  ease.  These  last  are  nearly  always  characterized 
by  strong  muscular  contractions  and  by  trembling — evidences 
of  antagonistic  forces,  the  hetero-suggestion  of  the  hypnotizer, 
and  the  will  of  the  subject.  This  shows  how  the  hypnotized 
person  fights  against  the  suggestion  to  keep  his  arm  in  the  air, 
and  also  gives  a  clue  to  the  tremblings. 

Just  in  the  same  way  the  hypnotic  subject  is  obliged  to 
cough,  laugh,  talk,  jump,  etc.,  at  command. 

It  is  further  possible  to  generate  by  suggeslion  the  idea  of  a 
paralysis  of  one  of  the  extremities.  These  isolated  paralyses 
have  a  great  resemblance  to  the  psychical  paralyses  arising 
without  hypnosis,  such  as  Russell  Reynolds  described  in  1869 
as  "paralysis  dependent  on  idea,"  and  Erb  later  on  as  "paralysis 
by  imagination."  Charcot's  pupils  have  tried  to  find  objective 
symptoms  of  these  paralyses  that  depend  on  suggestion.     It 

^  It  is  not  my  intention  to  employ  expressions  other  than  those  generally 
understood;  hence  my  use  of  the  word  "will"  here  and  in  some  ether 
places.  From  a  strictly  psychological  point  of  view  it  would  possibly  be 
more  correct  to  use  "arbitrary  volition"  or  **  wish." 


72  HYPNOTISM. 

cannot  be  doubted  that  such  objective  changes  may  occur 
through  a  particular  association  of  symptoms;  this  hypothesis 
is  supported  by  Krafft-Ebing  also.  We  must,  however,  re- 
cognize that  this  is  not  the  rule.  According  to  Lober,  Gilles 
de  la  Tourette,  and  Richer,  the  clinical  characteristics  of  these 
paralyses  are  marked  by  the  absolute  loss  of  motor  power  and 
sensation,  increase  of  the  tendon  reflexes,  ankle  clonus,  at 
times  wrist  clonus,  complete  loss  of  muscular  sense — /.^.,  of 
the  ability  to  control  perfectly  the  action  of  the  muscles  and  to 
be  certain  of  the  position  of  the  limbs, — changed  electrical 
excitability,  and  vasomotor  disturbances;  these  last  are  par- 
ticularly said  to  show  themselves  by  a  bright  flush  of'the  skin  on 
slight  stimulation.  Vogt  also  found  that  the  sensory  and  motor 
phenomena  were  not  altogether  unconnected.  When  investi- 
gating the  nature  of  a  case  of  anaesthesia  of  the  arm  produced 
by  suggestion,  he  observed  that  the  limb  had  lost  all  power 
motion.  But  directly  the  patient  was  firmly  impressed  with 
the  idea  that  he  could  move  his  arm,  there  was  return  of 
the  power  of  movement,  and  of  sensation  as  well.  Paralysis 
produced  by  suggestion  may  be  of  hypnotic  or  post- 
hypnotic origin.  Besides  these  paralyses  in  which  the 
muscles  are  completely  relaxed,  other  paralyses,  in  which  the 
muscles  are  persistently  contracted,  can  be  induced  by 
suggestion. 

With  these  subjects  who  are  deprived  of  will,  besides  the 
movements  described  above,  complicated  movements,  or  even 
performances  (if  I  may  be  allowed  the  expression),  also  take 
place  by  suggestion.  I  say  to  the  subject,  "You  will  spin 
round  three  times,"  or,  "You  must  lift  that  thing  off  the  table; 
you  must  go  and  do  it;  you  cannot  help  it."  The  subject 
does  as  he  is  told. 

The  suggestion  itself  is  made  in  difierent  ways.  The  main 
point,  and  all  turns  upon  this,  is  that  the  subject  should 
thoroughly  understand  what  the  experimenter  wishes.  Each  of 
the  organs  of  sense  is  a  door  of  entrance  for  suggestion.  The 
most  common  is  naturally  our  habitual  means  of  communica- 
tion— speech  (verbal  suggestion) — by  means  of  which  we  tell 
the  subject  what  we  wish.  But  it  is  very  important,  and  often 
much  more  effective  than  words  alone,  that  the  experimenter 
should  perform  the  movement  which  the  subject  is  intended  to 
execute.  Professional  magnetizers  in  particular  habitually 
induce  movements  by  imitation. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  73 

Imitation  appears  particularly  in  a  hypnotic  state  which 
certain  authors  (Bremaud,  Morselli,  Tanzi)  have  studied,  and 
which  Descourtis  calls  fascination  or  captation.  I  have 
shown  (p.  35)  in  the  third  experiment  a  case  of  this  kind.  A 
professional  magnetizer,  Donato,  has  demonstrated  this  state 
completely;  and  Morselli  and  others  have  on  this  account 
called  this  form  of  hypnosis  Donatism.  As  I  saw  in  Paris, 
Donato  uses  a  particular  process  to  bring  about  this  state. 
This  process  aims  at  a  primary  forced  contracture  of  all  the 
muscles  of  the  body,  in  order,  by  this  means,  to  limit  the 
voluntary  movements  as  much  as  possible.  In  this  case  the 
eyes  of  the  hypnotist  and  the  subject  are  firmly  fixed  on  one 
another  from  the  beginning.  The  subject  finally  follows  every 
movement  of  the  experimenter.  If  he  goes  backward,  the 
subject  follows;  if  he  comes  forward  the  subject  does  the 
same.  In  the  same  way  the  latter  imitates  every  movement  of 
the  experimenter — only  on  the  condition,  however,  that  he 
knows  he  is  intended  to  do  so;  that  is  the  main  point.  We 
saw  in  the  third  case  that  fascination  may  be  a  primary  form 
of  hypnosis.  But  it  can  also  be  originated  secondarily  from 
other  hypnotic  states;  and  this  is  more  usual.  When  the 
experimenter  has  hypnotized  the  subject  in  some  other  way, 
and  has  made  him  open  his  eyes,  he  can  fix  his  own  steadily 
on  them,  and  thus  induce  the  same  phenomena.  A  variety 
of  this  fascination  is  to  fix  the  eyes  of  the  subject  on  some 
other  object — for  example,  on  the  finger  of  the  experimenter. 
In  this  case  the  fascinated  person  follows  every  movement 
made  by  the  experimenter. 

But  imitation  plays  an  important  role  in  hypnosis,  as  well  as 
fascination.  This  results  from  the  fact  that  the  sight  of  a 
movement  arouses  a  much  more  vivid  picture  of  it  in  the 
hypnotized  person  than  does  a  mere  command. 

Verbal  suggestion  is  also  made  easier  by  other  gestures. 
In  order  to  compel  some  one  to  kneel  down,  an  energetic 
movement  of  the  hand  accompanying  the  verbal  suggestion  is 
very  eflfective,  as  in  the  third  experiment.  With  this  fact  is 
connected  one  of  the  phenomena  which  magnetizers  are  fond 
of  demonstrating — namely,  the  drawing  of  the  subject  after  the 
experimenter,  who  makes  movements  with  his  hand  which 
show  the  subject  that  he  is  intended  to  approach.  The  experi- 
menter can  also  repel  the  subject  in  the  same  way.  This 
succeeds  in  particular  by  means  of  movements  of  the  hand. 


74  HYPNOTISM. 

indicating  that  he  is  to  go  away.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary,  in 
this  case,  that  the  subject  should  see  the  movements  of  the 
experimenter;  it  is  sufficient  that  he  should  divine  them  either 
from  a  noise  or  a  current  of  air;  thus  the  hypnotic  obeys  the 
experimenter  even  when  he  has  his  back  turned  towards  him. 
Upon  suggestion  also  depend  the  attraction  and  repulsion  of 
single  limbs  of  the  subject,  which  happen  in  the  same  way 
through  the  hypnotic's  perception  of  the  experimenter's 
gestures.  Without  uttering  a  word  the  experimenter  can  make 
the  subject  raise  and  drop  his  hand  merely  by  gesticulating 
with  his  own;  he  can  also  obtain  many  efifects  by  a  glance 
only.  It  is  not  necessary  to  look  steadily  in  the  eyes  of  the 
hypnotic,  as  in  fascination.  The  operator  looks  at  the  subject's 
leg — it  at  once  becomes  powerless  to  move.  The  hypnotic  is 
going  away — the  experimenter  suddenly  looks  at  a  spot  on  the 
floor,  and  he  stands  chained  to  the  spot. 

We  all  know  the  effect  which  may  be  produced  by  a  look,  even  when 
the  person  looked  at  is  not  hypnotized.  A  tutor  will  look  fixedly  at  a  pupil 
whom  he  suspects  of  lying  in  the  hope  of  producing  an  effect.  The  look 
with  which  a  tamer  of  wild  beasts  fixes  his  animals  may  be  included  here, 
in  spite  of  the  many  fabulous  statements  which  have  been  made  about  it ; 
also  the  fixed  gaze  by  means  of  which  a  serpent  renders  its  prey  incapable 
of  moving.  I/may  further  remind  my  readers  of  the  *' fascinating  gaze," 
ancj  the  **evil  eye"  by  means  of  which  an  evil  influence  was  supposed  to 
be  exercised.  In  Southern  Europe,  as  well  as  among  the  Jews  of  Northern 
Africa,  the 'dread  of  the  evil  eye  is  strongly  marked.  Various  symbols  here 
serve  as  a  protection  against  it  (Fitzner).  In  Italy  people  who  believe  in 
the  evil  eye  hold  their  hands  in  a  particular  position  when  they  fear  its 
effects,  as  I  have  often  had  the  opportunity  of  observing.  During  my 
residence  in  Palestine  I  was  frequently  able  to  verify  that  the  belief  in  the 
evil  eye  is  still  widely  spread  among  Mohammedans  and  Christians  (Preyer, 
Einszler).  Siegfried  has  collected  various  passages  from  the  Bible  and  the 
Talmud  which  prove  a  belief  in  the  evil  eye. 

Not  only  articulate  speech  and  gestures,  but  music  also  has 
a  suggestive  effect.  Mesmer  long  ago  recognized  the  influence 
of  music,  and  used  a  then  newly-invented  instrument,  the  bell- 
harmonica,  to  obtain  the  necessary  eflect.  If  dance  music  is 
played,  the  subject  will  dance,  following  the  rhythm;  and  when 
the  dance  is  changed  to  another^  he  alters  his  step  to  corre- 
spond. I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  influence  of  music 
again  later  on. 

The  muscular  sense  which  keeps  us  informed  of  the  position 
of  our  limbs,  and  by  means  of  which  **  catalepsy  by  sugges- 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  75 

tion  "1  is  induced,  requires  particular  consideration  as  a  way  of 
entrance  for  suggestion.  It  is  also  to  be  found  in  other  states 
than  hypnosis — for  example,  in  some  cases  of  typhoid  (Bern- 
heim) — and  frequently  occurs  in  hypnosis.  I  lift  the  arm  of  a 
hypnotic,  hold  it  in  the  air,  then  let  it  go;  the  arm  remains  as 
I  placed  it,  although  I  say  nothing.  Why  does  this  happen  ? 
Because  the  subject  believes  that  the  arm  must  remain  thus. 
Another  person  lets  his  arm  fall;  I  raise  it  again,  and  say  at 
the  same  time,  **Your  arm  keeps  still";  this  happens;  but  only 
because  the  person  now  knows  that  this  is  intended,  while  he 
did  not  understand  the  simple  raising  of  the  arm.  Let  us 
return  to  the  first  subject.  I  raise  the  arm  again,  saying  at  the 
same  time,  "  Now  the  arm  falls  down,"  which,  in  fact,  happens ; 
but  only  because  the  person  believes  that  he  is  to  let  it  fall. 
The  legs,  head,  trunk,  and  so  forth  can  be  put  into  different 
postures  and  maintained  there  in  the  same  way;  the  muscular 
sense  here  suffices  to  transmit  the  suggestion.  The  in- 
clination of  the  subject  to  maintain  cataleptic  positions  is 
so  great  that  Heidenhain  considered  the  hypnotic  state  to 
be  a  catalepsy  artificially  produced.  Catalepsy  by  sugges- 
tion has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  physical  changes  in 
the  muscles. 

The  main  point  for  the  attainment  of  catalepsy  is  that  the 
subject  should  accept  the  idea  of  the  corresponding  attitude. 
Consequently  the  idea  must  be  allowed  to  act  for  a  consider- 
able time  before  the  desired  result  can  be  obtained.  Words 
answer  the  purpose  as  well  as  other  signs;  many  persons 
can  only  be  thrown  into  catalepsy  when  the  experimenter 
insists  on  the  attitude  required  being  maintained  for  some 
lime. 

The  mesmeric  passes  (p.  34)  which  we  have  already  be- 
come acquainted  with  as  a  method  of  producing  hypnosis, 
here  deserve  especial  mention.  These  mesmeric  passes  can 
be  used  locally  in  hypnosis — for  example,  over  an  arm,  in 
order  to  make  it  cataleptic.  Cataleptic  attitudes  which  cannot 
be  produced  by  verbal  suggestion  may  often  be  obtained  in  this 

^  As  the  most  different  views  exist  as  to  what  "catalepsy"  m^ips,  I 
remark  here  that,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  I  shall  so  name  any  state  in  Which 
voluntary  movements  disappear  and  the  limbs  remain  as  they  are  placed  by 
the  experimenter — without  having  regard  to  the  length  of  time  which 
elapses  before  the  limbs  move  freely  again,  or  fall  from  their  own 
weight. 


76  HYPNOTISM. 

way.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  study  these  phenomena,^ 
it  is  unnecessary  in  their  case  to  imagine  an  especial  force  as 
an  explanation;  according  to  my  view,  the  efficiency  of  the 
mesmeric  passes  results  from  the  fact  that  by  means  of  them 
the  whole  attention  of  the  subject  is  directed  to  his  arm  for 
a  long  time.  By  this  means  the  idea  has  time  to  take  root. 
Let  any  one  allow  his  arm  or  his  leg  to  be  mesmerized  in  this 
fashion  and  he  will  find  that  his  whole  attention  is  directed  to 
this  part  of  his  body,  and  much  more  forcibly  than  if  the 
attention  was  concentrated  on  the  limb  in  any  other  manner. 
From  this  it  follows  that  contractions  often  only  appear  when 
the  mesmeric  passes  have  drawn  the  attention  for  some  time 
to  the  part  of  the  body  concerned.  Passes  with  contact  act  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  passes  without  contact.  In  any  case 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  effect  only  appears  when  the 
individual  has  an  idea  of  what  is  intended  to  follow.  That 
centrifugal  passes  call  up  contractions,  and  centripetal  ones 
dissipate  them,  has  often  been  averred;  but  here  we  have  to 
do  with  unintentional  suggestions.  I  have  as  often  been  able 
to  do  the  same  thing  with  centripetal  passes  as  wifh  centrifugal. 

We  thus  see  in  what  manner  suggestion  affects  the  voluntary 
muscles.  It  is  often  observed  that  muscular  activity  aroused 
by  suggestion  has  a  tendency  to  persist.  Thus  a  certain  state 
of  contraction  is  continued  for  a  long  period — there  is,  in  fact, 
a  contracture;  or  a  long-continued  movement  may  set  in;  or, 
finally,  when  the  muscles  are  relaxed,  a  contraction  of  them 
can  only  be  obtained  with  difficulty  or  not  at  all.  Sometimes 
when  the  particular  muscular  activity  has  been  primarily 
aroused  by  suggestion,  the  experimenter  cannot  at  once 
counteract  the  effect  of  a  primary  suggestion  by  a  second. 

These  cases,  in  which  the  action  of  the  original  suggestion  cannot  be 
easily  inhibited,  recall  certain  forms  of  insanity,  such  as  melancholia  cum 
stupore.  Bancroft  has  shown  that  the  disturbances  of  movement  in  this 
and  other  insanities  can  be  brought  about  by  a  primary  psychic  process, 
even  by  a  delusion,  but  that  when  the  cause  has  passed,  the  disturbance  of 
movement  may  persist  automatically. 

^  I  have  published  many  experiments  bearing  on  this  point  in  a  book  of 
mine,  Der  Rapport  in  der  Hypnose^  Untersuchungen  über  den  tierischen 
Magnetismus,  Publications  of  the  Society  for  Psychological  Research, 
Parts  3  and  4 ;  Leipzig,  1892. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  JJ 

Vincent  denies  that  there  is  any  tendency  for  the  suggestion  to  become 
fixed  in  hypnosis;  he  has  always  been  able  to  remove  the  suggestion  at 
once.  Nevertheless,  he  remarks  in  a  subsequent  passage  that  he  has 
sometimes  found  opposition  during  several  seconds;  but  that  is  only  to  be 
regarded  as  an  auto-suggestion ;  whether  one  refers  it  to  auto-suggestion 
or  not  is  a  matter  of  indifference.  The  phenomenon  is  found  in  a  certain 
group  of  cases. 

I  order  a  person  to  stretch  out  his  right  arm  stiffly.  The 
arm  is  stretched  out,  and  the  subject  is  unable  to  bend  it  of 
his  own  accord.  In  most  cases,  directly  I  command  the  arm 
to  be  bent  it  can  be  done;  but  there  are  some  cases  in  which 
the  experimenter  is  unable  to  put  an  end  to  the  contracture 
at  once,  but  the  effect  of  the  earlier  idea  continues. 

A  particular  movement  can  ^Iso  be  continued  for  a  long 
time  in  the  same  way.  The  so-called  automatic  movements 
described  by  Liöbeault  and  Bernheim,  or  continued  move- 
ments, as  Max  Dessoir  more  properly  terms  them,  belong  to 
the  same  category.  If  we  turn  the  arms  of  an  hypnotic  round 
and  round  each  other,  the  tendency  to  continue  the  move- 
ment persists,  even  after  the  experimenter  has  ceased  to  compel 
it  by  stopping  turning  his  own  arms.  This  also  happens  when 
the  subject  believes  he  has  to  go  on  turning.  In  some  cases 
he  continues  turning  his  arms  passively,  while  on  other 
occasions  he  makes  the  strongest  possible  effort  to  keep  them 
still,  particularly  when  requested  to  do  so.  Such  resistance  is, 
however,  useless;  but  in  most  cases  a  new  suggestion  of  the 
experimenter  that  the  arms  shall  stop  is  enough  to  arrest  the 
movements  at  once.  Sometimes,  however,  the  experimenter 
finds  it  impossible  to  obtain  an  immediate  arrest  by  a  counter- 
command.  I  have  often  observed  that  a  movement  has 
continued  for  some  time  in  spite  of  my  order.  We  can  also 
induce  alternate  movements  of  drawing  up  and  stretching  out 
in  the  arm  and  leg,  and  nodding  and  shaking  of  the  head,  etc. 
A  particular  movement  can  also  be  continued  for  a  long  time  in 
the  same  way,  when  once  started.  Again,  I  lift  up  an  arm  and 
bend  it  gently  at  the  elbow-joint;  directly  I  let  go  it  repeats 
the  movement.  If  it  is  desired  that  the  hypnotic  shall  walk 
and  he  does  not  obey  the  command,  let  him  be  pulled  forward 
a  little;  he  will  then  when  left  to  himself  continue  to  walk 
(Heidenhain).  The  involuntary  laughter,  which  I  have  often 
heard,  is  connected  with  this;  it  begins  on  command,  or  on  a 
slight  provocation.    There  are  also  pathological  cases  of  uncon- 


78  HYPNOTISM. 

trollable  laughter,  showing  decided  resemblance  to  these  cases . 
of  hypnosis;  Feodoroff,  who  has  published  several  observations, 
refers  it  to  a  weakening  of  the  will  and,  consequently,  to  a  similar 
condition  to  that  found  in  hypnosis.  This  laughter  in  hypnosis 
also  resembles  the  cheerfulness  produced  by  haschisch;  under 
the  influence  of  this  drug,  expressions  which  are  quite  insignifi- 
cant excite  involuntary  laughter  (Moleschott).  Obersteiner 
has  observed  the  hypnotic  laugh  in  his  own  case,  and  has 
described  it 

In  some  cases  the  passivity  of  the  subject  is  so  great  that 
the  suggestion  of  the  experimenter  is  unable  to  overcome  the 
muscular  relaxation.  Subjects  of  this  kind  let  their  arms  drop 
after  they  have  been  raised,  in  spite  of  all  suggestions. 
Questions  are  not  answered,  or  only  slight  movements  of  the 
lips  show  that  they  have  been  heard  at  all.  Two  different 
types  of  hypnosis,  which  are  called  active  and  passive,  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  absence  or  presence  of  this  muscular 
relaxation.  The  passive  form  has  a  great  external  likeness  to 
natural  sleep,  while  the  latter  might  be  taken  for  a  normal  state 
on  superficial  observation.  Passive  hypnosis  is  not  considered 
by  some  authors  (Braid)  as  a  form  of  hypnosis,  but  is  con- 
sidered to  be  a  sleep,  because  the  especial  symptom  is  wanting 
which  those  investigators  regard  as  the  necessary  characteristic 
of  hypnosis — namely,  catalepsy.  This  does  not  appear  to  me 
absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  show  hypnosis.  Hypnosis 
often  shows  itself  as  passive  at  the  beginning :  as  soon  as  the 
eyes  are  closed  the  head  drops  forward  or  backward,  because 
the  supporting  muscles  of  the  neck  are  relaxed.  There  are 
many  transitional  states  between  active  and  passive  hypnosis, 
and  one  often  passes  into  the  other. 

The  motor  disturbances  which  appear  in  the  eye  must  here 
be  particularly  discussed.  We  have  already  seen  that  many 
hypnoses  are  characterized  only  by  the  closing  of  the  eyes — a 
fact  already  known  to  Heidenhain — while  in  many  cases  this 
is  added  to  other  symptoms.  But  closing  of  the  eyes  can  also 
be  influenced  by  suggestion,  and  an  order  of  the  experimenter 
is  enough  in  most  cases  to  cause  their  instantaneous  opening. 
Closing  of  the  eyes  greatly  favours  the  appearance  of  other 
hypnotic  phenomena,  but  is  not  absolutely  indispensable. 
There  are  persons  who  can  be  thrown  into  the  deepest  stage  of 
hypnosis  by  a  deep  gaze,  without  the  eyes  closing  at  all  (Gurney). 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  79 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  closing  of  the  eyes  is  not  a 
necessary  preface  to  hypnosis,  yet  the  eyes  are  in  most  cases 
closed,  and  it  is  often  impossible  to  permit  them  to  open  with- 
out ending  the  hypnosis  at  once.  Even  when  the  eyes  open 
during  the  continuance  of  hypnosis,  there  is  in  many-cases  a 
certain  heaviness  in  the  lids  and  a  desire  to  close  them. 
Much  depends,  however,  upon  the  method  employed;  and 
primary  fascination  in  particular  always  occurs  while  the  eyes 
are  wide  open.  The  closing  of  the  eyes  is  sometimes  very 
gentle,  and  not  spasmodic;  though  in  a  number  of  cases  the 
muscles  which  close  the  eye  contract  spasmodically.  Braid 
and  Heidenhain  already  pointed  out  that  when  the  lids  close, 
even  in  the  deepest  hypnosis,  the  closing  is  not  always  complete. 
There  is  often  a  little  chink  of  opening,  and  this  is  not 
unimportant,  because  many  experiments  in  "clairvoyance," 
and  also  pretended  ** reading  with  the  pit  of  the  stomach," 
may  be  explained  by  the  ability  to  see  through  this  small 
opening. 

While  the  eyes  are  closed  the  lids  not  unseldom  have  a 
vibratory  movement ;  but  this  symptom  is  of  no  real  im- 
portance for  diagnosis,  as  on  the  one  hand  it  is  sometimes 
wanting,  and  on  the  other  hand  often  appears  without 
hypnosis.  The  eye-balls  often  roll  upwards  as  the  eyes  are 
closing.  While  in  some  cases  this  position  of  the  eye.ball  is 
maintained,  in  others  the  eye-ball  resumes  its  natural  position 
directly  the  eyes  are.  closed.  If  this  is  not  the  case,  the  white 
sclerotic  only  is  visible  when  the  lids  are  artificially  raised.  I 
have  only  been  able  to  find  the  convergence  of  the  pupils 
during  hypnosis  described  by  some  observers  in  one  case  of 
hystero-epilepsy  and  in  a  few  others  of  severe  hysteria.  Ancke, 
an  ophthalmologist,  has  recently  described  this  convergence  in 
the  case  of  the  so-called  "  sleep-dancer  "  Magdeleine  as  caused 
by  a  squint  in  the  right  eye  during  hypnosis.  Borel  also 
affirms  that  convergence  can  occasionafly  be  obtained  by 
suggestion. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  voluntary  muscles  are  entirely  under 
the  influence  of  external  suggestion  during  hypnosis.  A 
further  peculiarity  is,  that  a  particular  movement  or  state  of 
contraction  of  the  muscles  cannot  always  be  controlled  at 
once,  and  finally  we  have  seen  that  in  some  cases  muscular 
contraction  can  only  be  brought  about  with  difficulty  or  not  at 


8o  HYPNOTISM. 

all.  One  of  these  two  functional  abnormalities  of  the  muscles 
exists  in  all  hypnotic  states.  Though  it  is  occasionally 
confined  to  inability  to  open  the  eyes,  in  other  cases  the 
functions  of  other  muscles  of  the  body  are  affected. 

The  different  phases  result  from  various  combinations  of 
the  above-mentioned  abnormalities,  and  from  their  different 
localization  in  the  muscles.  The  various  kinds  of  catalepsy 
arise  in  this  manner.  Bernheim  distinguishes  several  forms 
of  this  catalepsy,  according  to  the  facility  with  which  the 
cataleptic  position  can  be  changed.  Sometimes  this  is  very 
easily  done,  sometimes  it  is  more  difficult,  as  in  tonic 
contracture ;  the  ßexibilitas  cerea  forms  an  intermediate  stage. 
These  different  kinds  of  catalepsy  are  matters  of  training  and 
suggestion  (Berger).  I  have  hardly  ever  clearly  seen  a  typical 
flexibilitas  cerea  in  hypnosis,  except  when  the  training  of  the 
subject  had  been  directed  to  that  point.  Nonne  appears  to 
have  collected  other  experiences  regarding  it. 

One  of  the  best  known  features  in  hypnosis  is  the  rigidity  of 
the  whole  body.  There  is  here  tonic  contracture  of  numerous 
voluntary  muscles,  by  means  of  which  the  head,  neck,  trunk, 
and  legs  become  as  still  as  a  board.  A  well-known  experiment 
can  be  carried  out  in  this  state :  the  head  can  be  placed  on 
one  chair  and  the  feet  on  another,  and  the  body  will  not 
double  up.  A  heavy  weight,  that  of  a  man,  for  example,  may 
even  be  placed  on  the  body  without  bending  it.  It  is  not 
astonishing  after  what  I  have  said  of  the  effect  of  the  mesmeric 
passes,  that  this  stiffening  should  be  more  easily  induced  by 
their  means;  it  cannot  always  be  induced  by  mere  verbal 
suggestion.  A  command  or  sign  of  the  experimenter  generally 
suffices  to  put  an  end  to  the  rigidity. 


We  must  now  ask  whether  any  further  abnormalities  appear 
in  the  voluntary  muscles  during  hypnosis.  Changes  which 
are  not  supposed  to  be  of  a  psychical  nature  have  often  been 
assumed ;  for  example,  the  English  committee  mentioned  on 
page  22  detected  an  increase  in  the  motions  made  in  swallow- 
ing. It  is  frequently  maintained  that  reflex  action  is  altered  in 
hypnosis,  and  that  reflexes  appear  which  do  not  occur  in 
normal  conditions.  Heidenhain,  Charcot,  and  Obersteiner 
are  to  be  mentioned  among  those  who  first  expressed  this 
view,  and  later  on  Schaffen 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  8 1 

Charcot  based  his  classification  of  the  hypnotic  states  upon  the  alteration 
of  the  reflexes.  He  distinguished  a  grand  hypnotisme  and  a  petit 
hypnotisme.  The  last  he  does  not  describe  in  detail ;  in  the  first,  which 
is  found  in  hystero-epilepsy,  he  distinguishes  three  stages : — i.  The 
cataleptic  stage,  which  is  produced  by  a  sudden  loud  noise,  or  results 
from  the  opening  of  the  subject's  eyes,  while  he  is  in  the  lethargic  stage; 
in  this  stage  the  position  of  the  limbs  is  easily  changed,  while  the  hypnotic's 
eyes  are  open.  Every  position  which  is  given  to  the  limbs  is  maintained 
for  some  time,  but  is  also  easily  changed  by  the  experimenter  without 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  subject ;  there  is  therefore  no  wax-like 
flexibility  {flexibilitas  cerea).  No  tendon  reflex,  no  increase  of  muscular 
irritability.  There  is  analgesia,  but  it  is  often  possible  to  exercise  a 
certain  influence  over  the  subject  through  sight,  hearing,  and  the  muscular 
sense.  2.  The  lethargic  stage.  It  can  be  induced  primarily  by  fixed 
attention,  or  secondarily  out  of  the  cataleptic  stage  by  closing  the  eyes. 
The  patient  is  unconscious  and  not  accessible  to  external  influences,  and 
there  is  analgesia.  The  limbs  are  relaxed  and  fall  by  their  own  weight ; 
the  eyes  are  closed,  the  tendon  reflexes  increased.  There  is  increased 
excitability  of  the  muscles,  the  so-called  neuro-muscular  hyper-excitability. 
These  increases  are  demonstrated  by  lliechanical  stimulation  of  the 
muscles,  nerves,  or  tendons.  For  example,  if  the  ulnar  nerve  is  pressed, 
a  contraction  of  all  the  muscles  which  it  supplies  follows,  so  that  a 
characteristic  posture  of  the  fingers  results.  This  contraction  is  not 
brought  about  by  direct  irritation  of  the  motor  fibres,  but  is  a  reflex,  the 
sensory  fibres  of  the  ulnar  nerve  conveying  the  irritation  to  the  central 
nervous  system,  where  it  is  converted  into  a  motor  impulse.  If  a  muscle 
is  mechanically  stimulated,  it  alone  contracts.  The  same  thing  is  attained 
by  this  as  by  local  faradization  in  normal  states,  which  was  shown  by 
Duchenne.  While  at  the  extremities  the  contraction  passes  into  con- 
tracture— that  is,  becomes  permanent — a  stimulation  of  the  facial  nerve 
only  causes  a  simple  contraction  in  the  face,  which  soon  ceases.  The 
resolution  of  the  resulting  contracture  is  produced  by  exciting  the 
antagonistic  muscles ;  thus,  for  example,  a  contracture  of  the  wrist  is  put 
an  end  to  by  exciting  the  extensors,  the  contraction  of  one  sternocleido- 
mastoid by  stimulation  of  the  other.  According  to  Charcot,  the  motor 
regions  of  the  cerebral  cortex  can  be  stimulated  through  the  cranium  by 
means  of  the  galvanic  current,  so  that  the  muscles  in  connection  with 
them  contract.  3.  The  somnambulic  stage.  In  some  persons  it  arises 
primarily  by  means  of  fixed  attention  ;  it  can  be  induced  in  all  by  friction 
of  the  crown  of  the  head  during  the  lethargic  or  cataleptic  stages.  The 
eyes  are  closed  or  half  closed.  By  means  of  gentle  stimulation  of  the 
skin  the  underlying  muscles  can  be  put  into  rigid  contraction,  but  not, 
however,  by  stimulation  of  the  muscles,  nerves,  or  tendons,  as  in  the 
lethargic  stage.  Also,  the  contracture  does  not  disappear  on  stimulation 
of  the  antagonistic  muscles  as  in  that  stage.  The  posture  of  the  limbs 
produced  by  contracture  in  somnambulism  cannot  also  be  so  easily 
altered  as  in  catalepsy ;  a  certain  resistance  appears  as  in  flexibilitas 
cerea;  Charcot  calls  it  the  cataleptoid  state.  The  same  stimulation 
of  the  skin  which  induced  the  contractures  is  employed  to  resolve 
them.  In  somnambulism  many  external  influences  are  possible  by 
means  of  suggestion,  of  which  I  shall  speak  later  on  in  their  proper 
connection. 

6 


82  HYPNOTISM. 

With  regard  to  these  stages  of  Charcot,  most  investigators 
think  that  they  are  only  an  artificial  product,  the  result  of  an 
unintentional  training  process.  It  is  certainly  striking  that 
since  the  Nancy  school  pointed  out  the  many  sources  of  error 
that  should  be  avoided,  the  stages  of  Charcot  are  less  and  less 
frequently  observed.  Wetterstrand  never  found  them  at  all 
among  3,589  different  persons  (Pauly).  I  also  have  never 
been  able  to  find  them,  even  in  hystero-epileptics,  in  spite  of 
Richer's  opinion  that  every  one  who  experiments  on  such 
persons  will  obtain  results  identical  with  those  of  Charcot. 

Even  those  authors,  who  on  the  whole  accept  Charcot's  stages,  admit 
there  are  many  exceptions.  For  instance,  Dumontpallier  and  Magnin 
consider  that  the  increase  of  neuro*muscular  excitability  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  lethargic  stage,  but  appears  in  all  of  them.  They  have 
likewise  described  certain  conditions  in  which  the  symptoms,  partly  of  the 
lethargic  and  partly  of  the  cataleptic  stages,  show  themselves.  Jules 
Janet,  also,  has  produced  a  fourth  stage  in  Wit, — one  of  the  best-known 
of  Charcot's  subjects — which  is  distinguished  from  the  three  others,  both 
physically  and  mentally.  Gilles  de  la  Tourette  describes  a  lithargie 
lucidey  in  which  there  was  no  loss  of  consciousness.  In  any  case,  the  idea 
of  the  stages  has  become  more  and  more  confused  as  attempts  have  been 
made  to  include  everything  possible  within  them.  Every  one  looked  for 
the  stages,  and  when  he  could  not  find  them  exactly  as  Charcot  did,  he 
believed  himself  obliged  to  add  certain  new  characteristics  to  them. 

It  is  perfectly  certain  that  we  cannot  recognize  Charcot's 
three  stages  as  a  general  principle  on  which  to  base  a  classifica- 
tion of  the  various  conditions  met  with  in  hypnosis.  Even 
granted  that  the  stages  do  exist,  it  must  be  admitted  that  they 
are  confined  to  a  few  cases  of  severe  hysteria.  Opinions  also 
differ  as  to  whether,  in  such  cases,  the  stages  may  not  be  an 
artificial  product.  Certainly  Raymond  maintains  that  all  three 
stages  were  described  by  Despine  as  far  back  as  1840,  under 
the  names  catalepsy,  somnambulisme  morty  and  somnambulisme 
vivanty  and  that  it  is  therefore  improbable  that  the  conditions 
observed  by  Charcot  in  his  investigations  were  merely  artificial 
products.  Recently,  too, — for  example,  at  the  second  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Hypnotists,  1900, — several  investigators 
have  admitted,  with  more  or  less  reserve,  the  possibility  of 
Charcot's  stages  presenting  themselves  in  some  cases  of 
hysteria;  and  Micheline  Stefanowska  has  gone  so  far  as  to 
.express  the  opinion,  based  on  numerous  experiments,  that  the 
grande  hypttose  as  understood  by  the  Salpetriere  investigators 
can    be   induced   in  frogs,   in  whose  case   there   can  be  no 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  83 

question  of  suggestion.  In  particular,  M.  Stefanowska  thinks 
she  has  clearly  established  both  the  lethargic  and  cataleptic 
stages. 

But  even  supposing  we  hold  the  opinion  that  Charcot's 
three  stages  were  solely  produced  by  artificial  means,  there 
still  remains  the  question  whether  in  hypnosis  the  muscles  are 
responsive  to  a  physical  (not  suggested)  stimulus,  which  would 
produce  no  effect  in  the  non-hypnotic  state.  Heidenhain 
stated  the  same  thing  much  earlier ;  he  believed  that  a  gentle 
stimulation  causes  the  underlying  muscles  to  contract,  and  that 
the  contracture  produced  spreads  in  proportion  to  the  strength 
of  the  stimulation.  In  this  manner  Heidenhain  considers  the 
rigidity  which  is  seen  in  hypnosis,  to  be  a  reflex.  Like  Born 
and  others,  Heidenhain  believed  he  had  discovered  new 
reflexes  in  the  course  of  his  experiments. 

Without  wishing  to  maintain  that  specific  physical  reflexes 
do  not  occur  during  hypnosis,  I  certainly  think  that  no 
definite  proof  of  their  existence  has  been  brought  forward. 
For  instance,  Lehmann  reports  that  Dr.  Hütten,  who  has 
submitted  more  than  6000  persons  to  hypnotic  treatment,  has 
never  observed  anything  comparable  to  hyper-excitability, 
unless  he  had  suggested  that  phenomenon.  Nowadays,  when 
we  know  that  these  phenomena  can  all  be  brought  about  by 
suggestion,  the  latter  must  first  of  all  be  excluded.  The  best 
way  of  accomplishing  this  end  is  to  establish  a  very  strict 
supervision  of  the  first  experiment  performed  on  a  subject; 
for  it  cannot  be  avoided,  that  when  the  same  experiments  are 
repeated  many  times  certain  intimations — some  remark  or 
motion  made  by  the  experimenter — should  be  given,  from 
which  the  subject  draws  conclusions  as  to  what  he  is  expected 
to  do.  We  have  to  take  into  account  the  quick  perception 
which  a  hypnotic  possesses  and  his  desire  to  carry  out  every 
suggestion  made  by  the  experimenter.  Certainly,  Charcot's 
pupil,  Richer,  maintained  that  in  their  experiments,  which 
were  varied  a  thousandfold,  the  results  were  always  identical, 
and  that  imitation  was  excluded.  But  we  may  conclude  from 
a  statement  of  Vigouroux,  who  excludes  the  deltoid  muscle 
from  the  law  of  neuro-muscular  activity,  that  the  thing  is  not 
so  plain.  Gilles  de  la  Tourette  also  states  that  the  results 
were  only  attained  after  long  previous  experiment.  But,  how- 
.  ever  great  may  have  been  the  tendency  occasioned  by  the  rise 
of  the  Nancy  school  to  deny  the  occurrence  of  the  physioil 


84  HYPNOTISM. 

reflexes  mentioned  above,  defenders  of  those  reflexes  continue 
to  crop  up  from  time  to  time,  and  quite  distinct  from  Charcot's 
own  pupils. 

Among  these  we  must  reckon  Obersteiner,  who  describes  the  following 
experiment  performed  on  himself: — **  When  I  was  in  light  hypnosis  and 
the  skin  of  my  hand  on  the  ulnar  side  was  stroked,  I  expected  that  the 
little  finger  would  be  bent ;  instead  of  that,  to  my  surprise,  it  was 
abducted.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  beneath  the  irritated  portion  of  the  skin 
lay  not  the  flexor,  but  the  abductor  digiti  minimi,  of  which,  in  my  half- 
sleeping  state,  I  had  not  thought."  However  exact  this  statement  may 
be,  I  would  not  accept  it  as  an  argument  against  the  suggestive  origin  of 
contractures.  That  Obersteiner,  after  hypnosis  was  over,  believed  he  had 
not  thought  of  the  abductor  proves  nothing,  for  there  might  very  well 
have  been  a  deception  of  memory.  Even  if  we  admit  that  this  was  not 
the  case,  Obersteiner  knew  the  exact  position  of  the  muscle,  although  the 
fact  never  came  into  consciousness  during  hypnosis.  I  may  here  refer  to 
the  sub-consciousness  which  I  shall  have  to  speak  of  more  particularly  later 
on.  We  shall  then  find  that  experiences  that  we  have  once  gone  through, 
but  which  have  momentarily  become  unconscious,  may  still  influence  our 
action.  For  this  reason  Obersteiner's  experiment  is  not  an  unconditional 
proof  of  his  view. 

SchafTer,  also,  has  attempted,  in  a  very  exhaustive  work,  to  demonstrate 
the  existence  of  physical  reflexes  in  hypnosis.  He  was  able  tb  produce 
contractures  by  various  sensory  stimuli,  by  stimulation  not  only  of  touch, 
but  of  the  ear,  and  especially  of  the  retina.  In  unilateral  stimulation  the 
contractures  always  appeared  on  the  stimulated  side.  Schaffer  believes 
that  he  has  excluded  suggestion.  In  bilateral  stimulation  the  contractions 
appeared  on  both  sides.  When  one  side  was  made  anaesthetic,  sensory 
stimuli  on  that  side  were  inoperative.  On  the  other  hand.  Schaffer  could 
also  produce-,  contractions  by  suggesting  any  sensory  impression.  The 
same  thing  then  happened  as  if  the  sensory  stimulus  had  really  been 
applied.  On  the  ground  of  this  observation,  Schaffer  concluded  that  the 
reflex  path  is  through  the  cerebral  cortex ;  yet  he  does  not  consider 
himself  justified  in  admitting  suggestion.  Schaffer  also  points  out  that 
Laufenauer  and  Hogyes  have  established  the  existence  of  neuro-iHuscular 
and  senso-muscular  hyper-excitability  under  conditions  in  which  su^estion 
was  excluded.  The  mere  use  of  the  term  **  suggestion  "  is  certainly  no 
proof  of  the  inaccuracy  of  all  these  investigations.  For  even  if,  as  often 
happens,  due  attention  is  not  paid  to  suggestion  as  a  possible  source  of 
error,  we  have  no  right  to  ascribe  everything  straightway  to  suggestion ; 
on  the  other  hand,  Schaffer  gives  us  no  definite  proof  of  the  absence  of 
suggestion  in  the  production  of  the  reflexes  in  question. 

There  is  another  point  which  I  must  also  discuss,  and  which  seems  to 
tell  against  the  mental  origin  of  many  of  the  phenomena.  Schaffet 
endeavours  in  his  work  to  weaken  one  of  the  arguments  brought  forward 
by  me  against  the  conception  that  the  phenomena  are  induced  by  physical 
means.  Now,  we  saw  in  the  fourth  experiment  (p.  35)  that  during  deep 
hypnosis  the  subject  could  only  be  influenced  by  one  persop,  the  ex- 
perimenter with  whom  he  was  en  rapport,  as  the  phrase  goes.  As  we 
here  saw,  the  experimenter  alone  could  induce  contractures,  attentats  at 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  85 

stimulation  by  other  persons  were  unavailing.  Charcot's  pupils  also 
mention  this  phenomenon.  They  state  that  during  the  somnambulic 
stage  only  the  few  persons  who  are  en  rapport  with  the  hynoptized  subject 
can  influence  the  latter*s  muscles  by  stimulating  his  skin.  That  the 
contractures  should  arise  without  participation  of  consciousness  would  be 
incomprehensible.  Against  this,  Schaffer  asserts  that  in  his  experiments 
any  one  could  induce  the  contractures.  That  would  apparently  tell  in 
favour  of  the  upholders  of  physical  influence.  To  this  we  may  reply  as 
follows : — All  the  cages  in  which  contracture  can  only  be  induced  by  the 
experimenter  prove  that  mental  influence  is  at  work.  It  very  far  from 
follows  that  suggestion  plays  no  part  in  all  those  cases  .in  which,  in  spite 
of  the  rapport  existing  between  subject  and  experimenter,  other  persons 
can  also  induce  contractures.  Here,  as  is  so  frequently  the  case,  we  have 
to  deal  with  the  fact  that  a  hypnotized  subject  may  be  trained  to  respond 
unconsciously — or,  to  express  it  better,  subconsciously — to  certain  influences 
which  may  be  exerted  by  all  those  present. 

Schaffer  having  with  particular  acumen  brought  about  a 
discussion  of  the  question  whether  we  have  to  do  with  reflex 
action  or  suggestion,  it  is  necessary,  if  we  would  avoid  any 
misunderstanding,  to  point  out  that  physiologists  very  often 
associate  two  sorts  of  reflexes — the  physical  and  the  mental. 

.  In  order  to  make  this  clear  I  must  say  a  few  words  about  reflex  action. 
We  understand  by  reflex  action  of  the  muscles  that  action  which  is  induced 
by  excitation  of  a  sensory  nerve,  without  the  co-operation  of  the  will.  When 
an  insect  flies  into  the  eye,  the  latter  closes  ;  this  closing  is  reflex  because  it 
is  involuntarily.  Let.  us  take  the  following  case : — I  touch  the  eye  of  a 
person,  A, ;  the  eye  closes  in  consequence  by  reflex  action,  without  the 
participation  of  A.'s  will.  I  now  bring  my  hand  near  to  the  eye  of  another 
person,  B.;  long  before  it.is  touched  it  closes,  and  does  so  against  B.'s  will. 
The  closing  of  B.'s  eye  is  also  reflex  action ;  the  stimulation  here  affects 
the  nerves  of  sight.  And  yet  there  is  a  difference  between  the  two  cases.. 
While  in  the  case  of  A.  no  mental  action  is  necessary  to  produce  the  reflex, 
in  the  case  of  B.  it  is  otherwise.  He  shuts  his  eye  because  he  imagines  it 
will  be  touched — at  least,  this  is  the  general  opinion.  If  B.  puts  his  own 
finger  near  his  eye  it  does  not  close,  because  this  idea  does  not  then  arise. 
In  any  case,  a  mental  action  takes  place  in  B.,  but  not  in  A.  On  this 
account  we;^all  the  closing  of  B/s  eye  a  mental  reflex,  and  A.'s  a  physical 
one.  The  mental  reflexes  are  extremely  common ;  stooping  at  the  whistling 
of  a  bullet,  laughing  at  the  sight  of  a  clown,  sickness  produced  by  a  dis- 
gusting smell,  are  mental  reflexes.  The  involuntary  muscular  action  is 
caused  by  a  stimulation  of  the  eye,  ear,  or  sense  of  smell,  after  the  stimu- 
lation has  been  interpreted  in  a  particular  way  by  the  consciousness. 

*      k 

The  classification  of  the  reflexes  into  physical  and  mental  is 
not  valueless  for  us;  I  think  it  better  at  present  to  keep  to 
this  classification,  although  it  is  only  schematic,  and  although 
Lewes  supposed  a  mental  action  in  all  reflexes.     Gurney,  Max' 


S6  HYPNOTISM. 

Dessoir,  and  Hückel  have  directed  attention  to  the  importance 
of  mental  reflexes  for  hypnosis.  Heidenhain  and  Charcot 
denied  any  mental  action  in  the  contractures  they  induced; 
the  Nancy  school,  on  the  contrary,  believes  that  it  occurs, 
that  the  subject  knows  what  is  intended  to  result,  but  that  his 
will  is  unable  to  prevent  the  contracture;  this  is  called  a 
suggestion,  and  is  therefore  only  a  kind  of  mental  reflex. 
Consequently  the  question  put  forward  above,  whether 
Heidenhain*s  and  Charcot's  contractures  are  reflexes,  may 
be  thus  modified :  Have  we  to  do  as  these  authors  suppose 
with  physical  reflexes,  or  with  mental  ones  ? 

The  phenomena  of  echolalia  (imitative  speech),  described  by  Heidenhain 
and  Berger,  belong  to  this  action.  Berger  says  that  hypnotics  will  repeat 
everything  that  is  said  before  them,  like  phonographs ;  even  what  is  said 
in  foreign  languages  is  repeated  with  some  exactness.  Heidenhain  and 
Berger  believed  that  only  particular  tracts  of  the  bodily  surface  (the 
stomach  or  the  neck)  are  suitable  for  the  production  of  this  imitation  by 
means  of  stimulation.  They  came  to  this  conclusion  because  they  were 
not  as  yet  acquainted  with  the  significance  of  suggestion.  In  reality  the 
hypnotic  echoes  what  he  believes  he  is  intended  to  echo.  It  is  certain 
that  some  persons  are  able  to  perform  great  feats  in  this  way,  imitating  a 
hitherto  unknown  language  quickly  and  correctly,  particularly  after  the 
necessary  practice. 

Other  reflexes,  also,  which  are  induced  by  touching  certain  parts  of  the 
cranium,  the. appearance  of  aphasia,  or  of  twitchings  or  contractures  in  the 
arm  or  leg,  should  be  understood  in  the  same  way.  Statements  of  this 
kind  were  made  by  Heidenhain,  and  have  been  repeated  lately  by  Silva, 
Binet,  and  F^re.  These  last  even  believe  that  they  can  place  single 
limbs  in  the  somnambulic  state  by  stimulating  the  parts  of  the  head 
which  correspond  to  the  motor  centres  of  the  limbs  concerned.  They  also 
refer  to  the  phrenology  of  Gall,  and  Chalande  even  wishes  to  study  the 
physiology  of  the  brain  in  the  same  way  (Delboeuf).  Braid  described 
similar  phenomena,  which  he  called  phreno-hypnotic,  and  conjectured 
that  there  was  a  kind  of  reflex  stimulus.  By  pressure  on  a  portion  of  the 
skull  a  nerve  was  stimulated  which  by  reflex  action  excited  a  part  of  the 
brain,  and  by  this  means  aroused  feelings  of  benevolence,  for  example  ; 
by  stimulating  another  spot  another  nerve  was  excited,  which  by  reflex 
action  produced  an  expression  of  piety,  etc. 

Hypnosis  of  one  side  (hemi-hypnosis)  may  also  be  explained 
as  a  phenomenon  of  suggestion.  Braid  thought  that  by  blowing 
on  one  eye  the  corresponding  side  could  be  awakened.  Des- 
courtis,  Charcot,  Dumontpallier,  Berillon,  Lupine,  Strohl,  as 
well  as  Grützner,  Heidenhain,  and  Berger,  who  were  under 
Kayser's  influence,  carried  on  these  experiments  in  various 
modified  forms ;  Berger  later  on  changed  his  views.     Though 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  8/ 

these  authors  regarded  hemi-hypnosis  as  a  physiological 
condition  induced  by  the  closing  of  one  eye  or  by  friction 
of  one  half  of  the  scalp,  their  statements  do  not  now  prove 
their  point.  We  know  that  we  can  produce  all  these  states 
by  mental  influence,  and  suggestion  must  be  excluded  before 
the  experiments  can  be  considered  conclusive.  The  state- 
ments made  by  the  various  authors  are.  so  contradictory  on 
this  point  that  they  only  increase  one's  doubts.  Sometimes 
stroking  the  right  side  of  the  head  was  supposed  to  make  the. 
left  half  of  the  body  hypnotic ;  sometimes  the  result  followed, 
on  the  right  side.  The  main  point  is  that  the  subject  shalL 
know  what  is  intended  to  happen  to  him,  and  what  effect  is 
expected  from  the  processes.  Hemi-hypnosis  has  even  been 
utilized  for  drawing  such  far-reaching  conclusions  as  that  the 
two  cerebral  hemispheres  act  independently  of  each  other. 
Grasset  has  recently  assumed  this  view,  and  considers  the 
assumption  justified  even  if  the  hemi-hypnosis  is  attributed  to 
suggestion.  I  do  not  deny  the  relative  independence  of  the 
functions  of  the  two  hemispheres ;  but  hemi-hypnosis  proves 
nothing  that  is  not  equally  well  demonstrated  by  every  pianist 
who  plays  somewhat  differently  with  his  right  hand  than  with  his 
left,  or  by  any  individual  who  moves  his  right  arm  but  keeps 
his  left  still,  or  tosses  his  right  leg  about  while  the  left  is 
allowed  to  remain  at  rest.  I  think  it  is  better  to  have  nothing 
to  do  with  this  sort  of  physiology. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  preceding  considerations,  that  in 
hypnosis  the  influence  of  suggested  ideas  on  the  voluntary 
muscles  is  very  extensive.  Let  us  now  see  whether  certain 
other  peculiarities  in  the  functions  of  the  muscles,  due  either 
to  suggestion  or  some  other  cause,  appear  in  hypnosis. 

The  cataleptic  posture  of  the  limbs  is  sometimes  maintained 
for  a  very  long  time,  even  for  several  hours.  One  person 
remained  for  seventeen  hours  in  a  cataleptic  posture.  Berger 
mentions  the  case  of  a  young  girl  who  maintained  this  con- 
dition without  perceptible  change  for  seven  hours,  during 
which  she  was  continually  watched.  In  these  cases  the  fatigue 
and  pain  which  ordinarily  follow  on  great  muscular  exertion 
do  not  ensue.  Great  fatigue  rarely  results  even  when  the  same 
position  *is  maintained  for  so  long  as  an  hour;  still,  this  is  not 
necessarily  the  rule.  Certain  differences  which  Binet  and  Fere 
think  they  have  found  between  the  curve-tracings  in  suggested 


88  HYPNOTISM. 

catalepsy  and  those  obtained  in  the  simulated  form  will  be 
dealt  with  by  me  later  on,  in  the  section  on  Simulation. 

Dynamometric  investigations — that  is,  measurements  of  the 
muscular  force — -have  often  been  undertaken  during  hypnosis.  I 
myself  have  made  a  number  of  such  experiments,  which  for 
the  most  part  agreed  with  the  results  of  Beaunis.  The  most  im- 
portant part  appears  tjo  me  to  be  that  in  most  cases  the  muscular 
force  is  lessened  in  hypnosis.  I  have  made  these  investiga- 
tions during  the  different  hypnotic  states,  and  have  but  rarely 
found  an  increase.  However,  there  are  variations,  and  I  have 
occasionally  seen  the  strength  of  one  hand  increase  while  that 
of  the  other  diminished.  I  have  also  obtained  different  results 
at  different  times  with  the  same  person.  When  there  were 
such  variations  they  were  always  of  small  amount,  and  they 
are  the  less  important  because  all  dynamometrical  investigations 
suffer  from  certain  sources  of  error.  In  opposition  to  the 
conclusions  which  have  been  drawn  from  the  investigations 
just  detailed,  Luys  points  out  that  in  hypnosis  the  muscular 
force  sometimes  increases  simultaneously  with  the  loss  of 
sensibility — the  increase  being  at  times  two-fold.  But  it  would 
be  far-fetched  to  conclude  from  this  that  the  increase  in  the 
muscular  force  is  dependent  on  the  disturbance  in  the 
sensibility.  Carpenter  reports  that  the  muscular  force  may 
often  be  increased  by  suggestion.  One  of  Braid's  patients, 
who  had  been  so  weak  for  years  that  he  could  not  lift  even  a 
twenty-pound  weight,  .was  enabled,  by  means  of  suggestion, 
to  pick  up  a  twenty-five  pound  weight  with  his  little  finger 
and  swing  it  easily  round  his  head.  On  another  occasion  the 
same  subject  raised  a  fifty-pound  weight  to  his  knee  on  the 
last  joint  of  his  fore-finger  (Bramwell). 

Let  me  take  this  opportunity  of  discussing  the  muscular 
sense.  This  sense  instructs  us  as  to  the  position  and  move- 
ments of  our  limbs.  Its  existence  is  consequently  necessary 
for  the  performance  of  any  useful  function.  There  could  be 
no  artistic  skill  without  the  muscular  sense.  Braid  relates  that 
a  hypnotized  girl  once  imitated  some  of  the  songs  of  the  famous 
Jenny  Lind  perfectly,  which  she  was  quite  incapable  of  doing 
in  the  waking  state.  Braid  attributes  this  fact  to  the  delicacy 
of  hearing  and  of  the  muscular  sense  in  the  hypnotic  state. 
Some  cases  of  imitative  speech  (echolalia),  which'  can  be 
cultivated  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  would  belong  here. 
But  whether  the  delicacy  of  the  muscular  sense  is  increased  in 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  •     89 

hypnosis  without  suggestion  is  more  than  doubtful.  Döllken, 
indeed,  holds  the  contrary  view.  He  experimented  on  the 
subject's  capability  of  denoting  the  position  of  his  (the  sub- 
ject's) limbs,  and  found  the  answers  inexact  or  confused  unless 
the  hypnotic  was  given  time  for  reflection.  Döllken  found 
that  a  short  pause  for  reflection  sufficed  to  produce  the  right 
answer.  Those  alterations  in  the  handwriting  which  Döllken 
and  others  have  noticed  in  hypnosis  are  perhaps  referable  to 
a  diminution  in  the  muscular  sense.  Anyway,  the  muscular 
sense  can  be  influenced  by  hypnosis.  It  is  interesting  to  learn 
that  absence  of  the  muscular  sense  has  often  been  observed  in 
cases  of  total  anaesthesia  of  one  arm,  although  voluntary  move- 
ment of  the  limb  in  question  has  been  retained.  We  have 
here  a  condition  like  that  met  with  in  locomotor  ataxy. 
Sufferers  from  the  latter  disease  can  perform  any  operation, 
such  as  writing,  correctly,  provided  their  eyes  remain  open,  but 
can  only  do  such  actions  imperfectly  directly  their  eyes  are 
closed  (William  James  and  Carnochan). 

The  muscular  sense  enables  us  to  estimate  the  weight  of 
any  object  placed  in  our  hand,  because  we  adjust  the  activity 
of  the  muscles  called  into  play  to  the  weight  of  the  object 
dealt  with.  Bramwell  and  Alcock  made  certain  experiments 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  muscular  sense  in  hypnosis. 
They  used  little  boxes  of  different  weight  and  .experimented 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  if  hypnotic  suggestion  enabled 
a  subject  to  detect  minuter  differences  in  weight  than  he  could 
in  the  waking  state.  The  experiments  seemed  to  point  to  such 
a  possibility;  but  Bramwell  expresses  no  definite  opinion  on 
the  question,  and,  moreover,  does  not  appear  to  consider  the 
experiments  conclusive. 

We  may  here  consider  the  electric  excitability  of  the  muscles 
and  nerves,  to  which  little  attention  has  hitherto  been  paid. 
Moritz  Rosenthal  finds  an  increase  of  electric  sensibility  in 
hypnosis.  Tereg  also  found  changes  in  one  case,  which,  how- 
ever, was  investigated  without  the  galvanometer;  and  Marina 
has  done  the  same  in  the  case  of  a  person  in  the  waking 
state,  who,  however,  had  often  been  hypnotized.  I,  for  my 
part,  like  Heidenhain,  Berger,  and  Rieger,  have  been  unable 
to  discover  anything  of  importance  in  this  direction.  I  have 
tried  more  than  a  hundred  different  experiments  without  find- 
ing a  perceptible  difference  on  this  point  between  the  hypnotic 
and  waking  states.     I  made  my  experiments  with  the  galvanic 


go  HYPNOTISM. 

and  faradic  current;  I  used  Hirschmann's  galvanometer,  and 
made  most  of  the  experiments  on  the  uhiar  nerve  just  above 
the  elbow.  I  have  already  said  that  the  electric  excitability  is 
decreased  in  certain  suggested  paralyses.  I  may  here  just 
mention  that  according  to  Morselli  and  Mendelsohn  the 
muscles  contract  more  quickly  from  stimulation  in  hypnosis 
than  in  the  waking  state. 

I  have  thoroughly  discussed  above  the  question  whether 
new  reflexes  appear  in  hypnosis,  and  it  consequently  now 
remains  for  us  to  consider  how  the  ordinary  reflexes  behave 
in  that  state.  I  have  already  spoken  of  the  tendon  reflexes, 
which  are  said  to  be  increased  in  the  lethargic  stage  of 
Charcot,  and  in  certain  paralyses  by  suggestion.  Berger  has 
also  observed  an  increase  of  the  patellar  reflex.  On  the  other 
hand,  Vogt  found,  in  his  investigations  on  the  influence  of 
certain  mental  conditions  on  the  knee-jerk  and  muscular  tonus, 
that  the  knee-jerk  lost  in  intensity.  Vogt  experimented  on  his 
wife,  Frau  Cecile  Vogt.  In  these  investigations  it  was  found 
that  the  muscular  tonus  was  diminished  as  well  as  the  knee- 
jerk,  and  Vogt  considers  that  his  researches  have  thoroughly 
demonstrated  the  dependence  of  the  strength  of  the  knee-jerk 
on  that  of  the  muscular  tonus.  Like  Berger,  I  have  often 
noticed  changes  in  the  knee-jerk.  But  it  seems  that  the  type 
of  hypnosis  and  the  kind  of  suggestion  play  a  great  part  in  this 
respect.  We  are  thus  enabled  to  explain  an  increase  of  tendon 
reflexes  in  cases  of  suggested  paralysis  and  when  the  muscles 
are  completely  relaxed,  and  a  decrease  of  those  reflexes  in 
cataleptic  postures.  Of  course  this  increase  must  not  be 
regarded  as  a  phenomenon  peculiar  to  hypnosis,  since  apart 
from  hypnosis  the  tendon  reflexes  are  more  perceptible  when 
the  muscles  are  relaxed  than  when  they  are  contracted. 

With  regard  to  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  Braid  has  already 
mentioned  a  diflerence  between  its  states  in  hypnosis  and  in 
sleep.  In  sleep  there  is  a  contraction  of  the  pupil,  but  Braid, 
and  later  on  Heidenhain,  often  found  it  dilated  in  hypnosis. 
I  have  never  observed  the  latter  phenomenon  except  when  I 
have  employed  the  method  of  fixed  attention ;  at  other  times 
I  have  more  often  found  contraction  of  the  pupil.  I  can 
confirm  Braid's  assertion  that  oscillations  of  the  pupil  appear 
not  infrequently  in  fixation ;  contraction  and  dilatation  here 
alternate   rapidly.      Spasm   of  accommodation   is  also   often 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  91 

mentioned  (Heidenhain,  Cohn,  Rumpf).  The  assertion  that 
the  pupil  reflexes  are  abnormal  in  hypnosis  is  often  met  with 
(Luys,  Bacchi).  It  is  said  that  a  ray  of  light  does  not  in-^ 
variably  cause  a  contraction  of  the  pupil  during  hypnosis. 
I  have  never  observed  a  complete  absence  of  the  reflex,  but 
I  have  often  remarked  very  slight  reaction  when  I  have  used 
the  method  of  fixed  attention  for  a  considerable  length  of  time 
to  induce  hypnosis.  Whether  this  was  an  effisct  of  fixation  or 
of  the  hypnosis  is  doubtful;  I  am  inclined  to  consider  the 
prolonged  fixation  as  the  cause.  Sgrosso  noticed  dilatation  of 
the  pupils  in  his  two  subjects  on  the  appearance  of  hypnosis, 
followed  by  diminished  contraction  during  the  state. 

We  shall  see  later  on  that  the  reflexes  can  be  affected  by  the 
action  of  suggestion  on  sense-pierception.  For  example,  the 
conjunctiva  of  the  eye  can  be  rendered  insensitive  by  sugges- 
tion, so  that  it  may  be  touched  without  producing  the  corre- 
sponding reflex. 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  hardly  studied  any  but  those 
changes  which  appear  in  the  voluntary  motor  system  during 
hypnosis.  The  hypnoses  of  the  first  group  (p.  59)  are  char- 
acterized by  these  changes,  which,  however,  are  invariably 
found  in  the  second  group  also.  The  hypnotic  states  belong- 
ing to  this  group  are,  however,  distinguished  by  an  increase 
of  susceptibility  to  suggestion ;  the  functions  of  the  organs  of 
sense  in  particular  are  influenced  by  it.  The  statements  of 
different  authors  as  to  how  these  functions  are  performed  in 
hypnosis  without  suggestion  are  very  contradictory.  Some 
investigators  (Beaunis,  Lajoie,  David)  assume  that  in  hypnosis 
without  suggestion  sense-perception  does  not  deviate  from  the 
normal;  but  others  hold  the  opinion  that  hypnosis  alone — 
i.e,^  without  suggestion — exerts  an  influence  on  the  organs  of 
sense.  But  the  views  of  the  various  authors  differ  very  con- 
siderably on  the  question  of  details.  Some  will  not  for  one 
moment  admit  that  any  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down. 
Ochorowicz,  for  instance,  opines  that  any  kind  of  combination 
between  inhibition  and  increase,  may  take  place,  and  that,  in 
this  respect,  there  are  just  as  many  forms  of  hypnosis  as  of 
subjects  hypnotized.  Others,  again,  think  they  are  in  a 
position  to  set  forth  certain  definite  laws  on  the  changes  in 
sense-perception.  Braid  distinguishes  two  grades  in  hypnosis. 
In  one  an  increased  activity  of  sense  is  shown,  except  in  the 


92  HYPNOTISM. 

case  of  the  sense  of  sight,  and  in  the  other  a  diminution  of  it. 
It  is  evident  that  Braid  not  only  found  that  sense-percepttom 
in  hypnosis  varied  according  to  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis,  but 
that  he  made  a  distinction  in  this  respect  between  the  various 
organs  of  sense,  contrasting  that  of  sight  with,  the  others. 
We  also  find  analogous  views  expressed  by  more  recent 
investigators,  although  their  statements  as  to  the  individual 
organs  of  sense  differ  essentially  from  Braid's.  Liebault*  found 
changes  in  the  functions  of  the  organs  of  sense  during  deep 
hypnosis.  According  to  him,  the  senses  of  sight  and  taste 
diminish  first,  then  the  sense  of  smell,  and  finally  hearing  and 
feeling  disappear.  But  when  the  method  of  fixed  attention 
is  used,  sight  is  the  last  to  go.  Crocq  considers  that  the  extent 
of  the  changes  under  discussion  is  determined  by  the  depth 
of  the  hypnosis;  he,  moreover,  made  inquiries  of  difierent 
investigators  as  to  the  condition  of  sense-perception,  mental 
power,  and  more  particularly  memory,  in  the  subjects  whom 
they  had  hypnotized,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  we  may 
lay  down  the  general  rule — subject,  of  course,  to  some  excep- 
tions— that  the  deeper  the  hypnosis,  the  greater  the  diminution 
in  the  sensibility  of  the  skin  and  in  the  functions  of  the  other 
organs  of  sense.  Crocq  makes  a  general  exception  in  the  case 
of  the  sense  of  hearing,  because  the  experimenter  is  in  verbal 
communication  with  the  subject,  and  involuntarily  suggests  to 
the  latter  that  he  must  continue  to  hear.  De  Jong  also  thinks 
that  the  state  of  the  sense-perceptions  depends  on  the  depth 
of  the  hypnosis,  and  that  one  is  justified  in  saying  that  as  a 
rule  these  perceptions  are  diminished  in  the  somnambulic 
stage. 

This  branch  of  the  question  has  been  rigorously  investigated 
by  Döllken,  who  has  published  his  results  in  a  valuable  work. 
He  was  unable  to  detect  any  quite  definite  and  regular 
sequence  of  the  phenomena  as  far  as  the  individual  organs 
of  sense  are  concerned.  The  individuality  of  the  subject,  and 
the  method  of  hypnosis  employed,  each  plays  a  part  in  this 
respect.  The  perceptive  faculty  of  the  visual  organ  is  usually 
the  first  function  diminished,  a  result  which  is  ceftainly  brought 
about  by  hypnotic  suggestion.  Suggestion  of  this  nature  can 
only  very  rarely  be  avoided.  Döllken  found  that  by  excluding 
any  possible  action  of  verbal  suggestion  on  the  other  senses 
that  of  touch  remained  longest  intact,  though  in  some  cases 
the  same  held  good  for  the  sense  of  hearing.     Döllken  did  not 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  93 

fail,  to  perceive  a  diminution  of  the  perceptive  faculty  in  any 
of  his  cases,  not  even  in  his  own  personal  experience  of  being 
hypnotized  for  the  first  time,  when  he  only  fell  into  a  somnolent 
state.  "  First  of  all  the  various  articles  in  the  room  became 
less  distinct,  their  outlines  less  clearly  defined ;  then  I  became 
indifferent  to  the  *  passes,'  which  I  had  found  very  unpleasant 
at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment.  At  about  the  same 
time  I  became  no  longer  able  to  detect  the  smell  of  a  medica- 
ment which  permeated  the  room.  Finally  the  noise  in  the 
street  appeared  less  loud."  DöUken  also  investigated  the 
phenomena  of  deep  hypnosis ;  but  he  was  unable  to  discover 
any  law  connecting  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis  with  any  par- 
ticular phenomenon  produced.  The  only  thing  he  could 
establish  was  that  the  deeper  the  hypnosis  in  one  and  the 
same  case,  the  greater  also  the  diminution  in  the  perceptive 
faculty.  This  condition,  however,  often  improved  if  the  ex- 
periments were  continued  for  some  time.  Döllken  believes 
that  he  excluded  all  disturbing  influences  of  the  nature  of 
suggestion.  With  regard  to  the  eye,  all  degrees  of  amblyopia 
were  met  with,  even  to  deep  amaurosis.  In  one  case  he  found 
the  vision  -^-^  on  one  occasion,  but  -^^  on  another,  whereas  it 
was  normally  f.  In  another  case  he  found  that  in  several 
experiments  vision  was  first  of  -/^  and  then  ^.  With  regard  to 
the  sense  of  hearing,  as  the  hypnosis  proceeds  the  noises  in 
the  street  appear  more  distant  and  at  last  inaudible,  then  the 
sounds  in  the  room  die  away — for  example,  the  ticking  of  the 
clock.  Finally,  the  experimenter's  voice  becomes  less  audible 
to  the  subject,  even  if  he  raises  his  voice.  More  detailed 
investigation  showed  that  whispering  which  could  be  heard  at 
a  distance  of  6  metres  in  the  non-hypnotic  state,  was  inaudible 
at  3  metres  or  less.  The  ticking  of  a  watch,  which  can  normally 
be  heard  at  1.8  metres,  was  inaudible  when  placed  close  to 
the  subject's  ear.  Döllken  also  tested  the  sense  of  smell,  using 
for  that  purpose  soap,  ether,  roses,  cloves,  and  violets.  The 
most  frequent  phenomenon  here  noticed  was  failure  to  dis- 
tinguish accurately  between  the  perfumes  of  the  flowers.  In 
some  cases  no  notice  whatever  was  taken  of  the  proximity  of 
the  object.  Döllken  did  not  examine  the  sense  of  taste,  but 
his  investigations  of  that  of  touch  were  very  thorough.  In  the 
first  place,  he  found  a  diminution  just  to  the  extent  that 
greater  pressure  is  required  to  produce  the  sensation  of  touch 
in  hypnosis  than  in  the  waking  state.     This  implies  a  diminu- 


94  HYPNOTISM. 

tion  in  the  sense  of  pressure.  The  power  of  localization  is  also 
less  than  in  the  waking  state.  If  a  patient  was  asked  to  state 
at  once  the  spot  on  which  he  was  touched,  the  error  was  from 
I  to  5  cm.  more  than  under  normal  conditions;  for  example, 
5  cm.  on  the  forearm  and  3  cm.  on  the  back  of  the  hand  of 
one  subject  While  the  error  in  the  case  of  the  cheek  was 
less  than  i  cm.  under  normal  conditions,  it  increased  to 
2-3  cm.  when  the  subject  was  hypnotized.  Certainly  Döllken 
thinks  that  the  source  of  error  is  increased  in  hypnotics, 
because  hypnosis  renders  their  movements  somewhat  slower. 
The  "  compass  test "  also  showed  variation.  The  two  points 
of  a  compass  were  recognized  as  two  tactual  impressions  on 
the  back  of  the  hand  at  45  mm.  (normal,  30-35  mm.);  on  the 
forearm,  60  mm.  (normal,'  36-39  mm.);  on  the  chin,  15  mm. 
(normal,  8-1 1  mm.);  on  the  cheek,  15  mm.  (normal,  10-13 
mm.).  After  a  series  of  experiments  the  above  values  under- 
went a  change  and  rapidly  approached  the  normal.  Döllken 
was  unable  to  discover  any  essential  difference  between  the  im- 
pressions of  "pointed"  and  "blunt,"  but  he  certainly  occasionally 
found  a  decrease  in  the  perception  of  temperature. 

Differences  of  opinion  also  have  been  expressed  as  to 
whether  the  sensation  of  pain  can  diminish,  or  disappear, 
without  suggestion.  Berger  found  an  increased  sensitiveness 
to  pain  in  some  cases.  Still,  in  the  present  day,  we  are 
certainly  justified  in  assuming  that  the  Breslau  investigator 
could  not  possibly  have  known  at  the  time  he  made  his 
experiments  how  carefully  the  influence  of  suggestion  must 
be  excluded.  Döllken  never  observed  a  complete  analgesia 
without  suggestion,  but  he  assuredly  did  see  some  cases  in 
which  the  prick  of  a  needle  either  produced  no  pain,  or  the 
sensitiveness  to  pain  was  diminished. 

Up  to  this  point  I  have  discussed  the  condition  of  the 
sense-perceptions  when  the  influence  of  suggestion  is  excluded, 
and  1  have  already  mentioned  that  some  investigators  only 
admit  changes  in  sense-impression  in  those  cases  in  which 
suggestion  plays  a  part.  On  the  other  hand,  as  I  pointed  out 
very  many  years  ago,  we  possess  many  data  which  show  that 
where  variations  in  sense-perception  occur  during  hypnosis, 
sufficient  attention  is  not  paid  to  the  difference  in  the  way  the 
hypnotic  behaves  in  respect  to  different  objects  and  people. 
For  example,  it  often  happens  that  the  hypnotic  hears  the 
voice,  and  feels  the  touch,  of  the  person  who  has  sent  him  to 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  95 

sleep,  but  not  of  any  one  else.  Marot  has  observed — ^and  this 
observation  has  been  made  by  many  other  investigators — that 
if  any  one  runs  a  needle  into  a  hypnotic  the  latter  first  of  all 
feels  it,  but  ceases  to  do  so  as  soon  as  it  is  suggested  to  him 
that  the  person  who  pricked  him  has  gone  away.  This  selective 
factor  has  great  influence  on  the  perceptions  of  a  hypnotic. 
Certainly  it  may  be  objected  that  this  selective  factor  is  only 
a  product  of  suggestion.  We  shall  come  across  it  again,  and 
in  its  most  conspicuous  form,  when  dealing  with  rapport. 
In  fact,  we  should  here  bear  in  mind  that  suggestion,  with  its 
many  forms,  may  act  without  our  intending  it  to  do  so,  or 
observing  its  effects.  We  must  also  take  into  consideration 
the  great  part  played  by  auto-suggestion ;  and  we  must  bear 
firmly  in  mind,  that  it  is  just  in  auto-suggestion  that  many 
factors  exert  their  influence  when  the  subject  is  on  the  border- 
land of  consciousness,  so  that  the  hypnotic  does  not  always 
clearly  understand  the  connection  between  the  idea  produced 
by  suggestion  and  the  way  in  which  suggestion  itself  works. 
But  even  if  w^  admit  this,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  we  are 
not  justified  in  attempting  to  explain  all  the  processes  con- 
'  cerned  by  merely  using  the  word  "suggestion";  we  should 
then  have  to  attribute  to  that  word  a  wider  meaning  than  we 
ever  think  of  doing  in  the  present  day.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  when  any  one  is  in  a  state  of  deep  hypnosis,  analgesia 
or  some  other  diminution  of  sense-perception  may  occur  spon- 
taneously, without  the  influence  of  suggestion.  This  symptom 
would  then  have  to  be  considered  an  essential  factor  in 
hypnosis,  and  not  the  result  of  a  specially  suggested  idea. 
To  persist  in  calling  this  a  case  of  suggestion  because  the 
hypnosis  was  produced  by  suggestion,  would  be  to  attribute 
to  the  word  suggestion  a  meaning  far  beyond  permissible 
limits.  In  what  we  call  suggestion  there  must  be  at  least  a 
direct  connection  between  the  effect  produced,  and  the  idea 
of  that  effect.  When  this  connection  is  wanting  we  are  not 
justified  in  ascribing  other  mental  connections — association, 
for  example — to  hypnosis,  quite  apart  from  the  fact  that  there 
may  possibly  be  processes  of  a  purely  physiological  nature 
which  lead  to  a  decrease  of  sense-perception  without  the  inter- 
vention of  any  mental  activity  being  demonstrable.  At  all 
events,  I  consider  that  no  proof  has  yet  been  adduced  to 
show  that  all  the  diminutions  of  sense-perception  met  with  in 
hypnosis  are  due  to  suggestion,  as  defined  by  me  on  page  66. 


96  HYPNOTISM. 

No  matter  what  opinion  we  may  hold  on  the  origin  of  those 
diminutions  of  sense-perception  which  we  have  described  up 
to  this  point,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  changes  of 
sense-perception  can  be  brought  about  by  suggestion  in 
hypnosis.  Analgesia^  for  example,  often  exists  to  such  a 
degree  that  the  severest  surgical  operations  can  be  performed 
during  the  state.  It  is  also  known  that  needles  may  be  run 
into  some  persons  during  hypnosis,  without  their  feeling  the 
pain,  though  they  feel  the  touch.  And  yet  a  complete 
analgesia  is  rare  in  hypnosis.  There  is  an  immense  difference 
between  pricking  a  person  with  a  needle  and  using  the  faradic 
brush.  The  pain  caused'  by  the  use  of  the  latter  is  so 
great,  especially  when  the  current  is  sufficiently  strong,  that 
very  few  persons  in  hypnosis  can  endure  it,  even  when  they 
show  no  pain  on  being  pricked  with  a  needle.  At  all  events, 
decreased  sensitiveness  to  pain  can  often  be  induced  by  sugges- 
tion, although  an  absolute,  complete  analgesia  is  rarely  attained 
by  that  means.  Many  cases  described  as  completely  analgesic 
— for  example,  those  of  Tamburini  and  SeppiHi — proved  on 
closer  examination  not  to  be  so,  as  a  strong  faradic  current 
finally  produced  pain.  I  will  just  remark  that  all  kinds  of 
pain  can  be  induced  by  suggestion — the  pain  caused  by  a 
needle,  as  well  as  that  caused  by  a  knife  or  burn.  The  face 
of  the  subject  expresses  pain  in  such  a  manner,  that  an  im- 
partial person  can  hardly  decide  whether  the  pain  is  real  or 
suggested. 

Tactual  sensibility,  the  sense  of  temperature,  etc.,  can  also 
be  anaesthetized  by  suggestion  as  well  as  the  sense  of  pain. 
The  mucous  membranes,  too,  can  be  rendered  insensible. 
The  fumes  of  ammonia  in  the  nose,  and  tickling  the  throat, 
are  not  felt;  the  conjunctiva  can  be  touched  without  pro- 
ducing the  corresponding  reflex ;  even  the  cornea  may  become 
insensitive,  either  spontaneously  or  by  suggestion  (Bramwell). 
Preyer  quotes  the  cynical  experiment  of  an  American  physician, 
Little,  who  thrust  a  needle  through  the  cornea  of  a  hypnotic 
whom  he  suspected  of  simulation,  in  order  to  test  its  insensi- 
bility. But  in  my  experience  these  last-mentioned  phenomena 
are  uncommon.  When  this  anaesthesia  of  the  conjunctiva  and 
cornea  exists  the  eye  no  longer  closes  on  reflex  stimulus ;  but 
this  is  a  consequence  of  the  anaesthesia,  and  not  an  inde- 
pendent phenomenon  (Gurney). 

Attention  must  be  drawn  to  another  phenomenon,  which. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  97 

however,    cannot    be    straightway    ascribed     to     suggestion. 
Döllken,  like  Bechterew,  Lannegrace  and  others,  has  observed 
that  when  there  is  a  general  decrease  in  the  sensibility  of  the 
skin,  the  function  of  the  eye  and  ear  are  also  impaired.     But 
he  never  found  the  opposite  to  be  the  case.     Döllken,  as  well 
as  Schaffer,  further  found  that  when  one  side  of  the  body  was 
made  anaesthetic  by  suggestion  all  the  organs  of  sense  were 
affected ;  there  were  also  motor  disturbances.     For  example, 
in  such  cases  of  hemianaesthesia  by  suggestion  he  observed 
the  following  changes  on  the  anaesthetized  side :— Cessation  of 
the  functions  of  the  senses  of  pain,  touch,  and  temperature ; 
incapacity  for  carrying  out  delicate  movements  with  the  hand, 
extending  in  some  cases  to  loss  of  movement  of  the  upper 
extremity,  also  locomotor  disturbances  and  loss  of  the  power 
to  walk.      The   muscular  force  was  nil,  the  field   of  vision 
apparently  concentrically  narrowed,  the   hearing   less   acute, 
the   sense   of    smell    and    the    muscular   sense    appreciably 
diminished;    finally   there   was   decrease,    and    in   one    case 
cessation,  of  the  patellar  reflex,  even  when  the  muscles  were 
completely    relaxed.       Further,   amaurosis   induced   by   sug- 
gestion was  invariably  accompanied    by   a  decrease  of  the 
functions  of  the  senses  of  smell  and  hearing — a  fact  already 
established  by  Schaffer.      Amblyopia,   hyposmia,  and  slight 
hypaesthesia   were    observed    in    cases   of   deafness   brought 
about  by  suggestion.     Since  Döllken  excluded  the  action  of 
suggestion  in  the  production  of  these  secondary  symptoms, 
they  are  very  remarkable  as  sequelae  of  primary  suggestion. 
If  we  compare  these  secondary  symptoms  with  the  loss  of 
sensation  which  directly  follows  the  loss  of  motor  power  in 
paralysis .  by  suggestion   (p.    72),   the   similarity  of  the   two 
phenomena  strikes  one  at  once.     In  such  cases  as  those  with 
which  we  have  just  been  dealing,  it  is  quite  possible  that 
processes   may   be  at  work   which   we  are  not  justified   in 
ascribing    to    suggestion,   even   if  there   naturally  remain   a 
suspicion  that  the  secondary  symptoms  may  have  been  induced 
by  ideas  unintentionally  suggested. 

I  have  shown  above  that  perceptions  of  each  sense  by 
itself  can  be  prevented  by  suggestion ;  but  hypersesthesioe  of 
the  organs  of  sense  likewise  exist  in  hypnosis.  Whether  these 
come  on  from  suggestion,  or  in  other  ways,  is,  as  mentioned 
above,   not  always   to   be  distinguished   exactly.      Although 


98  HYPNOTISM. 

they  are  not  on  the  whole  very  common,  I  shall  here  add 
some  of  these  very  remarkable  cases.  It  is  exactly  these 
rarer  cases  which  deserve  the  most  careful  consideration,  for 
they  often  offer  us  a  key  to  a  natural  explanation  of  many 
mysterious  phenomena,  such  as  transposition  of  the  senses, 
and  clairvoyance. 

An  increased  sensitiveness  to  touch  has  often  been  observed. 
The  two  points  of  a  compass  are  used  for  measuring  the  least 
distance  between  them  at  which  they  may  be  felt  as  two 
separate  points.  In  this  way  it  has  been  found  that  the 
points  can  be  distinguished  at  a  less  distance  in  hypnosis  than 
in  the  normal  state  (Berger).  I  have  made  a  series  of  ex- 
periments on  this  point  and  can  confirm  Berger's  statements — 
at  least,  I  found  that  suggestion  caused  a  considerable  increase 
of  sensitiveness.  Bramwell  and  Alcock,  who  experimented 
together,  obtained  similar  results.  For  example,  without  sug- 
gestion the  two  points  were  distinguished  on  the  hand  at 
one  inch^  distance ;  under  the  influence  of  suggestion  the 
distance  was  reduced  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Without  sug- 
gestion the  distance  on  the  left  eyebrow  was  one  inch ;  with 
suggestion,  half  an  inch.  I  have  also  experimented  on  patho- 
logical subjects.  In  cases  of  locomotor  ataxy,  with  profound 
anaesthesia,  increased  sensitiveness  has  been  found  when  the 
patients  were  under  the  influence  of  suggestion ;  the  state 
may  continue  some  time  post-hypnotically.  In  one  case  of 
locomotor  ataxy,  I  found  that,  before  hypnosis,  the  two  points 
were  distinguished  at  a  distance  of  6.1  cm.  During  hypnosis 
the  separate  points  were  perceived  at  4.9  cm.  distance,  and 
after  waking,  even  at  4.1  cm.  I  have  recently  repeated  the 
experiments,  always  with  the  same  results.  Lcewenfeld  protests 
that  these  experiments  prove  nothing,  because  variations  of 
sensitiveness  occur  in  cases  of  locomotor  ataxy,  without  sug- 
gestion being  called  into  play.  This  is  a  point  which  I  have 
certainly  not  disputed,  but  it  does  not  tell  against  the  results 
of  my  experiments.  For,  if  immediately  after  suggestion  there 
is  an  increase  of  sensitiveness  which  was  not  demonstrable 
before,  and  which  also  disappears  after  the  lapse  of  a  certain 
amount  of  time,  and  if  the  same  phenomenon  is  frequently 
observed  in  the  same  subject,  then  we  are  certainly  justified  in 
assuming  that  suggestion  has  exerted  its  influence  in  such  a 
case. 

^  I  inch  =  2.54  cm. 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  99 

The  senses  of  pressure  and  temperature  sometimes  become 
much  more  delicate.  The  hypnotic  recognizes  things  at  a 
certain  distance  from  the  skin,  and  this  simply  by  the  increase 
and  decrease  of  temperature  (Braid).  He  walks  about  the 
room  with  bandaged  eyes  or  in  absolute  darkness  without 
striking  against  anything,  because  he  recognizes  objects  by  the 
resistance  of  the  air  and  by  the  alteration  of  temperature 
(Braid,  Poirault,  Drzewiecki).  D'Abundo  produced  enlarge- 
ment of  the  field  of  vision  by  suggestion. 

Bergson  has  described  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  of 
increased  power  of  vision.  This  particular  case  has  been 
cited  as  a  proof  of  supersensual  thought-transference,  but 
Bergson  ascribes  the  result  to  hyperaesthesia  of  the  eye.  In 
this  case  the  hypnotic  was  able  to  read  letters  in  a  book  which 
were  3  mm.  high;  but  the  reading  was  made  possible  by  a 
reflected  image  of  these  letters  in  the  cornea  of  the  experi- 
menter. According  to  calculation,  the  reflected  image  could 
only  have  been  o.i  mm.  (^U  inch)  high.  The  same  person  was 
able  without  using  the  microscope,  to  see  and  draw  the  cells  in  a 
microscopical  section,  which  were  only  0.06  mm.  in  diameter. 
Sauvaire,  after  some  not  quite  irreproachable  experiments, 
supposed  the  existence  of  such  a  hyperaesthesia  of  sight,  that 
a  hypnotic  recognized  non -transparent  playing-cards  by  the 
rays  of  light  passing  through  them.  A  case  of  Taguet's,  in 
which  an  ordinary  piece  of  cardboard  was  used  as  a  mirror,  is 
said  to  have  shown  quite  as  strong  a  hyperaesthesia.  All 
objects  which  were  held  so  that  the  reflected  rays  from  the 
card  fell  on  the  subject's  eye  were  clearly  recognized.  A 
great  increase  of  the  sense  of  smell  was  also  noticed  in  the 
case  in  question.  A  visiting-card  was  torn  into  pieces,  which 
pieces  were  professedly  found  purely  by  the  sense  of  smell ; 
pieces  belonging  to  another  card  were  rejected.  The  subject 
gave  gloves,  keys,  and  pieces  of  money  to  the  persons  to 
whom  they  belonged,  guided  only  by  smell.  Hyperaesthesia 
of  smell  has  often  been  noted  in  other  cases.  Carpenter  states 
that  a  hypnotic  found  the  owner  of  a  particular  glove  among 
sixty  other  persons.  Sauvaire  relates  another  such  case,  in 
which  a  hypnotic,  after  smelling  the  hands  of  eight  persons, 
gave  to  each  his  own  handkerchief,  although  every  effort  was 
made  to  lead  him  astray.  Braid  and  the  older  mesmerists 
relate  many  such  phenomena.  Braid  describes  one  case  in 
which  the  subject  on  each  occasion  found  the  owner  of  some 


lOO  HYPNOTISM. 

gloves  among  a  number  of  other  people ;  when  his  nose  was 
stopped  up  the  experiments  failed.  This  delicacy  of  the 
different  organs  of  sense,  particularly  of  the  sense  of  smell,  is 
well  known  to  be  normal  in  many  animals;  in  dogs,  for 
example,  which  recognize  their  masters  by  scent.  Hypnotic 
experiments  teach  us  that  this  keenness  of  scent  can  be 
attained  by  human  beings  in  some  circumstances. 

I  will  take  this  opportunity  of  quoting  an  experiment  which  is  often 
repeated  and  is  wrongly  considered  as  a  proof  of  increased  keenness  of 
the  senses.     Let  us  take  a  pack  of  cards,  which  naturally  must  have  backs 
of  the  same  pattern,  so  that  to  all  appearance  one  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  the  other.     Let  us  choose  a  card — the  ace  of  hearts,  for  example — 
hold  it  with  its  back  to  the  subject  and  arouse  by  suggestion  the  idea  of  a 
particular  photograph  on  it — his  own,  let  us  say.     Let  us  shuffle  the  cards, 
including,  of  course,  that  with  the  supposed  photograph  on  it,  and  request 
the  hypnotic  to  find  the  photograph,  without  having  allowed  him  to  see 
the  face  of  the  cards.     He  will  often  find  the  right  one,  although  the 
backs  are  all  alike.     The  experiment  can  be  repeated  with  visiting  cards, 
or  with  sheets  of  paper,  if  the  selected  one  is  marked,  unknown  to  the 
hypnotic  .J'his  experiment  makes  a  greater  impression  on  the  inexperienced 
than  it  i^  «i^|Ued  to ;  fop  most  people  are  able  to  repeat  the  experiment 
without  hypnosis,  and  hypenesthesia  is  not  generally  a  condition  for  its 
success.     If  the  laacks  of  these  cards  and  papers  are  carefully  examined, 
differences  which  may  easily  be  discerned  will  be  discovered.     The  ex- 
periment has  no  bearing  on  the  question  of  simulation.     Naturally,  I  do 
'  not  contend  that  a  hypnotic  cannot  find  a  paper  in  such  a  case  better  than 
a  waking  man.     I  only  wish  to  point  out  that  although  this  experiment 
is  often  used  to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  hyperaesthesia,  the  latter  is 
not  generally  necessary  for  its  success.     I  have  seen  men  of  science  show 
astonishment  when  a  hypnotic  distinguished  apparently  identical  sheets  of 
paper.     They  did  not  understand  that  there  were  essential  differences  in 
the  sheets,  which  suffice  for  distinguishing  them  even  without  hypnosis. 
The  experiment  is  to  be  explained  thus : — The  minute  but  recognizable 
differences  {points  de  rep^re)  presented  to  the  hypnotic  at  the  moment 
when  the  idea  of  the  photograph  was  suggested  to  him,  recall  the  sug- 
gested image  directly  he  sees  them  again.      The  points  are  so  closely 
associated  with  the  image  that  they  readily  call  it  up.     Binet  and  Fere 
have  rightly  pointed  out  that  the  image  only  occurs  when  the  points  de 
repere  are  recalled  to  the  memory  ;  they  must  first  be  seen.     Consequently, 
if  the  paper  is  held  at  a  distance  from  the  subject's  eyes,  the  image  will  not 
be  recognized,  for  the  points  de  repere  are  not  visible. 

Some  of  Binet  and  Fere's  experiments  are  interesting.  They  have 
caused  photographic  impressions  to  be  made  of  white  papers  on  which  a 
portrait  had  been  created  by  means  of  suggestion.  It  was  shown  that  the 
hypnotic  always  took  the  copies  for  the  original,  because  the  photographed 
point  de  repere  aroused  the  same  image  in  his  imagination.  Jendrassik 
has  observed  the  same  sort  of  thing ;  if  a  "  d  "  is  drawn  with  the  finger 
on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and  if  it  is  suggested  that  the  "d"  is  real,  the 
subject  sees  the  **d."     If  the  paper  is  turned  upside  down  he  sees  **p,'* 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  lOI 

and  in  the  looking-glass  *^q."  This  is  because  certain  points  on  the  paper 
were  remembered  by  the  subject,  and  when  the  paper  was  placed  in 
different  positions  the  points  appeared  in  different  positions  also. 

In  addition  to  increase  and  decrease  of  sense-perception,  it 
is  possible  to  induce  all  kinds  of  sense-delusions.  The  images 
produced  are  so  remarkable  that  any  one  who  sees  them  for 
the  first  time  is  justified  in  doubting  whether  the  phenomena 
are  real  or  not.  We  have  accustomed  ourselves  to  depend  so 
completely  on  our  organs  of  sense,  to  think  them  such  trust- 
worthy witnesses  in  all  cases,  that  we  are  astonished  to  find 
that  a  word  suffices  to  place  a  hypnotic  among  utterly  different 
surroundings. 

Sense-delusions  are  divided  into  hallucinations  and  illusions.  The  first 
is  the  perception  of  an  object  where  there  is  really  nothing;  the  second  is 
the  false  interpretation  of  an  existing  external  object.  If,  for  example,  a 
book  is  taken  for  a  cat,  or  a  blow  on  the  table  for  the  firing  of  a  cannon, 
we  talk  of  an  illusion;  but  if  a  cat  is  seen  where  there  is  nothing,  we  call 
it  a  hallucination.  We  have  thus  to  do  with  a  hallucination  when  an 
external  object  causes  a  perception  by  means  of  association.  A  chair  on 
which  a  particular  person  has  often  sat  may  by  association  call  up  an 
image  of  that  person;  this  is  a  hallucination  called  up  by  an  external 
object. 

We  observe  numerous  hallucinations  and  illusions  in 
hypnosis.  We  have  seen  in  Case  IV.  (p.  35)  that  it  suffices 
to  assert  that  a  dog  is  present,  and  a  dog  will  apparently  be 
seen  by  the  hypnotic.  A  handkerchief  was  in  this  case  taken 
for  a  dog,  consequently  this  was  an  illusion.  An  illusion  is 
more  easily  induced  than  a  hallucination ;  in  the  absence  of  an 
external  object,  such  as  the  handkerchief,  the  suggestion  very 
often  fails.  When  I  do  not  offer  some  such  object  the 
hypnotic  often  finds  it  for  himself.  Hallucinations -rof  sight 
are  more  easily  caused  when  the  eyes  are  closed;  the  subjects 
then  see  objects  and  persons  with  their  eyes  shut,  as  in  dreams. 
They  think  at  the  same  time  that  their  eyes  are  open,  just  as 
we  are  unaware  in  dreams  that  our  eyes  are  shut.  If  we  wish 
to  cause  a  delusion  of  the  sense  of  sight  at  the  moment  of 
opening  the  eyes,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  suggestion 
quickly,  lest  the  act  of  opening  the  eyes  should  awaken  the 
subject.  I  advise  the  use  of  fixed  attention  while  the  sug- 
gestion is  being  made  (cf,  Exp.  IV.,  p.  35),  so  that  the  patient 
may  not  awaken  himself  by  looking  about.  The  other  organs 
of  sense  may  also  be  deluded.     I  knock  on  the  table  and  give 


I02  HYPNOTISM. 

the  idea  that  cannon  are  being  fired;  I  blow  with  the  bellows 
and  make  the  suggestion  that  an  engine  is  steaming  up.  A 
hallucination  of  hearing  something — e.g.^  the  piano,  is  induced 
without  the  aid  of  any  external  stimulus.  In  the  same  way 
smell,  taste,  and  touch  may  be  deceived  It  is  well  known  that 
hypnotics  will  drink  water  or  even  ink  for  wine,  will  eat  onions 
for  pears,  will  smell  ammonia  for  Eau-de-Cologne,  etc.  In 
these  cases  the  expression  of  the  face  induced  by  the  suggested 
perception  corresponds  so  perfectly  to  it  that  a  better  effect 
would  scarcely  be  produced  if  the  real  article  were  used.  Tell 
a  person  he  has  taken  snuff,  he  sneezes.  All  varieties  of  the 
senses  of  touch,  of  pressure,  of  temperature,  of  pain  can  be 
influenced.  I  tell  a  person  that  he  is  standing  on  ice.  He 
feels  cold  at  once.  He  trembles,  his  teeth  chatter,  he  wraps 
himself  in  his  coat.  Even  "  goose-skin  "  can  be  produced  by 
the  suggestion  of  a  cold  bath  (Krafft-Ebing).  In  like  manner, 
itching  and  so  forth  can  be  induced.  I  say  to  a  gentleman, 
"To-morrow  at  three  o'clock  your  forehead  will  itch."  The 
post-hypnotic  suggestion  proves  true;  the  forehead  itches  so 
much  that  the  subject  rubs  it  continually.  I  find  that  the  senses 
of  taste  and  touch  are  more  easily  influenced  than  the  others. 
The  suggestion  of  a  bitter  taste,  or  of  increased  sensitive- 
ness to  temperature  on  the  part  of  the  skin,  takes  effect  much 
sooner  than  the  suggestion  of  a  delusion  of  sight  or  hearing. 
Certainly  we  do  know  that  even  without  hypnosis  the  senses 
of  taste  and  temperature  are  more  readily  affected  by  suggestion 
than  those  of  sight  and  hearing.  Similarly,  delusions  of  the 
senses  of  taste  and  temperature  appear  in  the  first  stage  of 
hypnosis  (just  as  they  do  in  the  waking  state),  whereas  con- 
spicuous delusions  of  sight  and  hearing  are  only  observed  in 
deep  hypnosis.  Moreover,  it  sometimes  happens,  especially  in 
cases  of  light  hypnosis,  that  a  subject  tastes  the  bitterness  or 
feels  the  warmth  suggested,  although  he  is  perfectly  aware  of 
the  delusion.  On  one  occasion  a  gentleman  said  to  me :  "I 
know  there  is  nothing  bitter  in  my  mouth,  and  yet  I  have  a 
bitter  taste  in  it." 

Sense-delusions  can  be  suggested  in  various  ways.  We  tell 
a  subject  that  he  sees  a  bird,  and  he  does.  We  can  suggest  the 
same  thing  by  gesture — for  example,  by  pretending  to  hold  a 
bird  in  the  hand — particularly  after  the  subject  has  received 
some  hypnotic  training.  The  chief  point  is  that  the  subject 
should  understand  what  is  intended  by  the  gesture. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  IO3 

Naturally,  several  organs  can  be  influenced  by  suggestion  at 
the  same  time.  I  tell  some  one,  "Here  is  a  rose";  at  once 
he  not  only  sees,  but  feels  and  smells  the  rose.  I  pretend  to 
give  another  subject  a  dozen  oysters;  he  eats  them  without  it 
being  necessary  for  me  to  say  a  word.  The  suggestion  here 
affects  sight,  feeling,  and  taste  at  the  same  time.  In  many 
cases  the  muscular  sense  is  influenced  in  a  striking  manner  by 
such  suggestions.  I  give  a  subject  a  glass  of  wine  to  drink;  he 
lifts  the  pretended  glass  to  his  lips,  and  leaves  a  space  between 
hand  and  mouth  as  he  would  if  he  held  a  real  glass.  I  am  not 
obliged  to  define  the  delusion  for  each  separate  sense;  the 
subject  does  that  spontaneously  for  himself.  The  subject  in 
this  way  completes  most  suggestions  by  a  process  resembling 
the  indirect  suggestion  described  on  page  67.  The  results  of 
the  external  suggestion  naturally  depend  on  the  character  of 
the  subject.  I  remember  a  case  of  chronic  alcoholism  being 
brought  to  me  for  treatment  by  suggestion.  The  patient  had 
been  accustomed  to  consume  enormous  quantities  of  alcohol 
daily.  On  the  first  few  occasions  that  I  hypnotized  him,  he 
made  frantic  efforts  to  drink  any  glass  of  wine  I  suggested. 
In  the  course  of  time,  however,  I  not  only  succeeded  in  making 
him  a  total  abstainer,  but  even  created  in  him  such  an  aversion 
to  alcoholic  drinks  that  his  friends  could  not  but  laugh  at  his 
quaint  behaviour.  The  change  was  also  very  noticeable  during 
hypnosis.  At  first  he  drank  every  glass  of  wine  suggested  with 
avidity,  but  later  on  he  would  push  the  imaginary  glass  of  wine 
away  with  a  gesture  of  disgust,  sometimes  even  attempting  to 
dash  it  to  the  ground. 

Besides  which,  the  deception,  if  it  is  thorough,  is  clearly 
reflected  in  the  subject's  expression  and  gestures.  No  gour- 
mand could  wear  a  more  delighted  expression  over  some 
favourite  dish  than  does  a  subject  over  a  suggested  delicacy. 
The  fear  depicted  on  the  face  of  a  subject  when  he  believes  he 
is  about  to  be  attacked  by  a  tiger  is  most  impressive.  A 
subject  will  drink  several  glasses  of  wine  by  suggestion,  will 
become  red  in  the  face,  and  then  complain  of  his  head.  I 
give  a  piece  of  cork  to  a  subject  for  an  onion;  he  smells  it 
and  his  eyes  fill  with  tears. 

By  means  of  suggestion,  we  can  place  a  subject  in  any 
situation  we  please,  and  from  his  behaviour  draw  conclusions 
as  to  what  his  conduct  would  be  under  analogous  circum- 
stances, and  also  as   to  his  character  (Morselli).     But  it  is 


104  HYPNOTISM. 

necessary  to  exercise  great  caution  in  drawing  such  conclu- 
sions, since  the  subject  nearly  always  has  some  dim  conscious- 
ness of  his  real  surroundings,  however  completely  he  may  seem 
to  be  transported  into  the  imaginary  ones. 

Some  authors  (Dumontpallier,  B^rillon)  have  particularly  directed 
attention  to  the  suggestions  which  take  effect  on  one  side  of  the  body  only. 
For  example,  we  can  cause  a  bird  to  be  seen  on  the  right  side,  a  dog  on 
the  left;  but  this  appears  to  be  only  a  matter  of  suggestion  and  training. 
The  case  mentioned  by  Magnin  is  connected  with  this:  a  person  affected 
by  weak  sight  of  the  left  eye,  of  hysterical  origin,  believed  that  he  saw 
with  the  right  eye  things  which  he  really  saw  with  the  left,  and  so  thought 
they  were  on  his  right  side  when  they  were  really  on  his  left  (allochiria). 

In  contrast  with  the  delusions  of  sense  hitherto  described, 
which  are  sometimes  called  positive,  there  are  also  negative 
delusions  of  sense.  The  older  mesmerists  (Deleuze,  Bertrand, 
Charpignon)  published  many  observations  of  them.  When  the 
delusion  is  positive  the  hypnotic  believes  he  sees  what  does 
not  exist;  when  it  is  negative  he  fails  to  recognize  the  presence 
of  an  object  really  placed  before  him.  For  example,  Mr.  X. 
is  in  hypnosis.  Two  other  persons  are  present  besides  myself. 
I  tell  him:  '*From  this  moment  you  will  only  be  able  to  see 
me;  you  can  no  longer  see  the  other  men,  though  they  are  still 
here.*'  The  experiment  is  successful;  X.  replies  to  every 
question  addressed  to  him  by  these  gentlemen,  and  can  feel 
them,  but  he  cannot  see  them.  This  is  a  negative  hallucina- 
tion of  sight  only.  But  a  negative  hallucination  of  several 
senses  can  be  induced  as  readily  as  a  positive  one.  I  say  to 
X. :  "The  two  men  have  gone  away;  you  and  I  are  now  alone." 
From  this  moment  X.  neither  sees  nor  hears  them,  nor  per- 
ceives them  by  means  of  any  sense.  When  I  ask  him  who  is 
in  the  room  he  replies,  "  Only  you  and  I."  The  whole  or  part 
of  any  object  or  person  can  be  made  invisible  in  the  same  way. 
We  can  cause  people  to  appear  headless  and  armless,  or  make 
them  disappear  by  putting  on  a  particular  hat,  as  in  the  story . 
of  the  Magic  Cap.  The  situation  may  be  varied  in  any  way 
we  please.  Forel  has  pointed  out  that  the  insane  often  have 
these  negative  hallucinations.  He  has  also  shown  that 
hypnotics  complete,  and  even  extend,  negative  hallucinations. 
Thus,  I  say  to  X,  while  A.  is  sitting  on  a  chair:  "A.  has  gone 
away;  there  is  nobody  on  that  chair."  X.  examines  the  chair, 
and  as  he  feels  something  there,  he  imagines  that  a  shawl  has 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  I05 

been  laid  upon  it.  We  see  here  how  a  suggested  negative 
hallucination  gradually  passes  into  an  illusion,  through  the 
auto-suggestion  of  the  hypnotic;  this  is  very  common.  To  be 
exact,  we  can  regard  every  illusion  as  the  sum  of  a  positive 
and  a  negative  hallucination,  as  in  each  illusion  something 
present  is  not  perceived  and  something  not  present  is  perceived. 

Further,  it  is  also  possible  to  prevent  recognition  of  certain 
colours,  and  to  induce  colour-blindness  by  suggestion.  But 
we  have  here  only  to  do  with  a  defective  perception  of  colours, 
and  not  with  an  alteration  of  the  stimulus  affecting  the  eye;  the 
disturbance  is  purely  mental  (Schirmer).  Cohn's  assertion 
that,  on  the  other  hand,  colour-blindness  sometimes  disappears 
in  hypnosis  has  been  contested  by  Königshöfer.  At  all  events, 
this  could  only  be  a  hysterical  disturbance  of  the  sense  of 
colour,  and  not  a  disturbance  founded  on  peripheral  altera- 
tions. 

An  entire  cessation  of  the  functions  of  any  sense  organ  can 
be  induced  in  the  same  way  as  a  negative  hallucination.  "You 
can  no  longer  hear,"  "You  are  deaf,"  or  "You  are  blind": 
these  words  suffice  to  deprive  the  hypnotic  of  the  correspond- 
ing sense-perceptions.  Not  only  does  he  cease  to  recognize 
any  particular  object,  but  the  sense  organ  affected  is  in- 
susceptible to  anything.  A  command  suffices  to  restore  the 
functions  (sight,  hearing,  etc.).  It  is  certain  that  the  blindness 
and  deafness  induced  in  this  way  are  of  a  mental  nature,  for 
the  corresponding  organ  of  sense  performs  its  functions, 
though  the  impressions  do  not  reach  the  consciousness.  In 
the  same  way  the  sight  of  one  eye  can  be  prevented,  though 
the  other  can  see  as  usual;  a  one-sided  amaurosis  can  be 
created  (Borel),  or  even  hemianopsia  (Willy). 

Common  sensation  is  influenced  in  hypnosis  in  the  same 
way  as  the  functions  of  the  organs  of  sense,  though  it  is  a  moot 
point  whether  disturbances  occur  without  suggestion.  It 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  excitement  alone  sometimes  causes 
a  feeling  of  oppression,  probably  of  mental  origin,  but  not 
necessarily  attributable  to  suggestion.  At  all  events,  we  can 
influence  common  sensation  very  materially  by  suggestion 
in  hypnosis.  A  feeling  of  fatigue  often  appears  in  the  lightest 
hypnosis,  and  may  also  exist  in  the  deeper  stages.  In  other 
respects  also  we  are  able  to  influence  common  sensation  in 
hypnosis.     This  is  not  surprising  when  we  consider  that  it  is 


I06  HYPNOTISM. 

exactly  the  common  sensations  which  are   most  under  the 
influence  of  mental  processes.     Just  as  looking  down  from  a 
tower  causes  giddiness,  as  the  thought  of  repugnant  food  pro- 
duces disgust,  so  we  can  call  up  these  and  related  phenomena, 
or  cause  them  to  disappear,  by  suggestion.    It  is  in  this  direction 
that  the  physician  has  to  record  the  most  striking  successes^ 
since  the  common  sensations,  of  which  pain  is  one,  are  the 
cause  of  most  of  the  complaints  we  hear  of.     Anything  that 
we  can  induce  by  a  mental  process,  we  can  banish  by  sugges- 
tion.    I  say  to  a  subject  who  complains  of  want  of  appetite, 
"The  loss  of  appetite  has  disappeared;  you  are  hungry."     I 
can  cause  another  to  feel  thirst.     Debove,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  induced  loss  of  appetite  by  suggestion  to  such  an  extent 
and  for  so  long  a  period  that  the  person  concerned  took  no 
solid  food  for  fourteen  days.     Further,  it  is  possible  up  to  a 
certain  point  to  satisfy  the  hunger  and  thirst  of  subjects  in  deep 
hypnosis  by  merely  suggested  food  and  drink,  as  Fillassier 
informs  us.     It  is  a  pity,  however,  that  this  result  can  only  be 
obtained  with  a  few  persons  and  in  a  limited  measure,  for 
otherwise  our  politicians  would  no  longer  need  to  puzzle  their 
heads  over  social  questions  and  the  feeding  of  the  masses. 
Sexual  feeling  can  also  be  produced  by  suggestion.     Leopold 
Casper  tells  of  a  case  in  which  Tissie  hypnotized  a  patient  and 
suggested  to  him  that  the  right  ring-finger  should   indicate 
sexual  desire  and  the  left  abstinence.    When  the  patient  awoke, 
contact  with  the  right  finger  caused  sexual  excitement;  contact 
with  the  left  subdued  it.     Once  Tissie  forgot  to  remove  the 
suggestion,  and  the  consequence  was  that  for  twenty-four  hours 
the  patient  was  unable  to  refrain  from  coitus  and  masturbation, 
as  well  as  spontaneous  emissions.     Indirect   methods   often 
produce  the  desired  result.     For  example,  a  feeling  of  disgust 
can  sometimes  be  induced  by  suggesting  to  the  patient  that 
repugnant  food  has  been  placed  before  him.     An  easy  way  of 
inducing  a  feeling  of  suffocation  is  to  suggest  that  the  patient 
is  drowning. 

Abnormalities  of  voluntary  movement  apart,  nearly  all  the 
phenomena  of  suggestion  hitherto  described  are  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  the  second  group  of  hypnotic  states.  I  come  now 
to  some  other  physical  functions  which  require  a  deep  hypnotic 
state  if  they  ßXQ  to  be  influenced.  I  mention,  first  of  all,  the 
phenomena  of  that  part  of  the  muscular  system  which  is 
normally  independent  of  the  will. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  IO7 

We  will  here,  first  of  all,  consider  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
and  the  respiration.  A  large  number  of  physiological  investi- 
gations has  been  made  in  this  field  during  hypnosis,  in  order 
to  decide  what  is  the  state  of  the  pulse  and  respiration  without 
suggestion,  but  the  statements  are  so  contradictory  that  we  only 
dare  receive  them  with  caution.  Some  believe  that  they  have 
discovered  objective  symptoms  in  changes  of  the  action  of  the 
heart  and  the  respiration,  but  we  cannot  doubt  that  there  has 
been  considerable  exaggeration.  Tamburini  and  Seppilli  found 
the  respiration  accelerated,  often  irregular,  and  the  heart-beat 
accelerated  and  stronger  in  the  transition  stage  from  the  waking 
to  the  hypnotic  state.  There  was  no  change  in  the  type  of  the 
pulse,  but  the  wave  was  as  a  rule  higher,  and  the  curve  of  the 
pulse-tracing  was  affected  by  the  respiration.  Hauer  and 
others — Richer,  Magnin,  etc. — also  studied  the  pulse  and 
respiration  in  connection  with  Charcot's  stages,  but  the 
methods  employed  did  not  lead  to  the  discovery  of  any  sharp 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  cataleptic  and  lethargic  stages. 
Of  other  investigations  I  may  mention  those  on  respiration 
made  by  Isenberg  and  Vogt,  who  experimented  on  one 
another.  They  found  that  when  the  eyes  close  in  response  to 
suggestion,  the  number  of  respirations  diminishes,  and  that  the 
subject  at  the  same  time  experiences  a  feeling  of  restful  calm. 
These  authors  also  found  that  as  the  hypnosis  proceeded  the 
breathing  became  slower  and  more  superficial,  but  was  deepened 
at  the  commencement  and  termination  of  the  hypnosis. 
Beaunis  occasionally  found  that  the  tension  of  the  pulse  was 
increased,  which  he  does  not,  however,  think  of  much  im- 
portance. Horsley  found  no  alteration  in  the  curve  of  the 
pulse-tracing.  I  shall  deal  with  the  investigations  of  Francke 
and  others  later  on.  Döllken  found  that  when  hypnosis  sets 
in  suddenly,  the  patient  experiences  a  subjective  feeling  of 
warmth,  and  as  a  rule  the  face  flushes  and  is  covered  with 
beads  of  perspiration;  but  two  cases  of  sudden  deep  hypnosis 
were  characterized  by  facial  pallor,  which  persisted  until  the 
experiment  was  over.  According  to  Lcewenfeld,  Lloyd  Tuckey 
almost  invariably  found  the  capillaries  and  smaller  arteries  so 
contracted  in  deep  hypnosis  that  even  somewhat  deep  wounds 
caused  no  hemorrhage. 

A  great  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  of  the  respiration  has  been  often 
observed  when  the  method  of  Braid,  or  fascination  (Bremaud),  or  mesmeric 
passes  were  employed  (Ochorowicz),  the  respiration,  which  was  normally 


I08  HYPNOTISM. 

i8  per  minute,  rising  to  50  or  even  more.  I  have  myself  made  a  number 
of  experiments  on  this  point,  and  fully  agree  with  Bernheim  and  Preyer 
that  these  changes  are  not  brought  about  by  the  hypnosis,  but  by  the  fixed 
attention.  I  believe  that  it  is  only  the  effort  made  and  the  excitement 
which  cause  these  abnormalities ;  the  irregularities  in  the  respiration  which 
are  observed  at  times  should  be  ascribed  to  the  same  cause.  Preyer 
mentions  that  the  respiration  of  a  person  looking  at  a  microscopic  object 
often  changes ;  in  the  same  way  it  displays  abnormalities  when  a  person 
believes  himself  watched.  An  experienced  doctor,  therefore,  prefers  to 
examine  the  respiration  unobserved  by  his  patient.  At  all  events,  I  have 
seen  a  material  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  respiration  set  in  after  a  long 
strain  of  attention  without  a  trace  of  hypnosis.  If  there  is  hypnosis,  in  a 
little  while  the  irregularity  and  acceleration  cease  either  spontaneously  or 
by  suggestion.  I  have  only  seen  a  few  cases  in  which  they  persisted,  but 
am  by  no  means  inclined  to  think  this  a  sign  of  hypnosis,  as  some  persons 
show  an  acceleration  of  pulse  and  breathing  on  the  slightest  provocation. 
Even  a  conversation  is  enough  to  induce  acceleration,  and  changes  of  pulse 
and  respiration  have  been  known  to  be  brought  about  by  an  uncomfortable 
sitting  posture.  Besides  which  it  must  be  added  that  in  many  people  there 
is  an  important  acceleration  of  pulse  and  respiration  in  the  strong  muscular 
contractions  of  the  cataleptic  phenomena  (Braid),  and  also  in  tonic  con- 
tracture (RumpQ.  If  I  made  such  persons  lie  quietly  down,  and  avoided 
conversation,  physical  effort,  and  mental  excitement,  I  never  observed  any 
acceleration. 

In  some  instances  I  have  found  a  deepened  and  somewhat 
long-drawn  inspiration,  and  also  a  slight  slowing  of  pulse,  in 
hypnosis.  These  were  the  cases  which  bore  an  external 
resemblance  to  sleep,  and  in  which,  as  I  have  already  men- 
tioned several  times,  no  important  spontaneous  movements 
take  place.  It  is  also  very  difficult  to  induce  movements  by 
suggestion  in  these  cases.  Respiration,  which  holds  an  inter- 
mediate position  between  voluntary  and  involuntary  move- 
ment,^ can  also  be  influenced  by  suggestion.  I  have  always 
been  careful  never  to  prolong  such  experiments  for  more  than 
half  a  minute.  Whenever  I  suggested  to  a  subject  that  he 
could  not  breathe,  an  apparent  pause  in  his  respiration 
occurred.  Jendrässik  mentions  a  case  in  which,  by  means  of 
suggestion,  he  stopped  respiration  for  three  minutes.  Accord- 
ing to  a  report  published  by  Beesel  in  1853,  a  "magnetized" 
subject  apparently  ceased  to  breathe  for  from  six  to  eight 
minutes,  during  which  time  his  mouth  remained  so  wide  open 
that  the  onlookers  thought  he  was  dead.  Still,  shallow  respira- 
tion is  easily  overlooked. 

^  Respiration  is,  as  a  rule,  an  involuntary  act,  but  it  can  be  influenced 
by  the  will  to  a  certain  degree — accelerated  or  retarded. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  IO9 

Numerous  investigations  have  shown  that  suggestion  exerts 
a  certain  amount  of  influence  on  the  blood-vessels  and  the 
heart.  Forel,  Beaunis,  and  F.  Myers  have  observed  local 
flushing  induced  by  suggestion.  There  is  nothing  astonishing 
in  this,  for  we  know  quite  well  that  the  vasomotor  system  is 
easily  influenced  by  mental  processes.  I  have  already  men- 
tioned (page  64)  that  embarrassment  will  cause  blushing, 
and  dread,  pallor.  I  also  mentioned  some  experiments  of 
Dumontpallier,  who  induced  by  suggestion  a  local  increase  of 
temperature  of  as  much  as  3°  C.  To  these  may  be  added 
Kraffl-Ebing's  experiments,  in  one  of  which  any  body-tempera- 
ture could  be  induced — for  example,  36°  C.  Mar^s  and 
Hellich  also  made  some  very  interesting  experiments  on  this 
point;  they  frequently  found  it  possible  to  reduce  the  tem- 
perature of  a  hypnotic  from  37*  C.  to  34.5'  C.  in  the  space  of 
twenty-four  hours.  This  reduction  of  temperature  was  not  a 
direct  result  of  suggestion,  but  was  brought  about  indirectly  by 
suggesting  a  diminished  sensitiveness  to  heat  and  cold.  I  may 
also  remind  my  readers  that  Lehmann  and  one  of  his  friends 
found  that  they  could  increase  the  temperature  of  the  palms  of 
their  hands  to  the  extent  of  0.06°  C.  and  0.02°  C.  respectively, 
by  vividly  imagining  a  feeling  of  warmth  at  the  spot  in  ques- 
tion. Loewenfeld  also  relates  that  he  placed  a  thermometer  in 
each  hand  of  a  person  in  the  somnambulic  stage,  pointing  out 
to  the  subject  that  his  right  hand  was  warm  and  moist,  but  the 
left  hand  cold;  in  an  hour's  time  the  temperature  of  the  right 
hand  had  risen  i'  C.  Loewenfeld  further  states  that  the 
subject  was  closely  watched  to  see  that  he  kept  the  thermometer 
firmly  grasped.  Unfortunately,  this  experiment,  like  so  many 
others,  proves  very  little.  Loewenfeld  should  have  shown  that 
the  grip  was  constant  throughout  the  experiment,  for  a  change, 
small  enough  to  escape  the  notice  of  those  controlling  the 
experiment,  will  easily  produce  a  variation  of  temperature.  As 
a  curiosity  I  will  mention  the  local  reddening  of  the  skin  which 
has  often  been  observed  in  spirit  mediums  (Carpenter,  du  Prel), 
and  which  has  been  explained  as  a  supernatural  phenomenon. 
As  such  mediums  are  often  in  a  state  of  trance,  which  is  possibly 
identical  with  hypnosis,  this  phenomenon  admits  of  a  perfectly 
natural  explanation. 

Some  observations  have  also  been  made  on  the  influence 
of  suggestion  on  the  action  of  the  heart.  I  myself  have  often 
been   able   to  produce  a   slowing  of  the  pulse  in  cases  of 


1 10  HYPNOTISM. 

palpitation.  However,  we  should  be  cautious  how  we  draw 
the  conclusion  that  the  suggestion  has  affected  the  nerves  of 
the  heart  directly;  the  effect  is  doubtless  an  indirect  one. 
For,  independent  of  the  fact  that  the  action  of  the  heart  is  to 
a  certain  degree  dependent  on  the  respiration,  it  is  likewise 
under  the  influence  of  ideas,  which  affect  the  emotions.  Such 
ideas  have  the  power  of  quickening  or  slowing  the  heart's 
action;  it  is  possible  that  the  suggestion  which  retards  a 
quick  pulse  only  produces  this  result  indirectly  by. a  removal 
of  the  mental  exciting  cause,  or,  vice  versa,  quickens  the  pulse 
by  excitement.  My  observations  of  the  quickening  and 
slowing  of  the  heart's  action  by  suggestion  lead  me  to  take 
this  view  rather  than  that  of  a  direct  influence  of  suggestion 
on  the  nerves  or  nerve-centres  of  the  heart.  In  any  case,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  exclude  this  indirect  action.  No  matter 
how  the  result  was  brought  about,  Beaunis  has  seen  several 
cases  of  momentary  changes  in  the  pulse  without  the  respira- 
tion being  affected  by  suggestion.  He  has  seen  the  pulse 
fall  from  98  beats  to  92,  and  then  rise  to  115  beats.  He 
infers  a  direct  action  on  the  inhibitory  centre  of  the  heart, 
and  thinks  himself  also  obliged  to  exclude  ideas  which  affect 
the  mental  state,  since  the  effect  of  the  suggestion  was  always 
momentary.  But  his  conclusions  are  not  altogether  borne  out 
by  his  statements.  We  must  also  carefully  bear  in  mind  that 
the  method  of  suggestion  employed  may  so  effect  the  emotions 
that  the  imagination  can  play  no  direct  part  in  the  result 
produced.  To  retard  the  pulse  we  must  address  the  subject 
in  slow  and  soothing  tones ;  sharp  and  hasty  remarks  only 
conduce  to  acceleration.  B^rillon  also  found  that  the  pulse 
could  be  accelerated  or  retarded  by  suggestion.  On  one 
occasion  he  experimented  on  a  case  of  pronounced  tachy- 
cardia, and  found  that  the  pulse  which  was  first  of  all 
accelerated  by  hypnosis  from  132  to  138,  could  be  reduced 
to  114,  102,  and  even  84  by  suggestion.  Bramwell  also 
found  that  he  could  accelerate  or  retard  a  patient's  pulse  by 
suggestion.  In  one  case,  in  which  the  subject  when  awake 
had  a  pulse  of  80,  hypnosis  brought  the  beats  to  100,  but 
subsequent  suggestion  reduced  them  to  60  per  minute.  As 
Bramwell  has  rightly  pointed  out,  indirect  suggestion  some- 
times affects  the  pulse.  For  example,  tell  a  man  he  must 
hurry  up  or  he  will  miss  the  train,  and  his  pulse  is  immediately 
accelerated. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  Ill 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  much  of  those  other  functional  abnormalities  of 
the  involuntary  muscles  which  occur  without  the  influence  of  suggestion. 
Max  Rosenthal  saw  a  case  of  vomiting  which  he  attributed  to  irritation 
of  the  cerebral  cortex  ;  and  nausea  is  often  observed  in  persons  who  are 
easily  excited  or  frightened  (Friedmann).^ 

There  are  other  ways  in  which  suggestion  can  affect  the 
involuntary  muscles.      Peristalsis  is  frequently  influenced  in 
this  manner.     I  have  had  several  experiences  of  the  facility 
with  which  the   bowels  of  some  hypnotics  are  aßected  by 
suggestion.     I  say  to  one  of  them,  "In  half  an  hour  after  you 
wake  your  bowels  will  act."     This  is  certain  to  act.     "To- 
morrow morning  at  eight  your  bowels  will  act."     The  effect 
follows.     "  To-morrow  between  eight  and  nine  your  bowels  will 
act  three  times."    Exactly  the  same  result,  though  the  subject  re- 
members nothing  of  the  suggestion  on  awaking.    It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  action  of  aperients  can  be  arrested  by  sugges- 
tion, though  this  does  not  often  happen.    A  patient  takes  a  dose 
of  castor-oil  which  is  sufficient  to  procure  copious  action  of  the 
bowels.     He  is  told  in  hypnosis  that  the  medicine  will  only 
take  effect  in  forty-eight  hours.     The  suggestion  is  effectual, 
although  with  this  person  the  dose  habitually  acts  promptly 
and  abundantly  (v.  Krafft-Ebing).     Or  let  a  few  drops  of  water 
be  given  to  the  hypnotic  with  the  assertion  that  it  is  a  strong 
purge;    motion   of  the  bowels   follows.      Suggested  emetics 
act  in  the  same  way.     This  is  not  very  surprising,  as  we  know 
that  these  and  other  functions,  even  though  they  are  inde- 
pendent of  our  will,  are  yet  under  the  influence  of  the  mind. 
On  the  other  hand,  Murell  reports  that  a  hypnotic,  Mr.  X.,  was 
induced  to  drink  tartar  emetic  for  sherry.     So  long  as  X.  was 
hypnotized  he  did  not  suffer  from  nausea,  retching,  or  any 
of  the  usual  results  of  a  dose  of  tartar  emetic.     As  soon 
as    X.    awoke    he    began    retching,    which    could    only    be 
stopped   by  hypnosis.     Vomiting  at  the   sight  of  disgusting 
things,   and    the    celebrated    mica  pants  pills    administered 
as  aperients  show  that   there   may  be   suggestibility  without 
hypnosis. 

We  find  but  scanty  accounts  of  physiological  investigations 
into  the  processes  of  secretion  during  hypnosis.  Perspiration, 
which   was   noted   by  the   earlier   mesmerists — for  example, 

^  This  was  communicated  to  me  privately. 


112  HYPNOTISM. 

Heineken,  Kluge,  etc. — has  also  been  observed  by  later 
investigators  (G.  Barth,  Demarquay,  Giraud-Teulon,  Heiden- 
hain, Preyer).  I  doubt  if  the  secretion  of  sweat  depends  on 
the  hypnosis ;  I  believe  that  it  is  rather  a  result  of  the  straining 
and  excitement  of  fixed  attention.  We  know  something  more 
about  the  influence  of  suggestion  on  secretion.  Burot  shows 
that  the  secretion  of  saliva  can  be  induced  by  suggestion,  and 
Bottey  demonstrates  the  same  thing  of  perspiration.  Charles 
Riebet  says  that  erection  and  emission  of  semen  can  be 
effected  by  awakening  in  the  subject's  mind  the  impression  of 
sexual  intercourse.  I  have  mentioned  above  that  I  have 
myself  seen  a  hypnotic's  eyes  water  when  it  was  suggested  to 
him  that  he  was  smelling  an  onion.  By  producing  emotion 
it  is  possible  to  influence  the  secretion  of  tears.  A  gentle- 
man who  believed  he  was  a  child  again,  imagined  he  had  just 
been  disobedient  to  his  parents,  and  as  he  asked  forgiveness 
in  the  hypnotic  condition  he  shed  many  tears.  In  a  case  of 
increased  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice,  Bergmann  believes 
that  he  has  exerted  therapeutic  influence  by  suggestion  and 
rendered  the  gastric  juice  normal. 

The  secretion  of  milk  is  also  under  the  influence  of  sug- 
gestion. A  case,  which  only  shows,  however,  the  indirect 
influence  of  suggestion,  has  been  reported  by  Hassenstein. 
In  a  wet  nurse  in  whom  the  secretion  had  ceased,  it  again 
flowed  copiously  by  suggestion.  It  had  ceased,  however, 
owing  to  excitement  over  the  child's  condition,  and  was 
renewed  by  suggesting  away  the  excitement.  J.  Grossmann 
reports  a  case  in  which  the  secretion  of  milk  was  produced  by 
direct  suggestion,  and  Bramwell  states  that  Esdaile  and 
Braid  knew  of  the  influence  of  suggestion  on  the  secretion 
of  milk. 

The  literature  of  the  question  contains  a  few  statements 
which  seem  to  show  that  hypnosis  influences  the  secretion  of 
urine;  but,  undoubtedly,  in  some  of  the  cases  reported,  the 
act  of  micturition,  and  not  the  secretion  of  urine,  was 
influenced  by  suggestion.  It  is  often  a  very  easy  thing  to 
make  a  subject  empty  his  bladder.  One  has  only  to  say  to  a 
subject  in  deep  hypnosis,  **You  must  make  water  directly 
you  wake  up,"  or  "  You  must  make  water  five  times  during 
the  first  hour  after  you  wake  up,"  and  in  many  cases  the 
suggestion  proves  effectual.  Few  investigations  have  been 
made  as  to  whether  the  secretion  of  urine  can  be  influenced 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  II3 

by  suggestion.  However,  Wetterstrand  mentions  results  pro- 
duced in  diseases  pf  the  kidneys  which  almost  justify  the 
conclusion  that  in  certain  persons  it  is  possible  to  influence 
the  kidney  secretions  of  suggestion.  This  is  not  so  strange 
when  we  reflect  that  many  diseases  in  which  there  is  increased 
secretion  of  urine  are  of  nervous  origin,  and  that  anxiety  and 
fear  may  influence  it  at  any  time. 

Krafft-Ebing  draws  conclusions  as  to  the  increase  of 
intestinal  secretions  from  one  experiment.  He  suggested  to 
his  subject  a  profuse  w^atery  evacuation  of  the  bowels,  which 
followed.  As  the  bladder  had  been  emptied  shortly  before, 
and  only  a  small  quantity  of  water  had  been  found  in  the 
urine,  Kraß't-Ebing  thinks  himself  obliged  to  consider  the  fluid 
as  an  increase  of  the  intestinal  secretions. 

Some  investigations  have  been  made  as  to  how  metabolism 
is  affected  during  hypnosis,  but  we  should  certainly  hesitate  to 
draw  any  hasty  conclusions  from  them.  Brock  finds  that 
in  a  short  hypnosis  of  twenty  minutes'  duration,  with  partial 
catalepsy  of  the  extremities,  the  sum  of  the  solid  constituents, 
and  also  the  phosphoric  acid  in  the  urine,  decreases,  as 
Strübing  has  described  in  catalepsy.  But  as  Brock  forgot  to 
examine  his  patients  under  analogous  circumstances — /.^., 
sitting  quietly  without  hypnosis  (Preyer),  his  experiments  prove 
nothing.  In  any  case,  no  conclusion  as  to  the  action  of  the 
brain  must  be  drawn  from  them,  though  Brock  concludes 
that  the  activity  of  the  brain  is  lessened,  because  the  quantity 
of  phosphoric  acid  is  decreased.  Gürtler  also  found  that  the 
quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  varies,  but  as  he  did  not  make 
any  comparative  experiments  with  the  same  subject  in 
analogous  circumstances  without  hypnosis,  he  refrains  from 
drawing  final  conclusions;  because,  to  justify  these  the 
evacuations  of  the  bowels  and  the  respiration  must  be 
investigated  also.  A.  Voisin  and  Haraut  conclude  from 
their  investigation  of  the  urine  of  hypnotic  subjects  that 
assimilation  is  carried  on  better  during  hypnosis  than  in  the 
waking  condition,  and  that  hypnosis  is  not  a  pathological 
condition.  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  who  made  similar  experi- 
ments with  the  assistance  of  Chatelineau,  holds  the  opposite 
opinion.  According  to  him,  the  secretion  of  urine  keeps  on 
diminishing  as  the  hypnotic  sleep  is  prolonged.  Both  these 
investigators  concluded  from  their  experiments  that  hypnosis 

8 


tl4  HYPNOTISM. 

and  hysteria  are  closely  related,  even  as  far  as  metabolism  is 
concerned. 

I  now  come  to  some  phenomena  which  almost  invariably 
awaken  mistrust.  I  mean  the  anatomical  changes  effected  by 
suggestion  during  hypnosis.  No  matter  how  sceptical  we  may 
be  on  this  point,  it  would  be  perverse  to  deny  the  possibility 
of  such  phenomena.  We  certainly  do  know  that  organic 
changes  can  be  brought  about  by  mental  processes.  I  need 
only  recall  the  physiognomy  of  certain  professions — for 
example,  the  type  of  the  clergy  shows  how  a  spiritual  and 
mental  avocation  gradually  exercises  an  influence  on  the 
physiognomy.  In  the  hypnotic  experiments  which  I  shall 
now  proceed  to  describe  the  process  is  only  somewhat  more 
acute. 

Among  the  experiments  in  this  direction  I  will  first  of  all 
mention  the  cases  in  which  menstruation  is  affected,  more 
especially  those  in  which  menorrhagia  is  induced  or  arrested 
l^y  suggestion.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  this  is  practicable 
in  the  case  of  certain  persons.  Forel  has  made  a  whole  series 
of  experiments  on  this  point,  and  has  also  partly  confirmed 
the  accuracy  and  the  effect  of  suggestion  by  personal  investi- 
gation. Many  other  experimenters  have  also  been  able  to 
confirm  the  effect  of  suggestion  on  menstruation  (Liebault, 
Brunnberg,  Sperling,  A.  Voisin,  Gascard,  Briand).  The 
influence  of  suggestion  in  menorrhagia  seems  less  wonderful 
when  we  reflect  how  very  much  psychical  influences  otherwise 
change  it.  It  is  well  known  that  the  periods  often  become 
irregular  in  women  who  are  about  to  undergo  a  surgical 
operation. 

I  have  mentioned  the  influence  of  suggestion  on  men- 
struation in  this  place  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  these  experi- 
ments do  not,  properly  speaking,  demonstrate  an  organic 
change. .  We  may  be  concerned  here  with  a  vaso-motor 
disturbance,  which  secondarily  induces  the  organic  changes. 
This  appears  to  me  probable. 

I  may  further  mention  the  experiments  of  Bourru,  Burot, 
and  Berjon,  who  induced  bleeding  by  suggestion  in  the  same 
subject  as  Mabille,  Ramadier,  and  Jules  Voisin.  Puys^gur 
had  witnessed  the  same  thing.  Bleeding  of  the  nose  appeared 
at  command  in  the  above-mentioned  subject,  and  later  on 
bleeding  from   the   skin  at  a  time  decided  on   beforehand. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  1 15 

When  the  skin  had  be*en  rubbed  with  a  blunt  instrument  in 
order  to  direct  the  suggestion,  bleeding  of  the  skin  is  said  to 
have  appeared  at  command,  the  traces  of  which  were  visible 
three  months  later.  It  is  interesting  that  in  the  case  of  this 
person  who  was  hemiplegic  and  anaesthetic  on  the  right  side, 
the  suggestion  would  not  take  effect  on  that  side.  Mabille's 
observations  of  this  subject  are  particularly  interesting,  because 
they  show  that  a  person  in  hypnosis  can  cause  these  bleedings 
by  auto-suggestion. 

Unfortunately,  the  accounts  we  possess  of  this  case  do  not 
tell  us  whether  contact  induced  bleeding  under  other  circum- 
stances (F.  Myers).  But  any  possible  error  is  excluded  by 
the  fact  that  the  bleeding  did  not  follow  closely  on  the  contact, 
which  would  have  been  the  case  if  the  effect  were  mechanical. 
Berjon  reminds  us  also  that  precautionary  measures  were  taken 
to  prevent  the  subject  from  touching  his  own  arm  and  thereby 
accidentally  causing  a  wound.  Artigalas  and  Remond  later 
on  published  the  case  of  a  woman  of  twenty-two  in  whom 
tears  of  blood  appeared.  By  suggestion  it  was  also  possible  to 
induce  bloody  sweat  on  her  hand.  Laguerre  and  Bardier  have 
dealt  with  this  woman's  illness,  but  in  the  abbreviated  report 
which  alone  I  have  seen,  it  is  not  stated  whether  the  sweat  was 
subjected  to  a  microscopical  and  chemical  analysis.  Every- 
body will  here  call  to  mind  the  stigmatics  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Bleeding  of  the  skin  is  said  to  occur  in 
them,  generally  in  spots  which  correspond  to  the  wounds  of 
Christ.  I  shall  return  to  this  question  in  a  later  chapter.  At 
the  present  moment  I  may  just  mention  that  Heboid  once 
successfully  treated  a  case  of  hysteria  by  suggestion,  and  that 
by  the  same  means  he  caused  red  patches  to  disappear  and  a 
wart  to  fall  off. 

The  experiments  of  Delboeuf,  who  worked  in  common  with 
Winiwarter  and  Henrijean,  also  belong  to  the  class  of  organic 
lesions.  Delboeuf  produced  symmetrical  burns,  and  made  one 
of  the  wounds  painless  by  suggestion.  It  was  observed  in  this 
case  that  the  painless  wound  showed  a  much*  greater  tendency 
to  heal,  and,  in  particular,  that  the  inflammation  showed  no 
tendency  to  spread.  As,  however,  there  were  some  slight 
anomalies,  the  experiments  are  not  fully  convincing. 

Jendrässik  and  Krafft-Ebing  obtained  marks  like  burns  on 
one  of  their  subjects  by  means  of  suggestion.  If  some  object, 
such  as  a  match-box,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  snuff-box,  a  linen« 


1 16  HYPNOTISM. 

stamp,  etc.,  was  pressed  upon  the  skin  *in  the  morning,  and  the 
subject  was  at  the  same  time  told  that  his  skin  was  being 
burned,  a  blister  in  the  form  of  the  object  resulted  in  the  after- 
noon. The  marks  remained  a  long  time  visible.  If  the  object 
was  pressed  on  the  left  side  of  a  patient  who  was  anaesthetic  on 
the  right,  the  burn  appeared  symmetrically  on  the  right  almost 
as  if  reflected  in  a  glass,  as  could  be  especially  seen  if  letters 
were  used.  Jendrässik  maintains  that  deception  was  absolutely 
excluded  in  these  cases  of  suggested  burns;  and  a  dermato- 
logist, Lipp,  at  one  of  the  experiments,  declared  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  cause  the  suggested  lesion  by  any  artificial  means, 
either  mechanical  or  chemical.  Burns  by  suggestion  have 
often  been  observed  in  the  Salp^tri^re.  Pierre  Janet  experi* 
mented  on  a  patient  who  showed  wounds  like  those  of  Christ. 
Schrenck-Notzing  also  observed  that  a  wound  which  this  same 
patient  had  in  the  cardiac  region  bled  on  Good  Friday.  In 
one  case  Janet  suggested  stigmatization  of  the  right  instep;  the 
skin  turned  red  at  the  spot  suggested,  and  a  blister  followed 
which  healed  by  scabbing.  During  the  experiment  the  patient 
was  very  carefully  watched,  the  foot  being  enclosed  in  a  sheet 
of  copper  having  an  aperture  in  which  a  watch-glass  was 
inserted,  so  that  the  changes  which  the  skin  might  undergo  at 
the  spot  suggested  could  be  observed  (Schrenck-Notzing). 
Ryvalkin  and  Wetterstrand  have  also  seen  burns  induced  by 
suggestion,  and  Podiapolsky  states  that  he  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing blisters  in  the  case  of  a  peasant-girl,  aged  eighteen. 
The  girl  was  thrown  into  hypnotic  sleep  at  half-past  nine  one 
evening,  and  the  suggestion  made  that  she  should  be  affected 
by  a  blister  like  that  produced  by  a  burn ;  at  a  quarter  past 
twelve  the  next  day  there  was  a  blister  filled  with  serous  fluid; 
but  the  details  given  do  not  suffice  to  show  that  the  experiment 
was  properly  controlled. 

The  experiments  made  by  Schrenck-Notzing  on  one  patient 
belong  to  this  category.  Flach,  of  Aschaffenburg,  experi- 
mented on  a  girl  of  twenty,  and  succeeded  in  producing 
erythema  by  suggesting  that  the  cold  key  held  to  her  skin  was 
red-hot.  The  erythema  was  visible  three  weeks  after  the 
experiment  was  made,  and  healed  by  superficial  exfoliation. 
Wheals  have  often  been  produced  by  contact  with  a  solid 
substance,  although  the  subject  experimented  on  had  never 
previously  suffered  from  any  spontaneous  form  of  nettle-rash. 
Flach,  who  first  of  all  experimented  in  conjunction  with  Offner, 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  1 17 

tested  the  same  patient  by  some  experiments  which  he  made 
with  Parish's  assistance  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether 
severe  pain,  followed  by  itching  and  the  formation  of  blisters, 
could  be  induced  by  suggestion,  without  the  skin  being 
directly  stimulated.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  watery  blister 
appeared  the  next  morning.  In  further  experiments  in  which 
it  was  suggested  that  a  burn  was  caused  by  the  thermo-cautery, 
erythema  and  blisters  of  various  sizes  were  produced  which 
could  hardly  have  been  caused  by  artificial  means,  as  the  spots 
selected  were  covered  with  wadding  and  plaster  and  sealed 
up.  An  experiment  was  made  in  Munich  in  the  presence  of  a 
number  of  specialists.  The  subject  was  watched  constantly, 
and  the  possibility  of  any  mechanical  injury  obviated  by  means 
of  a  bandage.  In  this  case  it  was  suggested  that  a  particular 
spot  on  the  back  of  the  fore-arm  had  been  burned  by  the 
thermo-cautery,  but  when  the  bandage  was  removed  the  injury 
was  found  to  be  in  front.  As,  however,  the  bandage  had 
been  pierced  in  several  places  and  a  hair-pin  was  found  in  it, 
it  was  suspected  that  the  injury  was  self-inflicted.  To  avoid 
any  possibility  of  doubt,  another  experiment  was  made  in  which 
a  plaster-of-paris  bandage  was  used;  when  the  bandage  was 
taken  off  it  was  found  that  nothing  had  happened  to  the  skin. 

The  fact  that  the  results  in  this  case  diminished  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  precautions  taken  is  not  an  off-hand  proof 
that  suggestion  produced  no  effect.  It  is  very  possible  that 
the  extraordinarily  strict  precautions  taken  so  affected  the 
subject's  mind  that  any  reaction  to  suggestion  was  excluded. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  case  does  not  conclusively  prove  that 
organic  lesions  can  be  induced  by  suggestion. 

I  now  come  to  some  experiments  in  which  the  hypnotic  was 
told  that  a  blister  had  been  applied  to  him,  which  blister  was 
only  an  ordinary  piece  of  paper.  As  Binet  and  F^r6  inform 
us,  this  experiment  was  made  as  long  ago  as  «840  by  an 
Italian  doctor,  Prejalmini,  and  Du  Prel  tells  us  that  in  18 19  a 
sloughing  of  the  skin  was  obtained  by  an  ordinary  piece  of 
linen  in  the  case  of  a  somnambule  who  had  been  magnetized 
by  Celicurre  de  TAup^pin.  Focachon,  an  apothecary  of 
Charmes,  has  recently  repeated  the  experiment.  Sometimes 
alone,  and  sometimes  in  company  with  the  Nancy  investigators, 
he  applied  pieces  of  paper,  suggesting  they  were  blisters.  He 
is  said  to  have  often  produced  blistering.  Beaunis  has 
published  an  exact  report  of  some  experiments  of  this  kind. 


Il8  HYPNOTISM. 

After  the  experiment  had  lasted  for  twenty-one  hours  the  paper 
was  taken  off,  and  it  was  found  that  the  skin  was  thickened, 
dead,  and  of  a  yellowish  tint;  later,  perhaps  as  a  result  of  the 
pressure  of  the  clothes,  several  small  blisters  appeared.  The 
reverse  experiment  has  also  been  successfully  made  by  the 
Nancy  investigators,  who  were  able  to  counteract  the  effect  of 
a  real  blister  by  suggestion.  Meunier  has  published  an 
account  of  such  an  experiment  made  at  Nancy.  Forel,  also, 
often  tried  to  produce  organic  changes  by  suggestion.  In  one 
attempt  to  produce  blisters  little  pustules  of  acne  appeared. 
Besides  this.  Prof.  Forel  has  made  some  other  experiments, 
the  results  of  which  he  has  kindly  allowed  me  to  publish. 

The  experiments  were  made  on  a  nurse,  twenty-three  years 
old,  who  was  not  in  the  least  hysterical.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  plain  country  people,  and  had  been  for  a  long  time  an 
attendant  in  the  Zürich  Lunatic  Asylum  which  Forel  directs. 
Forel  considers  she  was  a  capable,  honest  person,  in  no  way 
inclined  to  deceit. 

A  gummed  label  was  fixed  upon  her  chest  above  each  breast; 
its  shape  was  square,  and  in  no  case  was  an  irritating  gum 
used.  At  midday  Forel  suggested  that  a  blister  had  been  put 
on  the  left  side;  and  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  a  moist  spot 
appeared  at  this  place;  the  skin  was  swollen  and  reddened 
around  it,  and  a  little  inflammation  appeared  also  on  the  right 
side,  but  much  less.  Forel  then  did  away  with  the  suggestion. 
On  the  next  day  there  was  a  scab  on  the  left  side.  Forel  had 
not  watched  the  nurse  from  midday  till  six  o'clock,  but  had 
suggested  that  she  could  not  scratch  herself.  The  other  nurses 
said  that  the  subject  could  not  raise  her  hand  to  her  breast, 
but  made  vain  attempts  to  scratch.  Forel  repeated  the  ex- 
periment later;  he  put  on  the  paper  at  11.45  a.m.,  and  ordered 
the  formation  of  blisters  in  two  and  a  half  hours.  Little  pain 
was  suggested,  and  therefore  the  nurse  complained  but  little. 
At  two  o'clock  Forel  observed  that  the  paper  on  the  left  side, 
which  had  been  used  for  the  experiment,  was  surrounded  by  a 
large  red  swelling.  The  paper  could  only  be  removed  with 
difficulty.  A  moist  surface  of  the  epidermis  was  then  visible, 
exactly  square  like  the  paper.  Nothing  particular  appeared 
under  the  paper  on  the  right  side.  Forel  then  suggested  the 
immediate  disappearance  of  pain,  inflammation,  etc.  Never- 
theless the  place  wept  and  suppurated  for  a  week,  and  the 
scab  lasted  for  some  time.     Even  when  Prof.  Forel  related  this 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  II9 

to  me,  seven  weeks  later,  the  place  was  still  brownish.  The 
nurse  was  a  little  annoyed  and  uneasy  about  the  experiment, 
and  she  was  not  strictly  watched  while  it  lasted. 

A  few  days  after  this  experiment  Forel  drew  two  very  light 
crosses  with  the  point  of  a  blunt  knife  on  the  same  person. 
They  did  not  bleed.  Another  cross  (Fig.  i)  was  made  on  the 
inner  side  of  each  fore-arm.     Several  doctors  were  present. 


Fig.l 


Forel  suggested  the  appearance  of  blisters  on  the  right  side. 
Even  at  the  end  of  five  minutes,  during  which  Forel  watched 
the  subject,  a  considerable  reddish  swelling  of  the  skin 
appeared  (Fig.  IL,  a).  A  wheal,  ^,  had  formed  itself  round  the 
cross,  <r,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  cross.  On  the  left  side 
nothing  was  to  be  seen  but  the  cross  that  had  been  drawn, 
unaltered,  as  in  Fig.  I.  The  wheal  on  the  right  side  re- 
sembled a  vaccination  pustule,  in  the  form  of  a  cross :  but  it 
was  simply  a  dry  papular  swelling,  as  in  nettle-rash.  Forel 
then  suggested  the  disappearance  of  the  swelling  and  the 
wheal,  and,  further,  the  appearance  of  a  drop  of  blood  at  the 
end  of  an  hour.  At  the  end  of  this  time  a  very  small  drop  of 
blood  was  to  be  seen;  but  the  wheal,  redness,  and  swelling 
had  disappeared.  But  as  Forel  had  not  watched  the  subject 
during  this  hour,  he  attached  no  importance  to  the  drop  of 
blood,  which  might  have  been  caused  by  the  prick  of  a  needle. 
Later  on  it  was  only  possible  to  cause  a  slight  reddening  of 
the  skin.  Forel  only  lays  weight  on  the  experiment  in  which 
the  papular  swelling  was  produced,  but  even  that  he  does  not 
consider  absolutely  conclusive.  Still,  the  fact  that  the  wheals 
only  appeared  on  one  side  tells  against  the  theory  of  mechanical 
irritation.  Of  course  it  may  be  objected  that  both  sides  were 
not  scratched  alike;  but,  as  Forel  points  out,  the  nurse  was 
not  one  of  those  persons  who  get  a  wheal  whenever  their  skin 


I20  HYPNOTISM. 

is  slightly  stimulated.  Except  when  bitten  by  gnats  she  never 
showed  any  wheals.  When  her  skin  was  scraped  it  showed 
a  disposition  to  redden,  but  wheals  never  formed.  She  had, 
besides,  often  been  scratched  by  insane  patients,  but  no 
remarkable  result  had  ever  been  observed. 

It  should  be  added  that  there  are  people  who  develop  wheals  under 
mental  excitement  without  hypnosis.  A  trustworthy  observer  told  me  of 
the  case  of  a  person  who  was  so  frightened  of  thunderstorms  that  he  showed 
wheals  with  a  red  border  whenever  one  was  approaching.  D.  Weiss  tells 
of  a  case  in  which  fright  invariably  caused  an  attack  of  herpes  labialis y 
from  which  he  concludes  that  structural  changes  in  the  tissues  may  be 
brought  about  by  suggestion.  At  the  same  time  he  considers  that  the 
subjects  should  be  carefully  watched  before  drawing  any  conclusion. 

Naturally,  all  these  experiments  must  be  received  with  a 
certain  amount  of  reserve;  not  that  we  have  a  right  to  deny 
that  anatomical  changes  can  be  produced  by  suggestion,  but 
because  the  evidence  of  such  changes  having  taken  place  must 
be  unimpeachable  before  we  can  accept  it.  Otherwise  we 
should  show  ourselves  as  incapable  of  conducting  a  critical 
investigation  as  the  quacks  who  pretend  in  their  advertise- 
ments to  be  able  to  cure  any  and  every  organic  disease  by 
magnetism  or  some  other  universal  specific.  We  must  also 
participate  in  Schrenck-Notzing's  scepticism  as  to  the  conclu- 
siveness of  the  experiments  described  above.  Most  of  the 
objections  raised  by  the  sceptics  are  to  the  point,  especially 
those  which  refer  to  inefficient  supervision  of  the  subjects 
experimented  on.  But  Lcewenfeld  thinks  that  Schrenck-Notzing 
has  carried  his  scepticism  too  far,  because  Charcot  did  prove 
in  one  of  his  experiments  that  trophical  processes  can  be 
influenced  by  suggestion.  On  five  consecutive  days  he  sug- 
gested to  a  hysterical  patient,  in  hypnosis,  that  his  right  hand 
should  swell  and  become  larger  than  the  left;  that  it  should 
turn  bluish  red  in  colour,  and,  further,  become  hard  and  also 
colder.  The  suggestion  is  said  to  have  resulted  in  the  right 
hand  swelling  to  twice  the  size  of  the  left.  The  hand  also 
became  cyanotic  and  hard,  and  the  temperature  fell  about 
three  degrees.  At  all  events,  no  matter  how  sceptical  we  may 
be,  we  are  not  justified  in  straightway  denying  the  possibility 
that  suggestion  may  induce  organic  changes  in  the  skin  merely 
because  we  have  never  seen  such  changes,  or  because  their 
occurrence  i§  rare.     Nevertheless,  rarities  dp  occur,  such  as 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  121 

miscarriages  which  cannot  be  accounted  for,  triplets,  and 
millionaires.  We  believe  in  their  existence,  although  we  may 
have  never  seen  them  ourselves.  Because  a  phenomenon  is 
rare,  or  that  we  have  never  observed  it,  is  no  argument  against 
the  possibility  of  its  occurrence.  Consequently  the  observation 
of  any  rare  phenomenon  is  valuable, 

(2.)  Psychology. 

In  the  foregoing  sections  we  have  studied  the  physical 
symptoms  of  hypnosis,  and  have  only  casually  touched  upon 
some  psychical  phenomena.  We  will  now  proceed  to  investi- 
gate the  latter  more  closely,  but  I  shall  naturally  only  discuss 
such  as  are  characteristic  from  our  present  point  of  view. 
For  practical  reasons  I  must  first  speak  of  the  memory,  be- 
cause it  determines  the  other  psychical  activities.  Without 
memory  no  action  of  the  understanding  is  possible,  and  all 
the  higher  mental  functions  depend  upon  the  memory. 
Memory  during  and  after  hypnosis  has  been  specially  studied 
by  Richet,  Delboeuf,  Dichas,  Beaunis,  and  Pitres. 

Memory,  in  its  broadest  sense,  consists  of  three  parts:  firstly,  of  the 
power  of  retaining  ideas ;  secondly,  of  the  power  of  reproducing  these 
ideas ;  thirdly,  of  the  power  of  recognizing  the  ideas  and  of  localizing 
them  correctly  in  the  past.  To  make  this  clear,  let  us  take  any  event 
which  we  remember — for  example,  a  severe  scolding  given  to  us  by  a 
teacher.  The  memory  in  this  case  acts  in  three  ways :  in  the  first  place, 
what  is  said  is  received  and  retained  in  it;  in  the  second  place,  the  memory 
can  reproduce  the  lecture;  and  in  the  third  place,  we  can  place  it  in  its 
correct  position  in  time  by  recalling  its  relation  to  other  events,  such  as 
being  at  the  school,  etc.  But  the  power  of  retention  is  only  made  evident 
by  the  ability  to  reproduce  an  impression  ;  consequently  the  first  two 
faculties  are  apparently  interdependent.  Still,  it  is  customary  to  make  a 
theoretical  distinction,  and  William  James  calls  retention  primary  memory, 
and  reproduction  secondary  memory.  At  all  events,  although  reproduction 
may  be  the  only  proof  of  the  retention  of  ideas,  the  two  processes  can 
easily  be  distinguished.  This  is  easily  demonstrable.  There  are  times 
when  we  cannot  recall  certain  events,  although  at  other  even  more  remote 
periods  we  can  do  so.  Which  means  that  although  in  the  first  case  the 
impression  could  not  be  immediately  reproduced,  it  had  nevertheless  been 
retained  because  it  was  reproduced  later  on;  a  fact  which  shows  that  the 
two  processes  must  be  differentiated.  The  same  holds  good  of  the  third 
power — that  of  correctly  localizing  past  events.  That  a  name  should  occur 
to  me  without  my  being  able  to  connect  it  with  some  past  event  shows 
that  the  third  of  the  powers  which  we  have  discussed  is  distinct  from  the 
simple  reproduction  of  an  impression. 


122  HYPNOTISM. 

The  retention  of  ideas  in  hypnosis  has  been  little  investi- 
gated. Beaunis  has  found  no  essential  difference  in  this 
respect  between  hypnosis  and  waking  life.  Max  Dessoir  has 
also  made  experiments,  the  results  of  which  he  has  communi- 
cated to  me.  From  these  it  appears  that  memory  is  weakened 
in  deep  hypnosis,  when  this  is  not  prevented  by  suggestion. 
Max  Dessoir  repeated  a  number  of  syllables  which  the  hypnotic 
was  to  try  to  remember;  a  suggestion  of  improved  memory  was 
entirely  avoided.  Under  these  circumstances  the  hypnotized 
subject  remembers  fewer  syllables  than  did  the  same  person 
when  awake.  The  older  mesmerists  (Wienholt),  on  the  con- 
trary, believed  that  the  memory  was  intensified  in  the  magnetic 
sleep;  poems  could  be  learned  by  heart  in  a  much  shorter  time 
than  in  the  normal  state.  However,  these  investigators  did  not 
altogether  avoid  suggestion. 

Is  the  chain  of  memory  in  ordinary  life  broken  by  hypnosis 
or  not?  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  subject  always 
forgot  on  awaking  what  had  happened  during  hypnosis;  but 
this  view  has  not  proved  correct 

In  the  lighter  hypnotic  stages,  especially  in  the  first  group, 
there  is  rarely  any  abnormality  of  memory;  the  subject  remem- 
bers everything  in  the  hypnosis  of  which  he  was  conscious  in 
normal  life,  and  after  hypnosis  recollects  all  that  had  occurred 
during  that  state.  In  the  deeper  hypnoses  it  is  very  different; 
they  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  second  group,  and  only 
a  few  to  the  first,  and  there  is  loss  of  memory  (amnesia)  after 
the  hypnosis.  The  subject  is  much  astonished  when  he  hears 
what  he  has  been  doing  during  the  hypnosis — that  he  has 
been  running  about,  that  he  has  had  hallucinations.  Some- 
times, however,  a  dim  memory  persists,  like  the  memory  of  a 
dream.  I  suggest  to  some  one  the  hallucination  of  a  bird 
flying  about  the  room;  the  hypnotic  tries  to  catch  it,  amuses 
himself  for  a  long  time  with  it,  gives  it  sugar,  puts  it  in  an 
imaginary  cage,  and  so  forth.  After  waking  he  dimly  recollects 
that  he  has  seen  a  bird,  but  that  is  all;  he  certainly  does  not 
believe  that  he  has  left  his  seat.  However,  there  are  certain 
people  who  recall  everything  after  being  told  what  they  have 
done  during  the  hypnosis. 

In  other  cases,  associations  of  ideas  will  call  up  memory.  A 
hint  is  given  to  the  hypnotic  after  the  awakening  and  everything 
recurs  to  him  (Heidenhain).  There  is  something  of  this  sort 
in  dreams;  we  very  often  remember  a  whole  dream  when  we 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  1 23 

see  some  object  that  is  in  any  way  connected  with  it  (Delboeuf). 
The  same  thing  happens  when  a  person  is  able  to  repeat  a 
quotation  or  a  poem  directly  he  has  heard  the  first  words. 
Let  us  consider  an  example  in  hypnosis.  I  suggest  a  concert 
to  a  hypnotic;  he  hears  various  pieces,  and  among  them  the 
overture  to  Martha;  meanwhile  he  eats  his  supper  at  the 
concert,  drinks  his  beer,  and  talks  to  imaginary  people.  After 
the  awakening  there  is  no  trace  of  memory.  I  ask  him  then 
if  he  knows  the  opera  of  Martha;  this  suffices  to  recall  nearly 
all  the  events  of  the  hypnosis.  Sometimes  memory  is  aroused 
in  the  same  way  by  pure  chance.  X,  believes  in  hypnosis  that 
he  sees  a  number  of  persons  he  knows  at  my  house  whose 
presence  I  have  suggested  to  him.  He  goes  through  several 
scenes  with  them,  but  remembers  nothing  on  awaking.  Only 
when  he  meets  one  of  the  persons  several  days  later  does  the 
whole  thing  recur  to  him.  Delboeuf  draws  attention  to  one 
method  of  making  the  memory  last:  he  thinks  that  subjects 
remember  any  hypnotic  event  if  they  are  awakened  in  the 
middle  of  it;  but  this  is  certainly  not  universally  true  (Gurney). 
On  the  other  hand,  it  often  happens  that  the  first  or  last 
occurrences  are  remembered,  while  all  the  others  are  forgotten. 
It  has  often  been  observed  that  memory  after  awakening  can 
be  produced  by  a  special  effort  of  the  hypnotist  (Bleuler, 
Pierre  Janet).  Bernheim  even  thinks  that  memory  can  be 
produced  in  all  cases  by  means  of  a  strong  suggestion  after 
awakening,  especially  if  the  suggestion  be  strengthened  by 
causing  the  subject  to  place  his  hand  on  the  experimenter's 
forehead.  Some  persons  remember  all  the  hypnotic  proceed- 
ings during  their  nightly  sleep;  it  is  not  rare  for  the  hypnotic 
dream  to  be  repeated  in  natural  sleep.  It  is  also  possible  in  all 
cases  to  prevent  post-hypnotic  amnesia  by  suggesting  during  the 
hypnosis  that  the  patient  on  awaking  is  to  remember  all  that 
has  happened;  on  the  other  hand,  post-hypnotic  amnesia  can 
sometimes  be  produced  by  suggesting  to  the  hypnotic  that  he 
must  forget  all  that  has  happened  during  the  hypnosis.  But 
such  cases  are  comparatively  speaking  rare.  Bernheim  observed 
cases  in  which,  without  any  suggestion  being  made,  the  subject 
on  awaking  had  forgotten  not  only  what  had  happened  during 
the  hypnosis,  but  events  which  had  immediately  preceded  its 
onset. 

But  if  we  avoid  using  any  kind  of  suggestion,  then,  in  some 
cases,  chiefly  in  the  deepest  hypnosis,  memory  of  even  the 


124  HYPNOTISM. 

hypnotic  proceedings  cannot  be  recalled  after  awakening.  In 
such  cases  the  person  does  not  generally  know  how  long  he 
was  in  the  hypnotic  state.  On  the  other  hand,  the  subject 
remembers  in  hypnosis  all  that  has  happened  in  previous 
hypnoses.  Things  that  happened  in  hypnoses  many  years 
back,  even  as  many  as  ten,  may  be  recalled,  although  they  are 
completely  forgotten  in  the  waking  state.  Wolfart  relates  the 
case  of  a  woman  who  remembered  in  the  magnetic  sleep  all 
that  had  taken  place  in  a  magnetic  sleep  thirteen  years  before, 
although  in  the  meantime  she  had  never  recollected  it. 

Events  of  the  normal  life  can  also  be  remembered  in 
hypnosis,  even  when  they  have  apparently  been  long  forgotten. 
This  increased  power  of  memory  is  called  hypermnesia. 
Benedikt  relates  a  case  of  it.  An  English  officer  in  Africa 
was  hypnotized  by  Hansen,  and  suddenly  began  to  speak  a 
strange  language.  This  turned  out  to  be  Welsh,  which  he  had 
learned  as  a  child,  but  had  forgotten.  Breuer  and  Freud  point 
out  that  many  cases  of  hysteria  are  called  forth  by  some 
psychic  moment  that  the  patient  cannot  recall  in  the  waking 
condition,  though  hypnosis  may  again  bring  it  back  to  memory. 
Vogt  and  Brodmann  have  given  reasons  for  employing  hypnotic 
hypermnesia  in  therapeutics,  and  the  former  has  also  used  it  in 
psychological  analysis.  Hirschlaff,  however,  who  has  made 
many  investigations  on  the  subject,  feels  compelled  to  deny 
the  existence  of  any  increased  power  of  recollection  in  hypnosis. 
He  is  convinced  that  the  apparent  increase  of  recollection 
depends  either  upon  the  suspension  of  an  emotional  form  of 
inhibition  which  existed  in  waking-life — for  example,  a  hypnotic 
will  relate  something  which  modesty  would  compel  him  to 
withhold  in  waking-life — or  upon  auto-suggestion  brought  about 
by  the  verbal  suggestions  of  the  experimenter. 

Such  cases  of  increased  recollection  recall  others  which  are  mentioned 
in  the  literature  of  hypnotism ;  for  example,  the  famous  one  of  the  servant- 
girl  who  suddenly  spoke  Hebrew.  She  also,  in  an  abnormal  state  of 
consciousness,  spoke  a  language  which  she  did  not  know,  but  which  she 
had  often  heard  when  young  in  the  house  of  a  clergyman.  We  hear  of 
like  cases  of  hypermnesia  in  dreams.  Maury,  whose  investigations  on  the 
subject  of  dreams  are  classic,  relates  a  number  of  things  which  returned  to 
him  in  dreams,  although  when  awake  he  knew  nothing  about  them.  The 
heightened  faculties  of  hypnotic  subjects  of  which  we  so  often  hear,  and 
which  we  can  observe  in  auto-hypnosis  also,  are  a  result  of  this  increased 
power  of  reproducing  ideas.  Many  apparently  supernatural  facts  can  be 
explained  in  this  way.     I  shall  refer  to  this  later  on. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  125 

Dreams,  also,  which  have  occurred  in  natural  sleep  are 
sometimes  reproduced  in  hypnosis,  although  they  may  have 
been  forgotten  on  waking.  It  is  naturally  very  difficult  to 
judge  of  the  accuracy  with  which  dreams  are  reported.  But 
as  dreams  sometimes  leads  to  talking  in  sleep,  it  is  then 
possible  to  make  observations.  I  know  of  many  cases  in 
which  persons  betrayed  their  dreams  by  talking  in  their  sleep ; 
in  several  instances  I  was  able  to  show  that  the  loss  of  memory 
which  followed  on  waking  disappeared  in  hypnosis,  and  the 
dream  was  remembered.  In  one  case  a  bed-fellow  was  able  to 
confirm  the  accuracy  of  the  recollection.  The  occurrences  of 
a  pathological  condition  may  be  reproduced  in  hypnosis  just 
as  we  have  seen  those  of  a  dream.  Bramwell  mentions  a  case 
reported  by  Morton  Prince,  in  which  a  hypnotized  person 
remembered  many  things — especially  those  which  had  occurred 
during  the  delirium  of  fever — which  could  not  be  recollected 
when  the  subject  was  in  a  normal  state.  In  recent  years  this 
question  has  occupied  the  attention  of  several  authors,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Naef,  Gräter,  Hilger,  Muralt, 
Heilbronner,  Binswanger,  and,  more  especially,  Riklin.  They 
endeavoured  to  restore  in  hypnosis,  memory,  the  loss  of  which 
had  been  caused  by  epilepsy  or  hysteria.  Binswanger  and 
Heilbronner  consider  that  the  amnesia  of  hysteria  can  be 
dispelled  in  hypnosis,  but  not  that  caused  by  epilepsy ;  on  the 
other  hand,  Riklin  concludes  from  his  experiments  that  the 
amnesia  of  epilepsy  may  also  disappear.  Bramwell  experi- 
mented for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  if  in  hypnosis  a  person 
could  recollect  what  had  happened  to  him  when  under  the 
influence  of  ether  or  laughing  gas,  but  only  obtained  negative 
results.  Other  experiments  in  which  attempts  were  made  to 
cause  subjects  to  recollect  what  had  gone  on  around  them 
while  they  were  in  natural  sleep  were  equally  unsuccessful.  A 
sentence  was  read  to  X.  while  he  was  asleep  and  repeated 
several  times,  but  he  was  unable  to  recollect  it  when  he  was 
hypnotized.  Brodmann  tells  us  that  Vogt  was  able  to  restore 
in  hypnosis  the  memory  in  some  other  cases  of  amnesia ;  for 
example,  in  the  acute  delirium  arising  from  neurasthenia,  in 
post-epileptic  amnesia,  and  loss  of  memory  arising  from  some 
infective  disease;  but  never  in  the  case  of  a  real  epileptic  fit. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  hypnotic  does  not  remember 
all  that  occurred  during  the  hypnosis.  Thus  matters  of  no 
interest  to  him  escape  his  notice  just  as  they  would  if  he  were 


126  HYPNOTISM. 

awake.  In  some  cases  the  cause  of  the  amnesia  cannot  be 
ascertained.  I  said  to  a  hypnotic,  "  In  five  minutes  time  you 
will  call  out  *  Ha ! '  three  times."  He  did  as  he  was  told,  but 
did  not  afterwards  remember  that  he  had  called  out.  But 
apart  from  this,  several  states  of  consciousness  may  occur, 
so  that  a  subject  in  one  state  does  not  know  what  occurred 
when  he  was  in  another.  From  this  Gurney  supposes  two 
stages  of  hypnosis,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  completely 
different  memories.  The  old  magnetizers  described  such 
stages.  Gurney  distinguishes  two  stages,  a  and  b.  In  stage 
a  the  subject  knows  nothing  of  stage  b ;  and  in  d  nothing  of  a. 
It  cannot  be  disputed  that  in  some  persons  several  sharply 
divided  states  of  consciousness  may  exist,  apart  from  the 
waking  consciousness;  this  is  also  affirmed  by  Krafft-Ebing, 
Max  Dessoir,  Pierre  Janet,  and  others ;  but  I  think  it  erroneous 
to  speak  of  it  as  universal.  I  cannot  take  upon  me  to  decide 
whether  Gurney,  who  was  an  excellent  experimenter,  may  not 
have  used  suggestion  unconsciously.  But  I  consider  it 
necessary  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  I  have  recently  seen  cases 
in  which  separate  states  of  memory  have  apparently  arisen 
spontaneously ;  they  may,  of  course,  have  been  brought  about 
by  auto-suggestion  or  indirect  suggestion.  We  shall  see  later 
on,  when  discussing  change  of  personality,  that  such  chains 
of  memory  can  be  easily  induced  directly  by  suggestion. 

But  apart  from  these  cases  of  hypermnesia  it  is  character- 
istic that  in  the  deeper  hypnotic  states  not  only  the  events  that 
have  taken  place  in  earlier  hypnoses  are  remembered,  but  also 
the  events  of  waking  life.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  waking 
state  the  events  of  that  state  alone  are  remembered.  This 
state  of  things  is  named  "double  consciousness"  (double 
conscience  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  term).  It  was  evidently 
well  known  to  the  old  mesmerists — Kluge  and  Deleuze,  for 
example — and  was  also  observed  by  Braid. 

The  state  of  double  consciousness  is  also  found  under  pathological 
conditions.  One  of  the  best-known  cases  was  published  by  Azam.  The 
life  of  the  patient,  one  Felida  by  name,  for  nearly  thirty  years  was  divided 
into  certain  periods — a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f.  In  the  periods  a,  c,  e  (normal 
condition)  she  remembered  only  what  had  happened  in  them  ;  in  the 
periods  b,  d,  f  (second  condition)  she  remembered  what  occurred  in  these 
periods,  as  well  as  what  had  happened  in  the  periods  a,  c,  e.  The  normal 
state  was  a,  c,  e,  while  the  pathological  was  b,  d,  f.  Osgood  Mason  has 
published  a  similar  case  which  was  watched  for  ten  years ;  a  remarkable 
feature  of  this  case   was  that  the  patient,  a  woman,  was  thoroughly 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  12/ 

acquainted  wiih  the  medical  history  of  Felida  (Azam's  case).  This  may, 
perhaps,  account  for  her  illness.  Many  other  similar  cases  have  been 
published.  Max  Dessoir's  thoughtful  work  on  the  "Doppel-Ich"  con- 
tributes much  to  the  elucidation  of  this  question  of  double-consciousness ; 
he  shows  that  indications  of  such  a  splitting  of  the  consciousness  are  much 
more  common  than  has  hitherto  been  believed ;  he  refers  us  to  examples 
in  dream-life  and  in  pathological  states.  I  shall  return  to  the  double 
consciousness  with  more  detail  in  the  theoretical  part  of  this  book. 

One  phenomenon  which  I  have  often  observed  depends  on 
memory  in  the  later  hypnoses.  If  a  whole  series  of  scenes  is 
suggested  to  a  subject  in  hypnosis  a  very  slight  impulse  suffices 
to  cause  the  whole  panorama  to  pass  before  him  again  in  a 
later  hypnosis.  A  hypnotic  imagines  himself  hunting  a  lion ; 
he  kills  the  lion  and  devours  it ;  and  then  by  suggestion  he  is 
turned  into  a  general,  and  then  into  a  child.  On  awakening 
he  forgets  all  these  things.  In  a  later  hypnosis  he  hears  an 
unexpected  noise,  which  he  immediately  believes  to  be  the 
roaring  of  a  lion.  In  consequence  he  goes  through  all  the 
scenes  again,  without  omitting  the  smallest  detail.  This 
incident  may  be  accounted  among  the  indirect  suggestions, 
since  the  auto-suggestion  was  aroused  by  an  accidental 
circumstance. 

The  case  observed  and  quoted  above  by  Mabille,  in  which  a  person 
induced  haemorrhage  by  auto-suggestion,  after  it  had  once  been  induced  by 
external  suggestion,  belongs  to  the  same  category.  The  subject  separated 
herself,  so  to  speak,  into  two  persons,  one  of  whom  made  suggestions  to  the 
other,  as  is  proved  by  the  conversation  which  she  carried  on  with  herself. 

The  subject's  recollection  of  all  that  he  has  experienced  in  earlier 
hypnoses  is  most  important.  The  possibility  of  hypnotic  training  depends 
upon  the  strength  of  the  recollection,  which  is  also  a  frequent  source  of 
error  in  new  experiments,  since  they  are  easily  spoiled  by  memory  of  the 
earlier  ones.  I  say  to  the  hypnotic  (X.)  "You  will  now  raise  your  left  leg." 
X.  does  so.  While  I  make  the  suggestion  I  unintentionally  take  hold  of 
his  right  hand.  When,  in  a  later  hypnosis,  I  again  take  hold  of  his  right 
hand,  X.  lifts  his  left  leg.  Evidently  he  remembers  the  first  event,  and 
regards  the  taking  of  his  hand  as  an  order  to  lift  his  leg.  It  is  probable 
that  the  new  reflexes  which  Born  and  others  thought  they  had  discovered, 
and  which  I  have  mentioned  before,  came  about  in  this  way. 

Although  opinions  may  differ  as  to  whether  hypermnesia 
may  be  induced  in  hypnosis,  by  means  of  suggestion,  the 
possibility  of  inducing  errors  of  memory  (paramnesia),  or 
failures  of  memory  (amnesia),  can  hardly  be  doubted;  Bertrand 
collected  many  observations  on  these  points.     These  memories 


128  HYPNOTISM. 

may  consist  of  former  perceptions ;  the  suggestive  influence  of 
these  former  perceptions  has  often  been  observed :  by  means 
of  them  the  subject  may  be  completely  deluded  about  his 
former  experiences.  Since  these  suggestions  have  a  certain 
retroactive  force,  they  are  called  retroactive  suggestions;  or 
as  they  are  concerned  with  supposed  sense  perceptions,  they 
are  sometimes  termed  retroactive  hallucinations,  either  of  a 
positive  or  negative  order,  according  as  a  new  memory  is 
created  or  an  old  one  annulled. 

I  say  to  a  subject:  "Of  course  you  remember  that  we  went  to  Potsdam 
yesterday,  and  took  a'  drive  on  the  Havel  ?  "  The  suggestion  takes  effect, 
and  he  at  once  begins  to  relate  all  that  he  believes  we  did  in  Potsdam. 
This  is  a  retroactive  positive  hallucination,  because  the  hypnotic  believes 
that  he  has  experienced  something  that  never  really  occurred.  The  follow- 
ing would  be  a  retroactive  negative  hallucination,  as  the  hypnotic  forgets 
something  which  did  happen.  I  say  to  him:  *'You  have  not  had  any 
dinner;  you  have  not  had  any  breakfast."  Upon  which  he  immediately 
feels  hungry,  as  he  thinks  he  has  had  nothing  to  eat  since  he  got  up. 

Many  motor  disturbances  of  which  I  have  before  spoken 
may  be  reckoned  as  related  to  amnesia,  or  loss  of  memory. 
For  example,  when  I  tell  somebody  that  he  cannot  lift  his 
arm,  or  that  he  cannot  speak,  I  am  sometimes  dealing  with 
loss  of  memory,  because  a  movement  is  made  impossible  if 
the  memory  of  it  cannot  first  be  called  up.  This  is  the  case 
in  those  paralyses  which  some  French  authors  (Binet,  Fer^) 
call  paralysies  systimatiques — a  paralysis  for  a  special  act. 
Such  a  paralysis  is  not  followed  by  total  functional  incapacity 
of  a  whole  group  of  muscles ;  the  function  is  rather  interfered 
with  for  one  particular  use  only.  The  incapacity  to  say  a,  or 
to  sew,  for  example,  would  be  a  paralysis  for  a  special  act ; 
if  the  person  could  not  speak  or  move  his  arm  at  all,  this 
would  be  a  complete  paralysis.  It  is  possible  in  this  way  to 
deprive  the  subject  of  all  memory  of  the  letter  a  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  so  that  he  can  neither  speak  nor  write  it.  It 
is  possible  to  produce  almost  all  kinds  of  aphasia  experiment- 
ally, as  Kussmaul,  Arndt,  and  others  have  demonstrated.  We 
can  cause  any  one  to  forget  a  language  he  has  learned — French, 
for  example  (Forel,  Frank);  we  can  make  writing  impossible 
(agraphia).  By  a  suitable  suggestion  a  hypnotic  can  be  de- 
prived of  the  power  of  making  himself  understood  by  facial 
expression  (amimia).  Drawing,  sewing,  every  form  of  activity, 
in  fact,  can  be  prevented  by  suggestion. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  1 29 

There  is  a  particular  group  of  disturbances  of  speech  in 
which  the  power  of  speaking  is  more  or  less  lost,  though  the 
perception  of  words  remains  intact  (motor  aphasia).  It  is 
easily  induced  by  suggestion.  But  we  can  go  farther,  and 
not  only  deprive  a  subject  of  the  power  of  speaking  but  also 
of  the  perception  of  speech,  or  even  of  any  particular  word  or 
letter.  It  is  possible  to  deprive  him  of  the  very  idea  which 
he  attaches  to  a  letter — a,  for  example.  This  difference  will 
become  clear  if  we  observe  the  behaviour  of  a  person  under 
the  different  circumstances.  If  he  retains  the  idea  of  the  letter 
he  is  conscious  of  his  inability  to  utter  it ;  he  is  aware  that  he 
is  speaking  or  writing  nonsense,  because  he  has  no  letter  a, 
and  even  tries  to  avoid  words  in  which  that  letter  appears 
(Max  Dessoir).  But  if  he  is  deprived  of  the  conception  or 
idea  of  a  letter,  he  is  no  longer  surprised  that  he  cannot  write 
or  speak  it.  This  becomes  still  more  interesting  in  post- 
hypnotic suggestion.  It  is  possible  to  cause  a  post-hypnotic 
loss  of  memory,  and  to  make  the  subject  at  the  same  time 
replace  one  letter  by  another.  I  told  a  hypnotic  that  after 
he  was  awakened  he  would  always  say  e  instead  of  a,  I  woke 
him,  and  asked,  "Are  you  awake?"  "Je"  (Ja),  he  replied. 
When  asked  what  he  had  been  doing,  he  replied :  "  Ich  heb' 
geschiefen  "  (Ich  habe  geschlafen).  The  subject  laughed,  but 
was  at  the  same  time  slightly  annoyed  because  he  could  not 
utter  the  letter  ß,  and  was  perfectly  aware  that  he  was  talking 
nonsense.  But  if  the  idea  a  were  also  missing,  or  had  been 
replaced  by  the  idea  e^  the  subject  would  say  e  instead  of  a 
without  observing  it. 

I  have  shown  above  that  subjects  may  be  made  to  forget 
certain  of  their  experiences  (negative  retroactive  hallucina- 
tions). In  the  same  way,  whole  periods  can  be  made  to 
vanish  from  a  subject's  consciousness.  Mr.  X.,  who  is  forty- 
three  years  old,  was  told,  '*You  no  longer  remember  anything 
that  has  happened  to  you  since  you  were  thirty."  This  sufficed 
to  cause  a  blank  in  X.'s  consciousness.  He  was  unable  to 
answer  any  questions  about  this  period ;  he  did  not  know  how 
he  made  my  acquaintance,  nor  how  he  got  into  my  room; 
when  such  questions  were  put  to  him  he  invariably  shrugged 
his  shoulders  and  answered,  "  I  don't  know." 

It  is  possible  to  carry  this  still  farther,  and  transport  the 
subject  back  to  an  earlier  period  of  life.  In  this  case  the 
subject  finds  no  gaps  in  his  memory;  he  believes  that  he  is 

9 


130  HYPNOTISM. 

living  in  this  earlier  time,  and  brings  his  present  surroundings 
into  relation  with  it. 

Here  is  the  case  of  a  man  who  fought  at  St.  Privat  in  the  French  War. 
I  suggested  to  him  that  he  was  younger,  and  in  the  battle.  He  stood  up 
at  once,  gave  military  orders,  and  commanded  the  artillery  to  open  fire. 
When  I  asked  him  if  he  knew  Dr.  Moll,  he  said,  "  My  doctor's  name  is 

R .     I  do  not  know  Dr.  Moll."    He  knew  nothing  that  had  happened 

since  the  day  of  the  battle ;  he  was  totally  unaware  of  the  rheumatism  for 
which  I  was  treating  him ;  he  said  he  was  quite  well.  When  I  asked  him 
who  I  was,  he  replied  he  did  not  know.  It  was  interesting  that  he  could 
not  be  induced  to  retreat ;  I  tried  to  make  him  take  a  few  steps  backward, 
but  he  replied,  **  I  will  not  retreat  one  step  without  orders."  I  suggested 
that  the  enemy  was  approaching,  but  nothing  would  induce  him  to  retreat. 
When  I  drew  his  attention  more  and  more  upon  myself,  and  told  him  that 
he  must  know  who  I  was,  the  situation  suddenly  altered.  He  recognized 
me,  and  knew  his  real  age,  but  had  no  notion  of  what  had  just  passed. 

A  lady,  aged  thirty-four,  whom  I  caused  to  believe  that  she  was  eight 
years  old  again,  asked  for  her  doll,  spoke  in  a  childish  voice,  cried  when 
she  thought  I  was  about  to  take  her  doll  away,  and  called  for  her  mamma. 

Finally,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  person  believe  that  he  has  never  been 
born.  Even  this  suggestion  will  be  accepted,  and  the  consciousness  will 
be  an  absolute  blank. 

By  placing  a  subject  back  in  some  earlier  period  of  life — childhood,  for 
example — Krafft-Ebing  endeavoured  to  obtain  an  experimental  solution  of 
the  question  as  to  whether  events  which  have  disappeared  from  conscious- 
ness can  be  brought  back  during  hypnosis.  He  considers  that  his  experi- 
ments have  settled  this  question  in  the  affirmative,  and  further  thinks  that 
the  changes  in  handwriting  and  style  of  expression  noticed  in  such  cases 
are  typical  of  what  the  subject  must  have  been  when  a  child.  But  a 
different  interpretation  of  Krafft-Ebing's  experiments  has  been  given  by 
other  investigators.  Jolly,  Köhler,  and  Loewenfeld  assume  that  when  such 
a  subject  behaves  like  a  child  he  does  not  really  depict  his  own  childhood, 
but  taking  the  experimenter's  suggestion  to  mean  that  he  should  act  like 
any  child,  he  behaves  as  he  imagines  a  child  would.  I  think  that  this 
interpretation  may  be  taken  as  generally  accurate.  Still,  we  must  not 
exclude  the  possibility  of  that  form  of  hypnotic  hypermnesia  being  occa- 
sionally met  with;  a  suitable  subject  could  easily  be  influenced  in  that 
way,  with  the  result  that  a  mnemonic  image  would  be  reproduced. 

New  memories  can  be  created  at  the  time  the  old  ones  are 
cancelled.  This  is  the  case  with  the  phenomenon  which 
Charles  Riebet  describes  as  ohjecHvatiofi  des  types.  In  this 
case  the  subject  believes  himself  another  personality,  another 
being ;  not  only  do  many  memories  connected  with  his  own 
ego  disappear,  but  he  also  endeavours  to  connect  the  remaining 
memories  with  his  suggested  personality.  Durand  de  Gros 
was  acquainted  with  these  phenomena;  he  appears  to  have 
come  across  them  in  America,  where  they  were  already  observed 
in  1840. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  I3I 

I  lold  a.  certain  Mr.  X.  that  he  was  Dr.  Moll,  and  that  I  was  Mr.  X. ; 
upon  which  he  asked  me  to  take  a  seat,  so  that  he  might  hypnotize  me. 
He  attempted  to  do  so ;  he  went  carefully  through  the  process  which  I  go 
through  with  him,  and  did  not  forget  to  make  several  pleasant  suggestions. 

I  experimented  with  another  man  in  whom  these  phenomena  are  very 
easily  produced.  He  would  represent  with  dramatic  vividness  any  char- 
acter which  was  within  the  grasp  of  his  ideas.  I  told  him,  "You  are 
Napoleon  I.,"  upon  which  he  immediately  assumed  the  famous  position  of 
Napoleon  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  but  spoke  German,  as  he  did  not 
know  French.  As  Frederick  the  Great,  he  walked  with  a  crutch  in  the 
v^ell-known  gait,  and  knew  nothing  about  railroads.  Subjects  can  be 
made  to  believe  they  are  animals ;  they  will  bark  like  dogs,  or  croak  like 
frogs.  They  can  even  by  suggestion  be  changed  into  inanimate  objects, 
such  as  stoves,  chairs,  tables.  When  X.  thinks  himself  a  chair  he  crouches 
down  on  both  legs ;  when  it  is  suggested  that  the  chair  has  a  broken  leg, 
he  sinks  his  knee  to  the  ground  and  rests  on  one  leg;  when  he  is  a  carpet 
he  lies  flat  and  motionless.  These  experiments  in  suggestion  may  be 
carried  still  further.  **  You  are  made  of  glass,"  I  say  to  a  hypnotic;  he 
stands  perfectly  still.  When  I  tell  another  that  he  is  made  of  marble,  he 
stands  stiffly  and  cannot  be  moved ;  but  directly  he  believes  himself  to  be 
made  of  wax  he  becomes  plastic  and  allows  himself  to  be  placed  in  any 
attitude. 

It  should  be  remarked  that  the  subject  always  obeys  the 
experimenter,  even  when  he  believes  himself  an  inanimate 
object.  Moreover,  hypnotized  subjects  are  not  always  con- 
sistent in  these  experiments;  they  often  forget  their  part, 
though  this  may  be  generally  prevented  by  training.  For 
example,  another  person  whom  I  had  changed  into  Frederick 
the  Great  travelled  contentedly  in  a  railway  carriage,  evidently 
not  reflecting  that  there  were  no  railways  in  those  days. 
Another,  whom  I  had  carried  back  into  the  year  1864,  spoke 
of  the  new  German  Empire,  of  the  Emperor  William  I.  In 
spite  of  such  inconsistencies,  the  mental  images  are  much 
more  consistent  with  hypnotics  than  with  many  lunatics  who 
believe  themselves  to  be  kings  and  prophets.  The  incon- 
sistencies of  lunatics  are  much  greater,  and  hypnotics  sooner 
get  rid  of  them.  Besides  this,  when  they  represent  a  new 
personality,  memories  of  former  experiences  disappear  more 
completely  than  is  the  case  with  lunatics'  (Cullerre).  In 
hypnotic  change  of  personality  each  change  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  loss  of  memory  of  that  which  preceded  it.  One 
person  whom  I  hypnotized  was  unable  to  remember  as 
Napoleon  what  he  had  done  as  Frederick  the  Great. 

The  change  of  personality  in  hypnotics  has  often  been  compared  with 
the  performances  of  actors.     It  is  the  opinion  ot  the  actress  Dumesnil 


132  HYPNOTISM. 

that  the  actor  who  himself  creates  the  idea  of  his  part  and  allows  himself 
to  be  governed  by  it  will  play  his  part  the  best;  others — for  example,  the 
famous  Clairon — held  a  different  opinion  on  this  point.  In  any  case,  few 
actors  are  able  to  accommodate  and  assimilate  their  own  idea  of  a  character 
— e.g.  J  that  of  Julius  Oesar,  as  thoroughly  as  a  hypnotic  can  do.  The 
subject  is  not  distracted  by  sense- perceptions,  while  the  actor  cannot  avoid 
being  affected  by  them.  Some  actors,  in  order  to  play  their  parts  as 
naturally  as  possible,  call  up  imaginary  objects  by  force  of  imagination,  so 
as  to  place  themselves  amongst  suitable  surroundings. 

Graphological  investigations  have  been  undertaken  in  several 
quarters  in  order  to  decide  whether  the  handwriting  of  the 
hypnotized  subject  changes  with  the  personality,  and  if  the 
change  bears  any  relation  to  the  personality.  Changes  have 
been  observed  (Lombroso,  Ferrari,  Hericourt,  Riebet,  Varinard, 
Mayeras).  The  expert  Hoct^s,  however,  thinks  that  the  sub- 
ject's handwriting  is  never  altered  to  such  a  degree  as  not  to 
be  recognizable.  I  have  never  seen  distinct  changes  of  hand- 
writing follow  on  change  of  personality;  only  in  some  cases 
when  I  placed  the  subjects  in  different  periods  of  life  has  the 
handwriting  altered.  As  children  they  wrote  awkwardly  and 
made  mistakes  in  spelling;  as  old  people  they  wrote  shakily. 
The  trials  made  with  Krafft-Ebing's  patient,  who  wrote 
different  hands,  corresponding  to  the  different  earlier  periods 
of  her  life,  are  very  interesting;  unfortunately,  the  writing  could 
not  be  compared  with  true  writing  of  the  subject  at  those 
periods.  Sidis  has  published  similar  experiments.  In  one 
case,  however,  Krafft-Ebing  was  able  to  compare  the 
handwriting  of  a  hypnotic  placed  in  an  earlier  period  of  life 
with  the  subject's  actual  handwriting  at  that  period,  and 
thinks  he  could  trace  a  certain  similarity  between  the  two. 
Nuel's  statement  that  in  hypnosis  the  writing  always  differs 
from  the  subject's  normal  hand,  and  that  consequently 
hypnotic  signatures  may  always  be  distinguished  from  others, 
seems  to  me  too  general.  He  is  probably  right  when  he  says 
that  in  many  cases  the  writing  of  hypnotic  subjects  is 
irregular  and  spasmodic. 

We  have  now  studied  the  memory,  which  is  a  chief 
condition  for  the  continuance  of  mental  activity.  This 
shows  no  abnormalities  in  superficial  hypnosis,  though 
such  may  be  easily  induced  in  deep  hypnosis,  at  least  by 
suggestion.  But  a  certain  adherence  to  rule  in  the  chain  of 
ideas,  conditioned  by  the  laws  of  association,  exists  in  deep 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  1 33 

hypnosis,  as  in  the  waking  state.  Certainly  associations 
may  assume  the  character  of  hallucinations  when  the  state 
of  consciousness  is  altered.  I  suggest  to  X.  that  he  has  a 
pack  of  cards  in  his  hand.  He  believes  it;  and  the  mental 
picture  of  the  cards  arouses  the  idea  that  he  is  playing  a 
game  of  "Skat,"  and  that  he  is  in  a  restaurant  with  his 
friends  Y.  and  Z.  The  single  suggestion  of  cards  has 
sufficed  to  call  up  a  whole  scene  by  association  of  ideas. 
Certainly  in  this  case  the  associations  are  merely  mechanical — 
i,e,y  no  high  degree  of  mental  activity  is  concerned. 

Nevertheless,    the    mental    activity,    thought,    appears    as 
soon  as  we  deprive  X.  of  the  existing  associations,  and  he 
exerts  himself  to  create  a  new  sequence  of  ideas.     I  tell  X., 
while  he  thinks  he  is  holding  the  cards,  that  he  is  in  the 
train,  and  the  chain  of  ideas  connecting  the  cards  and  the 
restaurant    is    put    an    end    to.     In    order    to    establish    a 
connection   between   the    cards  and    the    train,   the    subject 
now  declares  he  has  bought  the  cards  for  a  birthday  present 
for  a  friend  whom  he  is  travelling  to  meet.     The  conscious- 
ness and  will  of  hypnotics  also  express  themselves   in  the 
case  of  indeterminate  suggestions   (suggestions  inditerminieSy 
as    Beaunis   calls    them).     In   such   suggestions   no   definite 
action   is   commanded,  but  the   subjects  are  left  to  choose 
among  a  number.     Here  is  a  man  with  a  violent  bronchial 
catarrh.     I  suggest  to  him  in  hypnosis  to  do  something  or 
other  which  will  benefit   his   health.     He  at  once  gets  up, 
and  goes  to  a  box   containing  catechu   for  the   purpose  of 
taking   some.     Indeterminate  suggestion   can  also   be  made 
to   act   post-hypnotically.     I   tell   a   hypnotic,  who   is   sitting 
with  me  one  evening  in  my  room,  to   do  some  thoroughly 
foolish   action   after    he    wakes.     He   wakes  and  blows    the 
lamp  out. 

The  fact  that  the  subject  sometimes  allows  himself  to  be 
persuaded  to  do  something,  if  a  reason  is  given  to  him-  for 
it,  shows  even  more  plainly  that  the  thinking  process  is  not 
arrested  in  hypnosis.  Nothing  can  induce  X.  to  spill  a 
glass  of  water  in  my  room;  but  directly  I  tell  him  the  room 
is  on  fire  he  does  it  at  once  so  as  to  extinguish  the  fire. 

It  is  important  to  know  how  the  hypnotic  subject  some- 
times makes  a  logical  use  of  slight  external  impressions 
which  anybody  else  would  hardly  think  about.  Much 
apparent  "clairvoyance''  is  due  to  this.     Many  subjects  are 


1 34  HYPNOTISM. 

helped  also  by  the  hyperaesthesia  of  their  organs  of  sense, 
which  enables  them  to  recognize  things  which  would  be 
overlooked  in  the  waking  state. 

Let  us  take  a  very  common  experiment,  often  made  to  prove  the 
existence  of  animal  magnetism.  The  magnetized  subject  knows  whether 
he  has  been  touched  by  his  magnetizer  or  another  person.  It  is  astounding 
to  observe  the  accuracy  with  which  such  subjects,  when  their  eyes  have 
been  bandaged,  can  distinguish  one  person  from  another.  Ochorowicz, 
who  believes  in  animal  magnetism  on  other  grounds,  gives  a  number  of 
interesting  examples  of  this.  The  hypnotic  subject  observes  the  smallest 
details — the  differences  in  the  strength  of  pressure,  in  the  temperature  of 
the  hand,  in  the  posture  of  the  person  touching  him,  in  the  sounds  he 
makes  with  his  shirt-cuffs;  nothing  is  overlooked,  and  a  logically  exact 
conclusion  is  drawn.  It  may  very  well  happen  in  such  cases  that  the 
subject  is  not  clearly  conscious  of  drawing  his  conclusions  from  these 
details.  This  phenomenon  is  very  common  in  normal  life.  How  often 
it  happens  that  at  first  sight  one  person  draws  a  conclusion  as  to  the 
character  of  another,  and  is  at  the  same  time  unaware  of  the  details  from 
which  he  draws  it.  We  often  divine  the  meaning  of  a  face  without  know- 
ing how;  we  think  that  it  is  a  clever  or  a  stupid  face;  we  recognize  an 
expression  of  happiness  or  sadness  at  once,  without  realizing  the  details 
of  our  impression.  Thought-transference,  of  which  I  shall  speak  later, 
may  often  be  explained  in  this  way;  the  subject  reads  the  wish  and 
thought  of  the  experimenter  even  in  a  gesture,  in  the  direction  of  his 
eyes,  in  the  involuntary  movement  of  his  lips  (Carpenter),  particularly 
when  he  has  had  some  training  in  this  line. 

The  prophecies  and  predictions  of  somnambules  and  other  such  persons 
often  depend  upon  the  logical  utilization  of  such  insignificant  impressions. 
A  peculiar  mental  quickness  is  not  always  necessary,  as  is  shown  in  the 
case  of  a  man  who  was  told  by  a  soothsayer  that  he  had  lately  suffered  a 
loss  in  his  family.  This  was  true.  The  man  was  astonished  till  a  friend 
drew  his  attention  to  the  fact  that  he  was  wearing  crape— a  fact  which 
gave  the  soothsayer  a  clue  (Fonvielle). 

In  hypnosis,  just  as  in  the  normal  state,  mental  activity 
depends  upon  the  attention  paid  by  the  subject;  indeed, 
in  the  deep  hypnoses  the  subject's  attention  plays  a  particular 
part,  being  easily  diverted  from  the  experimenter.  In  deep 
hypnosis  the  subject's  attention  is  first  directed  to  one 
point  only — i.e.,  to  the  experimenter,  so  that  other  objects 
hardly  exist  for  him.  When  this  phenomenon  is  clearly 
marked,  we  speak  of  rapport;  or  of  isolated  rapport  when 
the  subject  is  in  hypnotic  connection  with  only  one 
individual.  This  is  an  important  phenomenon  of  hypnosis. 
We  saw  in  the  fourth  experiment  (p.  35)  that  the  subject 
only  answered  me,  and  apparently  ignored  the  other  persons 
present.     Isolated  rapport  is  a  common  phenomenon  of  deep 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  1 35 

hypnosis.  It  can  undoubtedly  be  induced  by  suggestion; 
whether  it  can  only  arise  in  this  manner  or  may  be  brought 
about  by  other  means,  is  to  be  questioned.  Döllken  only 
once  saw  a  case  of  isolated  rapport  without  the  necessary 
suggestion  being  made.  I  have  often  seen  cases  of  this 
kind  in  which  I  do  not  think  I  lent  any  assistance  either  by 
word  or  deed.  It  may  of  course  be  objected  that  in  such 
cases  auto-suggestion  plays  a  part,  because  the  hypnotic 
thinks  of  the  experimenter  when  falling  asleep,  and  so,  by 
auto-suggestion,  isolates  himself  from  the  other  persons 
present.  This  is  a  possible  explanation,  though  it  appears 
to  me  doubtful  whether  the  concept  suggestion  suffices  to 
explain  the  phenomenon,  because  there  may  be  associative 
processes  at  work  which  are  not  included  in  that  concept. 
The  old  mesmerists  were  acquainted  with  isolated  rapport 
It  struck  them  that  the  magnetized  person  appeared  not 
only  to  hear,  but  also  to  feel  the  magnetizer.  This  form  of 
rapport  was  to  them  a  proof  that  the  magnetizer  exercised 
a  physical  influence  on  the  person  magnetized.  I  have, 
however,  demonstrated  in  my  large  work  on  Rapport  in 
Hypnosis  that  isolated  rapport  occurs  as  a  psychic  pheno- 
menon without  the  aid  of  magnetic  manipulations.  Up  to 
the  present  no  one  has  made  any  serious  attempt  to  refute 
my  demonstration.  The  phenomena  of  magnetization  are 
exactly  the  same  as  those  observed  when  a  subject  is  sent 
to  sleep  by  suggestion.  As  suggestions  are  most  easily 
made  through  the  muscular  sense  and  the  hearing,  isolated 
rapport  is  made  most  clearly  evident  by  means  of  these 
senses.  A  subject,  X.,  is  hypnotized.  I  lift  up  his  arm;  it 
remains  raised  in  suggested  catalepsy.  Another  person,  A., 
makes  a  similar  attempt  with  the  other  arm,  but  without 
result;  the  arm  always  falls  down  loosely.  A.  now  tries  to 
bend  the  cataleptic  arm,  but  is  prevented  by  its  rigid  con- 
tracture, while  I  easily  succeed.  The  command  of  the 
experimenter  suffices  to  put  other  persons — A.,  for  example — 
in  rapport  with  the  subject.  The  circumstances  are  ana- 
logous in  verbal  suggestion.  The  experimenter  says  when 
he  has  lifted  the  arm,  **Now  it  bends,  now  it  falls,  now  it  is 
stretched  out,"  and  the  effect  at  once  follows.  The 
commands  of  others  are  not  obeyed  if  they  have  not  been 
put  in  rapport  with  the  subject  by  the  experimenter.  This 
shows  the   importance  of  rapport  if  a  subject   is  to   be   in- 


136  HYPNOTISM. 

fluenced  On  the  other  hand,  I  must  point  out  that  persons 
who  are  not  in  rapport  with  the  hypnotic  are  sometimes 
only  apparently  ignored.  It  can  be  shown  in  various  ways 
that  sense-impressions  coming  from  other  persons  are 
perceived,  although  they  do  not  cross  the  threshold  of 
consciousness.  I  have  been  able  in  some  cases  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  perception  by  means  of 
automatic  writing,  to  which  I  shall  refer  later;  in  others  I 
was  able  to  produce  the  necessary  proof  by  persistently 
suggesting  that  the  subject  should  do  something  which  A., 
who  was  present,  told  him  to — for  example,  put  his  hand  to 
his  forehead.  Being  a  case  of  isolated  rapport^  the  patient 
ignored  A.'s  command,  but  subsequently  obeyed  when  I 
suggested  that  he  should  do  so.  Phenomena  exactly  like 
those  of  rapport  in  hypnosis  have  been  observed  in 
spontaneous  somnambulism  (Macario).  Finally,  I  must 
mention  that  in  superficial  hypnosis  also,  in  which  others 
besides  the  experimenter  are  distinctly  felt  and  heard  by 
the  hypnotic— a  fact  he  readily  admits — he  can  sometimes 
only  be  influenced  by  the  experimenter.  The  ideas 
suggested  by  the  latter  alone  lead  to  the  realization  of 
suggestion;  attempts  at  verbal  suggestion  made  by  others 
are  heard  and  may  be  repeated  by  the  hypnotic  if  requested 
to  do  so,  but  they  produce  no  effect. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  isolated  rapport  depends  entirely 
on  the  attention  paid  by  the  subject  to  the  experimenter,  and 
just  as  the  rapport  may  be  transferred  to  another  person  by 
suggestion — /.e.,  the  subject's  attention  directed  to  that  person, 
so  we  can  force  the  hypnotic  to  concentrate  his  attention  on 
any  point  we  please.  The  increased  mental  activity  which  is 
occasionally  observed  in  hypnosis  is  often  referred  to  the  fact 
that  the  subject's  attention  is  directed  to  one  point  exclusively, 
from  which  nothing  distracts  it,  and,  as  HirschlafF  points  out, 
the  same  result  may  be  induced  by  suggestion.  Hirschlaff 
found  by  experiment  that,  with  the  same  subject,  the  reaction- 
time  is  shorter  in  deep  hypnosis  than  in  the  waking  state,  and 
thinks  this  explains  the  phenomenon  mentioned  above. 

By  reaction-time  we  mean  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  moment 
of  making  a  sense-impression  and  the  moment  when  the  impression 
manifests  itself  by  some  external  sign  (Wundt).  It  is  known  that  a 
number  of  different  processes  take  place  in  the  consciousness  during  the 
time  of  reaction.     I  shall  the  less  enter  into  them,  that  the  researches 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  1 37 

which  have  hitherto  been  made  into  the  time  of  reaction  during  hypnosis 
have  given  contradictory  results.  Stanley  Hall  found  the  time  of  reaction 
considerably  shortened  in  hypnosis.     He  found — 

Before  hypnosis        ...  ...     0.328  sees. 

During  hypnosis       ...         ...         ...     0.193    ,, 

Half  an  hour  after  hypnosis  ...    0.348    ,, 

The  time  of  reaction  during  hypnosis  is  thus  sensibly  diminished  here;  but 
William  James's  experiments  have  not  confirmed  Stanley  Hall's.  He 
nearly  always  found  an  increase  of  time  of  reaction  during  hypnosis, 
sometimes  to  an  important  extent.  He  gives  this  as  an  average  on  one 
occasion  : — 

Before  hypnosis  ...     0.282  sees. 

During  hypnosis  ...         ...         ...     o.  546    , , 

After  hypnosis  ...         ...         ...         ...     0.166    ,, 

But  as  there  are  many  contradictions  in  James's  different  experiments,  no 
definite  conclusion  can  be  drawn.  He  himself  believes  that  the  contra- 
dictions are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  so  many  different  states  are 
included  in  hypnosis,  as  Braid  already  knew,  and  that  we  should  be 
careful  not  to  generalize  from  single  observations.  Beaunis,  who  has  also 
made  these  experiments,  is  equally  cautious.  The  only  conclusion  he 
draws  from  his  partially  contradictory  results  is  that  the  time  of  reaction 
in  hypnosis  may  be  shortened  by  suggestion.  Similar  results  are  given 
by  the  experiments  of  Henika,  Worotynski,  and  Bechterew.  These 
observers  also  found  a  lengthening  of  reaction- time  in  hypnosis  as  com- 
pared with  the  waking  condition.  Marie  and  Azoulay  have  measured  the 
time  of  reaction  for  suggested  sense-delusions  in  hypnosis ;  they  found  it 
longer  than  when  the  object  was  a  real  one.  Perhaps  this  is  because  the 
points  of  recognition  [poitUs  de  repire^  p.  100)  have  to  arouse  the  suggested 
picture  before  it  can  be  perceived.  The  time  of  reaction,*  according  to 
my  experience,  may  last  so  long — to  return  to  the  experiment  with  the 
photographs  on  page  100 — that  we  might  even  speak  of  a  search  for  the 
picture.  The  subject  looks  till  he  finds  the  points  of  recognition,  which  at 
once  recall  the  suggested  picture  to  his  memory.  This  search  may  be 
united  with  a  dim  consciousness  that  the  whole  thing  is  a  delusion,  but 
there  can  be  no  question  of  simulation. 

Other  investigators  also  attribute  increased  activity  in 
hypnosis  to  increased  concentration  of  the  attention. 
Bremaud  is  quite  right  in  thinking  that  the  increased  power 
of  -vision  and  of  hearing  in  hypnosis  are  to  be  ascribed  to  an 
increase  of  attention.  Quite  a  young  lad,  a  relation  of  his, 
solved  problems  in  his  sleep  which  he  could  not  solve  when 

*  I  am  doubtful  if  in  this  case  we  ought  to  talk  of  time  of  reaction,  as 
this  expression  is  generally  used  only  with  regard  to  perceptions  of  real 
objects. 


138  HYPNOTISM. 

awake,  a  phenomenon  which  Bremaud  ascribes  entirely  to 
greater  attention,  and  not  to  quickened  intelligence  (Crocq). 
Concentration  of  the  attention  also  explains  the  increased 
functional  activity  in  hypnosis  observed  by  other  investigators. 
Ach,  for  instance,  investigated  the  question  of  mental  activity. 
To  keep  his  subjects'  minds  continuously  employed  in  one 
direction  he  set  them  the  task  of  adding  up  column  after 
column  of  simple  digits,  and  found  that  under  this  abnormal 
and  intensified  concentration  of  consciousness  the  work  done 
was  one-fifth  more  than  would  have  been  accomplished  under 
normal  conditions.  Bechterew  found  that  the  time  occupied 
in  counting  simple  numbers,  or  in  associating  ideas,  was 
shortened  when  the  subject  was  requested  to  carry  out  the 
processes  in  question  with  greater  rapidity. 

In  hypnosis  the  feelings  also  are  subject  to  the  influence  of 
suggestion.  Desire  and  dislike  can  be  very  easily  suggested, 
particularly  in  deep  hypnosis.  Similarly,  the  whole  mental 
tone,  whicn  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  feelings  and  with 
common  sensation,  is  readily  amenable  to  suggestion.  But 
as  to  whether  the  feelings  as  a  whole  exhibit  abnormalities  in 
hypnosis  without  suggestion  being  brought  into  play  opinions 
differ,  just  as  they  do  on  so  many  other  questions  in  which 
suggestion  is  concerned.  We  occasionally  find  the  view 
promulgated  that  the  hypnotic  is  extraordinarily  grave.  I 
cannot  admit  this.  Many  people,  on  the  contrary,  seem 
particularly  comfortable  in  hypnosis,  an  observation  which 
Riebet  also  has  made.  Of  course  we  can  hardly  exclude  the 
possibility  that  this  state  of  feeling  may  have  been  brought 
about  by  auto-suggestion.  In  some  cases  the  emotions  are 
easily  controlled.  It  is  consequently  very  easy  to  induce 
either  sadness  or  cheerfulness  in  deep  hypnosis,  and  these 
emotional  states  often  alternate  very  quickly.  It  is  even 
easier  to  call  up  such  emotions  as  love  and  hate,  anxiety, 
anger,  and  fear  by  means  of  suggestion ;  for  example,  a 
hypnotic  can  easily  be  thrown  into  a  passion  by  suggesting 
the  presence  of  a  particularly  offensive  personal  enemy. 
Sometimes  a  simple  command  suffices  to  call  up  a  particular 
emotion ;  fear,  for  example,  may  be  induced  in  this  way,  the 
subject  putting  himself  in  the  fear-inspiring  situation  by  auto- 
suggestion. At  all  events,  in  many  cases  a  very  lively  ex- 
pression of  emotion  can  be  extremely  easily  induced  by 
suggestion,  either  directly  or  indirectly.     Under  such  circum- 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  1 39 

stances,  the  facial  expression,  attitude,  and  posture  of  the 
hypnotic  clearly  show  what  is  passing  within  him. 

The  impulses  also  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  controlled  by 
suggestion.  Observations  which  have  been  made  in  the  field 
of  sexual  perversion  show  the  great  power  of  suggestion  in 
this  respect.  I  shall  return  to  this  question  in  Chapter  VIII., 
in  which  we  shall  see  that  under  certain  conditions  ordinary 
hetero-sexual  love  can  be  influenced  by  suggestion. 

Of  course  verbal  suggestion  is  not  the  only  means  of  im- 
planting those  ideas  which  influence  the  feelings,  emotions,  and 
impulses.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  sense  of  sight  and 
the  muscular  sense  can  serve  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting 
ideas,  and  this  is  also  the  case  when  the  feelings,  etc.,  are  to 
be  influenced.  The  suggestions  made  through  the  muscular 
sense,  observed  by  Braid  and  Charcot,  are  founded  on  this 
{suggestions  (T attitude^  or  suggestions  par  attitude).  If  a  subject's 
arms  are  put  into  the  attitude  of  prayer,  the  face  soon  wears  an 
expression  of  religious  devotion.  The  following*  is  a  favourite 
experiment  of  Charcot : — If  the  subject's  hand  is  raised  to  his 
mouth  as  if  he  were  throwing  a  kiss,  he  smiles.  If  the  fist  is 
closed  and  raised  in  a  threatening  attitude,  he  looks  angry. 
Charcot  and  Kicher  maintain  that  the  experiment  may  be 
reversed.  If,  for  example,  the  muscles  used  in  laughter  are 
stimulated  by  faradization,  so  that  a  laughing  expression  is 
induced,  the  movement  of  throwing  a  kiss  with  the  hand 
follows.  If  the  muscles  which  produce  an  angry  expression 
are  stimulated  in  the  same  way,  then,  according  to  Charcot, 
the  arm  is  raised  in  anger.  It  is  very  probable  that  sug- 
gestions of  this  kind  are  affairs  of  hypnotic  training.  PVom 
this  it  follows  that  one  movement  may  cause  another  by 
suggestion,  but  not  that  the  movement  necessarily  calls  up  the 
emotion  corresponding  to  it.  It  appears,  however,  that  in  a 
series  of  hypnotic  cases  one  movement  not  only  caused  another 
by  suggestion,  but  called  up  the  corresponding  emotion  as 
well. 

I  may  here  mention  that  movements  may  be  used  with  advantage  to 
help  the  induction  of  sense-delusions.  I  give  an  imaginary  glass  of  a  very 
bitter  liqueur  to  a  subject,  X.  He  says  that  there  is  no  glass  of  liqueur, 
and  that  he  has  nothing  in  his  hand.  Without  noticing  this  objection,  I 
cause  him  to  raise  his  hand  to  his  mouth  by  suggestion,  and  order  him  to 
drink  the  liqueur.  He  obeys  slowly  and  hesitatingly  ;  but  when  his  hand 
reaches  his  mouth  he  makes  drinking  movements,  and  the  expression  of 
his  face  shows  that  he  has  a  disagreeable  taste  in  his  mouth.     When 


I40  HYPNOTISM. 

I  ask  him  what  is  the  matter,  he  answers  that  he  has  an  unpleasant 
taste,  as  if  he  had  just  drunk  something  bitter.  Here  at  iirst  the  true 
situation  was  recognized  by  the  subject ;  the  suggestion  took  effect  during 
his  compulsory  movement.  In  another  case  I  make  a  subject  move  his 
fingers  as  if  he  were  playing  the  piano,  and  suggest  at  the  same  time  that 
he  is  playing.  He  does  not  believe  it,  but  continues  the  movement. 
While  he  does  this  the  id^a  of  piano  playing  really  arises  by  degrees  in  his 
mind,  and  at  last  he  makes  the  movements  in  the  firm  belief  that  he  is 
playing  the  piano.  I  have  often  observed  that  it  was  easier  to  induce 
sense-delusion  by  accompanying  movements  than  by  verbal  suggestion 
alone,  and  I  would  recommend  this  as  a  means  of  deepening  the  hypnosis 
in  suitable  cases.  It  is  often  impossible  to  define  the  exact  moment  when 
sense-delusion  supervenes;  it  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  decide  whether 
the  delusion  was  really  in  existence  before,  or  whether  it  was  called  up  by 
the  compulsory  movements. 

I  take  this  opportunity  of  pointing  out  that  particular  movements  have 
been  observed  to  excite  mental  process  in  waking  life  as  well  as  in 
hypnosis,  a  fact  to  which  Dugald  Stewart,  Gratiolet,  and  others  called 
attention  long  ago.  I  may  mention  an  example  from  ordinary  life:  an 
attitude  expressing  anger  is  assumed ;  a  real  feeling  of  anger  very  often 
follows,  especially  if  words  are  also  used.  The  expression,  "  To  talk  one's- 
self  into  a  passion,"  is  a  proof  of  this. 

We  thus  see  that  a  particular  movement  exerts  an  influence 
on  the  emotions  and  ideas  in  waking  life.  Thig  can,  of  course, 
be  considered  merely  an  instance  of  auto-suggestion.  Still,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  term  suggestion  in  its  present-day 
sense  is  permissible  in  this  case;  and  we  are  as  little  justified 
in  considering  "colour-hearing"  an  auto-suggestive  process, 
because  the  phenomenon  may  be  the  result  of  a  number  of 
processes  which  have  no  direct  connection  with  suggestion. 
The  chief  point  is  this :  does  any  particular  muscular  action 
in  hypnosis  call  up  emotions  without  any  previous  special 
training  which  it  fails  to  do  in  the  waking  state?  Let  us  take 
one  of  Charcot's  examples :  if  I  make  the  necessary  suggestion, 
and  also  stimulate  the  muscles  used  in  laughter  by  faradization, 
the  subject  makes  the  movement  of  throwing  a  kiss  with  the 
hand.  According  to  the  views  held  by  Charcot's  school,  the 
movement  of  throwing  a  kiss  is  not  brought  about  in  this  way; 
it  is  rather  the  result  of  an  associative  process  which  has 
nothing  to  do  with  any  external  suggestion.  This  appears  to 
me  more  than  problematical.  Bouchard  and  Pitres  think  they 
have  discovered  that  contraction  of  the  muscles  used  in 
laughter  calls  up  jovial  feelings  or  hallucinations — /.^.,  such  as 
are  intimately  connected  with  facial  expression.  Moreover,  it 
is  well  known  that  a  normal  person  can  be  made  to  laugh  by 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  I41 

forcing  his  mouth  to  assume  a  laughing  expression.  Any  one 
can  easily  demonstrate  this  on  himself — hold  the  cheeks  firmly 
with  the  fingers,  pull  up  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  and  a  laugh 
follows.  Whether  cheerful  feelings  result  from  this  procedure 
is  another  question.  Any  way,  the  authors  we  have  mentioned 
assume  that  in  hypnosis  cheerful ,  hallucinations  ensue  from 
contraction  of  the  muscles  used  in  laughter.  In  his  work 
Le  RirCy  etc.,  Raulin  records  similar  experiments  made  by 
various  investigators;  he  thinks  that  in  the  cases  mentioned 
external  suggestion  was  apparently  excluded.  Yet  the  ex- 
amples he  adduces  for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  cheerfulness, 
for  example,  can  be  induced  by  the  assumption  of  a  particular 
posture,  are  not  convincing;  at  least  there  is  no  proof  of  the 
absence  of  suggestion  and  training  in  the  experiments  to  which 
he  refers. 

We  have  something  similar  to  the  above  in  the  zones 
idioglnes  of  Pitres.  I  have  already  mentioned  that  according 
to  Pitr6s  stimulation  of  certain  portions  of  the  body  induces 
hypnosis,  of  other  parts  terminates  it.  Pitres  also  states  that 
stimulation  of  particular  portions  of  the  body  which  he  includes 
in  his  zones  idioghnes  calls  up  definite  mental  processes,  parti- 
cularly emotions.  In  one  case  friction  of  the  temporal  region 
is  said  to  have  caused  cheerfulness;  but  this  form  of  stimu- 
lation is  not  invariably  effective  unless  the  subject  is  hypnotized. 
There  is  only  one  case  on  record  in  which  stimulation  of  the 
zone  in  question  induced  laughter  when  the  subject  was  awake. 
Pitres  has  also  described  zones  idioglnes  for  ecstacy  and  other 
mental  states,  but  there  is  no  necessity  for  me  to  discuss  these 
questions,  because  we  have  no  guarantee  that  external  sugges- 
tion was  really  excluded  in  any  instance. 

I  will  now  mention  a  particular  method  of  influencing 
subjects  which  has  recently  attracted  a  certain  amount  of 
attention.  It  acts  through  the  ear  like  ordinary  verbal 
suggestion,  but  music,  and  not  speech,  is  the  agent.  In  1894, 
Warthin  published  experiments  dealing  with  the  question. 
His  subjects  were  five  men  and  two  women,  all  of  whom  were 
stated  to  be  in  good  health.  Four  were  physicians  and  tutors, 
the  rest  students,  and  none  of  them  had  ever  been  the  subject 
of  a  hypnotic  experiment  before.  They  were  all  more  or  less 
fond  of  music,  although  it  did  not  excite  any  of  them  parti- 
cularly or  cause  any  noticeable  physiological  action  when  they 
were  awake.     All  this  is  said  to  have  been  changed  in  hypnosis, 


I  AMC   I  IDDADV    QTAMCODn   IIMIl/ri  v?:^v 


142  HYPNOTISM. 

which  leads  me  to  remark  that  the  whole  account  reads  like  a 
fairy  tale.  The  "  Ride  of  the  Valkyries  "  was  played  upon  the 
piano,  and  although  only  one  of  the  subjects  knew  of  the 
connection  between  the  music  and  the  wild  ride,  the  idea  of 
riding  is  said  to  have  been  called  up  in  each  of  them,  the 
concrete  idea  being  derived  from  some  recent  experience. 
The  only  one  who  understood  the  music  even  imagined  him- 
self one  of  the  riders.  The  magic  fire,  also,  caused  all  of  them 
to  experience  a  sensation  of  fire  and  flames.  But  when  the 
imaginary  ride  was  at  its  wildest,  and  the  music  changed  from 
B  major  to  B  minor,  the  effect  was  even  more  intense.  All  were 
thrown  into  a  terrible  state  of  collapse;  the  pulse  fell  from 
1 20  to  40  beats  in  the  minute,  was  irregular,  soft,  and  small, 
and  the  respiration  was  retarded  and  distressful.  The  same 
experiment  was  often  successfully  repeated  with  other  subjects. 
Some  little  time  ago  a  **  dream-dancer,*'  Frau  Magdeleine, 
attracted  much  attention  in  Germany.  Others  soon  followed 
in  her  wake.  When  hypnotized,  and  under  the  influence  of 
specially  selected  music,  she  was  able  to  express  any  emotion 
to  perfection,  by  facial  play  and  pantomime.  Her  talent 
for  dancing  was  also  ä  factor.  The  mere  mention  of  an 
emotion,  or  any  other  form  of  impression — for  example,  the 
recital  of  a  poem — called  up  the  emotion  in  question.  The 
commotion  which  this  ** sleep-dancer"  caused  was  brought 
about  by  two  things:  (i)  her  talent  for  acting;  (2)  her 
incapacity  to  display  the  same  except  when  hypnotized.  It  was 
also  stated  that  she  had  never  received  any  special  training  for 
her  performances.  I  shall  enter  into  a  criticism  of  the  whole 
question  later  on  in  the  section  dealing  with  Art  in  relation  to 
Hypnosis. 

From  all  the  phenomena  hitherto  discussed  it  must  have 
been  gathered  that  there  can  be  no  question  of  loss  of  con- 
sciousness in  hypnosis.  Of  course,  I  mean  loss  of  conscious- 
ness as  it  is  understood  in  psychology,  and  not  in  the  penal 
code.  In  the  latter,  according  to  Schwartzer,  Casper,  and 
Liman,  it  means  about  the  same  as  abnormalities  of  con- 
sciousness; but  according  to  the  view  more  generally  held 
(Krafft-Ebing  and  others),  it  implies  abnormalities  of  self- 
consciousness.  Of  course  we  can  only  talk  of  loss  of  conscious- 
ness from  a  physiological  point  of  view  when  no  kind  of 
psychical  process  takes  place,  as  is  the  case  in  a  deep  faint,  or 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  143 

coma,  or  the  death-agony.  We  have  seen  that  the  subject  in 
hypnosis  remembers  the  events  of  earlier  hypnoses.  Conse- 
quently impressions  were  received  into  the  consciousness  in 
these  earlier  hypnoses.  We  cannot,  therefore,  talk  of  loss  of 
consciousness  because  loss  of  memory  exists  after  the  awaken- 
ing (Forel),  apart  from  the  fact  that  post-hypnotic  suggestion  in 
hypnosis  will  prevent  the  loss  of  memory.  This  temporary 
loss  of  memory  is  often  erroneously  considered  a  proof  of  loss 
of  consciousness.  It  is  just  as  erroneous  to  assume  that  the 
fact  that  a  hypnotic  sometimes  does  not  obviously  respond  to 
external  influence  is  a  proof  of  unconsciousness.  We  have 
only  to  consider  the  case  in  which  the  hypnotic  is  in  rapport 
with  one  person  only,  but  at  the  same  time  is  quite  unconscious 
as  far  as  other  persons  are  concerned.  The  fact  that  a  hypnotic 
responds  promptly  to  the  suggestions  of  the  hypnotizer  only 
proves  how  intensely  the  attention  of  the  former  is  directed  to 
the  latter. 

Even  the  states  mentioned  on  page  78,  in  which  no  response 
could  be  obtained  to  questions  and  demands,  do  not  prove  loss 
of  consciousness;  for  (i)  post-hypnotic  suggestions  could  be 
made,  and  were  effectual,  which  proves  that  there  was  con- 
sciousness; (2)  these  subjects  woke  up  directly  they  were  told 
to  do  so  (Bernheim),  which  also  shows  that  they  were  conscious. 
The  forms  of  lethargy  also  have  to  be  considered — the  lethargy 
which  Charcot  describes  as  such,  and  the  lethargy  termed 
hysterical,  of  which  I  have  already  spoken  (p.  48).  As  con- 
cerns the  latter,  it  must  be  absolutely  distinguished  from 
hypnosis ;  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis. 
With  Charcot's  lethargy  the  case  stands  thus :  apart  from  the 
numerous  cases  of  lethargy  here  described,  and  which  even 
the  pupils  of  Charcot  admit  are  associated  with  movements 
caused  by  command,  there  remain  very  few  cases  worthy  of 
consideration.  I  doubt,  however,  whether  there  is  the  loss  of 
consciousness  in  these  cases  which  Charcot  describes.  The 
cases  which  I  saw  in  Paris  convinced  me  of  the  contrary.  The 
quickness  with  wbich  these  lethargic  subjects  fell  into  cata- 
lepsy when  Charcot  touched  their  eyelids,  showed  that  these 
apparently  unconscious  persons  had  been  attentively  waiting 
for  the  moment  in  which  they  were  expected  to  become  cata- 
leptic. Consequently  the  loss  of  consciousness  seems  to  me 
more  than  questionable.  This  point  is  of  great  importance, 
because  Charcot's  pupils  maintain  that  the  phenomena  of  the 


144  HYPNOTISM. 

muscles  and  nerves  in  the  lethargic  state  are  not  induced  by 
suggestion. 

Of  course,  we  shall  occasionally  come  across  cases  in  which 
any  evidences  of  consciousness  are  too  obscure  to  be  readily 
demonstrated,  but  that  does  not  justify  the  assumption  of  loss 
of  consciousness.  At  all  events,  loss  of  consciousness  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  hypnosis. 

But  though  we  cannot  speak  of  a  loss  of  consciousness  in 
hypnosis,  we  must,  however,  often  suppose  an  abnormal  state 
of  consciousness;  for  if  some  one  believes  he  sees  things  that 
are  not  present,  or  fails  to  see  things  that  are  present,  he  is 
certainly  in  an  abnormal  state  of  consciousness.  If  a  man 
forty  years  old  believes  he  is  ten  years  old,  or  somebody  else, 
his  consciousness  is  certainly  abnormal.  We  find  such 
phenomena  continually  among  the  second  group  of  hypnotic 
subjects,  and  we  must  consequently  here  suppose  a  material 
abnormality  of  consciousness. 

But  even  in  such  cases  we  occasionally  find  a  certain  degree 
of  consciousness.  For  instance,  many  hypnotics  have  a  distinct 
feeling  that  they  are  asleep,  or  in  an  altered  state  (Riebet, 
Pierre  Janet) — b.  phenomenon  of  ordinary  sleep,  for  we  are 
occasionally  conscious  in  dreams  that  we  are  asleep  and 
dreaming.  Many  hypnotics  of  the  second  group  have  this 
consciousness  of  being  asleep,  and  when  they  are  asked  if 
they  are  asleep  or  awake,  they  give  the  right  answer.  When, 
as  sometimes  happens,  the  awakening  is  incomplete,  they  also 
rightly  say  that  they  are  not  quite  awake.  Many  people  have 
a  feeling  of  deep  hypnosis  if  they  are  incapable  of  resisting 
certain  suggested  ideas.  I  say  to  X.,  "  You  cannot  lift  your 
arm!"  "Yes  I  can,"  he  answers,  and  experiment  shows  that 
he  is  right.  But  the  contrary  sometimes  happens;  the  subject 
often  knows  exactly  the  minute  when  his  power  to  resist  is  at 
an  end,  when  he  must  obey.  X.  announces  after  a  time  that 
he  is  at  this  point:  "Now  the  hypnosis  is  deep  enough,"  he 
says.  I  say  to  a  person  thirty  years  old,  whom  I  have  often 
hypnotized,  *^  Now  you  are  a  little  child."  The  subject  replies, 
"It  is  not  enough  yet;  you  must  wait  a  little."  After  a  time, 
when  I  ask,  he  says  that  he  is  now  at  the  right  point.  In 
other  cases  a  remarkable  amount  of  judgment  is  displayed  in 
hypnosis.  Many  hypnotics,  even  those  of  the  second  group 
who  are  open  to  sense-delusions,  say  that  they  know  quite  well 
how  suggestion  works  and   that   the   influence  exercised  on 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.*  I4S 

them  is  a  purely  mental  one.  One  in  whom  all  kinds  of  sense- 
delusions  can  be  induced,  said  to  me,  "  I  know  that  you  do 
not  exercise  any  extraordinary  magnetic  faculty;  it  is  my  own 
imagination  which  deprives  me  of  my  will  and  obliges  me  to 
obey  you;  but  I  cannot  help  it." 

Even  delusions  of  the  senses  brought  about  by  suggestion 
are  sometimes  corrected  purely  by  a  reasoning  process.  A 
subject  declines  to  believe  that  there  is  a  wolf  in  my  room;  or, 
rather,  he  explains  that  he  sees  an  image  of  a  wolf  plainly 
enough,  and  could  point  out  the  exact  spot.  £ut  he  knows 
quite  well  that  it  must  be  a  delusion,  as  I  should  certainly  not 
allow  a  wolf  to  come  into  my  consulting-room.  Macnish  says 
that  people  can  guard  themselves  against  bad  dreams  and 
control  them  in  sleep  by  a  process  of  thought.  This  control 
often  causes  delusions  of  the  senses  to  disappear  more  quickly; 
in  other  cases  they  may  persist,  in  spite  of  the  correction  made 
by  the  reason.  If  the  correction  is  complete,  the  delusions 
will  have  no  results;  they  will  not  influence  the  actions 
following. 

All  the  phenomena  which  I  have  just  described  may  be 
observed  both  in  hypnotic  and  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  I 
ask  a  man  before  I  hypnotize  him  to  tell  me  of  something 
which,  in  his  opinion,  would  never  be  found  in  my  room.  He 
says  he  would  never  believe  there  was  an  owl  in  my  room.  Irl 
hypnosis  I  make  him  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  that  there 
will  be  an  owl  in  my  room.  He  wakes  and  says  he  sees 
the  owl  plainly;  it  is  chained  by  the  foot.  Although  he  knows 
and  says  that  the  owl  is  only  a  hallucination,  it  is  so  real  to 
him  that  he  hesitates  to  put  his  finger  on  the  spot  where  he 
imagines  it  to  be. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  recognize  the  mental  state  of  a 
hypnotic  subject  in  suggested  sense-delusions.  If  in  many 
cases  all  thought  and  action  is  dependent  on  the  delusion,  in 
other  cases  the  effects  are  less  complete.  I  even  believe  that 
most  subjects  retain  a  dim  consciousness  that  they  are  in  a 
fictitious,  and  not  a  real,  situation.  For  example,  I  suggest  to 
a  patient  that  he  is  in  battle  and  must  fight.  An  imaginary 
struggle  begins  at  once  and  he  hits  the  air.  When  I  suggest 
that  a  cloth  on  the  table  is  an  enemy,  he  strikes  at  it.  I 
suggest  that  one  of  the  persons  present  is  an  enemy,  but  in 
continuing  the  fight  the  hypnotic  takes  care  not  to  strike  this 
person.     Naturally  this  looks  like  simulation,  and  an  inex^ 

10 


146  •  HYPNOTISM. 

perienced  person  would  tak€  such  to  be  the  case;  but  it  was 
quite  possibly  a  real  typical  hypnosis,  in  which,  in  spite  of  the 
sense-delusions,  there  was  a  dim  consciousness  of  the  true 
situation  which  influenced  the  actions  of  the  hypnotic.  This 
dim  consciousness  of  his  real  surroundings  prevented  the  sub- 
ject from  striking  a  human  being,  but  left  him  free  to  hit  a 
cloth.  This  behaviour  of  the  hypnotic  reminds  one  forcibly  of 
automatism.  As  we  when  walking  in  the  street  and  reading  a 
newspaper,  automatically  avoid  knocking  against  passers-by,  so 
the  hypnotic  avoids  hitting  another  person,  although  he  is  only 
dimly,  or  not  at  all,  aware  of  his  existence. 

It  is  the  same  with  negative  hallucinations.  Binet  and  Fere 
have  said  about  this  that  the  object  must  be  recognized  in 
order  not  to  be  perceived.  At  all  events,  in  negative  hallucina* 
tions  the  subject  has  a  dim  consciousness  of  the  true  situation. 
The  authors  mentioned  above  made  a  series  of  experiments  in 
support  of  their  assertion,  which  I  have  been  able  to  repeat 
with  success* 

If  ten  sheets  of  white  paper  are  taken  and  one  of  them 
marked  on  the  back,  the  subject  can  be  made  to  believe  that 
he  only  sees  nine  sheets  (negative  visual  hallucination),  even 
When  the  sheet  whose  invisibility  was  suggested  is  among  them. 
If  he  is  asked  to  give  up  the  nine  sheets,  he  picks  out  the  nine 
unmarked  ones  and  leaves  the  other,  guided  by  the  mark. 
Consequently  he  is  able  to  distinguish  it  from  the  others, 
although  he  is  unconscious  of  making  the  distinction. 

A  series  of  experiments  made  by  Cory  are  even  better.  I 
was  able  to  repeat  them  in  part,  and  came  to  the  same  results. 
I  took  a  sheet  of  paper  and  drew  a  rather  irregular  line  on  it. 
I  then  suggested  to  the  subject,  X.,  that  the  paper  was  blank. 
X.  agreed  that  he  saw  nothing.  I  then  drew  fifteen  straight 
lines  on  the  paper  and  asked  X.  what  he  saw.  He  said, 
"Fifteen  lines."  I  recommenced  the  experiment,  but  made 
the  first  line  straight  instead  of  crooked,  and  then  suggested 
its  invisibility;  upon  which  I  added  twenty  more  lines  exactly 
like  it,  and  made  X.  count  them.  "There  are  twenty-one,"  he 
said.  Therefore  the  line  suggested  as  absent  was  only  invisible 
to  X.  when  he  could  distinguish  it  from  the  others.  The 
following  experiment  resembles  this: — I  took  a  match  and 
marked  its  end  with  a  spot  of  ink.  I  then  suggested  that  the 
match  was  invisible.  I  took  twenty-nine  other  matches  and 
put  the  whole  thirty  on  the  table  in  such  a  manner  that  X. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  1 47 

could  see  the  ink  spot.  To  my  question/ X.  replied  that  there 
were  only  twenty-nine  matches  on  the  table.  I  then,  while 
X.'s  eyes  were  turned  away,  moved  the  marked  match  so  that 
X.  could  not  see  the  ink  spot.  He  looked  at  the  matches  and 
said  there  were  thirty  of  them  on  the  table.  Thus  the  marked 
match  was  only  invisible  so  long  as  X.  could  distinguish  it 
from  the  others. 

From  these  and  other  such  experiments  it  may  be  concluded 
that  the  subject  recognizes  the  object  of  a  negative  hallucina- 
tion, even  though  there  is  no  perception  of  it.     The  automatic 
writing,  of  which  I  shall  speak  farther  on,  also  demonstrates 
this  (Pierre  Janet),  as  I  can  prove  by  numerous  experiments  I 
have  made.    The  results  of  the  suggested  negative  hallucination 
depend  upon  the  influence  exerted  by  the  real  object,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  brought  to  bear  by  suggestion.     I  suggest  to 
a  subject,  X.,  that  a  table  which  is  between  him  and  the  door 
is  no  longer  there.     X.  goes  carefully  to  the  door,  but  avoids 
hitting  against  the  table.     I  suggest  that  the  electrode,  which 
is  armed  with  the  very  painful  faradic  brush,  is  invisible.    After 
closing  the  current  I  touch  the  subject  with  the  brush,  and  he 
shows  great  pain.     When  I  ask  X.  what  has  hurt  him,  he  says 
he  does  not  know,  for  my  hand  is  empty;  but  at  the  same  time 
he  takes  care  not  to  touch  the  place  where  the  brush  is  lying, 
or  does  it  hesitatingly,  and  with  evident  signs  of  fear.     I  tell 
another  that  I  am  going  out  of  the  room;  he  apparently  neither 
sees  nor  hears  me.     Yet  every  suggestion  that  I  now  make  to 
him  is  executed.     I  order  him  to  take  the  cushion  from  the 
sofa  and  throw  it  on  the  floor;  the  order  is  obeyed,  though 
after  some  hesitation.     To  another  subject,  who  also  believes 
that  I  am  out  of  the  room,   I  suggest   sense-delusions — the 
presence  of  a  dog,  etc.     All  the  suggestions  succeed,  evidently 
because  the  subject  hears  what  I  say,  though  he  believes  me 
absent.     I  tell  another  that  he  is  deaf,  upon  which  he  ceases 
to  do  what  I  tell  him.     But  after  I  have  several  times  repeated 
"Now  you  can  hear  again,"  he  obeys  every  command.     We 
see  in  these  cases,  which  I  could  multiply,  that  the  organs  of 
sense  act  normally,  that  a  certain  eflect  is  produced,  but  that 
the  impressions  are  not  received  into  clear  consciousness.     I 
naturally  do  not  maintain  that  this  is  the  case  in  all  positive  or 
negative  hallucinations;  on  the  contrary,  in  some  the  delusion 
is  complete.     This  depends  on  character,  on  training,  and  to  a 
great  extent  on  the  manner  in  >vhich  the  suggestion  is  made. 


148  HYPNOTISM. 

I  wished  merely  to  describe  the  more  incomplete  and  by  far 
the  most  common  cases,  because  they  are  often  mistaken  for 
simulatioiL 

The  cases  detailed  above  provide  us  with  noteworthy  in- 
stances of  the  persistence  of  consciousness,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  of  self-consciousness  as  well,  in  hypnosis.  It  is  obvious 
that  where  self-consciousness  is  so  strongly  expressed  the 
activity  of  the  hypnotic's  will  cannot  be  entirely  suppressed. 
Let  us  now  inquire  in  what  other  ways  the  activity  of  a 
hypnotic's  will  is  displayed,  bearing  in  mind  that  we  have  to 
deal  with  an  external  and  an  internal  activity.  The  former 
governs  the  movements,  now  starting,  now  inhibiting  them; 
similarly,  the  latter  rules  the  ideas,  feelings,  and  emotions^ 
which  are,  within  certain  limits,  influenced  by  the  will,  the 
latter  sometimes  arousing  and  sometimes  suppressing  them. 

When  we  investigate  the  activity  of  the  will  in  hypnosis,  care 
must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  the  two  groups  which  I 
described  on  page  59.  In  the  first  group  the  external  activity 
alone  is  diminished,  and  the  consciousness  presents  no  ab" 
normality.  The  subject  knows  exactly  where  he  is ;  he  knows 
what  is  being  done  with  him;  he  makes  the  movements  com- 
manded because  he  cannot  help  it;  his  limbs  are  paralyzed  at 
command.  Catalepsy  may  be  induced  by  suggestion,  and  yet 
the  subject  will  be  fully  aware  of  all  that  goes  on.  Some  of 
Hack  Tuke's  subjects — for  example.  North,  a  physiologist  in 
London — have  given  very  interesting  information  with  regard 
to  the  interference  of  the  will  during  the  experiments, 
which  makes  them  unable  to  resist,  though  otherwise  fully 
conscious. 

It  is  very  different  in  deep  hypnosis.  Here  also  the  external 
activity  of  the  will  is  limited,  as  we  have  already  seen.  More- 
over, the  experimenter  can  very  considerably  influence  the 
internal  activity  of  the  will  by  suggestion.  But  it  is  exactly 
the  quickness  with  which  the  subject  can  be  transferred  frottl 
one  situation  to  another,  and  with  which  he  accepts  the 
suggested  idea,  which  demonstrates  that  he  is  only  the  play 
thing  of  the  experimenter.  Just  as  the  ideas  of  dreatiis 
transport  us  from  one  situation  to  another,  so  do  suggested 
ideas.  Pleasure  is  changed  into  pain  in  a  moment;  the  moods 
change  as  quickly  as  they  usually  only  do  in  children  and  the 
sick.     The  subject  now  thinks  he  is  in  my  room;  the  hext 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  I49 

moment  he  believes  he  is  in  bed;  directly  after  he  is  swimming; 
now  he  believes  he  is  ninety  years  old;  and  in  the  next  second 
he  is  back  in  his  tenth  year.  Now  he  is  Napoleon  I.,  then  a 
carpenter,  then  a  dog,  etc.  This  change  of  ideas  often  takes 
place  in  a  moment:  the  corresponding  ideas  arise  at  once 
through  association.  The  quick  change  of  ideas,  feelings, 
emotions,  and  of  the  whole  mood  is  so  common  that  I  was 
astonished  to  read  (in  Malten)  that  a  legal  specialist  in  Vienna, 
Ferronf,  has  been  led  by  it  to  conclude  that  the  thing  is 
simulation. 

In  spite  of  this,  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  think  of  the 
subject  as  an  automaton  without  a  will.  On  the  contrary,  the 
will  of  the  subject  expresses  itself  in  manifold  ways,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  expressions  of  self-consciousness  noted  above, 
and  each  of  the  two  forms  of  volition  has  its  own  expressions 
of  will. 

Often  the  decreased  power  of  will  shows  itself  merely  in 
slow  and  lingering  movements.  In  these  cases  any  movements 
can  be  made,  but  the  subject  takes  longer  to  perform  them 
than  he  does  in  normal  circumstances.  An  inexperienced 
person  has  a  tendency  to  fail  to  recognize  hypnosis  in  such 
cases;  he  generally  thinks  the  experimenter  mistaken  in  calling 
them  abnormal.  Further,  it  has  been  already  said  that  in 
many  persons  only  certain  muscles  can  be  controlled  by 
suggestion  (page  71).  In  other  cases  it  is  necessary  to  repeat 
the  suggestion  often  before  the  result  is  obtained.  For  example, 
a  subject  can  raise  his  arm  in  spite  of  the  command  of  the 
hypnotizer,  but  repetition  of  the  command  ends  by  making  the 
movement  impossible.  These  are  examples  of  the  way  in 
which  resistance  to  suggestion  expresses  itself. 

Expressions  of  the  will  which  spring  from  the  individual 
character  of  the  patient  are  of  great  psychological  interest. 
The  more  an  action  is  repulsive,  the  stronger  is  his  resistance 
(Forel,  Delbceuf,  Jong).  Habit  and  education  play  a  large 
part  here;  it  is  generally  very  difficult  to  successfully  suggest 
anything  that  is  opposed  to  the  confirmed  habits  of  the  subject 
For  instance,  suggestions  are  made  with  success  to  a  devout 
Catholic,  but  directly  the  suggestion  conflicts  with  his  creed  it 
will  not  be  accepted.  The  surroundings  play  a  part  also.  A 
subject  will  frequently  decline  a  suggestion  that  will  make  him 
appear  ridiculous.  A  lady  whom  I  easily  caused  to  make 
suggested  movements  could  not  be  induced  to  put  out  her 


I50  HYPNOTISM. 

tongue  at  the  spectators.  In  another  such  case  I  succeeded, 
but  only  after  repeated  suggestions.  The  manner  of  making 
the  suggestion  has  an  influence.  In  some  cases  it  must  be 
repeated  often  before  it  succeeds;  others  interpret  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  suggestion  as  a  sign  of  "their  own  ability  to  resist. 
Thus  it  is  necessary  to  take  character  accurately  into  account. 
It  is  often  easier  to  induce  some  action  by  suggesting  each 
separate  movement  than  by  suggesting  the  whole  action  at 
once.  For  example,  if  the  subject  is  to  fetch  a  book  from  the 
table  the  movements  may  be  suggested  in  turn;  first  the 
lifting,  then  the  steps,  etc.  (Bleuler). 

Resistance  is  sometimes  expressed  in  other  ways.  Beaunis 
has  observed  that  an  attack  of  hysteria  is  sometimes  the  answer 
to  a  repugnant  suggestion.  I  myself  have  observed  that 
subjects  have  asked  to  be  awakened  when  a  suggestion  dis- 
pleased them.  The  fact  that  subjects  are  not  nearly  so  inclined 
to  discuss  their  private  affairs  as  is  sometimes  stated  is 
another  proof  of  the  activity  of  the  will.  DöUken  found  that 
whole  tissues  of  lies  were  as  readily  invented  in  hypnosis  as  in 
the  waking  state ;  andLoewenfeld  observed  that  hypnotics  spoke 
the  truth — hesitatingly,  perhaps, — about  matters  which  they 
would  have  gladly  kept  to  themselves  when  awake.  But  he 
also  admits  that  subjects  are  prone  to  make  false  statements 
when  it  is  to  their  interest  to  withhold  the  truth.  The  state- 
ment, so  often  made,  that  a  hypnotic  is  always  ready  to  tell  the 
truth  unreservedly,  is  not  quite  right  as  far  as  my  experience 
goes,  though  many  subjects  are  readier  to  make  admissions  in 
deep  hypnosis  than  when  awake. 

We  shall  see  later  on  that  the  assumption  that  the  truth  can  be  extracted 
from  a  hypnotic  has  induced  some  people  to  advocate  the  use  of  hypnosis 
for  forensic  purposes.  I  will  only  mention  here  that  apart  from  legal  cases 
it  was  assumed  that  the  truth  could  be  ascertained  by  hypnosis,  especially 
in  the  days  when  animal  magnetism  flourished.  About  that  time  a  certain 
Rahel  Herz  for  years  deceived  her  medical  attendant  by  allowing  him  to 
excise  hundreds  of  needles  from  various  parts  of  her  body  when  she  was 
in  a  state  of  hysterical  analgesia.  Like  many  stigmatics  she  apparently 
required  no  food,  Brandis,  who  was  at  that  time  physician  to  the  court, 
determined  to  clear  the  matter  up,  and  visited  Plerz  at  the  request  of  the 
queen.  Taking  off  his  coat,  he  informed  Herz  that  he  intended  to  magnetize 
her,  which  would  compel  her  to  admit  everything.  She  refused,  and 
Brandis  left  the  room  declaring  that  hei  refusal  told  him  all  he  wanted  to 
know  (Rieks).  According  to  Malfatti,  an  Italian  army-surgeon,  Franchini, 
has  recently  proposed  the  hypnotization  of  recruits  suspected  of  simulating 
epilepsy.     Franchini  thinks  that  the  truth  could  be  ascertained  in  this  way. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  151 

In  other  cases  the  resistance  can  only  be  overcome  by 
suggesting  a  false  premise,  as  I  mentioned  on  page  133. 
The  order  will  then  be  more  easily  obeyed.  I  will  choose  an 
example  from  Liegeois.  A  subject  was  to  be  induced  to  steal  a 
watch.  He  refused.  But  when  it  was  represented  to  him  that 
the  watch  was  his  own,  and  that  he  would  only.be  taking  it 
back  again,  he  immediately  obeyed  the  command.  Or  the 
subject  may  be  told  that  the  laws  are  altered,  that  stealing  is 
no  longer  punishable,  etc. 

The  explanations  I  have  already  given  do  not  exclusively 
concern  movements  and  actions,  but  delusions  of  the  senses 
and  other  suggestions  as  well.  I  have  often  seen  unpleasant 
and  improbable  suggestions  resisted  when  contrary  ones 
succeeded. 

I  once  told  a  subject  who  was  forty  years  old,  *  •  You  are  now  thirteen 
years  old."  He  answered,  **No,  I  am  forty-one."  But  directly  after  he 
accepted  the  suggestion  that  he  was  twelve  or  fourteen  years  old.  How» 
ever,  I  failed  to  make  him  believe  he  was  thirteen  years  old ;  he  refused 
the  suggestion.  He  was  superstitious  and  dreaded  the  number  thirteen. 
His  notion  that  thirteen  was  an  unlucky  number  accounted  for  his 
resistance ;  on  that  account  he  would  not  be  thirteen  years  old. 

The  experimenter  may  unconsciously  increase  the  resistance. 
Fontan  and  Sdgard  rightly  maintain  that  many  hypnosis  may 
be  continued  or  put  an  end  to  by  the  tone  in  which  the  operator 
speaks.  If  we  say  to  a  subject,  "  Try  to  open  your  eyes ;  they 
are  fast  closed,  you  cannot  possibly  open  them,"  the  kind  of 
emphasis  may  alter  the  effect.  If  the  emphasis  is  laid  upon 
"Try  to  open  your  eyes,"  the  last  part  of  the  suggestion  is 
more  easily  overcome,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  just  these  cases 
which  show  clearly  the  gradual  transitions  from  the  lightest 
stages  to  the  deepest.  I  raise  a  man's  arm  ;  the  arm  remains 
raised  so  long  as  I  say  nothing.  Directly  I  tell  him  that  if  he 
tries  to  drop  his  arm  he  will  not  succeed,  he  does  it  neverthe- 
less, though  at  first  with  some  stiffness.  This  alone  shows 
that  the  state  was  not  quite  a  normal  one.  In  this  case,  as 
in  many  others,  the  subject  passively  allows  his  arm  to  remain 
as  it  was  fixed;  he  makes  no  effort  of  will  either  for  or  against. 
But  the  moment  I  induce  him  by  verbal  suggestion  to  make 
an  effort  of  will,  he  does  so,  and  shows  that  he  can  exert  the 
will  against  my  orders,  even  though  the  hesitating  movement 
plainly  shows  that  he  was  somewhat  influenced.  It  is  the  same 
thing  with  continued  movements,  which  are  sometimes  made 


152  HYPNOTISM 

passively  without  an  act  of  the  will,  and  sometimes  cannot  be 
inhibited  by  the  strongest  effort  of  will,  as  I  have  explained 
above  (page  77). 

Although  the  above  examples  show  that  there  is  no  complete 
loss  of  will  in  hypnosis,  yet  in  all  of  them  the  will  was  set  in 
action  by  some  external  impulse.  Let  us  ask  whether  spon- 
taneity, an  independent  activity  of  thought  and  will,  the 
presence  or  absence  of  which  was  utilized  by  Durand  de 
Gros  in  his  classification  of  somnambulists,  may  not  exist  in 
hypnosis,  apart  from  external  impulse.  This  question  must  be 
answered  in  the  affirmative,  so  far  as  the  first  group  of  hypnosis 
is  concerned.  But  the  hypnotic  often  shows  independent 
activity  of  the  will  in  deep  hypnosis,  hallucinations  even 
arising  without  external  suggestion.  But  the  question  is 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  we  are  not  always  able  to  exclude 
external  stimuli.  For  example,  without  any  suggestion  from 
me,  a  hypnotic  suddenly  jumps  up  and  says  that  he  has  seen 
and  heard  a  mad  dog.  The  cause  of  this  is  the  unintentional 
creaking  of  the  boots  of  one  of  the  people  present.  I  had 
not  observed  the  creaking,  but  as  often  as  it  was  repeated  the 
same  result  occurred.  The  subject  misinterpreted  an  im- 
pression of  hearing,  which  aroused  a  certain  chain  of  thought 
in  him.  I  have  often  observed  such  phenomena  in  impression- 
able and  lively  persons. 

But  I  have  found  spontaneous  hallucinations  in  the  deepest 
hypnoses,  which  I  was  unable  to  refer  to  any  stimulus  of  the 
senses.  In  particular,  any  events  which  had  much  occupied 
the  subject  in  the  waking  state,  continued  to  affect  him  in 
hypnosis.  One  of  them,  for  example,  related  anecdotes  which 
he  had  recently  heard.  While  his  mind  was  full  of  them  no 
experiment  could  be  made  with  him;  he  was  as  uncomfortable 
as  a  diner-out  who  only  feels  at  ease  when  he  has  got  rid  of 
his  whole  stock  of  stories.  In  this  and  other  such  cases 
there  must  have  been  independent  mental  activity;  at  least 
I  could  never  discover  any  external  stimulus.  Of  course  I 
cannot  mathematically  prove  that  these  spontaneous  actions 
did  not  arise  from  some  external  impulse;  for  the  external  im- 
pulse might  have  been  some  faint  sound  which  I  failed  to 
hear,  and  even  the  slightest  friction  of  the  skin  by  the  clothes 
may  act  as  a  stimulus  and  induce  apparently  independent 
actions  in  the  subject.  I  do  not  believe  this,  but  have  rather 
gained  the  impression  that  hypnotic  subjects  in  the  deep  stage 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  153 

often  have  independent  currents  of  thought.  Brügelmann  has 
published  the  case  of  an  otherwise  very  chaste  woman  who 
became  filled  with  sexual  ideas  when  hypnotized.  Similar 
cases  have  been  reported  by  other  authors,  and  Vogt  specially 
points  out  that  sexual  feeling  often  occurs  spontaneously  in 
hypnosis.  I  take  this  opportunity  of  mentioning  that  dentists 
are  well  aware  that  lady-patients  are  often  convinced  that  they 
have  been  assaulted  when  anaesthetized,  although  there  were  no 
possible  grounds  for  the  accusation.  It  is  quite  certain  that 
some  persons  are  liable  to  such  auto-suggestions  when  hyp- 
notized. In  recent  works  dealing  with  pathological  hypnosis 
such  cases  are  put  down  to  hysteria.  Hirschlaff,  for  example, 
does  so. 

Hirschlaff  distinguishes  several  kinds  of  hypnosis  entirely  among  the 
deeper  grades — /.^.,  the  second  group  in  Max  Dessoir's  classification. 

( I. )  A  form  in  which  the  subject  has  a  power  of  discrimination.  Here  auto- 
suggestion outweighs  external  suggestion,  but  the  aulo-suggestion  is  not,  as 
otherwise  often  occurs,  a  result  of  external  suggestion ;  so  far  from  having  any 
direct  connection  with  the  experimenter's  intentions,  it  is  opposed  to  them. 
In  such  cases  the  hypnotic,  for  example,  refuses  to  carry  out  experiments 
with  which  he  is  already  acquainted  and  which  he  has  prepared  himself  to 
resist  by  pre-hypnotic  auto-suggestion.  For  instance,  when  told  that  his 
arm  will  become  quite  stiff,  a  subject  will  reply  jeeringly,  *'  No  it  won't ;  I 
am  not  going  to  make  any  experiments."  Or  a  hypnotic  is  given  a 
piece  of  paper  and  told  that  it  is  a  tablet  of  chocolate;  but  he  replies 
with  a  laugh,  "It  is  a  piece  of  paper.  I  knew  quite  well  liefore  that 
you  were  going  to  repeat  this  experiment,  but  made  a  firm  resolution  not 
to  be  caught  again." 

(2.)  Abnormal  hypnotic  sleep.  This  is  characterized  by  the  hypnosigenic 
means  and  methods  employed  producing  a  normal  or  abnormal  state  of  sleep 
instead  of  the  hypnosis  which  was  expected.  The  sleep  may  set  in  with 
loud  snoring.  Such  persons  cannot  he  influenced  by  suggestion,  and 
wake  either  spontaneously  with  a  terrified  start,  or  when  spoken  to  gently. 
In  another  group  of  cases  the  awakening  is  not  so  easy  l)ecause 
the  subjects  are  in  a  deep,  unconscious  sleep  exactly  like  the  patho- 
logical sleep  which  is  also  observed  to  occur  spontaneously  in  hysteria. 
Awakening  is  difficult,  as  even  strong  stimuli  produce  no  impression. 

(3).  The  hystero-hypnoid  state,  as  Hirschlaff  terms  certain  conditions, 
basing  his  contention  on  Freud  and  Breuer,  though  he  uses  the  term  in  a 
somewhat  different  sense  to  those  authors.  In  this  case  instead  of  normal 
hypnosis  the  hypnosigenic  measures  produce  more  or  less  severe  hysterical 
conditions,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  hiccoughs,  convulsive  screaming  and 
crying,  attacks  of  hysteria  of  the  severest  nature,  cataleptic  and  lethargic 
states  accompanied  by  loss  of  memory.  Occasionally  these  phenomena 
only  appear  as  a  complication  of  hypnosis. 

(4.)  Spontaneous  somnambulism.  Here  the  hypnosis  is  apparently 
normal  at  first ;  then  there  is  a  more  or  less  sudden,  spontaneous,  but 
circumscribed  outburst  of  excitement,  generally  of  an  erotic  cast,  in  which 


154  HYPNOTISM. 

the  subject  often  refers  to  some  remote  event  that  had  at  one  time  occupied 
his  mind  and  caused  him  great  mental  excitement. 

According  to  Hirschlaff,  all  these  abnormal  states  are  only  met  with  in 
hystericals.  The  chief  changes  which  differentiate  these  from  normal  deep 
hypnosis  are,  {a)  decrease  or  entire  cessation  of  suggestibility,  (d)  the 
spontaneous  appearance  of  certain  phenomena,  {c)  increased  difficulty  in 
awakening  the  subject,  and  (a)  post-hypnotic  malaise,  an  almost  invariable 
result. 

I  myself  believe  that  some  of  the  states  which  Hirschlaff 
ascribes  to  abnormal  hypnosis  have  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  hypnosis,  even  if  they  do  occur  in  hypnotic  experiments. 
For  a  person  who  is  being  hypnotized  to  have  an  attack  of 
hysteria  (Hirschlafl's  third  group),  or  to  fall  into  a  lethargic  state, 
or  for  another  person,  who  is  also  being  hypnotized,  to  fall 
asleep  and  snore  but  wake  up  at  the  slightest  noise  (HirschlafTs 
second  group),  is  not  hypnosis,  and  we  are  therefore  not  justified 
in  considering  such  states  abnormal  hypnoses.  But  we  certainly 
might  look  upon  those  cases  in  which  the  hypnosis  is  compli- 
cated by  hysteria  as  abnormal  hypnoses:  though  an  attack  of 
hysteria  alone  must  not  under  any  circumstances  be  considered 
a  case  of  hypnosis.  We  might  also  agree  to  include  among 
the  abnormal  hypnoses  those  cases  in  which  there  is  pronounced 
auto-suggestibility,  the  subject  either  acting  in  direct  opposi- 
tion to  the  hypnotist's  suggestions  (HirschlafFs  first  group),  or 
else  only  allowing  his  own  auto-suggestion  to  be  effective 
(HirschlafTs  fourth  group).  I  have  described  a  case  of  this 
nature  on  page  36.  Such  a  person  will  jump  up  suddenly 
without  a  word  having  been  said  to  him,  merely  because  he  is 
possessed  with  the  hallucination  that  a  tiger  is  about  to  spring 
upon  him.  When  this  phenomenon  is  more  fully  developed 
we  are  faced  by  a  condition  which  is  hardly  distinguishable 
from  spontaneous  somnambulism. 

I  think  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  cases  which  Hirschlaff 
describes  in  the  first  group  only  occur  in  hystericals;  but  I 
should  certainly  contest  the  assertion  that  the  auto-somnam- 
bulic  states  mentioned  in  the  fourth  group  only  occur  in  cases 
of  hysteria.  The  form  which  hypnotic  phenomena  may  take 
depends  very  much  on  the  temperament  of  the  subject.  A 
very  lively  temperament  often  leads  to  auto-somnambulism 
without  there  being  any  reason  to  consider  the  patient  hysterical. 

We  must  certainly  agree  with  Hirschlaff  that  pronounced« 
auto-suggestibility  during  hypnosis  is  far  more  frequent  among 
hysterical  subjects  than  others.      But  it  does  not  necessarily 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  I5S 

follow  that  it  is  only  met  with  in  hysteria.  VVe  must  take  into 
consideration  that  external  suggestion  is  limited  by  auto- 
suggestion in  other  cases  as  well.  Nearly  every  hypnotic's 
susceptibility  to  suggestion  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  under  his 
own  control.  A  highly  moral  man  rejects  a  criminal  suggest 
tion  which  one  whose  ethics  are  of  a  lower  order  would  accept 
without  hesitation.  Similarly,  evidences  of  erotic  feelings  during 
hypnosis  are  more  often  observed  in  subjects  whose  sexual 
desires  are  easily  aroused,  than  in  others.  Such  persons 
disclose  their  feelings  more  readily  when  hypnotized  than 
when  awake,  because  the  restraints  exercised  in  the  latter 
state  disappear  in  the  former.  But  I  do  not  consider  it 
proved  that  we  are  therefore  justified  in  assuming  hysteria  in 
all  such  cases.  Even  the  phenomena  which  Hirschlaff  in- 
cludes in  the  hystero-hypnoid  category,  in  which  hypnosis 
is  complicated  by  hysterical  phenomena  (trembling,  palpita- 
tion, etc.),  are  not  necessarily  of  hysterical  origin;  to  describe 
them  as  such  would  be  giving  far  too  wide  a  scope  to  the 
concept  hysteria.  Sufferers  from  ordinary  neurasthenia  exhibit 
similar  phenomena  when  being  hypnotized;  this  is  accounted 
for  by  the  excitement  which  the  act  of  hypnotizing  sets  up  in 
such  persons. 

In  dealing  with  auto-suggestion  we  must  also  bear  in  mind 
that  there  are  certain  variations  in  susceptibility  to  the  ex- 
perimenter's suggestions.  One  declares  at  one  moment  that 
his  name  is  Moll,  and  does  what  I  command  him;  directly 
after  he  is  himself  again,  without  any  certain  or  apparent  cause. 
Like  many  other  subjects,  he  says  afterwards  that  he  perceives 
two  opposing  wills  in  himself,  and  that  sometimes  one,  and 
sometimes  the  other,  conquers. 

I  have  been  careful  to  distinguish  between  auto-suggestion 
proper  and  those  forms  which  are  really  external  suggestions. 
This  is  a  distinction  upon  which  Hirschlaff  has  rightly  insisted. 
Many  cases  of  external  suggestion  seem  to  be  instances  of  auto- 
suggestion, a  phenomenon  which  plays  a  great  part  in  training, 
to  which  I  shall  now  direct  my  remarks.  The  slightest  sign 
suffices  to  make  a  subject  repeat,  later  on,  any  action  which 
has  once  been  induced  in  hypnosis  by  means  of  external 
suggestion — /.^.,  he  responds  just  as  he  did  to  a  definite 
suggested  idea.  When  a  hypnotic  has  been  trained  it  is 
hardly  necessary  for  the  experimenter  to  state  what  he  wishes 


156  HYPNOTISM. 

to  be  done — a  gesture  will  suffice.  For  example,  let  a  man's 
arm  be  paralyzed  by  verbal  suggestion,  then,  later  on,  the 
experimenter  will  only  have  to  give  the  slightest  sign  and  the 
paralysis  will  reappear  without  being  specially  suggested.  It 
may  happen  that  the  experimenter,  either  by  his  voice  or  by 
some  slight*  movement,  unintentionally  directs  the  subjects  to 
exhibit  certain  phenomena  which  could  only  be  primarily 
induced  by  definite  verbal  suggestion.  In  this  we  have  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  error,  because  the  subject  is  inclined  to 
obey  the  experimenter's  intentions,  and  thus  unintentionally 
misleads  him.  The  subject  is  also  greatly  influenced  by  his 
surroundings,  and  by  watching  other  subjects  (Bertrand). 
Imitation  is  also  of  great  importance  here.  I  hypnotize  X., 
and  suggest  that  he  cannot  speak,  at  the  same  time  inadver- 
tently touching  his  left  Shoulder  with  my  right  hand.  Y.,  in 
hypnosis,  sees  this,  and  every  time  I  touch  his  left  shoulder 
with  my  right  hand  he,  too,  is  unable  to  speak.  Y.  believes 
this  is  the  signal  for  loss  of  speech.  In  this  case  I  gave  the 
signal  (touching  the  shoulder)  unintentionally.  We  often  give 
the  signal  unintentionally,  but  easily  overlook  the  fact  that  we 
are  at  the  same  time  suggesting  something,  and  this  leads  to 
the  phenomenon  produced  being  erroneously  attributed  to  the 
signal  instead  of  to  the  idea  suggested.  Consequently  at  each 
subsequent  experiment  the  hypnotist  is,  without  suspecting  it, 
educating  the  subject  to  respond  more  and  more  readily  to  a 
given  signal — />.,  there  is  unintentional  training,  if  I  may  be 
allowed  the  expression,  and,  moreover,  the  particular  symptom 
induced  by  the  training  becomes  more  and  more  pronounced. 

We  must,  therefore,  invariably  consider  the  question  of 
training.  All  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  may  be  interpreted 
falsely  by  any  one  who  overlooks  this  point.  This  refers  in 
particular  to  on-lookers  at  hypnotic  experiments.  When 
hypnotic  experiments  are  shown  to  outsiders,  subjects  are  as  a 
rule  selected  who  have  gone  through  a  hypnotic  training  in 
some  particular  direction,  and  as  the  directions  are  various,  the 
results  also  are  various.  The  experimenter  A.  keeps  in  view  a 
particular  symptom,  a,  and  reinforces  it  at  each  experiment; 
in  the  same  way  experimenter  B.  cultivates  symptom  b.  In 
the  first  case  a  is  fully  developed,  and  b  receives  little  attention ; 
and  in  the  second  case  the  reverse  happens.  The  Breslau 
investigators,  for  example,  developed  the  imitative  movements, 
while  others  did  the  same  with  the  effects  of  the  movements  on 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  157 

the  feelings  {sUggeiiions  (Vattitude),  He  who  only  regards  the 
final  results  and  pays  no  attention  to  their  gradual  evolution 
will  be  inclined  to  believe  that  the  two  parties  of  investigators 
are  engaged  with  different  things;  though  it  is  in  reality  only 
differences  in  training  which  give  a  different  appearance  to 
states  which  were  primarily  identical.  Each  experimenter  now 
only  demonstrates  such  symptoms  as  he  has  cultivated  by 
training,  especially  as  this  training  commonly  produces  most 
interesting  phenomena;  the  heightening  of  certain  faculties  in 
particular.  The  outsider  is  unaware  that  this  is  a  mere  result 
of  hypnotic  training,  and  is  misled.  Children  who  repeat  to 
strangers  the  piece  of  poetry  they  know  best,  do  exactly  the 
same  thing.  Experimenters  produce  certain  objective  symptoms 
by  means  of  training,  and  any  one  seeing  them  for  the 
first  time  is  apt  to  make  mistakes.  But  every  experimenter 
produces  different  objective  symptoms — one,  for  example,  a 
i  lasting  catalepsy,  another  a  perfect  echolalia.  These  things 
■  strike  the  stranger  who  knows  nothing  about  the  previous 
.  training.  The  question  of  training  is  of  immense  importance. 
-Many  have  suspected  simulation  because  of  the  apparent 
variety  of  hypnotic  states.  This  variety  is  really  only  the 
^result  of  different  training,  if  we  put  aside  differences  of 
«character.  In  this  respect  the  experimenter  influences  the 
•development  of  the  hypnosis.  Unimportant  phenomena  such 
as  echolalia  are  developed  as  much  as  possible,  and  are  at  last 
wrongly  considered  to  be  essential  hypnotic  phenomena.  By 
training  the  subject  learns^  as  it  were,  to  "  read  "  the  experi- 
menter's thoughts. 

We  meet  something  very  similar,  but  under  different  circumstances,  in  the 
training  of  animals,  in  which,  as  we  know,  it  plays  an  important  part.  It 
was  through  overlooking  this  fact  that  Stumpf,  a  well-known  Berlin 
psychologist,  was  led  to  attest  in  the  case  of  the  horse,  "  Clever  Hans," 
that  the  only  possible  explanation  of  the  animal's  power  to  calculate, 
read,  etc.,  lay  in  the  admission  of  telepathic  communications  passing 
between  the  owner  and  the  horse.  As  we  shall  see  later  on,  Stumpf  failed 
to  see  the  tiny  signals  to  which  the  horse  responded. 

A  long  training  is  not  at  all  necessary;  Delboeuf  artificially 

induced  the  stages  of  Charcot  in  one  of  his  own  subjects  in  a 

very  few  hours.     My  object  in  making  these  remarks  is  to 

warn  against  attributing  too  great  importance  to  demonstrations^ 

particularly  when  these  offer  symptoms  apparently  objective  and 


IS8  HYPNOTISM. 

impossible  io  imitate.  It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that 
many  such  symptoms  can  be  produced  by  training,  and  can, 
perhaps,  be  imitated  by  practice  without  hypnosis. 

In  addition  to  the  artificial  cultivation  of  certain  symptoms, 
"  training  "  also  means  the  production  of  such  particular  modi- 
fications of  hypnosis  as  are  seen  after  frequent  repetitions  of 
the  state.  As  has  been  said  already,  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  make  several  attempts  before  the  hypnosis  appears.  Husson, 
in  1831,  said  this  with  regard  to  the  magnetic  sleep.  In  other 
cases  hypnosis  is  produced  very  quickly,  though  it  may  lake 
several  sittings  to  produce  deep  hypnosis.  In  one  case  which 
I  have  seen,  hypnosis  with  sense-delusions  only  resulted  after 
eighty  attempts,  though  lighter  states  had  been  attained  earlier. 
Training  not  only  makes  the  hypnosis  deeper,  but  makes  it 
appear  more  quickly.  But,  undoubtedly,  a  deep  hypnosis  may 
occasionally  be  induced  at  the  first  attempt;  and  Forel  is  right 
when  he  warns  us  against  overestimating  the  value  of  constant 
repetition.  I  have  often  seen  a  subject  fall  into  so  deep  a 
hypnosis  in  a  minute  or  two  on  the  first  trial  that  post- 
hypnotic negative  hallucinations  could  be  induced  at  once. 

But  in  most  cases  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  subject  a 
hypnotic  training  in  order  to  make  the  state  as  deep  as 
possible.  For  this  a  particular  method  is  advisable,  as  other- 
wise the  deepening  is  not  always  attained.  The  first  sugges- 
tions should  be  possible,  and  progress  should  be  gradual. 
More  will  be  attained  in  this  way  than  by  suggesting  im- 
possible situations  at  first  which  the  patient  will  decHne.  And 
if  a  suggestion  is  often  declined,  there  is  apt  to  arise  in  the 
subject  the  auto-suggestion  that  he  is  refractory  to  this  sugges- 
tion, or  perhaps  to  any  other  suggestion.  I  therefore  strongly 
recommend  such  a  method  for  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  A 
man  is  in  the  hypnotic  state  for  the  first  lime.  I  suggest  that 
when  he  wakes  he  shall  call  me  an  insulting  name.  He  does 
not  do  it,  but  is  perfectly  ready  to  carry  out  another  post- 
hypnotic suggestion;  for  instance,  to  tell  me  that  he  was  quite 
well.  Here  there  is  only  a  slight  degree  of  suggestibility  at 
first,  but  it  is  quite  possible  by  frequent  repetition  and  gradual 
increase  to  get  much  more  complicated  suggestions  carried  out. 

This  concludes  my  review  of  the  symptomatology  of  hypnosis. 
We  have  seen  that  the  symptoms  are  of  manifold  kinds,  and 
I  may  add  that  they  are  hardly  ever  identical  in  two  different 
persons.     In  spite  of  conformity  to  law,  one  human  body  is 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  I  59 

never  exactly  like  another,  the  mental  state  of^ne  man  is 
never  exactly  like  another's.  It  is  the  same  in  hypnosis;  one 
man  displays  this  symptom  with  greater  clearness,  another 
that.  We  shall  never  be  able  to  find  a  subject  in  whom  all 
the  symptoms  are  united,  just  as  we  cannot  find  a  patient  who 
has  all  the  symptoms  of  an  illness  as  they  are  theoretically 
described. 


l62  HYPNOTISM. 

ten,  and  wake  up  when  you  get  to  three."  He  counts  up  to 
ten,  but  is  awake  while  counting  from  four  to  ten. 

In  other  cases  the  suggestion  only  takes  effect  after  waking. 
I  say  to  the  subject,  "  You  will  not  be  able  to  move  your  right 
arm  after  you  wake."  He  wakes,  and  is  unable  to  move  it, 
though  otherwise  in  a  normal  state.  Exactly  the  same  effects 
may  be  produced  after  an  interval  of  hours,  days,  weeks,  and 
months.  I  say  to  a  subject,  "  When  you  come  to  see  me  this 
day  week,  you  will  not  be  able  to  speak  when  you  come  into 
the  room."  He  comes  to  see  me  in  a  week,  and  is  fully  awake 
when  he  enters  the  room ;  1  ask  him  his  name,  but  he  is 
unable  to  say  it  or  anything  else.  Here  we  have  an  example 
of  fulfilment  of  suggestion  after  an  interval,  or  suggestion  ä 
ichiance^  deferred  suggestion,  as  it  is  called. 

The  moment  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  post-hypnotic  sugges- 
tion can  be  decided  in  several  ways.  Here  is  a  subject  to 
whom  I  say,  "An  hour  after  yoU'wake  you  will  hear  a  polka 
played ;  you  will  believe  you  are  at  a  ball,  and  will  begin  to 
dance."  To  another,  whom  I  wake  at  eight  o'clock,  I  say, 
"When  the  clock  strikes  nine,  you  will  take  the  water-bottle 
from  the  table  and  walk  up  and  down  the  room  three  times  with 
it."  The  moment  of  fulfilment  is  decided  differently  in  these  two 
cases.  In  the  first  case  an  abstract  term,  an  hour,  is  fixed;  in 
the  second,  the  moment  is  decided  by  a  concrete  external  sign. 

When  it  has  been  decided  that  the  moment  of  the  fulfilment 
of  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion  shall  be  determined  by  an 
external  sign,  it  is  as  well  to  choose  a  stimulus  which  can 
easily  be  repeated. 

I  try  a  subject,  X. ,  with  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  that  he  is  to  call 
one  of  the  spectators  a  blockhead  directly  the  clock  strikes.  X.  does  not 
obey ;  the  moment  the  clock  strikes  he  has  an  idea  of  what  he  is  intended 
to  do,  but  refuses  to  put  it  into  action.  Should  I,  however,  instead  of 
choosing  the  striking  of  the  clock  select  some  other  stimulus  which  also 
arouses  the  idea  and  at  the  same  time  is  sufficiently  lasting  to  make  it 
continuous,  the  desired  result  will  then  be  attained.  For  example,  the 
suggestion  will  be  carried  out  if  I  say  to  a  subject,  '*  Directly  I  rub  my 
hands  together  after  you  wake  up  you  will  call  that  gentleman  a  block- 
head." As  soon  as  X.  is  awake  I  rub  my  hands  together,  and  the  idea  of 
what  he  is  intended  to  do  immediately  arises  in  his  mind ;  but  he  succeeds 
in  resisting  it  for  a  time.  I  then  keep  on  rubbing  my  hands  together — 
perhaps  for  a  minute  or  more — X.'s  resistance  gradually  weakens,  and.  in 
the  end  he  obeys  the  command. 

A  post-hypnotic  suggestion  will  be  more  readily  fulfilled 
when    the   moment  for  its   execution    is  determined    by  an 


POST-HYPNOTIC   SUGGESTION.  163 

external  sign ;  but  successful  cases  in  which  no  such  sign  has 
been  employed  are  anything  but  rare.  There  is  often  a  certain 
amount  of  unpunctuality  in  the  fulfilment  of  a  suggestion  when 
no  concrete  external  sign  is  used ;  for  example,  the  suggestion 
will  be  carried  out  in  three-quarters  of  an  hour  instead  of  an 
hour.  Occasionally  punctuality  is  very  marked.  Delboeuf 
made  post-hypnotic  suggestions  to  various  persons  by  telling 
them  to  perform  a  certain  act  after  so  many  minutes — say,  a 
thousand  minutes.  In  many  cases,  even  with  persons  who 
were  otherwise  not  able  to  estimate  time  rightly,  striking 
punctuality  was  shown.  Bramwell  has  made  numerous  experi- 
ments for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  time  in  this  respect.  For 
example,  he  told  a  young  lady  aged  nineteen  to  make  the 
sign  of  the  cross  after  the  lapse  of  4,335  minutes.  In  spite  of 
the  fact  that  she  had  forgotten  all  about  the  suggestion  she 
fulfilled  it  accurately.  Further  experiments  of  this  nature 
gave  strikingly  accurate  results,  no  error  exceeded  five  minutes, 
and  Bramwell  ascribed  all  to  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the 
subject.  The  subject  was  requested,  in  hypnosis,  to  transpose 
the  hours  and  minutes,  and  did  make  miscalculations;  but  she 
nevertheless  carried  out  the  primary  suggestion  correctly, 
sometimes  even  when  asleep  at  night.  At  Hansen's  instiga- 
tion Sommer  made  a  few  experiments  of  the  same  kind,  but 
on  a  smaller  scale.  A  student  was  told  that  he  was  to  fall 
asleep  when  ordered ;  then,  two  minutes  later,  he  was  to  talk 
about  skating ;  after  this  he  was  to  sit  still  for  a  minute,  and 
finally  jump  up  and  shout  ** Hurrah!  for  Giessen."  The 
suggestion  was  fulfilled  to  the  second.  The  subject  stated 
subsequently  that  he  only  remembered  counting  up  to  thirty- 
one  or  thirty-two,  although  he  wanted  to  count  up  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  to  complete  the  two  minutes.  Sommer 
considers  that  counting  would  enable  the  subject  to  keep  to 
the  time-limit,  but  that  loss  of  memory  intervenes. 

I  will  point  out  a  frequent  source  of  error  in  experiments  of 
this  nature :  this  is  the  behaviour  of  the  spectators.  They 
look  at  the  clock  at  the  appointed  time,  or  make  some  other 
unconscious  signal  that  the  right  moment  has  arrived.  I  call 
particular  attention  to  this  so  that  the  time  may  be  accurately 
observed. 

The  older  mesmerists,  Nasse  and  Eschenmayer  for  example,  made 
investigations  about  this  faculty  of  somnambulic  subjects  for  exactly 
reckoning  time.     But  it  is  an  exaggeration  to  maintain  that  as  a  rule  the 


164  HYPNOTISM. 

time  is  reckoned  accurately.  The  punctuality  displayed  by  hypnotics  is 
very  like  that  of  people  who  can  voluntarily  awake  from  their  usual  sleep 
at  any  hour  they  please.  According  to  statistics  collected  by  Childe  many 
people  are  capable  of  doing  this.  The  ancient  Hindoos  studied  this 
subjective  faculty  for  reckoning  time  very  industriously.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  mental  clock  ("Kopfuhr,"  Du  Prel). 

A  third  way  of  fixing  the  time  at  which  a  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  is  to  be  fulfilled  has  been  thoroughly  investigated 
by  Gurney  and  Pierre  Janet.  For  example,  I  say  to  a  subject, 
X.,  "  When  I  shuffle  my  feet  for  the  tenth  time  after  you  wake 
up,  you  will  burst  out  laughing."  X.  wakes  up  quite  oblivious 
of  my  order,,  and  I  engage  him  in  conversation  and  shuffle 
with  my  feet  several  times  without  his  taking  any  notice ;  at 
the  tenth  shuffle  he  gives  a  loud  laugh.  I  repeated  the  experi- 
ment on  another  occasion,  and  when  I  had  shuffled  my  feet 
four  times  I  asked  X.  if  he  heard  the  shuffling;  he  replied  "No." 
I  went  on  quietly  talking,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  ßix  more 
shuffles  with  my  feet,  upon  which  the  suggestion  was  carried 
out.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  result  was  not  quite  so 
accurate — the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  was  certainly  fulfilled, 
but  not  at  the  right  signal. 

Many  deferred  suggestions  resemble  those  suggestions  in 
which  the  moment  of  fulfilment  is  determined  by  counting 
(Gurney).  Post-hypnotic  deferred  suggestions  can  be  made  in 
two  ways ;  for  example,  on  the  3rd  of  May  I  say  to  a  person 
who  calls  on  me  every  day,  "  On  the  6th  of  June,  when  you 
come  into  my  room,  you  will  see  me  with  a  black  face,  and  you 
will  laugh  at  me."  The  suggestion  succeeds.  But  here  a 
fixed  date  is  named  which  helps  the  subject  to  carry  out  the 
suggestion  in  the  same  way  as  the  striking  of  the  clock  in  the 
case  first  quoted.  Delboeuf,  in  particular,  has  pointed  out  the 
importance  of  this.  It  would  have  been  another  matter  if  I  had 
made  the  suggestion  thus :  "  On  the  thirty-fifth  day,  reckoning 
from  to-day,  you  will  come  into  my  room  and  see  me  with  a 
black  face,  etc,"  According  to  Gurney's  observations,  sug- 
gestions of  this  kind  succeed,  and  my  own  experiments 
confirm  him.  An  example  may  make  this  sort  of  suggestion 
clearer.  I  suggested  once  to  X.,  **  You  will  come  to  my  house 
on  the  sixteenth  Tuesday,  reckoning  from  last  Tuesday,  and 
will  abuse  all  the  people  present,"  etc  This  suggestion 
succeeded  completely,  although  no  fixed  date  was  named. 


POST-HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTION.  165 

I  have  as  yet  only  discussed  the  manner  of  determining  the 
point  of  time  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  post-hypnotic  sugges- 
tion. I  now  come  to  the  question,  What  is  the  condition  of 
the  subject  while  carrying  out  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion? 
Dumontpallier,  Beaunis,  and  Li^geois  observed  that  post- 
hypnotic suggestions  were  certainly  not  carried  out  in  the 
waking  state,  even  if  the  action  took  place  after  the  awakening 
from  hypnosis.  The  question  has  led  to  a  lively  discussion ; 
and  Forel  and  Gurney  have  shown  that  the  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  may  be  carried  out  in  very  different  states.  A  few 
examples  will  make  this  clear  to  the  reader. 

A  man  (X.),  thirty  years  old,  is  in  the  hypnotic  stale.  I  say  to  him, 
"When  you  wake,  directly  I  cross  my  knees  you  will  take  the  inkstand 
from  the  table  and  put  it  on  the  chair,"  He  wakes  at  my  order,  and  I 
talk  to  him.  After  a  time  I  cross  my  knees ;  he  begins  to  stare  at  the 
inkstand  and  hardly  answers  me.  He  goes  to  the  table,  takes  the  inkstand 
and  puts  it  on  the  chair ;  upon  which  I  suggest  to  him  that  he  sees  his 
brother,  that  he  is  eating  his  dinner,  etc.,  all  of  which  suggestions  he 
accepts.  I  am  obliged  to  re-awaken  him  to  put  an  end  to  this  new  state 
of  suggestibility.     After  waking  he  remembers  absolutely  nothing. 

This  case  is  characterized  by  loss  of  memory  of  all  that 
happened  during  the  post-hypnotic  state,  and  further  by  sus- 
ceptibility to  suggestion.  I  do  not  know  how  this  state  is  to 
be  distinguished  psychologically  from  a  true  hypnosis,  and  to 
my  mind  Delbceuf  is  right  when  he  says  that  to  make  a  post- 
hypnotic suggestion  is  really  to  order  a  new  hypnosis  at  a  fixed 
moment  and  the  carrying  out  of  the  suggestion  in  this  new 
hypnosis. 

There  are  other  very  different  cases.  We  have  here  a  man  in  hypnosis 
and  I  say  to  him,  **  When  you  awake,  directly  I  rub  my  bands  together 
you  will  forget  your  name.  When  I  separate  my  hands  you  will  remember 
it  again."  Everything  happens  as  ordered;  we  talk  to  one  another,  but 
when  I  bring  my  hands  together  the  subject  forgets  his  own  name.  He  is, 
however,  completely  awake,  and  incapable  of  accepting  any  further 
suggestion.  When  I  separate  my  hands  he  knows  his  own  name,  and 
knows  also  that  he  had  forgotten  it  a  moment  ago.  He  goes  away,  and  in 
a  few  days  we  meet  again  ;  but  now  he  remembers  his  name  however  I 
hold  my  hands.  But  he  remembers  perfectly  well  that  the  other  day  he 
was  several  times  unable  to  say  his  own  name.  He  maintains  that  he  was 
awake  all  the  time. 

We  are  not  justified  in  calling  this  case  one  of  hypnosis. 
There  was  no  mental  symptom  of  hypnosis,  no  loss  of  memory, 


l66  HYPNOTISM. 

no  suggestibility,  no  fatigue;  the  subject  did  not  think  he  had 
been  asleep;  nothing  remains  but  to  consider  the  state  a 
perfectly  normal  one,  except  on  one  point.  Whether  such  a 
state  may  be  regarded  as  normal,  generally  speaking,  is  another 
matter.  I  shall  discuss  this  when  I  come  to  the  legal  question 
for  which  these  cases  are  very  important,  according  to 
Bentivegni. 

It  appears  from  these  examples  that  post-hypnotic  sugges- 
tions may  be  carried  out  in  various  different  states.  Between 
the  two  extremes — the  one  case  in  which  there  were  all  the 
mental  symptoms  of  a  new  hypnosis,  and  the  other  in  which 
there  were  none — there  are  many  degrees  which  I  will  now 
discuss. 

Here  is  a  third  example.  A  woman  is  hypnotized,  and  two  men  A. ,  and  B. , 
are  present.  I  say  to  the  subject,  *'  When  A.  speaks  to  you  after  you  wake, 
you  will  laugh  at  him.  When  B.  speaks  to  you,  you  will  put  your  tongue 
out  at  him.  Wake  !  "  She  wakes.  A.  speaks  to  her  and  she  laughs.  I 
ask,  "  Why  did  you  laugh  just  now?"  "  I  did  not  laugh."  A.  speaks  to 
her  again;  she  laughs,  and  again  at  my  question  she  denies  having  laughed. 
She  puts  out  her  tongue  at  B.  when  he  speaks  to  her,  and  the  moment  after, 
when  I  question  her,  she  says  that  she  did  not  do  it.  I  suggest  that  she 
hears  a  barrel-organ,  but  she  says  she  does  not,  and  is  insusceptible  to 
other  suggestions.  She  remembers  everything  else  that  has  happened, 
and  knows  perfectly  well  what  I  have  said  to  her.  All  that  is  forgotten  is 
the  post-hypnotic  act  and  what  is  immediately  connected  with  it — t.e.y  the 
words  which  A.  and  B.  spoke  to  her.  She  can  repeat  what  I  said  to  her, 
and  her  replies ;  everything,  in  fact,  unconnected  with  the  post -hypnotic 
suggestion.  She  knows  nothing  about  the  brief  space  during  which  she 
carried  out  the  suggestion ;  at  the  same  time  she  recognizes  no  gap  in  her 
memory. 

In  this  case  there  is  complete  loss  of  memory  for  the  post- 
hypnotic act,  and  no  further  suggestibihty;  the  loss  of  memory 
extends  simply  to  the  post-hypnotic  act.  This  is,  then,  a  third 
way  in  which  hypnotic  suggestion  is  carried  out,  and  it  is 
not  rare. 

In  other  cases  the  subject  not  only  forgets  the  post-hypnotic 
act  he  has  just  performed,  but  becomes  susceptible  to  a  fresh 
suggestion  while  he  is  carrying  it  out.  It  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  these  cases  from  those  just  described;  on  that 
account  I  shall  not  make  a  separate  group  of  them;  for  it 
seems  that  subjects  like  the  person  described  in  the  last 
example  are  really  always  susceptible  to  suggestion  while  they 
are  carrying  out  the  act,  but  that  in  many  cases  the  act  takes 


POST-HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTION.  167 

place  too  quickly  to  allow  of  a  fresh  suggestion  being  made. 
The  post-hypnotic  act  is  completely  forgotten,  while  the  state 
of  the  subject  before  and  after  the  action  is  quite  normal. 
Liegeois  thought  this  a  separate  state,  which  he  called  con- 
dition prime.  He  gave  this  up  later,  and  now  calls  the  state 
condition  seconde  provoquee;  Beaunis  calls  it  veille  somnam- 
bulique;  Gurney,  "trance-waking."  I,  however,  agree  with 
Delboeuf  that  these  states  must  be  considered  true  hypnoses. 
Evidently  the  suggested  idea  is  so  powerful  in  them  that  it 
produces  a  state  analogous  to  that  in  which  it  was  first  im- 
planted. When  the  idea  vanishes,  the  abnormal  state  also 
vanishes. 

I  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  fourth  case.  I  suggest  to  X.  to  take  a 
chair  and  put  it  on  the  table  five  minutes  after  he  wakes.  The  sugges- 
tion is  carried  out.  While  he  is  putting  the  chair  on  the  table  I  call  out 
suddenly  that  a  dog  is  biting  him.  He  believes  it,  kicks  the  imaginary 
dog  away,  and  wakes  spontaneously.  X.  remembers  moving  the  chair  and 
remembers  the  dog,  but  says  the  whole  thing  was  like  a  dream. 

Consequently  this  state  is  characterized  by  suggestibility 
during  the  carrying  out  of  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion;  and 
there  is  also  memory.  It  is  true  X.  feels  as  if  he  dreamed  it. 
He  has  a  consciousness  of  having  slept  through  the  perform- 
ance, and  of  having  waked  when  it  was  ended.  This 
consciousness  of  having  slept  is  very  important  (Delboeuf). 
We  often  have  some  life-like  experience  in  a  dream  and  yet 
know  directly  we  wake  that  it  was  a  dream.  I  think  the  last 
described  post-hypnotic  state  must  be  considered  a  hypnosis. 

Amongst  the  post-hypnotic  states  we  have  studied — (i)  a 
state  in  which  a  new  hypnosis  characterized  by  suggestibility 
came  on  during  the  carrying  out  of  the  suggestion,  loss  of 
memory  afterwards,  and  no  spontaneous  waking;  (2)  a  state  in 
which  there  was  not  the  slightest  symptom  of  a  fresh  hypnosis, 
although  the  suggestion  was  carried  out;  (3)  a  state  in  which 
the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  was  carried  out  with  complete 
forgetfulness  of  the  act,  with  or  without  fresh  susceptibility  to  sug- 
gestion, and  from  which  the  waking  was  spontaneous;  (4)  a  state 
of  susceptibility  to  suggestion  with  retention  of  memory  follow- 
ing, but  a  feeling  of  having  been  asleep.  In  judging  of  these 
states  the  chief  symptoms  are — firstly,  the  fresh  suggestibility; 
secondly,  the  retention  of  memory;  and  thirdly,  the  feeling  of 
having  been  asleep.     Whether  the  subject  wakes  spontaneously 


l6S  •  HYPNOTISM. 

or  has  to  be  again  awakened  is  of  secondary  importance,  as 
spontaneous  waking  is  observed  in  ordinary  hypnosis. 

Gurney  has  directed  attention  to  certain  devices  for  estimat- 
ing the  mental  state  at  the  moment  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion 
begins  to  act.  We  have  seen  that  the  renewed  suggestibility 
is  of  great  importance  in  deciding  whether  a  fresh  hypnosis  has 
been  induced  or  not,  and  Gurney  has  made  use  of  this  post- 
hypnotic suggestibility  for  solving  the  question.  The  subject, 
X.,  is  shuffling  the  cards  (post-hypnotically).  He  is  told 
while  he  is  shuffling  that  when  the  clock  strikes  he  will  jump 
up  three  times.  He  has  finished  shuffling  and  is  quite  awake. 
There  is  nothing  to  show  that  he  is  still  in  hypnosis;  he  is  not 
susceptible  to  suggestion.  He  does  not  remember  shuffling 
the  cards,  and  contends  that  he  has  not  done  it;  but  directly 
the  clock  strikes  he  jumps  up  three  times.  From  this  post- 
hypnotic susceptibility  to  suggestion  we  conclude  that  X.  was 
not  in  a  normal  state  when  he  was  shuffling  the  cards.  Whether 
this  state  was  hypnotic,  or  was  another  mental  state,  as  Beaunis 
and  Gurney  suppose,  is  another  question.  I  incline  to  think 
it  a  true  hypnosis. 

Gurney  thinks  that  in  order  to  properly  estimate  this  post- 
hypnotic state  we  must  take  the  memory  into  consideration 
also.  We  have  seen  that  subjects  in  later  hypnoses  remember 
what  has  occurred  in  earlier  ones.  If,  now,  the  events  of 
earlier  hypnoses  should  be  remembered  in  the  post-hypnotic 
state,  we  should  consider  it  a  fresh  hypnosis.  Now,  I  have 
often  found  that  there  was  a  complete  recollection  of  the 
events  of  earlier  hypnoses  while  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion 
was  being  carried  out.  This  fact  also  favours  the  supposition 
of  a  fresh  hypnosis. 

Finally,  I  may  add  that  there  are  cases  in  which  physical 
symptoms  are  found.  The  fixed  look  and  blank  expression 
often  seen  during  the  carrying  out  of  the  post-hypnotic  sugges- 
tion also  justify  the  assumption  of  a  fresh  hypnosis. 

It  may  be  concluded  from  what  I  have  said  that  post- 
hypnotic suggestions  may  be  carried  out  in  various  different 
states.  This,  I  may  add,  is  the  case  not  only  when  we  com- 
pare one  subject  with  another,  but  when  we  observe  the  same 
subject  under  diflferent  suggestions.  The  questions  upon 
which  it  all  hinges  are — (i)  Does  the  subject  remember  later 
on  what  he  has  done,  and  does  he  remember  the  events  of 
earlier  hypnoses  while  carrying  out  the  suggestion  ?     (2)  Does 


POST-HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTION.  169 

he  feel  after  carrying  out  the  suggestion  as  though  he  had 
just  been  asleep  ?  (3)  Whilst  doing  what  has  been  suggested 
is  he  susceptible  either  to  suggestions  to  be  carried  out  at  once, 
or  to  new  post-hypnotic  suggestions?  (4)  How  does  the 
subject  look  ?  Has  he  the  appearance,  the  manner,  the  physical 
symptoms  usual  in  hypnosis,  or  not  ? 

The  question  becomes  even  more  complicated  when  we 
consider  the  following  of  ForeFs  experiments.  Forel  said  to 
a  nurse,  **  Whenever  you  say  ^Sir'  to  the  assistant-physician, 
)'ou  will  scratch  your  right  temple  with  your  right  hand  without 
noticing  it."  The  nurse  did  so,  talking  clearly  and  naturally 
all  the  time.  She  did  not  notice  that  she  was  scratching  her 
face. 

Here  the  subject  behaves  normally,  and  yet  the  post- 
hypnotic suggestion  is  executed  during  the  conversation  with 
complete  loss  of  memory.  When  a  subject  performs  one  act 
with  loss  of  memory,  is  this  state  hypnosis  or  some  other  state  ? 
'  I  think  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  normal  waking  life, 
for  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  conclude  a  hypnosis  from  the  mere 
forgetting  of  one  act,  without  susceptibility  to  suggestion. 
Gurney  points  out  that  loss  of  memory  alone  cannot  be  taken 
for  proof  of  an  abnormal  state,  because  in  normal  life  we 
perform  actions  and  see  objects  without  remembering  them 
afterwards.  If  the  action  is  a  purely  mechanical  one,  such  as 
winding  a  watch,  we  often  remember  nothing  about  it. 

I  have  purposely  in  the  last  section  only  discussed  those 
movements  and  acts  executed  post-hypnotically;  but  all  sorts 
of  delusions  of  the  senses,  positive  and  negative,  can  be 
induced  hypnotically  at  pleasure.  We  can  cause  whole  scenes 
to  be  gone  through ;  the  subject  will  go  to  a  ball,  or  partake  of 
an  imaginary  dinner,  etc.  The  state  of  the  subjects  during 
the  realization  of  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion  may  differ  con- 
siderably, but  in  my  experience  it  is  almost  a  rule  that  the 
induction  of  a  post-hypnotic  delusion  should  induce  a  fresh 
hypnosis  with  susceptibility  to  suggestion  and  subsequent  loss 
of  memory. 

It  is  possible,  besides,  to  influence  subjects  in  these  states  in 
any  way.  For  example,  we  may  make  the  suggestion  thus  : 
"You  will  see  a  dog  five  minutes  after  you  wake;  but  you  will 
remain  awake  and  not  allow  anything  else  to  be  suggested  to 
you."  The  subject  may  in  this  way  be  protected  from  further 
suggestion;  he  will  then  carry  out  the  first  suggestion,  but  for 


1 70  HYPNOTISM. 

the  rest  will  appear  fully  awake.  X.  and  Y.  are  at  my  house. 
I  hypnotize  Y.,  and  say  to  him,  "When  you  wake,  X.  will  be 
sitting  on  this  chair;  you  will  remain  awake."  When  he  wakes 
he  believes  that  he  sees  X.  on  the  chair,  and  talks  to  him,  etc. 
I  call  his  attention  to  the  real  X.  and  say,  ^*  Which  is  the  real 
X.  ?  You  see  one  on  the  chair  and  one  standing  before  you." 
Y.  feels  the  chair  and  the  real  X.  to  find  out  which  is  air  and 
which  is  reality.  He  finally  concludes,  "  He  is  on  the  chair." 
And  yet  Y.  is  not  susceptible  to  suggestion  on  other  points. 

But  even  if  we  are  thus  able  to  influence  post-hypnotic  acts 
and  sense-delusions  by  means  of  particular  suggestions,  it  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that  all  the  details  of  a  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  depend  entirely  upon  the  experimenter's  influence. 
I  am  much  more  inclined  to  think  that  the  state  during  the 
carrying  out  of  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion  may  vary  without 
any  such  influence.  Undoubtedly  much  depends  upon  the 
purport  of  the  suggestion.  The  more  absurd  the  suggestion, 
the  more  it  clashes  with  the  subject's  normal  way  of  thinking, 
the  more  likely  will  a  fresh  hypnosis  set  in  during  the  carrying 
out  of  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  For  example,  X.  was  in 
a  perfectly  normal  state  when  carrying  out  the  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  that  he  was  to  rub  his  hands  together  occasionally 
when  talking  to  me  later  on;  but  the  suggestion  that  he  was 
to  take  my  purse  out  of  my  pocket  induced  a  fresh  hypnosis. 
The  nature  of  the  action  suggested  undoubtedly  exerts  a  great 
influence  in  determining  the  state  induced,  and  to  it  we  must 
add  the  character  of  the  subject.  I  certainly  do  not  think  we 
are  justified  in  exclusively  attributing  all  the  various  states 
observed  to  the  influence  of  the  experimenter,  or  to  training. 

In  what  precedes  I  have  discussed  the  state  of  the  subject 
during  the  carrying  out  of  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  It 
will  not  take  long  to  consider  the  state  between  waking  and  the 
execution  of  the  suggestion.  The  subject  is  then  nearly 
always  fully  awake,  and  the  state  is,  in  fact,  as  if  he  had  been 
wakened  without  previous  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  However, 
there  are  some  cases  in  which  the  wakening  is  not  complete  so 
long  as  the  effect  of  the  suggestion  lasts;  this  occurs  parti- 
cularly when  the  suggestion  is  repugnant  to  the  subject's 
character.  Such  subjects  look  tired  and  sleepy,  and  when 
questioned,  often  say  that  they  are  not  quite  awake  but  still 
half-asleep.  I  have  had  cases  in  which  I  was  obliged  to  cancel 
the  suggestion  before  I  could  completely  awaken  the  subject. 


POST-HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTION.  171 

In  other  cases  I  have  observed  a  subjective  discomfort  instead 
of  a  feeling  of  fatigue,  until  the  suggestion  was  executed.  This 
subjective  discomfort  is  sometimes  felt  without  the  suggestion 
being  carried  out.  One  lady  to  whom  I  had  suggested  that 
she  should  put  a  book  on  the  floor  woke  in  great  discomfort, 
but  it  did  not  occur  to  her  to  put  the  book  on  the  floor.  She 
recovered  herself,  however,  when,  at  my  request,  she  had  put 
the  book  on  the  floor  in  the  waking  state.  Another  subject  com- 
plained of  twitching  in  the  arm  after  waking;  I  had  suggested 
to  him  to  give  me  his  hand  when  he  woke.  He  did  not  do  it 
till  I  asked  him  again  in  the  waking  state;  before  that  he  was 
aware  of  nothing  but  the  twitching.  I  have,  however,  never 
observed  evidences  of  discomfort  when  the  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  had  a  therapeutic  aim.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
discomfort  is  caused  by  the  conflict  waging  in  the  subject's 
mind,  even  when  at  the  threshold  of  consciousness;  and,  of 
course,  there  can  be  no  question  of  such  a  struggle  when  the 
suggestion  has  a  therapeutic  aim.  Köhler  declares  that 
between  waking  and  the  execution  of  the  post-hypnotic  sugges- 
tion, the  subject  is  invariably  in  one  or  other  of  two  abnormal 
states — the  one  an  obvious,  but  exceptional,  form  of  hypnosis, 
the  other  a  peculiar  state  of  intermittent  hypnosis.  By  which 
Köhler  means  that  the  patient  remains  hypnotized  from  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment  to  the  execution  of  the  suggestion, 
or  else  in  an  exceptional  condition  in  which  he  can  carry  on  a 
rational  conversation  until  he  suddenly  falls  into  a  fresh 
hypnosis.  The  abnormal  state  terminates  directly  the  post- 
hypnotic suggestion  is  fulfilled.  Nevertheless,  I  consider 
Köhler's  views  on  this  question  erroneous — at  least  they  as 
little  agree  with  the  results  of  my  own  observations  as  they  do 
with  those  of  Loewenfeld  and  others. 

There  are,  of  course,  numerous  cases  of  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  in  which  the  suggested  act  is  not  performed,  many 
persons  being  able  to  ofier  a  more  or  less  successful  resistance. 
It  sometimes  even  happens  that  a  hypnotic  rejects  a  suggestion 
during  hypnosis.  Many  carry  out  only  the  suggestions  to 
which  they  have  assented  (Pierre  Janet).  Scripture  reports  a 
case  observed  at  Brown  University.  The  post-hypnotic  sug- 
gestion was  given  to  a  person  to  pronounce  a  always  like 
ee — e.g.,  "feether"  instead  of  "father";  on  being  awakened 
she  was  often  asked  about  her  parents,  but  always  avoided 
using  the  word  "father,"  speaking  instead  of  ^*the  husband 


172  HYPNOTISM. 

of  my  mother."  Pitres  relates  an  interesting  case  of  a  girl 
who  would  not  allow  him  to  wake  her,  because  he  had  suggested 
that  on  waking  she  would  not  be  able  to  speak.  She  positively 
declared  that  she  would  not  wake  till  he  gave  up  his  suggestion: 
But  even  when  the  suggestion  is  accepted  as  such,  a  decided 
resistance  is  often  expressed  during  its  post-hypnotic  execution. 
This  shows  itself  as  often  in  slow  and  lingering  movements  as 
in  a  decided  refusal  to  perform  the  act  at  all.  The  more 
repugnant  the  action,  the  more  likely  is  it  to  be  omitted. 

As  in  all  the  above  cases  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion  the  com- 
mand was  not  remembered,  it  is  particularly  interesting  to 
observe  how  the  subjects  try  lo  account  for  their  execution  of 
the  suggestions.  Naturally,  we  shall  only  here  consider  those 
cases  in  which  the  action  is  not  immediately  forgotten;  in  the 
others,  subjects  do  not  try  to  find  reasons  for  actions  which 
they  have  forgotten. 

Let  us  take  an  example.  I  say  to  a  hypnotized  woman,  ** After  you 
wake  you  will  take  a  book  from  the  table  and  put  it  on  the  bookshelf.'* 
She  wakes  and  does  what  I  told  her.  When  I  ask  her  what  she  has 
been  doing,  she  answers  that  she  has  moved  the  book  from  the  table  to 
the  shelf.  When  asked  for  her  reason,  she  answers,  **  I  do  not  like  to 
see  things  so  untidy ;  the  shelf  is  the  place  for  the  book,  and  that  is 
why  I  put  it  there." 

In  this  case  my  command  led  to  a  definite  action  being 
carried  out ;  but  the  subject  does  not  remember  my  sug- 
gestion, believing  that  she  has  so  acted  of  her  own  accord, 
from  love  of  order. 

Let  us  go  on  with  our  experiment.  I  suggest  to  the  re-hypnotized 
subject  to  take  the  book  from  the  shelf  and  lay  it  under  the  table, 
which  she  does.  I  ask  her  why  she  did  it ;  she  can  give  no  reason. 
**It  came  into  my  head,"  she  answers.  I  repeat  the  experiment  several 
times.  To  a  new  request  for  her  reason  she  finally  replies,  "Something 
made  me  feel  as  if  I  must  put  the  book  there." 

In  this  case  the  subject,  who  at  first  beheved  she  was 
acting  freely,  came  by  degrees  to  recognize  the  restraint  put 
upon  her;  she,  perhaps,  suspected  the  suggestion,  but  was 
not  sure  of  it. 

Another  case.  I  suggest  to  a  hypnotized  man  to  use  an  insulting 
expression  to  me   when  he  wakes.     He  wakes,  and  after  a  pause  of  a 


POST-HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTION.  1 73 

few  seconds,  during  which  his  face  expresses  an  inward  struggle,  he  calls 
out,  "Donkey!"  When  asked  why  he  so  insults  me,  he  makes  many 
excuses,  and  explains,  "  I  felt  as  if  I  must  say  *  Donkey  ! '  " 

Here  we  have  to  do  with  a  paradoxical  action;  the  man 
knew  at  once  that  constraint  was  being  put  upon  him;  the 
woman  who  performed  the  simpler  act  above  only  perceived 
the  constraint  after  several  experiments.  However,  in  a 
great  number  of  cases  the  result  is  different. 

We  have  here  a  hypnotized  subject  to  whom  I  say  that  when  he 
wakes  he  is  to  take  a  flower-pot  from  the  window-sill,  wrap  it  in  a 
cloth,  put  it  on  the  sofa,  and  bow  to  it  three  times.  All  of  which  he 
does.  When  asked  for  his  reasons  he  answers,  '*You  know,  when  I 
woke  and  saw  the  flower-pot  there  I  thought  that  as  it  was  rather  cold 
the  flower-pot  had  better  be  warmed  a  little,  or  else  the  plant  would  die. 
So  I  wrapped  it  in  the  cloth,  and  then  I  thought  that  as  the  sofa  was 
near  the  fire  I  would  put  the  flower-pot  on  it;  and  I  bowed  because  I 
was  pleased  with  myself  for  having  such  a  bright  idea."  He  added  that 
he  did  not  consider  the  action  foolish,  he  had  told  me  his  reasons  for  so 
acting. 

In  this  case  the  subject  carried  out  an  absurd  post-hypnotic 
suggestion ;  he  was  unconscious  of  the  constraint  put  upon 
him,  and  tried  to  find  good  reasons  for  his  act.  Most  experi- 
menters have  observed  that  their  subjects  try  to  find  reasons 
for  having  carried  out  even  the  most  foolish  acts  suggested. 
This  mental  process  so  frequently  follows  the  execution  of  a 
post-hypnotic  suggestion  that  some  experimenters  have  come 
to  look  upon  it  as  the  rule — but  such  an  assumption  is  un- 
doubtedly erroneous. 

We  thus  see  that  when  subjects  are  questioned  as  to  their 
motive  they  make  different  answers ;  they  either  believe  that 
they  have  so  acted  of  their  own  accord,  and  invent  reasons 
for  their  proceedings,  or  they  say  they  felt  impelled  to  act  so ; 
or  they  only  say,  "It  came  into  my  head  to  do  it."  We  can 
use  suggestion  here  also.  When  the  original  suggestion  is 
being  made,  it  may,  at  the  same  time,  be  suggested  to  the 
subject  to  believe  that  he  has  acted  of  his  own  free-will  (Forel), 
or  to  believe  that  constraint  was  put  upon  him.  When  such 
a  suggestion  is  not  made,  it  depends  upon  the  subject^s  power 
of  self-observation  which  reason  he  gives — whether  he  perceives 
the  restraint,  or  invents  false  reasons  for  his  conduct.  Some- 
thing also  depends  upon  the  frequency  with  which  the  experi- 
ment is  made,  and  particularly  on  the  greater  or  lesser  absurdity 


174  HYPNOTISM. 

of  the  suggested  act.  This  endeavour  of  certain  subjects  to 
find  a  motive  for  their  apparently  free  acts  is  very  instructive, 
and  has,  as  we  shall  see,  a  certain  value  in  determining  our 
conception  of  free-will  from  a  psychological  and  philosophical 
point  of  view. 

Post-hypnotic  suggestions  are  of  especial  value  for  the 
induction  or  prevention  of  future  hypnosis.  In  this  way  an 
easily  hypnotizable  person  may  be  prevented  from  allowing 
himself  to  be  hypnotized  by  another  subject.  Post-hypnotic 
suggestion  is  an  excellent  means  for  protecting  susceptible 
people  and  guarding  them  against  unexpected  hypnosis,  as 
Ricard  pointed  out  for  the  somnambulic  state.  Mr.  X.,  whom 
I  had  often  hypnotized,  had  also  often  been  hypnotized  by 
Mr.  A.  I  suggested  to  X.  that  he  should  in  future  only  allow 
himself  to  be  hypnotized  by  doctors,  but  on  no  account  by  Mr. 
A.  After  this  Mr.  A.  could  no  longer  hypnotize  him.  How- 
ever, I  do  not  believe  that  this  is  a  perfect  protection  in  all 
cases.  But  the  chief  danger,  which  does  not  arise  from  sus- 
ceptibility to  hypnotism,  but  from  susceptibility  to  hypnotism 
against  the  subject's  will,  is  thereby  guarded  against.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  to  throw  a  subject  into  an  unex- 
pected hypnosis  by  means  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  I  say 
to  a  subject,  "Directly  I  say  the  word  *to-day'  you  will  fall  into 
a  fresh  hypnosis."  I  then  wake  him,  and  he  remains  awake 
until  I  say  **to-day";  upon  which  he  is  instantly  thrown  into  a 
fresh  hypnosis. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  for  what  length  of  time  the  carrying 
out  of  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion  may  be  successfully  deferred, 
since  this  depends  on  the  subject's  character  and  the  method 
employed.  The  longest  post-hypnotic  suggestion  I  have  seen 
was  executed  at  the  end  of  four  months;  no  hint  had  been 
given  to  the  subject  in  the  meantime.  The  longest  which  has 
ever  been  described,  as  far  as  I  know,  was  in  a  subject  under 
Liegeois  and  Liebeault;  in  this  case  exactly  a  year  elapsed  be- 
fore the  suggestion  was  carried  out.  The  case  of  the 
photograph,  mentioned  on  page  i6i,  in  which  the  photograph 
remained  visible  for  two  years  is  rather  different,  as  it  appears 
that  the  suggestion  was  often  recalled  to  the  subject's  memory. 
The  case  mentioned  by  Dal  Pozzo  is,  perhaps,  of  the  same 
kind:  a  person  who  was  afraid  of  thunderstorms  was  cured  of 
the  fear  by  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  The  effect  is  said  to 
have  lasted  twenty-six  years  (Belfiore). 


POST-HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTION.  175 

I  have  hitherto  only  discussed  those  post-hypnotic  sug- 
gestions in  which  there  is  loss  of  memory  after  waking  from 
hypnosis.  This  loss  of  memory  greatly  favours  the  carrying 
out  of  the  suggestion ;  but  it  is  not  a  necessary  condition,  for 
post-hypnotic  suggestions  are  often  executed  in  spite  of  the 
memory  remaining  intact.  These  cases  are  highly  interesting, 
because  the  compulsion  can  be  better  observed  in  them.  The 
subject  knows  that  his  action  was  the  result  of  a  hypnotic 
suggestion  from  which  he  could  not  escape.  Sometimes 
suggestion  only  succeeds  with  difficulty  and  after  a  long 
struggle,  in  consequence  of  the  subject's  resistance  and  control 
of  his  consciousness. 

One  of  my  colleagues,  a  doctor,  was  in  the  post-hypnotic  state ;  I 
suggested  abnormal  movements  to  him  with  success;  sense-delusions 
did  not  succeed.  I  told  him  that  after  he  woke  he  would  be  unable  to 
say  his  name  whenever  I  laid  my  hand  on  his  forehead,  and  further  that 
instead  of  his  own  name  he  should  always  say  mine.  When  he  woke 
from  the  hypnosis,  whenever  I  put  my  hand  on  his  forehead  he  said  his 
name  was  Moll ;  he  knew  his  right  name  also,  but  was  unable  to  say  it. 
He  remembered  my  order  about  it,  and  did  not  believe  in  any  super- 
natural force;  he  knew  that  the  effect  was  mental,  but  could  not  help 
himself. 

It  is  the  same  thing  with  sense-delusions,  they  can  also  be 
produced  post-hypnotically,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
suggestion  is  remembered.  It  is  true  that  the  effect  of  the 
sense-delusion  in  such  cases  is  often  not  to  be  seen,  because, 
as  the  order  is  remembered,  reasoning  is  possible,  and  thus 
the  suggestion  is  negatived.  Nevertheless,  sense-delusions 
with  remembrance  of  the  suggestion  are  rarer,  because  loss 
of  memory  more  frequently  follows  hypnosis  with  sense- 
delusions,  even  though  the  loss  of  memory  can  always  be 
prevented  by  post-hypnotic  suggestion. 


CHAPTER   V. 

COGNATE    STATES. 

We  can  often  advance  the  study  of  a  state  which  has  hitherto 
been  little  known  and  examined,  by  comparing  it  with  other 
states  with  whose  symptoms  we  are  better  acquainted.  We  will, 
therefore,  try  to  find  points  of  correspondence  with  hypnosis. 
The  very  name  shows  that  there  is  a  resemblance  between 
sleep  (hypnos)  and  hypnosis,  and  some  investigators  (Liebeault, 
Bernheim,  Brullard,  Forel,  Vires),  consider  hypnosis  an 
ordinary  sleep.  They  think  that  a  person  who  falls  asleep 
spontaneously  is  in  rapport  with  himself,  while  a  hypnotized 
subject  is  in  rapport  with  the  person  who  hypnotized  him ;  in 
their  view  this  is  the  chief  difference  between  sleep  and 
hypnosis.  I  believe,  however,  that  we  cannot  so  easily  agree 
to  such  an  identification  of  the  states ;  we  must  begin  by 
distinguishing  the  light  and  deep  hypnoses. 

We  see  that  in  light  hypnosis  there  is  merely  an  inhibition 
of  voluntary  movement ;  consciousness  and  self-consciousness 
are  unaffected,  and  what  happens  during  hypnosis  is  usually 
remembered.  Now,  in  sleep  there  is  always  a  great  decrease  of 
self-consciousness.  But  it  is  just  this  self-consciousness  which 
remains  intact  in  light  hypnosis ;  and  in  this  state  the  subject 
is  perfectly  aware  of  all  that  goes  on,  and,  as  a  rule,  forgets 
nothing  on  waking.  Consequently,  I  do  not  think  we  can 
make  a  close  connection  between  sleep  and  superficial  hypnosis; 
nor  do  I  think  it  possible  to  make  a  fruitful  comparison 
between  these  light  hypnoses  and  the  states  of  drowsiness  and 
fatigue  which  precede  sleep.  In  any  case,  a  feeling  of  fatigue 
is  not  uncommon  in  these  hypnotic  states.  But  this  is  not 
always  the  case,  and  we  have  seen  that  the  loss  of  voluntary 
movement,  or  its  subjection  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  the 
influence  of  the  experimenter,  is  one  of  the  chief  phenomena 
in  hypnosis.  There  is  hardly  a  hint  of  this  in  the  drowsy 
state;  certainly  there  is  a  general  heaviness  in  the  limbs,  but  it 

176 


COGNATE  STATES.  1 77 

is  not  of  a  nature  to  inhibit  every  voluntary  movement ;  and 
the  loss  of  voluntary  movement  in  sleep  is  not  subject  to  the 
influence  of  the  experimenter  as  it  is  in  hypnosis.  Further, 
these  light  hypnotic  states  are  distinguished  from  the  earlier 
stages  of  sleep  by  the  decreased  activity  of  consciousness  in 
these  latter.  The  current  of  ideas,  of  images  of  memory,  is 
less  under  the  control  of  the  will;  sense-impressions  do  not 
develop  into  conscious  ideas  in  the  usual  way;  much  that 
generally  excites  our  interest  and  attention  is  unnoticed  and 
overlooked,  while  there  is  often  reverie  independent  of  will. 
But  almost  all  this  is  entirely  absent  in  the  light  hypnotic 
states,  in  which  only  the  voluntary  movements  suffer  change. 

I  cannot  bring  myself  to  consider  a  subject  merely  "asleep" 
so  long  as  his  consciousness  and  self-consciousness  remain 
intact.  There  are,  certainly,  many  investigators  of  a  different 
opinion.  Vogt,  for  example,  even  goes  so  far  as  to  call 
anaesthesia  induced  by  suggestion  a  state  of  partial  sleep. 
According  to  him,  all  sleep  depends  upon  some  form  of 
inhibition,  which  may  set  in  and  disappear  with  equal  sudden- 
ness, may  be  lessened  or  terminated  by  a  peripheral  stimulus, 
but  never  attains  the  intensity  of  a  real  outbreak  such  as  we 
meet  with  in  cerebral  disease.  The  anaesthesia  induced  by 
suggestion  often  presents  these  characteristics,  and  Vogt,  there- 
fore, calls  it  a  state  of  partial  sleep.  SoUier  holds  similar 
views  on  the  phenomena  of  hysteria.  In  his  opinion,  every 
hysterical  person  is  more  or  less  a  somnambulist.  For 
example,  the  somnambulic  state  in  such  cases  is  the  result  of 
anaesthesia,  and  Sollier  calls  the  termination  of  the  anaesthesia 
waking.  According  to  him  different  regions  of  the  brain 
participate  in  the  production  of  sleep.  But,  as  I  have  already 
mentioned,  I  do  not  think  we  are  justified  in  associating  such 
conditions  with  sleep,  although  in  common  parlance  we  speak 
of  a  limb  being  asleep.  Sollier's  views,  which  are  also  held  by 
some  other  investigators,  may  be  accounted  for  to  a  certain 
extent  by  the  fact  that  he  and  his  adherents  attribute  all 
functional  activity  to  definite  cerebral  processes.  The  holders 
of  such  views  are  consequently  inclined  to  speak  of  partial 
sleep  when  certain  portions  of  the  body  cease  to  functionate. 
But,  from  a  psychological  point  of  view,  we  must  not  speak  of 
sleep  unless  there  is  some  essential  disturbance  both  of 
consciousness  and  self-consciousness. 

The  case  of  deep  hypnosis  is   essentially  different.     It  is 

12 


178  HYPNOTISM. 

characterized  by  sense-delusions  which  are  just  the  same  thing 
as  our  nightly  dreams.  In  order  to  carry  out  the  comparison, 
it  will  perhaps  be  well  to  consider  the  mode  of  origin  of  dreams 
in  ordinary  sleep.  Dreams  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
according  to  the  manner  of  their  origin  (Spitta):  (i)  dreams 
induced  by  nerve-stimulation,  and  (2)  dreams  induced  by 
association  of  ideas.  The  first — by  far  the  most  numerous — 
are  induced  by  a  peripheral  stimulus  of  the  nerves,  affecting 
the  brain.  Here  the  stimulus  is  certainly  felt ;  or  a  memory- 
image  arises  as  well,  and  a  perception  results.  This  perception 
does  not,  however,  correspond  to  the  actual  stimulus.  What 
memory-image  will  be  aroused,  and  what  dream  will  result, 
depends  upon  many  factors  which  for  the  most  part  escape  our 
observation.  Consequently,  the  memory-picture  aroused  by  a 
stimulus  attaches  itself  in  a  number  of  cases,  but  not  invariably, 
to  a  previously  existing  dream.  **When  an  orator  dreams  he 
is  making  a  speech,  he  takes  every  noise  for  the  applause  of 
his  imaginary  hearers."  Dreams  which  are  called  up  by  nerve 
stimulation  often  occur  accidentally.  Spitta  relates  that  he 
once  dreamed  he  was  a  gymnast.  In  the  dream  he  was  thrown 
to  the  ground,  bound,  and  boiling  water  poured  on  his  left 
foot.  The  irritation  thus  produced  was  so  unbearable  that  he 
awoke.  His  explanation  is  that  he  was  very  tired  that  night 
and  forgot  to  take  off  his  left  sock,  and  the  weather  being  very 
warm,  the  irritation  set  up  by  the  sock  caused  the  dream  which 
frightened  him.  That  dreams  can  be  artifically  called  up  by 
nerve-stimulation  has  been  demonstrated  by  Gregory,  MacNish, 
Maury,  Leixner  and  many  others.  If  a  sleeping  man  is 
sprinkled  with  water  he  will  dream  of  a  shower  of  rain.  Maury 
states  that  when  Eau  de  Cologne  was  held  to  his  nose  he 
dreamed  he  was  in  Farina's  shop  at  Cairo.  Mourly  Void  put 
the  limbs  of  certain  of  his  patients  in  a  fixed  posture  before 
they  fell  asleep,  by  bandaging  their  hands  and  feet  together, 
and  was  thereby  enabled  to  demonstrate  that  an  enforced 
position  influences  the  nature  of  the  dream.  This  is  in  accord 
with  an  observation  previously  made  by  Child,  that  dream- 
activity  is  influenced  by  artificial  changes  in  the  muscular 
sense.  1  have  taken  these  statements  from  the  writings  of 
Sante  de  Sanctis,  who  made  many  investigations  into  the 
question  of  artificially  induced  dreams.  In  some  of  his 
experiments,  Sante  de  Sanctis  placed  a  musical  clock  under  the 
pillow  of  his  sleeping  subjects — the  latter  his  son,  a  girl,  and 


COGNATE   STATES.  1 79 

an  imbecile.  Pleasant  dreams  resulted,  and  the  subjects  smiled 
in  their  sleep.  A  melancholy  air  caused  the  imbecile  to  ask 
on  waking  what  had  been  done  to  him ;  and,  on  one 
occasion,  the  girl  dreamed  the  clock  was  playing  martial  music. 
Delicious  perfumes  (violets,  heliotrope,)  gave  the  experimenter's 
son  pleasant  dreams.  According  to  Sante  de  Sanctis,  dreams 
can  undoubtedly  be  influenced  in  the  manner  indicated, 
although  a  particular  stimulus  does  not  invariably  produce  the 
same  results  when  repeatedly  applied  to  the  same  subject,  or 
similar  results  when  a  different  subject  is  chosen. 

The  second  kind  of  dreams  are  dreams  from  association  of 
ideas;  they  are  supposed  to  follow  on  a  primary  central  act. 
The  memory-image  is  supposed  to  be  caused  by  some  primary 
central  activity,  and  not  by  a  peripheral  stimulus.  We  may 
certainly  place  by  the  side  of  dreams  from  association  of  ideas 
the  forms  of  auto-suggestion  which  I  have  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  foregoing  sections,  and  which  I  have  thoroughly 
discussed  on  page  154,  and  such  a  comparison  is  especially 
permissible  in  the  case  of  those  auto-suggestions  by  which 
Hirschlaff  considers  abnormal  hypnosis  specially  characterized. 

Between  these  two  classes  of  dreams  there  is  another,  which 
I  may  call  suggested  dreams.  In  these  no  stimulus  is 
applied  to  the  nerves  of  the  subject  which  he  may  work  out  at 
his  fancy;  but  a  dream  is  suggested  to  him  verbally.  An 
acquaintance  of  mine  told  his  daughter  that  she  saw  rooks, 
upon  which  she  dreamed  of  them  and  related  her  dream  on 
waking.  On  other  occasions  the  attempt  failed.  This  was 
already  known  to  the  old  mesmerists,  and  their  knowledge 
must  be  in  nowise  underrated  Kluge  gave  an  account  of 
such  observations  : — **  Thus  mention  is  made  in  many  places 
of  an  English  officer  who  could  be  made  to  dream  anything 
wished,  by  softly  whispering  to  him.  On  one  occasion,  he  was 
made  to  dream  of  all  the  phases  of  a  duel,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  quarrel  to  the  firing  of  the  pistols  which  had  been  put 
in  his  hands  for  the  purpose.  The  report  of  their  discharge 
woke  him."  Sante  de  Sanctis  made  several  experiments  on 
his  nine-year-old  son  when  asleep,  by  whispering  certain  words 
in  his  ear.  On  three  distinct  occasions  the  word  "pale"  was 
used  and  the  child  woke  up  a  minute  after.  In  two  of 
the  three  cases  there  was  nothing  in  the  dream  which  could  be 
attributed  to  the  word  employed,  with  certainty.  Once,  how- 
ever, the  child  woke  up  frightened,  and  when  asked  what  he 


l8o  HYPNOTISM. 

had  dreamed,  replied  that  he  had  had  a  horrid  dream.  *'Papa, 
I  thought  you  were  scolding  me,  and  I  trembled  with  fright, 
because  you  were  quite  pale  with  anger."  On  three  other 
occasions,  Sante  de  Sanctis  whispered  the  word  "task"  into 
the  boy's  ear.  Again,  there  was  no  result  in  two  of  the  cases ; 
but  in  the  third,  the  boy  dreamed  that  it  was  time  for  him  to 
go  to  school  and  that  he  had  not  finished  the  very  long  task 
that  had  been  set  him  the  previous  day.  It  is  also  com- 
paratively speaking  easy  to  call  up  dreams  artificially  in  the 
case  of  persons  who  habitually  talk  in  their  sleep;  here,  we 
must  take  it,  that  the  waking  person  insinuates  himself,  so  to 
speak,  into  the  sleeper's  chain  of  thoughts,  which  he  is  then 
able  to  influence  in  their  course.  This  often  succeeds,  as  we 
shall  see  later  on.  It  appears  that  as  far  as  ordinary  sleep  is 
concerned,  certain  stages  are  more  fitted  for  suggested  dreams 
than  others.  The  transitional  stage  between  waking  and  deep 
sleep,  which  the  French  call  the  hypnagogic  state,  is  particularly 
noteworthy  in  this  respect.  Havelock  Ellis,  Manaceine  and 
others  have  called  attention  to  the  suggestibility  of  subjects  in 
this  state,  and  Delboeuf  ascribes  to  it  a  role  of  particular 
importance  in  the  causation  of  nervous  and  mental  diseases. 
He  supposes  that  such  maladies  are  of  auto-suggestive  origin, 
and  that  they  develop  themselves  like  post-hypnotic  sugges- 
tions. 

As  regards  the  mode  of  origin,  these  suggested  dreams  are 
identical  with  the  suggested  sense-delusions  of  hypnosis. 

But  the  mode  of  origin  of  other  dreams  in  sleep  occurs  in 
hypnosis  also.  I  have  already  spoken  of  dreams  from  associa- 
tion of  ideas,  which  are  analogous  to  the  auto-suggestions  of  a 
hypnotic  subject.  This  is  particularly  clear  when  we  compare 
the  hallucinations  induced  by  nerve-stimulation  on  p.  152 
with  them ;  these  hallucinations  are  identical  as  to  mode  of 
origin  with  dreams  induced  by  nerve  stimulation  in  ordinary 
sleep.  I  hypnotize  X.,  and  repeatedly  blow  with  the  bellows 
close  to  him,  without  speaking  to  him.  The  blowing  causes  a 
central  excitation,  and  X.  believes  he  hears  a  steam  engine. 
He  dreams  he  sees  a  train,  and  believes  he  is  on  the  platform 
at  the  railway  station  at  Schöneberg.  This  is  exactly  the  same 
thing  as  a  dream  produced  by  nerve-stimulation,  in  which  the 
falling  of  a  chair  makes  the  dreamer  think  he  hears  a  shot 
fired,  and  dreams  he  is  in  battle.  Besides,  in  hypnosis  as  well 
as  in  sleep,  such  stimuli  are,  as  a  rule,  enormously  overestimated^ 


COGNATE  STATES.  l8l 

as  Tissid  points  out ;  a  slight  noise  is  taken  for  the  report  of  a 
gun,  and  a  gentle  touch  with  the  hand  for  the  bite  of  a  dog. 
I  drum  on  the  table  without  speaking ;  the  subject  hears  and 
dreams  of  military  music,  thinks  that  he  is  in  the  street,  and 
sees  soldiers,  etc.,  etc.  Tissie  mentions  that  in  sleep  visual 
impressions  seldom  lead  to  dreams,  since  we  usually  sleep  in 
the  dark  and  with  our  eyes  closed.  We  can,  however,  produce 
dreams  in  ordinary  sleep  with  the  help  of  any  source  of  light. 
It  is  interesting  to  find,  nevertheless,  that  many  investigations 
on  sleep  show  that  the  nervous  stimulation  comes  preferably 
through  the  ear,  as  in  hypnosis  (Mary  Whiton  Calkins). 

One  thing  is  clear  from  the  comparisons  I  have  made :  it  is 
a  mistake  to  think  as  many  do,  that  all  intercourse  with  the 
outside  world  is  cut  off  in  sleep.  Indeed,  the  opinion  that  by 
far  the  greater  number  of  dreams  are  induced  by  sense-stimuli 
has  its  adherents  (Wundt,  Weygandt).  This  receptivity  to 
stimuli  which  reach  the  brain,  unregulated  by  the  consciousness 
and  mistakenly  interpreted,  is  a  phenomenon  of  both  sleep 
and  hypnosis.  Further,  it  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said 
that  the  method  employed  to  make  external  suggestion  in 
hypnosis  often  suffices  to  induce  dreams  in  sleep.  At  the 
most,  there  is  only  a  quantitative  difference,  since  most  sense- 
delusions  are  directly  suggested  in  hypnosis,  while  in  sleep 
dreams  are  caused  by  some  peripheral  stimulus  which  under- 
goes a  special  elaboration  in  the  brain  of  the  sleeper.  A 
qualitative  distinction  is  not  here  possible,  although  Sully 
separates  sleep  and  hypnosis  on  the  ground  that  dreams  arise 
in  the  former  differently  from  hallucinations  in  the  latter. 

Consequently,  the  purport  of  dreams,  as  well  as  the  way  they 
originate,  is  alike  in  sleep  and  hypnosis.  But,  as  in  sleep  we 
believe  ourselves  in  another  situation,  and  encounter  all  sorts 
of  sense-delusions,  so  is  it  in  hypnosis.  And  as  a  subject  in 
hypnoses  can  be  replaced  in  earlier  periods  of  his  life,  so  in 
dreams  also.  Many  habitually  dream  that  they  are  again 
undergoing  the  final  examination  at  college  many  years  after. 
Complete  changes  of  personality  also  take  place  in  dreams. 
An  officer  who  greatly  admired  Hannibal,  told  me  that  he 
had  dreamed  he  was  Hannibal  and  had  fought  an  imaginary 
battle  in  that  character.  Another  man  was  even  less  modest; 
he  once  dreamed  he  was  God  and  was  ruling  the  world. 

We  cannot  decide  whether  there  is  more  dreaming  in 
hypnosis   than   in   sleep,   because   we   can  never  know  with 


1 82  HYPNOTISM. 

« 

certainty  how  many  dreams  happen  in  sleep.  While  some  say 
that  dreams  only  occur  during  a  short  period  of  sleep,  others, 
like  Kant,  Forel,  Exner,  and  Simonin,  go  so  far  as  to  deny 
that  there  is  any  sleep  without  dreaming;  they  say  that 
dreaming  is  continuous,  but  that  most  dreams  are  forgotten. 
Jouffroy,  also,  considers  that  we  invariably  dream  when  asleep. 
Bigelow  does  not  think  that  dreaming  has  been  proved  to  be 
continuous,  but  he  is  convinced  that  the  mental  activity  is  as 
unbroken  in  sleep  as  it  is  in  the  waking  state.  Vaschide,  with 
whom  Näcke  agrees,  likewise  thinks  that  sleep  without  dream- 
ing hardly  ever  occurs. 

In  spite  of  all  this,  we  can  find  a  difference  between  the 
phenomena  of  deep  hypnosis  and  of  sleep  in  several  points — 
(i)  in  the  apparently  logical  connection  ^between  the  suggested 
idea  and  th«  hypnotic  subject's  own  thoughts;  (2)  in  the 
movements  of  the  subject,  and  particularly  in  his  speech,  since 
there  may  be  a  conversation  between  the  experimenter  and  his 
subject. 

With  regard  to  the  first  point,  we  have  seen  (p.  133  et  seq.) 
that  a  series  of  ideas  sometimes  links  itself  logically  to 
another  particular  idea.  Consequently,  the  difference  between 
hypnosis  and  sleep  is  not  a  fundamental  one.  Even  if  this 
linking  is,  on  the  whole,  merely  mechanical  and  the  result  of 
habitual  association  of  ideas,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
power  of  discrimination  is  not  entirely  in  abeyance  in  hypnosis, 
but  can,  as  we  have  seen,  display  a  certain  amount  of  activity. 
Still,  the  whole  connection  can  be  broken  at  any  moment  by 
suggestion,  as  I  have  shown;  in  the  same  way  the  whole 
current  of  ideas  may  change  at  any  moment.  It  appears,  at 
once  from  this,  that  the  independence  of  a  hypnotic  subject  is 
very  limited.  The  logical  connection  mentioned  above  lasts 
only  as  long  as  the  experimenter  permits.  In  the  dreams  of 
the  night,  which  Radestock  refers  entirely  to  the  pause  in 
logical  thought,  there  is  not  usually  such  a  logical  connection, 
because  it  but  rarely  happens  that  they  centre  in  a  definite  idea 
as  in  hypnotic  suggestion.  In  hypnosis  the  attention  of  the 
hypnotic  subject  is  directed  to  the  experimenter;  the  ideas 
given  by  the  latter  are  accepted,  and  retain  a  certain  amount 
of  supremacy.  In  sleep  the  most  diverse  sensations  are 
conducted  to  the  brain;  as  the  sleeper's  attention  is  not 
usually  directed  to  a  special  point,  it  is  much  less  easy  for  a 
definite  idea  to  gain  supremacy.      Giessler   points  out   how 


COGNATE   STATES.  1 83 

easily  a  dreamer's  personality  can  be  changed.  When  a 
change  of  character  in  hypnosis  is  brought  about  by  suggestion, 
the  subject  does  his  utmost  to  play  the  part  suggested;  on  the 
other  hand,  as  Giessler  again  points  out,  a  person  who  is 
merely  dreaming  immediately  transfers  the  experiences, 
characteristics,  titles,  functions,  and  occupations  of  others  to 
his  own  dream  ego,  and  without  effort.  I  will  not  go  into 
details  of  examples.  It  is  known  that  Voltaire  wrote  poetry  in 
sleep,  that  mathematicians  sometimes  solve  problems  when 
asleep,  and  that  the  celebrated  physiologist,  Burdach,  worked 
out  many  scientific  ideas  in  sleep.  It  is  said  of  Agassiz  that 
he  solved  the  problem  of  fossil  fish  which  he  was  engaged 
upon,  in  a  night-dream  (Bigelow).  Hack  Tuke  reports  that 
the  utterances  of  a  person  who  is  dreaming  that  he  is  disputing 
with  some  one  are  not  invariably  illogical;  and  he  relates  that 
one  night,  after  having  taken  part  in  a  lively  discussion  on 
spiritualism,  he  had  a  dream  in  which  he  worked  out  a  series 
of  experiments  with  considerable  acumen. 

I  mentioned  the  movements  in  hypnosis  as  a  further  con- 
trast between  this  state  and  sleep ;  but  this  assuredly  forms 
no  qualitative  distinction,  since  it  is  known  that  people  move 
in  sleep.  The  activity  of  the  muscles  in  sleep  is  often  an 
automatic  continuation  of  movements  begun  awake.  This 
happens,  e.g.,  with  people  who  fall  asleep  in  making  one 
particular  movement;  they  continue  the-  movement  in  sleep. 
For  example,  coachmen  will  go  on  driving,  and  riders  will  hold 
the  bridle  without  falling  off.  Birds  fall  asleep  standing,  and 
aquatic  birds  go  through  the  motions  of  swimming  slowly  with 
one  foot  when  asleep,  which  shows  that  a  group  of  voluntary 
muscles  can  be  in  a  constant  state  of  activity.  In  all  these 
cases  the  muscular  action  is  very  like  the  contractions  and 
continuous  movements  described  on  p.  77.  Moreover, 
Henle  has  pointed  out  in  his  Lectures  on  Anthropology  that 
muscular  action  is  almost  invariably  present  in  sleep.  Physio- 
logists term  this  activity  tonus;  it  enables  a  sleeper  to  assume 
and  maintain  a  position  which  could  not  be  controlled  without 
muscular  action.  Slipping  down  in  bed  is  a  symptom  of 
extreme  exhaustion  in  typhoid  fever. 

Besides  this,  external  stimuli  may  cause  movements  during 
sleep.  It  must  not  be  assumed  that  they  happen  apart  from 
mental  activity.  If  part  of  a  sleeper's  body  is  uncovered,  he 
will  draw  the  cover  over  it;  if  h^  is  tickled,  he  will  scratch  the 


1 84  HYPNOTISM. 

place.  Even  if  these  are  regarded  as  physical  reflexes  without 
any  accompanying  mental  action,  which  is  not  proved,  the 
case  is  essentially  different  from  the  movements  which  children 
make  in  sleep,  at  command.  If  a  child  is  told  to  turn  over,  it 
will  do  so  without  waking.  This  is  an  act  which,  as  Ewald 
remarks,  may  be  fairly  compared  with  the  phenomena  of 
hypnosis,  in  which  movements  of  the  same  kind,  if  greater  in 
extent,  are  made  at  command. 

Such  movements  are  much  more  frequently  caused  by 
dreams.  It  is  well  known  that  children  often  laugh  in  pleasant 
dreams.  A  lady  I  know  dreamed  that  she  was  blowing  out  a 
lamp;  she  made  the  corresponding  movements  with  her  mouth. 
She  was  awakened,  and  related  the  dream  which  had  no  doubt 
caused  the  movements  of  the  mouth.  Every  one  knows  that 
children  in  especial  often  scream  when  they  are  dreaming  of 
something  exciting. 

These  movements  are  much  more  evident  in  the  case  of  the 
persons  we  call  somnambulists,  sleep-walkers,  night-walkers, 
with  whom  they  are  characteristic.  The  resemblance  between 
hypnosis  and  somnambulism  is  so  great  that  the  name  somnam- 
bulism^ is  used  for  both  (Riebet).  Hypnotism  is  called  artificial 
somnambulia,  or,  better,  spontaneous  somnambulia,  since 
artificial  somnambulia  is  really  as  natural  as  the  other,  as 
Poincelot  insists.  As  a  rule,  somnambulia  is  divided  into 
three  stages  according  to  the  extent  of  the  movements  ex- 
hibited:— (i)  that  in  which  the  sleeper  speaks;  (2)  that  in 
which  he  makes  all  sorts  of  movements,  but  does  not  leave 
his  bed;  (3)  that  in  which  he  gets  up,  walks  about,  and 
performs  the  most  complicated  actions.  In  my  experience  the 
first  two  stages  are  found  in  persons  of  sanguine  temperament 
who  are  certainly  not  in  a  pathological  condition.  It  is 
not  yet  finally  decided  whether  the  third  state  appears  under 
pathological  conditions  only,  as  many  still  assume.  From  my 
own  experience  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  occasionally 
observed  when  there  is  no  constitutional  weakness,  especially 
in  children.     If  we  want  to  show  these  states,  we  can  invariably 

*  Bentivegni  and  Wiindt  have  very  properly  termed  the  condition  somnam- 
bulia instead  of  somnambulism,  and  other  authors,  Hirschlaff,  for  example, 
have  recently  accepted  the  change.  The  termination  "ismus"  when  applied 
to  other  foreign  words  signifies  an  occupation,  science,  or  the  like,  and  not 
a  state  or  condition.  In  the  following  pages  I  shall  adhere  to  the 
terminology  employed  by  the  authors  I  have  nientioned. 


COGNATE  STATES.  1 85 

do  it  with  the  healthiest  subjects.  As  regards  the  movements 
in  sleep,  my  own  experience  is  that  the  persons  who  are  most 
restless  in  natural  sleep,  who  talk,  or  throw  themselves  about, 
are  the  most  inclined  to  lively  movements  in  hypnosis.  In 
any  case,  the  movements  are  also  displayed  in  sleep.  Conse- 
quently, the  movements  of  subjects  in  hypnosis  do  not  offer  a 
fundamental  contrast  to  sleep,  especially  when  they  are  caused 
by  suggested  delusions  of  sense. 

Spontaneous  somnambulia  is  obviously  very  near  akin  to 
deep  hypnosis,  even  if  we  maintain  that  the  non-occurrence  in 
hypnosis  of  those  wild  and  illogical  flights  of  fancy  which 
occur  in  dreams  constitutes  a  difference  between  the  dreams  of 
sleep  and  hypnotic  suggestions,  and  it  is  exactly  in  spontaneous 
somnambulia  that  we  find  something  analogous  to  hypnosis. 
It  is  evident,  if  we  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  contents  of 
a  somnambulist's  dreams  from  his  movements,  that  wild 
flights  of  thought  may  be  absent  in  dreams;  for  surely  we 
know  that  a  subject  of  spontaneous  somnambulia  often  com-, 
mences  an  action  which  is  quite  logical,  and  carries  it  out  in 
his  sleep. 

The  fact  that  a  subject  in  hypnosis  can  carry  on  a  conversa- 
tion is  not  enough  to  mark  off  hypnosis  from  sleep,  as  Wernich 
erroneously  supposes,  for  many  persons  answer  questions  and 
obey  in  sleep  (Lotze,  Berillon).  According  to  my  experience 
and  that  of  others,  certain  persons  easily  answer  in  sleep  when 
some  one  they  know  well  speaks  to  them.  A  child  will  speak 
to  its  mother,  and  bedfellows  to  one  another.  A  conversation 
is  easily  carried  on  when  the  waking  person  follows  the  sleeper's 
chain  of  thought  and  insinuates  himself,  so  to  speak,  into  his 
consciousness  (Brandis).  A  lady  I  know,  A.,  dreamed  aloud 
of  a  person  B.  When  Mrs.  A.'s  husband  talked  to  her  as  if  he 
were  B.,  he  was  answered,  but  when  he  spoke  in  his  own  person 
he  was  ignored. 

Finally,  there  are  many  persons  who  can  hardly  be  induced 
to  move  in  hypnosis,  though  they  can  be  made  to  dream 
anything.  Here  the  resemblance  of  sleep  to  hypnosis  is 
particularly  striking. 

I  hope  that  what  has  been  said  makes  it  clear  that  deep 
hypnosis  need  by  no  means  be  sharply  distinguished  from 
sleep. 

As  regards  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  which  is  a  very  im- 
portant phenomenon  of  hypnosis,  we  find  that  sleep  presents 


1 86  HYPNOTISM. 

not  only  many  points  of  resemblance  but  even  apparently 
identical  phenomena  (Liebeault,  Exner,  Sante  de  Sanctis). 
Of  course  the  effect  of  night-dreams  upon  the  organism  is  not 
so  easy  to  observe  as  the  effect  of  suggestion,  as  most  dreams 
are  forgotten.  Still  there  are  exceptions.  People  who  dream 
of  a  shot,  and  wake  in  consequence,  continue  to  hear  the 
reverberation  clearly  after  they  wake  (Max  Simon).  Others 
after  waking  feel  a  pain  of  which  they  have  been  dreaming 
(Charpignon).  Aristotle  maintained  long  ago  that  many  of 
our  actions  have  their  origin  in  dreams.  To  this  class  belongs 
a  case  reported  by  Sauvet  and  Moreau  de  Tours  in  1844,  in 
which  a  man  in  ordinary  sleep  had  visions  which  gradually 
influenced  him  in  waking,  and  induced  him  to  abandon  his 
home.  Tonnini  mentions  a  rather  inconclusive  case  of  a 
woman  who  was  induced  by  a  dream  to  do  something.  Of 
course,  such  phenomena  are  very  difficult  to  observe,  but  it  is 
very  probable  that  dreams  have  an  after-effect  on  even 
thoroughly  healthy  people.  I  will  merely  mention  certain 
phenomena  which  resemble  these  —  the  dreams  that  are 
continued  into  waking  life,  which  may  be  compared  to  con- 
tinuative  post-hypnotic  suggestions.  There  are  well-known 
vivid  dream-images  which  are  not  recognized  as  dreams,  and 
which  are  taken  for  reality  even  after  waking  (Brierre  de 
Boismont).  It  is  certain  that  even  the  most  enlightened 
persons  are  influenced  by  dreams.  Many  are  out  of  humour 
after  having  been  annoyed  by  unpleasant  dreams.  The  ex- 
periments lately  made  by  Heerwagen  have  proved  that  persons 
who  have  dreamed  much  are  in  an  unpleasant  frame  of  mind 
the  next  day.  I  know  of  patients  who  are  much  worse  after 
dreaming  of  their  complaints;  a  stammerer  will  stammer  more 
after  dreaming  about  it.  It  is  probable  that  erotic  dreams 
belong  to  this  class,  because  even  when  they  terminate  with 
the  emission  of  semen,  they  stimulate,  rather  than  inhibit, 
sexual  desire.  We  find  analogies  with  post-hypnotic  suggestion 
everywhere.  There  are  well-known  cases  in  which  persons 
have  dreamed  of  taking  an  aperient  with  effect.  Perhaps  a 
case  mentioned  by  Ferre  may  also  be  referred  to  here.  A  girl 
dreamed  for  several  nights  that  men  were  running  after  her. 
She  grew  daily  more  exhausted,  and  the  weakness  in  her  legs 
increased  until  a  hysterical  paraplegia  of  both  legs  declared 
itself.  Näcke  insists  on  the  legal  significance  of  dreams. 
Hysterical  girls  have  often  declared  that  they  had  been  raped 


COGNATE  STATES.  1 87 

although  they  had  only  dreamed  it;  and  in  a  similar  way 
chronic  drunkards  have  been  led  to  accuse  themselves  or 
others  of  murder.  According  to  Näcke,  whenever  a  hysterical 
or  neurasthenical  or  otherwise  nervous  person,  or  more 
particularly  a  drunkard,  makes  a  definite  statement  we  must 
invariably  be  on  our  guard,  and  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  always 
the  possibility  of  a  night-dream  being  continued  in  waking  life. 
Näcke  adds  that  Schmitt  refers  the  acts  of  pyromaniacs  to 
their  dreams.  To  dream  of  fire  has  such  an  influence  on  them 
that  they  feel  compelled  to  set  fire  to  something  when  they  are 
awake.  Näcke,  however,  doubts  whether  this  view  is  justified. 
In  other  cases  the  connection  between  a  dream  and  the 
subsequent  phenomena  of  waking  life  is  different,  and  the 
phenomena  could  only  be  erroneously  attributed  to  the  dream. 
We  shall  see  that  there  are  pathological  phenomena  which  are 
more  readily  perceived  in  dreams  than  in  the  waking  state.  I 
shall  return  to  this  point  later  on.  Occasionally,  there  is  a 
connection  between  the  phenomena  of  waking  life  and  dreams, 
but  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  phenomena  described  above. 
A  young  lady  tells  me  that  she  is  always  in  a  bad  temper  in  the 
morning  if  she  has  been  awakened  in  the  middle  of  a  pleasant 
dream.     The  interruption  makes  her  irritable. 

Post-hypnotic  suggestion  finds  a  special  analogy  in  those 
dreams  which  influence  the  first  appearance  of  mental  disease. 
Trenaunay  has  pointed  out  this  connection  in  his  work  Le  Eeve 
prolongL  Like  Klippel,  he  calls  attention  to  the  case  in  which 
the  dream  is  continued  in  waking  life  and  there  causes 
delirium  by  disturbing  the  normal  course  of  ideas.  Onirismus 
is  the  name  given  by  Regis  to  those  states  in  which  a  person 
is  the  victim  of  a  prolonged  dream.  When  onirism  occurs  at 
night  the  symptoms  are  disturbed  sleep,  nightmare,  delusions 
of  the  senses — especially  of  vision — excitement,  delirium.  As 
a  rule  these  phenomena  disappear  when  the  patient  wakes,  but 
in  severe  cases  of  onirism  they  continue  after  waking.  Long 
ago,  moreover,  alienists  were  struck  by  the  connection  between 
dreams  and  mental  disease.  Griesinger  relates  cases  of 
delirium  which  began  in  dream  and  did  not  show  itself  in  waking 
life  till  later  on;  and  in  acute  mania  it  has  been  observed 
(Esquirol)  that  the  patient  thinks  he  has  been  ordered  in  a  dream 
to  do  something  which  afterwards  he  actually  does.  Hohn- 
baum  reports  that  the  first  outbreak  of  mania  often  dates  from 
a  horrible  and  alarming  dream,  and  that  the  predominant  idea 


1 88  HYPNOTISM. 

is  connected  with  that  dream  (Freud).  Of  course,  it  is  ex- 
plicable that  in  many  such  cases  the  dream  was  but  a  symptom 
of  the  disease;  nevertheless,  Sante  de  Sanctis  has  in  recent 
times  directed  his  attention  chiefly  to  the  question  whether  the 
dream  might  not  be  the  cause  of  the  mental  disorder.  He 
points  out  that  Baillarger  has  observed  cases  of  delirium 
arising  from  hypnagogic  hallucinations,  and  that  statements  to 
the  same  effect  have  been  made  by  Brierre  de  Boismont, 
Maury,  Falret,  and  others.  The  Salpetriere  school,  also,  has 
adduced  many  facts  which  help  to  explain  the  connection 
between  dreams  and  the  delirium  of  an  attack  of  hysteria. 
Chaslin,  too,  cites  cases  from  his  own  experience  and  from  the 
literature  of  the  subject,  and  concludes  that  although  it  is  true 
that  every  case  of  delirium  does  not  originate  in  a  dream,  and 
is  not  necessarily  influenced  by  one,  yet  such  cases  occur  much 
more  frequently  than  we  think. 

As  the  result  of  his  own  experience  and  a  careful  study  of 
the  material  to  hand,  Sanctis  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
dreams  and  mental  disorder  are  very  closely  connected 
etiologically.  An  exciting  dream  may  so  perturb  the  mind 
of  a  predisposed  individual  that  he  will  appear  distracted 
for  a  time,  or  a  dream  may  set  up  a  case  of  melancholia  or  a 
phase  of  alternating  (circular)  insanity.  According  to  Guislain, 
a  maniacal  condition  may  have  its  inception  in  a  dream,  and 
an  insane  idea  or  visual  hallucination  be  developed  uncon- 
sciously from  dream-life  or  the  hypnagogic  period.  Something 
dreamed  may  be  held  to  be  an  experience  of  waking  life  and 
thus  become  the  origin  of  the  preponderating  idea  in  megalo- 
mania, persecutory  mania,  or  religious  mania.  It  seems  certain 
that  more  than  one  psychopathic  state  can  be  called  up  by 
dreams. 

In  discussing  the  manner  in  which  dreams  induce  mental 
disorders  Sanctis  distinguishes  two  cases.  In  the  first  a  dream 
may  act  like  a  mental  trauma.  Here  the  mental  disturbance 
which  ensues  is  to  be  counted  a  traumatic  neurosis  or  psychosis, 
or  a  state  of  exhaustion.  We  must  bear  in  mind  with  Fer^ 
that  even  if  the  dream-images  are  false,  the  dream-feelings  are 
true,  and  that  the  physical  changes  wrought  by  a  dream  are  so 
great  that  a  dreamer  may  be  very  powerfully  influenced  by 
them.  The  consequences  of  the  excitement  thus  produced 
may  easily  persist  in  the  subsequent  waking  state,  even  when 
the  feeling  itself  has  disappeared.      Toulouse,   consequently, 


COGNATE   STATES.  1 89 

likens  the  way  in  which  a  mental  disorder  follows  a  dream  to 
a  powerful  agitation.  Sometimes,  according  to  Sanctis,  it  is 
the  cerebral  exhaustion  caused  by  a  dream,  and  not  the 
excitement  during  the  dream,  which  is  the  etiological  moment 
in  producing  mental  disturbance  in  waking  life.  According  to 
Sanctis,  the  second  way  in  which  dreams  may  produce  mental 
disturbance  extends  over  a  much  greater  area.  These  are 
the  cases  in  which  the  waking  consciousness  takes  over  the 
*'dream-stuif."  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  morbid  state 
should  immediately  follow  the  dream;  there  may  be  an  interval 
of  greater  or  lesser  duration,  though  in  other  cases  dream-images 
may  be  continued  into  the  waking  state,  just  as  we  have  seen 
happen  in  continuative  post-hypnotic  suggestions.  Such  cases 
have  been  described  by  Tissie,  Manaceine,  Maury,  Brierre  de 
Boismont,  Baillarger,  and  others.  Cases  in  which  a  definite 
belief  is  acquired  during  a  dream  bear  even  a  greater  resem- 
blance to  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  Although  the  condition 
produced  is  as  a  rule  only  a  passing  one,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  "belief"  induced  takes  root  in  the  waking  state  and 
leads  to  acts  corresponding  to  its  nature. 

What  has  already  been  said  should  suffice  to  show  the  close 
connection  between  sleep  and  hypnosis,  a  subject  upon  which 
no  mean  light  is  thrown  by  the  close  resemblance  of  post- 
hypnotic suggestions  to  the  after-effects  of  many  a  dream. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  deep  hypnosis  and  ordinary  sleep 
are  closely  related,  and  especially  as  regards  dreams  stand  very 
close  to  one  another,  we  must  not  therefore  accept  the  identity 
of  sleep  and  hypnosis.  Dreams  are  only  one  symptom  of 
sleep;  we  cannot,  consequently,  regard  a  comparison  of 
dreams  and  suggested  hallucinations  as  sufficient  to  demon- 
strate identity.  I  believe  that  even  in  deep  hypnotic  states  we 
have  clear  grounds  for  concluding  that  the  condition  is  not 
identical  with  sleep;  for  in  order  to  assert  an  unconditional 
identification  we  must  take  into  consideration  not  only  the 
psychological  image,  but  also  the  physiological  symptoms. 
Now,  we  know  that  during  sleep  the  pulse,  the  respiration,  and 
other  bodily  functions  are  changed,  and  exhibit  a  greater 
regularity  and  prolongation.  If  we  do  not  find  this  in  deep 
hypnosis,  it  is  a  proof  that  the  physiological  condition  in 
hypnosis  is  not  identical  with  that  in  sleep.  Francke  finds, 
indeed,  that  pulse,  respiration,  and  skin  secretion  show  greater 
regularity,  but  his  observations  are  not  convincing,  since  he 


I90  HYPNOTISM. 

tells  us  nothing  more  definite  concerning  the  other  symptoms 
of  hypnosis  as  he  observed  it.  In  any  case,  however,  Francke 
saw  a  remarkable  resemblance  between  the  curves  of  sleep  and 
hypnosis.  I  have  only  seen  in  a  few  cases  of  hypnosis  the 
slowing  of  the  respiration  and  pulse  observed  in  sleep;  I 
believe  therefore  that  the  state  in  which  this  is  not  observed 
cannot,  on  the  grounds  already  mentioned,  be  identified  with 
sleep.  Certain  pathological  conditions  argue  an  even  wider 
separation  of  sleep  and  hypnosis.  The  spasm  of  chorea  and 
the  tremulous  movements  in  paralysis  agitans  cease  in  ordinary 
sleep.  I  have  hypnotized  patients  suffering  from  these  diseases 
without  causing  the  movements  or  tremors  to  cease.  Certainly 
other  observers  state  that  they  have  seen  the  spasm  of  chorea 
stop  in  hypnosis,  and  this  circumstance  is  utilized  as  a  proof  of 
the  identity  of  hypnosis  and  sleep ;  still,  that  is  not  sufficient. 
I  have  never  asserted  that  choreatic  twitches  can  never  be 
brought  to  a  standstill  in  hypnosis.  My  remark  refers  to 
typical  chorea  at  its  acme.  In  such  a  case  I  have  never  seen 
the  spasms  cease  in  hypnosis,  any  more  than  I  have  seen  the 
tremors  of  palsy  stop  in  the  numerous  cases  in  which  I  have 
attempted  to  bring  hypnotic  influence  into  play.  That  the 
spasm  of  chronic  chorea,  or  of  an  acute  attack  which  is 
subsiding,  can  be  influenced  in  hypnosis  is  beyond  all  manner 
of  doubt ;  but  the  same  result  is  often  obtainable  when  such 
patients  are  awake.  If,  however,  sleep  and  hypnosis  are  to  be 
considered  identical,  then  the  spasms  of  typical  chorea  which 
cease  in  ordinary  sleep  ought  invariably  to  stop  in  hypnosis 
also,  and  without  any  form  of  suggestion  being  employed.  Up 
to  the  present  I  have  never  seen  this  happen.  If  other  authors 
have  obtained  other  results,  any  objection  to  the  identity  of 
hypnosis  and  sleep  fails  as  far  as  these  cases  are  concerned, 
but  does  not  in  the  least  justify  us  in  assuming  a  general 
identification  of  sleep  and  hypnosis. 

From  various  sides  (Bernheim,  Delboeuf,  Max  Hirsch)  it 
has  been  asserted  that  the  hypnotic  subject  is  not  asleep,  but 
that  he  believes  he  is  asleep,  that  the  illusion  of  sleep  produces 
the  increase  of  suggestibility.  A  somewhat  different,  and  per- 
haps, more  correct  view,  has  been  expressed  by  Schrenck* 
Notzing.  He  divides  hypnoses  into  those  in  which  there  is 
no  sleep,  those  in  which  there  is  an  illusion  of  sleep,  and  those 
in  which  actual  sleep  is  present. 

The   similarity   of  the   means   used   to   induce   sleep   and 


COGNATE   STATES.  IQ  I 

hypnosis  is  often  insisted  upon  as  a  proof  of  their  identity. 
But  a  distinction  must  be  made.  It  is  said  that  monotonous 
stimuli  induce  both  sleep  and  hypnosis.  Purkinje,  therefore, 
thought  that  Braid's  methods  would  produce  sleep.  But  we 
should  never  conclude  an  identity  of  states  from  the  identity 
of  their  causes.  We  should  observe  whether  their  symptoms 
are  identical.  I  have  seen  cases  in  which  the  subjects  fixed 
their  gaze,  but'  did  not  concentrate  their  attention.  The  sub- 
sequent state  was  an  ordinary  sleep,  out  of  which  the  subjects 
awoke  when  I  made  verbal  suggestions  to  them,  however  softly 
I  spoke.  It  is  the  same  thing  when  we  wish  to  decide  whether 
a  tedious  speaker  hypnotizes  his  audience.  Many  people  grow 
sleepy  or  even  fall  asleep,  in  such  a  case.  I  consider  the  state 
one  of  ordinary  sleep  produced  by  the  subject  failing  to  con- 
centrate his  attention.  If  he  concentrates  his  thoughts  on  the 
speaker,  he  will  not  go  to  sleep;  in  this  case  his  state  of 
partially  strained  attention  much  resembles  hypnotism.  If  the 
state  is  strongly  marked,  negative  hallucinations  may  arise,  for 
instance,  with  regard  to  noises,  as  in  hypnosis.  In  many  works 
on  oratory,  even  in  Cicero's,  this  effect  of  a  fine  speech  is 
referred  to. 

Similarly^  those  states  of  loss  or  disturbance  of  conscious- 
ness, induced  by  vertigo — e.g.^  by  spinning  round  quickly, 
should  not  be  reckoned  as  hypnoses.  Erdmann  has  identified 
the  states  induced  by  vertigo  and  by  tedium  in  his  well-known 
ingenious  manner. 

Once  more  I  must  repeat  my  own  view:  it  does  not  matter 
how  the  states  are  produced;  the  point  is  whether  their 
symptoms  are  alike. 

Hypnosis  has  often  been  compared  to  mental  disorder  as 
well  as  to  sleep.  Rieger  and  Semal,  as  well  as  Hack  Tuke  (so 
far  back  as  1865),  called  hypnosis  an  artificially  induced  mental 
disorder  of  short  duration.  In  the  first  place  I  would  remark 
that  it  is  of  no  consequence  what  hypnosis  is  called;  a  name 
goes  for  nothing.  Even  in  therapeutics  this  is  a  matter  of  no 
moment;  otherwise  we  should  have  to  refrain  from  using 
morphia  because  it  is  a  poison,  and  because  the  sleep  induced 
by  morphia  is  an  effect  of  poisoning.  Freud  is  right  when  he 
says  that  meat  does  not  lose  its  flavour  when  a  rabid  vegetarian 
calls  it  carrion;  why  should  a  mental  influence,  such  as  we 
have  found  hypnosis  to  be,  lose  its  value  or  interest  because  it 


192  HYPNOTISM. 

is  sometimes  called  a  mental  disease  ?  A  remark  of  Griesinger 
shows  how  capriciously  all  such  terms  are  used;  he  thinks  a 
somnambulia  of  short  duration  is  a  sleep,  and  a  longer  one 
a  mental  disorder. 

I  should  raise  no  objection  to  our  calling  hypnosis  a  mental 
disorder  if  we  also  regarded  sleep  and  dreams  as  such.  And 
we  find  that  when  alienists  wish  to  discover  analogies  to  mental 
disorder  they  always  have  recourse  to  dreams;  but  no  investi- 
gator has  maintained  that  in  order  to  lose  one's  sanity  it  is  only 
necessary  to  go  to  sleep.  To  illustrate  the  resemblance  which 
dreams  bear  to  mental  disorders,  Freud,  following  Radestock, 
points  to  statements  made  by  various  philosophers.  Kant 
called  the  insane  dreamers  who  were  awake ;  and  Schopenhauer 
declared  that  a  dream  was  a  short  mania,  and  mania  a  long 
dream.  Wundt,  in  his  Physiological  Psychology^  expresses  the 
view  that  when  we  dream  we  experience  all  those  phenomena 
met  with  in  a  madhouse.  For  this  reason  even  Radestock 
concludes  that  mania,  an  abnormal  morbid  phenomenon,  should 
be  considered  an  exacerbation  of  the  periodically  recurrent 
dream-state.  Trenaunay  points  out  in  a  work  I  have  already 
mentioned  that  a  number  of  alienists  have  expressed  similar 
views.  Moreau  de  Tours  has  written  on  the  identity  of  the 
dream-state  and  mental  disorder,  and  Delasiauve  has  observed 
dreams  which  approached  confusion  mentale.  Schule  considers 
mania  the  analogue  of  the  physiological  dream-state.  Delirium 
of  toxic  origin — e.g^  alcohol,  has  recently  been  classified 
among  dreams  by  various  writers — Lasegue,  Klippel,  Rögis. 
The  two  latter  lay  special  stress  on  the  toxic  origin  of  many 
forms  of  delirium.  R^gis,  for  example,  considers  the  delirium 
of  infectious  diseases  the  delirium  of  a  dream  caused  by  toxic 
action:  for  him  it  is  a  kind  of  Hat  second,  analogous  to  the 
hypnotic  state.  Like  somnambulists^  these  sleepers,  as  our 
authors  call  them,  on  waking  often  retain  but  a  confused 
recollection  of  what  has  happened:  sometimes  the  whole  dream 
is  forgotten.  Rögis  finds  even  greater 'justification  for  com- 
paring toxic  delirium  with  the  state  of  consciousness  in  hypnosis 
in  the  fact  that  although  the  memory  of  the  events  of  such 
delirium  is  lost  on  the  patient's  waking,  it  can  nevertheless  be 
restored  in  hypnosis. 

It  follows  from  the  foregoing  considerations  that  dreaming 
and  mental  disorder  are  analogous  in  many  respects,  and  from 
this  point  of  view  there  can  be  no  objection  to  our  comparing 


COGNATE  STATES.  1 93 

hypnosis  to  mental  disorder.  But  the  most  dissimilar  mental 
disorders  have  been  compared  to  hypnosis,  which  shows  what 
confusion  there  is  about  it.  For  example,  Rieger  and  Konräd 
say  that  hypnosis  is  nothing  but  an  artificial  madness.  Mey- 
nert  maintains  that  it  is  an  experimentally-produced  imbecility. 
Luys  compares  it  to  general  paralysis  of  the  insane,  Bevan  Lewis 
to  stupor.  These  different  comparisons  show  the  want  of 
unanimity  among  the  authors,  for  the  forms  of  mental  disorder 
we  call  imbecility  and  mania  are  as  unlike  as  a  pea  and  a  rose, 
which  are  both  plants,  but  of  utterly  different  kinds. 

When  hypnosis  is  thus  compared  to  mental  disorder  it  is 
generally  forgotten  that  susceptibility  to  suggestion  is  the  chief 
phenomenon  of  hypnosis.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  think  that 
susceptibility  to  suggestion  is  an  essential  phenomenon  of 
mental  disorder;  if  it  were,  mental  disorders  could  be  cured 
by  suggestion,  but  this  is  hardly  ever  possible.  By  means  of 
suggestion  in  hypnosis,  forms  of  hypnosis  may  be  induced 
which  resemble  mental  derangement — ^.^.,  spontaneous  mania, 
or  melancholia  attonita,  besides  forms  of  imbecility,  etc.  But 
we  can  also  induce  paralysis  and  stammering  by  suggestion, 
and  yet  hypnosis  is  not  a  state  of  paralysis  or  of  stammering. 
We  can  suggest  pain  in  hypnosis,  yet  hypnosis  is  not  a  state  of 
pain.  And  how  the  light  stages  of  hypnosis  in  which  only 
motor  effects  are  caused  by  suggestion  can  be  called  states  of 
mental  disorder  is  not  clear  to  me,  unless  a  person  is  to  be 
called  mentally  unsound  simply  because  he  cannot  open  his 
eyes.  But  even  the  susceptibility  to  suggestion  which  exists 
in  such  mental  disorders  as  delirium  tremens  (Moeli,  Pierre 
Janet),  or  the  katatonia  of  Kahlbaum  (Jensen),  must  not  be 
without  further  ceremony  identified  with  the  susceptibility  we 
find  in  hypnosis;  and  we  have  just  as  little  right  to  reckon 
mental  disorders  in  which  there  is  a  fixed  idea  as  hypnosis 
merely  because  of  the  fact,  to  which  Kornfeld  and  Bikeles  have 
called  attention,  that  such  fixed  ideas  in  cases  of  megalomania 
are  very  easily  influenced  in  hypnosis.  We  often  see  that  a 
fixed  idea  can  be  guided  as  we  please.  But  none  of  these 
states  has  anything  to  do  with  the  susceptibility  to  suggestion 
met  with  in  hypnosis.  I  need  only  say  "Wake!"  to  -the 
hypnotized  subject,  and  at  once  the  state  ends ;  but  there  is  no 
mental  disease  which  can  be  ended  at  a  moment's  notice  like 
hypnosis. 

It  is  no  new  thing  to  see  hypnosis  brought  into  connection 

13 


196  HYPNOTISM. 

without  obeying  them,  and  even  imitated  the  threats  which  he 
uttered  against  them. 

I  lately  had  an  opportunity,  at  the  large  Arab  hospital  at 
Cairo,  of  seeing  a  case  which  doubtless  should  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection.  The  subject  was  a  negress,  some  thirty 
years  of  age,  then  in  the  hospital.  Besides  her  own  negro 
tongue  she  understood  some  French.  The  chief  symptom  of 
her  disorder  was  that  while  she  sat  passively  in  the  same  place 
all  day  long  she  repeated  whatever  was  said  to  her,  whether  in 
her  own  language,  in  French,  or  in  any  other  language  of 
which  she  knew  nothing  whatever.  I  made  trials  with  German 
and  other  languages;  even  difficult  sentences  she  repeated 
mechanically,  the  first  time  usually  with  omissions,  but  when 
she  had  again  gone  over  one,  every  syllable  was  clearly  uttered. 
She  also  imitated  movements  to  a  certain  extent.  If  I  put  out 
my  tongue  she  did  the  same,  if  I  showed  my  teeth  she  also 
showed  hers,  if  I  clapped  my  hands  she  clapped  hers,  though 
after  a  longer  interval.  It  was,  however,  generally  first  neces- 
sary to  attract  her  eye  before  performing  any  action. 

Once  more,  the  chief  feature  of  hypnosis  is  increased 
susceptibility  to  suggestion.  By  means  of  this  we  can  induce 
counterfeits  of  all  sorts  of  diseases,  which  appear  identical 
with  the  real  thing.  But  none  the  less,  hypnosis  should  not 
be  identified  with  these  diseases.  The  two  characteristics  of 
hypnosis  are  suggestibility  and  the  power  of  ending  the  state 
at  pleasure.  We  do  not  find  them  united  in  psychoses,  nor 
in  neuroses;  but  we  find  them  in  sleep,  in  which  many  dreams 
are  induced  by  suggestion,  and  from  which  the  subject  can  be 
awakened  at  any  moment  by  an  external  stimulus.  Although 
no  identification  of  hypnosis  and  sleep  would  be  justifiable  on 
the  above  grounds,  I  must  again  point  out  that  they  are  closely 
related,  at  least  so  far  as  hypnoses  of  the  second  group  are 
concerned. 

The  various  phenomena  of  hypnosis  have  also  been 
observed  in  normal  waking  life,  and  this  makes  a  comparison 
of  the  hypnotic  states  with  other  abnormal  states  considerably 
more  difficult.  For  example,  a  symptom  which  A.  shows  in 
hypnosis  he  does  not  show  in  his  normal  state;  but  it  may  be 
observed  in  B.'s  normal  waking  life.  People  differ  greatly  in 
their  susceptibility  to  suggestion  in  waking  life;  I  have  spoken 
(p.  64)   of  suggestions   in   waking   life  from  which  hypnosis 


COGNATE   STATES.  I97 

cannot  be  concluded.  Besides  which,  a  number  of  phenomena 
of  .suggestion,  which  are  generally  regarded  as  a  peculiarity  of 
hypnosis,  have  been  found  in  waking  life.  Braid,  the  American 
electro-biologists,  Herzog  (1853),  Heidenhain,  Berger,  Riebet, 
L^vy,  Bernheim,  Beaunis,  Liegeois,  and  Forel  are  among 
those  who  have  made  observations  in  this  field. 

These  phenomena  are  shown  in  waking  life  by  subjects  who 
have  been  hypnotized  as  well  as  by  those  who  have  not. 
Contractures,  paralyses,  dumbness,  and  other  kinds  of  motor 
disturbances  can  be  induced  by  suggestion  in  the  waking  state. 
According  to  some  authors,  it  is  even  possible  to  induce 
hallucinations  without  hypnosis. 

Nevertheless,  many  of  the  experiments,  and  particularly  the 
conclusions  drawn  from  them,  seem  to  me  to  have  two  defects. 
Those  who  talk  of  suggestions  in  the  waking  state  {suggestions 
ä  veille)  forget,  first,  that  sleep  is  by  no  means  always  indis- 
pensable for  many  hypnotic  suggestions.  Authors  often  confuse 
hypnosis  with  sleep.  We  have  seen  that  the  Hght  hypnotic 
stages  do  not  much  resemble  sleep;  consequently,  we  must 
not  conclude  that  a  state  of  contracture,  etc.,  is,  or  is  not  a 
hypnosis  because  it  resembles  sleep  or  not.  The  second  point 
which  these  authors  generally  overlook  is  this:  they  think  that 
hypnosis  is  excluded  in  these  cases  of  waking  suggestion, 
because  none  of  the  usual  methods  of  inducing  hypnosis  have 
been  used.  But  the  methods  are  not  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  induction  of  hypnosis.  We  cannot  make  the  question, 
whether  hypnosis  is  present  or  not,  depend  upon  the  means 
employed;  we  must  always  consider  the  state  and  its  symptoms 
separately.  For  if  we  take  a  certain  degree  of  suggestibility, 
loss  of  memory,  etc.,  for  a  symptom  of  hypnosis,  nothing 
remains  but  to  regard  as  hypnoses  many  states  which  are 
frequently  described  as  suggestions  without  hypnosis.  The 
chief  phenomenon  of  hypnosis  is,  as  we  see,  that  a  certain 
accepted  idea  has  a  tendency  to  lead  to  a  movement  or  a 
delusion  of  the  senses,  etc.  We  have  further  seen  that  the 
experimenter  can  change  the  subject's  dominant  idea  very 
quickly — />.,  he  can  suggest  one  thing  quickly  after  another. 
If,  then,  we  can  do  the  same  without  apparently  previous 
appearance  of  hypnosis,  we  must  call  the  state  a  hypnosis  all 
the  same,  particularly  if  there  is  subsequent  loss  of  memory. 

In  reality,  a  hypnosigenic  method  is  employed,  because  in 
such  experiments  the  subject  generally  remembers  an  earlier 


198  HYPNOTISM. 

hypnosis,  and  the  idea  of  hypnosis  is  enough  to  induce  it. 
Therefore  we  often  need  only  to  repeat  a  suggestion  made  in 
an  earlier  hypnosis  to  cause  a  new  one  (Bentivegni,  Marin). 

The  fact  that  paralyses,  contractures,  etc.,  can  be  quickly 
produced  by  suggestion  in  this  new  hypnosis  shows  that  it  is 
as  real  as  the  first.  In  the  deeper  states,  when  delusions  of 
sense  can  be  induced,  loss  of  memory  usually  follows.  The 
changed  expression  of  the  subject's  face  also  shows  there  is 
hypnosis.  Finally,  the  presence  of  a  real  hypnosis  is  proved 
in  many  cases  by  the  rapport  between  subject  and  experimenter. 

For  the  reasons  above  mentioned,  I  think  we  should  call 
many  of  these  states  true  hypnoses,  not  suggestions  without 
hypnosis.  The  school  of  Nancy,  and  particularly  Li^geois.and 
Beaunis,  have  only  partially  acknowledged  this.  They  thought 
many  of  these  states  were  intermediate  forms  between  hypnosis 
and  waking,  which  they  identified  with  the  veille  somnambulique 
described  above  (p.  167). 

It  must  not,  of  course,  be  concluded  from  what  has  been 
said  that  all  these  suggestions  only  succeed  in  hypnosis.  I 
am  far  from  saying  that.  My  explanation  aims  only  at  pointing 
out  that  there  may  really  be  hypnosis  in  the  so-called  sugges- 
tions a  veille^  though  none  of  the  usual  methods  {e.g,^  those  of 
the  Nancy  school)  have  been  employed  to  bring  it  on.  More- 
over, we  should  always  endeavour  to  prevent  suggestions  in 
waking  life,  and  especially  to  make  delusions  of  the  senses 
impossible. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  decide  whether  there  is  hypnosis  or 
not,  because  the  question  is  sometimes  more  one  of  subjective 
perception  than  of  objective  proof.  I  may  refer  here  to  a  case 
of  Carpenter's  mentioned  by  Finlay.  A  gentleman  placed  his 
hands  on  the  table,  and  for  half  a  minute  directed  his  attention 
to  them.  When  the  suggestion  was  made  to  him,  in  decided 
tones,  that  he  could  not  remove  his  hands,  he  was  in  fact 
unable  to  do  so.  I  have  frequently  observed  the  same  thing, 
especially  after  hypnotic  exhibitions.  I  have,  for  instance,  seen 
inability  to  move  a  limb,  to  withdraw  the  outstretched  tongue, 
or  to  close  the  mouth.  New  suggestions,  however,  only 
succeed  after  the  attention  has  been  drawn  to  them  for  some 
time. 

There  are  even  delusions  of  the  senses  without  hypnosis, 
sleep,  or  mental  disorder,  when  circumstances  influence  the 
mind  in  a  particular  way.     The  common  hallucination  of  smell 


COGNATE  STATES.  tQQ 

is  an  example.  People  often  imagine  that  they  still  smell 
things  which  have  been  removed.  Delusions  of  sight  are  just 
as  common.  Many  people  have  taken  trees  for  men  when 
walking  through  a  wood  in  the  twilight.  Goethe's  self-induced 
hallucinations  of  sight  are  well  known.  Delbceuf  also  describes 
a  waking  hallucination  of  sight;  he  thought  he  saw  his  dead 
mother,  but  corrected  his  impression  by  reason.  If  there  are 
even  delusions  of  the  senses  without  hypnosis,  it  is  evidently 
difficult  to  argue  the  presence  of  hypnosis  from  a  single 
symptom. 

The  following  are  the  chief  points  to  be  considered  in 
settling  the  question  whether  a  suggestion  is  made  in  hypnosis 
or  not: — i.  Of  what  kind  are  the  suggestions?  Are  they  of 
such  a  kind  that  they  rarely  occur  normally?  2.  After  one 
suggestion  has  succeeded,  can  other  suggestions  be  made  as 
quickly  as  in  hypnosis,  or  is  a  long  preparation  necessary  for 
each  suggestion  ?  The  quick  success  of  the  following  suggestion 
would  be  in  favour  of  hypnosis.  3.  After  the  suggestion  has 
succeeded,  can  the  subject  prevent  a  further  suggestion  by  an 
act  of  will,  or  not?  If  he  cannot,  it  favours  the  supposition  of 
a  hypnotic  state.  4.  Is  there  rapport  1  That  is,  can  the 
subject  be  influenced  by  only  one  person,  or  by  anybody? 
Rapport  favours  hypnosis.  5.  Are  there  bodily  symptoms  of 
hypnosis?  6.  Are  the  events  subsequently  forgotten?  Loss 
of  memory  also  favours  the  supposition  of  hypnosis. 

The  many  transitional  states  between  waking  life  and 
hypnosis  will  often  make  the  question  difficult  to  decide; 
none  of  the  points  above  mentioned  will  alone  suffice  to  settle 
it.  The  cases  of  fascination  and  analogous  states  of  normal 
life  mentioned  on  pages  73  and  74,  show  that  there  is  no  very 
sharp  line  of  distinction  between  hypnosis  and  waking  life. 
From  this  we  can  see,  on  the  one  hand,  the  resemblance  of 
many  of  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  to  those  of  waking  life, 
and,  on  the  other,  how  difficult  it  is  to  decide  exactly  where 
hypnosis  begins. 

States  resembling,  or  perhaps  identical  with  hypnosis,  are 
also  found  in  animals,  and  can  easily  be  experimentally 
induced.  The  first  experiment  of  this  kind  is  usually  attributed 
to  the  Jesuit  father  Kircher; — the  so-called  experimentum  intra* 
bile  Kircheri,  Kircher  described  this  experiment  in  1646;  but 
according  to  Preyer,  it  had  been  made  by  Schwenter  several 


200  HYPNOTISM. 

years  earlier.  A  hen  is  held  down  on  the  ground;  the  head 
in  particular  is  pressed  down.  A  chalk-line  is  then  drawn 
on  the  ground,  starting  from  the  bird's  beak.  The  hen  will 
remain  motionless.  Kircher  ascribed  this  to  the  animal's 
imagination;  he  said  it  imagined  it  was  fastened,  and  con- 
sequently did  not  try  to  move.  Mach  mentions  Kircher's 
experiment  in  his  book,  Erkentniss  und  Irrtum^  as  a  proof  of 
the  ease  with  which  an  experiment  may  be  erroneously  inter- 
preted. For  a  long  time  the  chalk-line  was  held  to  be  the 
essential  part  of  the  experiment,  producing  some  far-reaching 
mental  action  on  the  part  of  the  hen;  later  on,  however,  it  was 
shown  that  the  experiment  could  be  successfully  performed  by 
merely  holding  the  hen  down  on  the  ground,  and  the  chalk- 
line  was  consequently  but  of  secondary  importance.  Czermak 
repeated  the  experiment  on  different  animals,  and  announced, 
in  1872,  that  a  hypnotic  state  could  be  induced  in  other 
animals  besides  the  hen.  Preyer  shortly  after  began  to  interest 
himself  in  the  question,  and  distinguished  two  states  in  animals 
— cataplexy,  which  is  the  state  of  fear,  and  the  hypnotic  state. 
Regnard  observed  that  when  dynamite  explosions  took  place 
in  th§  water,  fish  that  were  not  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  charge  would  lie  as  if  dead,  though  a  slight  touch  would 
restore  movement.  Laborde  found  the  same  true  of  trout, 
which  could  thus  be  caught.  Heubel,  Riebet,  Danilewsky, 
Rieger,  Gley,  Verworn,  and  Micheline  Stefanowska,  besides  the 
authors  mentioned  above,  have  occupied  themselves  with  the 
question. 

Most  of  the  experiments  have  been  made  with  frogs,  crayfish, 
guinea-pigs,  and  birds,  and  by  Verworn  with  the  hooded  snake. 
I  myself  have  made  many  with  frogs.  This  much  is  certain : 
many  animals  will  remain  motionless  in  any  position  in  which 
they  have  been  held  by  force  for  a  time.  There  are  various 
opinions  as  to  the  meaning  of  this.  Preyer  thinks  many  of 
these  states  are  paralyses  from  fright  (cataplexy),  produced  by 
a  sudden  peripheral  stimulus.  In  any  case,  they  recall  the 
catalepsy  of  the  Salpetri^re,  also  caused  by  a  strong  external 
stimulus.  It  is  said  a  sudden  Drummond  limelight  produces 
the  same  effect  on  a  cock  that  it  does  on  hysterical  patients 
(Richer).  But  in  general,  the  external  stimulus  used  with 
animals  is  tactile,  as  in  suddenly  seizing  them.  Heubel  thinks 
that  these  states  in  animals  are  a  true  sleep  following  on  the 
cessation  of  the  external  stimuli,  and  Wundt  seems  to  agree 


COGNATE   STATES.  20I 

with  him.  Rieger  has  shown  that  the  frog  will  remain  rigid 
when  upright,  if  kept  from  falling,  as  well  as  when  lyirig  on  its 
back.  The  hind  leg  of  a  frog  lying  on  its  back  may  be  pulled 
out,  and  the  animal  will  not  draw  it  in  again  as  it  usually  does. 
Riebet,  however,  says  that  it  is  drawn  in  again  at  once  if  the 
spinal  cord  is  divided  below  the  medulla  oblongata.  It  is 
interesting  that  when  a  **  hypnotic  "  frog  is  placed  in  a  certain 
posi'.ion  it  will  at  first  move  after  a  short  lime,  but  the  more 
often  the  experiment  is  repeated  the  longer  the  frog  lies  with- 
out moving.  1  have  seen  frogs  lie  on  their  backs  in  this  way 
for  hours,  and  have  even  often  seen  them  die  without  turning 
over.  The  deeper  the  state  is,  the  less  the  animal  responds  to 
external  stimuli;  it  ends  by  not  moving  to  tolerably  loud 
noises,  or  even  stimulation  of  the  skin.  Danilewsky  made  a 
series  of  experiments,  from  which  he  concluded  that  there  were 
regular  changes  of  reflex  excitability;  but  Rieger  was  unable 
to  confirm  this.  According  to  Danilewsky,  when  the  cerebral 
hemispheres  are  removed  the  frog  assumes  cataleptoid  postures, 
and  further  that  the  rotatory  movements  caused  by  injury  to 
the  semi-circular  canals  of  the  ear  disappear  in  hypnosis. 
Harting's  experiments  also  deserve  mention;  after  repeated 
hypnotic  experiments  with  fowls  he  observed  hemiplegic 
phenomena  in  them,  according  to  a  communication  by  Milne- 
Edwards  to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences.  I  may  here 
recall  the  fact  that  Lodder  once  reported  a  case  in  which  he 
considered  that  hypnotic  phenomena  were  associated  with  an 
attack  of  cerebral  hemiplegia. 

In  1898,  Verworn  propounded  a  physiological  theory  of  his 
own  in  a  work  in  which  he  dealt  with  the  "so-called  hypnosis 
of  animals."  He  has  formed  the  opinion  that  the  states 
observed  in  animals  have  nothing  to  do  with  hypnosis  in  man; 
at  the  same  time  he  certainly  considers  suggestion  of  chief 
import  in  the  case  of  human  beings.  In  his  opinion,  we  must 
base  our  conclusions  upon  the  attitude  of  the  animal  and  the 
condition  of  its  muscular  system,  which  alone  are  decisive. 
For  any  particular  position  in  which  an  animal  may  be  placed, 
it  assumes  a  characteristic  attitude  corresponding  to  the  reflex 
which  tends  to  restore  it  to  a  normal  posture.  The  muscles 
which  participate  in  this  reflx  action  remain  in  a  state  of  tonic 
contraction.  The  same  characteristic  complexus  of  symptoms 
occurs  when  the  animaPs  cerebrum  has  been  removed,  and 
from  this  very  fact  Verworn  concludes  that  there  can  bo  no 


202  HYPNOTISM. 

question  of  suggestion.  But  the  phenomenon  is  made  up  of 
two  components.  The  chief  of  these,  and  that  which  causes 
the  characteristic  symptoms,  is  the  tonic  state  of  excitation  in 
that  cerebral  sphere  which  controls  the  reflex  in  question;  a 
subordinate  component  is  the  inactivity  of  the  motor  spheres 
of  the  cerebral  cortex,  as  shown  by  the  absence  of  spontaneous 
efforts  to  rise.  The  latter  phenomenon  is  brought  about  by 
the  excitement  produced  by  the  experimenter's  manipulations, 
and  is  also  made  manifest  by  acceleration  of  the  respiration 
and  heart-beat.  This  view,  therefore,  has  something  in  common 
with  that  held  by  Preyer  on  paralysis  from  fright.  Micheline 
Stefanowska,  who  has  made  numerous  experiments  on  frogs 
and  conisiders  a  frog  in  a  stale  of  inanition  particularly  predis- 
posed to  hypnosis,  holds  an  essentially  different  opinion. 
According  to  her,  all  these  states  are  hypnoses,  and  she  even 
thinks  she  can  recognize  the  symptoms  of  Charcot's  stages  in 
the  case  of  frogs;  yet  her  experiments  in  this  direction,  and 
their  results,  have  not  produced  any  convincing  impression  on 
my  mind,  in  spite  of  their  interest  and  value  and  the  many 
new  facts  concerning  the  life  and  physiological  characteristics 
of  the  frog,  which  they  have  brought  to  light. 

Another  series  of  observations  which  were  chiefly  made  for 
practical  purposes  may  be  mentioned  here.  They  also  may 
be  regarded  as  hypnotic  phenomena.  For  example,  the  so- 
called  **  Balassiren "  of  horses,  introduced  by  the  cavalry 
officer  Balassa.  This  process  has  been  introduced  by  law  into 
Austria  for  the  shoeing  of  horses  (Obersteiner).  It  consists 
chiefly  in  looking  fixedly  at  the  horse,  just  as  in  "fascination." 
Other  authorities — Glanson,  for  instance — have  stated  that 
restive  horses  may  sometimes  be  checked  by  hypnotism. 
Lepinay  gives  a  detailed  account  of  hypnotism  in  respect  to 
horses,  and  thinks  that  hypnotic  influence  can  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  them.  In  particular,  he  thinks  that  vicious  and  restive 
horses  can  be  soothed  by  music,  and  in  this  he  is  supported  by 
Guenon.  I  shall  deal  later  on  with  the  case  of  "  Clever  Hans," 
which  recently  proved  such  a  painful  pitfall  for  Stumpf  in 
Berlin,  Hans'  feats  being  attributed  to  hypnotism.  Bruno  is 
said  to  have  hypnotized  cats  and  pigeons,  and  StoU  believes 
that  in  other  ways  we  work  by  suggestion  on  our  domestic 
animals.  He  regards  the  influence  of  the  rider  on  the  horse  or 
the  mule,  especially  when  particular  tricks  have  to  be  combated, 
as  suggestive,  since  scarcely  anything  can  be  accomplished 


COGNATE   STATES.  203 

here  by  brute  force.  A  kind  of  counter-suggestion  appro- 
priately brought  to  the  animal's  inteUigence  would  thus  oppose 
his  idiosyncrasies,  which  are  of  the  nature  of  auto-suggestions. 
The  numerous  experiments  of  Wilson  should  also  be  men- 
tioned; he  is  said  to  have  hypnotized  a  number  of  animals — 
elephants,  wolves,  horses,  etc.,  in  London,  in  1839.  Fascina- 
tion is  used  by  many  animal-trainers,  whose  very  first  principle 
is  to  stare  fixedly  into  the  eyes  of  the  animal  they  wish  to 
tame.  Many  think  that  the  charming  of  small  animals  by 
snakes  is  fascination.  Hart  and  Lysing,  however,  believe  that 
the  animals  are  not  hypnotized^  but  that,  as  the  snake  gazes  at 
them,  they  hypnotize  themselves.  A  case  is  reported  in  the 
Revue  de  PHypnotisme  in  which  the  opposite  occurred — a  snake 
was  said  to  have  been  hypnotized  by  a  cat.  The  story  comes 
from  Madras. 

Of  course,  in  many  of  the  cases  related  above,  imagination 
plays  so  great  a  part  that  absolute  credence  is  not  to  be  placed 
in  all  the  details.  There  is  a  fable  of  Lafontaine's  in  which  a 
number  of  turkeys  took  refuge  in  a  tree  so  as  to  escape  from 
a  fox.  The  latter  so  fascinated  the  poor  birds,  which  were 
watching  him,  by  the  glitter  of  his  tail  which  he  waved  in  the 
moonlight  that  they  fell  into  his  jaws.  Thomas  Willis  tells 
a  similar  tale  of  a  fox  circling  round  a  tree  in  which  a  cock  was 
perched.  The  cock  kept  his  eye  on  the  fox,  but  finally  fell 
from  the  tree  and  was  devoured.  In  a  communication  to  a 
French  scientific  journal,  Guimbal  ascribes  all  such  cases  to 
fascination. 

Liebeault  and  Forel  think  that  the  winter  sleep  (hibernation) 
of  animals  is  an  auto-hypnosis;  and  so,  perhaps,  is  the  strange 
sleep  of  the  Indian  fakirs,  which  sometimes  lasts  for  weeks 
and  months  (E.  L.  Fischer). 

A  number  of  trustworthy  witnesses  and  authors  (Jacolliot, 
Hildebrandt,  Hellwald)  tell  us  even  stranger  things  about 
these  fakirs,  which  set  any  attempt  at  explanation  on  the 
basis  of  our  present  scientific  knowledge  at  defiance.  Hilde- 
brandt, among  other  things,  relates  that  he  saw  a  fakir  sitting 
in  a  Hindoo  temple;  he  was  crouching  down  with  his  left 
arm  stretched  upwards;  the  arm  was  dead  and  so  perfectly  dry 
that  the  skin  might  easily  have  been  torn  from  it.  Another 
fakir  had  held  his  thumb  pressed  against  the  palm  of  his  hand 
till  the  nail  had  grown  deep  into  the  fiesh.  It  is  said,  besides, 
that  some  of  these  people  can  make  plants  grow  very  quickly. 


204  HYPNOTISM. 

Görres  mentioned  this.  These  fakirs  are  also  said  to  have 
been  apparently  buried  for  weeks  and  months,  and  yet  have 
returned  to  normal  life.  Kuhn  holds  this  to  be  an  undoubted 
fact,  the  condition  of  the  fakirs  being  that  of  hypnotic  cata- 
lepsy. Of  course,  these  things  must  be  listened  to  with 
sceptical  reserve.  Yet  even  so  scientific  an  investigator  as 
Hellwald  thinks  that  though  no  doubt  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
jugglery,  yet  some  of  the  phenomena  remain  at  present  in- 
explicable. Loewenfeld  thinks  that  the  observations  which 
have  been  made  show  that  in  the  so-called  Yoga  sleep  the 
respiratory  and  circulating  functions  are  not  nearly  as  much  in 
abeyance  as  has  been  assumed  hitherto.  Still,  I  cannot  help 
doubting  the  genuineness  of  the  Yoga  sleep  in  the  case  of 
those  natives  who  have  been  on  exhibition  in  Europe.  I  have 
it  on  good  authority,  that  two  of  these  people  who  were 
supposed  to  be  asleep,  and  "  strictly  watched  by  a  committee 
of  scientists,"  were  playing  cards  with  a  third  man  a  good  way 
from  the  place  in  which  the  committee  thought  they  were 
"  sleeping."  The  agent  admitted  this  swindle  to  my  in- 
formant. 

Many  other  observations  recorded  by  ethnologists  and 
travellers  show  striking  resemblance  to  auto-hypnotic  con- 
ditions. Stoll  records  many  such  facts ;  as,  for  instance,  the 
auto-hypnotic  state  of  the  shamans  or  priests  of  various 
Siberian  peoples,  as  recorded  in  the  travels  of  Pallas  and 
Gmelin.  An  Armenian  physician,  Vahau  Artzronny,  mentions 
a  disorder  which  attacked  a  whole  race,  the  Ezidi,  in  Armenia. 
When  any  of  the  people  were  brought  to  a  spot  and  a  circle 
drawn  round  them  with  a  stick,  they  would  rather  die  than 
step  out  of  it.  There  would  seem  to  be  some  suspicion  of  a 
superstition  in  this  case,  but  it  may  have  been  a  matter  of 
fascination. 

I  have  purposely  made  but  brief  mention  of  these  matters 
and  of  the  experiments  with  animals ;  details  would  take  me 
too  far. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SIMULATION. 

As  is  well  known,  hypnosis  has  only  lately  been  generally 
recognized  as  such.  Sinnett  has  pointed  out  for  how  long  a  time 
the  most  childish  objections  were  raised  against  it.  For  instance, 
when  Clocquet  performed  a  painless  operation  on  a  patient 
whom  he  had  magnetized,  Mabru  immediately  raised  the 
objection  that,  so  far  from  the  patient  having  been  magnetized, 
he  was  in  a  state  of  coma  which  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
"passes."  The  opposition  even  went  so  far  as  to  accuse 
persons  anaesthetized  by  hypnosis  of  simultation.  But  in  the 
end  the  most  obstinate  doubters — or,  at  least,  those  of  them 
of  any  account — were  compelled  to  admit  that  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  the  hypnotic  state.  Consequently,  when  discussing 
simulation  I  have  not  to  consider  whether  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  hypnosis  at  all,  but  whether  there  is  simulation  in  any 
particular  case. 

Those  who  believed  in  hypnosis  were  for  a  long  time  regarded  as 
deceivers  or  deceived.  It  was  occasionally  less  harshly  supposed  that  a 
man  who  busied  himself  with  hypnotism  must  be  suffering  from  some  loss 
of  mental  balance.  Latterly,  Mendel,  in  a  popular  lecture,  has  expressed 
himself  in  this  sense.  He  thinks  that  many  men  have  given  proof  of  their 
own  pathological  state  in  their  autobiographies.  Mendel  certainly 
mentions  no  names,  but  judging  from  the  context  it  is  evident  that  he  refers 
to  those  investigators  who  have  described  their  own  personal  experiences 
of  hypnosis.  His  charge  would  apply  to  such  men  as  Forel,  Bleuler, 
Obersteiner,  as  well  as  to  Wundt,  who  described  his  own  case  of  auto- 
somnambulism,  and  to  many  others.  If  Mendel's  diagnosis  is  correct,  then 
all  the  men  mentioned  must  be  looked  upon  as  pathological  specimens 
whose  opinions  are  not  to  be  taken  seriously.  Such  a  method  of  attacking 
unpleasant  adversaries  is  a  mere  invention  on  Mendel's  part,  and  cannot  be 
too  severely  stigmatized.  Even  a  newspaper  of  very  moderate  views  put 
down  Mendel's  method  of  controversy  as  outside,  the  bounds  of  legitimate 
scientific  discussion.  The  newspaper  in  question  added  the  ironical 
remark  that  it  was  strange  that  Mendel,  who  considered  all  persons  who 
carried  out  hypnotic  experiments  to  be  of  unsound  mind,  should  have 
related  how  he  had  performed  many  such  experiments  himself. 

20S 


206  HYPNOTISM. 

In  the  first  place,  I  think  that  simulation  is  much  rarer  than 
is  generally  believed  It  has  been  too  much  the  habit  to  look 
for  one  physical  or  objective  symptom  which  could  not  be 
simulated,  and  settle  the  question  of  fraud  from  its  presence  or 
absence.  And  yet  this  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  what  is 
generally  done  in  judging  of  mental  states.  When  we  want  to 
diagnose  a  case  and  decide  whether  it  is  insanity  or  not,  no 
authority  on  mental  disorders  would  suppose  fraud  simply 
because  some  bodily  symptom  was  absent.  He  will  consider 
and  weigh  the  case  as  a  whole.  Even  when  each  symptom 
taken  separately  might  be  fraudulent  they  would  be  weighed 
against  one  another  and  a  diagnosis  formed  from  them.  If 
the  doctor  also  finds  some  symptom  which  cannot  be  simu- 
lated, he  will  weigh  this  too,  but  he  will  not  conclude  fraud  from 
its  absence.  It  is  true  that  in  this  way  the  conviction  may  be 
only  subjective,  or  rather  it  will  be  clear  only  to  those  who 
have  studied  mental  disease.  The  outsider  may  often  be  able 
to  raise  the  objection  that  this  or  that  symptom  may  be 
feigned;  but  no  specialist  would  allow  himself  to  be  influenced 
by  this. 

If  we  apply  this  to  hypnosis,  which  is  also  a  mental  state,  it 
follows  that  only  he  who  has  studied  hypnosis  practically  is  in  a 
position  to  diagnose  it,  although  many  a  person  who  has  no 
knowledge  whatever  of  hypnotic  experiment  considers  that  he 
is  able  to  judge  of  hypnotism,  express  an  opinion  on  it,  and 
demand  consideration  for  his  views.  Kron  and  Sperling  have 
very  rightly  contested  this  assumption.  It  is  not  correct  to 
diagnose  fraud  in  hypnotism  from  the  absence  of  a  certain 
physical  symptom.  Even  if  each  separate  symptom  may  be 
feigned,  the  experienced  experimenter  will  diagnose  by 
summing  up  the  different  symptoms  and  comparing  their 
relation  to  each  other.  It  is  satisfactory  if  he  finds  an  un- 
feignable  symptom  besides;  this  is  an  objective  proof,  con- 
vincing even  those  who  have  no  practical  knowledge  of 
hypnosis.  But  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  objective  physical 
symptoms  are  more  seldom  found  in  hypnosis  than  in  mental 
diseases.  The  first  is  a  transitory  mental  state,  in  which 
objective  physical  change  is  less  likely  to  occur  than  in  mental 
disorders,  which  last  for  months  and  years. 

However,  we  must,  of  course,  try  to  find  physical  symptoms 
in  hypnosis.  Many  authors  have  done  so,  Charcot  in  particular. 
Not  only  did  he  lend  the  weight  of  his  name  to  the  acceptance 


SIMULATION.  207 

of  hypnotism,  but  he  is  also  to  be  credited  with  having  searched 
for  objective  symptoms.  We  must,  however,  remember  that 
the  school  of  Nancy  sought  for  objective  symptoms  and  found 
them,  though  different  from  Charcot's;  I  mean  the  blisters,  etc., 
produced  by  suggestion.  It  is,  consequently,  erroneous  to  con- 
sider that  the  essential  difference  between  the  two  schools  is  to 
be  found  in  the  question  of  simulation.  To  exclude  fraud  we 
look  for  symptoms  which  cannot  be  voluntarily  simulated;  it 
is  indifferent  whether  these  are  produced  by  suggestion  or  not 
There  are  symptoms  which  are  produced  by  suggestion,  and 
which  are  independent  of  the  subject's  will.  Herein  lies  the 
chief  difference  between  the  school  of  Nancy  and  that  of 
Charcot.  The  Nancy  school  believes  that  all  the  symptoms 
are  caused  by  suggestion,  even  those  independent  of  the  will ; 
while  the  school  of  Charcot  finds  bodily  symptoms  which  are 
independent  of  the  will  and  of  suggestion — e.g,y  the  increased 
neuro-muscular  irritability  met  with  in  the  lethargic  state.  Con- 
sequently, suggestion  is  the  main  point  on  which  the  two  schools . 
differ. 

That  there  is  a  practical  distinction  between  the  questions  of 
suggestion  and  fraud  is  shown  by  a  whole  series  of  observations. 
The  case  of  Siemerling  teaches  us  this.  His  subject  was 
hemianaesthetic  both  with  regard  to  sight  and  feeling — />.,  the 
power  of  sight  was  limited  on  the  side  on  which  the  skin  was 
without  feeling.  The  field  of  vision  was  concentrically 
narrowed,  so  that  anything  beyond  a  certain  distance  from  the 
point  on  which  the  eyes  were  fixed  could  not  be  seen.  Now, 
in  hypnosis  the  sense  of  feeling  on  the  hemianaesthetic  side  was 
restored  by  suggestion,  and  as  soon  as  this  happened  the  eye 
on  the  corresponding  side  became  normal,  without  direct 
suggestion.  Westphal  and  Siemerling  thought  this  an  objective 
proof  of  hypnosis;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  I  think  that  we 
must  agree  with  them. 

We  are  told  that  in  this  case  the  power  of  sight  was  restored 
by  indirect  and  not  direct  suggestion,  the  sense  of  feeling  being 
first  of  all  rendered  normal  by  suggestion.  The  whole  process 
was  probably  one  of  indirect  suggestion  such  as  I  have  de- 
scribed on  p.  67.  It  is  possible  that  in  a  case  of  Krafft-Ebing's, 
objective  symptoms  were  produced  by  suggesting  mental 
paralysis.  Such  cases  have  been  described  by  Charcot's 
pupils.  When  the  subject  is  told  that  his  arm  is  paralyzed, 
vasomotor  disturbances  set  in,  which  we  may  consider  objec- 


210  HYPNOTISM. 

that  all  the  suspected  persons  should  devote  themselves  to  the 
thankless  part  of  fraud,  when  with  such  talents  for  acting  a 
very  different  career  would  be  open  to  them.  The  expression 
of  pain,  the  smiles,  the  chattering  of  the  teeth  and  shivering  at 
different  suggestions  of  pain,  pleasure,  cold,  etc.,  would  be  no 
easy  task  to  the  supposed  impostor.  The  waking  in  many 
cases  is  just  as  characteristic :  the  astonished  face  with  which 
the  subject  looks  round  as  if  to  find  out  where  he  is.  His 
behaviour  in  post-hypnotic  suggestion  is  likewise  important. 
The  impostor  generally  exaggerates  like  a  person  feigning 
madness.  In  spite  of  the  variability  of  all  the  symptoms  of 
hypnosis,  there  is  a  certain  conformity  to  rule  in  its  develop- 
ment. The  impostor  usually  accepts  all  suggestions  very 
quickly,  while  the  experienced  experimenter  knows  that  suscep- 
tibility to  suggestion  increases  with  a  certain  uniformity. 
Analgesia  to  slight  feelings  of  pain  is  a  favourite  form  of  fraud; 
and  although  an  unexpected  pain  causes  the  usual  reflexes  in 
the  face  and  eyes,  the  impostor  will  declare  that  he  felt  no 
pain.  It  is  the  same  with  sense-delusions,  where  the  suggestion 
generally  requires  to  be  emphasized  before  it  takes  effect. 
The  impostor  usually  exaggerates  here  also. 

But,  apart  from  the  symptoms  of  Charcot's  stages,  certain 
abnormalities  of  the  muscular  system  have  been  utilized  in 
judging  of  fraud.  On  the  face  of  it,  it  would  hardly  be  expected 
that  abnormalities  which  are  supposed  to  exclude  fraud  should 
be  capable  of  being  induced  by  suggestion.  If  we  consider 
that  an  idea  suggested  to  a  hypnotic  differs  in  no  respect  from 
a  voluntary  idea  of  a  person  who  is  awake,  it  should  be  difficult 
to  conceive  that  the  idea  in  the  first  case  should  produce 
objective  changes  which  do  not  appear  in  the  second.  And 
yet  that  is  the  case.  Even  in  waking  life  an  idea  awakened  by 
another  person  has  by  no  means  the  same  effect  as  one 
voluntarily  produced.  The  difference  is  probably  most  percep- 
tible in  pathological  cases.  A  patient  suffering  from  the  fixed 
idea  that  he  is  insane  can  generally  be  pacified  if  the  doctor 
assures  him  that  he  is  not  insane.  In  such  a  case  it  is  not 
merely  the  doctor's  dictum  which  prevails,  because  it  happens 
often  enough  that  the  patient  is  fully  aware  that  his  own  idea 
is  erroneous,  and  that  the  doctor  in  assuring  him  of  his  sanity 
is  only  repeating  a  statement  which  he  has  already  made  on 
previous  occasions.  Nevertheless,  the  repetition  of  the  assur- 
ance again  pacifies  the  patient.     The  case  of  blushing  which  I 


SIMULATION.  211 

mentioned  on  page  64  is  to  the  point.  When  A.  told  B.  he  had 
got  to  blush,  the  latter  frequently  did  so,  although  the  voluntary 
idea  of  blushing  did  not  cause  B.  to  do  so.  Tickling,  also,  is  a 
well-known  example  of  the  difference  in  the  results  produced 
when  a  simple  stimulus  is  self-applied  or  applied  by  somebody 
else.  Let  somebody  else  tickle  you,  and  you  laugh;  tickle 
yourself,  and  you  do  not.  A  number  of  other  examples  could 
be  cited,  and  all  tend  to  show  that  when  another  person  calls 
up  an  idea  in  my  mind  the  result  is  different  from  that  which 
would  be  produced  by  the  self-same  idea  voluntarily  induced 
by  myself.  Experience  shows  the  same  to  hold  good  in 
hypnosis.  Superficial  observation  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
objective  changes  could  not  be  brought  about  by  suggestion, 
but  a  closer  study  has  now  shown  that  conclusion  to  be 
erroneous.  But,  as  I  have  already  shown,  there  may  be  other 
processes  at  work  in  hypnosis  besides  suggestion.  It  is 
possible  that  the  physical  symptoms  which  are  sometimes 
associated  with  suggested  paralyses,  and  which  I  have  dealt 
with  in  page  72,  belong  here. 

At  all  events,  experience  teaches  us  that  suggestion  in 
hypnosis  can  bring  about  muscular  phenomena  which  cannot 
be  produced  voluntarily.  For  example,  the  cessation  of  the 
staggering  gait  in  locomotor  ataxy,  which  Berger  described, 
and  I  also  have  observed,  and  other  like  phenomena.  All 
other  abnormalities  of  the  muscular  system  may  be  used  as 
arguments  against  simulation.  If  a  person  holds  out  his  arm 
for  a  long  time  without  trembling  to  any  extent,  this  may  be 
held  to  exclude  fraud  to  a  certain  extent.  It  is  also  possible 
to  produce  such  abnormalities  at  times  by  special  methods. 
A  heavy  weight  placed  in  a  hypnotic's  hand  will  often  be  held 
longer  and  more  steadily  than  it  would  be  possible  for  a  waking 
man  to.  As  Wilkinson  and  Braid  have  pointed  out,  directly 
the  hypnotic  shows  signs  of  giving  way,  any  tremors  can  be 
suppressed  for  some  time  by  suggesting  that  he  has  only  bits 
of  cork  in  his  hand.  Similarly,  I  have  seen  a  hypnotized 
person,  whose  arm  was  beginning  to  get  tired  and  trembled, 
hold  it  out  quite  still  directly  it  was  suggested  that  his  arm  was 
resting  on  a  cushion  or  some  other  support.  All  these  points 
must  be  considered  when  judging  of  fraud. 

Binet,  F^re,  Parinaud,  and  others  have  made  particular  investigations  on 
the  sense-delusions  of  sight.  They  say  that  a  prism  doubles  the  hallucina- 
tory object  as  it  would  a  real  one;  and  in  hallucinations  of  colour,  the 


212  HYPNOTISM. 

complementary  colour  is  said  to  be  seen  afterwards,  just  as  in  a  normal  act 
of  vision.  But  Charpentier  and  Bernheim  have  very  properly  submitted 
these  statements  to,  criticism.  They  have  shown  that  the  hallucinatory 
object  was  only  apparently  doubled.  The  subject  first  saw  some  real 
object  doubled  by  the  prism,  and  concluded  from  this  that  the  suggested 
hallucination  should  be  doubled  also.  Such  a  conclusion  can,  of  course, 
be  drawn  unconsciously.  For  this  reason,  it  may  also  happen  that  the 
doubling  of  the  sense-delusion  is  secondary.  In  any  case,  the  great 
point  is  that  the  prism  only  produces  a  doubling  when  a  real  object 
is  seen  through  it.  If  this  is  not  the  casfe — if,  for  example,  the  experi- 
menter is  in  a  dark  room,  or  if  he  shows  the  subject  a  perfectly  blank 
white  screen — the  doubling  does  not  occur.  According  to  Charpentier 
and  Bernheim,  the  experiments  with  complementary  colours  were  not 
more  exact;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  other  experiments  of  Binet 
and  Fere  in  colours,  from  which  they  drew  the  conclusion  that  in 
suggested  perceptions  of  mixed  colours  the  effect  was  the  same  as  with 
real  optical  images. 

We  must,  consequently,  give  up  any  thought  of  using  these  experiments 
when  judging  of  fraud,  even  when  we  have  to  deal  with  uneducated  persons 
who  know  nothing  of  the  doubling  of  images  by  prisms,  or  of  complemen- 
tary colours,  or  of  mixed  colours. 

The  phenomenon  presented  by  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  which 
Binet  and  Fere  mention,  seems  more  valuable.  In  suggesting 
a  hallucination — e.g.^  that  of  a  bird — the  suggested  approach  of 
the  object  causes  contraction  of  the  pupil,  and  vice  versa.  At 
the  same  time  there  is  often  convergence  of  the  axes  of  the 
eyes,  as  if  a  real  object  were  present. '  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  some  persons  are  able  to  produce  this  phenomenon 
by  an  effort  of  will,  as  Hack  Tuke  and  Budge  pointed  out  long 
ago.  Lefevre  quotes  the  experiments  of  Beer  de  Boon,  who 
was  able  to  cause  his  pupils  to  contract  by  imagining  that  he 
was  in  a  place  where  the  light  was  very  bright.  Piltz,  also, 
has  recently  published  a  work  on  the  influence  of  the  will  on 
the  pupil-reflex;  he  lays  particular  stress  on  the  fact  that  the 
idea  of  light  produces  contraction,  of  a  dark  object  dilatation  of 
the  pupils.  It  follows  that  the  phenomenon  presented  by  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  must  only  be  used  with  great  caution  in 
judging  of  fraud. 

Bernheim  lays  great  weight  on  »the  analgesia  of  hypnotic 
subjects.  If  a  completely  analgesic  subject  is  touched  with  a 
faradic  brush  he  shows  no  trace  of  pain.  There  are  no  im- 
postors who  could  repress  the  expression  of  pain  under  these 
circumstances,  particularly  if  the  contact  were  unexpected. 
But  we  must  consider  that  such  a  high  degree  of  analgesia  is 
very  rare  in  hypnosis.,    The  anaesthesia  of  the  mucous  mem- 


SIMULATION.  213 

branes — e.g.,  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose — with  regard  to 
ammonia,  is  to  be  tested  also. 

There  is  no  need  to  say  that  certain  rare  phenomena — e.g., 
secretion  of  tears  and  sweat,  changes  in  the  heart's  action,  and 
organic  changes,  produced  bysuggestion  are  of  the  greatest  value. 

Finally,  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  absence  of  those 
movements  which  I  should  prefer  to  call  the  movements 
caused  by  tedium  (Langweiligkeit).  As  is  known,  a  waking 
man  is  unable  to  retain  any  posture  for  a  long  time,  even  when 
all  his  muscles  are  relaxed.-  In  the  latter  case  the  movements 
cannot  be  caused  by  fatigue  of  particular  muscles;  it  is  rather 
that  when  one  position  is  long  maintained,  a  lively  feeling  of 
discomfort  is  produced,  that  is  subjectively  felt  as  tedium. 
This,  it  seems  to  me,  leads  to  certain  irresistible  movements, 
the  movements  of  tedium.  Their  absence  is  a  strong  evidence 
of»  hypnosis,  and  I  think  this  an  important,  but  almost  entirely 
unknown,  symptom.  They  are  best  observed  when  the  subject 
has  been  left  for  some  time  to  himself,  without  any  notice 
being  taken  of  him. 

I  have  as  yet  only  spoken  of  such  symptoms  as  take  the 
form  of  bodily  functions;  but  according  to  Pierre  Janet  these 
bodily  symptoms  are  of  much  less  importance  to  the  question 
of  simulation  than  the  mental  ones;  the  memory  in  particular. 
Gurney  also  held  this  view.  The  assumption  from  which  these 
authors  started  is  that  there  is  loss  of  memory  on  waking  from 
hypnosis,  and  that  consequently  the  subject  remembers  nothing 
that  has  happened  during  the  state.  Now,  this  loss  of  memory 
is  to  be  used  to  decide  the  question  of  fraud. 

I  tell  X.,  whom  I  have  hypnotized,  that  when  he  is  going  to 
bed  he  is  to  dip  ä  towel  in  warm  water  and  wrap  it  twice  round 
his  throat.  When  he  wakes  he  seems  to  remember  nothing 
about  what  I  had  said  to  him  while  he  was  hypnotized;  upon 
which  I  repeat  the  command,  but  omit  the  doubling  of  the 
towel.  When  I  ask  him  what  he  is  to  do  on  going  to  bed,  he 
answers,  "  I  am  to  dip  a  towel  in  warm  water  and  wrap  it  twice 
round  my  throat."  It  will  be  seen  that  I  gave  the  order 
differently  during  and  after  hypnosis;  yet  X.  repeats  the  com- 
mand as  it  was  given  in  hypnosis. 

According  to  the  views  of  Pierre  Janet  and  Gurney,  this 
would  very  likely  be  a  case  of  fraud;  for  X.,  who  had  apparently 
completely  forgotten  everything  after  waking,  mentions  the 
one  point  which  was  omitted  in  the  second  command,  and  of 


214  HYPNOTISM. 

which  he  could  have  no  knowledge  unless  he  remembered  what 
had  happened  during  the  hypnosis.  But  must  we  really  con- 
sider this  a  case  of  fraud  ?  I  believe  not,  and  I  appeal  to  a 
long  series  of  experiments  with  perfectly  trustworthy  subjects, 
in  whom  I  often  observed  objective  bodily  symptoms.  A 
second  question  to  be  considered  is,  How  is  the  proceeding 
brought  about?  Here,  of  course,  we  must  first  of  all  think 
of  the  association  of  ideas  mentioned  on  page  122,  by  which 
in  this,  as  in  other  cases,  a  hypnotic  event  may  be  reproduced 
after  waking.  It  may  happen  that  the  subject  adds  the  word 
"twice"  to  a  certain  extent  automatically,  and  without  re- 
marking it;  in  other  cases  he  may  make  it  consciously, 
as  a  previously  forgotten  idea  may  be  suddenly  called  into 
consciousness. 

The  following  case  is  somewhat  similar.  I  hypnotize  X., 
take  hold  of  his  scarf  and  disarrange  it  In  spite  of  this  he 
sits  quite  still,  and  the  hypnosis  is  undisturbed  But  directly 
he  wakes  he  puts  his  hand  to  his  scarf  to  straighten  it,  although 
he  is  not  supposed  to  remember  what  had  happened.  I 
would  not  have  taken  even  this  as  a  proof  of  fraud  without 
further  evidence,  for  the  action  in  question  could  be  just  as 
well  performed  automatically,  because  of  the  subconscious  idea 
that  the  scarf  was  awry. 

Such  cases  naturally  ma\e  one  think  of  fraud,  and  the 
sharper  the  distinction  between  the  subject's  chains  of  memory, 
the  more  are  we  justified  in  accepting  the  hypnosis  as  genuine. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  straightway  discern  a  proof 
of  fraud  in  acts  which  may  possibly  have  been  performed 
automatically. 

From  two  points  of  view,  the  somatic  and  psychic  signs  of 
hypnosis  which  have  so  far  been  mentioned  have  only  a  relative 
value  in  deciding  the  question  of  fraud.  In  the  first  place,  we 
are  never  justified  in  concluding  fraud  from  the  absence  of  one 
or  all  of  these  signs.  For  example,  in  some  cataleptic  postures 
there  are  considerable  tremors,  in  many  cases  there  is  no 
analgesia,  etc.  In  the  second  place,  we  must  always  consider 
whether  any  symptom  might  not  be  produced  voluntarily 
without  hypnosis.  Here  we  must  remember  that  the  symptom 
can,  perhaps,  be  acquired  by  practice,  and  also  that  there  may 
possibly  be  a  special  capacity  for  the  voluntary  production  of 
this  sign. 


SIMULATION.  215 

The  important  point,  whether  an  apparently  objective 
symptom  does  not  occur  without  hypnosis,  is  often  overlooked; 
for  it  is  not  yet  decided  whether  by  practice  some  persons 
might  not  produce  all  the  above-mentioned  phenomena  without 
hypnosis.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  symptom  of  hypnosis  which 
has  not  already  been  observed  without  hypnosis.  I  have  already 
mentioned  that  neuro-muscular  hyperirritability  is  said  to  be 
found  in  hysterical  patients  who  have  not  been  hypnotized ; 
and  the  most  strained  cataleptic  attitudes  can  be  produced  by 
gymnasts  by  means  of  practice.  When  Hansen,  the  well- 
known  hypnotizer,  was  appearing  in  Vienna,  no  small  stir  was 
created  by  a  certain  Klein  who  declared  .he  could  voluntarily 
imitate  rigidity  of  the  whole  body.  I  may  further  mention 
that  cases  have  been  reported  of  persons  who  could  influence 
the  action  of  their  hearts  without  a  change  of  breathing; 
though,  according  to  Beaunis,  a  distinction  can  be  found  here: 
the  hypnotic  obeys  suggestion  at  once,  while  out  of  hypnosis  a 
short  time  must  always  elapse  before  the  will  can  exercise  its 
influence.  Local  flushings  are  another  symptom  apparently 
impossible  to  simulate;  yet  Mantegazza  says  that  at  one  time 
in  his  life  he  was  able  to  induce  local  reddening  of  the  skin 
simply  by  thinking  intently  of  the  spot;  he  even  adds  that 
wheals  sometimes  appeared.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that 
people  can  perspire  at  any  place  they  please.  Delboeuf  Fays 
that  he  can  influence  the  secretion  of  saliva  by  his  will  or 
ideas.  It  is  well  known  that  this  last  is  under  the  influence  of 
ideas  which  some  persons  can  call  up  when  they  please. 

I  have  purposely  made  these  remarks,  because  a  superficial 
observer  will  often  take  a  symptom  to  be  objective  which  a 
more  careful  investigator  would  not.  Of  course,  we  must 
always  take  these  symptoms  into  consideration,  because  they 
have  a  relative  value;  but  no  more  attention  should  be  paid 
them  than  scientific  criticism  permits. 

On  account  of  their  practical  importance,  I  shall  speak  of 
other  symptoms  which,  according  to  experience,  are  often 
wrongly  considered  by  outsiders  as  proofs  of  fraud.  The 
outsider  believes  that  hypnosis  must  invariably  present  an 
ideal  and  complete  picture,  and  he  consequently  assumes  there 
is  fraud  when  some  symptom  appears  which  does  not  fit  into 
that  picture. 

Let  us  take  the  laughter  of  hypnotic  subjects.     In  the  light 


2l6  HYPNOTISM. 

stages  the  subject  is  quite  aware  that  he  is  playing  a  somewhat 
absurd  paxt—e.g.y  he  makes  all  the  movements  of  eating  an 
apple  when  told  to,  although  he  really  has  nothing  to  eat. 
He  feels  compelled  to  make  the  movements,  but  knows  quite 
well  that  the  situation  is  ridiculous;  therefore  it  is  not  odd  that 
he  should  laugh.  But  there  is  often  a  trace  of  consciousness 
even  in  deep  hypnoses;  the  subject  separates  himself,  so  to 
speak,  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  acts  the  suggested  part  and 
the  other  observes  it  and  laughs.  We  have  observed  some- 
thing similar  in  dreams;  sometimes  we  dream  and  yet  feel  we 
are  dreaming. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  trembling  of  cataleptics.  The 
subject  sometimes  makes  quite  unexpected  movements  which 
interrupt  the  suggestion.  I  stretch  out  a  subject's  arm  and 
suggest  that  he  cannot  move  it.  It  remains  as  I  placed  it. 
But  now  a  fly  settles  on  the  subject's  forehead,  and  he  moves 
his  arm  at  once  to  scratch  the  place.  This  and  similar 
movements  are  of  common  occurrence  in  hypnosis,  and  have 
nothing  to  do  with  fraud.  Scratching  when  one  is  tickled 
is  sometimes  a  kind  of  impulsive  act.  We  often  see  a  person 
who  is  awake  attempt  to  resist  the  desire  to  scratch  some  spot, 
but  finally  succumb  to  the  impulse,  and  we  can  understand 
that  a  hypnotic  subject  may  be  similarly  influenced.  It  is 
true  that  the  experimenter's  assurance  that  the  subject  cannot 
move  his  arm  suflfices  to  inhibit  voluntary  flexion  of  the  limb; 
but  when  a  stronger  impulse,  like  itching,  acts  upon  the 
subject  in  a  manner  that  stimulates  movement,  it  becomes 
evident  that  the  suggested  inability  to  move  can  thereby  be 
very  easily  removed.  We  may  consider  the  whole  effect  pro- 
duced, the  resultant  of  two  forces — not  absolute  magnitudes — 
of  which  now  one,  now  the  other,  preponderates.  In  many 
cases  the  scratching  is  not  an  irrepressible  impulsive  move- 
ment, but  a  pure  reflex  action,  as  rapid  and  unconscious  as  in 
waking  life.  Here,  also,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  if  at  the 
moment  the  itching  begins  the  subject  is  not  thinking  of  the 
order  given  him,  the  new  and  sudden  impulse  to  move  causes 
movement.  I  have  seen  people  put  their  hands  to  their  faces 
when  they  sneezed,  as  we  habitually  do,  though  their  hands 
had  just  previously  been  made  motionless  by  suggestion. 
Besides,  many  movements  which  have  been  prevented  by 
suggestion  become  possible  when  the  subject  does  not  think 
of  the  suggestion.     If  a  subject  is  forbidden  to  say  "a"  he 


SIMULATION.  217 

can  often  use  it  in  conversation,  and  pronounces  words  con- 
taining it  without  hesitation;  he  only  cannot  say  it  when  he 
thinks  about  it  (Laverdant,  Hack  Tuke,  Max  Dessoir). 

I  will  further  point  out  that  the  eyes  sometimes  open  very 
quickly.  I  have  frequently  seen  this,  and  can  safely  assert 
that  it  happens  in  genuine  hypnoses.  An  impostor  will  also 
often  open  his  eyes  when  he  thinks  he  is  not  observed;  the 
hypnotic  subject  does  it  sometimes,  whether  he  thinks  he  is 
observed  or  not. 

A  series  of  similar  phenomena  must  be  included  here.  I 
say  to  a  hypnotized  subject,  X.,  "You  are  a  rope-dancer,  and 
are  on  the  rope."  He  believes  it,  and  I  pretend  to  cut  the 
rope,  on  which  he  falls  down;  but  he  falls  so  as  not  to  hurt 
himself.  This,  of  course,  is  the  natural  result  of  a  perfectly 
normal,  mechanical,  nearly  unconscious  process  which  is  always 
going  on  in  us.  We  always  use  our  hands  to  shield  ourselves 
when  we  fall.  This  habitual  mechanism  works  on  in  hypnosis 
regardless  of  any  suggestion.  Hysterical  paralytics — and 
drunkards,  too,  at  times — for  this  reason  seldom  hurt  them- 
selves when  they  fall.  Hack  Tuke  told  a  subject  he  was 
dead;  the  man  invariably  fell,  but  without  hurting  himself. 

Forel  once  had  two  dormice  under  observation  during  their  winter 
sleep.  He  took  one  of  them  and  put  it  at  the  top  of  a  fir-tree,  and 
as  soon  as  the  sole  of  the  sleeping  animal's  paw  touched  a  thin 
branch  of  the  tree  a  reflex  action  was  set  up,  and  the  claws  grappled 
the  branch  just  as  they  would  have  done  instinctively  in  waking  life. 
Forel  then  let  the  dormouse  hang  by  one  foot,  and  the  animal  gradually 
fell  fast  asleep  again.  The  muscles  of  the  foot  by  which  it  was  hanging 
slowly  relaxed ;  its  paw  extended  slowly  until  it  was  only  hanging  on  ly 
the  extremity  nearest  the  attachment  of  the  claws.  Forel  thought  that  the 
dormouse  must  fall.  Instead  of  that,  a  kind  of  instinctive  shock  seemed 
to  flash  through  its  nervous  system,  and  another  paw  seized  the  nearest 
underlying  branch,  so  that  the  animal  only  took  one  step  downwards. 
The  whole  scene  then  commenced  over  again.  Once  more  the  animal  fell 
asleep  and  its  paw  lost  its  grip,  and  once  more  another  paw  stretched  out 
and  grasped  a  lower-lying  bough.  The  dormouse  thus  gradually  descended 
the  tree  until  it  reached  the  foot,  where  its  cage  was,  in  which  it  remained 
asleep.  Forel  repeated  the  experiment  several  times  with  both  animals, 
and  the  result  was  always  the  same.     Neither  of  the  animals  ever  fell. 

I  have  cited  Forel's  observations  in  detail  because  they  show  that  reflex 
action  and  automatism  persist  during  hibernation.  From  this  it  is  perfectly 
evident  how  wrong  it  would  be  to  assume  fraud  because  a  hypnotic  per- 
forms automatic  movements. 

I  must  again  direct  attention  to  those  sense-delusions  in 
which,  as  I  have  already  demonstrated,  a  dim  consciousness 


21 8  HYPNOTISM. 

of  the  true  situation  persists.  In  this  way  situations  are 
created  which  arouse  the  suspicion  of  fraud — as,  for  example, 
in  the  case  mentioned  on  page  145,  where  a  subject  fought  with 
a  suggested  jenemy,  one  of  the  spectators,  but  took  pains  not 
to  hit  him. 

Further,  a  complicated  suggestion  may  be  misunderstood 
or  only  partially  retained,  in  which  case  it  will  be  carried  out 
imperfectly.  As  memory  is  the  first  condition  for  the  success 
of  a  suggestion,  it  follows  that  the  more  highly  cultivated  a 
person's  memory  is,  the  more  likely  will  he  be  {ceteris  paribus) 
to  carry  out  a  suggestion.  If  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion  is 
imperfectly  remembered  it  will  be  imperfectly  carried  out,  for 
hypnosis  does  not  produce  supernatural  results.  Obvious  as 
this  must  appear,  I  have  yet  heard  the  existence  of  hypnosis 
doubted  because  such  mistakes  have  been  made.  To  a  man 
whom  I  have  hypnotized  in  the  presence  of  A.,  B.,  C,  and  D., 
I  make  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  that  when  A.  speaks  he 
is  to  say  "  Ha ! "  when  B.  speaks,  "  He !  '*  when  C.  speaks, 
"  Hi ! "  and  when  D.  speaks,  **  Ho  ! "  As  the  command  is 
only  given  once  the  task  is  not  an  easy  one,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  subject  is  confused  and  makes  the  wrong 
exclamation  to  each  person.  To  the  class  of  imperfectly 
realized  suggestions  a  case  of  Joire's  also  belongs.  He 
suggested  to  a  person  that  the  name  Marie  was  written  on  a 
piece  of  paper.  When  the  paper  was  turned  upside  down  he 
seemed  to  see  the  letters  backwards — eiraM.  One  would, 
however,  have  expected  not  only  the  word  to  appear  backward, 
but  the  letters  upside  down  also.  Obviously,  neither  hallucina- 
tion nor  illusion  was  sufficiently  developed  in  the  subject  to 
permit  of  this.  And  we  must  remember  that  these  things 
depend  on  strength  of  memory,  and  on  the  strength  with 
which  sense-delusions  make  themselves  manifest. 

There  are,  moreover,  certain  transitional  forms  of  hypnosis 
which  suggest  fraud,  but  unjustifiably.  A  subject  will  go 
through  every  movement  I  command  him  to  make.  I  tell 
him  to  eat  an  imaginary  beefsteak,  and  he  goes  through  all 
the  motions  of  eating  a  steak  just  as  if  one  were  before  him. 
I  tell  him  to  drive  the  dog  away,  and  he  kicks  as  though  to  do 
so;  but  when  I  ask  him  where  the  dog  has  gone,  he  replies 
that  there  was  not  any  dog  there.  So,  too,  when  I  ask  him 
how  the  steak  tasted,  he  says  he  has  not  had  one.  To  the 
outsider  these  things  suggest  fraud,  but  in  reality  we  are  deal- 


SIMULATION.  219 

in«»  with  a  case  of  hypnosis  of  the  first  group  (cf,  p.  59).  The 
subject  had  to  move  as  told,  but  there  was  no  sense-delusion. 
We  may  form  a  correct  judgment  of  these  states  in  two  ways: 
(i)  by  following  the  experiment;  (2)  by  examining  the  subject's 
memory  after  hypnosis.  From  what  subjects  have  told  me,  I 
think  that  sense-delusion  must  be  excluded.  The  careful 
observation  of  subjects  points  to  this.  The  movements  were 
not  of  that  rapid  and  immediate  nature  associated  with 
hallucination;  they  were  much  more  the  outcome  of  com- 
pulsion. Even  the  facial  expression  of  a  subject  is  no  criterion 
of  simulation.  When  a  subject  says,  "There  is  not  any 
steak  there,"  or  shakes  his  head,  it  is  enough  to  prove 
that  any  movement  is  the  result  of  suggestion.  But  these 
very  contradictions  seem  to  confirm  the  outsider's  suspicion 
of- fraud. 

In  other  cases  the  subject  is  so  passive  that  he  makes  no 
opposition  to  any  suggestion  made  by  the  experimenter'. 
Should  the  latter  suggest  a  hallucination,  such  as  the 
presence  of  a  tiger,  the  subject,  when  questioned,  declares 
that  one  is  there,  but  he  does  not  run  away,  show  fear,  or 
behave  as  though  the  animal  was  really  present.  In  this 
case  there  is  neither  hallucination  nor  any  act  corresponding 
thereto,  only  an  affirmative  answer,  and  the  subject  subsequently 
remembers  this  fact.  Still,  outsiders  often  confuse  passive 
hypnosis  with  simulation. 

In  other  cases  the  patient  is  only  too  ready  to  do  all  he  is 
told,  and  this  easily  leads  to  simulation  being  suspected.  It 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  whether  the  subject  is 
acting  from  complacency,  or  whether  he  is  deprived  of  will- 
power. At  the  most,  we  can  only  ask  a  subject  to  exert  his 
whole  will  against  that  of  the  experimenter,  and  thereby  prove 
the  futility  of  his,  the  subject's,  exertions  and  his  loss  of  will- 
power. There  are,  of  course,  cases  in  which  the  subject's 
anxiety  to  conform  to  the  wishes  of  the  experimenter  spoil  the 
experiment;  but,  as  Hirschlaflf  rightly  points  out,  that  does  not 
justify  the  assumption  of  fraud.  In  this  connection  Hirschlaff 
mentions  the  experiments  which  have  been  made  to  produce 
blisters  by  suggestion.  But,  as  Hirschlaff  points  out,  although 
accessory  rubbing  was  suspected  in  the  case  of  one  subject, 
that  is  not  sufficient  to  justify  the  assumption  of  fraud.  We 
mußt  always  remember  that  the  subject  may  think  he  is  in 
duty  bound  to  do  anything  to  bring  about  the  desired  result. 


220  HYPNOTISM. 

Hirschlaff's  distinction  is  certainly  quite  right  from  a  psycho- 
logical point  of  view,  although  it  may  not  be  of  great  importance 
in  deciding  in  any  particular  case  whether  the  organic  lesion 
was  of  mechanical  or  mental  origin. 

In  discussing  abnormal  hypnoses,  Hirschlaff  also  very 
properly  points  out  that*  an  outsider  may  easily  take  the 
phenomena  presented  to  be  the  result  of  fraud  and  acting. 
For  example,  a  subject  when  hypnotized  for  the  first  time  will 
accept  every  suggestion  made,  but  in  subsequent  hypnoses 
he  will  refuse  to  carry  out  any  experiment  against  the  perform- 
ance of  which  he  has  prepared  himself  by  pre-hypnotic  auto- 
suggestion. When  told  his  right  arm  is  powerless,  he  replies, 
"No,  my  arm  is  not  going  to  be  stiff;  and  I  am  not  taking 
part  in  any  experiments."  When  the  subject  is  given  a  piece 
of  paper  and  assured  that  "it  is  a  chocolate  tablet,  he  replies, 
"That  is  a  piece  of  paper;  I  knew  quite  well  beforehand 
that  you  would  repeat  this  experiment,  but  I  have  made 
up  my  mind  not  to  be  taken  in  again."  Naturally,  no  one 
but  an  outsider  would  conclude  that  such  remarks  point  to 
simulation. 

Finally,  I  must  mention  that  a  subject  will  sometimes  con- 
fess to  imposition,  or  to  having  acted  to  please  others.  Such 
a  confession  must  be  judged  with  caution.  Many  who  have 
made  hypnotic  experiments  have  observed  that  subjects  will 
often  say  a,fter  the  hypnosis  that  they  have  been  pretending, 
though  their  actions  were  really  compulsory.  Much  has  been 
written  on  the  significance  of  confession  in  criminal  cases,  and 
Ernst  Lohsing  has  recently  published  a  small  monograph  on 
the  subject.  He  has  come  to  the  very  proper  conclusion  that 
a  prisoner  should  never  be  found  guilty  of  a  crime  merely 
because  he  has  confessed  to  it.  If  the  criminal  law  is  satisfied 
that  confession  to  a  crime  never  justifies  the  assumption  that 
crime  has  been  committed,  it  would  be  in  the  highest  degree 
erroneous  to  consider  a  subject's  assertion  that  he  has  simu- 
lated hypnosis  as  a  proof  of  fraud  on  his  part.  Lohsing  points 
out  that  in  judging  the  value  of  a  confession  in  criminal  cases 
we  must  examine  the  motive,  taking  care  at  the  same  time  to 
distinguish  between  the  motive  and  that  which  underlies  it. 
The  same  procedure  must  be  followed  in  hypnosis.  For 
example,  a  patient  receives  hypnotic  treatment  from  a  doctor, 
but  without  success;  he  is  annoyed  because  the  doctor  demands 
payment  for  his  trouble,  and  declares  that  he  only  pretended  to 


SIMULATION.  221 

be  hypnotized.  Another  person  is  vexed  because  he  has  been 
a  mere  plaything  in  the  hands  of  a  professional  hypnotizer 
before  a  number  of  spectators.  He  had  gone  on  to  the  stage" 
•to  unmask  the  hypnotizer,  but  had  proved  himself  one  of  the 
best  subjects.  He  is  so  annoyed  and  so  anxious  not  to  admit 
that  his  actions  on  the  stage  were  compulsory,  that  he  asserts 
he  was  pretending  all  the  time.  In  other  cases  a  confession 
may  be  extorted  by  compulsion  or  fear.  We  can  easily  imagine 
such  a  case  as  the  following: — A.  is  in  a  position  of  authority 
over  X.,  but  fails  in  every  attempt  to  hypnotize  him,  whereas 
B.  succeeds  at  once.  This  annoys  A.,  and  the  next  time  he 
meets  X.  he  brings  his  authority  into  play,  partly  intentionally 
and  partly  unintentionally,  and  thereby  leads  X.  to  confess  to 
fraud.  Here,  of  course,  the  dread  that  a  denial  of  imposture 
might  bring  about  unpleasant  consequences  may  also  play  a 
part.  Take  another  case:  The  head  physician  of  a  hospital 
fails  to  hypnotize  a  patient,  but  another  doctor  succeeds  in 
doing  so.  The  next  time  the  patient  visits  the  hospital  he 
is  so  afraid — possibly  quite  unjustifiably — of  all  sorts  of  little 
unpleasantnesses  if  he  does  not  gratify  the  head  physician's 
vanity,  that  he  denies  that  the  other  doctor  had  ever  hyp- 
notized him. 

In  cases  like  those  cited  above,  the  subjects  tell  untruths 
unconsciously;  but  it  is  much  more  interesting  from  a  psycho- 
logical point  of  view  when  untruthfulness  is  the  result  of  self- 
deception.  Here  the  self-deception  is  the  same  as  we  have 
found  in  some  cases  of  post-hypnotic  deception.  The  subjects 
think  they  could  have  acted  otherwise  if  they  had  so  pleased 
(F.  Myers).  Heidenhain  mentions  such  a  case :  a  doctor  said, 
after  the  hypnosis,  that  he  could  have  opened  his  eyes  if  he 
had  wanted  to;  but  when  the  hypnosis  was  renewed  he  could 
no  more  help  himself  than  on  the  first  occasion.  I  have  made 
a  number  of  similar  observations  myself.  One  case  was  that . 
of  a  doctor  who  at  first  almost  invariably  stated  after  hypnosis 
that  he  could  have  behaved  otherwise,  only  he  did  not  wish  to 
open  his  eyes,  etc. ;  but  in  each  fresh  hypnosis  his  will  was  in- 
hibited. Finally,  he  himself  became  aware  of  his  loss  of  will- 
power. In  another  case,  I  hypnotized  X.  at  least  ten  times 
before  he  would  admit  that  the  suggested  paralysis  of  his  arm 
had  really  made  him  unable  to  move  it;  he  previously  believed 
that  he  had  so  behaved  to  please  me.  I  may  here  mention 
that  many  a  man  who  has  done  something  stupid  when  drunk 


222  HYPNOTISM. 

for  the  first  time,  is  often  convinced  on  the  following  day  that 
he  could  have  controlled  himself  if  he  had  wished  to.  The 
self-deceptive  process  here  is  obviously  just  like  that  in  the 
other  cases  mentioned. 

All  this  makes  it  evident  how  difficult  it  is  to  decide  the 
question  with  regard  to  fraud.  It  seems  to  me  to  occur 
relatively  more  often  with  children,  but  the  transition  from 
simulation  to  true  hypnosis  is  so  gradual  tha-t  even  an  experi- 
enced experimenter  is  sometimes  uncertain.  For  example, 
when  a  subject  shuts  his  eyes  to  be  obliging,  it  is  not  the  same 
thing  as  if  he  shut  them  to  deceive;  or  he  shuts  them  because 
he  is  tired  of  fixing  them  on  something,  but  could  open  them 
by  a  strong  effort,  though  he  keeps  them  shut  because  it  is 
more  comfortable.  It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  identify 
this  with  simulation.  Others  do  what  the  experimenter  wishes, 
to  please  him,  but  not  to  deceive  him.  This,  as  I  have  already 
mentioned,  is  not  pure  fraud  either;  we  can  only  speak  of  that 
when  there  is  the  deliberate  intention  to  deceive. 

There  is  yet  another  complication :  people  in  hypnosis  some- 
times pretend  exactly  as  insane  persons  do.  Thus,  a  hypnotic 
will  say  he  sees  something  when  he  does  not.  It  is,  naturally, 
difficult  to  say  where  deceit  begins  and  ends  in  such  a  case; 
but,  generally  speaking,  practice  will  enable  us  to  Judge  the 
mental  state  of  the  subject  with  some  certainty,  or  at  least 
great  probability.  It  occasionally  happens  that  the  most 
experienced  deceive  themselves  or  are  deceived;  the  most 
experienced  alienist  or  neurologist  is  in  the  same  case.  But 
that  is  no  reason  why  we  should  deny  the  reality  of  hypnosis. 
Obersteiner  justly  observes:  "A  group  of  morbid  symptoms, 
such  as  an  epileptic  fit,  may  be  so  exactly  reproduced  by  clever 
simulation  that  even  the  most  skilful  expert  (Esquirol,  for 
example)  may  be  deceived.  And  yet,  unfortunately,  we  must 
still  unconditionally  recognize  the  existence  of  epileptic  fits." 
The  fear  of  being  deceived  has  prevented  many  from  interest* 
ing  themselves  in  the  subject; ^et  no  other  principles  need  be 
followed  than  those  which  guide  us  in  the  study  of  other 
mental  states — psychopathic  states,  for  example.  Each  case 
must  be  treated  with  scientific  reserve,  as  mental  cases  are 
treated.  We  must  not  make  imp>ossible  demands  in  order  to 
exclude  imposition;  to  do  so  would  be  to  overstep  the  bounds 
of  scientific  scepticism,  and  would,  in  truth,  only  display  an 


SIMULATION.  223 

unscientific  mind.  I  have  heard  a  **  cultivated ''man,  who 
thought  himself  scientifically  sceptical,  say,  when  watching  a 
hypnotic  subject,  that  he  would  only  believe  in  the  reality  of 
the  hypnosis  if  the  subject  could  see  through  a  non-transparent 
substance — e,g.^  if  he  could  see  through  a  man  as  if  he  were  a 
piece  of  glass ! 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE   THEORY   OF   HYPNOTISM. 

We  have  learned  in  the  preceding*  chapters  that  the  pheno- 
mena of  hypnosis  are  extremely  complex,  and  the  question 
now  is,  *'  Can  these  phenomena  be  explained?"  We  must  not 
demand  too  much  in  this  connection.  To  explain  a  hitherto 
unknown  thing,  we  must  trace  it  back  to  what  we  do  know. 
If  we  adhere  to  that,  and  also  bear  in  mind  that  we  know 
nothing  of  the  real  nature  of  our  mental  processes,  it  is  evident 
that  any  explanation  of  hypnosis  must  be  a  limited  one.  Our 
knowledge  of  mental  processes  is  confined  to  certain  con- 
comitant phenomena  and  their  symptoms,  and  these  are  often 
but  inadequately  apprehended,  while  the  real  nature  of  such 
processes  is  debarred  us.  Under  these  circumstances  we  must 
be  satisfied  by  such  an  explanation  as  may  be  got  by  demon- 
strating that  hypnosis  presents  phenomena  parallel  to  those  of 
non-hypnotic  life.  We  must  settle  what  are  the  true,  and 
what  the  apparent,  differences  between  the  two  states,  and 
then  we  must  find  a  causal  connection  between  the  peculiar 
phenomena  of  hypnosis  and  the  hypnosigenic  method  em- 
ployed. An  example  will  make  this  clearer.  I  will  suppose 
that  we  want  to  find  an  explanation  of  a  hypnotic  negative 
hallucination  of  sight.  We  must  first  of  all  find  an  analogous 
phenomenon  in  a  non-hypnotic  state.  If  we  find  a  case  in 
which,  without  hypnosis,  an  object  is  not  perceived,  though 
the  eye  must  have  seen  it,  we  must  then  ask  what  is  the 
difference  between  this  phenomenon  and  the  same  pheno- 
menon in  hypnosis.  We  shall  then  find  that  in  hypnosis 
objects  are  not  perceived  only  when  the  experimenter  forbids 
the  perception;  but  that  to  forbid  the  perception  of  an  object 
in  waking  life  would  be  to  ensure  its  being  perceived.  This 
point  of  difference  must  be  kept  in  view  for  a  proper  explana- 
tion.    It  will  be  explained  by  the  existence  in  the  one  case  of 

224 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  225 

a  peculiar  state  of  consciousness — dream-consciousness;  and 
we  must  then  ask  how  hypnosigenesis  explains  the  formation 
of  this  dream-consciousness.  It  is  a  conspicuous  flaw  in  many 
theories  of  hypnotism  that  they  attempt  to  explain  more  than 
can  be  explained  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  and 
more  than  we  are  justified  in  demanding  of  them.  An  ex- 
planation of  hypnosis  is  not  called  upon  to  explain  the  real 
nature  of  the  process  by  which  an  idea  is  aroused;  that  is  a 
problem  for  psychology  in  general  to  solve.  Similarly,  we 
have  no  right  to  demand  that  an  explanation  of  hypnosis 
should  explain  the  real  nature  of  dream-consciousness  as  well. 
Certain  facts  must  always  be  taken  for  granted.  Only  super- 
ficial considerations  could  lead  any  one  seeking  to  explain 
hypnosis  to  expect  an  explanation  of  the  facts  just  mentioned. 
In  studying  psychological  questions  I  always  start  from  certain 
postulates,  and  never  have  anything  to  do  with  theories  based 
on  the  theory  of  cognition.  Similarly,  any  one  who  desires  to 
explain  hypnosis  must  accept  certain  postulates  which  he  may, 
with  a  tranquil  mind,  leave  to  be  explained  later  on  by  some 
other  branch  of  psychology. 

I  think  we  can  now  explain  many  of  the  hypnotic  phenomena, 
if  "  explanation  "  is  taken  in  the  above  sense.  About  fifteen 
years  ago  I  attempted  to  explain  post-hypnotic  suggestion  in  this 
way.  In  any  case,  such  numerous  analogies  to  the  phenomena 
of  hypnosis  have  already  been  found  that  it  has  been  rescued 
from  the  domain  of  mysticism  and  occultism  once  and  for  all. 
We  need  no  longer  think  the  methods  of  hypnotism  incompre- 
hensible, as  was  the  case  formerly.  This  has,  to  an  extent, 
been  brought  about  by  more  careful  methods  of  observation, 
by  means  of  which  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  waking  life, 
sleep,  and  other  states  present  so  many  phenomena  analogous 
to  those  of  hypnosis,  that  the  latter  can  hardly  be  said  to 
present  a  symptom  exclusively  its  own.  Much  progress  has 
also  been  made  by  following  the  method  recommended  by 
Obersteiner;  />.,  by  studying  the  transitional  states  between 
normal  life  and  hypnosis.  In  this  way  we  have  found  many 
more  connecting  links  with  normal  life  than  was  originally 
expected.  Self-observation  when  practised  by  such  intelligent 
investigators  as  Wilkinson,  Bleuler,  Forel,  Obersteiner,  North, 
August  Heidenhain,  Wundt,  Döllken,  Marcinowski,  Straaten, 
Frau  Bosse,  Vogt,  and  Frau  Vogt,  has  done  much  to  further 
our  comprehension  of  hypnotic  phenomena. 

15 


226  HYPNOTISM. 

Fr.  Fuchs,  it  is  true,  has  asserted  that  hitherto  hypnotic  experiments 
have  only  proved  successful  when  the  subjects  have  been  priggish  young 
men  or  young  women,  and  not  strenuous  male  adults.  This  shows  how 
thoroughly  Fuchs  is  acquainted  with  the  literature  of  the  subject.  If  he 
includes  such  men  as  Obersteiner,  Bleuler,  Forel,  Wundt,  etc.,  among  the 
prigs,  then  an  impartial  observer  will  not  have  much  difficulty  in  deciding 
who  is  the  prig  when  he  has  to  choose  between  Mr.  Fuchs  of  Bonn  and 
the  gentlemen  I  have  named. 

We  must  never  forget  when  endeavouring  to  explain  hyp- 
nosis, that  a  uniform  explanation  is  impossible,  because  the 
term  hypnosis  includes  states  that  differ  very  much  from  one 
another.  If  we  consider  the  remarks  on  the  classification  of 
hypnoses  made  on  page  59,  it  at  once  becomes  evident  that 
Max  Dessoir's  two  groups  represent  two  totally  different  states, 
and  Hirschlaff  excludes  the  first  group  altogether  from  the 
category  of  hypnoses.  At  all  events,  when  a  subject  retains 
consciousness  and  self-consciousness,  there  is  an  essential 
difference  between  his  being  unable  to  perform  certain  move- 
ments and  his  believing  that  he  has  been  transported  to  another 
situation  differing  both  as  to  time  and  place  from  the  one  in 
which  he  really  is.  But  we  could  easily  produce  other  types, 
apart  from  the  two  states  just  mentioned.  For  this  reason  I 
think  it  is  better  to  discuss  the  chief  symptoms  of  hypnotical 
phenomena  simply,  than  to  attempt  to  discover  a  uniform 
explanation  for  them  all.  I  shall  follow  this  plan  and  devote 
my  attention  to  (i)  the  phenomena  of  suggestion  as  regards 
voluntary  movement;  (2)  positive  and  negative  delusions  of 
the  senses;  (3)  rapport ;  (4)  the  phenomena  of  memory;  (5) 
post-hypnotic  suggestion. 

We  shall  understand  the  different  symptoms  of  hypnosis 
much  more  easily  if  we  recognize  certain  facts  in  the  mental 
life  of  human  beings.  They  are  of  immense  importance  to 
psychology,  physiology,  medicine  and  jurisprudence,  as  well 
as  to  hypnotism.  The  facts  to  which  I  refer  are — (i)  Men 
have  a  certain  proneness  to  allow  themselves  to  be  influenced 
by  others,  and  at  the  same  time  to  believe  much  without 
making  conscious  logical  deductions;  (2)  a  psychological  or 
physiological  process  tends  to  appear  in  a  man  if  he  believes 
it  will;  (3)  a  man's  susceptibility  to  influence  based  on  the 
two  preceding  facts  is  often  specially  marked  in  respect  to 
some  particular  person ;  (4)  capability  of  being  influenced  in 
this  way  is  generally  increased  if  a  person  has  learned  by 
previous  experience  that  he  has  a  tendency  in  this  direction; 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  227 

(5)  besides  the  ordinary  state  of  waking  consciousness  there 
is  another,  which  we  may  term  dream-consciousness;  it  is 
brought  about  by  certain  definite  physiological  and  pathological 
conditions,  is  capable  of  developing  those  characteristics  of  the 
human  mind  which  we  are  now  discussing  very  considerably, 
and  is  specially  noticeable  for  its  influence  on  sense-perception. 

Let  us  begin  by  considering  the  first  point.  There  are 
people  who  believe  that  they  can  escape  external  mental 
influences ;  but  they  are  wrong.  Life  is  full  of  such  influences, 
and  they  will  work  as  long  as  there  is  mental  activity  among 
men.  The  desire  for  society,  the  necessity  of  exchanging 
opinions,  show  our  proneness  to  influence  others  or  be 
influenced  by  them.  In  this  way  we  often  attempt  to 
convert  a  scientific  or  political  opponent. 

In  such  a  case,  of  course,  we  generally  endeavour  to  attain 
our  object  by  producing  logical  proofs.  But,  that  men  have 
a  tendency  to  believe  things  without  complete  logical  proof 
cannot  be  doubted  for  one  moment.  We  will  call  this  quality 
credulity.  There  is  no  man  who  believes  only  what  has  been 
logically  proved  to  him.  A  conscious  logical  conclusion  is 
hardly  ever  the  immediate  result  of  a  sense-perception,  yet 
we  form  our  judgment  of  external  objects  as  if  that  were 
really  the  case.  Most  people  confuse  the  subjective  idea  of 
an  object  with  the  object  itself  (Spencer) ;  wheceas  the  latter, 
the  **  thing  in  itself,"  as  Kant  calls  it,  is  quite  unknown  to  us. 
But  apart  from  the  delusions  of  judgment  which  we  make 
with  regard  to  our  sense-impressions,  we  find  that  human 
credulity  ranges  over  a  very  wide  field.  It  is  emotional 
emphasis,  in  particular,  that  causes  the  processes  which  exert 
an  influence  on  credulity.  We  easily  believe  anything  we 
want  to  hear,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that  a 
patient  is  much  more  ready  to  believe  the  quack  who  tells 
him  he  will  get  well  than  the  doctor  who  declares  his  malady 
incurable.  This  is  to  a  great  extent  the  result  of  the  influence 
of  the  quack,  who,  knowing  full  well  the  weakness  of  his 
patients  in  this  respect,  promises  them  recovery  from  even 
absolutely  incurable  diseases,  a  promise  which  no  honourable 
medical  man  could  possibly  make.  Also,  the  constant  repeti- 
tion of  an  assertion  facilitates  belief  in  its  accuracy.  The 
success  of  those  clever  advertisements  from  which  no  one 
escapes,  least  of  all  the  very  people  who  consider  themselves 
secure  against  such  allurements,  makes  this  particularly  clear ; 


228  HYPNOTISM. 

and  the  history  of  hypnotism  shows  plainly  what  a  power  the 
constant  repetition  of  an  assertion  has.  Twenty  years  ago 
most  people  believed  that  there  was  really  no  such  thing  as 
hypnotism  and  that  any  belief  in  it  was  attributable  to  self- 
deception  on  the  part  of  the  experimenter  or  fraud  on  that  of 
the  subject.  Since  that  time  a  complete  reaction  has  set  in 
and  opinion  has  changed,  influenced  to  no  slight  extent  by 
the  constant  accessions  to  the  ranks  of  those  investigators  by 
whom  the  reality  of  hypnotism  was  originally  maintained. 
Doctors  and  others  have  changed  their  opinions  about  hyp- 
notism, not  because  it  has  been  definitely  demonstrated  to 
them,  but  because  they  have  been  influenced  by  constantly 
hearing  and  reading  the  same  assertions  about  it.  To  this  we 
may  add  that  faith  in  authority  has  also  played  a  definite, 
though  not  exclusive,  part.  For  even  after  Charcot,  Heiden- 
hain, and  a  number  of  other  authorities  had  admitted  the 
reality  of  hypnosis,  many  people  still  believed  the  whole  thing 
to  be  a  swindle  and  that  those  investigators  had  been  deceived. 
Certainly,  the  personality  of  any  one  who  wishes  to  influence 
another's  belief  plays  a  special  part.  I  shall  return  to  this 
point  later  on. 

I  will  now  proceed  to  discuss  the  second  of  the  facts  of 
human  mental  life  given  above — /.^.,  the  physiological  and 
psychological,  action  of  belief.  Carpenter,  Hack  Tuke,  and 
other  English  investigators  long  ago  ascribed  great  importance 
to  strained  expectation — "expectant  attention,"  they  termed 
it.  The  second  of  these  factors  must  be  strictly  separated 
from  the  first.  It  is  quite  possible  to  believe  something 
without  the  action  corresponding  to  that  belief  taking  place. 
A  man  may  believe  that  he  has  taken  an  anodyne  powder 
without  the  pain  for  which  it  was  taken  subsiding.  For  belief 
to  be  effective  a  particular  mental  predisposition  is  certainly 
requisite.  We  cannot  analyze  this  predisposition  in  all  cases ; 
it  may  be  present  on  one  occasion,  absent  on  another.  We 
find  exactly  the  same  thing  apart  from  hypnosis — e.g,^ 
in  pathology.  I  have  already  mentioned  that  people  who 
suffer  from  dread  of  blushing  are  particularly  liable  to  blush 
when  they  most  dread  they  will  do  so.  Other  pathological 
cases  present  similar  phenomena.  At  present  we  are  only 
able  to  establish  the  fact  that. in  ordinary  life — /.^.,  outside 
hypnosis,  there  is  occasionally  a  predisposition  to  be  influenced 
psychologically  and  physiologically  by  belief  in  something. 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  229 

A  few  examples  will  illustrate  this  effect  of  belief.  It  often 
occurs  that  people  vomit  if  they  think  they  have  taken  an 
emetic,  although  they  have  not  taken  anything  of  the  kind.  A 
person  who  goes  to  bed  believing  he  has  taken  a  sleeping 
powder  often  falls  asleep,  even  if  the  powder  only  contains 
some  inert  substance.  These  phenomena  are  particularly 
noticeable  in  pathological  cases.  Hysterical  paralysis  is  often 
cured  at  the  exact  moment  the  patient  expects.  Many 
apparently  mysterious  effects  may  be  explained  in  this  way. 
Hysterical  patients  can  occasionally  foretell  an  improvement  in 
their  paralysis.  That  recovery  should  follow  need  not  surprise 
us  if  we  remember  the  foregoing  remarks,  for  the  connection  is 
totally  different  from  what  believers  in  the  gift  of  prophecy 
think.  The  hysterical  patient  is  cured  at  a  particular  moment 
because  he  expects  to  be,  and  the  prophecy  is  thereby 
apparently  fulfilled.  Pathological  phenomena  also  frequently 
occur  when  expected  by  the  patient — for  example,  impotentia 
coeundi  of  mental  origin,  stammering  and  other  disorders  of 
speech.  Let  me  here  call  attention  to  a  mistake  that  is 
frequently  made:  people  confuse  the  expectation  of  a  state 
with  the  wish  for  it.  No  patient  wishes  to  be  impotent,  but 
he  becomes  so  because  he  expects  the  calamity;  it  is  the  same 
with  stammering. 

We  can  readily  understand  that  the  fulfilment  of  an  expecta- 
tion may  be  hindered,  especially  by  impediments  of  organic 
nature.  However  much  a  sufferer  from  severe  myelitis  may 
expect  his  paralyzed  legs  to  move  they  will  not  do  so,  because 
the  anatomical  changes  in  his  spinal  cord  present  an  impedi- 
ment which  cannot  be  overcome  by  expectation.  There  are 
other  impediments  which  hinder  expectation  from  taking  effect. 
But  this  does  not  disprove  the  fact  that  belief  has  a  tendency 
to  produce  an  effect.  The  efficacy  of  a  tendency  may  be 
impaired,  but  the  tendency  as  such  will  remain  unaffected. 

The  influence  of  belief — the  phenomenon  we  have  just  been 
discussing — is  not  confined  to  its  effect  on  the  voluntary 
muscular  system.  Its  range  is  much  wider  than  could  be 
gathered  from  the  examples  already  given.  Menstruation,  for 
instance,  is  affected  by  it.  Forel  mentions  that  there  are 
certain  popular  methods  of  retarding  the  catamenia.  In  one 
town  many  of  the  young  women  tie  something  round  their 
little  finger  if  they  wish  to  delay  menstruation  for  a  few  days  in 
order  to  go  to  a  ball,  etc.     The  method  is  generally  effectual. 


230  HYPNOTISM. 

It  has  also  been  observed  that  belief  influences  the  organs  of 
sense  under  particular  circumstances.  The  following  case  of 
Carpenter's  is  related  by  Bentivegni: — A  judicial  disinterment 
was  to  be  made;  the  grave  was  opened  and  the  coffin  raised; 
the  official  present  said  that  he  already  smelt  putrefaction; 
but  when  the  coffin  was  opened  it  was  found  to  be  empty. 
Here  expectation  caused  a  distinct  sense-perception.  Archibald 
tells  of  a  teacher  who  described  various  perfumes  to  the  children 
in  his  class,  and  then  told  them  that  he  would  sprinkle  some- 
thing about  the  room.  Although  he  only  used  pure  water,  95 
per  cent,  of  the  children  declared  that  they  could  smell  scent. 
Somewhat  older  children  were  not  quite  so  susceptible  to 
suggestion,  though  not  altogether  wanting  in  susceptibility. 
Yung  has  made  a  series  of  experiments  and  has  proved  that 
the  sense  of  touch  and  the  sense  of  temperature,  particularly 
the  latter,  are  subject  to  delusion,  and  that  certain  perceptions 
occur  when  they  are  expected  without  external  stimuli.  I 
myself  have  often  repeated  the  following  experiments  of  Braid, 
Weinhold  and  others: — I  blindfolded  certain  persons,  doctors 
among  the  number,  and  then  told  them  that  they  were  going 
to  be  mesmerized.  Even  when  I  did  not  mesmerize  them 
they  generally  imagined  they  felt  the  current  of  air  caused  by 
the  passes,  and  believed  they  could  tell  the  exact  moment  when 
the  passes  were  begun.  Here  we  see  expectation  produce  a 
perception.  Many  people  begin  to  feel  the  pain  of  an  operation 
almost  before  the  knife  has  touched  them,  simply  because  their 
whole  attention  is  fixed  upon  the  pain  and  the  beginning  of  the 
operation. 

It  is  upon  the  simultaneous  development  of  the  two  char- 
acteristics of  the  human  mind  which  we  have  just  described — 
viz.,  the  tendency  to  believe  without  logical  proof,  and  the 
influence  of  belief  on  the  human  organism — that  suggestion 
depends.  The  phenomena  they  present  occur  often  enough 
in  non-hypnotic  states;  and  even  if  we  are  obliged  to  admit 
that  any  inordinate  intensification  of  their  activity  is  only 
observed  in  hypnosis,  we  should  have  to  desert  the  safe  ground 
of  reality  if  we  wished  to  limit  that  activity  to  hypnosis  alone» 
I  have  already  discussed  the  various  definitions  of  suggestion 
(p.  64  et  sef.),  and  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  explanations 
which  I  then  gave  for  a  proof  that  influences  which  a  super- 
ficial observer  considers  only  effectual  in  hypnosis  may  be 
equally  so  in  every-day  life.    Höfler  thinks  that  we  should  only 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  23 1 

speak  of  suggestion  when  a  judgment  is  formed  or  a  wish 
executed  in  a  way  that  is  not  quite  normal,  the  power  of  judg- 
ment and  the  energy  of  the  will  being  for  the  time  partially  in 
abeyance.  For  example,  he  ascribes  the  effect  of  a  doctor's 
assuring  a  patient,  in  a  tone  conveying  complete  personal  con- 
viction and  truthfulness,  "You  will  be  well,"  to  suggestive 
influence,  because  the  patient  cheerfully  believes  the  statement 
without  any  proof  of  its  accuracy.  This  view  is  quite  justified. 
Only,  we  should  remember  that  it  is  quite  a  common  occurrence 
for  a  judgment  to  be  formed  or  a  wish  fulfilled  "in  a  way  that 
is  not  quite  normal'* — a  fact  which  psiychologists  are  apt  to 
overlook.  We  can  also  see  that  all  that  Bechterew,  Lipps, 
William  Hirsch  and  others  have  written  on  the  "concept" 
suggestion  still  leaves  suggestion  a  wide  field  of  operation 
outside  the  domain  of  hypnosis.  An  examination  of  those 
theories  which  put  the  associative  processes  in  the  foreground, 
or  of  Dubois'  and  Vogt's  definitions  mentioned  on  page  66, 
shows  at  once  that  suggestion  is  not  limited  to  hypnosis.  No 
matter  what  definition  we  select,  it  will  always  be  found  that 
non-hypnotic  states  present  processes  analogous  to  those  of 
hypnosis.  Sidis  thinks  that  there  must  always  be  more  or  less 
resistance  to  suggestion;  but  this  is  wrong,  whether  the  sugges- 
tion be  hypnotic  or  post-hypnotic.  As  Hirschlaff  very  properly 
insists,  those  phenomena  of  waking  life  which  arise  from 
stupidity,  superstition,  feeble-mindedness,  and  fanaticism  bear 
a  great  similarity  to  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis.  In  all  such 
cases  there  is  suggestion,  and  the  suggestion  is  accepted  and 
carried  out  without  hypnosis  because  of  the  subject's  mental 
predisposition,  and  there  is  certainly  no  resistance.  Lipps 
lays  stress  on  the  inclusion  of  the  extraordinary  in  the  concept 
suggestion,  but  that  should  not  lead  us  to  exaggerate.  Many 
things  appear  extraordinary  which  are  not  so  in  reality.  And 
we  must  admit  that  suggestive  processes  are  of  daily  occurrence 
in  ordinary  life,  unless  we  would  dissociate  phenomena  which 
really  belong  together.  Hellpach  gives  the  following  example: 
— If  a  man  is  told  when  he  sits  down  to  dinner  that  the  food 
placed  before  him  is  unsavoury  or  dirty,  and  he  experiences  a 
momentary  feeling  of  aversion,  that  is  an  ordinary  phenomenon, 
and  not  a  case  of  suggestion;  if,  however,  this  aversion  is  not 
dispelled  by  the  food  being  of  good  quality,  but  increases  to 
loss  of  appetite  and  nausea,  then  suggestion  is  at  work. 

I  now  come  to  the  third  fact  in  the  mental  life  of  man — viz , 


232  HYPNOTISM. 

the  susceptibility  which  an  individual  may  evince  to  the  influ- 
ence of  some  particular  person.     The  latter  need  not  be  an 
all-round  authority,  but  may  yet  influence  people  who  are  in 
no  way  mentally  deficient.     It  is  well  known,  for  example,  that 
great  and  learned  men  are  often  under  the  influence  of  a  person 
who  is  their  intellectual  inferior.     We  know  well  enough  that 
even  lunatics  and  weak-minded  persons  are  sometimes  able  to 
influence  not  only  certain  individuals,  but  even  large  numbers 
of  people.     Many  a  political  or  religious  movement  owes  its 
success  to  the  influence  of  mentally-deranged  persons.     And 
when   we   consider  our  behaviour  with   regard  to  dogmatic 
assertion,   human  credulity  is   made   particularly  clear.     As 
children  are  particularly  credulous  of  dogmatic  assertions,  and 
as  such  credulity  is  strongly  marked  in  hypnosis,  this  state  has 
often  been  compared  to  childhood  (Copin,  Miescher,  Cullerre, 
Wernicke).     I  was  told  at  school  that  the  North  Cape  was  the 
most  northerly  point  of  Europe.    This  was  not  logically  proved 
to  me,  yet  I  believed  it  because  it  was  in  the  book,  and  more 
especially  because  the  teacher  said  so.     Dogmatic  assertion 
influences  not  only  children,  but  adults,  for  the  latter  believe 
in  the  existence  of  land  near  the  pole,  not  that  they  have  ever 
seen  it,  but  solely  because  they  have  been  told  that  it  is  there. 
Certainly  we  are  unable  to  explain  upon  what  the  influence 
which  some  people  exert  depends,  especially  when  there  is  no 
question  of  authority.     Still,  we  must  take  this  influence  to  be 
an  actuality,  confirmed  by  many  instances  in  daily  life.     We 
cannot  explain  sexual  love.     The  man  who  falls  in  love  with  a 
woman  allows  her  to  domineer  over  him.     Sexual  influence 
may  even  go  so  far  as  to  induce  a  state  of  "sexual  sub- 
serviency," as  Krafft-Ebing  tersely  terms  it.     This  is   char- 
acterized by  unconditional  surrender  of  the  will.     But  we  find 
this  influence  of  one  individual  over  another  quite  apart  from 
sexual  love.    This  is  well  exemplified  in  school  life ;  one  master 
has  greater  influence  over  his  pupils  than  another,  because  the 
influence  exerted  has  usually  no  logical   basis.     Anyway,  it 
would  be  altogether  wrong  to  deny  the  existence  of  personal 
influence.     And  I  do  not  consider  that  Lcewenfeld  is  right  in 
his  view  that  in  hypnotic  suggestion  the  personal  influence  of 
the  experimenter  is  put  in  the  background  by  other  methods  of 
influence — entreaty,  advice,  command. 

The  circumstance  that  we  are  unable  lo  analyze  the  cause  of 
personal  influence  in  numerous  cases  has  led  to  all  kinds  of 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  233 

mystical  theories  being  propounded,  especially  that  of  animal 
magnetism,  by  which  it  is  attempted  to  prove  that  the  influence 
in  question  is  due  to  some  kind  of  physical  action,  although  in 
reality  it  depends  on  processes  that  are  entirely  mental.  The 
fact  that  we  are  not  always  able  to  understand  these  processes 
often  leaves  a  mysterious  impression,  and  Eschle,  consequently, 
agrees  with  Rosenbach  that  there  is  a  mystic  factor  in  suggestive 
influence.  We  must  not,  however,  call  a  phenomenon  mystical 
because  we  do  not  understand  all  its  details;  otherwise  we 
should  have  to  term  sexual  love,  the  influence  of  teacher  on 
pupil,  and  many  other  similar  human  relations  mystical  also. 

Many  experiences  of  daily  life  also  confirm  the  fourth  of  the 
facts  under  consideration — viz.,  that  if  one  person  commences 
to  exert  an  influence  over  another,  that  influence  is  increased 
by  subsequent  repetition.  It  frequently  happens  that  when 
two  people  fall  out  neither  will  give  way,  no  matter  how  trivial 
the  subject  in  dispute  may  be.  Each  disputant  fears  that  if 
the*  other  gain  no  matter  how  small  a  success,  he  will  demand 
more.  In  the  winner  the  consciousness  of  victory,  which  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  success  gained,  is  increased,  while  the 
loser  feels  a  lessened  power  of  resistance.  It  is  evident  that 
the  increase  of  influence  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  susceptibility 
on  the  other,  has  a  logical  basis.  This  may  be  observed  in 
the  case  of  patient  and  doctor;  the  latter's  influence  is  some- 
times increased  on  account  of  the  success  of  his  treatment. 

The  fifth  fact  of  human  mental  life  concerns  a  consciousness 
completely  distinct  from  the  waking  consciousness.  Following 
Eduard  v.  Hartmann,  we  will  call  this  the  state  of  dream- 
consciousness.  In  it  feelings  and  perceptions  do  not  occur  in 
the  same  way  as  in  the  waking  consciousness;  but  I  will  not 
enter  into  details  on  this  point,  as  it  has  been  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  "Cognate  States"  (p.  178  et  seq.). 
The  chief  point  is  that  we  are  able  to  distinguish  dream- 
consciousness  from  waking-consciousness  simply  by  recollection. 
When  we  wake  from  sleep  in  which  we  have  been  dreaming, 
we  know  that  what  we  dreamed  was  only  a  dream,  and  was  not 
real  (Bentivegni). 

We  may  take  these  five  facts  in  connection  with  the  mental 
states  of  human  beings  for  granted.  As  I  have  pointed  out  in 
the  preceding  remarks,  there  are  many  respects  in  which  they 
may  be  rendered  more  comprehensible,  but  we  do  not  possess 
any  thoroughly  satisfactory  explanation  of  these  five  facts,  and 


234  HYPNOTISM. 

such  is  not  necessary  as  far  as  theories  of  hypnosis  are  con- 
cerned. Still,  the  study  of  them  renders  the  phenomena  of 
hypnosis  much  more  comprehensible.  It  may  be  urged — in 
many  respects  justifiably — that  the  limits  I  have  placed 
on  the  possibility  of  explanation  prevent  me  from  giving 
an  "explanation."  But  we  must  admit  that  many  a  so- 
called  explanation  may  in  the  same  way  be  considered 
only  a  circumlocution;  though  many  authors  put  their 
supposed  explanations  before  the  world  with  such  assurance 
that  if  we  would  only  believe  them  there  remains  hardly 
anything  unexplained  either  in  the  whole  of  mental  life  or  in 
hypnosis.  I  hold  the  opinion  that  the  possibility  of  explana- 
tion goes  no  further  than  I  have  here  intimated;  when  other 
authors  express  the  belief  that  they  have  explained  more  by 
means  of  their  psychological  theories,  ideas  of  attention,  con- 
traction of  consciousness,  etc.,  I  must  enter  a  protest.  I  shall 
be  silent  here  on  the  physiological  theories,  as  I  shall  come  to 
them  later  on;  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  most  unsatisfactory 
hypotheses.  At  all  events,  if  we  are  to  understand  the 
phenomena  of  hypnosis,  it  is  essential  first  of  all  to  establish 
the  fundamental  facts  of  mental  life^  and  to  remember  at  the 
same  time  that  now  one,  now  another,  of  these  facts,  now 
several  of  them  together,  will  have  to  be  considered. 

After  these  preliminary  remarks  I  go  on  to  discuss  the 
separate  phenomena  of  hypnosis;  the  functional  disturbances 
of  voluntary  movement  first,  because  there  is  no  hypnotic  state 
without  them.  They  are  almost  always  the  first  symptom, 
even  when  there  are  other  changes.  The  efifect  of  expectant 
attention  explains  their  onset.  But  to  understand  this  more 
readily  the  hypnosis  should  be  induced  by  slow  degrees,  as  in 
this  case  the  motor  disturbances  are  plainer. 

To  produce  any  motor  disturbance  by  suggestion  in  a  sub- 
ject, X.,  who  is  in  a  perfectly  normal  state,  we  must  first  of  all 
make  him  believe  in  the  possibility  of  such  an  effect.  Conse- 
quently we  shall  the  sooner  attain  our  end  if  X.  has  seen  a 
number  of  similar  experiments  performed  on  other  persons. 
The  possibility  of  influencing  people  in  this  way  is,  for  example, 
much  greater  just  after  they  have  witnessed  hypnotic  perform- 
ances. But  belief  in  the  possibility  alone  of  the  effect  taking 
place  does  not  as  a  rule  suffice.  It  is  more  generally  necessary 
to  fix  the  subject's  attention  as  far  as  possible  on  the  coming 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  235 

on  of  the  motor  disturbance;  or,  as  Fechner  and  Wundt  express 
it,  to  place  the  expectation  of  the  disturbance  in  the  range  of 
his  inner  perceptive.  The  better  we  succeed  in  doing  this, 
the  easier  will  it  be  to  induce  motor  disturbances  by  means  of 
suggestion.  It  is  certain  that  some  people  have  a  peculiar 
disposition  which  facilitates  the  attainment  of  the  desired  result. 
But  such  a  disposition  can  be  created  by  external  conditions; 
in  this  respect  the  surroundings,  moral  influence,  and  the 
manner  and  appearance  of  the  experimenter  play  a  great  part.  -. 

Supposing  we  have  succeeded  in  paralyzing  the  subject's 
arm.  The  appearance  of  one  symptom  facilitates  the  follow- 
ing of  others,  because  it  increases  the  subject's  conviction  of 
his  susceptibility  to  suggestion.  A  mental  state  ensues  which 
Pierre  Janet  calls  misere  psychique^  a  feeling  of  weakened  will- 
power which  favours  the  acceptance  of  later  suggestions — for 
example,  paralysis  of  the  speech,  the  legs,  etc. 

This  enables  us  to  understand  the  gradual  development  of 
the  disturbances  of  the  muscular  functions.  This  development 
is  in  many  cases  identical  with  that  of  hypnosis,  which  is  often 
merely  an  inhibition  of  the  voluntary  muscular  functions. 
Many  methods  used  to  induce  hypnosis  are  alike  in  one  par- 
ticular— they  direct  the  subject's  attention  to  some  change  in 
the  functions  of  the  muscles.  The  method  of  the  Nancy 
school  consists  chiefly  in  making  the  subject  expect  the  closing 
of  his  eyes  as  strongly  as  possible,  though  certainly  this  method 
also  aims  at  producing  the  dream-consciousness.  However, 
the  latter  is  an  additional  moment,  and  is  not  an  absolute 
necessity.  As  we  saw  in  our  classification  of  hypnoses,  there 
are  numerous  cases  without  any  evidence  whatever  of  dream- 
consciousness.  On  the  other  h^-nd^  it  is  evident  that  when 
special  stress  is  laid  on  the  closing  of  the  eyes,  the  dream- 
consciousness  may  be  unintentionally  suggested  as  well.  We 
may  begin  with  any  other  member  of  the  body  just  as  well  as 
with  the  eye.  For  example,  an  arm  or  a  leg  loses  its  power  to 
move  when  I  concentrate  the  attention  of  the  subject  on  the 
loss  of  power  to  move.  In  fact,  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to 
begin  with  the  eyes,  as  the  school  of  Nancy  does;  we  can 
begin  with  any  member,  as  Max  Dessoir  rightly  insists.  Of 
course,  we  should  naturally  begin  with  that  abnormality  which 
is  most  easily  induced,  because  the  acceptance  of  later  sugges- 
tions is  favoured  by  the  abnormality  already  induced. 

This  principle  of  the  effects  of  expectant  attention  illustrated 


236  HYPNOTISM. 

above  is  nowhere  shown  more  plainly  than  in  the  voluntary 
movements.  Modern  psychology  teaches  us  how  easily  a 
movement  is  induced  by  the  idea  of  it,  without  any  voluntary 
action.  Here  we  have  apparently  the  same  effect  produced 
when  the  subject  himself  has  the  idea  of  the  movement  as 
when  the  experimenter  arouses  the  idea  in  hypnosis.  But  in 
the  latter  case  not  only  is  the  idea  aroused,  but  the  expecta- 
tion of  its  fulfilment  as  well,  and  this  further  favours  the 
movement  being  carried  out. 

I  now  come  to  the  discussion  of  sense-delusions;  first  of 
all,  of  the  positive  kind.  Are  we  not  exposed  to  such  de- 
lusions otherwise  than  in  hypnosis  ?  Take  first  a  very  simple 
example  of  Max  Dessoir's.  If  a  man  who  is  wide  awake 
is  told,  "A  rat  is  running  behind  you,"  he  will  have  a  mental 
image  of  a  rat  for  a  moment — />.,  there  is  already  a  trace  of 
hallucination,  even  though  he  is  convinced  that  there  i.s  no  rat. 

Modern  psycholog)*,  following  such  men  as  Dugald  Stewart  and  Taine, 
generally  supposes  that  every  idea  includes  an  image — e.g,^  the  idea  of  a 
knife  includes  the  image  of  a  knife.  As,  further,  every  central  image  tends 
to  externalize  itself,  as  Stuart  Mill  in  particular  has  explained,  when  an 
idea  is  aroused,  there  is  always  a  tendency  to  externalize  the  corresponding 
image — 1.^.,  there  is  a  tendency  to  hallucination.  We  have  thus  a 
tendency  to  take  remembered  images  for  real  objects  (Binet,  Fere). 
Many  interesting  details  on  this  process  are  given  by  Sourian  in  La 
Suggestion  dans  CArt, 

But  even  if  the  ideas  of  waking  life  are  associated  with  a 
trace  of  hallucination,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the 
effect  of  an  idea  suggested  in  hypnosis  and  that  of  the  corre- 
sponding idea  in  waking  life.  In  normal  waking  life  a  man 
can  convince  himself  of  the  inaccuracy  of  a  statement  by 
means  of  his  senses ;  and,  apart  from  this,  an  idea  in  itself  has 
not  the  same  tendency  that  it  has  in  hypnosis  to  develop  into 
a  hallucination  which  dims  the  judgment.  The  difference 
may  only  be  quantitative,  but  must  not  be  disregarded.  It  is 
a  necessary  condition  for  the  production  of  a  sense-delusion  in 
hypnosis  that  an  idea  be  connected  with  the  corresponding 
image.  **  The  power  possessed  by  hallucination  of  producing 
conviction  depends  upon  the  fact  that  we  invariably  refer  the 
reproduction  of  our  impressions  to  the  sensory  region  from 
which  they  sprang ;  indeed,  we  not  only  localize  them  in  this 
way,  but  even  to  a  certain  extent  thus  project  them  into  space." 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  237 

(Jodl).  A  further  condition  necessary  for  the  distinct  develop- 
ment of  hallucinations  in  a  hypnotic  subject  is  a  complete 
change  in  his  state  of  consciousness.  Here  the  fifth  fact  of 
human  mental  life — viz.,  that  we  have  a  dream-consciousness 
completely  distinct  from  the  waking  consciousness.  These 
states  of  consciousness  differ  from  one  another  in  two  respects 
(Wundt).  In  the  first  place,  the  remembered  ideas  in  dream- 
consciousness  have  a  hallucinatory  character — />.,  we  try  in 
dreams  to  objectify  the  images  of  memory;  we  do  not 
recognize  that  they  are  images  of  memory  as  we  do  in  waking 
life,  but  believe  that  we  see,  feel,  etc.,  the  real  object  to  which 
they  correspond :  in  the  same  way  sense-impressions  do  not 
produce  normal  perceptions,  but  illusions.  In  the  second 
place,  in  dreams  apperception  is  changed — /.tf.,  the  power  of 
judging  the  experiences  of  which  we  are  conscious  is  essentially 
altered.  It  is  just  this  peculiarity  of  the  dream-consciousness 
mentioned  by  Wundt  which  is  found  in  the  consciousness  of 
such  hypnotic  subjects  as  are  accessible  to  suggested  sense- 
delusions.  I  need  not  enter  into  details  on  this  point,  as  it 
has  been  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  chapters  on  "Symptoms" 
and  **  Cognate  States."  The  chief  point  is  the  hallucinatory 
character  of  the  images  of  memory ;  faintly  imitated  in  normal 
states,  in  dream-consciousness  it  is  extremely  plain,  and 
appears  in  hypnosis  in  connection  with  illusions,  to  which 
dream-consciousness  is  also  favourable.  But  we  must  re- 
member that  there  is  nothing  strange  in  such  a  dream- 
consciousness,  since  it  is  often  found  in  ordinary  sleep  and 
is  always  a  potential  phenomenon  of  sleep. 

The  production  of  this  peculiar  dream-consciousness  is 
one  of  the  chief  points  in  hypnotizing.  An  explanation  of 
hypnosis  need  not  include  an  explanation  of  the  state  of 
dream-consciousness  in  general;  to  make  such  a  demand 
would  be  unreasonable  and  impossible  of  fulfilment  as  well, 
because  we  are  quite  unable  to  explain  even  the  dream- 
consciousness  of  ordinary  sleep.  An  explanation  of  hypnosis 
is  only  called  upon  to  demonstrate  the  connection  between 
the  means  employed  to  induce  the  hypnosis  and  the  dream- 
consciousness  of  the  person  hypnotized.  For  this  purpose  I 
need  only  mention  that  apart  from  hypnosis  dream-conscious- 
ness is  often  brought  about  in  a  similar  way.  Since  we  know 
that  children  may  be  talked  to  in  sleep,  and  in  adults  dream- 
consciousness   in  hypnosis  only  appears  when  some  similar 


238  HYPNOTISM^ 

influence  is  at  work,  the  whole  process  should  appear  less 
mysterious.  Indeed,  if  we  further  consider  that  the  ordinary 
sleep  of  adults  in  which  dream-consciousness  is  almost 
habitual  is  in  many  cases  induced  mentally — ^.^.,  by  auto- 
suggestion— then  we  have  made  considerable  progress  towards 
understanding  this  particular  state  in  hypnosis.  I  do  not, 
however,  go  so  far  as  Forel,  Liebeault  and  many  others  who 
say  that  natural  sleep  is  the  immediate  result  of  auto-suggestion. 
I  much  more  readily  admit  that  without  any  such  mental 
intervention  sleep  may  have  a  chemical  origin — e,g,^  the 
accumulation  of  the  products  of  tissue-waste  in  the  body,  or 
may  be  produced  by  purely  physiological  processes.  But  it  is 
a  fact  that  we  sometimes  fall  asleep  because  we  are  convinced 
by  a  purely  mental  process  that  we  shall  sleep.  I  have  already 
mentioned  that  people  often  fall  asleep  when  they  believe  that 
they  have  taken  a  sleeping  draught.  That  this  mental  process 
is  very  often  the  result  of  another  person's  influence  is  ex- 
plained by  the  flrst  and  second  facts  of  human  mental  life 
stated  by  me  earlier  in  this  chapter.  And  here  I  will  again 
point  out  that  one  person  is  frequently  able  to  exert  an 
immense  influence  on  the  whole  state  of  consciousness  of 
another  in  other  ways  as  well.  The  priest  and  the  popular 
orator,  for  example,  sometimes  under  the  influence  of  strong 
emotion,  often  produce  an  effect  upon  their  audience  analogous 
to  hypnosis. 

It  is  true  that  in  many  cases  dream-consciousness  in  hypnosis 
can  be  apparently  induced  by  means  which  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  induction  of  sleep.  When  a  hypnotic  subject  fixes 
his  gaze  and  his  eyes  finally  close,  this  does  not  appear  to  be 
the  induction  of  a  state  of  sleep.  On  this  point,  however,  I 
refer  the  reader  to  my  remarks  on  hypnosigenesis  in  Chap.  II. 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  idea  of  sleep  is  induced  by  such 
physical  means,  even  when  it  is  not  purposely  suggested. 
Sleep  may  be  brought  about  by  the  feeling  of  heaviness  in  the 
eyes,  through  association  of  ideas  (Forel) ;  for  we  know  that 
some  people  are  in  the  habit  of  staring  fixedly  at  some  point 
in  order  to  tire  their  eyes  out  and  bring  on  ordinary  sleep. 
For  these  reasons,  I  believe  that  when  a  hallucination  happens 
in  hypnosis  some  means  of  inducing  dream-consciousness  have 
always  been  used,  and  that  such  means  apparently  need  not 
have  anything  to  do  with  the  induction  of  sleep.  Even  the 
fact  that  sense-delusions  sometimes  happen  without  previous 


THE  THEORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  239 

closing  of  the  eyes  does  not  contradict  this,  since  the  dream- 
consciousness  is  not  necessarily  connected  with  the  closing  of 
the  eyes.  It  sometimes  comes  on  when  the  eyes  are  open, 
as  is  seen  in  cases  of  spontaneous  somnambulism. 

From  what  has  been  said  we  are  able  to  find  an  explanation 
of  sense -delusions  in  the  analogy  between  these  hypnotic 
states  and  the  dream-state.  Without  entering  into  'any  dis- 
cussion of  the  theories  that  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the 
sense -delusions  of  ordinary  sleep,  we  shall  find  that  it  will 
provisionally  help  us  in  examining  hypnosis  if  we  take  the  state 
of  consciousness  of  the  hypnoses  in  which  there  are  pronounced 
sense -delusions  as  completely  corresponding  to  the  dream- 
consciousness  of  ordinary  sleep.  In  both  states  certain 
impressions  (memory-images,  or  mere  stimulation  of  the 
senses)  induce  sense-delusions. 

These  conclusions  lead  to  the  discussion  of  rapport^ 
especially  isolated  rapport.  This  rapport  causes  the  subject 
to  be  more  influenced  by  certain  impressions  than  by 
others,  and  to  respond  to  them  by  corresponding  sense 
delusions.  I  shall  speak  of  rapport  briefly,  as  I  have  else- 
where^ dealt  with  it  at  length.  According  to  Noizet  and 
Bertrand,  who  have  been  joined  lately  by  Liebeault,  Bernheim, 
Forel,  and  others,  rapport^  as  already  mentioned,  is  a  state  of 
sleep  in  which  the  attention  of  the  subject  is  fixed  exclusively 
on  the  hypnotizer,  so  that  the  idea  of  him  is  constantly 
present  in  the  subject's  memory  during  the  hypnosis.  Bern- 
heim  compared  these  processes  to  the  falling  asleep  of  a 
mother  by  her  child's  cradle.  She  continues  to  watch  over 
it  in  sleep,  but  over  it  alone ;  she  wakes  at  the  least  sound  it 
makes,  but  hears  no  other  sounds,  even  the  loudest.  An 
analogous  phenomenon  may  be  observed  in  waking  life  when 
several  mothers  are  present  at  a  children's  party.  Each 
mother's  interest  is  centred  in  her  own  child,  and  it  is  par- 
ticularly noticeable  that,  though  deaf  to  the  prattle  of  other 
people's  children,  she  never  misses  any  of  her  own  little  one's 
clever  (?)  sayings.  Of  course  a  careful  study  of  the  negative 
hallucinations  will  help  us  to  understand  rapport^  as  will  be 
seen  from  my  remarks  on  those  hallucinations  \  but  the  most 
essential  consideration  in  respect  to  rapport  is  the  individual 
influence  which  certain  people  can  exert  over  others,  which  I 

*  Der  Rapport  in  der  Hypnose  ;  Leipzig,  1 892. 


242  HYPNOTISM. 

sound  than  one  he  is  prepared  for.  Probably  the  production 
of  negative  sense -delusions  in  hypnosis  is  facilitated  in  a 
similar  way.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  experimenter 
has  acquired  ascendancy  over  the  subject  and  has  become 
an  authority  for  him.  The  subject  is  consequently  incHned  to 
believe  everything  he  is  told  by  the  experimenter;  and  it  is 
conceivable  that  negative  hallucinations  are  thereby  favoured. 

Nevertheless,  these  two  factors,  the  diversion  of  the  subject's 
attention  and  the  conviction  established  in  him,  do  not  suffice 
to  explain  negative  hallucinations.  However  much  he  believes 
the  hypnotist,  without  such  motives  as  would  induce  belief 
under  normal  circumstances  (as  Bentivegni  rightly  points  out) 
this  does  not  alone  explain  such  mistakes  of  sense-perception 
as  are  found  in  negative  hallucinations.  A  completely  changed 
state  of  consciousness  must  be  added  if  we  wish  to  understand 
negative  hallucinations;  the  dream-consciousness  again,  which 
helped  us  to  understand  positive  delusions  of  the  senses.  For 
dream-consciousness  is  not  only  distinguished  by  the  reappear- 
ance of  former  memory-images  as  hallucinations;  it  is  also 
characterized  by  the  fact  that  sense-impressions,  which  under 
normal  circumstances  become  feelings  and  perceptions^  induce 
in  it  no  feeling  or  perception. 

Hence,  negative  hallucinations  depend  upon  the  co-operation 
of  various  factors:  firstly,  dream-consciousness  which  creates 
the  tendency  to  negative  sense-delusions;  secondly,  the  sub- 
ject's belief  in  everything  the  experimenter  says,  which  favours 
those  delusions;  thirdly,  the  mental  state  which  results  from 
this,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  analogous  to  diversion  of 
the  attention. 

We  can  explain  the  analgesia  of  some  hypnotic  subjects  in  a 
like  manner.  It  is  known  that  an  expected  pain  is  more 
acutely  felt  than  an  unexpected  one.  The  effect  of  a  stimulus 
may  vary  very  considerably  according  to  the  mental  attitude 
of  the  subject.  We  see  this  in  operations;  the  subject  feels 
much  more  pain  when  he  expects  the  stroke  of  the  knife  than 
when  it  takes  him  unawares;  in  the  latter  case  he  feels  hardly 
any  pain  at  all.  It  is  the  same  thing  with  analgesia  in 
hypnosis;  but  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  there  is  ever  an 
entirely  spontaneous  analgesia  without  suggestion.  In  any 
case,  analgesia  is  more  usually  induced  by  suggestion.  Here 
we  may  take  it  the  subject's  mental  state  has  been  brought 
about  by  his  implicit  belief  in  the  experimenter,  and  is  much 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  243 

the  same  as  in  diversion  of  the  attention.  To  explain  analgesia, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  dream-conscious- 
ness, just  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  negative  sense-delusions; 
for  dream-consciousness  has  a  decided  tendency  to  prevent 
impressions,  which  would  otherwise  be  painful,  from  becoming 
feelings  and  perceptions.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  following 
essential  difference  exists:  as  soon  as  a  painful  stimulus  has 
acquired  a  certain  degree  of  intensity  it  wakes  a  person  from 
ordinary  sleep  in  spite  of  dream-consciousness,  but  does  not  as 
a  rule  terminate  a  hypnosis;  and  Rosenbach  pointed  out 
long  ago  in  his  work.  The  Reflexes  in  Sleepy  how  differently 
sensory  stimuli  act  in  health  and  disease.  We  can  more 
readily  understand  the  analgesia  of  hypnosis  when  dream- 
consciousness  is  associated  with  the  other  factors  mentioned 
above. 

I  now  come  to  the  discussion  of  some  phenomena  of  memory. 
Only  those  cases  will  be  considered  in  which  there  is  a  de- 
rangement of  memory  due  to  hypnosis — /.^.,  cases  in  which 
the  subject  after  waking  from  hypnosis  remembers  nothing  of 
what  has  happened.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  we  forget 
certain  events  in  ordinary  life.  We  entirely  forget  mechanical 
actions,  such  as  the  winding  of  a  watch.  But  some  things 
done  with  reflection  and  in  perfect  consciousness  are  occa- 
sionally forgotten  even  though  we  particularly  intended  to 
remember  them.  I  will  choose  an  example  from  my  own 
experience,  a  thing  which  we  have  all  doubtless  observed  in 
ourselves.  I  take  a  book  and  put  it  in  a  particular  place  so 
that  I  may  find  it  when  I  want  it.  At  last  I  want  it,  but  I 
cannot  remember  where  I  put  it.  I  think  in  vain.  Only 
when  I  replace  myself  in  imagination  at  the  moment  when  I 
put  it  away  (a  method  which  every  one  knows)  do  I  remember 
where  it  is.  And  yet  in  spite  of  temporary  loss  of  memory 
I  did  not  put  the  book  away  when  I  was  in  a  state  of  loss  of 
consciousness;  it  was  rather  that  I  was  at  the  time  in  another 
state  of  consciousness.  This  is  in  many  respects  analogous  to 
hypnosis,  the  events  of  which  are  remembered  only  when  the  sub- 
ject is  again  in  the  same  state  of  consciousness — ue,^  in  a  fresh 
hypnosis.  Of  course  these  cases  in  ordinary  life  may  deprive 
the  mental  derangements  which  occur  in  hypnosis  of  much  that 
is  strange  and  mysterious,  but  they  do  not  afford  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  phenomena.  I  mentioned  when  discussing 
the  memory  before  that  the  subject   in   hypnosis  sometimes 


244  HVPNOTISM. 

remembered  all  the  events  of  preceding  hypnoses,  and  of  his 
waking  life.  If  we  suppose  the  life  of  such  a  being  as  divided 
into  several  periods  a,  b^  c,  d,  e,/,  in  the  periods  a,  c^  e,  only 
the  events  of  those  periods  will  be  remembered;  so  that  in 
period  c  he  will  only  remember  what  happened  in  «,  and  in 
period  e  what  happened  in  a  and  c.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
periods  b,  d,  f^  both  what  has  happened  in  them  and  in  the 
periods  «,  r,  ^,  will  be  remembered.  A  phenomenon  such  as 
this  calls  for  an  explanation. 

Max  Dessoir  endeavours  to  explain  it  by  his  theory  of  the 
"  Doppel-Ich,'*  or  double  Ego.  He  supposes  that  human 
personality  is  a  unity  merely  to  our  own  consciousness,  but 
that  it  consists  really  of  at  least  two  distinguishable  personalities, 
each  held  together  by  its  own  chain  of  memories.  According 
to  him  many  actions  are  performed  mechanically  though  of 
mental  origin — Z.^.,  the  agent  acts  unconsciously  for  the 
moment.  For  example,  rubbing  the  hands  when  they  are  cold 
and  even  more  complicated  actions  are  performed  auto- 
matically. Max  Dessoir  relates  the  following  personal  experi- 
ence:— "A  friend  calls  on  me  with  a  communication  which 
means  that  I  must  go  with  him  at  once.  I  dress  myself  to  go 
out  while  he  relates  the  details  of  a  case  that  is  evidently 
urgent.  I  put  on  a  clean  collar,  turn  my  cuffs,  button  them 
on,  put  my  coat  on  and  my  latch-key  into  my  pocket  although 
the  questions  I  put  to  him  from  time  to  time  show  that  my 
attention  is  directed  exclusively  to  what  he  is  saying.  As  soon 
as  we  get  into  the  street  I  am  seized  with  the  firm  conviction 
that  I  have  left  the  key  behind.  I  go  back  and  hunt  for  it  in 
every  nook  and  corner  in  vain;  suddenly  I  put  my  hand  in  my 
pocket,  and  there  is  the  key."  This  shows  that  an  action 
which  is  quite  intelligible  can  be  performed  unconsciously — 
/.^.,  without  the  agent  noticing  what  he  is  doing  or  breaking  off 
the  conversation  he  is  engaged  in.  The  experiment  made  by 
Barkworth,  a  member  of  the  English  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  is  much  more  complicated  than  this.  He  can  add 
up  long  rows  of  figures  while  carrying  on  a  lively  discussion, 
without  allowing  his  attention  to  be  at  all  diverted  from  the 
discussion.  Recently  some  American  investigators — Speir, 
Armstrong,  and  Child — have  brought  forward  interesting 
statistics  of  unconscious  cerebration.  It  is  shown  that  during 
this  activity,  though  it  goes  on  in  the  lower  consciousness,  most 
people  have  a  distinct  feeling  of  effort.     If,  for  instance,  one 


THE   THEORY   OF  HYPNOTISM.  245 

cannot  recall  a  name  and  purposely  refrains  from  trying  to  do  so, 
these  statistics^  show  that  there  is  still  very  frequently  a  certain 
sense  of  effort.  This  shows  that,  in  the  first  place,  there  is  an 
unconscious  intelligence  in  men,  as  is  seen  in  the  mechanical 
rubbing  of  the  cold  hands,  and  that,  in  the  second  place,  there 
is  an  unconscious  memory;  Barkworth;  for  example,  must  have 
at  least  two  groups  of  figures  in  his  memory  to  make  a  third 
out  of  them;  he  must  retain  the  third  to  add  a  fourth.  But 
this  chain  of  memory  is  independent  of  the  other  chain  by 
means  of  which  he  carries  on  the  conversation.  Max  Dessoir 
thinks  that  we  have  here  the  elements  of  a  second  personality. 
At  least  we  can  picture  to  ourselves  consciousness  as  consisting 
of  two  halves,  a  primary  and  a  secondary  consciousness,  which 
act  independently.  The  mental  processes  which  take  place 
consciously  to  the  individual  are  called  the  primary  conscious- 
ness and  those  which  go  on  without  his  knowledge  the 
secondary  consciousness.  Thus  in  Barkworth's  case  the 
primary  consciousness  carried  on  the  conversation,  while  the 
secondary  one  mechanically  performed  the  addition. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  what  we  call  primary  consciousness 
has  hitherto  habitually  been  called  consciousness.  Generally  speaking, 
** consciousness"  means  the  mental  processes  that  are  subjectively  per- 
ceived. In  future  we  shall  give  it  a  wider  meaning,  so  as  to  indicate  the 
sum  of  all  our  mental  processes.  Consciousness  thus  falls  into  two  halves, 
primary  and  secondary.  To  avoid  confusion  I  shall  in  future  only  use  the 
word  "consciousness"  in  this  latter  sense. 

With  regard  to  the  existence  of  a  secondary  consciousness, 
much  that  is  instructive  may  be  learned  from  a  study  of  auto- 
matic writing.  I  owe  my  knowledge  of  this  to  Dr.  Max 
Dessoir,  whom  I  again  thank  for  his  unselfish  and  scientific 
help  in  the  preparation  of  the  previous  editions  of  this  book. 
Automatic  writing  has  also  been  observed  among  uncivilized 
peoples  (Doolittle,  Bastian).  We  will  now  proceed  to  examine 
it  carefully. 

There  are  men  who  habitually  strum  on  the  table  or  do 
something  similar  while  they  are  talking  or  thinking.  When 
such  people  take  a  pencil  in  their  hand  they  make  all  sorts  of 
scribbled  marks  without  observing  it.  This  scribbling  may 
be  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  automatic  writing.  It  may, 
however,  develop  into  something  more  than  mere  scribbling. 
Schiller  says  that  when  reflecting  he  has  often  covered  whole 
sheets   of  paper  with    little   horses   (Max   Dessoir).      Other 


246  HYPNOTISM. 

persons  also  automatically  write  letters  and  words,  and  this 
process  is  called  automatic  writing;  it  is  evidently  guided  by  a 
species  of  intelligence,  as  without  it  no  rational  words  could 
be  written.  But  this  intelligence  resides  in  the  writer,  though 
it  may  not  be  conscious  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word;  it 
is  the  secondary  consciousness  which  carries  on  movements 
and  actions  as  does  the  primary  consciousness,  although  the 
person  concerned  does  not  remark  them.  Spiritualists  imagine 
that  this  writing,  which  they  call  mediumistic,  is  the  work  of 
some  external  force  or  spirit. 

I  now  ask  the  reader  to  follow  me  through  some  experiments  with  auto- 
matic writing.  I  give  X.  a  pencil  and  ask  him  to  answer  some  question  in 
writing — for  example,  what  he  had  for  dinner  yesterday ;  he  is,  however, 
to  leave  his  hand  passive  and  not  to  write  on  purpose ;  at  the  same  time  I 
put  the  point  of  the  pencil  on  paper.  It  would  not  be  strange  that  X. 
should  write  down  something  he  is  thinking  of.  It  would  remind  us  of 
the  experiments  in  thought-reading  described  on  page  62.  X.  thinks  of 
roast  veal,  and  the  hand  makes  corresponding  movements.  But  the 
process  becomes  rather  different  when  I  talk  to  the  writer  meanwhile.  We 
talk  about  the  theatre,  the  weather,  etc. ;  in  the  meantime  the  hand  writes 
"roast  veal."  It  appears  that  this  was  yesterday's  dinner.  In  this  case 
the  hand  wrote  without  any  concentration  of  thought  on  the  writer's  part ; 
and  this  is  already  very  different  from  the  usual  thought-reading. 

Now,  though  X.  did  not  know  that  he  was  writing,  he  knew  the  fact 
which  he  unconsciously  wrote  down  ;  i.e.,  he  knew  that  he  had  had  roast 
veal  the  day  before.  But  people  often  write  automatically  about  things 
they  do  not  know.  For  example,  when  X.  is  asked  what  he  had  for  dinner 
every  day  last  week,  he  will  automatically  write  down  the  whole  list  of 
dishes  correctly,  although  he  cannot  give  a  correct  answer  by  word  of 
mouth. 

Such  experiments  can  be  made  in  hypnosis  with  good  results,  and  many 
phenomena,  especially  negative  sense-delusions,  are  made  more  intelligible 
by  them.  I  suggest  to  X.,  in  hypnosis,  that  A.  and  B.,  who  are  really 
present,  have  gone  away.  X.  ceases  entirely  to  respond  to  A.  and  B. ;  he 
neither  hears  nor  sees  them,  apparently.  When  I  ask  him  who  is  present, 
he  says,  **  only  you  and  I  ";  upon  which  I  give  him  a  pencil,  the  point  of 
which  I  put  on  a  piece  of  paper,  and  ask  him  to  answer  the  question  in 
writing.  He  writes  down,  **  Dr.  Moll,  Mr.  A.,  Mr.  B.,  and  myself." 
Consequently  he  has  given  a  correct  answer  automatically — i.e.^  without 
knowing  that  he  is  writing.  This  shows  that  he  can  give  the  right  answer 
by  means  of  automatic  writing  to  questions  to  which  he  cannot  reply 
correctly  in  the  ordinary  way  by  word  of  mouth. 

Max  Dessoir  also  makes  use  of  automatic  writing  to  prove 
his  theory  that  two  mental  processes  can  go  on  simultaneously 
in  the  one  individual  in  such  a  manner  that  we  might  almost 
refer  them  to  two  distinct  personalities.  Objections  have, 
certainly,  been  raised  to  this   theory.      Schrenck-Notzing,   in 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  247 

particular,  thinks  that  if  Max  Dessoir  does  assume  that  a  chaki 
of  processes  in  the  primary  conscience  co-exists  with  one  in  the 
secondary  he  quite  overlooks  the  fact  that  we  are  not  here 
dealing  with  the  question  of  processes  in  the  two  conscious- 
nesses running  their  respective  courses  simultaneously.  In 
reality  the  point  is  that  the  attention  should  be  directed  now 
to  the  one  series,  now  to  the  other.  Even  if  Schrenck-Notzing 
does  not  deny  the  occurrence  of  automatic  acts,  he  considers 
that  only  such  are  possible  as  may  result  from  practice. 
Loewenfeld,  however,  rejects  this  objection,  and  with  perfect 
right.  "  Schrenck-Notzing  has  never  attempted  to  explain  how 
it  is  possible  for  two  series  of  ideas,  whose  members  rapidly 
alternate  in  the  consciousness,  to  continue  so  separate  that  the 
ego  can  only  take  cognizance  of  one  of  them  with  certainty." 
But  other  objections  can  be  raised  to  Schrenck-Notzing's  views 
apart  from  this.  He  does  not  give  us  the  least  explanation 
how  it  is  that  post-hypnotic  suggestions  are  carried  out  in  spite 
of  the  loss  of  memory.  I  shall  deal  with  this  point  in  detail 
later  on.  Moreover,  Schrenck-Notzing  has  done  nothing 
whatever  to  elucidate  those  cases  in  which  the  two  chains  of 
memory  are  not  simultaneous  conscious  processes. 

There  are  cases  in  which  the  chains  of  memory  follow  one 
another,  instead  of  both  existing  together  in  the  way  we  have 
already  seen.  Max  Dessoir  tells  of  a  person  who  took  up  his 
dream  on  a  second  night  where  he  had  left  it  off  on  the  first. 
Here  then,  the  dream-consciousness  tended  to  form  a  new  chain 
of  memories.  The  same  author  puts  the  following  case  of 
Macario's  with  the  last : — A  girl  who  was  outraged  during  an 
attack  of  spontaneous  somnambulism  knew  nothing  about  it 
when  she  woke,  and  only  told  her  mother  of  what  had 
happened  in  her  next  attack.  I  have  already  mentioned 
(p.  126)  that  similar  cases  occur  under  pathological  conditions. 
Gumpertz  published  a  very  interesting  case  a  short  time  ago. 
A  girl,  nine-and-half  years  old,  presented  the  phenomenon  of 
double  consciousness.  At  times  she  was  transformed  into  her 
aunt  who  was  dead  but  was  supposed  to  appear  as  a  spirit  on 
such  occasions.  On  returning  to  her  normal  condition,  the 
child  was  quite  oblivious  of  what  had  occurred  and  remained 
so  until  she  again  fell  into  a  trance.  It  has  also  been  observed 
that  during  an  epileptic  fit  the  patient  sometimes  remembers 
what  happened  in  previous  seizures,  though  he  knows  nothing 
^hout   them   at   other  times;    and    a   drunkard   occasionally 


248  HYPNOTISM. 

recollects  the  events  of  a  previous  carouse  in  a  subsequent  fit 
of  drunkenness,  but  not  when  he  is  sober.  It  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  denied  that  two  distinct  chains  of  memories  are  met 
with  apart  from  hypnosis. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  double  consciousness — also  termed 
doubling  of  the  consciousness — of  hypnosis,  the  subject,  when 
in  the  hypnotic  state,  remembers  the  events  of  preceding 
hypnoses  and  of  waking  life,  but  that  in  waking  life  he  only 
remembers  the  events  of  waking  life.  But  there  is  also  another 
form  of  splitting  of  the  consciousness.  In  this  the  life  of  the 
subject,  X.,  is  likewise  divided  into  several  periods — a,  by  c,  d, 
e,/.  In  the  period  ^,  X.  only  knows  what  happened  in  a  and  r, 
and  in  /  only  what  happened  in  b  and  d^  etc. — ie.j  in  each 
period  X.  only  remembers  the  events  of  the  corresponding 
period,  whereas,  as  we  have  already  seen,  in  hypnosis  and 
similar  abnormal  states  the  memory  remains  intact  not  only 
for  the  events  of  the  abnormal  state,  but  for  those  of  waking 
life  as  well.  Die-May  has  described  such  a  case  of  splitting  of 
the  consciousness  in  his  story  The  Allard  Case,  which  induced 
Paul  Lindau  to  write  a  play  entitled  The  Other  One,  In  this 
piece  a  lawyer  plans  various  crimes  while  in  the  somnambulic 
state,  and  finally  breaks  into  his  own  house.  But  we  see  that 
the  lawyer  has  not  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  existence  of 
the  criminal,  nor  the  criminal  of  that  of  the  lawyer,  though  at 
times  there  appears  to  be  a  kind  of  bridge  connecting  the  two 
states  of  consciousness. 

As  regards  the  objections  which  have  been  raised  by  some 
investigators — e.g.y  that  of  Wundt  and  Hirschlaff,  who  think 
they  are  justified  in  placing  the  theory  of  the  double  ego  on  a 
level  with  the  assumption  of  demoniacal  possession — we  must 
point  out  and  emphasize  the  fact  that  when  the  theory  is 
applied  with  just  limitations  it  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
such  assumptions.  It  must,  of  course,  be  understood  that  we 
cannot  assume^  as  is  done  by  some  foreign  psychologists,  that 
the  individualism  is  made  up  of  several  separate  personalities — 
that,  for  instance,  a  gentleman  whom  we  usually  know  as  Mr. 

M carries  with  him  also  the  personality  of  Mr  S . 

Any  one  who  so  conceives  the  theory  of  the  double  ego  can 
only  arrive  at  an  absurd  conception  of  human  personality. 
For  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  two  chains  of  memories  belong 
to  one  individual,  although  we  are  sometimes  able  to  fix  their 
boundaries.     There  need  be  no  exaggeration  with  this  theory. 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  249 

We  must  consider  it  merely  a  diagram  to  demonstrate  the  fact 
that  mental  processes  may  go  on  within  us  unobserved,  only  at 
times  giving  evidence  of  themselves  in  a  chain  of  memories 
which  in  point  of  time  is  distinct  from  the  ordinary  processes 
of  the  primary  consciousness;  it  also  serves  to  demonstrate  the 
fact  that  when  they  occur  simultaneously,  though  separated 
from  the  processes  of  the  primary  consciousness,  those  of  the 
secondary  consciousness  often  appear  as  though  connected  by 
a  chain  of  memories  of  their  own.  The  fact  that  under  certain 
conditions  we  can  prove  the  existence  of  a  whole  series  of  such 
chains  of  memories  which  are  partially  independent  of  one 
another  favours  the  view  that  the  whole  theory  should  only  be 
considered  schematic.  We  see  this,  for  example,  under  patho- 
logical conditions  in  the  case  of  the  insane,  who  sometimes 
represent  different  personalities  at  different  periods  of  their 
disease,  thus  enabling  us  to  distinguish  more  than  two  chains 
of  memories."  But  the  same  phenomenon  may  also  be  observed 
in  the  sane,  in  whom  it  sometimes  happens  that  several  chains 
of  memories  exist  together  in  the  secondary  consciousness 
quite  distinct  from  the  chain  of  memories  in  the  primary 
consciousness.  We  are  also  able  to  demonstrate  a  similar 
condition  in  hypnosis.  If  we  suggest  to  a  hypnotic  subject,  first 
of  all,  that  he  is  Napoleon,  then,  shortly  afterwards,  Frederick 
the  Great,  and,  finally,  restore  his  own  personality,  also  by 
suggestion,  we  find  that  each  of  the  different  chains  of  memories 
goes  on  independently  within  him;  thus  Frederick  the  Great 
knows  nothing  about  Napoleon,  the  latter  nothing  about  the 
reality,  and  the  real  person  himself  is  quite  unaware  of  the 
other  two  states.  In  short,  we  must  invariably  bear  in  mind 
that  the  theory  of  the  double  ego  is  only  a  diagram. 

As  regards  double  consciousness  in  relation  to  the  hypnotic 
state.  Max  Dessoir  thinks  that  hypnosis  represents  experi- 
mentally that  half  of  our  mental  life  that  is  usually  hidden;  the 
part  which  is  called  secondary  consciousness,  something  of 
which  association  occasionally  enables  us  to  observe  in  ordinary 
life,  but  which  in  abnormal  states  appears  as  a  connected  whole 
held  together  by  its  own  chain  of  memories.  According  to 
Max  Dessoir's  theory,  double  consciousness  as  it  appears  in 
hypnosis  is  no  absolutely  new  phenomenon,  but  is  the  experi- 
mental representation  of  a  psychic  faculty  latent  in  man. 
Considered  within  these  limits  the  theory  is  intelligible, 
although  it  does  not  explain  everything.     Max  Dessoir,  whose 


254  HYPNOTISM. 

lieves  is  capable  of  inducing  the  corresponding  psychological 
and  physiological  effects ;  if,  as  I  say,  we  remember  these  facts, 
then  post-hypnotic  suggestion  cannot  be  so  enigmatical.  And 
it  must  appear  even  less  so  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  an  idea 
which  is  accepted  in  hypnosis  has,  by  means  of  the  association 
of  ideas,  a  natural  tendency  to  create  a  state  of  consciousness 
and  will  analogous  to  that  which  obtained  when  the  idea  was 
implanted. 

I  have  now  considered  why  post-hypnotic  suggestions  are 
carried  out  without  or  in  spite  of  the  will.  I  supposed  a  case 
in  which  the  subject  remembered  the  order  given  him  in 
hypnosis  after  he  woke.  It  is  a  more  enigmatical  question 
why  post-hypnotic  suggestions  are  carried  out  when  the  subject 
after  waking  has  no  recollection  of  having  received  the  com- 
mand. 

For  explanation  let  us  return  to  the  case  of  waking  life,  where 
X.  was  to  post  a  letter.  Now  X.  did  not  keep  the  request 
continually  in  his  consciousness,  for  we  certainly  saw  that  he 
apparently  posted  the  letter  unconsciously ;  yet  he  would  not 
have  performed  the  action  at  all  if  he  had  not  really  remembered 
my  request.  It  is  the  same  in  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  All 
post-hypnolic  suggestions  really  remain  in  the  memory,  and  are 
merely  apparently  forgotten  between  waking  and  fulfilment. 
Here,  again,  we  must  remember  that  our  mental  processes  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  that  of  the  primary  consciousness  in 
which  they  are  subjectively  perceived,  and  that  of  the  secondary 
consciousness  in  which  they  are  unperceived.  We  must  further 
bear  in  mind  that  the  state  of  the  primary  consciousness  is  not 
uniform,  but,  on  the  contrary,  subject  to  constant  changes. 
In  one  period  we  are  conscious  of  ideas  which  are  wanting  in 
others.  One  period  comprises  more  than  another.  Now,  if 
we  call  the  sum  of  mental  processes  subjectively  perceived  at  a 
certain  time  the  sphere  of  primary  consciousness,  we  may  sup- 
pose a  number  of  such  spheres.  But  not  to  complicate  the 
subject  too  much,  we  will  only  suppose  two  spheres. 

We  saw,  when  discussing  the  memory,  that  the  hypnotic  who 
forgot  the  events  of  hypnosis  in  waking  life  remembered  them 
in  later  hypnosis.  But  he  remembered  the  events  of  waking 
life  also  in  hypnosis,  though  in  waking  life  he  was  only  conscious 
of  the  events  of  that  Hfe.  We  have,  then,  two  different  spheres 
of  primary  consciousness  here;   one  comprises  the  events  of 


THE   THEORY   OF   HYPNOTISM.  255 

hypnosis  and  of  waking  life,  the  other  only  those  of  waking  life. 
We  must  further  remember  that  the  two  consciousnesses  are 
not  schematically  separated.  Impressions  made  on  the 
secondary  consciousness  very  often  rise  to  the  primary,  and 
vice  versa.  The  restoration  of  memory  through  the  association 
of  ideas,  which  I  spoke  of  on  p.  122,  is  an  example  of  this,  and 
alone  suffices  to  show  that  the  events  of  hypnosis  are  firmly 
established  in  the  mind,  even  when  there  is  loss  of  memory 
after  waking ;  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  associ- 
ation of  ideas  to  call  up  recollection.  The  events  of  the 
hypnosis  were  unperceived  until  raised  to  the  primary  con- 
sciousness by  the  asst)ciation  of  ideas. 

But,  in  addition  to  this,  there  are  other  ways  in  which  it  can 
be  proved  that  the  events  of  hypnosis  are  really  only  dormant 
in  the  secondary  consciousness;  and  it  is  automatic  writing, 
of  which  I  have  already  spoken,  and  which  has  been  investigated 
by  Gurney,  F.  Myers,  Pierre  Janet,  Binet,  Patrick,  Max  Dessoir, 
Flournoy  and  others,  that  provides  a  special  proof.  For  ex- 
ample, I  hypnotize  X.,  make  him  go  through  all  kinds  of  scenes 
by  suggestion  and  then  wake  him.  When  I  ask  him  what 
happened  during  the  hypnosis,  he  declares  he  does  not  know. 
No  matter  how  much  I  press  him  to  recollect  what  he 
experienced  during  the  hypnosis  and  tell  me  of  it,  he  is  unable 
to  do  so.  I  now  order  him  to  write  down  automatically 
the  events  of  the  hypnosis.  X.  does  so,  and  writes  down 
everything  that  was  suggested  to  him  during  the  hypnosis. 
He  could  not  do  this  if  the  events  of  the  hypnosis  were  banished 
from  his  mind.  Hence  recollection  was  dormant,  as  the 
automatic  writing  proved. 

We  have  thus  seen  that  it  can  be  proved  by  automatic 
writing  and  other  methods  that  post-hypnotic  commands  are 
firmly  lodged  in  the  secondary  consciousness,  and  it  is  now 
easy  for  us  to  show  why  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  is  carried 
out  in  spite  of  loss  of  memory  after  waking.  As  we  have  seen, 
the  command  lies  quiescent  in  the  secondary  consciousness, 
and  the  loss  of  memory  is  so  far  only  apparent.  But  much 
goes  on  in  the  secondary  consciousness  often  of  a  very  exact 
kind,  and  there  is  no  confusion  in  its  thoughts;  this  explains 
why  the  subject  carries  out  a  suggested  order  correctly,  even 
when  after  waking  he  has  no  recollection  of  having  received  it. 

The  foregoing  explanations  show,  firstly,  why  a  post-hypnotic 


2S6  HYPNOTISM. 

suggestion  is  carried  out  without  the  will,  or  in  spite  of  it; 
and  secondly,  why  this  happens  in  spite  of  the  apparent  loss 
of  memory.  A  second  question  is  this:  Why  is  a  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  carried  out  at  the  right  moment  ?  We  already  know 
(p.  162)  that  the  moment  may  be  appointed  in  numerous 
ways ;  either  by  a  concrete  external  signal — e.g.^  the  striking  of 
the  clock,  or  by  fixing  an  abstract  period,  or  by  counting 
signals  or  days. 

In  the  case  of  the  striking  clock  we  shall  find  no  new  mental 
law;  we  find  the  same  process  quite  commonly  in  normal  life; 
it  is  the  result  of  the  association  of  ideas.  The  striking  of  the 
clock  often  reminds  us  of  something  we  wanted  to  do  at  a 
particular  time,  and  we  then  proceed  to  do  it. 

The  same  thing  happens  when  we  tie  a  knot  in  our  hand- 
kerchief to  remind  ourselves  of  something.  It  occurs  to  me 
that  I  must  write  a  letter  to-morrow;  I  make  a  knot  in  my 
handkerchief  to  remind  me  of  it.  The  knot  and  the  letter  are 
then  associated  in  my  consciousness,  and  when  I  see  the  knot 
next  day  the  idea  of  writing  the  letter  rises  from  my  secondary 
into  my  primary  consciousness.  Now,  we  see  the  same  thing 
in  post-hypnotic  suggestion  (p.  162).  The  striking  of  the 
clock  made  the  idea  of  taking  the  water-bottle  and  walking  up 
and  down  with  it  rise  from  the  secondary  into  the  primary 
consciousness.  This  process  of  association  is  so  powerful  that 
it  often  takes  effect  even  when  the  suggestion  is  not  punctually 
carried  out.  I  hypnotize  X.  on  Saturday  and  tell  him,  "When 
you  come  in  early  on  Tuesday  I  shall  cough  three  times;  you 
will  then  give  me  your  hand  and  remark  *  That  is  too  stupid.' " 
X.  does  not  come  till  Thursday,  but  the  suggestion  is  carried 
out,  merely  because  I  cough. 

We  will  take  the  second  case,  where  an  abstract  period  of 
time  was  given  instead  of  a  concrete  sign.  Here  the  idea  lay 
in  the  secondary  consciousness  until  it  resulted  in  the  corre- 
sponding action.  This  was  carried  out  because  work  goes  on 
in  the  secondary  consciousness.  But  the  calculations  which 
take  place  in  the  secondary  consciousness  are  not  always  quite 
exact ;  hence  it  often  happens  that  the  suggestion  is  not  carried 
out  punctually  when  an  abstract  period  of  time  is  given.  For 
this  also  many  analogies  may  be  found  in  ordinary  life.  I  say 
to  X.,  "  Remind  me  in  an  hour  to  write  a  letter."  X.  is  busy, 
and  thinks  no  more  of  the  letter,  but  nevertheless  reminds  me 
of  it  after  some  time.     But  as  he  has  not  looked  at  the  clock. 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  2$/ 

he  is  not  punctual :  the  case  is  quite  analogous  to  post-hypnotic 
suggestions,  where  there  is  generally  no  perfect  punctuality. 
Some  people  suppose  that  in  the  few  cases  of  striking  punc- 
tuality some  unconscious  calculation  of  time  takes  place,  like 
the  unconscious  regularity  of  our  pulse  and  breathing.  This 
would  imply  the  existence  of  unconscious  mental  activity  quite 
independent  of  the  secondary  consciousness;  the  unconscious 
regularity  of  the  pulse  is  never  directly  perceived,  whereas  the 
processes  that  go  on  in  the  secondary  consciousness  occasion- 
ally rise  into  the  primary.  But  there  is  no  necessity  to  assume 
any  unconscious  activity  in  our  case.  We  know,  in  the  first 
place,  that  there  are  persons  who  can  calculate  time  with  some 
exactitude  when  they  are  awake,  and,  in  the  second,  that  others 
can  do  the  same  in  sleep — i.e.^  they  can  wake  themselves  at  a 
definite  time  without  hearing  the  clock  strike.  For  further 
information  on  this  point  I  refer  the  reader  to  pp.  162  and 
163.  In  any  case,  the  secondary  consciousness  of  a  person 
who  carries  out  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion  after  a  definite 
lapse  of  time  has  no  greater  task  to  perform  than  might  be 
expected  of  it,  considering  what  we  already  know  concerning 
the  primary  and  the  secondary  consciousness.  Here,  again, 
the  most  important  point  is  that  we  need  not  assume  any 
special  faculty  on  the  part  of  the  hypnotic  subject. 

The  third  way  of  fixing  time  is  by  counting  signals  or  units 
of  time  (minutes,  hours,  days,  etc.,  (/^  p.  164  et  seg,)»  Gurney's 
explanation  of  this  is  grounded  on  the  division  of  the  con- 
sciousness into  primary  and  secondary.  While  the  primary 
consciousness  is  busy  talking  to  the  experimenter,  the 
secondary  works  on  independently,  marking  the  signals — e.g.^ 
the  shuffling  of  the  feet,  etc.  When  the  tenth  signal  is  given 
the  suggestion  is  carried  out,  just  as  other  suggestions  are 
carried  out  at  an  appointed  signal. 

Gurney  endeavours  to  explain  many  long-deferred  suggestions 
just  in  the  same  way.  As  we  have  seen,  in  these  also  the 
execution  of  the  suggestion  may  be  ordered  at  the  end  of  a 
series  of  minutes  or  hours  or  days,  etc.,  instead  of  a  definite 
date  (p.  163).  This  may  be  explained  in  two  ways.  Perhaps 
the  subject  calculates  the  date  after  he  has  been  given  the 
number  of  days  or  weeks.  Against  this  there  is  the  fact  that 
the  subjects,  when  hypnotized  in  the  intervening  time,  cannot 
give  the  date.  We  have  the  same  sort  of  thing  in  Bramwell's 
experiments    which   I   described   on    p.    163.      In    those  of 

17 


258  HYPNOTISM. 

Gurney's  cases  in  which  the  subjects  were  hypnotized  in  the 
intervening  time  they  could  count  the  days  which  had  elapsed, 
or  were  to  elapse,  before  the  suggestion  should  be  carried  out, 
though  they  did  not  know  the  exact  date.  On  this  account 
Gurney  supposes  an  action  of  the  secondary  consciousness 
in  such  cases.  He  thinks  that  the  hypnotic  subject's  sub- 
consciousness calculates  days  just  as  the  waking  person's 
primary  consciousness  does,  and  that  is  why  the  suggestion  is 
carried  out. 

By  accepting  these  different  spheres  of  consciousness  and 
also  an  independent  activity  of  the  secondary  consciousness, 
we  are  better  able  to  understand  those  hypnotic  suggestions 
which  are  carried  out  in  a  state  of  complete  loss  of  memory, 
for  the  suggested  command  remains  fixed  in  the  consciousness, 
even  if  it  only  be  in  that  consciousness  which  we  have 
described  as  the  secondary.  The  punctual  execution  of  such 
a  suggestion  is  only  comprehensible  if  we  admit  that  the  two 
states  of  consciousness  are  similarly  equipped;  and  the  ex- 
planations we  have  already  given  show  that  this  is  no  mere 
hypothesis. 

The  preceding  explanations  are  chiefly  intended  to  approxi- 
mate as  much  as  possible  post-hypnotic  suggestion  to  certain 
habitual  occurrences.  There  is  no  question  of  a  complete 
identification  of  them.  Still,  I  think  I  have  proved  that  those 
properties  which  we  are  prone  to  consider  characteristic  of 
post-hypnotic  suggestion  are  also  met  with  out  of  hypnosis. 
There  is  one  thing  more  which  I  must  certainly  point  out  as 
I  have  not  hitherto  mentioned  it,  and  it  might  pass  for  a 
characteristic  of  hypnosis.  I  refer  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the 
post-hypnotic  command  itself — />.,  not  what  was  said  to  the 
subject,  but  the  idea  of  carrying  out  the  command,  that  later 
on  rises  to  the  primary  consciousness.  If  I  suggest  to  a  subject 
in  hypnosis  to  ask  for  an  apple  an  hour  after  he  wakes,  he  will 
do  so;  it  is  not  my  order,  but  idea  of  carrying  it  out,  that  rises 
into  his  primary  consciousness.  We  must  always  carefully 
distinguish  between  these  two  points. 

But  there  are  many  analogies  for  this,  also,  where  there  is 
no  question  of  hypnosis.  We  are  reminded,  for  instance,  of 
those  dominant  ideas  which  often  result  in  actions,  and  whose 
origin  is  for  the  most  part  "  unconscious  "  (Bentivegni).  The 
source  of  the  idea  cannot  be  discovered  by  questions  or  by 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  259 

any  other  means.  But  we  need  not  refer  to  Lock's  principle, 
Nil  est  in  intellectu^  quod  noti  prius  fiierit  in  sensu,  to 
justify  the  assumption  that  a  dominant  idea  is  the  result  of 
some  external  event  that  has  formerly  influenced  the  mind  of 
the  person  concerned.  Lcewenfeld  has  very  properly  pointed 
out  the  determining  influence  which  certain  mental  impressions 
possess.  A  sudden  fright,  for  instance,  may  produce  a  lasting 
dominant  idea.  Freud  mentions  the  case  of  Pascal,  who  from 
the  time  he  nearly  fell  into  the  Seine  was  constantly  pursued 
by  the  idea  of  falling  into  an  abyss.  But  even  events  that  do 
not  directly  aßect  the  emotions — for  example,  quite  ordinary 
occurrences  in  normal  life — can  by  suggestion  produce  such 
ideas.  It  is  quite  a  common  occurrence  for  a  patient  to  feel 
convinced  that  he  is  suffering  from  severe  cardiac  trouble, 
because  he  has  overheard  some  casual  remark  about  heart 
disease.  Friedmann  mentions  the  case  of  a  girl  who  heard 
a  scream  just  as  she  was  going  out  of  the  room  and  was  told 
that  a  neighbour's  child  had  fallen  out  of  the  window.  If  ever 
after  that  she  wished  to  open  the  door,  the  recollection  of  what 
had  happened  overcame  her;  this  placed  her  in  a  most  painful 
position,  as  she  was  never  able  to  go  out  of  the  room,  even 
to  answer  the  calls  of  nature.  It  may  very  well  happen  that 
the  original  cause — the  determining  factor — is  forgotten,  yet 
the  dominant  idea  will  arise  directly  the  same  prompting 
impression  occurs.  This  is  analogous  to  post-hypnotic 
suggestion,  where,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  the  suggested  idea, 
and  not  the  command,  that  rises  to  the  primary  consciousness. 
The  same  sort  of  thing  occurs  when  imperative  ideas  lead  to 
uncontrollable  acts — e.g,,  murder,  suicide,  incendiarism,  etc. 
We  may  here  include  a  possible  cause  of  hysteria  described 
by  Breuer  and  Freud.  They  attribute  the  appearance  of 
hysterical  symptoms  to  some  injury  to  the  sexual  organs  which 
the  patient  has  received  in  early  youth  but  does  not  remember 
when  in  a  normal  waking  state.  As  we  shall  see  in  the 
medical  section,  Breuer  and  Freud  employ  hypnosis  to  bring 
back  a  forgotten  injury  to  the  patient's  recollection,  in  the 
hope  of  affecting  a  cure  thereby. 

But  it  is  not  only  under  pathological  conditions  that  some 
externally  induced  idea  influences  our  actions  and  feelings 
without  our  being  able  to  remember  how  the  idea  was  im- 
planted in  us.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  child  two  or  three  years 
old  is  often  in  the  society  of  A.  and  B.;  A.  is  kind  and  gentle, 


26o  HYPNOTISM. 

B.  hard  and  unkind,  so  that  the  child  gradually  learns  to  like 
A.  and  dislike  B.  Let  us  further  suppose  that  the  child  sees 
neither  for  a  long  time;  nevertheless,  when  it  does  meet  them 
accidentally  it  will  still  like  A.  and  dislike  B.  The  child,  who  is 
now  several  years  older,  will  not  know  its  own  reasons;  it  will 
not  remember  the  former  conduct  of  A.  and  B. ;  no  questions 
will  bring  this  back  to  its  memory,  yet  the  effect  of  the  old 
impressions  remains.  It  is  certain  that  this  is  a  common 
occurrence  in  childhood.  Shrewd  observers  think  it  likely 
that  a  man  may  owe  his  preference  for  some  profession — 
painting,  for  example — to  some  childish  impression,  such  as 
dabbling  with  colours;  in  this  case  also  the  early  impression 
is  forgotten  by  the  adult. 

So  far  from  this  occurrence  being  confined  to  childhood  we 
frequently  observe  it  in  adults.  We  are  often  influenced  by 
unimportant  expressions  we  have  heard,  though  later  on  we 
cannot  trace  the  effect  to  its  cause.  Our  conduct  with  regard 
to  experiences  and  theories  is  often  the  effect  of  early  un- 
conscious impressions.  It  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon 
occurrence  that  a  remark  which  has  apparently  passed  unheeded 
has  really  produced  a  profound  effect 

Finally,  we  find  something  similar  in  the  association  of 
heterogeneous  ideas.  Recent  studies  in  sexual  perversion 
have  drawn  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  concurrence  of 
sexual  desire  and  some  chance  experience — witnessing  a 
flogging  for  example — may  lead  to  lasting  sexual  perversion. 
It  may  happen  that  the  original  experience  is  forgotten,  and 
yet  the  link  between  flogging  and  sexual  excitement  remains 
fast,  so  that  witnessing  the  former  invariably  induces  the 
latter.  Even  when  the  association  is  of  the  simplest  kind, 
depending  on  the  law  of  the  association  of  experiences,  there 
is  no  necessity  whatever  for  the  original  experience  to  be 
remembered ;  the  effect  corresponding  to  it  invariably  occurs. 
When  two  mental  processes  have  once  occurred  together, 
recurrence  of  the  one  calls  up  the  other.  Here  also,  without 
any  recollection  of  the  concrete  case  in  which  the  original 
linking  together  took  place  being  necessary,  a  corresponding 
and  similar  linking  invariably  takes  place.  In  short,  these 
cases  are  analogous  to  post-hypnotic  suggestions,  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  are  carried  out  although  the  command  has 
apparently  been  forgotten. 

Moreover,  we  find  that  something  similar  happens  in  the 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  201 

case  of  animals.  Indeed,  it  is  mainly  on  this  that  the  training 
of  animals  is  based.  Smugglers  train  their  dogs  to  avoid 
frontier-guards  by  having  them  constantly  beaten  and  other- 
wise maltreated  by  men  wearing  the  uniform  of  such  officials. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  dogs  run  away  directly  they 
see  a  man  in  the  uniform  of  a  frontier-guard  approaching. 
Loiset  describes  a  trick-act  which  used  often  to  be  given  in 
circuses — the  little  hump-backed  tailor  who  tries  to  mount  a 
horse  but  cannot,  because  it  always  lashes  out  at  him,  and  bites 
and  chases  him  as  would  a  rabid  dog.  The  horse  chosen  for 
this  spectacle  was  one  that  had  been  teazed  from  a  foal,  more 
especially  by  a  supposed  tailor  clad  in  a  quaint  costume,  who 
maltreated  it  in  various  ways.  Consequently,  whenever  any  one 
similarly  clad  approached  it,  the  horse  lashed  out,  etc.^  but 
was  quiet  and  obedient  to  persons  in  ordinary  dress.  There  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  an  animal,  any  more  than  a  man, 
recollects  all  the  details  of  former  injury  because  of  the  costume 
of  its  torturer.  Much  has  been  said  in  this  connection  of  the 
sagacity  of  animals,  but  such  remarks  are  merely  the  outcome 
of  superficial  observation.  In  reality,  these  are  but  mechanical 
associations  in  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse  and  the  tailor 
where  the  sight  of  the  latter  in  his  quaint  costume  caused  the 
former  to  bite  and  kick,  one  process  calls  up  the  other  corre- 
sponding process  without  there  being  any  recollection  of  the 
earlier  experiences  from  which  this  linking  together  resulted. 

In  short,  we  have  no  occasion  to  consider  it  particularly 
enigmatical  that  the  original  command  in  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  is  forgotten,  and  that  only  the  idea  of  carrying  out 
the  command  rises  to  the  primary  consciousness.  The  process 
is  here  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  cases  just  mentioned.  It  is 
the  idea  of  what  is  to  happen,  and  not  the  source  from  which 
that  idea  springs,  that  is  remembered,  and  this,  as  we  have  just 
seen,  is  a  process  which  has  its  analogies  in  many  cases  which 
are  outside  the  domain  of  hypnosis. 

I  have  hitherto  spoken  only  of  post-hypnotic  movements 
and  actions,  and  have  endeavoured  to  explain  the  most  im- 
portant  phenomena  by  means  of  analogy.  I  have  still  a  few 
words  to  say  about  post-hypnotic  sense-delusions,  which  are 
less  easy  to  explain.  It  is  true  that  those  which  occur  in  a 
fresh  hypnosis  hardly  present  any  substantial  difficulty.  We 
have  seen  that  the  subsequent  loss  of  memory  is  only  apparent, 


202  HYPNOTISM. 

and  that  the  idea  really  remains  in  the  secondary  conscious- 
ness. Consequently,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  suggested 
idea  should  at  an  appointed  time  transform  itself  into  a  sense- 
delusion  in  a  fresh  hypnosis,  which  hypnosis  comes  on  through 
association  when  the  idea  reappears.  We  must  then  explain 
the  sense-delusion  by  means  of  the  dream-consciousness  as  I 
have  shown  above. 

It  is  quite  another  thing  when  the  sense-delusion  appears 
without  a  new  hypnosis.  For  example,  I  say  to  some  one  in 
hypnosis,  "When  I  cough  after  you  wake,  you  will  see  a  pigeon 
sitting  on  the  table;  you  will  remain  thoroughly  awake.''  The 
suggestion  takes  effect;  the  subject  sees  a  pigeon  where  no 
pigeon  is.  But  it  is  impossible  to  make  him  accept  a  further 
suggestion ;  that  one  point  excepted,  he  seems  perfectly  normal. 
Whether  the  total  mental  state  of  such  people  is  really  normal, 
is  a  question  on  which  Bentivegni  speaks  very  clearly,  and  will 
be  discussed  in  the  legal  section  of  this  book.  Now,  how  can 
we  explain  this  particular  sense-delusion  ?  Dream-consciousness 
does  not  afford  a  satisfactory  explanation,  although  Eduard  von 
Hartmann  believes  that  it  always  co-exists  with  waking  con- 
sciousness. But  even  if  we  admit  this  it  brings  us  no  nearer 
a  solution,  for  we  should  still  have  to  explain  how  it  .happens 
that  dream-consciousness  is  only  manifest  in  respect  to  one 
point,  waking  consciousness  being  present  in  all  others.  But 
even  if  the  dream-consciousness  does  not  provide  a  satisfactory 
explanation  we  find  like  occurrences  under  different  circum- 
stances. I  do  not  mention  the  hallucinations  of  insane  persons, 
because  it  is  exactly  the  addition  of  other  disorders  to  their 
sense-delusions  which  distinguishes  them  from  the  above  case. 
But  we  find  isolated  sense-delusions  in  persons  who  for  some 
reason  or  other  "are  disinclined  to  correct  the  creations  of 
their  own  imagination."  Krafft-Ebing  mentions  the  delusions 
of  several  famous  men — the  case  of  Socrates,  who  conversed 
with  his  Daemon,  and  Luther,  who  threw  an  inkstand  at  the 
devil.  Statistical  investigations  on  hallucinations  among 
normal  persons  have  lately  been  carried  out  by  the  English 
Society  for  Psychical  Research.  These  results  were  presented 
by  Sidgwick  at  the  Congress  for  Experimental  Psychology  in 
London,  in  1892,  and  they  were  discussed  in  detail  by  Parish 
in  his  work  Ueber  die  Trugwahrnehmungen  (Hallucinations 
and  Illusions),  Parish  holds  that  sense-delusions  in  them- 
selves are  no  indication  of  disease,  but  that  usually  when  they 


THE  THEORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  263 

are  present  an  abnormal  psychic  state  may  be  demonstrated 
Such  delusions  are  often  caused  by  strong  expectant  attention, 
of  which  I  have  already  spoken.  This  is  very  clearly  seen  in 
spiritualistic  manifestations,  which  may  be  ascribed  in  great 
part  to  hallucinations  of  the  spectators,  who  think  they  see 
spirits  or  other  things  in  consequence  of  abnormal  processes  in 
their  own  brain.  The  visions  of  religious  enthusiasts,  which 
sometimes  take  an  epidemic  form,  belong  here.  In  these 
latter  cases  the  sense-delusions  result  from  a  particular  mental 
state  which  may  be  called  a  state  of  expectation.  It  thus 
appears  that  the  induction  of  sense- delusions  by  means  of 
post-hypnotic  suggestion  brings  about  a  mental  state  when  the 
idea  reappears,  which,  although  the  subject  is  otherwise  awake, 
has  a  great  resemblance  to  this  state  of  expectation,  and  is 
perhaps  even  identical  with  it. 

Again,  too  much  weight  should  not  be  laid  on  solitary  cases 
of  post-hypnotic  sense-delusion,  as  it  is  always  very  rare  for  the 
subject  to  remain  quite  awake  and  unable  to  accept  fresh 
suggestions.  As  we  have  already  seen,  a  fresh  state  of  suscepti- 
bility to  suggestion,  which  we  can  only  ascribe  to  hypnosis, 
readily  sets  in  even  while  post-hypnotic  actions  are  being 
carried  out.  At  all  events,  in  these  cases  of  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  the  more  absurd  the  latter  is  and  the  more  opposed 
to  the  subject's  natural  disposition,  the  more  readily  does  a 
fresh  hypnosis  arise.  VVe  can  explain  this  process  as  the 
result  of  associations  which  create  a  state  of  dream-conscious- 
ness when  the  process  in  question  does  not  harmonize  with  a 
state  of  waking  consciousness. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  hypnosis  from 
the  point  of  view  of  psychology;  but  they  are  generally  marred 
by  two  defects;  (i)  the  assumption  that  more  has  to  be 
explained  than  is  really  called  for — a  point  I  have  discussed 
on  p.  225 — and  (2)  an  attempt  to  explain  everything  by 
one  concept,  or  rather  by  some  catchword.  For  this 
purpose  the  concept  "attention"  was  formerly  much  used, 
because  the  change  in  it  is  most  striking  in  hypnosis;  recently, 
however,  it  has  had  to  give  way  to  "  change  in  the  process  of 
association."  I  thought,  at  first,  that  hypnotic  phenomena 
could  be  explained  by  the  one  word  attention,  but  gave  up  the 
idea  more  than  fifteen  years  ago  when  I  published  my  own 
theoretical  considerations  on  the  question  in  an  earlier  edition 


264  HYPNOTISM. 

of  this  book.  It  is  not  by  the  use  of  any  term  that  we  shall 
gain  a  clearer  insight  into  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis;  that 
can  only  be  achieved  by  methodical  analysis  and  a  careful 
consideration  of  all  kinds  of  analogies  drawn  from  non-hypnotic 
life.  At  all  events,  a  diversity  of  processes  such  as  hypnosis 
presents  cannot  be  explained  by  a  catchword.  Hirschlaff,  also, 
has  recently  insisted  with  great  justice  that  if  we  are  to  arrive 
at  a  definite  explanation  of  hypnotic  states  we  must  at  least 
distinguish  between  the  two  great  groups  {cf,  p.  61). 

As  the  different  theories  which  depend  on  diversion  of 
the  attention  are  often  met  with,  I  shall  develop  them  shortly 
in  what  follows.  The  ensuing  explanations  are  not  in  contra- 
diction with  what  has  already  been  said,  but  are,  on  the 
contrary,  supplemented  by  it  in  many  essentials. 

We  have  seen  that  susceptibility  to  suggestion  is  the  chief 
phenomenon  of  hypnosis.  The  externally  suggested  idea  of  a 
movement  induces  the  movement,  the  idea  of  an  object  causes 
a  corresponding  sense-delusion.  However  strange  and  para- 
doxical the  symptoms  of  hypnosis  may  appear  to  us  at  first 
sight,  there  is,  as  was  pointed  out  on  p.  231,  no  absolute 
difference  between  hypnotic  and  non-hypnotic  states.  As  I 
mentioned  in  the  passage  just  referred  to,  a  certain  degree  of 
susceptibility  to  suggestion  is  normal;  but  it  is  not  merely 
confined  to  sense  delusions,  but  extends  to  various  other  kinds 
of  processes  as  well.  Lipps  expresses  a  very  similar  view  in 
his  Theory  of  Self- Projection^  wKich  he  considers  closely  related 
to  suggestion.  "Every  consciousness  of  any  condition  of 
relativity  in  another  consciousness  necessarily  implies  the 
specific  tendency  to  a  corresponding  experience.  This  tend- 
ency is,  however,  most  direct,  and  consequently  most  active, 
whenever  such  a  state  of  consciousness  is  conveyed  by  visual 
or  audible  manifestation  of  the  other,  or  to  speak  more 
precisely,  when  it  stands  in  direct  connection  with  the  afore- 
said phenomena  of  the  senses.''  But  apart  from  the  case  in 
which  the  other  person  gives  direct  evidence  of  a  condition,  an 

^  Lipps's  Theorie  der  Einfühlung.  1  have  rendered  "Einfühlung" — 
a  word  recently  introduced  into  German—  by  ** Self- Projection."  Although 
the  latter  is  an  ugly  term,  and  the  older  writers  on  sesthetics  spoke  of 
*'  Inner  Imitation,"  I  cannot  think  of  a  better.  A  simple  example  will 
make  Lipps's  meaning  clear.  A  spectator  at  a  football  match  often  so 
** feels  himself  into"  the  actual  position  of  some  particular  player  that  he 
participates  in  that  man's  individual  game.— Note  bv  the  Translator. 


THE   THEORY   OF    HYPNOTISM.  26$ 

analogous  effect  is  produced,  for  example,  by  a  command  or 
an  assertion.  If  A.  tells  X.  to  lift  his  arm,  X.  is  inclined  to  do 
it,  but  he  controls  the  impulse  by  his  own  will,  by  arousing  the 
opposite  idea.  The  following  example  may  make  this  clearer. 
When  two  people  look  at  each  other  they  both  often  begin  to 
laugh  if  one  assures  the  other  he  is  going  to  laugh.  This  is  a 
favourite  joke  among  children.  But  the  idea  of  laughing  is  a 
necessary  condition  for  its  appearance,  and  the  stronger  the 
idea  the  quicker  will  laughter  ensue.  The  laughter  may  be 
prevented  by  arousing  in  ourselves  the  contrary  idea,  and  if  the 
will  alone  is  not  sufficient  it  must  be  supported  by  some  sense- 
impression.  Probably  many  of  my  readers  have  made  the 
same  observation  in  their  own  cases  that  I  made  when  at 
school.  We  had  a  mäster  who  often  talked  such  nonsense 
that  we  were  obliged  to  laugh.  One  day  he  asked  me  why  I 
was  laughing,  and  I  told  him  the  reason  truthfully.  Of  course 
he  could  do  nothing  to  me  as  I  was  in  the  right.  After  that, 
he  never  asked  any  boy  why  he  was  laughing,  but  we  noticed 
that  he  invariably  gave  us  bad  marks  for  our  exercises  when 
we  had  been  laughing.  It  was  a  petty  revenge.  To  avoid 
that  unpleasant  consequence  of  our  laughter,  we  then  took  to 
pricking  ourselves  with  a  pin  directly  we  felt  we  could  not 
help  laughing.  The  pain  drove  away  the  idea  of  laughter,  and 
so  prevented  it.  This  is  an  example  of  the  prevention  of 
laughter  by  indirect  means — ^.^.,  the  sense  of  feeling.  In  other 
cases  the  idea  of  laughter  may  be  suppressed  directly  by  means 
of  voluntarily  produced  opposing  ideas. 

Now,  it  appears  that  this  process  often  takes  place  in  ordinary 
life;  the  idea  of  a  movement,  for  example,  results  in  a  move- 
ment (Joh.  Müller)  if  it  is  not  opposed  by  a  contrary  idea. 
Thus  the  idea  of  a  movement  called  up  in  a  subject  in  or  out 
of  hypnosis  has  a  tendency  to  induce  the  movement.  But  in 
waking  life  this  idea  can  be  made  ineffectual  by  other  ideas 
that  are  inhibitory.  Thus  we  may  say  that  the  hypnotized 
subject  has  lost  the  power  of  arousing  certain  inhibitory  ideas — 
/.^.,  in  hypnosis  the  inhibitory  ideas  are  inhibited.  We  have  to 
thank  Heidenhain  for  having  first  pointed  out  the  importance 
of  inhibitory  processes  in  hypnosis.  Münsterberg  also  thinks 
that  the  sole  characteristic  of  a  suggested  idea  is  its  power  to 
inhibit  an  opposing  idea,  and  he  considers  this  applies  as  much 
to  suggestions  in  daily  life  (education,  art,  politics),  as  to  the 
phenomena  of  increased  susceptibility  to  suggestion  in  hypnosis. 


268  HYPNOTISM. 

to  the  defects  in  the  attempts  at  psychological  explanation 
hitherto  given.  He  specially  points  out  that  the  various 
analogies  between  hypnosis  and  waking  life  which  I  have  given 
certainly  exist,  and  show  that  hypnosis  is  a  less  strange 
phenomenon  than  was  imagined,  but  that  they  do  not  suffice 
to  explain  it;  the  main  point  is  why  the  one-sided  concentration 
of  the  attention,  or,  as  Wundt  now  prefers  to  call  it,  the 
contraction  of  consciousness,  comes  about.  Psychology  has 
hitherto  been  unable  to  offer  an  explanation  of  this  point ;  and 
Wundt  believes  that  psychology  is  not  to-day  able  to  offer  any 
explanation  without  the  aid  of  physiology.  We  must  also  admit 
that  both  the  monist  and  the  materialist  have  a  right  to  put 
further  questions  on  this  subject,  especially  the  following : — 
I.  What  is  the  state  of  the  central  nervous  system  and  the 
other  organs  during  hypnosis  ?  2.  What  is  the  causal  connection 
between  this  state  and  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  ?  3.  What  is 
the  causal  connection  between  this  state  and  the  methods  which 
induce  hypnosis  and  put  an  end  to  it  ? 

Unfortunately  our  knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  the  central 
nervous  system  is  so  incomplete  that  we  cannot  expect  much 
from  it.  In  spite  of  the  great  progress  which  physiology  has 
made,  we  must  admit  that  we  know  much  less  about  psychical 
functions  of  the  different  elements  of  the  brain  than  would 
appear  from  our  physiological  text-books.  As  far  as  the  brain 
is  concerned,  Hirschlaff  thinks  that  all  we  can  assume  is  that 
it,  and  especially  its  cortex,  must  be  intact  for  mental  processes 
to  be  carried  out.  The  assumption  of  some  investigators  that 
all  conscious  processes  take  place  in  the  cortex  and  the  sub- 
conscious ones  in  the  subcortical  centres,  is  very  justly  opposed 
by  others  who  point  out  that  such  an  assumption  lacks  proof. 
According  to  Flechsig  it  is  anything  but  certain  that  the  activity 
of  the  secondary  consciousness  is  not  due  to  a  minor  degree  of 
stimulation;  and  in  both  cases  any  stimulus  operates  through 
the  same  cerebral  elements  (Loewenfeld).  Considering  how 
very  fragmentary  our  knowledge  of  the  central  nervous  system 
is,  we  cannot  expect  that  assistance  from  experiments  on 
animals  that  Heidenhain  did;  for  hypnotism  is  essentially  a 
psychical  process,  and  to  draw  conclusions  from  animals  about 
mental  action  in  men  would  be  very  daring.  The  investigation 
of  mental  processes  may,  as  we  have  seen,  be  undertaken  in 
two  ways — (i)  by  observing  individuals,  and  (2)  by  calling  the 
subject's  memory  to  our  aid.     This  last  could  not  be  done  in 


THE   THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  269 

the  case  of  animals.  But  any  observations  of  animals  must  be 
very  elementary,  for  we  can  only  obtain  a  glimmering  of  the 
processes  of  their  consciousness  from  external  signs.  Further, 
many  physiologists  make  the  grievous  error  of  assuming  that 
the  successful  stimulation  of  any  portion  of  the  brain  proves 
that  an  act  of  will  originates  in  that  spot.  Heidenhain  and 
Bubnoff  have  made  numerous  experiments  in  electrical  stimula- 
tion of  the  cortex  of  the  brain  on  dogs  poisoned  by  morphia. 
But  the  conclusions  which  these  authors  attempted  to  draw 
about  the  action  of  will  in  men  from  such  experiments  must  be 
pronounced  mistaken  till  it  is  proved  that  the  impulse  of  the 
will  is  an  electrical  stimulation.  For  the  above  reasons  I 
consider  Heidenhain's  endeavours  to  draw  conclusions  on 
hypnosis  in  man  from  experiments  on  dogs  too  hazardous. 

In  spite  of  all  these  weighty  doubts  many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  give  a  physiological  explanation  of  hypnosis. 
Heidenhain  must  here  be  mentioned  first.  He  supposes  that 
the  cause  of  the  hypnotic  states  is  an  inhibition  of  the  action 
of  the  ganglion  cells  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  induced  by  con- 
tinuous weak  stimulation  of  certain  nerves,  and  he  thinks  that 
this  inhibition  is  analogous  to  reflex  paralyses,  as  in  these  also 
the  functions  of  the  ganglion  cells  are  impaired  by  peripheral 
stimuli. 

But  even  if  we  take  the  inhibition  of  the  action  of  the 
ganglion  cells  for  granted,  Heidenhain's  theory  does  not  explain 
the  connection  between  this  and  the  means  used  to  induce 
hypnosis.  For  (i)  Fixation  unaccompanied  by  mental  effort 
does  not  lead  to  hypnosis.  Braid  and  Berger  considered  that 
there  must  be  concentrated  attention  as  well;  (2)  in  any  case 
there  would  be  no  causal  connection  here  between  the  purely 
psychical  methods  and  hypnosis. 

Besides  this,  Heidenhain  starts  from  a  mistaken  premise 
when  he  supposes  an  inhibition  of  the  ganglion  cells.  He 
concludes  this  inhibition  from  the  lowered  state  of  conscious- 
ness during  hypnosis.  But  consciousness  expresses  itself  in 
many  ways  during  hypnosis.  The  processes  of  consciousness 
seem  merely  to  be  concentrated  on  one  point,  which  is  chosen 
by  the  experimenter  and  is  removable  at  his  pleasure. 
Heidenhain  maintains,  like  Despine,  that  the  subject  is  not 
conscious  of  the  external  stimuli.  Heidenhain  was  led  to  this 
erroneous  view,  which  has  lately  been  taken  by  Landois  and 


274  HYPNOTISM. 

brain.  Salvioli  and  Bouchut  have,  on  the  contrary,  found 
cerebral  hyperaemia  during  hypnosis.  Krarup  finds  a  narrow- 
ing of  the  internal  carotids,  an  enlargement  of  the  external 
carotids  and  of  the  vertebral  arteries  during  hypnosis.  Regnier 
studied  the  carotid  pulse  with  the  sphygmograph  during  and 
after  hypnosis.  He  concludes  from  the  changes  in  the  carotid 
pulse  that  there  is  retardation  of  the  circulation  and  congestion 
of  the  cerebral  capillaries  during  hypnosis.  He  thinks  that  his 
view  is  confirmed  by  the  ophthalmoscopic  investigations  of 
Luys  and  Bacchi  who  found  hyperemia  of  the  back  of  the  eye 
L.aker  concluded  that  there  is  a  change  in  the  amount  of  blood 
in  the  cerebral  cortex  during  hypnosis,  because  he  once 
observed  oedema  of  the  face  after  hypnotic  sleep.  This  he 
assumed  to  be  an  analogous  phenomenon  to  the  facial  oedema 
observed  in  the  angioparalytic  forms  of  hemicrania.  But  he 
was  more  careful  in  his  other  conclusions.  Tamburini, 
Seppilli,  and  Kaan  also  investigated  the  circulation  of  the 
bloodTduring  hypnosis,  but  only  in  connection  with  Charcot's 
stages.  In  the  same  connection  Meynert  investigated  circu- 
lation in  hypnosis;  he  speaks  of  a  strong  cramp  of  the 
musculature  of  the  vessels  in  hypnosis.  The  three  other  last- 
named  investigators  used  several  methods: — (i)  Mosso's 
method,  which  determines  the  volume  of  an  extremity,  and 
concludes  from  a  decrease  in  the  mass  of  blood  contained  in 
it,  an  increase  in  the  mass  contained  in  the  brain.  (2)  The 
action  of  cold  and  hot  compresses  on  the  head  (Kaan),  which 
cause  anaemia  or  hyperaemia.  From  the  resulting  changes, 
/.^.,  from  the  cessation  or  modification  of  the  hypnosis,  a  con- 
clusion is  drawn  between  this  and  the  mass  of  blood  in  the 
brain.  (3)  Ophthalmoscopic  investigation  of  the  vessels  of  the 
retina.  I  do  not  enter  into  details  of  the  different  experiments, 
because  they  are  valid  for  the  stages  of  Charcot  alone,  and 
therefore  only  have  a  historical  interest.  Apart  from  this, 
these  are  quite  untrustworthy  methods  for  ascertaining  the 
mass  of  blood  in  the  brain.  Brodmann  made  a  series  of 
excellent  investigations  on  a  subject  who  had  been  trepanned, 
and  proved  that  there  is  no  antagonism  between  the  circula- 
tion in  the  brain  and  in  the  arm,  either  in  sleep  or  in  the 
waking  state*  Mosso's  method  may,  therefore,  be  dismissed 
as  of  no  account  But  Hirschlaff  points  out  that  apart  from 
this,  Brodmann  has  shown  that  the  relative  conditions  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  brain  are  as  yet  of  no  general 


THE  THEORY   OF   HYPNOTISM.  275 

use  in  discussing  the  theory  of  sleep,  and  of  course  we  must 
be  just  as  cautious  in  regard  to  hypnosis. 

Döllken  has  put  forward  a  theory  based  on  the  condition  of 
the  blood  and  the  state  of  the  nerve  elements.  According  to 
him  arbitrary  reduction  of  the  activity  of  the  seng^e-organs 
accompanied  by  reduction  of  the  associative  activity  to  a 
minimum  produces  anaemia  of  the  brain.  The  cortex  and 
cortical  paths  participate  in  this  process,  but  what  share  the 
subcortical  elements  have  in  it,  has  yet  to  be  shown.  Accord- 
ing to  Döllken  a  certain  tonicity  of  the  nerve-elements  results 
from  this  anaemia,  rendering  them  responsive  to  stimuli  far 
below  the  normal  limit  in  strength.  The  nerve-elements  are 
thus  enabled  individually  to  acquire  a  better  state  of  nutrition 
and  the  increase  of  functional  capacity  arising  therefrom. 
Still  this  particular  tonicity  might  also  be  considered  primary. 

Failure  to  distinguish  clearly  between  cause  and  effect  is 
one  of  the  sources  of  error  frequently  found  in  those  theories 
of  hypnosis  which  are  based  on  the  state  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  in  the  brain.  Even  when  there  is  a  change  of 
circulation  in  the  brain  in  hypnosis,  it  is  a  mistake  to  think 
that  the  changed  circulation  causes  the  changed  functions. 
Haas  very  properly  points  out  that  when  a  person  who  feels 
ashamed  blushes,  it  is  not  the  blushing  that  causes  the  feelings 
of  shame.  As  a  muscle  needs  more  blood  when  it  is  at  work, 
but  does  not  work  more  because  more  blood  flows  to  it; 
as  the  stomach  when  digesting  needs  more  blood  than  when  it 
is  inactive,  it  is  also  not  improbable  that  the  brain,  or  portions 
of  it,  when  they  are  active  need  much  blood,  and  when  they 
are  inactive  but  little.  Then  if  we  take  the  vasomotor  dis- 
turbances as  proved,  it  is  by  no  means  proved  whether  they 
are  the  cause  or  the  effect  of  hypnosis. 

In  fact,  Cappie  takes  the  opposite  view.  He  thinks  that 
the  increased  activity  of  the  motor  centres  in  hypnosis  draws 
too  much  blood  to  them,  thereby  causing  anaemia  of  the  other 
portions  of  the  brain  which  are  necessary  to  consciousness. 
But  this  theory  does  not  give  a  satisfactory  explanation,  for  it 
arbitrarily  opposes  the  motor  centres  to  the  parts  of  the  brain 
necessary  to  consciousness,  and  there  is  always  consciousness 
in  hypnosis.  The  principle  from  which  Cappie  starts  is  the 
one  put  forward  by  Brown-Sequard.  He  thinks  that  hypnotism 
is  the  sum  of  dynamo-genetic  and  inhibitory  acts — />.,  that 
the  increased  action  of  certain  parts  of  the  brain  (dynamo^ 


■  air-    I  in 


nAOV    OTAMCnOn   IINIVFRRIT^ 


276  HYPNOTISM. 

genetic  act)  causes  decreased  action  of  others  (inhibitory  act). 
That  Fechner  recognized  these  principles  very  clearly  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  he  spoke  of  the  antagonism  existing  between 
the  various  spheres  of  psychophysical  activity.  He  was  also 
fully  aware  of  the  important  parts  played  by  nutrition  and  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  The  theory  of  an  antagonistic  distri- 
bution of  the  blood  was  used  later  on  by  Meynert  to  explain 
morbid  mental  states. 

Just  as  Cappie  assumed  that  there  is  during  hypnosis  an 
altered  activity  of  certain  centres  and  associated  changes  in 
the  circulation,  so  Wundt  has  suggested  as  the  physiological 
basis  of  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  a  double  interaction, 
neurodynamic  and  vasomotor.  The  irritability  of  any  central 
element  depends  not  only  on  its  own  condition  at  the 
moment  of  stimulation,  but  also  on  the  condition  of  the  other 
elements  with  which  it  is  in  association,  in  such  a  way  that 
excitation  of  the  neighbouring  element  lowers  its  own  ex- 
citability, while  a  condition  of  inhibition  favours  discharge  of 
energy.  This  is  the  neurodynamic  reaction.  At  the  same 
time,  according  to  Wundt,  there  is  a  vasomotor  reaction,  for 
the  blood  contents  and  functions  of  the  organs  stand  in  such 
a  relationship  to  one  another  that  increase  of  function  produces 
increased  flow  of  blood,  decrease  of  function,  depression  of 
the  blood  flow.  Wundt  further  argues  that  neurodynamic 
compensation  favours  vasomotor  compensation  and  vice  versa, 
and  seeks  in  this  way  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis 
by  viewing  the  chief  symptoms  from  this  standpoint.  He  then 
refers  to  the  centre  for  apperception,  which,  hypothetically, 
he  regards  as  the  substratum  of  the  process  of  apperception. 
He  believes  that  we  have  here  an  essential  difference  between 
dreaming  and  hypnosis,  though  he  does  not  ascribe  absolute 
importance  to  this  difference.  Certain  phenomena  of  inhibi- 
tion of  the  processes  of  the  will  and  the  attention  are 
common  to  both,  also  a  tendency  to  increased  excitability  of 
the  sensory  centres  leading  to  hallucinatory  interpretation  of 
sense-impressions.  But  there  are  distinguishing  characteristics; 
attention  is  only  partially  altered  by  suggestion  in  hypnosis, 
but  the  inhibition  of  the  will  in  sleep  affects  both  apperceptive 
and  motor  processes.  It  is  from  this  psychological  difference 
that  Wundt  develops  his  physiological  theory.  In  dreams 
those  central  regions  which  are  associated  with  the  process  of 
apperception  are  more  or  less  in  a  state  of  inhibition,  and 


THE  THEORY  OF   HYPNOTISM.  277 

nearly  all  the  compensatory  excitation  is  conducted  to  the 
sensory  centres,  but  under  certain  circumstances  in  hypnosis 
a  compensatory  increase  of  irritability  arises  in  the  apper- 
ception-centre in  opposition  to  the  existing  partial  inhibition. 

As  I  have  already  mentioned,  Wundt  has  raised  against  my 
attempts  at  a  psychological  explanation,  the  objection  that  I 
have  not  answered  the  question  why  in  hypnosis  consciousness 
is  not  contracted.  I  have,  however,  put  the  questions  which 
must  be  met  by  physiological  answers  (p.  268).  The  third 
question  I  put  is  this  :  What  is  the  causal  connection  between 
this  state  and  the  methods  which  induce  hypnosis  and  put  an 
end  to  it?  I  do  not  find  that  this  question  is  in  any  way 
answered  by  Wundt's  physiological  theory,  and  against  Wundt's 
physiological  explanation  I  must  raise  the  same  objection  as 
he  has  raised  against  my  psychological  speculations.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  centre  of  apperception  as  supposed  by 
Wundt,  is  little  more  than  a  hypothetical  assumption. 

Vogt*s  theory  is  based  on  similar  principles  to  Wundt's,  but 
it  contains  a  series  of  comprehensive  and  elucidatory  ideas, 
especially  that  which  he  terms  "constellation."  By  this  Vogt 
understands  the  whole  cerebral  mechanism  corresponding  to  a 
mental  process,  and  he  considers  it  the  resultant  of  conscious 
and  unconscious  processes.  He  thinks  that  hypnosis  is 
brought  about  by  an  alteration  of  this  constellation,  and  he 
refers  the  phenomena  of  suggestion  partly  to  inhibition,  partly 
to  increased  irritability,  and  partly  to  the  opening  up  of  fresh 
paths.  "Let  us,  for  example,  consider  the  mechanism  of 
catalepsy.  I  lift  up  a  hypnotized  subject's  arm.  This 
passive  movement  causes  a  sensation  of  movement.  The 
associative  paths  leading  from  the  centre  in  which  this  idea 
of  movement  is  localized  are  rendered  non-conductors  by  the 
dissociative  effect  of  hypnosis.  In  consequence  of  this  the 
nerve-wave  (neurokym)  caused  by  the  passive  movement  of 
the  arm  is,  for  the  most  part,  transferred  to  the  centripetal 
paths  leading  from  the  centre  in  which  the  idea  of  the  move- 
ment was  aroused,  and  thus  sets  up  muscular  contraction 
corresponding  to  the  position  passively  imposed  on  the  arm." 
Vogt  also  endeavours  to  explain  other  phenomena  by  the 
action  of  the  neurokym  (nerve- wave) — ;>.,  by  the  nervous 
excitation  that  reaches  the  cerebral  cortex.  A  further  part  of 
Vogt's  theory  bears  on  the  origin  of  sleep,  ordinary  and 
hypnotic.     He  attempts  to  prove  that  sleep  is  caused  by  the 


278  HYPNOTISM. 

Stimulation  of  certain  centres,  more  especially  the  reflex  centre 
for  shutting  the  musculus  orbicularis  occuli,  by  the  action  of 
the  neurokym  or  nerve-wave.  But  certainly  Vogt  thinks  that 
a  vasomotor  reflex  centre  here  plays  a  more  important  part,  its 
stimulation  causing  an  increasing  anaemia  of  the  brain  and 
thereby  drowsiness  and  sleep. 

I  shall  not  enter  into  any  criticism  of  Vogt's  theory,  as  the 
same  objections  apply  to  it  and  nearly  all  other  physiological 
theories,  as  were  raised  to  Wundt's. 

Finally,  I  mention  the  theory  of  Preyer,  who  puts  the 
matter  thus : — An  activity  of  one  hemisphere  of  the  brain 
results  in  hypnosis ;  fixed  attention  causes  a  rapid  accumulation 
of  waste-products  in  the  parts  of  the  brain  which  are  active, 
and  by  this  a  quick  local  consumption  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
blood  is  caused.  In  consequence  of  this,  favoured  by  the 
failure  of  the  ordinary  change  of  stimulus  of  the  nerves  of 
sense,  there  is  a  partial  loss  of  the  activity  of  the  cerebral 
cortex.  The  partial  loss  of  activity  of  one  region  would  then 
explain  the  increase  of  activity  of  the  other,  because  the 
inhibition  would  disappear.  Bernheim  objects  to  this  that  it 
does  not  explain  a  rapidly  induced  hypnosis,  for  it  is  hardly 
conceivable  that  waste-matter  should  accumulate  so  rapidly. 
Similarly,  the  sudden  termination  of  hypnosis  is  not  consistent 
with  this.  As  we  have  seen,  the  one  word  "wake"  is  enough 
to  end  the  hypnosis  at  once.  We  should  be  obliged  to 
suppose  that  the  simple  idea  of  waking  was  able  to  dissipate 
the  waste-matter  or  make  it  of  no  effect. 

I  do  not  think  that  any  of  the  physiological  theories  hitherto 
propounded  can  be  considered  in  the  least  degree  satisfactory. 
This  does  not  imply  any  reproach  to  physiology  in  general. 
But  it  should  be  remembered  that  as  far  as  physiological 
theories  go  we  have  about  reached  the  limit  of  our  knowledge. 
The  connection  between  mind  and  body  is  still  purely  hypo- 
thetical. The  fact  that  stimuli  which  differ  to  but  a  trifling 
extent  here  produce  such  different  effects  is  a  favourite  objec- 
tion to  materialistic  theories  and  physiological  explanations  of 
hypnosis.  Ludwig  Busse  has  recently  called  attention  to  this 
in  his  excellent  work.  Mind  and  Body,  The  owner  of  a  ship 
who  receives  a  telegram  from  the  captain,  "Reached  the 
Cape,"  would  be  very  differently  affiected  if  the  telegram  were 
"  Beached  the  Cape,"  yet  the  physiological  stimulus  differs  but 


THE  THEORY  OF  HYPNOTISM.  279 

very  slightly  in  the  two  cases.  We  must  admit  that  similar 
considerations  show  the  value,  or  rather  the  valuelessness,  of 
physiological  theories.  I  certainly  think  that  as  long  as  we 
are  totally  unable  to  understand  how  an  idea,  roused  for 
example  by  the  word  "wake,"  changes  the  subject's  whole 
state,  we  must  be  very  sceptical  as  regards  physiologists* 
theories.  Even  so  unbiassed  an  observer  as  Lotze  has 
ironically  stated  that,  according  to  his  own  private  statistical 
reckoning,  the  great  discoveries  of  physiology  had  an  average 
existence  of  four  years.  There  may  be  some  exaggeration  in 
this,  and  I  do  not  think  it  should  be  applied  to  all  branches  of 
physiology.  But  the  endeavours  of  some  investigators  to 
explain  mental  processes  by  means  of  our  present  knowledge 
of  the  central  nervous  system  point  to  a  disquieting  tendency 
to  over-estimate  physiology;  and  I  think  that  Meynert's 
assertion  that  cerebral  physiology  is  no  longer  a  problem  will 
cause  many  to  share  my  doubts.  But  I  think  I  can  best  show 
how  devoid  of  all  value  physiological  theories  of  hypnosis  are, 
by  calling  attention  to  the  contradictions  between  the  views  of 
Mendel  and  Ziemssen.  Mendel  explains  that  in  hypnosis  we 
have  to  do  with  a  strong  stimulation  of  the  cerebral  cortex, 
while  Ziemssen  declares  that  the  cerebral  cortex  is  too  little 
stimulated  and  the  subcortical  centres  too  much!  Under 
these  circumstances  we  may,  surely,  be  allowed  to  hope  that 
in  future  less  will  be  asserted  and  more  will  be  proved.  Such 
contradictions  as  those  between  Mendel  and  Ziemssen  would 
be  inconceivable  if  it  were  not  for  the  presence  in  their  works 
of  just  such  speculations  as  those  with  which  medicine  is  in 
the  habit  of  reproaching  philosophy. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS. 

It  is  certain  that  the  present  interest  in  hypnosis  depends 
upon  its  therapeutic  utility.  According  to  the  generally 
accepted  view,  hypnosis  is  a  state  of  increased  susceptibility  to 
suggestion,  although,  as  we  have  seen,  other  factors  play  a 
part  in  it.  We  shall  see  that  in  its  therapeutic  application 
other  properties  of  hypnosis  may  also  have  to  be  considered. 
At  all  events  increased  susceptibility  to  suggestion  plays  an 
important  part.  It  follows  from  this  that  suggestibility  exists 
apart  from  hypnosis,  and  that  the  therapeutics  of  suggestion 
in,  and  out  of  hypnosis,  are  complementary.  It  is  the  Nancy 
school  which  has  pointed  out  that  there  are  many  suggestions 
without  hypnosis,  and  it  was  the  first  of  all  to  recognize  the 
therapeutic  value  of  purely  empirical  suggestion.  The  Nancy 
school^  also,  has  never  denied  that  many  were  cured  or  relieved 
by  suggestion  long  before  hypnotic  suggestion  came  to  be 
studied.  A  patient's  conviction  that  his  condition  will  improve 
has  always  contributed  to  such  improvement.  Every  capable 
practitioner  uses  this  suggestive  treatment,  which  is  as  old  as 
disease.  Most  of  the  miraculous  cures  one  hears  of  we  may 
now  consider  the  results  of  the  unconscious  employment  of 
empirical  suggestion.  There  must  in  such  cases  be  some 
means  of  conveying  the  suggestion ;  and  this  can  be  accom- 
plished equally  well  by  the  influence  of  some  distinct  per- 
sonality or  by  an  object.  The  first  is  the  case  when,  for 
example,  special  powers  are  ascribed  to  a  particular  person,  as 
in  the  healing  of  Jeroboam,  whose  hand,  the  Bible  tells  us, 
was  motionless,  but  recovered  the  power  of  movement  through 
the  prophet's  words.  In  the  second  case  an  object  conveys 
the  suggestion — for  example,  a  spa,  a  particular  medicine,  etc. 
The  great  point  in  the  therapeutics  of  suggestion  is  to  im- 
plant in  the  patient's  min5  the  conviction  that  he  will  be 
Qured.     But  the  physician  is  not  always  able  to  achieve  thig 

280 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  28 1 

even  when  the  patient  has  great  confidience  in  him.  In  such 
a  case  hypnosis  is  a  good  means  of  implanting  the  idea  and 
causing  it  to  take  root,  provided  the  sleep  be  deep  enough. 
If  we  admit  that  confidence  occasionally  facilitates  the  cure 
of  disease,  we  must  also  admit  that  hypnosis  is  a  valuable 
accession  to  therapeutics. 

We  have  to  thank  the  late  Dr.  Liebeault,  of  Nancy,  for 
having  been  the  first  to  use  hypnotic  suggestion  methodically 
in  therapeutics.  It  is  true  that  verbal  suggestion  was 
occasionally  used  by  the  old  mesmerists,  Kluge,  Lausanne, 
Jobard,  and  many  others,  as  Du  Prel  and  Pick  justly  point  out. 
But  method  was  entirely  wanting.  Braid  also  recognized  and 
used  suggestion,  but  he  did  not  recognize  its  fundamental 
significance  in  hypnotic  therapeusis;  this  fact  has  to  be 
mentioned  in  spite  of  the  opposite  view  held  by  some 
investigators,  Bramwell,  for  example,  and  it  in  no  wise  detracts 
from  Braid's  great  services.  Some  investigators  in  Breslau, 
for  example,  Friedberg,  and  more  especially  Berger,  in  1880, 
concluded  that  hypnosis  was  a  therapeutic  agent.  Berger  saw 
a  hemiplegic  patient  make  movements  in  hypnosis  which  he 
could  not  make  awake.  He  saw  sufferers  from  locomotory 
ataxy  cease  to  stagger  during  hypnosis  and  for  a  short  time 
after.  But  Berger,  to  whom  the  simplified  method  of  Liebeault 
was  unknown,  also  overlooked  the  great  importance  of  sug- 
gestion. Many  people,  whq  had  never  heard  of  Liebeault 
had  seen  that,  from  a  medical  point  of  view,  a  state  in  which 
contractures  and  paralyses,  analgesia  and  pain,  etc.,  could  be 
induced  and  removed,  must  be  of  great  importance;  but 
Liebeault  was  the  first  to  find  the  right  path,  while  Bernheim, 
Wetterstrand,  Forel,  and  others,  developed  the  methods  and 
made  them  known. 

It  is  not  astonishing  that  objections  have  been  made  to  the 
therapeutic  use  of  hypnosis.  The  history  of  medicine  teaches 
that  hardly  any  essential  progress  has  ever  been  made  in  that 
science  without  a  struggle.  Every  one  knows  how  the  use  of 
quinine,  of  vaccination,  and  of  emetics,  was  contested;  how  the 
water-cure  was  treated  with  contempt,  and  how  R.  Remak  was 
attacked  in  Germany  before  the  galvanic  battery  was  accepted 
in  the  medicine-chest.  Ewer  relates  that  when  Lingg  laid  his 
method  of  treatment  before  the  highest  officials  in  the  land  he 
was  dismissed  with  the  remark  that  there  were  quite  enough 
jugglers  and  mountebanks  ^bout  without  burdening  the  country 


282  HYPNOTISM. 

with  fresh  ones.  And  Ewer  himself,  who  had  done  so  much 
to  introduce  massage  into  Germany,  had  often  enough  to  put 
up  with  a  supercilious  shrugging  of  shoulders  and  deprecatory 
smiles  when  he  first  ventured  to  talk  about  massage  before 
physicians.  And  yet  in  the  present  day  all  these  methods  are 
reckoned  among  the  most  highly-valued  treasures  of  the  medi- 
cine-chest. Certainly  some  people  now  try  to  prove  that  it 
was  only  hypnotic  treatment  and  not  mental  treatment  that 
was  opposed.  Now,  since  psycho-therapeutics  is  almost  univer- 
sally recognized  a  legitimate  branch  of  medicine,  whereas  the 
importance  of  hypnosis  is  still  under  discussion,  those  who 
opposed  hypnosis,  but  accepted  mental  treatment,  might  con- 
sider themselves  justified  Still,  to  prevent  any  fairy  tales 
creeping  into  the  history  of  psycho-therapeutics,  I  must  lay  the 
strongest  stress  possible  on  the  fact  that,  in  reality,  the  attack 
was  directed  more,  or  at  least  quite  as  much,  against  psycho- 
therapeutics in  general,  than  against  hypnosis  in  particular. 
In  1880  Ewald,  for  example,  7vho  was  at  first  opposed  by  no 
one  but  me — Forel  and  others  certainly  joined  the  opposition 
soon  after — distinctly  stated  that  psycho-therapeutics  was  only  a 
form  of  quackery,  and  quite  unworthy  of  being  called  medical 
treatment.  Hypnosis  was  «(?/ specially  singled  out  for  attack; 
it  was  the  acceptance  of  psycho-therapeutics  as  a  legitimate 
form  of  treatment  that  was  opposed. 

Although  some  people  may  at  first  have  ascribed  too  much 
importance  to  hypnotic  treatment,  the  attack  on  it  was  a 
failure.  I  am  not  going  to  point  out  that  it  is  often  impossible 
to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  hypnotism  and  suggestion,  or 
between  the  latter  and  mental  treatment  in  general.  But  one 
thing  must  not  be  forgotten;  it  was  the  study  of  hypnosis  that 
first  proved  how  much  can  be  achieved  by  mental  influence  in 
therapeutics.  Although,  as  already  pointed  out,  suggestion 
and  mental  treatment  had  often  been  used  before,  the  full 
extent  of  the  efficacy  of  these  methods  was  only  established  by 
hypnotism,  which  thereby  essentially  brought  about  the  de- 
velopment of  modern  psycho-therapeutics.  It  was  hypnotism 
that  first  drew  general  attention  to  suggestion  in  waking  life,  to 
the  questions  of  work  and  occupation,  to  medical  measures  in 
education,  to  instructing  the  patient,  to  diversion,  the  power  of 
the  will,  and  many  other  branches  of  psycho-therapeutics  which 
had  all  been  too  long  neglected.  And  even  if  we  can  to-day 
dispense  with  hypnosis  in  many  cases  in  which  it  was  used 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  283 

before  general  mental  treatment  was  sufficiently  understood, 
we  must  not  forget  that  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  these  acces- 
sory therapeutic  methods  to  hypnosis.  We  are  now,  therefore, 
able  to  dispense  with  hypnosis  in  many  cases  in  which  it 
formerly  appeared  indicated.  Still,  I  think  that  in  the  present 
day  it  will  be  found  an  essential  adjunct  to  other  mental 
methods  of  treatment  in  many  cases.  I  cannot  altogether 
agree  with  Heller,  Jolly,  and  others  that  exactly  the  same 
results  can  as  invariably  be  obtained  without,  as  with,  hypnosis. 
We  should  ratfier,  in  the  present  day,  employ  hypnosis  in  those 
cases  in  which  mental  treatment  is  indicated  but  cannot  be 
efficiently  carried  out  with  the  patient  in  the  waking  state. 
Hypnosis  is,  therefore,  of  value  to  medicine  in  two  ways:  (1) 
it  has  provided  an  inducement  to  the  further  study  of  psycho- 
therapeutics in  general,  and  (2)  it  is  a  remedy  in  itself. 

It  has  often  been  asked  why  so  many  authorities  have  pronounced  against 
suggestive  therapeutics.  There  are  three  answers: — (i)  Even  an  authority 
may  be  wrong — indeed,  a  real  authority  does  not  believe  in  its  own  infalli- 
bility; (2)  all  so-called  authorities  are  not  necessarily  authoritative;  (3) 
many  who  are  authorities  in  one  field  are  just  for  that  reason  not  so  in 
another.  Much  injury  to  science,  and  particularly  to  medicine,  has  arisen 
through  these  three  points  being  overlooked.  Let  us  consider  the  last  two 
farther. 

In  all  sciences,  besides  the  real  authorities  there  are  men  who  are  mis- 
takenly supposed  to  be  so.  Fashion  often  makes  ** authorities"  out  of 
those  who  have  no  real  scientific  greatness.  A  man  is  called  an  authority; 
but  when  it  is  asked  what  he  has  done  there  is  shrugging  of  shoulders,  for 
often  he  has  done  nothing.  Such  pseudo-authorities — there  have  always 
l>een  such  persons — are  much  inclined  to  pass  judgment  on  questions  they 
have  not  examined.  Their  position  and  credit  is  due  to  a  faculty,  which 
a  clever  writer,  Karl  von  Thaler,  a  short  time  ago  called  the  art  of  putting 
oneself  on  the  stage.  Their  judgments  are  of  no  value,  but  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  no  small  number  is  adverse  to  hypnosis. 

But  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  all  who  have  opposed  the  therapeutic  use 
of  hypnosis  are  pseudo-authorities ;  on  the  contrary,  true  authorities,  such  as 
Meynert  and  others,  have  expressed  themselves  decidedly  against  it.  But 
as  mentioned  above,  it  does  not  follow  that  because  a  man  is  an  authority 
on  one  matter  he  has  a  right  to  claim  authority  on  another.  A  great 
historian  or  astronomer  is  not  in  a  position  to  pass  judgment  on  medicine. 
Now,  many  of  those  who  have  objected  to  the  therapeutic  use  of  hypnosis 
are  authorities  on  matters  that  have  nothing  to  do  with  therapeutics. 
Physicians,  as  well  as  laymen,  often  lose  sight  of  this.  A  man  may  be 
eminent  in  the  histology  of  the  brain,  and  yet  be  incompetent  in  thera- 
peutics. And  there  is,  nowadays,  no  more  connection  between  the  art 
of  healing  and  the  histology  of  the  brain  than  there  is  between  it  and 
astronomy.  If  I  may  call  the  art  of  healing  a  science,  the  histology  of  the 
brain  is  something  quite  apart  from  it — at  least  in  the  present  day.    Feuch- 


284  HYPNOTISM. 

tersleben,  whom  no  one  will  accuse  of  dislike  to  medicine  or  anatomy,  since 
he  was  their  most  ardent  admirer,  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  art  of 
healing  should  not  be  confused  with  the  knowledge  of  anatomy.  There- 
fore I  consider  the  judgment  of  a  man  who  may  be  an  authority  on  some 
science  which,  like  the  histology  of  the  brain,  is  necessary  and  valuable, 
but  has  no  intimate  connection  with  the  healing  art,  is  of  as  little  weight 
here  as  the  judgment  of  an  astronomer  would  be. 

We  should  always  bear  the  foregoing  considerations  in  mind 
when  dealing  with  other  cases.  As  I  mentioned  on  page  31, 
the  committee  of  the  Prussian  Medical  Board  was  requested  by 
the  Kultusminister  ^  to  institute  an  inquiry  into  the  therapeutic 
value  of  hypnosis.  From  this  it  might  appear  that  medical 
boards  have  a  just  claim  to  sit  in  judgment  on  hypnotism.  It 
would  be  better  if  medical  boards  confined  their  attention  to 
matters  that  concern  them;  they  do  not  constitute  courts  of 
reference  on  purely  scientific  questions.  The  report  on  hypno- 
tism submitted  by  the  Berlin-Brandenburg  Medical  Board  shows 
in  the  clearest  manner  possible  how  little  importance  attaches 
to  such  documents.  It  has  been  vigorously  criticized  by  Forel, 
Loewenfeld  and  others.  Loewenfeld  very  properly  points  out 
that  no  one  who  wished  for  a  competent  opinion  on  the  electric 
light  treatment  would  apply  to  medical  men,  as  they  are  not 
specialists  on  the  question.  Now  Mendel,  Munster,  Gock,  and 
Ascherborn  sat  on  the  commission,  but  up  to  the  present  no 
one  has  heard  that  the  three  last-named  ever  had  any  experience 
of  hypnotism.  As  regards  Mendel,  his  hostility  in  public  to 
hypnotism  has  long  been  known,  but  it  is  also  a  fact  that  he 
does  not  disdain  to  use  it  in  his  private  practice,  even  recom- 
mending a  specialist  when  he  deems  it  necessary.  "  From  this 
it  appears  that,  in  Mr.  Mendel's  opinion,  hypnotism  is  only  a 
scientific  and  permissible  method  when  sanctioned  by  Mr. 
Mendel.'*  Gumpertz  was  quite  right  in  bringing  the  contra- 
diction between  Mendel's  public  utterances  and  private  practice 
to  light.  Perhaps  those  persons  who  consider  the  report  of  the 
above-named  board  of  medicine  authoritative,  may  be  induced 
by  these  explanations  to  modify  their  opinion  somewhat.  The 
East  Prussian  Medical  Board  set  to  work  in  a  much  simpler 
but  more  scientific  way.  A  list  of  questions  was  sent  out  to 
medical  practitioners,  and  the  result  of  the  inquiry  which  was 

^  Note  by  translator. — Kultusminister  =  Minister  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs, 
Public  Instruction,  and  Medical  Affairs  (all  three  offices  combined  in  one 
Minister). 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECT  OF   HYPNOSIS.  285 

published  showed  that  only  a  few  doctors  had  used  hypnosis 
therapeutically,  that  some  cures  had  been  effected,  and  that  no 
injurious  effects  had  been  observed. 

Of  course,  the  foregoing  considerations  are  not  in  any  way 
intended  as  an  attack  on  the  right  of  opposition.  Besides, 
really  scientific  opposition  always  tends  to  advance  science; 
only  the  opposition  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  the  form  of 
an  h  priori  decision,  as  some  of  the  opponents  of  hypnotism 
have  done.  The  therapeutic  importance  of  hypnotism  should  be 
tested,  as  Virchow,  who  was  certainly  sceptical,  recommended; 
not  rejected  absolutely,  as  was  done  by  some  "scientific  in- 
vestigators." 

We  will  now  consider  singly  the  objections  made  to  hypnotic 
treatment  or  to  suggestive  therapeutics. 

A  chief  objection  was  made  by  Ewald  of  Berlin,  who 
"decidedly  pro.tested  against  calling  suggestion  medical  treat- 
ment." He  did  this  in  the  interest  of  physicians.  Forel's 
reply  to  him  will  make  it  clear  what  he  meant. 

"  Ewald  protested  against  the  expression  *  medical  treatment 
by  hypnotism.'  He  said  that  medical  treatment  meant  medical 
art  and  medical  knowledge,  and  that  every  shepherd-boy,  tailor, 
and  cobbler  could  hypnotize;  only  self-confidence  would  be 
necessary.  I  think  we  have  much  more  right  to  protest  against 
this  way  of  treating  a  scientific  question.  Has  not  medicine 
drawn  a  countless  number  of  its  remedies  from  the  crudest 
empiricism,  from  the  traditions  of  the  shepherd-boys  ?  Cannot 
every  cobbler  inject  morphia,  apply  blisters,  and  give  aperients 
if  he  has  the  material  ?  Yet  we  do  not  despise  these  remedies, 
nor  baths,  nor  massage,  etc.  But  Professor  Ewald  deceives 
himself  greatly  if  he  believes  that  a  delicate  agent  like  hypnosis, 
which  directly  affects  and  modifies  the  highest  and  most  refined 
activities  of  our  minds,  could  be  manipulated  by  a  shepherd- 
boy  and  ought  to  be  handed  over  to  him.  Medical  science 
and  psychological  knowledge,  the  ability  to  diagnose  and 
practise,  are  all  necessary  to  its  use.  It  is  true  that  laymen 
have  succeeded  with  it,  just  as  charlatans  have  succeeded,  and 
continue  lo  succeed,  in  all  provinces  of  medicine.  Should  we 
on  that  account  leave  the  practice  of  medicine  to  them  ?  Long 
enough,  much  too  long,  science  has  left  the  important  phe- 
nomena of  hypnosis  to  *  shepherd-boys  and  their  like';  it  is 
high  time  to  make  up  for  the  delay,  and  to  devote  ourselves  to 
a  thoroughly  scientific  examination  of  the  series  of  phenomena 


286  HYPNOTISM. 

which  can  complete  our  views  of  psychology  and  of  the 
physiology  of  the  brain.  Medical  therapeutics  must  not  remain 
behind  when  great  results  are  to  be  obtained.  But  these  results 
can  only  be  obtained  by  a  thorough  study  of  the  proper 
hypnotic  methods." 

Ewald's  objection  amounts  essentially  to  this :  hypnosis 
should  not  be  called  medical  treatment  because  it  is  unscientific 
and  perhaps  unprofessional.  But  this  conviction  is  easily 
aroused  in  the  case  of  a  remedy  we  wish  to  rescue  from  the 
charlatans.  The  novelty  of  the  remedy  makes  it  appear  alien 
to  the  practices  of  the  medical  profession.  I  have  already 
discussed  this  point  in  detail  in  another  work.  ^  In  any  case 
we  cannot  fail  to  recognize  that  they  who  endeavour  to  gain 
the  sole  use  of  such  a  remedy  for  the  medical  profession  are 
thereby  fighting  against  quackery,  whereas  men  who,  like 
Ewald,  simply  set  down  the  use  of  such  remedies  as  quackery, 
and  therefore  to  be  excluded  from  medical  treatment,  are  in 
reality  aiding  quackery,  although  perhaps  unintentionally.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  when  doctors  emphasized  the  dangers  of 
hypnosis  and  claimed  that  the  practice  of  hypnotic  treatment 
should  be  restricted  to  members  of  the  medical  profession 
only,  Emil  Muschik  Droonberg  disposed  of  their  claim  by 
referring  to  Ewald's  statement  that  any  shepherd-boy  could 
hypnotize. 

Benediktes  objection  to  the  use  of  hypnotic  treatment,  because 
of  the  mysterious  impression  it  causes,  belongs  to  the  same 
category  as  Ewald's.  But  apart  from  the  fact  that  there  is  less 
mystery  about  the  matter  than  was  formerly  supposed,  it  would 
be  perfectly  indifferent  to  a  practitioner  whether  a  remedy  took 
effect  from  the  mysterious  impression  it  made,  or  through 
suggestion,  or  through  chemico-physical  influence.  The  point 
is  that  it  does  act,  not  in  what  manner  it  acts.  Certainly 
Rosenbach  has  protested  against  the  use  of  suggestion  in 
therapeutics,  and  he  is  a  rational  investigator  and  thoroughly 
recognizes  the  importance  of  psycho-therapeutics,  which  he  was 
led  to  appreciate  by  studying  hypnosis.  Rosenbach  also  lays 
stress  on  the  mysterious  character  of  the  impression  produced, 
but  his  objection  to  suggestion  lies  essentially  in  the  fact  that 
he  expects  better  results  from  other  therapeutic  measures. 
Besides,  I  think  I  have  shown  in  the  theoretical  section  (p.  267) 

^  Moll,  Ärztliche  Ethik ^  Stuttgait,  1902,  p.  274  et  seq. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  287 

that  a  thing  is  often  considered  mysterious  which  is  really  a 
phenomenon  of  every-day  occurrence.  Moreover,  Benedikt 
recommends,  that  in  order  to  lessen  the  impression  of  mystery, 
hypnosis  should  he  induced  by  the  use  of  a  magnet.  But  as 
a  magnet  only  acts  by  suggestion,  according  to  present-day 
opinion,  Benedikt  has  unwittingly  recommended  the  use  of  a 
mysterious  agent. 

If  I  believed  that  in  some  cases  a  mysterious  agent  would 
be  useful  to  a  patient  I  should  not  hesitate  to  use  it ;  for  were 
I  to  do  so  I  should  be  neglecting  my  duty  as  a  doctor,  which 
is  of  more  importance  than  any  scientific  signboard.  Naturally 
a  physician  should  not  make  use  of  a  remedy  the  employment 
of  which  is  contrary  to  medical  ethics;  but  I  am  firmly  con- 
vinced that  he  has  no  right  to  deprive  a  patient  of  the  benefits 
of  a  remedy  because  he  thinks  it  acts  mysteriously.  Con- 
sequently, I  should  not  hesitate  in  certain  cases  to  send  patients 
to  some  miracle-working  spring — Lourdes,  for  example;  and, 
in  fact,  fifty  to  sixty  patients  are  yearly  senf  to  Lourdes  from 
the  Salpetriere  (Constantin  James).  Charcot  has  expressed 
the  same  opinion  in  his  well-known  work  La  Foi  qui  giitrit 
When  questioned  about  faith-healing,  he  replied  among  other 
things :  Elk  intiresse  cPaiiieurs  tout  midecin^  le  but  essentiel  de 
la  midecine  itant  la  guerison  des  malades  sans  distinction  dans 
le  prodde  curatif  a  mettre  en  oeuvre.  It  cannot  be  denied  that 
faith  and  emotional  excitement  produce  many  results  at  Lourdes. 
We  may  well  believe  Rommelare's  statement  that  the  water 
from  Marseilles  cured  a  patient  who  believed  in  it.  But  even 
if  hypnosis  were  only  effectual  from  its  mysteriousness,  its  use 
would  not  be  thereby  contra-indicated. 

The  temporary  loss  of  will  can  hardly  be  considered  an 
objection  to  hypnotic  therapeutics  from  the  ethical  standpoint, 
though  it  has  occasionally  been  brought  forward.  If  it  were, 
we  should  have  to  give  up  the  administration  of  chloroform, 
for  there  is  loss  of  will  in  chloroform  narcosis.  The  main 
point  is  to  choose  a  trustworthy  experimenter.  We  only  take 
chloroform  from  a  person  whom  we  can  trust  to  administer  the 
anaesthetic  without  danger,  and  whom  we  believe  will  take  no 
advantage  of  the  loss  of  will  induced. 

But  a  far  more  important  objection  than  any  of  the  above  is 
the  danger  of  hypnosis.  Even  if  we  cannot  consider  hypnosis 
absolutely  safe,  the  dangers  should  not  be  exaggerated.  "  The 
best  assertion  that  can  be  made  about  a  remedy  or  method  of  cure 


290  HYPNOTISM. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  dangers  of  hypnosis  in  detail,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  means  of  preventing  them. 

Mendel  maintains  that  hypnosis  induces  nervousness;  that 
nervous  people  grow  worse,  and  sound  people  nervous  through 
its  use.  But  he  was  only  led  into  this  error  because  he  was 
unacquainted  with  the  harmless  method  of  hypnotizing  and 
making  suggestions.  It  is  quite  true  that  prolonged  fixed 
attention,  as  practised  by  Braid,  may  produce  unpleasant 
sensations;  but  such  discomforts  are  of  no  great  significance. 
To  avoid  making  exciting  suggestions  is  of  far  greater  im- 
portance, as  Bertrand  already  knew.  Whoever  has  seen  the 
difference  between  a  subject  who  has  received  an  exciting 
suggestion  and  one  who  has  received  a  therapeutic  one  will 
recognize  how  differently  the  two  suggestions  act.  Judicious 
observers  are  right  in  warning  against  such  sports,  as  Sawolsh- 
kaja  did  a  long  time  ago.  A  man  who  makes  an  alarming 
suggestion — e.g,^  an  imaginary  fire — ^just  to  satisfy  his  own 
curiosity,  need  hardly  be  astonished  if  unpleasant  results 
ensue.  In  this  way  we  can  explain  the  very  serious  effects 
that  have  often  been  observed,  for  example,  by  Nolan, 
Lombroso,  Br^maud,  Finkelberg,  etc.,  after  public  exhibitions 
of  hypnosis.  Hirschlaff  Justly  remarks  in  his  essay  entitled 
Laienhypnotismus  und  Arztliche  Heilkunde  that  charlatans 
readily  undertake  experiments  that  cannot  be  carried  out 
without  a  certain  amount  of  danger  to  the  subject,  because 
they  hope  by  so  doing  to  impress  the  patient  and  gain  his 
confidence.  Experience  also  shows  that  patients  are  often 
worse  on  days  following  bad  dreams.  Consequently  we  can 
hardly  be  astonished  when  terrifying  suggestions  made  in 
hypnosis  produce  like  results.  Such  suggestions  should  not  be 
made  at  all,  or  with  the  greatest  caution,  care  being  taken  to  do 
away  with  all  suggestions  that  are  not  quite  harmless  before 
the  waking.  Even  if  a  mistake  is  made  during  hypnosis,  it  is 
of  little  consequence  provided  the  subject  is  properly  wakened 
in  the  manner  used  at  Nancy  and  by  all  who  follow  the  prescrip- 
tions of  that  school.  At  the  time  when  so  much  nonsense  was 
talked  about  the  dangers  of  hypnosis,  most  people  knew  nothing 
about  removing  a  suggestion.  They  thought  it  enough  to  blow 
on  the  subject's  face  to  waken  him,  and  were  astonished  that  he 
did  not  feel  well  afterwards.  I  am  surprised  that  more  mischief 
has  not  been  done  in  consequence  of  insufficient  technical 
knowledge.     That  is  the  danger — not  hypnosis. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  291 

To  show  how  a  suggestion  should  be  done  away  with,  I  will 
suppose  that  an  exciting  suggestion  has  been  made  to  a  sub- 
ject. One  should  say  something  like  this:  "What  excited 
you  is  gone;  it  was  only  a  dream,  and  you  were  mistaken  to 
believe  it.  Now  be  quiet.  You  feel  quiet  and  comfortable. 
It  is  easy  to  see  you  are  perfectly  comfortable."  Only  when 
this  has  succeeded  should  the  subject  be  wakened;  and  this 
should  not  be  done  suddenly,  as  it  is  better  to  prepare  the 
subject  for  waking  (Sallis).  Of  course  the  experimenter  will 
use  his  own  method.  I  generally  do  it  by  saying:  "I  shall 
count  slowly  up  to  three.  Wake  when  I  say  three.  You  will 
be  very  comfortable  and  contented  when  you  wake." 

With  technical  skill  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  experimenter 
there  is  no  danger  of  rendering  a  subject  nervous  nowadays; 
and  under  such  conditions  there  is  less  danger  to  be  feared 
from  hypnosis  than  from  many  methods  of  treatment  that  are 
termed  harmless. 

It  is  asserted  that  one  of  the  special  dangers  of  hypnosis  is 
that  it  causes  hysteria  (Guinon),  or  at  least  brings  it  out  in 
persons  who  have  a  latent  tendency  thereto  (Jolly),  or  sets  up 
hysterical  convulsions  even  in  persons  who  have  never  had 
them  before  (Anton).  It  is  true  that  hystero-epileptics  are 
sometimes  thrown  into  hysterical  convulsions  in  hypnosis,  but 
I  decidedly  contend  that  the  convulsions  are  not  caused  by  the 
hypnosis.  Like  other  similar  occurrences,  they  are  probably 
due  to  the  mental  excitement  which  often  accompanies  hyp- 
nosis. Some  persons  fall  into  them  whenever  anything  excites 
them,  such  as  a  slight  noise,  for  example,  a  falling  book,  a  bell. 
Timid  persons  sometimes  faint  when  they  are  electrified  (E. 
Remak);  others^  especially  hystero-epileptics,  may  even  fall 
into  convulsions.  I  also  think  it  quite  possible  that  exciting 
impressions  may  bring  about  such  attacks  in  persons  who  have 
never  had  one  before.  Gorodichze  tells  of  a  lady  who  had  her 
first  and  only  attack  of  hystero-epilepsy  while  being  chloro- 
formed. Consequently  we  must  not  deny  that  the  excitement 
caused  by  hypnosis  may  occasionally  bring  on  such  attacks. 
Cases  of  this  nature  were  described  by  Charpignon  long  ago, 
and  later  by  Solow,  Finkelnburg,  Verneuil,  Drosdow. 

Although  the  danger  of  hysterical  attack  has  to  be  taken  into 
consideration,  it  ought  not  to  be  exaggerated.  The  chief 
question  is  not  whether  such  an  attack  occasionally  occurs  or 
not,  but  rather  whether  or  not  permanent  hysterical  attacks  are 


292  HYPNOTISM. 

caused,  or  attacks  to  which  a  patient  is  subject  are  permanently 
aggravated  by  the  process.  Up  to  the  present  all  known  ex- 
perience shows  that  such  is  not  the  case.  Certainly  we 
occasionally  hear  of  a  case  in  which  permanent  attacks  have 
apparently  resulted  from  the  treatment,  in  spite  of  the  use  of 
proper  methods.  The  nearest  approach  to  such  a  case  seems 
to  be  one  published  by  Jolly,  in  which  a  girl  who  was  suffering 
from  progressive  muscular  dystrophy  became  permanently  sub- 
ject to  attacks  of  hysteria  after  a  hypnotizer  had  treated  her  by 
suggestion.  But  a  careful  examination  of  the  case  puts  it  in  a 
somewhat  different  light;  and  Jolly  himself  admitted  that  the 
fatigue  and  exhaustion  which  follow  hypnosis  probably  also 
helped  to  bring  on  the  hysterical  convulsions.  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  exercises  and  suggestions  employed  to  induce 
movements  in  cases  of  muscular  dystrophy  may  prove  ex- 
tremely exhausting. 

Instead  of  supposing  hypnosis  to  be  a  cause  of  permanent 
attacks  of  hysterical  convulsions,  we  are  far  more  justified  in 
assuming  that  when  once  a  complete  hypnosis  has  been  ob- 
tained we  have  in  our  hands  a  trustworthy  means  of  per- 
manently lessening  the  convulsions.  In  reality,  an  attack  of 
hysteria  is  not  nearly  so  important  as  some  would  have  us 
believe;  and  we  certainly  know  that  hysterical  attacks  are 
sometimes  artificially  induced  during  lectures  for  purposes  of 
demonstration. 

I  am  satisfied  from  certain  cases  of  my  own,  that  hysterical 
attacks  do  not  indicate  the  necessity  of  stopping  the  hypnotic 
treatment.  This  agrees  with  the  experience  of  Sperling, 
Krakauer  and  others,  who  have  also  had  cases  in  which, 
though  there  were  attacks  at  first,  yet  cures  were  subsequently 
obtained.  These  cases  also  show  that  the  attacks  are  by  no 
means  permanently  increased  in  number,  even  when  they  take 
place  at  the  first  or  second  attempt  to  hypnotize.  The  old 
mesmerists — e.g,.,  Noizet,  Puys^gur,  Mesmer,  Deslon — were 
well  acquainted  with  these  convulsions,  which  they  called  crises^ 
and  even  thought  them  a  favourable  sign,  which  was  certainly 
a  mistake.  A  man  who  is  so  very  much  afraid  of  being  con- 
fronted with  an  attack  of  hysteria  should  make  it  a  principle 
never  to  attempt  to  hypnotize  a  patient  who  is  either  excited  or 
afraid  of  hypnosis.  We  shall  see  later  on  that  dread  of  h5^nosis 
does  not  contra-indicate  its  use.  It  is  also  said  that  mental 
disorders,  and  even  morbid  delusions,  may  result  from  hj^nosis. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  293 

When  any  one  who  has  frequently  been  hypnotized  becomes 
the  victim  of  delusions,  we  must  be  on  our  guard  not  to 
assume  any  causal  connection  too  hastily,  especially  if  a  long 
interval  has  elapsed  since  the  hypnosis  was  practised.  People 
without  expert  knowledge  may  be  misled  on  the  question  of 
causal  connection  by  the  nature  of  a  delusion.  It  is  well  known 
that  delusions  are  influenced  by  the  ideas  prevalent  at  the  time; 
it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  in  recent  years  we  have 
frequently  met  with  the  delusion  of  being  magnetized  or 
hypnotized.  When  this  delusion  occurs  in  a  person  who  has 
been  hypnotized  at  some  time  or  other,  it  does  not  necessarily 
follow  that  the  hypnosis  has  had  even  the  slightest  injurious 
effect  on  him.  The  most  we  can  assume  is  that  the  nature  of 
the  delusion,  which  would  otherwise  have  appeared  in  some 
other  form,  was  in  some  way  determined  by  the  hypnotic  ex- 
periments on  the  subject.  Delusions  of  thought-transference 
effected  by  persons  at  a  distance  occur  in  a  similar  way.  Of 
course  we  should  never  think  of  denying  the  possibility  of 
mental  disorders  being  caused  by  the  unscientific  use  of  hyp- 
notism; such  cases  have  repeatedly  been  reported,  especially 
after  some  public  hypnotizer  has  made  his  appearance — for 
example,  by  Finkelnberg  in  connection  with  Hansen's  public 
experiments,  by  Lombroso  in  connection  with  Donato*s;  also 
by  Weinbaum,  Schmitz,  and  others.  And  we  must  not  over- 
look the  fact  that  the  enormous  excitement  that  prevails  at 
such  exhibitions  and  its  emotional  effects  are  liable  to  cause  at 
least  temporary  mental  aberration  in  persons  who  are  that  way 
predisposed.  There  is  also  a  certain  amount  of  connection 
between  hypnosis  and  those  forms  of  mental  derangement 
which  follow  spiritualistic  stances.  A  state  of  trance—/.^.,  an 
auto-hypnosis — is  often  caused  by  such  stances;  and  as 
Charcot,  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  and  Henneberg  have  shown, 
such  intense  excitement  may  occasionally  lead  to  mental  dis- 
order in  persons  of  a  highly  emotional  disposition. 

It  has  been  mentioned  by  some  as  a  further  danger  of 
hypnosis — ^Sioli,  for  instance — that  after  repeated  hypnotism  an 
inordinate  desire  for  its  repetition  may  be  set  up.  Rechtsamer, 
of  St.  Petersburg,  reports  that  a  lady  who  had  undergone 
hypnotic  treatment  subsequently  made  one  of  her  friends  con- 
tinue hypnotizing  her,  because  it  was  so  pleasing.  Such  a 
result  of  hypnosis  can  be  avoided  by  taking  proper  precautions, 
but  especially  by  making  counter-suggestions. 


294  HYPNOTISM. 

I  may  here  mention  some  slight  ailments  which  are  occa- 
sionally found  after  hypnosis,  especially  in  cases  of  hysteria. 
They  are  often  the  result  of  a  bad  method  or  of  auto-suggestion, 
and  occur  after  both  deep  and  light  hypnoses.  The  chief 
symptoms  are  fatigue,  heaviness  of  the  limbs,  drowsiness,  and 
faintness.  In  some  cases  it  is  very  difficult  to  combat  these 
symptoms  when  there  is  great  hysterical  auto-suggestibility, 
and  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  discontinue  the  hypnotic 
treatment.  In  most  cases  we  can  prevent  these  auto-suggestions 
by  employing  the  proper  technique,  but  as  a  rule  this  is  only 
possible  if  we  suggest  from  the  beginning — Z.^.,  at  the  first 
experiment — that  any  feeling  of  fatigue  or  sleepiness  will  dis- 
appear after  waking.  It  is  often  advantageous  to  get  rid  of  the 
fatigue  before  the  awakening.  There  is  no  necessity  to  over- 
rate these  attendant  phenomena  of  hypnosis,  even  if  they  are 
unpleasant,  and  certainly  no  one  will  do  so  who  remembers 
that  suggestion  is  often  responsible  for  temporary  after-effects 
in  the  case  of  other  remedies,  especially  where  there  is  hysteria. 

Although  the  dangers  of  hypnotism  which  we  have  hitherto 
described  are  of  no  great  practical  importance,  there  are  others 
that  are  much  more  serious  in  that  respect.  I  mean  the  in- 
creased tendency  to  hypnosis  which  includes  a  greater  liability 
to  auto-hypnosis,  and  the  heightened  susceptibility  to  suggestion 
in  the  waking  state.  Möbius  maintains,  that  apart  from  a 
wilful  craving  for  hypnosis,  the  danger  of  involuntary  hypnosis 
is  quite  the  only  danger  from  hypnotic  treatment  that  need  be 
considered.  Cases  have  been  described  in  which  spontaneous 
hypnosis  has  occurred  a  short  time  after  a  subject  has  been 
hypnotized  injudiciously,  and  even  all  the  events  of  the  previous 
hypnosis  have  been  reproduced  by  auto-suggestion.  Bremaud 
has  described  one  such  case,  and  Solow  another.  But  the 
cases  in  which,  as  I  suspect,  unscrupulous  hypnotizers  some- 
times induce  such  hypnoses  intentionally  are  far  more  serious, 
for  subjects  become  filled  with  a  feeling  of  complete  dependence 
on  the  hypnotizer,  are  in  constant  dread  of  falling  under  his 
influence,  and  even  when  no  real  form  of  insanity  is  developed 
they  lose  all  freedom  of  action  and  feeling  of  independence. 
Lloyd  Tuckey  has  published  a  case  of  this  kind;  and  the 
somnambulists  employed  as  clairvoyants  by  so-called  mes- 
merizers  would  about  come  in  here.  I  firmly  believe  these 
dangers  are  much  more  serious  than  those  previously  men- 
tioned. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  295 

The  safest  way  of  guarding  against  these  dangers  is  to  make 
some  such  post-hypnotic  suggestion  as  follows  to  the  subject 
before  waking  him  : — "  Nobody  will  ever  be  able  to  hypnotize 
you  against  your  will  or  without  your  consent;  you  will  never 
fall  into  hypnosis  against  your  wish;  nobody  will  be  able  to 
suggest  anything  to  you  when  awake ;  you  need  never  fear  that 
you  will  have  sense-delusions  as  you  do  in  hypnosis,"  etc. 
The  antidote  to  such  dangers  is  counter-suggestion.  Per- 
mission to  hypnotize  should  certainly  only  be  granted  to  persons 
whose  character  and  knowledge  afford  a  guarantee  that  they  will 
do  no  harm,  either  intentionally  or  unintentionally. 

But  it  may  be  objected  that  though  an  occasional  use  of 
hypnosis  may  not  be  hurtful,  a  long  one,  involving  a  repeated 
induction  of  the  state,  might  be  so.  The  objection  is  justifi- 
able; but  it  might  also  be  made  against  the  use  of  various 
other  remedies,  since  we  do  not  yet  know  whether  a  long  use 
of  them  might  not  endanger  health.  Experience  is  the  only 
way  to  decide  such  questions.  I  myself,  as  well  as  other 
investigators,  have  watched  cases  in  which  persons  were  re- 
peatedly hypnotized  for  several  years  without  evil  results. 
But  apart  from  this,  it  will  hardly  ever  be  found  necessary  to 
hypnotize  frequently  in  such  cases;  even  when  the  treatment 
has  to  be  carried  out  for  years,  an  occasional  hypnosis  will 
suffice.  Even  when  for  special  reasons  a  patient  has  to  be 
hypnotized  repeatedly  for  years,  a  conscientious  and  experi- 
enced physician  will  be  quite  able  to  guard  against  any  possible 
dangers.  We  shall  always  find  counter-suggestion  the  surest 
preventive  of  danger. 

I  do  not  intend  to  discuss  purely  theoretical  dangers  in 
detail.  Mendel  fears  stimulation  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  while 
Ziemssen  and  Meynert  fear  a  loss  of  power  of  that  part.  To 
pay  any  attention  to  such  a  combination  of  theoretical  dangers 
which  are  always  mutually  contradictory,  would  only  land  us  in 
fruitless  speculations. 

In  the  foregoing  I  have  discussed  two  objections  made  to  the 
therapeutic  use  of  hypnosis  and  suggestion;  first,  Ewald's 
assertion  that  hypnotism  should  not  be  called  medical  treat- 
ment; and  secondly,  that  it  is  too  dangerous  to  allow  of  its 
practical  use.  A  third  objection  to  be  mentioned  is  that 
hypnotic  treatment  is  superfluous.  Certainly  it  is  seldom 
denied  that  patients  do  occasionally  get  better,  and  are  even 
cured  by  hypnotic  treatment ;  but  it  is  none  the  less  objected 


296  HYPNOTISM. 

that  the  same  results  can  be  obtained  without  hypnotic  treat- 
ment, or  that  a  lasting  improvement  never  ensues. 

It  is  true  that  many  cases  in  which  hypnosis  used  to  be 
considered  necessary  can  be  treated  without  it  nowadays. 
Other  methods  of  mental  treatment  constitute  the  most  import- 
ant substitute  for  hypnosis,  and  include  not  only  suggestion  in 
the  waking  state,  but  the  special  instruction  of  the  patient, 
etc.,  as  well,  to  which  I  shall  return  in  the  next  chapter.  And 
here  we  must  note  that  psycho-therapeutic  treatment  without 
hypnosis  is  essentially  an  outcome  of  hypnotism.  It  was  not 
until  the  results  of  hypnotic  suggestion  had  enabled  us  to 
recognize  the  extent  to  which  human  beings,  particularly 
patients,  are  susceptible  to  psychic  influence  that  the  importance 
of  almost  all  of  these  methods  of  mental  treatment  was  made 
clear.  That  this  often  enables  us  to  dispense  with  hypnosis  in 
cases  in  which  it  was  formerly  employed,  is  nevertheless  a 
result  of  hypnotism.  But  apart  from  this,  hypnosis  is  still  in  a 
series  of  cases  the  quickest  and  best  means  of  obtaining 
satisfactory  results;  and  even  if  new  remedies  have  rendered 
hypnosis  superfluous  in  many  cases,  there  still  remains  a  no 
inconsiderable  number  in  which  that  treatment  is  indicated. 
And  it  is  certainly  a  fact  that  even  where  other  remedies  prove 
successful,  hypnosis  often  produces  the  same  results  much 
more  speedily,  so  that  if  we  adhere  to  the  old  principle  tu  to 
cito  etjucunde^  hypnotic  treatment  frequently  has  the  advantage. 

The  assertion  that  hypnotic  treatment  does  not  produce  any 
lasting  cures  may  be  answered  as  follows.  The  results  are  by 
no  means  transitory;  on  the  contrary,  a  large  number  of  lasting 
cures  have  been  observed  and  published.  I  have  myself  seen 
many  cases  where  there  was  no  relapse  for  years.  One  cannot 
ask  for  more.  The  objection  that  the  improvement  may  be 
only  temporary  is  thus  not  justified.  But  even  were  this  so  we 
must  nevertheless  be  glad  that  we  have  found  a  way  of  pro- 
curing even  temporary  relief  (Purgotti,  Schuster).  For  instance, 
in  difficulties  of  menstruation  it  is  a  great  thing  if  we  can  succeed 
in  subduing  pain  for  a  time,  although  we  may  not  be  able  to 
prevent  its  recurrence.  If  pain  returns  a  new  hypnosis  may 
be  induced.  In  any  case,  therapeutics  is  not  yet  so  far  advanced 
as  to  give  us  the  right  to  reject  a  remedy  because  it  has  often 
merely  a  temporary  value. 

Another  objection,  closely  related  to  the  foregoing,  is  that 
hypnotic  treatment  only  affects  symptoms,  but  does  not  cure 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  297 

the  underlying  disease.  Discussing  this  point  with  Binswanger, 
Richard  Schulz  says:  "If,  as  in  the  case  before  us,  we  can 
enable  a  woman  who  has  been  paralyzed  for  two  years  to  walk, 
then,  even  though  the  hysteria  which  caused  the  paralysis 
remains  unaffected,  we  have  obtained  an  important  result,- 
especially  for  the  patient.  There  are  many  other  internal 
complaints — for  example,  diseases  of  the  heart  and  chronic 
diseases  of  the  kidneys  accompanied  by  severe  dropsy  in  which 
we  cannot"  remove  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  but  we  can  remove 
the  distressing  symptoms  produced  by  dropsy  and  thereby 
make  the  patient's  sufferings  bearable."  The  objection  raised 
by  Binswanger  and  others  that  hypnotic  treatment  does  not 
cure  but  only  produces  a  temporary  improvement  can  only 
influence  a  superficial  observer.  A  man  who  has  acquired  his 
knowledge  of  therapeutics  by  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  who 
has  kept  his  mental  vision  unobscured,  knows  how  seldom 
disease  is  cured  by  any  of  the  so-called  scientific  remedies.  Or 
does  Binswanger  perhaps  think  that  treatment  in.  an  institution, 
as  recommended  by  him  for  cases  of  hysteria,  cures  the  disease? 
We  know,  on  the  contrary,  that  although  in  numberless  cases 
some  distressing  symptoms  disappear  during  a  stay  in  hospital, 
they  reappear  with  renewed  vigour  directly  the  patients  return 
to  their  old  surroundings.  Still  that  is  no  reason  for  rejecting 
hospital  treatment.  If  we  were  to  reject  the  remedies  which 
only  act  symptomatically,  and  such  that  merely  relieve  the 
symptoms  of  disease  for  a  time,  we  should  have  to  abandon  the 
largest  part  of  therapeutics. 

An  objection  occasionally  made  (Bruns)  to  hypnotic  treat- 
ment or  treatment  by  suggestion,  is  that  in  many  cases  cures 
apparently  due  to  suggestion  in  reality  occur  spontaneously. 
.In  many  cases  this  objection  is  justifiable,  but  it  applies  equally 
to  every  other  therapeutic  method.  I  even  believe  that  in  the 
present  day  many  really  spontaneous  cures  are  erroneously 
ascribed  to  the  suggestive  action  of  drugs.  To  many  people 
the  word  "suggestion''  has  become  a  catch-word  that  will 
explain  anything.  In  this  way  suggestion  is  accredited  not 
only  with  any  spontaneous  improvement  in  cases  of  functional 
disorder,  such  as  neurasthenia,  but  also  with  instances  of  tem- 
porary improvement  where  the  disease  is  organic  and  progressive. 
In  addition  to  spontaneous  recovery,  we  have  also  to  deal  with 
certain  fluctuations  which  may  occur  in  cases  of  both  functional 
and  organic  disease.     A  neurasthenic  may  be  in  a  stat^  of 


298  HYPNOTISM. 

excitement  for  weeks,  then  quieter  for  weeks;  his  sleep  may  be 
disturbed  at  nights,  and  then  he  may  recover  spontaneously 
without  any  treatment.  Such  fluctuations,  which  sometimes 
have  a  regular  and  periodic  character,  may  very  easily  be 
•mistaken  for  the  suggestive  action  of  any  drug  that  has  been 
exhibited.  The  same  is  also  the  case  in  incurable  organic 
diseases  in  which  the  symptoms  by  no  means  invariably  present 
a  regularly  progressive  character;  on  the  contrary,  essential 
symptoms  sometimes  abate  for  a  time,  without  the  organic 
disease  showing  any  tendency  towards  improvement  or  cure. 
There  are  cases  of  tabes  dorsalis  in  which  the  ataxy  seems  to 
abate  for  a  long  time,  but  that  does  not  justify  the  conclusion 
that  the  organic  disease  is  being  cured.  We  observe  the  same 
sort  of  thing  in  chronic  deformative  rheumatism  of  the  joints — 
the  pains  are  at  times  less  intense,  but  the  swellings  do  not 
subside.  It  often  occurs  quite  spontaneously  and  can  easily 
be  mistaken  for  the  action  of  some  remedy,  including  the 
action  of  suggestion  if  that  has  been  employed  at  the  same 
time.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  such  erroneous  conclusions 
have  often  been  drawn  in  medicine, — in  electro- therapeusis,  for 
instance.  Paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye,  an  early  symptom 
of  tabes  dorsalis,  as  a  rule  disappears  spontaneously,  and  yet 
how  often  the  improvement  is  attributed  to  electric  treatment ! 
And  it  has  been  pointed  out  very  justly  that  we  must  carefully 
guard  against  such  sources  of  error  when  judging  the  therapeutic 
value  of  suggestion.  But  in  spite  of  all  this,  no  really  objective 
investigator  can  doubt  that  there  are  numerous  cases  in  which 
success  is  not  due  to  any  spontaneous  improvement,  but  rather 
to  the  direct  influence  of  hypnosis  or  hypnotic  suggestion.  If 
we  take  the  case  of  a  man  suffering  from  insomnia,  and  his 
nightly  sleep  at  all  stages  of  the  disease  is  improved  by  hypnotic, 
suggestion,  we  cannot  call  that  a  mere  coincidence.  No  matter 
how  sceptical  we  may  be,  there  is  always  an  essential  some- 
thing in  the  result,  that  is  justly  attributable  to  hypnosis. 

Another  objection  to  the  therapeutic  use  of  hypnosis  is  that 
it  cannot  be  generally  applied  because  everybody  is  not 
hypnotizable.  To  which  I  may  add  that  in  many  cases,  even 
when  a  hypnosis  is  induced,  it  is  not  deep  enough  to  be  used 
therapeutically.  This,  of  course,  reduces  the  number  of  cases 
in  which  hypnosis  proves  successful ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  fact  remains  that  hypnosis  is  practicable  in  many  cases. 
We* have  only  to  consider  the  number  of  people  who  should, 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  299 

from  a  medical  point  of  view,  take  a  prolonged  rest  and  yet 
are  prevented  from  so  doing  by  pecuniary  or  social  reasons. 
Many  people  cannot  afford  the  sea  voyage,  long  stay  in  a 
sanatorium,  healthy  dwelling,  etc.,  which  would  greatly  improve 
their  health. 

In  the  early  days  a  naive  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  an 
element  of  national  feeling  into  the  struggle  against  suggestive 
therapeutics  and  hypnotism.  It  was  considered  justifiable 
to  speak  ironically  of  "French  professors  of  medicine,"  as 
Friedrich,  for  instance,  did.  A  German  author  had  previously 
made  a  chauvanistic  protest  that  hypnotism  originated  in 
France,  and  it  was  frequently  maintained  that  susceptibility  to 
hypnosis  was  something  French  and  could  not  possibly  occur 
among  Germans.  This  latter  assumption  was  disproved  long 
ago.  But  apart  from  this,  Forel  pointed  out  very  properly 
that  such  talk  is  not  permissible  in  scientific  discussions.  I 
have  often  known  a  French  professor  show  himself  up  as 
Friedrich  did  on  the  question  of  hypnosis.  The  attempt  to 
bring  other  nations  into  ridicule  by  ascribing  to  them  quaint 
idiosyncrasies  is  a  very  old  mania.  As  far  as  we  are  here 
specially  concerned,  I  need  only  point  out  that  in  Mesmer's 
time  the  Germans  accused  the  French  of  making  mesmerism 
the  basis  of  nothing  but  the  wildest  swindles.  In  those  days 
Mirabeau  answered  such  attacks  by  calling  attention  to  the  so- 
called  "moon-doctor,"  the  stocking-knitter  Weissleder,  who 
caused  such  a  stir  in  Berlin  from  1780  to  1781 :  "As  if  we 
Frenchmen  had  not  received  the  notorious  Mesmer  from  the 
hands  of  the  Germans,  and  the  latter  were  not  anxious  to  have 
their  *  moon-doctor,'  who  was  supposed  to  cure  all  diseases  by 
the  influence  of  that  planet,  forgotten  "  (Ave-Lallemant). 

What  therapeutic  factors  play  a  part  in  hypnotic  treatment  ? 
Some  think  that  hypnosis  is  in  itself  beneficial;  this  is  the 
opinion  of  Beaunis,  Obersteiner,  and  Wetterstrand,  who 
employed  hypnosis  in  the  treatment  of  epilepsy,  hystero- 
,  epilepsy  and  other  states.  Later  on  Hirschlaff,  Vogt,  Brod- 
mann and  others  also  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  rest 
afforded  by  hypnosis  is  curative,  because  it  strengthens  the 
nervous  system.  Brodmann  distinguishes  three  methods  of 
employing  hypnosis  :  (i)  Prolonged  sleep,  (2)  periodical  sleep 
to  prevent  exhaustion  or  a  pathologically  increased  tendency 
to  fatigue^  and  (3)  occasional  sleep  to  ward  off  threatened 


300  HYPNOTISM. 

attacks  or  suppress    such   as  may  exist   (convulsions,   pain, 
emotion). 

Another  factor  to  be  mentioned  is  the  heightening  of 
memory,  to  which  Vogt  and  Brodmann,  but  Breuer  and 
Freud  specially,  have  called  attlntion.  I  shall  return  to 
this  when  I  come  to  deal  with  the  cathartic  method  recom- 
mended by  Breuer  and  Freud. 

But  the  most  important  point  in  connection  with  hypnotic 
therapeutics  is  the  direct  action  of  suggestion,  or,  to  use  Vogt 
and  Brodmann's  words,  the  subject's  heightened  susceptibility 
to  psychic  influence.  Both  these  authors  prefer  the  latter 
expression  because  it  is  not  only  the  subject's  susceptibility  to 
suggestion  that  is  increased  in  hypnosis,  but  to  other  psycho- 
therapeutic agencies  as  well — for  example,  to  praise  or  blame, 
to  logical  argument,  emotional  stimulation,  therapeutic  exercises, 
etc.  Still,  increased  suggestibility  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  factor,  and  we  will  now  proceed  to  discuss  it  in  a 
more  detailed  manner  so  that  we  may  understand  its  true 
therapeutic  significance. 

Let  us  take  as  a  simple  example  the  case  of  a  woman 
suflering  from  a  functional  headache.  We  wish  to  cure  the 
headache  by  suggestion — ;>.,  by  arousing  in  the  subject  the 
idea  that  the  headache  is  gone.  Spontaneous  reflection  would 
prevent  this  in  most  waking  people,  but  in  hypnosis  it  is 
relatively  easy  to  induce,  or  suppress,  sensations  by  means  of 
suggestion.  Consequently,  the  suggestion  that  the  headache 
is  gone  will  be  more  readily  accepted  in  hypnosis,  and  the  first 
result  will  be  that  the  patient  feels  free  from  pain  while  in  the 
hypnotic  state.  But  the  great  point  is  to  prevent  the  return  of 
the  pain  after  waking.  Either  external  post-hypnotic  sug- 
gestion or  auto-suggestion  will  do  this.  As  we  have  already 
seen,  suggestions  can  be  made  to  persist  post-hypnotically.  It 
is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  we  can  do  as  much  with  the 
idea  that  the  pain  is  gone  after  waking.  Of  course,  the  patient 
need  not  be  conscious  of  this  idea  in  the  sense  of  remembering 
it;  on  the  contrary,  the  less  conscious  the  idea  is,  the  more 
effect  it  will  probably  have.  Auto-suggestion  is  the  second 
plan.  The  patient,  finding  herself  without  pain  in  hypnosis, 
may  convince  herself  that  pain  is  not  a  necessary  consequence 
of  her  state,  and  this  idea  may  under  some  circumstances  be 
strong  enough  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  pain. 

The  more  easily  an  idea  can  be  established  in -a  subject  the 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  3OI 

quicker  a  therapeutic  result  can  be  induced.  And  the  deeper 
the  hypnosis  the  more  easily  therapeutic  suggestions  can  be 
established.  But  we  must  certainly  agree  with  Vogt  that  the 
persistence  of  suggestions  that  are  momentarily  successful 
needs  a  subject  of  a  different  character  to  that  which  is 
necessary  for  a  suggestion  only  to  prove  temporarily  successful. 
Hence  it  often  happens  that  the  therapeutic  result  only 
amounts  to  a  temporary  disappearance  of  the  symptoms  of  a 
disease  without  preventing  their  return  shortly  after  the  patient 
wakes.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  cases  in  which  the 
acceptance  and  continuance  of  a  therapeutic  suggestion  is 
brought  about  by  superficial  hypnosis  without  any  very  strong 
suggestibility.  It  follows  from  this  that  superficial  hypnoses 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  quite  apart  from  the  fact 
that  they  often  lead  to  deeper  hypnoses.  However,  we  may  take 
it  to  be  the  rule  that  suggestibility,  and  also  the  persistence  of 
suggestions,  increases  with  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis. 

Suggestion  provides  us  with  the  key  to  suggestive  thera- 
peutics. When  the  hypnotized  subject  does  not  accept  the 
suggestion,  or  refuses  it,  which  sometimes  happens,  it  will 
hardly  ever  be  possible  to  obtain  a  therapeutic  result.  In 
addition  to  external  suggestion  we  must  certainly  also  take 
into  account  auto-suggestion  on  the  patient's  part,  for  its 
action  does  not  merely  take  effect  after  the  termination  of  the 
hypnosis  in  the  manner  described  above.  Even  during  the 
hypnosis  itself,  auto-suggestion  may  be  the  essential  influence 
that  produces  the  result,  although,  of  course,  this  auto-sug- 
gestion proceeds  indirectly  from  the  external  suggestion.  A 
person  who  has  himself  hypnotized  in  the  belief  that  the 
hypnosis  will  cure  him,  often  suggests  the  cure  himself,  without 
any  external  suggestion  during  the  hypnosis  being  really 
necessary.  I  have  already  mentioned  pre-hypnotic  suggestion 
(p.  68).  Since  pre-hypnotic  suggestion  becomes  auto-sug- 
gestion during  hypnosis,  it  plays  an  important  part  in  thera- 
peutics in  the  manner  just  described,  and  the  results  obtained 
which  are  ascribed  to  hypnosis  as  such — />.,  without  suggestion, 
are  often  due  to  pre-hypnotic  suggestion.  Similarly,  emotional 
influences  are  closely  related  to  auto-suggestions.  The  patient's 
expectant  attention,  and  in  some  cases  also  the  apparent 
mystery  attaching  to  the  whole  proceeding  and  the  excitement 
which  that  causes,  may  tend  to  support  the  influence  of 
suggestion. 


302  HYPNOTISM. 

We  find  on  investigation  that  the  number  of  diseases  in 
which  hypnotic  treatment  is  indicated  is  very  great.  This  is 
not  meant  to  imply  that  hypnosis  is  a  universal  panacea. 
There  are  numerous  diseases  in  which  the  employment  of 
suggestion  comes  in  question,  but  in  which  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  first  of  all  to  ascertain  by  experiment  whether  a 
hypnosis  can  be  induced  and  hypnotic  suggestion  thereby 
rendered  possible.  Ewald,  who  wanted  to  leave  suggestive 
therapeutics  to  shepherd-boys,  likewise  refused  to  concede  the 
same  rank  to  hypnotic  treatment  as  to  other  methods,  because 
it  was  impossible  to  establish  definite  indications  for  its  use. 
Let  us  see  how  other  therapeutic  methods  stand  in  this  respect. 
When  we  find  that  the  same  disease  can  be  influenced  bene- 
ficially in  one  case  by  cold  water,  in  another  by  warm,  in 
one  case  by  douches,  in  another  by  hip-baths,  in  this  case 
by  the  galvanic  current,  in  that  by  the  faradic,  sometimes 
by  static  electricity  and  sometimes  by  electric  light  baths,  then 
all  these  facts  should  make  us  somewhat  more  tolerant  in  our 
attitude  to  hypnotism.  We  know  from  experience  that  patients 
suffering  from  the  same  disease  get  relief  by  totally  different 
methods  of  treatment.  What  we  do  not  know  is  why  a  warm 
bath  is  beneficial  in  one  case  and  a  cold  one  in  another,  why 
static  electricity  succeeds  in  one  case  and  the  galvanic  current 
in  another,  quite  apart  from  the  question  whether  these  methods 
have  only  a  mental  action  or  not,  or  whether  spontaneous 
improvement  may  not  be  mistaken  for  the  effect  of  the  remedy 
applied.  Certainly  these  considerations  do  not  agree  with  the 
fairy  tales  which  many  authors  tell  us  about  "exact  indications," 
and  which  Ewald  seems  to  have  believed  in  when  he  tried  to 
place  hypnotic  treatment  on  so  low  a  grade.  Medicine  con- 
sists to  a  great  extent  in  the  careful  selection,  by  trial,  of  that 
treatment  which  seems  most  suited  to  each  case.  This  by 
no  means  disparages  the  functions  of  the  physician;  at  the 
most  it  militates  against  medicine's  claim  to  being  considered 
an  "exact  science."  It  is  just  because  the  indications  are  so 
often  indefinite  that  the  physician  is  necessary;  it  is  for  him  to 
decide  from  his  own  observations  whether  the  remedy  employed 
is  acting  beneficially,  and  should  therefore  be  persevered  with, 
or  not.^  It  is  the  same  with  hypnosis.  We  can  put  forward 
general  indications  for  its  use,  but  we  cannot  guarantee  a  cure 

«a 

*  For  further  details  see  Arztliche  Ethik,  by  Albert  Moll;  Stuttgart, 
1902,  p.  476  et.  seq. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  303 

in  any  particular  case.  Ewald  overlooked  the  fact  that  there 
are  rarely  definite  indications  in  internal  diseases,  as  may  be 
clearly  seen  by  comparing  various  text-books,  and  from  the 
numerous  contradictory  statements  made  by  different  doctors. 
He  also  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  indications  for  hypnotic 
treatment  are  quite  as  clear  as  those  for  treatment  by  electricity, 
massage,  drugs,  and  baths. 

Before  proceeding  to  discuss  the  general  indications  for  hypnotic  treat- 
ment, I  must  say  a  few  words  on  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  term  "hysteria." 
Unrortunately,  several  authors— chief  among  them  Mendel,  of  Berlin — 
have  done  much  to  obscure  hypnotism  through  the  very  vague  meaning  that 
attaches  to  "  hysteria."  Binswanger  admits  in  his  great  monograph  on 
the  subject,  that  no  definite  idea  has  yet  been  constructed  that  would  enable 
us  to  recognize  hysteria  as  a  clinical  entity,  a  well-defined  nervous  com- 
plaint. In  reality,  the  question  as  to  what  is  meant  by  hysteria  is  con- 
sidered from  two  totally  different  points  of  view  in  the  present  day,  the 
theoretical  and  the  clinical.  "  All  morbid  bodily  changes  caused  by  ideas 
are  hysterical."  This  is  Möbius's  conception  of  hysteria,  and  it  is  accepted 
by  many  other  authors.  Eulenburg  takes  essentially  the  same  view,  which 
also  agrees  to  a  certain  extent  with  that  finally  held  by  Charcot.  There  is 
justification  for  Möbius's  definition  from  the  theoretical  standpoint,  and 
also  from  Binswanger's  not  quite  identical  view  that  all  hysterical  morbid 
phenomena  are  indissolubly  connected  with  functional  disturbances  in  the 
cerebral  cortex,  though  Binswanger  explicitly  explains  that  he  does  not 
mean  solely  disturbances  of  mental  origin.  No  matter  how  well-grounded 
these  theoretical  definitions  may  be,  we  have  to  reckon  with  the  fact  that 
a  theoretically  constructed  conception  of  a  disease  does  not  as  a  rule  cover 
the  clinical  conception  of  the  malady,  unless  investigation  has  led  to  a 
definite  result — 1.^.,  unless  the  clinical  material  has  been  sufficiently 
examined  and  classified  from  the  theoretical  point  of  view.  Unfortunately, 
we  cannot  say  that  this  has  happened  in  the  case  of  hysteria.  But  the  con- 
fusion of  such  theoretical  definitions  with  clinical  ideas  has  led  to  much 
misunderstanding.  It  is  not  so  long  ago  that  we  in  Germany  described 
hysteria  clinically  as  a  disease  of  an  essentially  functional  nature,  and  then 
again  as  typified  by  the  multiplicity  and  variability  of  its  symptoms. 
Certainly  there  has  been  a  change  in  this  respect  during  the  last  ten  to 
fifteen  years,  and  we  no  longer  consider  that  the  multiplicity  and  variability 
of  symptoms  justify  the  diagnosis  hysteria.  But  this  by  no  means  implies 
a-  fusion  of  the  clinical  picture  of  hysteria  as  recognized  to-day  with  the 
theoretical  definitions  given  above,  and  it  may  well  happen  that  when 
several  authors  write  of  hysteria  each  means  something  different  from  that 
discussed  by  the  others.  Mobius  tries  to  avoid  this  difficulty  by  pointing 
out  that  hysteria,  in  his  sense  of  the  word,  may  be  accompanied  by  symptoms 
which  do  not  belong  to  hysteria ;  he  considers  such  symptoms — ^.^.,  the 
hysterical  character  and  hysterical  mental  troubles — complications,  and  not 
symptoms,  of  hysteria.  Other  observers  think  these  phenomena  essential 
symptoms  of  hysteria.  From  all  of  this  it  is  easy  to  see  how  great  a  difference 
there  is  between  the  clinical  and  the  theoretical  idea  of  hysteria« 

Indeed,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  word  hysteria  is  variously  employed 


304  HYPNOTISM. 

in  a  clinical  sense,  and  by  using  the  term  in  one  sense  or  another  at  pleasure 
erroneous  conclusions  are  drawn  which  even  many  doctors  fail  to  recognize. 
We  have  seen  that  it  was  at  one  time  almost  universal  in  Germany — it  is  so, 
to  an  extent,  in  the  present  day — to  consider  hysteria  a  functional  disease 
which  has  numerous  and  variable  symptoms — to-day  one  symptom, 
to-morrow  another  predominating ;  now  headache,  now  ovarian  pain,  now 
pain  in  the  side,  and  now  weakness  in  the  legs,  etc.  The  patient  is  called 
"hysterical  "  as  well  as  the  symptoms.  As  such  patients  are  sometimes 
obstinate  and  capricious,  this  word  "hysterical"  has  a  somewhat  un- 
pleasant after-taste ;  some  authors  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  a  tendency  to 
falsehood  and  hypocrisy  is  a  chief  symptom  of  such  hysteria.  This  is 
evidently  an  unfair  generalization.  At  all  events  the  multiplicity  and 
variability  of  the  symptoms  are  the  main  characteristics  of  hysteria  taken 
in  this  sense. 

In  another  sense  the  word  "hysterical"  has  quite  a  different  meaning. 
It  is  used  to  describe  morbid  symptoms  which  have  no  anatomical  basis  and 
which  are  therefore  merely  "nervous" — e.g,^  headache,  pains  in  the  muscles, 
certain  tremors,  vomiting,  etc.;  even  when  the  symptom  is  solitary  and 
constant.  Now,  if  in  such  a  case  the  patient,  as  well  as  the  symptoms,  is 
to  be  called  "hysterical,"  we  have  two  totally  different  meanings  for  the 
clinical  conception  of  a  "hysterical  patient." 

These  points  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration  when  discussing  the 
connection  between  hysteria  and  hypnosis.  I  have  already  (p.  49)  spoken 
of  the  supposed  connection  between  hysteria  and  hypnotizability,  denying 
its  existence,  and  I  based  my  negation  on  the  clinical  meaning  of  hysteria. 
But  some  cautious  German  investigators — e.g.,  HirschlafF,  Hellpach, 
Gumpertz,  Vogt — have  recently  attempted  to  establish  a  close  connection 
between  hysteria  and  hypnosis,  or  at  least  a  certain  psychological  relation- 
ship. This  would  be  quite  right  from  Möbius's  point  of  view,  according 
to  which  both  states  are  equally  influenced  by  ideas.  But  it  is  quite 
different  if  we  accept  the  climical  conception  of  hysteria,  for  that  does  not 
admit  a  close  connection  between  hysteria  and  hypnotism,  or,  more 
particularly,  the  connection  between  hypnotizability  and  hysteria  which 
used  to  be  sometimes  assumed. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  insist  upon  the  various  meanings  given  to  the  term 
hysteria  if  we  are  to  ascribe  a  definite  position  to  hypnotic  and  suggestive 
therapeutics,  or,  indeed,  to  the  whole  of  menial  therapeutics.  If  we 
accept  polysymptomatic  hysteria  with  the  varying  pathological  picture  it 
presents  then  a  remedy  that  allays  the  morbid  phenomena  in  such  cases 
is  often  considered  of  minor  importance  because  the  term  hysteria,  used 
in  this  sense,  is  too  easily  associated  with  the  ideas  of  exaggeration 
and  simulation,  and  because,  moreover,  such  hysterical  symptoms  are 
themselves  liable  to  undergo  variation.  Let  us  now  take  the  second 
clinical  meaning  of  hysteria,  and  examine  the  case  of  a  person  suffering 
from  a  severe  pain  in  a  muscle — the  biceps,  for  example — but  without  any 
other  symptom  of  hysteria,  then  if  the  patient  is  freed  by  suggestion  from 
the  pain  the  people  who  want  to  make  out  that  hypnotic  treatment  is  only 
beneficial  in  cases  of  hysteria  at  once  exclaim,  "You  see  that  was  only 
another  case  of  hysteria."  They  carefully  suppress  the  fact  that  the  patient 
was  not  hysterical  in  the  first  meaning  of  the  word.  This  is  the  way  in 
which  the  word  "  hysterical "  is  juggled  with  to  prove  that  only  hysteria 
can  be  influenced  by  hypnosis.     Such  methods  can  only  tend  to  obscure 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  3OS 

the  whole  question ;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  bow  much  more  likely  this  is  ta 
occur,  if  at  one  time  the  clinical  meaning  and  at  another  Möbius's  definition 
of  hysteria  is  made  the  basis  of  the  discussion. 

How  easily  a  confusion  of  these  meanings  may  lead  to  misunderstanding, 
is  exemplified  by  a  letter  which  Charcot  once  addressed  to  Guttmann,  in 
which  he  asserted  that  only  hysteria  can  be  treated  by  hypnosis.  But,  as 
Nonne  remarked,  Charcot  understood  much  more  by  ** hysteria"  than 
German  physicians  did  in  those  days.  In  contradiction  to  two  German 
authors,  Oppenheim  and  Thomsen,  Charcot  distinctly  declared  that  the 
variability  of  the  symptoms  is  not  the  chief  characteristic  of  hysteria. 
Hence,  according  to  Charcot,  the  indications  for  hypnotic  treatment  are 
not  so  limited  as  those  authors  assumed  from  their  antiquated  German 
notion  of  hysteria.  We  shall  see  later  on  that  Charcot  understood  much 
more  by  hysteria  in  other  respects;  he  was  satisfied  that  hysteria  was  a 
concomitant  of  many  organic  diseases  in  which  its  presence  was  denied  by 
other  authors. 

The  most  suitable  maladies  for  hypnotic  treatment  are  the 
neuroses — /.^.,  nervous  complaints  in  which  no  anatomical  cause 
is  demonstrable.  But,  as  pointed  out,  there  must  be  no 
confusion  with  hysteria  or  neurasthenia.  The  nomenclature  is 
certainly  somewhat  arbitrary.  Whether  an  occasional  headache 
is  described  as  hysterical,  or  nervous,  or  even  functional,  often 
depends  more  on  the  individuality  of  the  physician  than  on  the 
nature  of  the  pain,  and  in  the  same  way  a  patient  suffering  from 
imperative  ideas  may  be  described  either  as  a  neurasthenic  or 
a  psychopathic  subject.  Dubois,  for  example,  arbitrarily  classi- 
fied neurasthenia,  hysteria,  hystero-neurasthenia,  mild  forms  of 
hypochondria  and  melancholia,  and,  finally,  certain  severe 
disturbances  of  mental  equilibrium  which  border  on  insanity, 
under  the  heading  psycho-neurosis  or  neurosismus.  Considering 
the  arbitrary  way  in  which  all  such  designations  are  used,  I  shall 
not  place  too  much  value  on  a  scientific  terminology;  but  to 
avoid  any  misunderstanding,  I  must  maintain  that  cases  of 
polysymptomatic  hysteria  are  not  invariably  suitable  for  hypnotic 
treatment,  especially  when  the  symptoms  vary  very  rapidly. 
This  is  obviously  caused  by  the  auto-suggestibility  of  the 
patient,  which  in  such  cases  counteracts  the  effect  of  the 
external  suggestion.  We  can  often  remove  such  a  hysterical 
symptom  as  pain  in  the  head  or  the  leg  by  suggestion,  but 
another  symptom  readily  takes  its  place  as  the  result  of  auto-* 
suggestion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  not  infrequently  happens,  as 
Kraepelin  has  pointed  out,  that  cases  which  come  under  the 
monosymptomatic  conception  of  hysteria  are  often  suitable  for 
hypnotic  treatment;    this   we   shall   see   from    the   following 

20 


306  HYPNOTISM. 

summarization  of  the  indications  for  such  treatment.  I  will 
now  proceed  to  enumerate  the  most  important  states  in  which 
hypnotic  treatment  has  to  be  considered. 

All  kinds  of  pains  that  have  no  anatomical  cause — e.g,, 
headaches,  stomach-aches,  ovarian  pain.  Rheumatic  pains, 
even  with  effusion  in  the  joint,  according  to  Block;  but  it  is 
possible  to  confuse  with  hysterical  effusion.  Many  forms  of 
neuralgia,  also,  are  influenced  beneficially  by  hypnotic  treat- 
ment; Forel  observed  good  results  in  a  case  of  neuralgia  of 
traumatic  origin. 

All  kinds  of  other  sensations  of  nervous  origin,  as,  for 
example,  pruritus  cutaneous  nervosus,  paraesthesiae ;  nervous 
ringing  in  the  ear. 

Nervous  ocular  disturbances  (Forel,  Möllerup,  Chiltoff). 

Various  kinds  of  local  spasms — e,g,y  blepharospasm  (Forel 
Ritzmann) ;  vaginismus  (Barbaud).  AH  kinds  of  tics  (Meige 
and  Feindel,  Wetterstrand,  Renterghem,  Feron,  Vlavianos). 
Paramyoclonus  (Scholz).  Neglected  cases  of  chorea  (Dumont- 
pallier,  Leroux);  hemichorea  (Farez). 

Writer's  cramp,  nervous  tremors.  Here,  also,  belong  those 
affections  which  Berillon  designates  by  the  name  bdgaiement 
graphique^  in  which  the  patient  is  only  unable  to  write  when  he 
thinks  he  is  being  watched.  Legrain  likewise  lays  weight  on 
the  mental  excitement  in  writer's  cramp,  and  recommends 
hypnotic  suggestion  as  treatment. 

Stammering  (von  Corval,  Ringier,  Wetterstrand,  Pauly). 
Lefevre  traces  the  origin  of  stammering  essentially  to  suggestion 
caused  by  imitation. 

Hysterical  attacks  of  various  kinds — for  example,  spasms, 
convulsions. 

Hysterical  paralyses  of  the  extremities;  hysterical  aphonia 
and  mutism;  astasia  and  abasia  (Stembo). 

Catalepsy  (Viviani).  Georges-Gaston  Pau  de  Sl  Martin 
published  in  his  medical  dissertation  (Strassburg,  1869)  a  case 
in  which  catalepsy  was  successfully  treated  by  hypnosis.  He 
thought  the  improvement  was  due  to  rubbing  the  limbs  during 
hypnosis,  and  maintained  that  the  simultaneous  use  of  hypnosis 
was  necessary  in  his  case,  in  opposition  to  an  earlier  publication 
by  Puel,  who  also  employed  such  rubbings  successfully  in 
cataleptic  fits. 

Enuresis  nocturna.  Ringier  reports  that  a  little  girl  became 
subject  to  nocturnal  incontinence  of  urine  after,  other  children 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  307 

had  told  her  that  she  would  wet  the  bed  because  she  had 
plucked  a  certain  flower,  the  meadow  crowfoot.  The  flower 
in  question,  Ranunculus  acris,  is  in  Switzerland  commonly 
called  pisse-cn-lit}  It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  disorder  which  can 
thus  be  caused  by  suggestion  may  most  easily  be  cured  by 
suggestion. 

Any  kind  of  disturbance  of  menstruation  (Liebeault,  Bern- 
heim,  Forel,  Wetterstrand,  Bugney,  Brunnberg,  Journee,  Mar- 
andon  de  Monthyel,  Gascard).  The  most  different  kinds  of 
disturbance  of  menstruation  may  be  influenced  by  hypnotic 
suggestion,  amenorrhoea  as  well  as  menorrhagia  and  dysmenor- 
rhcea.  It  is  worth  mentioning  that  Liebeault  was  never  able 
lo  cause  abortion  by  hypnotic  suggestion. 

Attacks  of  eclampsia  are  thought  by  Le  Menant  des  Chesnais 
to  be  influenced  beneficially  by  hypnosis.  Reports  as  to  the 
results  obtained  by  the  hypnotic  treatment  of  epilepsy  vary, 
but  are  not  favourable  on  the  whole.  A  few  observers — 
Wetterstrand,  for  example — report  cases  of  improvement  from 
treatment  by  prolonged  hypnosis ;  but  Hilger  is  very  reserved 
in  his  remarks,  though  he  also  found  improvement  in  two  cases. 
I  have  never  seen  a  successful  result  that  I  could  attribute  to 
hypnosis  as  such  with  any  degree  of  probability;  certainly  a 
successful  result  is  easily  simulated  in  many  cases  of  epilepsy. 

Sleeplessness,  uneasy  dreams,  spontaneous  somnambulism. 

Gastro-intestinal  disturbances  of  nervous  origin;  loss  of 
appetite ;  hysterical  vomiting  (Freud) ;  vomiting  of  pregnancy 
(Choteau,  Anuforiew,  Pobedinski);  chronic  constipation  (Forel, 
Benard,  Schmidt,  Farez,  Delius).  Forel  has  rightly  pointed 
out  that  many  cases  of  chronic  constipation  are  brought  about 
by  there  being  no  direct  innervation  current  from  the  brain  to 
the  bowels.  It  is  exactly  in  such  cases  that  purgatives  are  not 
merely  useless,  but  injurious. 

Hysterical  polyuria  (Mathieu,  Babinski,  Debove);  nervous 
asthma  (Briigelmann). 

All  kinds  of  neuroses  of  emotion — e.g,^  fear  of  blushing 
(Friedländer,  Bechterew) ;  fear  of  being  unable  to  pass  water, 
dread  of  diarrhoea,  agoraphobia  (Jong),  and  similar  obsessions. 
To  the  obsessions  belong  also  cases  of  nosophobia,  in  which 
the  patient  is  dominated  by  the  fear  of  disease.  We  know  that 
in  such  cases  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  dreaded  may  be 

^  In  the  well-known  French  lexicon  hy  Sachs- Viilatte  the  dandelion  is 
called  pisse-en-lit. 


3o8  HYPNOTISM. 

produced  by  auto-suggestion,  as,  for  example,  the  phenomena 
of  tabes,  or  attacks  like  those  of  epilepsy.  In  some  cases 
suggestion  should  be  employed  to  remove  the  feeling  of  fear, 
in  others  to  combat  the  symptoms  produced  by  auto-suggestion. 
Julius  Althaus  specially  recommends  suggestion  in  nosophobia, 
which  includes  many  cases  ascribed  to  rabies.  Ch.  Pk  Finel 
thinks  that  there  are  cases  of  pseudo-rabies  which  sometimes 
terminate  fatally  although  the  patients  have  never  been  bitten. 
In  such  cases,  as  well  as  in  those  of  pseudo-rabies  in  which  the 
patients  have  been  bitten,  hypnosis  with  suggestion  is  indicated. 
Pinel  has  treated  and  cured  a  case  of  this  kind  by  hypnotic 
suggestion. 

Many  authors  advocate  the  use  of  hypnosis  where  there  is  a 
tendency  to  the  misuse  of  stimulants  and  narcotics,  especially 
in  cases  of  chronic  alcoholism  (Forel,  A.  Voisin,  Ladame, 
Widmer,  Lloyd  Tuckey,  Wetterstrand,  Corval,  Knory,  Neilson, 
Bushnell,  Stegmann,  Tokarski,  Wiazemsky,  Ortizky,  Rybakoff, 
Farez,  A.  Marnay).  Corval  pointed  out  that  in  alcoholism  the 
injurious  effects  of  abstinence  can  sometimes  be  suppressed  by 
suggestion,  and  Bra m well  thinks  that  he  has  obtained  success- 
ful  results  in  cases  of  dipsomania.  Morphinism  (Wetterstrand, 
Marot),  nicotinism,  and  similar  drug  manias  have  been  treated 
by  suggestions,  sometimes  successfully.  Experience  shows  that 
better  results  are  obtained  in  alcoholism  than  in  morphinism, 
though  in  the  latter  the  injurious  effects  of  abstinence  can  also 
be  suppressed  by  suggestion.  Opinions  differ  whether  a 
gradual  or  sudden  disuse  of  the  drug  should  be  produced 
while  the  patient  is  undergoing  hypnotic  treatment.  Börillon 
and  Tanzi  are  in  favour  of  the  gradual  method.  R.  Binswanger 
disputes  the  great  efficacy  which  Wetterstrand  attributes  to 
suggestion.  Landgren,  a  Swedish  physician,  has  hereupon 
published  his  own  history;  in  consequence  of  acute  pains  due 
to  inflammation  of  the  joints,  he  had  become  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  morphia.  Wetterstrand  succeeded  in  curing  him 
with  remarkable  rapidity,  and  Landgren  states  that  the  severe 
pains  which  assuredly  followed  every  attempt  to  discontinue 
morphia  were  remarkably  shortened.  Sigmund  A.  Agatson 
also  reports  that  he  was  able  in  the  same  way  to  avoid  the 
injurious  effects  of  abstinence  in  a  case  of  morphinism. 

Hypnotic  suggestion  is  also  recommended  in  affections  of 
the  sexual  impulse,  and  has  sometimes  met  with  success.  Most 
suitable  for  hypnotic  suggestion  are  the  various  forms  of  sexual 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  309 

perversion,  including  homosexuality,  as  well  as  masochism, 
sadism  and  fetishism ;  and,  further,  perverse  inclination  towards 
the  immature  of  the  other  sex.  Krafft-Ebing,  Schrenck- 
Notzing,  Kraepelin,  Alfred  Fuchs,  Ladame,  Tatzel,  Naret, 
Renterghem,  and  Wetterstrand  have  observed  good  results  in 
the  most  different  forms  of  sexual  perversion.  The  treatment 
has  also  occasionally  proved  successful  in  masturbation. 

Hirst  recommends  hypnotism  in  the  neuroses  of  traumatism 
and  emotion. 

Whether  suggestion  can  be  of  any  essential  use  in  neuras- 
thenia is  a  question  that  has  often  been  raised,  but  the  views 
expressed  on  it  differ.  Bernheim  has  seen  no  good  results; 
but  this  is  not  the  experience  of  Eeden.  Many  believe  that 
neurastheniacs  are  not  so  very  suggestible,  an  opinion  which  is 
not  shared  by  B^rillon,  Mezeray,  Mavroukakis,  and  others. 
The  successful  results  reported  by  Berillon  have  been  sharply 
criticized  by  Schrenck-Notzing. 

In  reference  to  an  experiment  by  Heim,  in  which  suggestion 
was  successfully  used  to  ward  off  sea-sickness,  Forel  mentions 
a  similar  case.  Other  authors  also  (Farez,  Hamilton  Osgood, 
and  Bonnet)  state  that  it  is  possible  to  prevent  sea-sickness^  by 
suggestion,  or  to  stop  it  at  the  onset  On  theoretical  grounds 
Bonnet  thinks  that  it  would  only  be  possible  to  stop  sea- 
sickness that  has  once  really  started  if  the  patient  were  very 
highly  suggestible;  but  from  his  own  experience  he  admits  the 
value  of  suggestion  as  a  prophylactic.  I  believe,  with  Rosen- 
bach,  to  whom  we  owe  an  admirable  treatise  on  sea-sickness, 
that  we  have  here  to  distinguish  two  causes,  one  of  which  is  fear 
and  excitement.  In  this  respect  a  favourable  influence  can 
certainly  be  exerted  by  suggestion.  But  the  second  is  made 
up  of  physical  causes,  the  movement  of  the  ship  and  of  objects 
on  it  which  are  watched.  That  suggestion  may  sometimes 
render  these  physical  influences  inoperative  appears  to  me 
conceivable;  but  one  can  well  understand  that  it  only  rarely 
succeeds.  I  may  here  mention  that  as  far  back  as  1793  a 
woman  who  had  an  unconquerable  aversion  to  trusting  herself 
afloat,  once  crossed  the  water  in  the  somnambulic  state  while 
under  the  influence  of  so-called  animal  magnetism  (Ferret). 

Affections  which  can  scarcely  be  called  diseases  may  also 
yield  to  hypnotic  suggestion.  In  a  case  of  David's,  a  lady  for 
many  years  had  been  liable  to  burst  into  tears  at  every  occur- 
rence, however  slight;  this  condition  improved  under  hypnotic 


3  TO  HYPNOTISM. 

suggestion,  and  five  years  later  there  had  been  no  relapse. 
The  dread  of  thunderstorms^  which  in  some  cases  is  almost 
pathological,  can  occasionally  be  combated  by  hypnotic  treat- 
ment. Lloyd  Tuckey  relates  that  he  was  consulted  about  a 
young  girl  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  an  unprincipled  man 
and  become  engaged  to  him.  Lloyd  Tuckey  was  requested  to 
bring  about  a  rupture  between  the  lovers  by  means  of  hypnotic 
suggestion.  At  first  he  refused,  but  finally  consented  on 
hearing  the  details  of  the  case.  The  girl  was  hypnotized 
ostensibly  for  neuralgia,  and  proved  to  be  a  somnambulist. 
After  the  third  sitting  he  began  to  suggest  cautiously  that  she 
would  let  herself  be  guided  by  her  mother  and  would  break  off 
the  connection.  She  gradually  acceded.  In  a  second  case  a 
young  widow  of  thirty  was  nearly  letting  herself  be  ruined 
financially  by  another  woman  for  whom  she  had  a  romantic 
attachment.  She  was  treated  ostensibly  for  insomnia  and 
a  weakness  for  alcoholic  drinks.  In  this  case  also  Lloyd 
Tuckey  succeeded  in  suppressing  the  perverse  tendency  by 
means  of  hypnotic  suggestion. 

I  must  here  append  a  case  that  came  to  my  knowledge  in 
Berlin,  in  which  a  young  girl  had  fallen  in  love  with  a  poor 
gentleman.  The  services  of  a  hypnotizer  were  requisitioned  to 
turn  the  love  to  hate.  He  succeeded,  so  I  was  told.  Then 
the  poor  man  who  had  been  freed  from  the  bonds  of  love 
suddenly  inherited  a  fortune;  so  the  hypnotizer  was  again  sent 
for,  this  time  to  reverse  the  former  process  and  turn  the  hate 
to  love.  I  have  had  similar  propositions  made  me  in  a  whole 
series  of  such  cases;  but  I  am  of  opinion  that  on  principle  a 
physician  should  never  do  anything  in  hypnosis  to  which  the 
patient  has  not  given  his  assent  while  in  the  waking  state, 
provided,  of  course,  that  the  person  in  question  is  of  sound 
mind. 

There  are,  besides,  many  cases  in  which  suggestion  has 
been  used  in  a  somewhat  fantastical  manner.  A  Russian 
physician  once  told  me  that  he  was  able  to  influence  the  sex 
of  an  embryo  by  means  of  suggestion.  But  apart  from  such 
fanciful  notions,  it  has  also  been  proposed  to  employ  hypnosis 
for  practical  purposes  in  many  other  cases  which  are  not  strictly 
medical.  I  shall  return  to  this  question  later  on  when  I  come 
to  discuss  the  use  of  hypnotism  in  education. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  treat  mental  diseases  by 
hypnosis,  but  certainly  without  any  great  success.     This   is 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  3II 

partly  because  insane  persons  are  often  anything  but  good  sub- 
jects for  hypnosis  (A.  Voisin,  Percy  Smith,  A.  T.  Myers),  but  is 
also  due  to  the  fact  that  such  essential  symptoms  of  mental 
disease  as  insane  ideas,  delusions  of  the  senses,  melancholic 
frame  of  mind,  etc.,  are  difficult  to  remove.  It  is  easier  to 
remove  nervous  symptoms,  such  as  sleeplessness  and  headache, 
although  the  mental  malady  as  such  continues  (Forel,  Robert- 
son, Kraepelin).  However,  in  the  lighter  forms  of  mental 
disease — e.g,^  melancholia  and  mania,  remarkable  improvements 
have  been  obtained  (Forel,  Burckhardt,  A.  Voisin,  Seglas, 
Burot,  Dufour,  Frank).  Hysterical  mental  disorders  have 
often  been  influenced  beneficially  by  suggestion  (Majewska). 
Anglade  is  quite  satisfied  that  hypnosis  should  be  used  in 
mental  cases,  but  only  for  the  purpose  of  treating  hysterical 
disturbances;  Sturgis  reports  good  results  in  cases  of  fixed 
ideas ;  A.  Voisin,  Repoud,  and  Locojano  say  they  have  seen 
good  effects  produced  in  cases  of  severe  mental  disorder. 
Tokarski  rightly  protests  against  the  forcible  hypnotization  of 
children,  criminals,  and  the  insane  as  carried  out  by  some, 
such  as  A.  Voisin,  Herrero,  and  Caryophilis. 

Forel  has  recommended  another  special  method  for  making 
use  of  hypnosis  in  psychiatrics;  it  consists  in  hypnotizing  the 
attendants  in  asylums  so  as  to  make  them  more  careful  with 
their  patients.  Walter  Inhelder  has  collected  and  published 
Forel's  experiences,  from  which  it  appears  that  after  being 
treated  by  hypnosis  and  suggestion  the  attendants  certainly 
sleep  peacefully,  but  wake  at  the  slightest  suspicious  noise 
made  by  a  patient  whom  they  are  then  quite  able  to  protect 
from  himself,  or  prevent  injuring  others.  Inhelder  thinks  that 
in  this  way  victims  of  melancholia  who  are  dangerous  to  them- 
selves are  better  looked  after.  Such  patients  could  not  sleep 
if  placed  in  the  attendants*  room  on  account  of  the  noise,  and 
to  provide  special  attendants  for  them  would  cost  too  much; 
but  by  employing  hypnotized  attendants  both  these  difficulties 
can  be  got  over. 

Hypnotic  treatment  has  also  often  been  successfully  used  in 
cases  of  organic^  disease.     Liebeaul t  and  Bernheim,  the  earliest 

^  I  here  include  among  the  organic  diseases  some  that  are  usually 
dnssified  as  neuroses,  because  we  are  as  yet  unaware  of  the  nature  of  the 
anatomical  lesions  that  produce  them ;  but  such  anatomical  lesions  must 
certainly  be  assumed  to  exist,  for  example,  in  paralysis  agitans,  facial 


312  HYPNOTISM. 

investigators,  and  others  who  have  studied  the  therapeutic 
value  of  hypnotic  suggestion  have  demonstrated  this.  Later 
on  others — such  as  David,  Grossmann,  Stembo,  Lloyd  Tuckey, 
also  Bechterew  and,  quite  recently,  his  pupil  Pewnizki — have 
likewise  emphasized  the  importance  of  hypnosis  in  the  treat- 
ment of  organic  disease.  Lloyd  Tuckey  observed  the  severe 
pains  in  a  case  of  tabes  dorsalis  disappear  under  treatment  by 
hypnotic  suggestion;  Stembo  subdued  pains  arising  from 
cicatrices;  Pewnizki  saw  the  spontaneous  pains  decrease  in  a 
case  of  syringomyelia,  but  those  caused  by  peripheral  stimula- 
tion increase  under  the  influence  of  hypnotic  suggestion. 
Bernheim  saw  an  apoplectic  paralysis  rapidly  improved  by 
suggestion.  The  objection  that  the  diagnosis  was  mistaken 
was  contradicted  by  the  autopsy  when  the  patient  died  of 
disease  of  the  lungs  later  on.  Martin^  also,  has  expressed  a 
decided  opinion  against  limiting  hypnotic  treatment  to  func- 
tional diseases.  He  has  described,  among  others,  cases  in 
which  the  vomiting  of  pregnancy  and  pains  in  the  hips  and 
thighs  arising  from  the  pressure  of  the  gravid  uterus  were 
subdued  by  hypnosis.  He  also  succeeded  by  means  of 
hypnosis  in  making  patients  retain  food  and  medicines  which 
they  otherwise  invariably  returned. 

A  superficial  examination  of  the  question  might  very  easily 
lead  to  the  view  that  the  employment  of  hypnotic  suggestion 
in  the  treatment  of  organic  disease  is  but  the  result  of  an  un- 
critical over-estimate  of  the  value  of  that  method,  because  it  is 
not  the  organic  lesion  that  is  cured  by  suggestion.  Such  a 
conclusion  would  be  altogether  erroneous.  If  we  believe  that 
Frankel's  therapeutic  exercises  have  a  beneficial  efiect  on  the 
symptoms  of  tabes  dorsalis,  then  there  is  no  reason  to  contest 
the  efficacy  of  other  psycho-therapeutic  agencies  in  the  treat- 
ment of  organic  disease.  For  FränkeFs  method  is  a  mental 
remedy;  it  is  an  attempt  to  restore  voluntary  co-ordination  of 
certain  movements  by  making  special  uses  of  the  sense  of  sight. 
So  that  even  if  we  admit  the  efficacy  of  this  remedy,  we  are  not 
bound  to  assume  that  the  morbid  anatomical  changes  in  the 
spinal  cord  are  done  away  with  by  it.      Sperling  pointed  out 

cramp,  acute  chorea,  etc.  Of  course,  some  organic  change  is  the  basis  of 
every  neurosis.  Still  we  are  justified  in  making  certain  distinctions,  as 
between  paralysis  agitans  and  hysteria.  If  we  take  into  consideration  the 
progressive  course  of  the  disease  and  the  immutability  of  its  chief  symptoms, 
then  the  organic  lesion  in  palsy  must  be  of  a  much  more  stable  character 
than  is  the  case  in  hysteria, 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  313 

long  ago  that  the  part  of  the  brain  injured  in  apoplexy  is  not 
restored  by  electricity;  nevertheless  the  treatment  of  apoplexy 
by  electricity  is  considered  a  scientific  method.  In  the  same 
way  psycho-therapeutic  measures  are  often  effective  in  cases 
of  organic  disease,  without  the  organic  lesion  being  thereby 
cured.  This  view  does  not  lead  us  into  the  realms  of  the 
miraculous;  on  the  contrary,  it  enables  us  to  understand  the 
mode  of  action  of  such  remedies,  even  if  the  explanations 
given  do  differ  somewhat.  They  all  depend  upon  the  following 
fact,  estaljlished  by  correct  observation: — In  many  organic 
diseases^  the  functional  disturbance^  which  we  usually  consider  ike 
symptom  of  the  organic  disease^  extends  much  farther  than  the 
direct  influence  of  the  organic  lesion  justifies.  In  the  following 
considerations,  an  endeavour  will  be  made  to  explain  this  fact 
from  the  theoretical  point  of  view;  they  do  not  refer  exclusively 
to  hypnosis  and  suggestion,  but  to  psycho-therapeutics  in 
general  as  well.  To  prevent  any  artificial  disconnection  of 
subjects  that  belong  together,  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid 
repetitions  I  should  otherwise  have  to  make  in  the  next 
chapter,  I  shall  discuss  this  question  with  reference  to  psycho- 
therapeutics in  general. 

In  a  whole  series  of  cases,  Bernheim  has  watched  the  in- 
fluence of  hypnotic  suggestion  on  the  symptoms  of  organic 
disease,  and  thinks  that  in  many  organic  diseases  the  func- 
tional disturbance  lasts  longer  than  the  organic  lesion,  and 
that  the  functional  disturbances  are  sometimes  much  more 
extensive  than  the  organic  lesion  justifies  even  during  its 
presence.  In  both  cases  it  is  possible  to  obtain  improvement 
by  means  of  psycho-therapeutic  influence,  also  when  the 
disease  is  organic.  Let  us  take  a  case  in  which  the  functional 
disturbance  lasts  longer  than  the  organic  change.  When  a 
muscle  has  been  injured  it  may  happen  that  the  pain  lasts 
after  the  anatomical  results  of  the  injury — for  example,  extra- 
vasation of  blood,  inflammation — have  passed  away.  We  can 
understand  that  this  after-effect  of  the  cured  organic  lesion 
can  be  done  away  with  by  psycho-therapeutics.  Bernheim 
mentions  apoplexy,  in  which  the  functional  disturbance  is  far 
more  extensive  than  the  lesion.  He  thinks  that  the  lesion 
acts  on  the  adjacent  parts  like  "  shock,"  setting  up  functional 
disturbance.  We  can  quite  understand  the  benefit  derived 
from  mental  treatment  in  this  case  also.  Indeed,  psycho- 
tberapeusi§  somQtirp^s  satisfies  the  indicatio  morbi^  at  least  in 


314  HYPNOTISM. 

the  first  case,  in  which  the  functional  disturbance  lasted  longer 
than  the  organic  lesion,  and  in  the  second  case  (apoplexy)  it 
was  indicated  as  symptomatic  treatment. 

From  Charcot's  neuro-path ©logical  standpoint,  the  successes 
obtained  in  cases  of  organic  disease  require  a  different  explana- 
tion. As  already  mentioned,  Charcot's  conception  of  hysteria 
was  totally  different  to  that  which  originally  obtained,  especially 
in  Germany.  In  particular,  he  held  the  opinion  that  hysteria 
supervenes  in  many  organic  diseases,  the  latter  often  being  the 
exciting  cause  of  the  former.  But  he  thought  that  in  such 
cases  we  should  make  a  strict  distinction  between  the  symp- 
toms of  the  organic  disease  and  those  of  the  accompanying 
hysteria.  According  to  Charcot  the  local  anaesthesia  met  with 
in  cases  of  lead-poisoning  is  often  improperly  described  as 
a  symptom  of  the  intoxication,  whereas  it  is  really  a  symptom 
of  the  accompanying  hysteria.  Similarly,  he  thought  that  the 
tremors  observed  in  mercurial  poisoning  should  in  most  cases 
be  considered  symptomatic  of  the  accompanying  hysteria  and 
not  a  phenomenon  of  the  poisoning.  In  common  with  his 
pupils  and  many  other  investigators,  Charcot  considered 
hysteria  an  after-effect  of  many  infectious  diseases — typhoid,  for 
example.  His  pupil,  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  states  that  malaria 
may  bring  about  a  recurrence  of  hysteria,  which  then  takes  an 
intermittent  character.  Charcot  also  thought  he  could  detect 
the  exciting  cause  of  hysteria  in  many  nervous  diseases.  The 
symptoms  of  organic  nervous  disease  and  of  hysteria  may 
become  associated  in  many  ways,  partly  because  organic 
nervous  disease  is  an  exciting  cause  of  hysteria,  and  partly 
because  the  two  sometimes  appear  simultaneously  without 
there  being  any  causal  connection  between  them.  But  it  is 
often  very  difficult  to  decide  in  any  particular  case  which 
symptom  should  be  ascribed  to  the  hysteria  and  which  to  the 
organic  disease.  Thus  according  to  Charcot  hysteria  and 
multiple  sclerosis  are  not  infrequently  observed  together.  Now, 
the  intentional  tremor  observed  in  both  diseases  is  very  much 
the  same;  hence  it  is  difficult  to  decide  in  the  case  of  a  person 
so  afflicted  whether  the  tremor  is  of  hysterical  or  of  organic 
nature.  The  way  in  which  we  conceive  psycho-therapeutics  to 
act  in  cases  of  organic  disease  is  in  accord  with  this  theory  of 
organic  disease  combined  with  hysteria.  The  patient  is 
relieved  of  the  hysteria,  but  not  of  any  symptom  of  the  organic 
disease  itself. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  315 

We  can  see  that  there  is  a  difference  between  the  theoretical 
views  of  Charcot  and  those  of  Bernheim.  But  I  shall  not 
discuss  that  question  any  further,  as  it  would  practically  only 
lead  to  a  contention  about  words.  Considering  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  differential  diagnosis,  and  the  conflict  of  opinion 
as  to  hysteria,  the  question,  whether  a  symptom  that  has  been 
relieved  by  hypnotic  suggestion  was  referable  to  the  organic 
disease  or  to  the  accompanying  hysteria,  could  hardly  be  made 
the  basis  of  a  profitable  discussion.  As  far  as  the  practical 
value  of  psycho-therapeusis  in  the  treatment  of  organic  disease 
is  concerned,  such  a  discussion  would  be  meaningless. 

A  few  further  considerations  will  serve  to  show  the  import- 
ance of  psycho-therapeutics  in  organic  disease,  but  I  shall  not 
discuss  any  further  the  question  whether  hysteria  or  some- 
thing quite  different  is  present,  because  the  exact  meaning  that 
should  attach  to  the  term  "hysteria  "  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute. 
In  many  organic  diseases  a  functional  disturbance  may 
supervene,  provided  the  disturbance  caused  by  the  organic 
disease  be  augmented  by  auto-suggestion.  Paralysis  agitans 
is  a  case  in  point.  It  often  happens  that  patients  suffering 
from  palsy  are  unable  to  walk  properly,  or  fall  when  they 
attempt  to  get  about.  One  fall  suffices  to  make  the  patient 
feel  even  more  insecure,  and  thus  considerably  diminishes  his 
power  of  locomotion.  We  can  easily  understand  how  these 
troubles  may  be  lessened  by  suggestion  or  other  therapeutic 
measures  without  the  organic  disease  being  done  away  with. 
Again,  let  us  take  a  case  of  polyarthritis  deformans  in  which 
the  knee-joint  is  affected  as  well  as  others.  Motion  in  the 
joint  is  essentially  inhibited  both  by  anatomical  chaoges  in  the 
joint  and  by  pain.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  fear  of  the 
pain,  which  increases  the  functional  impairment  of  the  joint 
even  when  there  is  no  real  pain  present.  In  such  a  case  auto- 
suggestion may  make  certain  movements  impossible,  thereby 
rendering  the  functional  derangement  persistent  even  when 
there  is  neither  a  mechanical  obstacle  nor  a  sense  of  pain. 
This  enables  us  to  understand  how  such  patients  come  to  stand 
up  when  momentarily  excited;  an  outbreak  of  fire  suffices  to 
make  them  jump  up  and  run  out.  But  when  peacefully  seated 
and  undisturbed,  the  patient  cannot  voluntarily  rise  from  his 
chair.  That  disturbances  which  are  not  the  direct  outcome  of 
the  organic  lesion  should  be  done  away  with  by  psychic 
remedies  is  quite  comprehensible. 


3 16  HYPNOTISM. 

How  readily  mentally-determined  functional  pains  follow 
organic  lesions  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  people  who  have  had 
a  limb  amputated  often  feel  exactly  the  same  pains  after,  as 
before,  the  ablation.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  refer  this 
to  irritation  of  the  nerve-stumps  in  the  cicatrix.  This  explana- 
tion may  apply  in  some  cases,  but  there  is  much  to  be  said 
against  it;  indeed,  it  is  much  more  probable  that  in  many 
cases  the  original  peripheral  pain  is  reproduced  centrally. 
This  view  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  patient  experiences 
the  same  pain,  at  the  same  spot,  as  before  the  amputation, 
which  can  be  better  explained  by  central  reproduction  than  by 
the  physical  stimulation  of  the  peripheral  nerves.  Of  course 
the  pain  experienced  by  the  subject  in  such  a  case  could  be 
explained  by  the  law  of  the  pheripheral  ramification  of  the 
nerves;  but  that  would  not  explain  why  the  patient  feels  exactly 
the  same  pain  in  exactly  the  same  spot  as  before  the  operation. 
Let  us  take  as  an  example  the  case  of  a  person  suffering  from 
a  painful  ulcer  on  the  leg.  The  patient  feels  severe  pains  at  a 
particular  spot  on  the  leg;  he  also  feels  that  the  pain  is  of  the 
particular  kind  caused  by  a  peripheral  affection.  The  local 
affection  is  then  removed  by  amputation,  and  yet  long  after 
the  operation,  often  years  after,  the  patient  experiences  a 
sensation  of  pain  in  exactly  the  same  way  that  he  did  before. 
Does  irritation  of  the  nerve-stump  at  the  place  where  the 
amputation  was  performed  explain  this  ?  Certainly  the  patient 
thinks  he  feels  the  pain  at  the  same  spot  as  before,  and  not  in 
his  heel  or  his  toes;  but  that  is  better  explained  by  central 
reproduction  of  the  pain  than  by  peripheral  stimulation ;  and 
this  view  is  quite  in  accord  with  many  other  psychological 
experiences,  for  mental  processes  primarily  set  up  by  peripheral 
stimulation  acquire  a  tendency  to  be  reproduced  centrally. 

The-  efficacy  of  psycho-therapeutic  measures  in  the  treatment 
of  organic  disease  is  further  rendered  intelligible  by  the  fact 
that  organic  troubles  are  more  acutely  felt  by  neurotic  subjects 
than  by  those  whose  nervous  system  is  in  a  healthy  state. 
Maximilian  Sternberg  cites  tooth-ache  as  an  example  "  of  the 
connection  between  the  sufferings  caused  by  a  disease  and  the 
irritability  of  the  central  nervous  system."  If  a  person  whose 
nerves  are  in  a  healthy  condition  forgets  his  toothache  at  the 
dentist's  door,  it  goes  to  show  that  toothache  in  cases  of 
neurosis  is  particularly  dependent  on  the  general  state  of  the 
subject's  health*     Sternberg  advances  caries  as  an  example  of 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  317 

this,  because  it  is  often  connected  with  hysterical  tooth-ache 
and  with  tooth-ache  as  observed  during  pregnancy.  In  these 
cases  the  general  neurosis  causes  the  pain  to  be  felt  more 
acutely  than  the  caries  justifies.  The  neurosis,  and  not  any 
change  in  the  circulation^  is  to  blame.  Consequently  all  kinds 
of  suggestive  remedies — mouth-washes,  hypnosis,  etc. — are 
effective  in  such  cases,  though  of  course  local  treatment  should 
not  be  neglected. 

But  there  are  further  considerations  that  elucidate  the 
influence  of  mental  processes  on  the  symptoms  of  organic 
diseases.  We  know  that  pain  often  disappears,  or  becomes 
less  appreciable,  when  the  patient's  attention  is  diverted  from 
it.  We  know,  further,  that  hypnotic  suggestion  can  render  a 
subject  insensitive  to  the  prick  of  a  pin;  indeed,  minor 
surgical  operations  can  be  carried  out  painlessly  in  this  way, 
although  there  certainly  must  be  a  certain  amount  of  organic 
irritation  which  would  otherwise  cause  pain.  We  must  re- 
member that  a  peripheral  stimulus  alone  does  not  suffice  to 
set  up  a  sensation  of  pain;  that  only  happens  when  central 
processes  are  set  going  by  the  peripheral  stimulus.  We  know, 
further,  that  central  processes  mutually  influence  each  other;  the 
sensation  of  pain  can  be  just  as  easily  prevented  by  hypnotic  or 
non-hypnotic  suggestion  as  by  diverting  the  subject's  attention. 
These  processes  which  have  been  observed  after  operations 
may  also  be  expected  to  take  place  in  cases  of  organic  disease ; 
and  this  may  sometimes  explain  the  symptomatic  improvement 
which  follows  hypnotic  suggestion  and  other  psycho-therapeutic 
remedies  in  spite  of  the  persistence  of  the  organic  disease. 

Finally,  many  successful  results  can  be  explained  by  the 
fact  that  central  processes  (ideas,  feelings,  emotions)  have  a 
peripheral  effect;  the  idea  of  a  tasty  dish  causes  a  flow  of 
saliva^  shame  leads  to  blushing,  and  fright  to  pallor;  fear  often 
has  a  great  influence  on  peristalsis — we  know  that  diarrhoea  is 
a  frequent  consequence  of  dread  and  anxiety.  It  is  sometimes 
epidemic  among  soldiers  when  they  have  to  face  fire.  These 
things  being  so,  we  can  understand  that  psycho-therapeutic 
processes  at  least  produce  a  change  in  peripheral  functions. 

The  attempts  that  have  hitherto  been  made  to  explain  these 
successes  depend  on  the  improvement  that  has  resulted  in 
many  organic  diseases  from  psycho-therapeutic  measures,  and 
must  be  kept  quite  distinct  from  the  view  that  mental  influence 
produces  an  anatomical  change  in  a  diseased  organ  directly. 


3l8  HYPNOTISM. 

I  certainly  do  not  deny  that  mental  processes  may  set  up 
organic  change;  in  fact,  I  readily  admit  it.  The  facial  ex- 
pression  of  a  subject  mentioned  by  me  on  page  1 14  is  a  case  in 
point.  We  further  know  that  chronic  emotions  afifect  both 
personality  and  physiognomy — ^grief  and  care  alter  the  facial 
expression.  Dr.  Weiss,  also,  holds  that  we  should  not  curtly 
dismiss  the  possibility  of  hypnosis  producing  organic  changes, 
and  supports  his  view  by  referring  to  instances  of  the  hair 
turning  white  from  fright,  and  also  to  a  case  in  which  he  saw  a 
woman  sufifer  from  herpes  labialis  as  the  result  of  a  sudden 
shock.  Many  other  instances  could  be  adduced  to  bear  out 
the  fact  that  such  effects  arise  from  mental  influence.  We 
accept  mental  strain,  worry^  and  care  as  causes  of  mental 
disease;  yet  mental  diseases  are  organic  diseases  of  the  brain, 
although  we  are  seldom  able  to  establish  the  nature  of  the 
organic  change.  I  may  further  mention  those  cases  in  which 
a  blister,  or  some  other  organic  change,  is  produced  by  the 
suggestion  that  an  epispastic  has  been  applied.  But  in  spite 
of  all  those  objections  raised  by  sceptics,  I  do  not  deny  the 
influence  of  mental  processes  on  the  anatomical  structure  of 
our  organs.  Unfortunately,  we  are  unable  to  make  any 
practical  use  of  this  influence,  because  it  has  not  yet  been 
proved  that  we  can  arbitrarily  bring  about  those  anatomical 
changes  that  are  necessary  to  ensure  the  cure  of  organic 
disease. 

A  totally  different  view  has  certainly  been  expressed  on  this 
subject.  Many  earnest  investigators — such  as  Delboeuf,  Braid, 
and  Hack  Tuke — have  expressed  the  opinion  that  organic 
diseases  may  be  improved  by  suggestion,  and  th^y  have  given 
cases  in  support  of  their  view.  Recent  investigators,  especially 
Bernheim,  have  kept  aloof  from  this  view.  I  only  mention 
this  because  Binswanger  and  Seeligmüller  mistakenly  represent 
Bernheim  as  having  maintained  that  the  original  organic 
injury  is  done  away  with  by  suggestion.  Uncritical  investi- 
gators have  certainly  reported  many  cures  of  organic  affections 
by  suggestion.  Among  such  stories  may  be  mentioned  the 
supposed  removal  of  warts  by  sympathetic  remedies.  Whether 
in  such  cases  the  organic  affection  is  cured  by  mental  in- 
fluence or  the  warts  disappear  spontaneously  appears  to  be  a 
matter  of  detail.  But  we  have  much  more  right  to  doubt  the 
professed  cure  of  incurable  diseases  as  related  by  charlatans. 
All  depends  upon  the  question  whether  the  disease  really 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  319 

existed  or  not.  When  quacks  announce  the  miraculous  cure 
of  "cancer,  tabes  dorsalis,"  and  similar  affections  by  such 
methods  as  animal  magnetism,  we  are  compelled  to  ask  how 
was  the  diagnosis  arrived  at?  Quacks  often  assert  that  the 
diagnosis  was  made  by  a  scientific  doctor.  But  that  is  no 
proof  that  such  a  diagnosis  was  ever  made.  Statements 
made  by  patients  are  anything  but  conclusive  on  this  point; 
such  people  seem  to  take  a  delight  in  representing  that  they 
had  been  given  up  by  some  doctor.  One  thing  is  certain: 
it  has  never  been  proved  that  psychic  methods  bring  about 
those  changes  necessary  to  cure  an  organic  lesion. 

Even  if  we  cannot  engender  a  trust  in  tlie  psycho-therapeutic 
treatment  of  organic  disease,  it  would  nevertheless  be  a  great 
mistake  to  ignore  the  value  of  certain  mental  methods.  To 
satisfy  the  indicatio  causalis^  psycho-therapeusis  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  those  cases  in  which  mental  influence  has 
been  a  contributory  cause.  This  does  not  merely  refer  to 
functional  diseases  such  as  neurasthenia,  but  also  to  organic 
affections.  The  injuriousness  of  mental  influence  in  cases  of 
progressive  paralysis  is  recognized  even  by  those  who  consider 
syphilis  the  prime  cause  of  the  disease.  C.  Wollenberg 
includes  mental  strain  among  the  causes  of  paralysis;  also  the 
exhaustion  that  is  caused  by  the  restlessness  of  modern  life — 
competition,  increased  personal  responsibility,  and  all  the 
worries  and  deceptions  of  business  undertakings.  Kraepelin 
thinks  that  the  attendants  in  lunatic  asylums  are  often  injured 
by  their  employment  which  tends  to  render  them  subject  to 
degenerative  psvchoses.  The  same  author  also  thinks  that 
**  emotional  dIRss "  has  its  significance.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  if  we  are  to  satisfy  the  indicatio  causalis  when  treating 
progressive  paralysis  we  must  insist  on  absolute  mental  rest 
from  the  moment  premonitory  symptoms  of  the  disease  appear, 
not  merely  because  the  diseased  organ  requires  rest,  but 
because  mental  influences  may  have  helped  to  cause  the 
disease.  As  already  pointed  out,  psycho.-therapeusis  is  specially 
indicated  for  treating  the  symptoms  of  organic  disease.  But 
we  have  further  to  consider  how  such  diseases  react  on  the 
patient's  mental  life.  We  must  endeavour  to  minimize  the 
feeling  of  ill-health — for  example,  by  recommending  a  tabetic 
patient  to  engage  in  some  congenial  occupation,  not  merely 
because  that  is  desirable  from  a  domestic  point  of  view.  And 
mental  treatment  is  all  the  more  indicated  when  we  have  to 


320  HYPNOTISM. 

deal  with  such  concomitant  troubles  as  sleeplessness,  loss  of 
appetite,  and  an  unhappy  frame  of  mind. 

Having  thus  thoroughly  discussed  the  indications  for  hypnotic 
treatment,  I  must  now  add  a  few  words  on  the  contra- 
indications. In  some  cases  the  treatment  may  be  contra- 
indicated  if  auto-suggestion  produces  unpleasant  results  which 
cannot  be  counteracted,  and  which  outweigh  the  benefits  to  be 
expected  from  hypnosis.  Fear  of  hypnosis  often  prevents 
hypnosis,  or  puts  it  ofif  until  the  fear  has  subsided.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  a  patient  who  is  afraid  of  being  hypnotized  often 
exhibits  unpleasant  symptoms.  In  the  same  way  care  should 
be  exercised  when  hypnotizing  excited  or  weak-minded  patients, 
and  we  should  even  desist  when  the  subject  is  hysterical  and 
has  a  tendency  to  morbid  auto-suggestion.  Of  course  I  do  not 
profess  that  any  unimportant  disturbance  of  auto-suggestive 
origin  should  prevent  us  from  employing  hypnosis.  On  the 
contrary,  the  good  results  which  we  expect  from  hypnosis  must 
be  compared  with  the  possible  evils  of  auto-suggestion,  and  a 
definite  conclusion  thereby  arrived  at  in  the  manner  customary 
in  medical  practice.  It  should  be  evident  from  what  I  have 
already  said,  that  such  contretemps  as  a  feeling  of  vertigo  caused 
by  auto-suggestion,  or  an  occasional  attack  of  hysteria,  should 
not  lead  us  to  abstain  from  hypnotic  treatment.  But  it  is  only 
the  medical  specialist  who  can  appreciate  the  significance  of 
such  concomitant  symptoms  and  draw  a  correct  conclusion 
from  them.  The  fact  that  medical  men  have  described 
hypnotic  treatment  as  harmless  does  not  justify  its  use  by 
quacks.  The  harmlessness  of  hypnosis  depends  on  the  special 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  physician — Bl  capacity  for 
appreciating  the  significance  of  auto-suggestions. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  give  cases  in  which  I  have  observed 
hypnotic  treatment  prove  of  use. 

Case  /. — Cephalalgia  and  cardialgia.  Mrs.  X.,  at»  30;  her  mother  and 
sister  often  suffer  from  headache;  similar  trouble  herself,  and  also  attacks 
of  cramp  in  the  stomach  since  she  was  sixteen.  She  is  said  to  have  vomited 
blood  once.  The  whole  region  of  the  stomach  is  painful  on  pressure,  but 
there  are  no  typically  sensitive  spots  on  the  head.  Certainly  several  nerve 
trunks  seem  sensitive  to  pressure  on  both  sides  of  the  head,  but  not  to  a 
greater  extent  than  is  met  with  in  nervous  persons.  The  attacks  of  head- 
ache affect  the  whole  head ;  they  are  accompanied  by  nausea,  though 
vomiting  is  rare.  The  attacks  of  headache  do  not  seem  to  synchronize 
with  the  pains  in  the  stomach.  The  head  is  seldom  entirely  free  from  pain, 
and  the  patient  has  an  almost  constant  feeling  of  oppression  in  the  head. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  32 1 

For  a  long  time  she  was  treated  by  drugs  and  also  by  static  electricity,  but 
without  effect.  The  good  effects  of  hypnotic  treatment  were  soon  apparent ; 
moderately  deep  hypnosis  removed  the  feeling  of  pressure,  and  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  suppressed  the  attacks  of  pain.  Even  when  an  attack  did  occur 
it  was  possible  to  suppress  it  almost  momentarily  by  means  of  suggestion. 
I  have  followed  this  case  for  many  years,  and  although  it  has  occasionally 
been  necessary  to  repeat  the  hypnosis  every  two  or  three  months  the 
immediate  benefit  has  always  been  extraordinary.  The  patient  has  not  had 
a  severe  headache  for  three  years,  and  all  attacks  of  pain  in  the  stomach  are 
easily  cut  short  by  suggestion. 

Case  2, — Nervous  cough.  Miss  X,  at.  22  ;  temperament  nervous  and 
somewhat  hysterical.  Has  suffered  from  nervous  cough  for  the  last  eight 
months;  I  could  hardly  see  her  for  a  quarter  of  a  minute  without  her 
coughing.  The  coughs  are  short,  sharp,  and  regular  in  sequence.  The 
patient  had  been  treated  with  many  medical  preparations.  Neither  local 
treatment  of  the  larynx,  nor  cold  rubbing,  nor  the  pack  applied  to  the  body 
produced  any  effect.  A  water-cure  at  Lippspringe  and  electricity  were  also 
ineffectual.  But  after  a  few  days  of  hypnotic  treatment  the  cough  began  to 
yield  and  had  quite  disappeared  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight. 

The  patient  has  been  two  years  without  treatment,  and  the  cough  has  not 
reappeared. 

Case  J, — Attacks  of  hysteria.  X.,  a  labourer,  at,  25  ;  has  suffered  from 
convulsions  for  seven  years.  According  to  his  own  account  he  partially 
loses  consciousness  during  the  attacks,  but  not  completely ;  he  has  a  semi- 
•  notion  of  what  is  going  on  around  him.  He  does  not  bite  his  tongue,  which 
is  free  from  scars.  He  once  seriously  injured  one  of  his  eyes  during  an 
attack.  When  the  attacks  are  on  he  lies  flat  on  his  back  and  his  whole  body 
is  convulsed ;  the  attacks  last  from  three  to  ten  minutes,  and  generally 
recur  once  a  week.  Drugs  and  other  remedies  have  proved  useless.  The 
patient  can  be  thrown  into  deep  hypnosis ;  during  the  second  stage  he  has 
sense -delusions,  and  there  is  loss  of  memory  on  waking.  He  has  not  had 
an  attack  since  the  first  day  of  hypnotic  treatment,  and  was  still  free  when 
I  saw  him  two  years  later. 

Case  4, — Traumatic  paraplegia.  X.,  a  girl  aged  ten.  Fell  downstairs 
six  weeks  ago,  and  is  said  to  have  lain  unconscious  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
Shortly  afterwards  she  was  found  to  have  lost  her  speech;  a  day  later 
spasmodic  movements  of  a  slight  nature  were  observed,  chiefly  of  the  tongue 
and  legs,  the  hands  being  unaffected.  Ten  days  after  the  fall  there  was 
complete  paralysis  of  both  legs,  and  the  child  doubled  up  directly  she  tried 
to  stand.  Hypnosis  was  then  tried,  and  although  only  the  first  stage  was 
reached  the  child  was  able  to  walk  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  is  still  free 
from  paralysis  although  many  years  have  elapsed. 

Case  J, — Hysterical  aphonia.  X.,  ai,  17,  is  a  member  of  a  nervous 
family  and  has  suffered  from  aphonia  for  four  months.  He  cannot  speak 
out  loud,  only  in  a  whisper.  The  history  of  the  case  mentions  catarrh  of  the 
larynx,  but  examination  determines  the  diagnosis  hysterical  aphonia.  The 
patient  could  be  hypnotized  into  the  first  stage,  and  although  simple 
suggestion  proved  ineffectual  good  results  were  obtained  by  combining 
suggestion  with  forced  expiration.  Four  days  later  the  patient  was  able  to 
articulate  simple  syllables  distinctly,  and  six  days  later  his  speech  could  be 
pronounced  normal.  There  was  no  recurrence  for  a  year,  and  even  then 
the  trouble  yielded  to  hypnotic  treatment. 

21 


322  HYPNOTISM. 

As  far  as  hysterical  aphonia  is  concerned  I  could  recount  many  cases  in 
which  loss  of  voice  has  been  cured  by  hypnotic  suggestion. 

Case  6, — Nervous  sickness.  The  patient,  a  pale  young  girl  aged  i8,  and 
a  member  of  a  healthy  family,  has  suffered  occasionally  from  headache. 
Her  chief  trouble  is  sickness,  which  frequently  comes  on  when  she  has  eaten 
anything.  Retching  and  vomiting  often  occur  within  a  minute  of  swallow- 
ing even  a  drop  of  water.  When  she  came  under  treatment  the  trouble  had 
lasted  more  than  a  year.  The  patient  was  very  much  run  down,  and  it  was 
almost  impossible  to  stop  the  vomiting  without  narcotics.  All  kinds  of 
treatment  were  tried,  and  it  was  sometimes  found  possible  to  suppress,  or  at 
least  delay,  the  usual  sickness  by  taking  energetic  measures  to  distract  the 
patient's  attention  when  she  had  had  a  morsel  to  eat.  Nervertheless  it  was 
not  often  possible  to  distract  the  patient's  attention  sufficiently,  which  shows 
how  much  the  patient's  mental  condition  affected  the  vomiting.  I  then 
tried  hypnotic  suggestion  and  found  that  the  patient  could  be  easily 
hypnotized  to  a  deep  stage.  She  was  very  much  exhausted  by  the  first 
hypnosis,  but  this  discomfort  disappeared  as  the  hypnosis  was  persevered 
with,  and  she  was  finally  able  to  eat  and  drink  with  only  occasional  attacks 
of  vomiting.  Post -hypnotic  suggestion  gradually  made  this  improvement 
perceptible  in  the  patient's  waking  life,  and  in  fourteen  days  time  she  was 
able  to  take  food  without  vomiting.  There  has  been  no  alteration  in  her 
condition  for  a  year  and  a  half. 

Case  y. — Somnambulism.  This  patient,  i8  years  of  age,  is  the  son  of  a 
violent  father  and  an  epileptic  mother.  It  was  noticed  that  from  his  child- 
hood he  talked  aloud  in  his  sleep,  and  sometimes  got  up  and  wandered 
about  his  bedroom,  but  he  had  no  recollection  of  these  occurrences.  His 
parents  were  afraid  to  speak  to  him  when  he  was  walking  in  his  sleep, 
because  of  the  popular  notion  that  it  would  be  dangerous  to  do  so.  His 
somnambulism  sometimes  led  him  from  the  upper  story  in  which  his  bed- 
room was  situated  to  his  grandparents'  apartment  on  the  ground  floor. 
This  occurred  on  an  average  once  a  fortnight.  No  convulsions  were  ever 
observed,  and  I  think  this  case  must  be  considered  one  of  somnambulism, 
although  a  nice  distinction  from  mentally  produced  epilepsy  was  not  quite 
possible.  The  suggestibility  of  the  patient  was  very  marked  during 
hypnosis,  and  the  attacks  of  somnambulism  were  easily  suppressed.  There 
have  been  no  attacks  for  eight  months.  The  patient  often  talks  at  night ; 
but  he  never  gets  out  of  his  bed,  although  he  has  not  been  hypnotized  for 
six  months. 

Case  8, — Narcolepsy.  The  patient  is  eighteen  years  of  age  and  suffers 
from  attacks  of  somnolence.  His  father  was  also  similarly  afflicted.  The 
patient  has  observed  that  close  reading  makes  him  quickly  tired  and  fall 
asleep.  This  occurs  almost  daily,  so  that  he  has  hardly  the  courage  to 
read.  The  trouble  has  lasted  for  nine  months,  and  electric  treatment  has 
proved  unsuccessful.  But  hypnotic  treatment  has  not  only  stopped  the 
tendency  to  fall  asleep  when  reading,  but  has  also  suppressed  the  tired 
feeling  otherwise  experienced.  I  was  able  to  follow  this  improvement  long 
after  the  patient  had  ceased  to  be  treated. 

Case  g, — Asthma  of  mental  origin.  Mrs.  X.,  ai,  48;  formerly  a  heavy 
drinker;  has  suffered  from  attacks  of  dyspnoea  for  eight  years,  especially  in 
the  afternoon.  The  attacks  have  often  been  so  severe  that  the  patient  has 
been  compelled  to  get  up  and  open  doors  and  windows  so  as  to  get  fresh  air. 
The  attacks  are  almost  of  daily  occurrence.     The  lungs  are  healthy;  but  the 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  323 

first  mitral  tone  is  not  quite  pure  but  somewhat  broken.  Otherwise  there 
is  nothing  abnormal — no  bronchial  catarrh  and  no  emphysema.  The 
patient  was  subjected  to  all  kinds  of  hydro-therapeutic  treatment ;  electric 
treatment  was  employed ;  her  nose  was  examined  and  given  local  treatment, 
but  all  to  no  purpose.  The  patient  was  then  treated  hypnotically;  the 
first  experiment  produced  the  second  stage  of  hypnosis  and  almost  com- 
plete anaesthesia.  From  the  first  day  there  was  no  attack  of  asthma.  The 
patient  was  first  of  all  hypnotized  daily  for  a  fortnight,  then  every  second 
day,  and  finally  once  a  month.  In  the  end  it  was  possible  to  do  without 
hypnosis  as  the  attacks  did  not  recur,  and  after  many  years  of  observation 
I  am  satisfied  that  the  cure  is  complete. 

CcLse  10, — Chronic  constipation.  Mrs.  X.,  ai.  38,  a  somewhat  corpulent 
member  of  a  healthy  family ;  suffered  from  chlorosis  when  she  was  fifteen 
years  of  age,  but  had  not  apparently  suffered  from  any  other  trouble.  At 
present  she  is  occasionally  troubled  with  a  sense  of  numbness  in  the  head 
but  no  direct  pain ;  also  some  minor  troubles  such  as  lassitude  and  heavi- 
ness of  the  limbs.  As  a  rule  she  only  has  a  motion  every  third  or  fourth 
day,  and  then  it  is  very  hard.  She  has  taken  Carlsbad  salts  in  increasing 
doses,  also  aloes  pills,  and  other  such  medicaments.  She  was  obliged  to 
take  such  large  doses  that  she  finally  agreed  to  undergo  hypnotic  treatment, 
especially  as  weeks  of  massage  had  done  her  no  good.  At  the  first 
attempt  she  fell  into  deep  hypnosis,  and  a  copious  evacuation  on  the 
following  morning  was  successfully  suggested.  She  was  hypnotized  on  ten 
successive  occasions,  and  then  at  longer  intervals,  and  when  I  last  saw  her 
two  years  after  she  had  stopped  the  treatment,  her  motions  were  normal — 
a  copious  evacuation  every  morning  without  the  use  of  drugs. 

Case  II.  —Enuresis  nocturna.  The  patient  is  a  well- developed  boy  aged 
ten ;  has  always  suffered  from  enuresis  nocturna,  and  wets  the  bed  nearly 
every  night.  Electricity,  drugs,  and  the  sound  have  no  effect.  At  the 
second  trial  the  boy  was  deeply  hypnotized.  Post-hypnotic  negative 
hallucinations  were  induced,  and  the  boy  was  ordered  to  wake  up  at  night 
directly  he  felt  that  he  must  pass  water.  The  time  for  waking  was 
gradually  postponed  by  suggestion  until  the  morning.  Suggestion  was 
then  less  frequently  employed,  and  now  after  five  months  there  is  no  trace 
of  enuresis  nocturna. 

Case  72. — Pruritus  cutaneous  nervosus.  X.,  cet.  42,  has  suffered  from 
nervous  itching  of  the  skin  for  four  years.  The  itching  is  generally  so 
severe  that  the  patient  has  to  get  up  at  night  and  scratch  himself  till  he 
bleeds,  or  else  to  get  his  wife  to  rub  him  down  with  a  scrubbing  brush. 
In  consequence  of  the  loss  of  sleep — nervous  itching  is  always  worse  at 
night — the  patient  is  very  run  down  and  poorly.  On  examination  I  find 
him  pale  and  thin.  He  has  tried  antipyrin  and  other  drugs,  also  electricity 
and  baths,  but  all  in  vain.  One  week  of  hypnotic  treatment  not  only  set 
up  an  improvement  in  a  malady  of  years'  standing,  but  even  put  a  stop  to 
most  of  the  symptoms.  The  patient  could  again  sleep  quietly,  although  the 
itching  sometimes  recurred  once  a  week  but  in  a  less  intense  form.  The 
patient  was  discharged  in  a  fortnight,  and  when  I  saw  him  some  years  later 
there  had  been  no  recurrence  of  the  trouble,  all  traces  of  which  had 
disappeared. 

Case  /J. — Chronic  chorea.  The  patient,  a  girl  aged  16,  had  a  bad 
attack  of  chorea  eight  months  ago.  Six  weeks  later  the  spasms  were  less 
severe,  though  often  considerable  at  the  time  she  came  to  me  for  treatment. 


324  HYPNOTISM. 

Drugs  and  electricity  had  proved  useless,  so  hypnotic  treatment  was  decided 
on,  with  the  result  that  the  patient  who  had  hitherto  been  unable  to  hold 
a  glass  or  a  cup  or  do  any  manual  labour,  was  enabled  in  three  days'  time 
to  take  up  her  household  duties.  A  fortnight  later  every  trace  of  spasm 
had  disappeared. 

I  have  often  seen  neglected  cases  of  chorea  improved  by 
suggestion ;  but  I  have  never  observed  any  noticeable  improve- 
ment in  acute  cases  even  when  the  subjects  have  been  specially 
susceptible  to  deep  hypnosis. 

Case  14. — Tremor  nervosus.  X.,  a  mechanic,  26  years  of  age,  belongs 
to  a  family  with  hereditary  taint;  is  of  a  very  excitable  temperament, 
and  has  various  neurasthenic  troubles.  He  is  specially  afflicted  with 
trembling  of  the  hands,  which  takes  the  form  of  small  and  rapid  movements 
and  is  particularly  inconvenient  because  a  steady  hand  is  necessary  in  his 
business.  The  trembling  is  very  marked  when  he  stretches  his  hands  out, 
and  increases  when  he  is  engaged  on  fine  work.  After  six  attempts  deep 
hypnosis  followed  by  amnesia  was  induced,  and  after  this  I  was  always  able 
to  suppress  the  tremor  which  has  not  recurred  after  the  lapse  of  two  and 
a  half  years. 

Case  IS* — Agoraphobia.  The  patient  is  36  years  old.  His  mother, 
and  also  his  brothers  and  sisters,  suffer  from  migraine.  From  his  twenty- 
second  year  he  has  always  felt  discomfort  when  crossing  an  open  space. 
This  increased  from  year  to  year  until  he  is  now  unable  to  cross  an  open 
space.  After  a  few  steps  he  is  attacked  with  trembling  and  vertigo ; 
his  sight  becomes  blurred,  he  perspires  and  is  obliged  to  retrace  his  steps. 
As  is  usually  the  case  with  such  patients,  he  is  able  to  cross  a  square  if 
accompanied  even  by  a  child,  and  he  is  also  able  to  gain  the  other  side  of 
the  square  by  taking  a  roundabout  way,  such  as  keeping  close  to  the  houses. 
His  condition  has  remained  almost  invariably  the  same,  and  no  method  of 
treatment — water-cure  or  other — has  been  of  any  use.  Hypnotic  suggestion 
brought  about  marked  improvement  after  three  sittings.  The  patient  was 
at  once  able  to  cross  a  small  open  space,  and  the  improvement  has  now  so 
increased  that  he  can  cross  a  large  square  without  assistance.  I  have 
observed  that  the  improvement  has  been  maintained  for  several  years. 

Case  16,  Imperative  ideas.  The  patient,  Mrs.  X. ,  is  42  years  of  age, 
and  a  member  of  a  somewhat  neuropathic  family.  Her  relatives  are  all 
described  as  being  nervous.  Eleven  years  ago  she  suffered  from  severe 
impulsive  ideas  which  lasted  for  three  years.  When  she  came  to  me  for 
treatment  she  had  been  suffering  in  the  same  way  for  more  than  a  year. 
She  was  overwhelmed  by  the  idea  that  she  was  suffering  from  an  incurable 
disease,  and  was  very  much  depressed.  She  was  often  troubled  with 
thoughts  of  suicide  and  was  tired  of  life.  She  complained  that  her  illness 
prevented  her  from  associating  with  her  family  and  that  she  took  no  interest 
in  her  relations.  She  complained  that  she  had  lost  all  interest  in  painting, 
nature,  the  theatre,  poetry  and  everything  that  had  formerly  interested  her. 
Baths,  drugs,  the  galvanic  current  and  static  electricity  were  tried  in  vain ; 
but  hypnotic  treatment  speedily  produced  good  results.  Deep  hypnosis 
was  produced  at  the  first  sitting,  and  was  followed  by  post-hypnotic 
negative  hallucinations.      For  the  first    three  weeks  the   sittings   were 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  325 

repeated  daily;  the  impulsive  ideas  were  always  much  weaker  directly 
afterwards,  and  the  patient's  condition  was  improved.  After  about  four 
weeks  the  patient's  condition  was  so  much  improved  that  the  treatment  was 
stopped.  After  the  lapse  of  a  year  there  has  been  no  recurrence  of  the 
former  troubles. 

Case  ly. — Fear  of  blushing.  The  patient,  at,  25,  had  suffered  from 
an  uncontrollable  tendency  to  blush  since  he  was  fifteen.  It  occurred 
more  frequently  when  he  was  with  other  people  than  when  alone.  This 
inconvenience  had  continued  to  get  worse.  As  is  usual  in  such  cases  the 
blushing  generally  occurred  when  it  was  most  dreaded.  The  patient  was 
in  ofHcial  employ,  and  the  attacks  were  most  likely  to  come  on  when  he  was 
in  the  presence  of  his  superiors,  which  rendered  his  position  most  painful. 
He  tried  letting  his  beard  grow  solely  to  render  the  blushing  less  noticeable, 
and  also  various  other  artifices,  such  as  turning  his  face  away  to  conceal  its 
redness.  Patient  was  in  despair  and  begged  for  relief,  as  he  had  tried  all 
kinds  of  remedies.  I  found  it  easy  to  induce  deep  hypnosis,  and  by 
suggestion  cured  not  only  the  blushing  but  more  especially  the  dread  of  it. 
Suggestion  was  at  first  employed  frequently,  and  then  at  longer  intervals. 
The  old  fear  of  blushing  gradually  subsided,  and  he  now  very  seldom 
blushes,  and  even  then  only  at  times  when  it  hardly  causes  him  any  incon- 
venience. 

Case  18. — Ischuria  of  mental  origin.  X.,  at,  25,  of  a  generally 
nervous  disposition,  but  free  from  any  organic  disease,  had  long  experienced 
difficulty  in  passing  water.  He  found  it  difficult  to  make  water  voluntarily 
even  when  his  bladder  was  full.  The  trouble  particularly  affected  him  in 
public  conveniences.  Even  when  alone  he  could  only  pass  water  after 
exposing  himself  for  some  time.  The  trouble,  which  had  lasted  many  years, 
was  all  the  more  painful  as  he  felt  the  desire  to  make  water  but  could  not 
do  so.  I  found  it  easy  to  induce  deep  hypnosis,  and  a  few  sittings  sufficed 
to  effect  a  cure,  and  when  I  saw  him  some  months  later  there  had  been 
no  recurrence  of  the  trouble. 


I  have  already  mentioned  that  great  improvement  can  be 
obtained  in  the  symptoms  of  organic  disease,  and  I  now  append 
a  few  cases. 

Case  79.— Multiple  sclerosis.  Mrs.  X.,  at,  34,  had  for  years  suffered 
from  increasing  tremors,  which  only  occurred  when  she  attempted  to 
carry  out  some  voluntary  movement.  Although  her  head  was  not  quite 
free,  the  tremors  were  particularly  noticeable  in  the  arms  and  legs.  Move- 
ment of  the  lower  limbs  obviously  weakened;  gait  uncertain  and  spastic 
in  character.  Her  speech  was  scanning,  there  was  evident  nystagmus,  and 
she  sometimes  suffered  from  retention  of  urine.  Sensory  disturbances  were 
not  very  great  but  easily  demonstrable,  the  skin  in  particular  being  less 
sensitive  to  temperature  and  touch.  Hypnotic  treatment  was  directed 
essentially  to  the  tremors  in  the  arms,  and  to  the  urinary  troubles.  There 
was  very  considerable  improvement  in  the  former  directly  after  the  first 
application  of  hypnotic  suggestion.  This  could  not  be  considered  an 
accidental  coincidence ;  for  although  the  patient  had  previously  been  unable 
to  lift  a  glass  or  a  spoon  to  her  lips,  she  re-acquired  the  power  of  so  doing 


326  HYPNOTISM. 

for  at  least  some  considerable  time,  as  a  direct  result  of  suggestion.  There 
was  also  a  noticeable  decrease  of  the  urinary  trouble.  When  the  necessary 
hypnotic  suggestion  had  been  made,  the  patient  was  invariably  able  to 
pass  water  comfortably,  and  the  improvement  sometimes  lasted  a  few  days, 
occasionally  even  longer — as  much  as  three  weeks.  After  that  it  became 
necessary  to  repeat  the  suggestion.  Of  course  a  cure  was  neither  expected 
nor  obtained.  On  the  contrary,  the  symptoms  of  the  progressive  nature  of 
the  disease  were  evident  after  a  time. 

Case  20, — Deformative  polyarticular  rheumatism.  The  patient,  aged 
49,  had  suffered  from  severe  articular  rheumatism  for  eight  years. 
There  were  large  bony  protuberances  in  the  finger-joints  and  also  in  the 
knee-joints,  rendering  movements  of  most  of  the  affected  joints  very  limited, 
or  quite  impossible.  The  pains  were  indescribable,  making  it  impossible 
for  the  patient  to  sleep  at  night  or  rest  during  the  day;  he  therefore  desired 
hypnotic  treatment  so  as  to  obtain  relief  from  some  of  his  pains.  It  was 
found  that  deep  hypnosis  could  be  induced  and  the  patient  thereby  almost 
invariably  relieved  from  pain  for  a  certain  time.  The  patient's  ability  to 
move  gradually  returned,  and  he  was  finally  able  to  walk  a  little,  even  to 
go  downstairs.  The  treatment  lasted  four  weeks,  and  when  I  saw  the 
patient  subsequently  I  found  that  the  improvement  had  been  maintained, 
except  for  occasional  attacks  of  pain  which  always  speedily  gave  way  to 
suggestion.  As  a  rule  the  loss  of  pain  was  so  marked  after  suggestion  that 
there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  its  cause. 

Of  course  there  can  be  no  question  of  curing  osseous  and  cartilaginous 
deformities,  but  it  is  always  possible  to  modi^  a  whole  series  of  morbid 
symptoms  in  such  cases  as  the  above. 

Among  other  diseases  accompanied  by  organic  injury,  I  have 
seen  a  very  painful  eczema  of  the  ear,  in  a  child  of  eight,  made 
completely  painless  by  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  I  observed 
this  case  in  the  company  of  my  friend  and  colleague  Friede- 
mann, then  of  Köpenick  but  now  of  Berlin,  whom  I  have  to 
thank  for  a  number  of  interesting  experiences  in  hypnotism. 
The  child  in  question  had  so  painful  an  eczema  that  he  could 
not  bear  the  slightest  touch.  An  order  given  in  his  first 
hypnosis  had  such  an  effect  that  he  could  afterwards  endure 
even  strong  pressure  on  the  affected  spot. 


We  have  now  to  consider  how  hypnotic  therapeutics  can  best 
be  installed  as  a  practical  method  of  treatment,  and  this  at  once 
brings  up  the  question :  To  whom  shall  hypnotic  treatment  be 
entrusted  ?  There  can  be  but  one  answer :  solely  to  the  scienti- 
fically trained  medical  man.  He  alone  is  in  a  position  to 
establish  a  diagnosis  and  thereby  determine  the  indications 
and  contra-indications  in  any  case ;  he  must  watch  the  effect  of 
the  treatment  on  the  patient  and  decide  whether  or  not  the 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  327 

hypnotic  method  should  be  continued.  He  alone  can  decide 
on  diagnostic  grounds  whether  hypnosis  should  be  supplemented 
by  other  methods  of  treatment  or  be  stopped.  I  do  not  deny 
that  there  are  laymen  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  technique 
of  hypnosis,  perhaps  even  better  so  than  the  average  medical 
man.  Delboeuf  was  one  of  them ;  but  we  need  not  take  such 
exceptional  cases  into  account  when  discussing  the  practice  of 
hypnosis.  But  apart  from  that,  such  an  investigator,  even  if 
possessed  of  the  requisite  knowledge  of  the  technique  of 
hypnosis,  would  be  unable  to  determine  what  was  indicated  by 
the  diagnosis  in  any  particular  case;  and  it  is  even  more 
important  to  oppose  the  therapeutic  use  of  hypnosis  by  ignorant 
laymen,  such  as  charlatans.  For  this  reason  Warda  has  entered 
a  protest  against  Loewenfeld's  proposal  that  attendants  should 
at  times  be  allowed  to  hypnotize  patients  for  the  purpose  of 
alleviating  certain  symptoms.  Warda  certainly  thinks  that  a 
therapeutic  hypnosis  should  never  be  entrusted  to  any  one 
who  is  not  a  medical  man,  otherwise  we  should  be  encouraging 
quackery. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  do  not  think  that  every  medical  man 
is  fit  to  undertake  the  hypnotic  treatment  of  patients.     Just  as 
in  other  special  branches  special  knowledge  and  experience  are 
requisite,    I    am    also    convinced    that    the   experimenter    in 
hypnotism  must   have  a  special  faculty  for  hypnotizing  and 
suggesting,   and  to  avoid  any  misunderstanding  I  may  add 
that  I  do  not  lay  any  claim  to  the  possession  of  this  special 
faculty.     Frank  regrets  that  suggestive  therapeutics  have  been 
so  greatly  neglected  by  doctors,  and  traces  this  to  the  fact, 
among  others,  that  everybody  does  not  possess  the  necessary 
ingenuity,  as  it  were,  for  employing  the  method  successfully* 
Just  as  many  imponderabilia  play  a  part  in  hypnotic  treatment 
as  in  mental  therapeutics  in  general;  and  this  prevents  the 
majority  of  experimenters  from   obtaining  the   best  results. 
The  gift  of  individualizing,  which  we  so  often   hear  of  in 
medicine,  is  given  to  few  as  far  as  hypnotic  treatment  is  con- 
cerned.    But  this  power  is  all  the  more  necessary  because  nien 
are  no  more  alike  mentally  than  they  are  physically.     Since  each 
of  us  does  not  possess  this  gift,  we  have  no  right  to  deny  the 
successes  of  others  because  of  our  own  failures.     An  eminent 
Swedish  alienist — Oedmann — says  that  he  recognizes  the  good 
effects  of  suggestion  in  alcoholism,  but  that  as  he  is  unable  to 
produce  them  he  sends  such  patients  to  Wetterstrand  (Corval). 


328  HYPNOTISM. 

In  any  case,  it  is  a  mistake  for  doctors,  who  have  no  aptitude 
for  mental  therapeutics  and  who  moreover  lack  experience,  to 
deny  the  successes  of  others. 

But  even  if  every  one  is  not  a  hypnotic  therapeutist  by 
nature,  it  does  not  follow  that  specialists  alone  have  a  right  to 
practise  hypnotic  treatment.  In  simple  cases  it  is  not  always 
necessary  to  call  in  a  specialist ;  and  in  addition  to  specialists 
there  will,  very  properly,  always  be  some  medical  men  who 
occasionally  practise  hypnotic  treatment.  It  is  much  the  same 
here  as  with  other  special  branches.  A  country  doctor,  or  one 
in  a  small  town,  often  treats  cases  or  employs  methods,  which 
in  a  large  town  would  be  left  entirely  to  a  specialist.  But  even 
in  large  towns  we  can  hardly  desire  that  all  hypnotic  treatment 
should  be  carried  out  exclusively  by  specialists.  Sometimes 
no  advantage  whatever  would  be  gained  by  the  patient  leaving 
the  doctor  who  had  been  treating  him  and  seeking  the  services 
of  a  specialist  for  the  purpose  of  some  hypnotic  sitting  or  other. 
The  patient's  circumstances  have  also  to  be  considered  in  such 
a  case.  In  short,  it  is  quite  wrong  to  assume  that  only  a 
medical  specialist  should  hypnotize.  Of  course  a  patient  has  a 
right  to  expect  that  a  doctor  who  undertakes  to  treat  him 
hypnotically  has  had  a  certain  amount  of  training  in  the 
practice. 

But  I  do  not  think  it  right  that  when  a  patient  places  himself 
in  the  hands  of  a  specialist  for  hypnosis  the  latter  should 
confine  his  treatment  exclusively  to  hypnosis.  Specialism  is 
not  without  its  dangers.  The  specialist  who  only  treats  par- 
ticular diseases,  like  the  specialist  who  only  employs  certain 
methods,  has  a  tendency  to  become  biassed.  The  mere  fact 
that  we  cannot  dispense  with  these  two  forms  of  specialism  is 
no  reason  why  we  should  shut  our  eyes  to  their  dangers. 
Specialization,  especially  as  regards  methods  of  treatment, 
should  be  carried  no  farther  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  For 
this  reason  I  do  not  think  it  right  to  consider  hypnotic  treatment 
an  exclusive  speciality.  The  man  who  devotes  himself  to 
hypnotic  treatment  must  cultivate  psycho-therapeutics  in  general 
as  well.  There  are  so  many  details  and  so  many  combinations 
to  be  considered,  that  it  would  be  irrational  to  separate  hypnotic 
treatment  from  the  rest  of  psycho-therapeutics.  I  will  give  an 
example.  The  assertion  that  alcoholism  can  only  be  cured  in 
an  institute  is  a  fairy-tale;  many  alcoholists  can  be  made 
abstainers  by  proper  mental  measures  outside  an  institute.     In 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  329 

some  cases  hypnosis  renders  the  task  easier,  but  alone  it  seldom 
leads  to  a  cure.  Wherever  drinking  is  a  social  custom,  the 
patient  is  always  liable  to  be  led  astray  by  his  companions.  It 
is  consequently  necessary,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
treatment,  to  modify  the  patient's  surroundings  so  as  to  keep 
him  out  of  temptation.  The  beneficial  effects  of  temperance 
societies  and  of  doctors  who  are  abstainers  depends  on  this. 
Bonne  lays  special  weight  on  the  doctor  being  an  abstainer, 
because  his  example  and  the  conviction  it  brings  are  most 
effective  methods  of  suggestion.  Without  wishing  to  exaggerate 
Its  importance,  I  must  certainly  point  out  the  necessity  of  giving 
some  advice  to  the  patient's  entourage.  In  many  cases  it 
happens  that  a  patient  who  is  convinced  he  can  do  without 
alcohol  thinks  he  can  also  resist  temptation ;  but  at  first  he 
requires  protection,  which  the  doctor  must  endeavour  to  provide 
him  with.  It  would  be  foolish  for  the  doctor  to  leave  this  to  a 
colleague,  and  merely  confine  his  own  attention  to  the  hypnotic 
treatment.  Legrain  reports  that  a  number  of  dispensaries  have 
been  established  in  Russia,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Government, 
which  are  visited  by  numbers  of  alcoholic  subjects  in  search  of 
free  treatment.  Here  hypnosis  is  the  chief,  but  not  the  only, 
remedy  employed.  And  such  is  the  only  right  way.  It  is 
almost  invariably  necessary  to  bring  a  number  of  other  mental 
influences  into  play  simultaneously  with  hypnosis.  Mental 
treatment  is  not  quite  such  a  simple  matter  that  *^  every  tailor, 
cobbler,  and  shepherd-boy"  can  carry  it  out,  as  Ewald  thought. 
I  go  still  farther  on  the  question  of  specialism  in  hypnosis. 
Psychology  teaches  the  physician  the  unity  of  man's  being,  and 
that  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  treatment  of  a 
patient.  For  a  doctor  who  is  treating  an  emaciated  neuropathic 
patient  for  sleeplessness  to  consider  himself  so  much  a  specialist 
in  hypnotism  that  he  cannot  attend  to  the  patient's  diet  himself, 
but  must  call  in  a  specialist  in  dietetics  every  day,  is  not  only 
ludicrous  but  injurious  as  well.  It  is  just  from  the  psychological 
standpoint  that  uniformity  of  treatment  is  so  necessary.  For 
this  reason  I  agree  with  Forel  that,  as  far  as  possible,  only  one 
doctor  should  treat  the  patient  by  methodical  suggestion.  I 
do  not  mean  by  this  that  a  medical  hypnotist  should  not 
occasionally  call  in  a  colleague  such  as  a  specialist  in  diseases 
of  nutrition,  or  that  he  should  not  busy  himself  specially  with 
hypnosis,  but  he  should  not  do  the  latter  exclusively.  I  may 
here  remark  that  apart  from  the  patient's  interests,  it  is  not  to 


334  HYPNOTISM. 

As  I  have  already  mentioned,  the  employment  of  hypnotic 
suggestion  should  not  preclude  the  use  of  other  remedies,  when 
their  application  is  indicated ;  and  I  have  also  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  other  mental  influences  besides  suggestion  may 
be  operative  during  hypnosis.  The  action  of  suggestion  may, 
for  example,  be  supported  in  a  case  of  hysterical  vomiting,  by 
telling  the  patient  during  hypnosis  that  she  is  not  suffering 
from  any  organic  disease  of  the  stomach.  In  cases  of 
stammering,  in  which  the  patient's  mental  state  of  course  plays 
a  great  part,  we  shall  sometimes  have  to  supplement  suggestion 
by  exercises  in  talking.  In  a  case  of  aphonia  following  laryn- 
gotomy,  published  by  Hilger  and  Sänger,  the  action  of  hypnosis 
was  supplemented  by  systematic  exercises  of  that  kind.  And 
it  is  also  just  as  necessary  to  avoid  anything  that  might  spoil 
the  prognosis  or  render  suggestion  ineffectual  as  it  sometimes  is 
to  employ  other  remedies  in  conjunction  with  hypnosis.  It  is, 
therefore,  sometimes  as  well  to  explain  to  those  present  that 
they  should  not  make  heedless  remarks  or  put  stupid  question's 
that  might  counteract  the  suggestions  made  to  the  patient. 
Just  as  people  can  be  made  ill  by  constantly  telling  them  how 
poorly  they  look,  so  a  ciire  may  be  prevented  by  making  the 
patient  believe  that  it  is  impossible  or  by  putting  him  in 
constant  dread  of  the  remedy — hypnotic  suggestion,  for 
example. 

It  is  often  said  that  hypnosis  may  be  used,  but  only  as  a  sort 
of  last  hope.  I  consider  that  not  only  an  unjust  view  of  the 
importance  of  hypnosis  but  impracticable  as  well.  Considering 
the  large  number  of  remedies  and  methods  at  our  disposal, 
some  patients  would  have  to  attain  the  age  of  Methuselah 
before  hypnotic  treatment  would  be  permissible  on  such 
principles.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  one  who  believes  that 
hypnosis  is  harmless  when  properly  applied,  to  use  it  where  it 
is  indicated.  It  often  happens  that  the  longer  a  disease  has 
lasted  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  cure,  and  some  diseases 
become  incurable  because  they  were  not  rightly  treated  at  first. 
We  might  hesitate  to  make  long  preparatory  experiments  with 
people  difficult  to  hypnotize  (Grasset).  But  where  one  or  two 
experiments  demonstrate  that  a  sufficiently  deep  hypnosis  can 
easily  be  induced,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  postpone  hypnotic 
treatment  until  a  hundred  other  methods,  all  disagreeable  to 
the  patient,  had  been  tried  in  vain. 

I  have  hitherto  discussed  the  use  of  hypnotic  suggestion  to 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  335 

remove  morbid  symptoms,  but,  as  I  have  already  said,  the 
importance  of  hypnosis  to  medical  practice  is  not  limited 
merely  to  that.     For  instance,  I  briefly  mentioned  prolonged 
hypnosis  and  touched  on  the  prophylactic  use  of  hypnosis 
where  morbid  states  have  a  tendency  to  recur  at  times.     I  also 
mentioned  seasickness,  and  I  maj  add  that  hypnotic  suggestion 
has  been  recommended  as  a  prophylactic  in  cases  of  attacks  of 
migraine.      It   has   also    been    specially   proposed   that   the 
increased  power  of  memory  exhibited  by  hypnotics  should  be 
utilized    for    therapeutic    purposes.      This    has    occasionally 
happened  in  close  connection  with  suggestion.     Naef  used  it 
to  remove  a  temporary  total,  and  partially  retrograde  form  of 
amnesia.     The  patient,  who  had  lived  in  Australia  at  the  time 
his  memory  was  beginning  to  fail,  was  methodically  treated  in 
hypnosis  with  the  suggestion  that  he  would  at  once  regain  his 
memory  for  details  of  all  kinds,  and  would  retain  it  on  waking. 
The  possibility  of  increasing  the  power  of  memory  in  hypnosis 
has  been  used  by  others — Brodmann,  for  example — for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  pathogenesis  of  certain  disturbances. 
Various  authors  also  state  that  in  cases  of  organic  lesion  it  is 
possible  to  carry  out  movements  in  hypnosis  which  cannot  be 
executed  in  the  waking  state.     Stembo  thinks  this  must  be 
ascribed  to  a  heightening  of  memory;   he  believes  that  the 
memory-images  of  movements  that  have  fallen  into  disuse  are 
lost  in  the  waking  condition.     Consequently  the  movements 
cannot  be  carried  out  even  when  the  lesion  is  repaired.     In 
hypnosis,    however,    there  is  a  heightening  of  memory  by 
which  the  mechanism  of  movement  is  again  recollected  and 
so  set  in  action.     On  the  other  hand,  a  few  doctors — Vogt  and 
Stadelmann,  for  example — have  employed  suggested  amnesia 
for  therapeutic  purposes. 

Special  mention  must  here  be  made  of  two«authors,  Breuer 
and  Freud,  who  have  put  forward  the  possibility  of  heightening 
the  memory  in  hypnosis  as  a  recommendation  for  a  special 
form  of  treatment  which  they  term  the  cathartic  method.  They 
started  from  the  hypothesis  that  hysterical  symptoms  are  often 
caused  by  an  arrested  emotion.  The  process  which  produced 
the  hysterical  symptoms  must  be  made  quite  clear  so  that  the 
emotion  which  it  arrested  may  be  released.  For  this  purpose 
the  patient  should  be  made  to  give  as  detailed  an  account  of 
that  process  as  possible,  and  should  also  be  made  to  express 
the  emotion  in  words.     Both  investigators  assert  that  they  have 


338  HYPNOTISM. 

Gumpertz  has  also  called  attention  to  hypnosis  as  an  aid  to 
diagnosis.  He  distinguishes  two  ways  in  which  hypnosis  may 
be  employed  for  this  purpose.  In  the  first  place,  the  result 
obtained  by  suggestion  is  of  importance,  as  in  the  cases 
already  mentioned.  Gumpertz  thinks  that  in  a  case  in  which 
the  diagnosis  between  paralysis  agitans  and  a  traumatic 
hysterical  affection  was  not  clear,  he  was  justified  in  excluding 
paralysis  agitans,  because  suggestion  acted  beneficially  on  the 
tremors.  He  also  thinks  he  was  right  in  describing  a  case  of 
paralysis  of  the  obliquus  enternus  as  hysterical  paresis,  because 
of  the  beneficial  influence  of  suggestion  on  the  double  vision. 
The  third  case  was  that  of  an  elderly  maiden  lady  suffering 
from  contractures  of  the  muscles  of  the  hands  and  feetj  a 
single  hypnotic  sitting  sufficed  to  remove  the  contractures,  and 
it  was  shown  both  by  the  anamnesis  and  the  influence  of 
hypnotic  suggestion  that  a  subsequent  attack  of  aphasia  might 
well  be  put  down  to  hysteria.  Secondly,  Gumpertz  considers 
that,  besides  the  results  produced  by  suggestion,  the  course  of 
a  hypnosis  may  be  used  for  diagnostic  purposes,  because  deep 
somnambulism  with  hallucinations  makes  one  suspect  hysteria, 
just  as  a  brief  period  of  spontaneous  oblivion  after  waking 
does.  Hirschlaff  also,  who  holds  that  somnambulic  hypnosis 
occurs  in  some  forms  of  chronic  intoxication  of  the  nervous 
system,  especially  alcoholism  and  morphinism,  thinks  we  may 
use  hypnosis  as  an  aid  to  diagnosis  on  this  assumption. 

I  do  not  deny  that  hypnosis  can  be  used  as  an  aid  to 
diagnosis,  but  I  hold  the  opinion  that  this  should  only  be 
done  with  the  greatest  reserve.  First  of  all,  as  far  as  the 
opinion  of  Gumpertz  and  Hirschlaff,  who  use  deep  hypnotize 
ability  in  the  diagnosis  of  hysteria,  is  concerned,  I  think  we 
must  be  very  cautious  in  this  connection.  I  must  here  refer 
the  reader  to  what  I  said  on  p.  303  et  seq,^  concerning  the 
meaning  that  attaches  to  "hysteria."  But  we  must  in  general 
be  very  careful  about  using  hypnosis  for  diagnostic  purposes. 
Take  the  case  of  a  person  suffering  from  severe  pain  in  which 
the  diagnosis  lies  between  a  tumour  and  a  hysterical  pain.  It 
is  easy  to  assume  that  a  differential  diagnosis  can  be  made 
because  suggestion  removes  functional,  but  not  organic  pain* 
But  from  the  practical  point  of  view  there  are  many  difficulties 
in  this  respect.  I  do  not  lay  any  weight  on  the  fact  that  there 
is  very  often  a  combination  of  functional  and  organic  pain ; 
but    what  follows    is  well    worth    considering.      Thete    afe 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  339 

functional  pains  that  cannot  be  removed  by  suggestion; 
therefore  the  persistence  of  pain  might  be  no  proof  that  the 
disease  is  organic.  In  addition  to  this  the  pain  caused  by 
organic  disease  can,  as  we  have  seen,  be  removed  by  sug^ 
gestion,  at  least  for  a  time.  Seeing  that  a  degree  of  analgesia 
sufficient  to  render  the  prick  of  a  needle  or  some  otherwise  pain- 
ful operation  painless  may  be  induced  by  suggestion,  it  follows 
that  the  beneficial  influence  of  suggestion  does  not  exclude 
the  organic  nature  of  a  pain.  At  any  rate,  when  a  pain 
disappears  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  through  the 
influence  of  suggestion  we  may  assume  that  very  probably  the 
disease  is  not  of  an  organic  nature;  but  it  is  only  to  this 
limited  extent  that  we  can  consider  hypnosis  an  aid  to 
diagnosis.  All  that  I  have  here  said  in  respect  to  pain  applies 
equally  to  other  organic  and  functional  symptoms — e,g,^ 
paralyses.  I  must  here  refer  the  reader  to  Bernheim's  remarks 
on  the  influence  of  suggestion  on  organic  diseases,  and  may 
add  that  I  quite  agree  with  Gorodickze,  who  long  ago  protested 
against  any  exaggeration  of  the  diagnostic  importance  of 
hypnosis. 

I  now  come  to  the  use  of  hypnotism  in  surgery.  Hypno- 
tizing for  the  painless  performance  of  operations  is  not  new ; 
one  inventive  genius  even  imagines  that  God  took  the  rib 
from  Adam  while  he  was  in  a  hypnotic  sleep,  since  he  would 
certainly  have  waked  had  it  been  a  natural  one.  In  the  days 
of  animal  magnetism  surgical  operations  were  often  performed 
in  the  magnetic  sleep;  for  instance,  by  Recamier  in  182 1. 
Such  operations  were  also  performed  in  several  of  the  Paris 
hospitals  under  the  direction  of  the  Baron  du  Potet.  Cloquet 
used  it  in  1829.  He  related  his  experiences  to  the  French 
Academy  of  Medicine,  but  Lisfranc,  the  celebrated  surgeon, 
put  him  down  for  an  impostor  or  a  dupe.  Oudet  was  no 
better  received  in  1837,  when  he  told  the  Academy  of  the 
extraction  of  teeth  in  the  magnetic  sleep.  In  1840  Esdaile 
performed  a  number  of  operations  during  mesmerically  induced 
sleep  in  the  Mesmeric  Hospital  at  Calcutta.  The  wounds  are 
said  to  have  healed  very  quickly.  Hellwald,  also,  has  recently 
drawn  attention  to  the  quick  healing  of  the  wounds  of  the 
Arab  pilgrims,  which  are  made  in  the  hypnotic  state.  In  1852, 
Vogler,  although  very  sceptical  as  to  animal  magnetism,  made 
Esdaile's  results  known  in  Germany.     Elliotson  at  the  same 


340  HYPNOTISM. 

time  was  using  mesmerism  in  surgery,  in  London.  Braid,  who 
was  much  struck  by  Esdaile's  results,  also  used  hypnosis  in 
surgery.  At  that  time  the  opinion  was  expressed — it  has 
some  adherents  even  now — that  mesmeric  passes  induce 
analgesia  better  than  Braid's  method.  Azam  brought  Braid^s 
method  of  analgesia  to  Paris,  as  we  saw  on  p.  i6;  from 
thence  it  passed  to  Germany,  but  found  little  support. 
Nussbaum,  who  had  studied  animal  magnetism  in  Paris, 
thought  that  Germans  were  not  suitable  subjects  either  for 
magnetism  or  Braid's  methods.  None  of  his  attempts  to 
substitute  hypnosis  for  chloroform  met  with  success.  Preyer 
says  that  military  doctors  and  others  appear  often  to  have  used 
empirical  hypnotizing  methods  to  induce  analgesia  for  small 
operations,  such  as  tooth-drawing.  Bon  will  observed  that  after 
a  succession  of  deep  respirations  a  brief  an«sthesia  appeared ; 
this  was  confirmed  by  Hewson.  Possibly  this  is  an  auto- 
hypnotic  condition,  or  an  auto-suggestive  anaesthesia.  Recently 
Forel,  Voigt,  Tillaux,  le  Fort,  Grossmann,  Bourdon,  Howard, 
Wood,  Toll,  Schmeltz  and  Starck  have  used  hypnotic  analgesia 
i n  surgical  practice.  In  1 890  Haab  used  hypnosis  in  the  operation 
for  cataract;  extraction  of  the  lens  was  preceded  by  iridectomy ; 
on  both  occasions  the  patient  was  hypnotized  and  anaesthesia 
produced  by  suggestion,  and  he  smoked  an  imaginary  pipe  as 
the  iris  was  cut  through.  Lauphear,  Aldrich,  and  others  have 
even  used  hypnosis  for  amputations,  and  Hülst  for  gastrotomy. 

Some  years  ago  I  once  hypnotized  a  patient  in  order  to  open  a  boil 
painlessly.  I  did  not  succeed  in  inducing  analgesia,  but  the  patient  was 
almost  unable  to  move,  so  that  I  could  perform  the  little  operation  with 
ease. 

Analgesia  has  also  been  induced  by  post -hypnotic  suggestion  and  an 
operation  performed  without  difficulty  in  the  waking  state  (Boursier). 

It  has  been  specially  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  teeth  that 
hypnotic  suggestion  has  been  so  frequently  used  (Bramwell, 
Andrieu,  Hivert,  Klemich,  Sandberg,  Moiroud).  Glogau 
has  even  recommended  its  general  use  in  dentistry.  On  the 
question  of  its  practical  importance  the  same  remarks  would 
apply  as  in  the  case  of  the  use  of  hypnosis  in  general  surgery. 

Besides  this,  I  cannot  approve  of  dentists  who  have  neither  general 
medical  training  nor  experience  being  allowed  to  hypnotize  their  patients. 
There  are  cases  in  which  hypnosis  is  contra-indicated,  but  that  is  a  point 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  34 1 

that  can  only  be  decided  by  a  properly  trained  medical  man.  Just  as  a 
doctor  is  not  in  a  position  to  treat  every  kind  of  dental  trouble,  so,  too,  a 
dentist  is  not  fitted  by  his  training  to  determine  when  hypnosis  is  contra- 
indicated  or  to  carry  out  the  process  of  hypnotizing  in  a  technically  correct 
manner.  We  may  take  it  as  quite  certain  that  the  ill-effects  said  to  be 
brought  about  by  hypnosis  are  really  due  to  incompetence.  When  a 
dentist,  Beisswenger,  tells  us  that'a  highly  intellectual  and  talented  young 
man  whom  he  had  frequently  hypnotized  subsequently  developed  an 
aversion  to  work,  showed  symptoms  of  persecutory  mania,  and  formed  a 
determination  to  murder  him  (Beisswenger),  then  we  may  declare  straight- 
way that  either  the  patient  was  a  psychopathic  individual,  or  that  Beiss- 
wanger,  in  spite  of  his  asseverations  to  the  contrary,  did  not  go  to  work  in 
a  proper  way.  In  any  case  we  can  only  advise  Beisswenger  very  strongly 
never  again  to  undertake  a  method  of  treatment  that  he  does  not  under- 
stand. Dentists  in  the  present  day  complain  often  enough  about  quackery ; 
they  should  strenuously  oppose  those  of  their  colleges  who  meddle  with 
matters  with  which  they  have  as  little  right  to  deal  as  a  quack  has  with 
dentistry. 


The  value  of  hypnosis  in  obstetrics  is  about  the  same  as  in 
surgery.  Lafontaine  and  Fillassier,  among  the  mesmerists, 
have  magnetized  women  during  labour.  As  Freyer  reports, 
Jörg  certainly  thought  birth  impossible  in  the  magnetic  sleep 
without  a  quick  awakening.  Liebeault  has  also  used  his 
method  of  hypnotizing  in  obstetrics.  A  series  of  such  cases 
has  lately  been  published  (Pritzl,  Mesnet,  Secheyron, 
Auvard,  Thomas,  Varnier,  Voigt,  de  Jong,  Schrenck-Notzing, 
Tatzel,  Grandchamps,  Luys,  Cajal,  le  Menant  des  Chesnais). 
A  case  in  which  Delboeuf  and  Fraipont  hypnotized  a  woman  in 
labour  belongs  here.  The  results  were  not  unfavourable.  The 
pains  were  regular  and  strong,  and  could  often  be  made  almost 
insensible  by  suggestion.  Khovrine  used  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  to  prevent  attacks  of  hystero-epilepsy  in  the  case  of 
a  woman  in  labour.  Directly  the  pains  started,  an  attack 
threatened  but  was  prevented  in  the  manner  mentioned. 
Indeed,  towards  the  termination  of  the  labour  the  patient  lost 
consciousness  at  each  pain,  but  only  for  a  few  moments,  and 
just  before  the  birth  terminated  pain  was  again  experienced. 

The  value  of  hypnosis  for  producing  analgesia  must  not  be 
exaggerated.  Sometimes  analgesia  cannot  be  induced  at  all, 
and  sometimes  it  is  only  possible  to  obtain  complete  analgesia 
after  repeated  trials.  The  excitement  before  the  operation 
increases  the  difficulty.  The  cases  in  which  hypnosis  can  be 
used  to  make  a  severe  surgical  operation  painless  are  very  rare ; 
the  care  with  which  every  such  case  is  registered  by  the  daily 


342  HYPNOTISM. 

press  shows  this.  Besides,  we  have  at  present  many  means  of 
inducing  analgesia  that  are  much  surer  in  their  action  than 
hypnosis.  In  addition  to  ether,  chloroform,  and  the  like, 
there  is  Schleich's  method  of  local  anaesthesia;  further,  the 
modern  method  of  spinal  anaesthesia  by  injection.  When  by 
chance  a  person  who  is  to  undergo  operation  is  found  to  be 
very  susceptible,  there  is  no  reason  why  hypnotism  should  not 
be  used.  Hack  Tuke  and  Forel  think  that  hypnosis  should  be 
used  instead  of  chloroform  in  all  cases  where  that  anaesthetic 
would  be  particularly  dangerous.  Forel  believes,  besides,  that 
analgesia,  sufficient  for  operative  purposes,  is  more  easily 
induced  than  I  suppose.  I  certainly  think  it  possible  that  a 
clever  hypnotist  may  obtain  better  results  in  this  direction  than 
I  have  been  able  to  do. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  -MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM   (continued), 

I.  Theoretical  Considerations, — In  the  foregoing  chapter  I  have 
discussed  the  medical  importance  of  hypnosis,  but  only  as  far 
as  its  practical  application  is  concerned.  But  the  medical 
aspect  of  hypnosis  is^  not  thereby  exhausted.  Hypnosis  has 
proved  of  far  greater  value  to  medical  science,  and  its  indirect 
assistance  to  therapeutics  has  been  more  valuable  than  anything 
produced  by  its  more  practical  employment  As  far  as  the 
latter  point  is  concerned,  hypnosis  has  led  to  the  development 
of  a  new  branch  of  the  healing  art,  psycho-therapeutics,  which 
I  shall  discuss  in  the  second  section  of  this  chapter. 

Hypnosis  has  also  proved  of  importance  in  medical  research. 
It  has  thrown  light  on  a  source  of  error  in  judging  the  modus 
operandi  of  therapeutic  measures,  which,  although  not  unknown, 
had  been  very  much  underrated.  The  good  results  obtained  by 
the  use  of  certain  remedies  used  to  be  erroneously  ascribed  to 
chemical  or  physical  action,  whereas  it  was  really  suggestion 
that  produced  the  results.  This  applies  to  innumerable  thera- 
peutic measures,  quite  as  much  to  physical  methods  as  to  the 
products  of  chemical  factories.  It  has  also  often  happened 
that  while  one  doctor  has  seen  nothing  but  failure  with  some 
drug,  another  has  imagined  that  it  produced  brilliant  results. 
As  there  could  be  no  question  of  bad  faith  in  such  cases,  the 
contradictions  they  presented  necessarily  appeared  enigmatical 
until  suggestion  supplied  the  key  to  their  solution.  We  must 
also  bear  in  mind  that  a  patient's  confidence  in  the  advice 
given  him  by  his  doctor  very  often  suffices  to  bring  about  the 
good  result,  and  sets  the  suggestive  action  going.  If  the  same 
remedy  acts  differently  when  administered  by  different  doctors, 
we  are  justified  in  asking  the  question,  to  what  extent  was  the 
difference  in  its  action  due  to  psycho-therapeutic  influence? 
We  have  to  consider  that  the  doctor's  conviction  of  the  efficacy 

343 


344  HYPNOTISM. 

of  a  drug  is  transferred  to  the  patient.  A  doctor  does  not  only 
employ  suggestion  consciously,  but  often  without  either  knowing 
or  suspecting  that  he  is  doing  so.  Let  us  take  an  example  of 
recent  date.  Some  investigators — Joh.  Fred.  Fischer,  for 
instance — have  asserted  that  in  numerous  cases  enuresis  nocturna 
in  children  is  brought  about  by  adenoid  vegetations.  Fischer, 
indeed,  thinks  that  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  in  which  these 
two  symptoms  are  found  to  occur  together  the  children  cease 
to  wet  the  bed  as  soon  as  the  adenoid  vegetations  are  removed. 
Another  doctor — Viktor  Lange — disputes  the  existence  of  this 
connection,  because  in  his  experience  adenoid  vegetations  had 
the  opposite  effect.  But  when  we  consider  that  mental 
influence  plays  a  most  important  part  in  suppressing  enuresis 
nocturna^  and  that  the  doctor's  confidence  in  the  method  he 
employs  is  transmitted  to  the  patient,  the  raison  d'Hre  of  the 
different  results  obtained  by  the  operation  is  at  once  evident. 
We  are  justified  in  applying  the  same  criticism  to  many  other 
methods  which  are  said  to  cure  enuresis  nocturna.  Maximilian 
Hirsch  asserts  that  he  has  obtained  brilliant  results  with 
Chatelin's  epidural  injections;  but  this  is  contested  by  Götzl 
on  the  ground  of  his  own  contrary  experience.  When  we  see 
that  a  number  of  other  doctors  who  have  busied  themselves 
with  hypnosis — Liebeault,  Ringier,  Hackländer,  for  instance — 
obtain  just  as  good  results  with  hypnotic  suggestion  as  Joh. 
Fred.  Fischer,  Maximilian  Hirsch,  and  others  do  with  their 
methods,  may  we  not  take  it  that  suggestion  is  the  common 
basis  of  all  these  methods  ? 

Many  also  of  the  opponents  of  hypnotism  have  often  under- 
rated the  suggestive  moment  in  their  remedies  in  an  illogical 
manner,  and  have  thereby  proved  that  they  would  have  done 
better  to  study  hypnotism  than  to  oppose  it.  To  pick  out  only 
one  of  these  opponents,  I  mention  Mendel,  who  attempted  to 
introduce  the  suspension-treatment  of  tabes  dorsalis  into 
Germany.  (The  attempt  is  nowadays  only  of  historical 
interest.)  If  Mendel  had  studied  the  question  of  suggestion  in 
connection  with  suspension,  there  would  have  been  no  epidemic 
of  suspension-treatment  in  Berlin.  I  may  remark,  by  the  way, 
that  as  far  as  my  experience  goes  yohimbin,  which  was  so 
warmly  recommended  by  Mendel  in  the  treatment  of  impotence, 
has  no  other  importance  than  that  derived  from  the  suggestion 
that  accompanies  its  exhibition.  At  least,  among  all  the  cases 
that  I  have  treated  with  yohimbin  I  have  been  unable  to  fine} 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  345 

a  single  one  in  which  the  effect  produced  could  be  traced  to 
the  somatic  influence  of  the  drug  with  any  degree  of  probability. 
Other  opponents  of  hypnotism,  too,  who  have  recommended 
chemical  remedies,  have  made  very  similar  mistakes  because 
they  were  unable  to  form  an  adequate  estimate  of  the  action  of 
suggestion. 

We  shall,  under  certain   circumstances,  be  able  to  avoid 
falling  into  any  grave  error  as  to  new  remedies  and  their  action, 
provided  we  recognize  the  significance  of  suggestion.     How 
comes  it  that  so  many  remedies  are  not  only  widely  advertised 
but   even    enthusiastically   recommended    by    some    doctors, 
remedies  that   so   soon   prove   to   be  useless?     How   many 
remedies  have  been  proclaimed  hypnotics,  how  many  appetisers, 
only  to  be  forgotten  immediately?     And  on  what  does  their 
transient  success  depend?     On  suggestion  alone,  often  enough. 
When  a  doctor  is  convinced  of  the  narcotic  action  of  a  certain 
drug,  that  conviction  is  readily  transmitted  to  the  patient  who 
is  under  his  suggestive  influence,  and  there  is  therefore  no 
cause  for  surprise  when  the  remedy  does  produce  sleep.     That 
is  why  Rosenbach   has  given   a  proper  way  of  testing  new 
hypnotics.      It  is   impossible   to   determine  the  value  of  a 
hypnotic  remedy  scientifically,  when  the  patient  knows  he  is 
taking  such  a  remedy.     Hypnotism  has  distinctly  proved  that. 
And  it  is  just  the  same  with  a  number  of  other  remedies,  such 
as    purgatives,    astringents,   anodynes,    etc.,    etc.      All    these 
substances  can  only  be  tested  as  to  their  true  somatic  action 
when  every  form  «of  suggestive  action  is  scrupulously  excluded, 
and  the  first  requisite  in  this  respect  is  that  the  patient  should 
know  nothing  about  the  expected  effect.     The  significance  of 
electro-therapeutics  has  frequently  been   discussed  from  this 
point  of  view.     Möbius  has   traced  many  electro-therapeutic 
effects   to   suggestion,    and,   in   an    exhaustive   work   on   the 
question,  I  have  expressed  the  view  that,  in  very  many  cases  at 
least,  the  action  is  mental ;  in  other  cases  I  concluded  that  the 
improvement  or  cure  was  spontaneous.     This  view  has  found 
both  opponents  and  followers.     Whereas  Delprat  came  to  the 
conclusion,  on  statistical  grounds,  that  electricity  made  no 
difference,  the  cure  being  no  more  rapid,  other  observers  have 
not  relinquished  the  physical  influence  of  electricity  in  electro- 
therapeutics.    Among  such  observers  are  Eulenberg,  Sperling, 
Loewenfeld,  Müller,  Laquer,  Remak,  Wichmann.     Eulenburg 
peverthejess  ^d pitted  tjiat  in  a  great  nunfiber  of  cases  the 


346  HYPNOTISM. 

action  was  of  an  essentially  mental  nature,  but  that  at  the  same 
time  we  must  not  deny  that  there  is  often  an  action  independent 
of  suggestion. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  observe  how  often  the  would-be 
discoverer  of  some  particulac  method  thinks  he  can  put  aside 
the  possibility  of  suggestive  influence  without  producing  even 
a  trace  of  proof  for  his  assumption.  Thus  Fleury,  on  the 
ground  of  theoretical  considerations,  regards  the  infusion  of 
salt  as  the  specific  agent  in  the  treatment  of  neurasthenia,  and 
thinks  that  in  so  doing  he  excludes  the  influence  of  suggestion. 
When  Nägeli,  who  treats  neuralgia  and  neurosis  by  a  process 
of  manipulation,  concluded  a  lecture  with  the  words  "  suggestion 
is  excluded,"  Forel  very  properly  pointed  out  how  little  is 
proved  by  such  assertions.  In  fact,  any  experimenter  of 
experience  in  the  domain  of  suggestion  must  often  be 
astonished  at  the  unthinking  manner  in  which  suggestion  is 
assumed  to  be  excluded.  As  Forel  has  rightly  pointed  out, 
Brown-Sequard's  testicular  injections  must  be  considered  from 
the  same  point  of  view.  Massolongo  regards  their  operation 
as  purely  suggestive,  and  Martinet  is  convinced,  on  the  ground 
of  numerous  experiments,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  indifierence 
whether  testicular  fluid  or  distilled  water  is  injected.  Save  the 
peripheral  stimulus  imparted  by  the  injection,  there  is  no  other 
essential  moment  worth  minding  but  the  operation  of  suggestion. 
Of  course  this  is  no  reason  for  denying  animal  substances  all 
somato-therapeutic  action.  I  would  only  point  out  that  the 
results  obtained  by  these  and  other  similar  therapeutic 
measures  can  be  completely  explained  by  suggestion. 

At  all  events,  there  are  numerous  cases  in  which  this 
explanation  is  much  more  satisfactory  than  any  of  the  compli- 
cated and  pseudo-scientific  attempts  at  explanation  that  are  so 
frequently  made.  A  striking  example  of  this  fact  is  supplied 
by  balneo-therapeutics.  Formerly  the  efficacy  of  such  treat- 
ment was  ascribed  to  salts  in  the  springs  visited,  and  the 
enormous  influence  which  leaving  home  and  all  business 
troubles  must  have  on  a  patient  who  visits  a  watering-place 
was  ignored.  But  in  order  to  attribute  a  thoroughly  specific 
action  to  springs,  special  value  has  recently  been  laid  on 
radio-active  substances.  And  yet  an  unbiassed  investigator 
will  often  find  a  perfectly  adequate  explanation  in  spontaneous 
improvement,  and  in  numerous  other  cases  in  the  influence  of 
suggestion — an    explanation    which    makes    him    feel    those 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  .347 

"  scientific  "  interpretations  mere  triflings  which  remind  one  of 
the  wood  that  cannot  be  seen  for  the  trees. 

Even  in  the  case  of  operations  we  must  always  be  on  the 
watch  for  mental  influence.  I  call  to  mind  the  discussion  that 
ensued  on  the  introduction  of  castration  for  hysteria  and 
mental  aflections,  and  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the 
excellent  remarks  made  by  Julius  Friedemann  in  his  thesis  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine : — "  Only  to  think  of  the 
number  of  women  who  have,  in  reality,  been  mutilated  since 
clitoridectomy  was  introduced  as  a  cure  for  neuroses  and 
psychoses!  But  neither  in  hysteria,  nor  in  epilepsy,  nor  in 
onanism,  nor  in  any  psychosis  connected  with  sexual  processes 
will  any  good  result  from  removing  a  healthy  clitoris.  It  is 
now  said  that  the  arcanum  has  been  discovered  in  the  ovaries 
which  are  to  blame  for  all  the  lamentable  symptoms  which 
characterize  those  diseases."  Even  at  that  period  Friedmann, 
Israel,  and  Landau  opposed  the  views  held  by  Hegar  and 
Taußer,  and  rightly  drew  attention  to  the  mental  influence  of 
such  operations.  Unfortunately,  a  general  appreciation  of 
mental  influence  was  impossible  in  those  days ;  but  time  has 
wrought  a  change  in  that  respect. 

OF  course,  there  are  many  questions  in  this  connection  still 
unsolved,  and  even  now  we  are  at  times  unable  to  decide 
whether  some  particular  therapeutic  action  should  be  ascribed 
to  suggestion  or  to  somatic  influence.  But  undoubted  proof 
of  the  exclusion  of  suggestion  should  always  be  given  when  its 
influence  is  denied  in  any  particular  case.  To  assert  apodic- 
tically  "  suggestion  is  excluded  "  does  not  furnish  such  proof. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  must  beware  of  tracing  everything  to 
suggestion  after  the  manner  of  people  who  delight  in  catch- 
words. Since  the  influence  of  suggestion  was  underrated  at 
first,  it  easily  came  to  be  occasionally  exaggerated  later  on ;  for 
example,  the  chemical  and  physical  action  of  remedies  was 
denied,  and  results  were  traced  to  suggestion.  How  far  we 
may  be  led  astray  in  this  manner  is  shown  by  the  reception 
which  was  given  to  Schleich's  method  of  inducing  local 
analgesia.  The  fact  that  local  analgesia  could  be  induced  by 
suggestion — Barth,  for  instance,  had  induced  a  sufficient 
degree  of  anaesthesia  for  minor  operations  on  the  throat  by 
persuading  the  patient  that  the  solution  of  common  salt  with 
which  his  throat  was  painted  was  cocaine  and  therefore 
rendered    the    mucous    membrane    insensitive — led    to    the 


348  HYPNOTISM. 

erroneous  conclusion  that  Schleich's  method  was  suggestive, 
though  Schleich  had  shown  that  the  injection  of  water  produced 
such  swelling  of  the  tissues  that  a  surgical  operation  might  be 
painlessly  performed.  In  the  case  of  internal  remedies,  also, 
the  action  of  suggestion  has  occasionally  been  assumed  in  the 
wrong  place,  not  only  in  respect  to  chemical  or  physical  action, 
but  where  the  action  of  a  drug  has  been  simulated  by  a 
spontaneous  cure  or  spontaneous  improvement  I  have 
already  discussed  the  latter  point  in  detail  on  page  297.  Here 
I  will  only  call  attention  to  a  point  that  shows  how  careful  we 
should  be  in  the  use  of  catchwords  ä  la  suggestion.  In  recent 
times  homoeopathy  has  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  form  of 
suggestive  therapeutics ;  but  when  we  consider  that  homoeopathy 
also  plays  a  great  part  in  veterinary  medicine,  and  that  it  is 
impossible  to  understand  how  an  animal  so  very  low  down  in 
the  intellectual  scale  as  a  horse  should  be  influenced  by 
suggestion,  it  follows  that  there  are  other  sources  of  error  to  be 
considered  in  the  case  of  homoeopathy.  I  think  that  both  in 
veterinary  and  medical  practice  many  a  really  spontaneous 
cure  is  put  down  to  homoeopathic  trieatment.  Of  course,  such 
real  exponents  of  homoeopathy  as  Roth,  Sperling,  Lorbacher, 
Pfander,  and  Julius  Fuchs  distinguish  between  the  efficacy  of 
homoeopathy  and  suggestion  and  spontaneous  restoration  to 
health.  Karl  Gerster,  a  physician  intimately  acquainted  with 
homoeopathy,  gave  a  scientific  demonstration  in  a  discussion 
he  had  with  the  homoeopaths  that  homoeopathy  requires 
revision  from  the  standpoint  of  suggestion. 

Hypnotism  has  also  enriched  our  knowledge  by  enabling  us 
to  understand  the  pathogenesis  of  certain  diseases.  I  refer 
here  to  the  importance  of  auto-suggestion  as  a  factor  in  the 
genesis  of  disease.  Charcot  already  had  admitted  that 
paralyses  of  traumatic  origin  often  depend  on  the  patient's  auto- 
suggestion that  some  limb  could  not  be  moved.  In  recent 
years  there  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  auto-suggestion  may  be  responsible  for  other  nervous 
phenomena  of  traumatic  origin.  It  was  recognized  that  when 
the  victim  of  an  accident  is  convinced  that  his  injuries  are 
bound  to  bring  on  an  illness,  some  symptom  or  other  of 
disease  will  appear.  Krafft-Ebing  and  Wichmann  are  among 
those  who  take  this  view,  and  even  if  others — Meynert,  for 
instance — have  contested  the  importance  of  auto-suggestion, 
the  number  of  investigators  who  ascribe  essential  importance  to 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  349 

this  psychological  factor  in  the  production  of  the  neuroses 
which  follow  accidents  is  permanently  on  the  increase. 
Hypnotism  has  also  contributed  indirectly  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  pathogenesis  of  traumatic  neuroses  by  placing  the  general 
importance  of  mental  influence  in  a  right  light.  Thus,  it  has 
been  pointed  out  that  the  quarrels  and  litigation  nowadays 
forced  on  a  person  who  has  been  hurt  in  an  accident  often 
prove  more  injurious  than  the  accident  itself.  Finally,  many 
people  are  unable  to  fight  against  possible  pathological  sequelce^ 
because  they  hope  to  derive  a  permanent  income  from  the 
accident.  That  these  psychological  moments  play  a  chief  part 
in  the  causation  of  traumatic  neuroses  had  long  been 
recognized  by  Strümpell,  especially  as  regards  the  wish  to 
acquire' an  annuity;  later  on,  Jolly,  F.  C.  Müller,  Lauenstein, 
O.  Binswanger,  F.  Schultze,  Mittelhäuser,  and  others  expressed 
the  same  view.  It  is  particularly  in  Germany  that  this  question 
plays  so  great  a  part,  on  account  of  the  Law  of  Compulsory 
Insurance  against  Accident.  The  cruel  fact  of  being  driven  to 
work  often  enough  restores  a  man  to  health  when  he  has  been 
iajured  in  an  accident,  but  the  possibility  of  obtaining  an 
annuity  without  working  for  it  diminishes  the  desire  for  work 
and  the  capability  of  carrying  it  out. 

But  hypnotism  has  thrown  more  light  on  hysteria  than  it  has 
on  neuroses  of  traumatic  origin,  I  have  already  mentioned 
(p.  303)  that  Möbius  considers  all  those  bodily  pathological 
changes  hysterical  that  are  caused  by  ideas.  In  recent  times 
other  authors  also  have  attempted  more  and  more  to  put 
hysteria  on  a  psychological  basis.  When  one  reads  the  works  of 
authors  like  Möbius,  Charcot,  Hellpach,  Eulenburg,  Crocq, 
and  others,  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  the  investigation 
of  hysteria  has  been  influenced  by  hypnotism.  Many  of  the 
authors  who  have  recently  studied  this  branch  of  the  subject 
have  put  forward  suggestibility  as  a  common  characteristic  of 
hysteria  and  hypnosis,  which  is  generally  taken  to  mean  that 
hysteria  is  characterized  by  auto-suggestibility,  and  hypnosis 
by  external  suggestibility.  Of  course  it  must  not  be  assumed 
that  the  exclusively  psychological  view  of  hysteria  is  the  only 
correct  one  j  that  is  a  point  which  cannot  as  yet  be  decided. 
But  there  is  one  point  on  which  we  may  rest  assured,  and  that 
is,  that  psychological  factors  play  a  great  part  in  these  diseases, 
and  that  their  recognition  will  be  essentially  advanced  by  the 
study  of  hypnotism. 


3  so  HYPNOTISM. 

Of  course,  this  question  possesses  only  a  theoretical  signi- 
ficance.    When  a  trouble  that  is  considered  to  be  hysterical 
or    neurasthenical    is    caused    by    some    malignant    psychic 
influence,  we  know  how  to  combat  it  prophylactically  and 
therapeutically.     Daily  experience  teaches  us  that  an  uncon- 
genial environment  will  cause  or  aggravate  a  disease.     There 
are  few  people  who  are  not  affected  by  being  constantly  told 
on  all  sides  that  they  look  ill,  and  I  believe  that  just  as  much 
injury  is  done  by  an  accumulative  mental  process  of  this  kind 
as  by  chemical  poisons.     Suggestion  produces  sufferings  just  in 
the  same  way  that  it  cures  it.     Doctors  who  are  incapable  of 
understanding    mental    influence    aright    may    easily    cause 
unpleasant    results    by  making   thoughtless   remarks.     Forel 
mentions  a  case  in  which  a  patient  suffered  from  headache  for 
years,   because  it   was,   as   he   believed,   said   of  him   when 
suffering   from   inflammation   of   the   lungs   accompanied   by 
headache  that  this  would  never  pass  away.     Whether  or  not 
the    patient    misunderstood    the    doctor    is   immaterial — the 
working  of  suggestion    appears  here.      Forel  succeeded  by 
hypnosis    and    counter-suggestion    in    rapidly   removing    the 
headache.    Loewenfeld  mentions  similar  cases;  for  example,  one 
in  which  a  patient  believed  he  was  suffering  from  a  severe 
heart  trouble,  because  of  a  thoughtless  remark  made  by  his 
doctor.     Brügelmann  shows  that  many  attacks  of  asthma  are 
caused  by  the  patient's  belief  that  he   cannot  breathe;  the 
patient  awaits  with  anxiety  the   moment  for  the  attack  to 
appear,  and  this  anxiety  brings  on  the  attack.     A  powerful 
diversion  of  the  attention  may  sometimes  suffice  to  diminish 
the  intensity  of  the  attack. 

There  are  many  cases  in  which  it  is  uncertain  whether  the 
action  of  a  remedy  is  suggestive  or  somatic,  and  it  is  the  same 
with  the  pathogenesis  of  certain  diseases.  Some  doctors  favour 
a  suggestive  origin,  others  a  somatic.  For  some  years  past 
attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  connection  between  affections 
of  the  nose  and  certain  phenomena  presented  by  the  womb. 
Some  say  that  nasal  treatment  influences  menstruation  by 
suggestion,  and  others  oppose  this  view.  Even  if  we  assume 
that  the  action  here  takes  place  by  the  way  of  natural  reflex 
paths,  and  that  the  process  should  be.  distinguished  from 
suggestion,  the  possibility  still  remains  that  suggestion  has  a 
great  influence. 

Hypnotism  has  also  thrown  light  on  the  nature  of  many 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  35 1 

idiosyncrasies,  for  such  at  times  arise  from  auto-suggestion. 
There  are  people  whom  coffee  does  not  constipate  but  purges, 
and  patients  on  whom  drugs  and  other  remedies  have  the 
contrary  effect  to  that  expected.  A  lady  who  was  given 
bromide  as  a  sedative,  remarked:  "Strange,  IVe  had  that 
before  and  it  only  excited  me."  Morphia  only  increased  pain 
in  her  case.  Many  of  these  cases  are  the  result  of  auto- 
suggestion, and  hypnotism  in  giving  us  the  key  to  a  large 
number  of  idiosyncrasies  has  at  the  same  time  taught  us  many 
an  important  lesson.  But  we  must,  of  course,  refrain  from 
ascribing  every  idiosyncrasy  to  auto-suggestion,  because 
idiosyncrasies  may  depend  on  purely  somatic  conditions. 
Many  people  suffer  from  urticaria  after  eating  crab ;  but  they 
also  have  urticaria  when  they  do  not  know  that  they  have  had 
any  crab.  Naturally,  we  cannot,  even  in  the  present  day, 
invariably  decide  whether  the  idiosyncrasy  is  of  mental  or 
physical  origin.  • 

Although  there  are  many  points  on  which  we  must  still 
remain  in  doubt,  hypnotism  has  put  a  check  on  exaggerated 
notions  of  morbid  anatomy  as  a  cause  of  disease  and  given 
freer  scope  to  the  neglected  study  of  diseases  of  functional  and 
mental  origin.  We  must  certainly  take  up  the  position  that 
there  is  no  disease  and  no  subjective  trouble  without  an 
anatomical  substratum.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  latter 
is  in  many  cases  so  fine  and  so  unstable,  that  not  only  are  we 
unable  to  detect  it  post-mortem^  even  with  the  help  of  the 
microscope,  but  also  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  form  even  the 
slightest  notion  of  the  nature  of  the  abnormality  without  getting 
lost  in  a  maze  of  fruitless  hypotheses.  We  must  bear  this 
firmly  in  mind  if  we  wish  to  understand  what  hypnosis  has 
done  for  us.  It  has  taught  us  to  diagnose  functional  disease  in 
cases  where  there  was  formerly  a  tendency  to  assume  the 
presence  of  stable  morbid  anatomical  changes.  We  now  know 
that,  where  formerly  organic  disease  of  the  heart  or  stomach 
was  suspected,  such  disturbances  are  often  enough  of  a 
functional  nature,  and  very  frequently  of  mental  origin. 
Hypnotism  has  therefore  greatly  improved  diagnostics. 

We  have  seen  what  a  source  of  error  the  action  of  suggestion 
has  proved  in  medical  investigations.  This  fact  brings  us  to 
the  importance  hypnotism  has  acquired  in  the  study  of  the 
history  of  medicine.  How  are  we  to  explain  the  fact  that  so 
few  of  the  remedies  that  played  so  great  a  part  in  old  books  on 


354  HYPNOTISM. 

by  mental  means.  Hypnotism  has  shown  us  that  in  other 
cases  besides  those  ordinarily  termed  hysterical,  symptomatic 
improvement  may  be  obtained  by  mental  action,  and  that  this 
occurs  even  when  progressive  organic  diseases  are  concerned. 
Recognition  of  this  fact  has  thrown  a  new  light  on  charlatanism. 
But  it  is  particularly  on  the  question  of  curative  magnetism,  a 
branch  of  charlatanism,  that  hypnotism  has  enlightened  us. 
By  presenting  the  scientific  doctor  with  psycho-therapeutics, 
and  thereby  rendering  it  possible  for  him  to  be  successful  in 
cases  in  which  patients  formerly  had  recourse  to  the  char- 
latan, hypnotism  has  made  the  fight  against  quackery  easier. 
This  fact  must  not  be  underestimated.  First  and  foremost, 
hypnotism  has  given  what  O.  Binswenger  calls  psychological 
guidance  to  medical  thought.  There  was  formerly  far  too 
great  a  tendency  to  search  for  a  material  focus  of  disease  for 
every  disorder,  and  when  that  was  not  found  to  put  the 
trouble  down  as  unimportant  or  exaggerated  or  even  to  lying. 
And  the  patient  who  knows  his  doctor  doubts  him  feels 
injured  by  his  mistrust,  "  he  turns  his  back  on  him  and  seeks 
help  elsewhere,  only  too  often  to  become  the  prey  of  un- 
scrupulous adventurers  who  make  the  most  they  can  out  of 
the  weakness  and  helplessness  of  the  sick  and  their  need  of 
practical  assistance."  The  more  doctors  learn  to  think  psycho- 
logically the  less  likely  will  they  be  to  fall  into  this  error,  and 
they  will  thereby  be  rendering  a  great  service  to  their  patients. 
For  although  the  mental  influence  of  a  charlatan  may  some- 
times benefit  a  patient,  that  is  nothing  compared  to  the 
dangers  of  quackery.  The  possibility  of  a  person's  health 
being  improved  by  psycho-therapeutic  means  cannot  make  up 
for  neglect  of  the  diagnosis  (Lobedank)  and  omission  of  the 
necessary  physical  methods  of  treatment;  and  this  is  what 
almost  invariably  happens  where  charlatanism  is  concerned. 

Hypnotism  has  also  shed  light  on  many  a  superstition  in 
the  same  way  that  it  has  on  quackery.  When  we  find  that  in 
some  parts  of  Germany  the  superstition  obtains  that  insomnia 
can  be  prevented  by  placing  one's  shoes  with  the  toes  towards 
the  bed,  or  by  leaving  two  pots  turned  upside-down  on  the 
table  (VVuttke),  we  can  well  conceive  that  this  may  act  just  in 
the  same  way  as  suggestion  does.  The  study  of  the  action  of 
suggestion  has  also  thrown  fresh  light  on  medicine  as  practised 
by  uncivilized  peoples.  It  enables  us  to  understand  the  effect 
produced  by  the  medicine-man,  and  the  study  of  hypnotism 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  355 

has  become  of  importance  to  the  student  of  ethnological 
psychology,  as  Bastian,  Stoll,  and  other  ethnologists  long  ago 
surmised  it  would. 

Those  miraculous  cures  which  so  often  occur  without  the 
intervention  of  a  scientifically  trained  doctor  or  a  professional 
charlatan  belong  here,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  cures  observed 
at  Lourdes  and  similar  places.  Medical  men  usually  object 
that  such  cures  only  affect  hysteria,  and  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  vast  majority  of  the  cases  that  terminate  successfully 
are  hysterical,  but  not  all.  When  we  read  reports  from 
Lourdes  impartially,  such,  for  instance,  as  those  contained  in 
Boissarie's  book,  Great  Cures  at  Lourdes,  we  find  a  large 
number  of  cases  that  we  have  no  right  to  put  down  to  hysteria. 
That  book  recounts  miraculous  cures  at  Lourdes  of  lung 
troubles,  of  tuberculous  inflammation  of  the  joints,  of  wounds, 
of  gastric  ulcers,  of  eye-diseases,  of  cases  of  deafness  and  deaf- 
mutism,  as  well  as  of  all  kinds  of  paralyses,  internal  inflam- 
matory processes  and  nervous  diseases.  In  going  through 
these  cases  I  have  become  more  and  more  convinced  that 
many  were  real  instances  of  severe  organic  disease  in  which 
the  patient's  condition  was  improved  by  psycho-therapeutics. 
I  must  here  refer  the  reader  to  the  remarks  I  made  on  this 
question  on  page  ^14  et  se^.  Believers  in  Lourdes  certainly 
assert  that  otherwise  incurable  diseases,  such  as  cancer,  are 
cured  there ;  but  what  I  have  read  of  the  medical  history  of 
such  cases  has  given  me  no  scientific  ground  for  accepting  the 
diagnosis  as  accurate.  On  the  contrary,  the  superficial  manner 
in  which  the  diagnosis  is  often  arrived  at  is  very  striking  to  the 
critical  reader.  Charcot  admitted  that  organic  lesions  had 
been  cured  at  Lourdes,  but  he  thought  that  this  was  only  so 
in  the  case  of  organic  changes  of  hysterical  origin,  the  cure  of 
which  by  psychic  means  can  be  explained.  He  mentioned, 
ambng  others,  Fowler,  who  reduced  tumours  of  the  breast  by 
mental  influence,  but  he  considered  such  tumours  merely 
trophical  disturbances  of  hysterical  origin.  The  supposed 
miracles  of  Lourdes  can  be  easily  understood  without  giving 
so  wide  a  meaning  to  hysteria  as  Charcot  did.  In  many  cases 
it  will  be  found  that  the  remarks  I  made  on  quack-diagnosis  on 
page  319  hold  good. 

When  we  take  the  foregoing  considerations  into  account, 
hypnotism  acquires  great  significance  in  its  bearing  on  the 
history  of  medical  culture.     For  there  have  at  all  times  been 


3S6  HYPNOTISM. 

just  such  miraculous  places  as  Lourdes  is  to-day.  Ancient 
medicine,  which  was  so  much  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  is 
full  of  records  of  miraculous  mental  influence  of  this  nature. 
The  temple  sleep  of  the  old  Greeks  and  Egyptians  had  much 
in  common  with  hypnotism.  In  Greece  it  was  in  the  temple 
of  iEsculapius  that  the  sick  lay  down  to  sleep  and  were  told 
in  their  dreams  by  the  god  of  the  remedy  that  would  cure 
them.  It  is  easy  to  understand  the  auto-suggestive  influence 
of  this  temple  sleep.  And  at  other  times  certain  human  beings 
have  had  the  same  renown  for  curing  the  sick  as  was  here 
ascribed  to  the  Deity.  I  may  here  mention  the  well-known 
Greatrakes,^  whose  cures  astonished  all  England  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  healed  by  laying  on  of  hands,  but  seems 
also  to  have  used  verbal  suggestion.  I  may  mention,  also, 
Gassner,  the  celebrated  exorcist,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century. 
The  reports  make  it  clear  that  Gassner  used  suggestion,  for 
though  he  spoke  Latin  it  is  evident  he  made  his  patients 
understand  him;  nobody  misunderstood  his  famous  "Cesset"; 
they  knew  that  the  malady  or  the  pain  was  to  stop.  I  find  in 
Sierke  that  Gassner  occasionally  sent  a  patient  to  sleep  by 
command.  He  told  her  to  walk  when  she  was  asleep,  when 
to  wake  up,  and  in  fact  produced  what  we  should  at  present 
call  a  regular  hypnosis.  Lichtenberg  reports  that  during  the 
eighties  and  nineties  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  certain  Frau 
Starke  in  Osterode  created  some  excitement  by  performing 
»  cures  through  stroking  and  touching  the  patient's  body  and  by 
so-called  charming.  I  may  further  mention  Prince  Hohen- 
lohe,  a  Catholic  priest,  who  aroused  much  attention  by  his 
cures  in  Bavaria,  after  182 1.  The  mesmerists  reckoned  him 
a  magnetizer,  but  others  ascribed  his  cures  to  religious  faith. 
One  school  of  mesmerists,  that  of  Barbarin  of  Ostend,  took  up 
a  peculiar  middle  position.  Barbarin  maintained  that  the 
influence  was  purely  a  spiritual  one,  and  that  the  right  way  to 
induce  sleep  was  to  pray  at  the  patient's  bedside  (Perty). 
Many  modern  adherents  of  magnetism  hold  the  same  views; 
Timmler,  for  instance,  thinks  religious  faith  valuable  and 
necessary  for  obtaining  the  result.  This  tendency  of  animal 
magnetism  brings  us  to  one  of  the  recent  forms  of  epidemic 
mental  disorder  that  hail  from  America,  viz. — faith-healing  or 

^  Lichtenberg  writes  the  name   "Greatraks,"  as  does  his  authority 
Robert  Boyle.     Others  write  it  "  Greatrix." 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  357 

Christian  Science.  A  Mrs.  Eddy  passes  as  the  foundress  of 
this  creed.  The  male,  or  female,  patient  is  told  to  sit  in  a 
chair  and  think  that  his,  or  her,  illness  is  due  to  sin,  that  God 
is  averse  to  sin  and  will  heal  those  who  believe  in  Him.  The 
faith-healer  sits  on  another  chair,  and  is  supposed  to  concen- 
trate her  mind  on  similar  thoughts.  Faith-healing  is  also  used 
in  distant  treatment.  There  are  many  analogies  for  the  latter. 
Weil  mentions  the  case  of  a  doctor  who  lived  in  a  large  town 
in  Saxony,  and  who  cured  many  patients  by  strictly  ordering 
them  to  go  to  bed  at  a  certain  hour,  at  the  same  time  telling 
them  that  they  would  perspire  profusely  and  that  this  would 
cure  them. 

Numerous  other  cases  that  belong  here  could  be  mentioned, 
and  they  would  show  that  many  a  phenomenon  observed  in  the 
domain  of  medicine  has  first  had  true  light  thrown  on  it  by 
hypnotism.  With  every  one  of  the  workers  of  miracles  of  whom 
we  hear  from  time  to  time — Pastor  Kneipp's  is  a  recent  case — 
mental  action  plays  an  extraordinarily  great  part.  Science, 
doctors,  and  the  sick  have  long  enough  suffered  from  the 
mental  factors  in  disease  being  underrated. 

2.  Psycho-therapeutics. — I  have  shown  in  the  foregoing  that, 
apart  from  the  practical  uses  to  which  it  may  be  put,  hypnotism 
has  become  of  importance  to  medicine,  inasmuch  as  it  has 
shed  light  on  many  branches  of  theoretical  medicine.  But  this 
does  not  exhaust  its  importance  in  medicine.  It  has,  on  the 
contrary,  acquired  an  almost  fundamental  significance  in  a 
certain  direction  by  bringing  into  prominence  a  new  branch 
of  the  healing  art — viz.,  psycho-therapeutics,  and  although  this 
branch  has  not  yet  attained  full  development  its  progress  has 
been  so  great  that  its  extraordinary  importance  is  recognized. 
In  this  respect  hypnosis  has  become  of  much  greater  importance 
to  medical  practice  than  its  direct  application  would  justify. 
We  must  carefully  distinguish  between  psycho-therapeutics  and 
hypnotic  treatment,  for  the  latter  is  but  a  small  part  of  the 
former.  But  hypnotism  has  given  us  the  key  to  psycho-thera- 
peutics by  showing  us  how  powerfully  mental  influences  may 
operate  on  human  beings.  Appreciable  light  was  first  shed  on 
the  importance  of  mental  influence  by  hypnotic  experiments; 
for  until  susceptibility  to  such  influence  had  been  demonstrated 
in  the  case  of  hypnotic  suggestion,  it  was  not  understood  that 
many  forms  of  suggestion  prove  effective  even  without  hypnosis. 


358  HYPNOTISM. 

General  suggestive  therapeutics  was  thus  evolved  from  the 
method  of  treatment  by  means  of  hypnotic  suggestion.  But  it 
was  gradually  recognized  that  so  far  from  suggestion  exhausting 
the  possibilities  of  psycho-therapeutic  influence  there  are  other 
mental  remedies  to  be  considered.  The  psycho-therapeutics 
of  to-day  is  a  development  of  suggestive  therapeutics  just  as 
the  latter  is  of  hypnotism. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  here  objected  that  able  practitioners 
employed  many  and  various  forms  of  mental  influence  long 
before  modern  hypnotism  was  known,  and  that  the  latter  is 
therefore  of  no  such  great  importance  in  psycho-therapeutics. 
But  to  this  we  may  reply  that  modern  psycho-therapeutics, 
which  is  based  on  hypnotism,  has  made  us  acquainted  with  a 
whole  series  of  mental  influences  of  which  even  capable 
practitioners  of  former  days  had  hardly  any  knowledge.  Apart 
from  this,  modern  psycho-therapeutics  would  not  have  the 
employment  of  mental  influence  confined  to  a  few  specialists, 
but  is  more  concerned  to  see  it  made  the  common  property  of 
all  practitioners.  Finally,  it  must  be  added,  many  practitioners 
who  formerly  used  psycho-therapeutic  methods  did  not  really 
understand  what  they  were  employing.  They  assumed  a 
chemical  or  physical  action  in  the  case  of  many  remedies 
where  the  cure  was  really  due  to  mental  influence.  Other 
cases  we  read  of  belong  more  to  the  domain  of  the  marvellous, 
as,  for  instance,  that  in  which  a  doctor  used  a  thermometer 
and  the  patient  very  soon  declared  himself  cured,  because  he 
believed  the  thermometer  was  the  remedy.  At  all  events 
there  is  a  considerable  difierence  between  the  occasional  use  of 
a  mental  remedy  and  the  scientific  investigation  of  psycho- 
therapeutics. 

Nevertheless,  we  must  admit  that  theoretically,  at  least, 
psycho-therapeutics  was  by  no  means  entirely  ignored  in  the 
past  There  are  intimations  of  it  in  the  works  of  Hippocrates, 
Celsus  and  Galen.  We  find  advice  of  a  psycho-therapeutic 
nature  in  Seneca,  and  as  a  general  rule  in  the  Stoics ;  also  in 
the  writings  of  many  other  philosophers  of  antiquity.  The 
teaching  of  the  old  Stoics  that  physical  ailments  should  be 
combated  by  the  soul,  in  particular,  presents  ideas  that  connect 
it  with  psycho-therapeutics.  Later  philosophers,  also,  of  whom 
I  may  mention  Descartes — I  shall  come  back  to  Kant  later  on 
— recognized  the  importance  of  mental  processes  in  the  cure 
of  disease ;  so  also  many  theological  authors.     Similarly,  the 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  359 

Arabian  and  Jewish  doctors  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  also  the 
school  of  Salerno,  often  took  psycho-therapeutics  into  account 
in  their  works.  Coming  to  later  times,  I  may  mention  in 
addition  to  Boerhaave  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Alberti,  who  taught  forensic  medicine  in  Halle.  In 
several  dissertations  for  the  doctor's  degree,  which  emanated 
from  his  school,  and  which  were  for  the  most  part  written  by 
himself,  divers  branches  of  psycho-therapeutics  are  discussed. 
I  may  mention  Papains  dissertation  De  Therapta  morbum 
morally  which  appeared  in  17 14;  and  also  Süssenbach's 
De  Therapia  imaginaria^  and  Moosdorfs  De  Valetudinariis 
imaginariis^  both  of  which  were  published  in  1721.  Several 
works  of  a  similar  nature  also  appeared  about  that  time,  written 
by  Hilscher  of  Jena;  for  instance.  De  Strategematibtis  medicis^ 
1738,  and  De  Animi  LaboribuSy  egregio  sanitatis  praeside^ 
1742.  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  a  dissertation  by 
Lemmer  of  Langguth's  School  at  Wittenberg,  De  Animo 
sanitatis  praeside  atque  custode  optima ^  ^758;  likewise  of  a 
work  by  Gaub,  De  Reginime  mentis  quod  medicorum  esty 
1763.  In  spite  of  the  growth  of  natural  philosophy,  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  produced  many  investigators  in  the 
domain  of  empirical  psychology.  Both  medical  men  and 
philosophers  did  much  at  that  time  to  promote  psycho-thera- 
peutic investigations.  I  may  mention  C.  W.  Hufeland  and 
Kant.  The  lalter  in  his  well-known  work.  Von  der  Macht  des 
Gemiithsy  etc.y  which  appeared  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  showed  that  he  was  not  merely  a  speculative 
philosopher.  The  Magazin  zur  Erfahrungsseelenkunde y 
which  was  published  by  Karl  Philipp  Moritz,  is  a  treasury  of 
information  on  individual  psycho-therapeutic  observations.  The 
psychic  treatment  of  mental  diseases,  which  began  to  be 
recommended  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  shows 
that  psycho-therapeutics  was  by  no  means  entirely  unknown  at 
that  time,  and  those  investigators  who  took  up  the  inquiry  into 
animal  magnetism  about  the  year  1800  were  evidently 
acquainted  with  the  value  of  the  power  of  the  imagination. 
Bailly,  for  instance,  in  1784,  ascribed  Deslon's  phenomena  to 
the  power  of  the  imagination,  and  about  the  same  time  John 
Hunter  expressed  similar  views  on  animal  magnetism.  Even 
many  believers  in  animal  magnetism,  such  as  Kluge  and 
Eschenmayer,  were  acquainted  with  the  effect  produced  by 
the  imagination. 


360  HYPNOTISM. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  down 
to  the  present  day  when  the  study  of  hypnotism  has  directed 
general  attention  to  psycho-therapeutics,  there  have  always 
been  able  individual  investigators  who  have  pursued  their  own 
course  without  regard  to  the  teachings  of  scholastic  medicine 
or  the  opinions  held  by  the  general  body  of  medical  men. 
To  make  an  arbitrary  selection  from  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  I  may  mention  Wilde,  who  in  1830  recom- 
mended a  little  wholesome  dissipation  as  medical  treatment; 
Brigham,  who  wrote  on  the  influence  on  bodily  health  of 
intellectual  culture  and  the  exercise  of  the  mental  faculties ; 
Traiber  with  a  dissertation,  De  Cura-  psychica ;  Domrich,  who 
wrote  a  treatise  entitled  Die  psychischen  Zustände^  ihre  organ- 
ische Vermittlung  und  ihre  Wirkung  in  Erzeugung  körper- 
licher Krankheiten,  I  further  mention  Moore's  book,  The 
Fmver  of  the  Soul  over  the  Body;  Sadler  on  The  Power  of  a 
Doctor^ s  Personality  in  Alleviating  and  Curing  Disease;  Padio- 
leau's  excellent  little  work,  De  la  Midicine  morale^  1864;  and 
finally  that  profound  and  exhaustive  work.  The  Influence  of 
Mind  on  Body,  by  the  English  alienist,  the  late  Hack  Tuke. 

Although  there  were  from  time  immemorial  individual 
investigators  who  recognized  the  value  of  mental  influence, 
no  organic  connection  between  psycho-therapeutics  and  medi- 
cine was  thereby  created.  It  was  the  study  of  hypnotism, 
which  since  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Nancy  school 
had  shown  the  value  of  suggestion  either  with  or  without 
hypnosis,  that  first  called  general  attention  to  other  remedies 
of  a  mental  nature.  No  matter  how  much  one  may  be  opposed 
to  hypnotism  itself,  the  fact  that  it  has  led  up  to  modern 
psycho-therapeutics  and  caused  the  latter  to  be  incorporated  in 
medicine  cannot  be  denied.  We  are  compelled  to  arrive  at 
this  conclusion  even  when  we  admit  that  other  authors  have 
developed  their  views  of  psycho-therapeutics  independently  of 
hypnotism,  for  they,  also,  were  not  recognized  until  the  import- 
ance of  mental  impressions  had  been  demonstrated  by  means 
of  hypnotism.  Before  that,  they  were  ignored  by  official 
science,  because  they  had  strayed  from  the  beaten  track;  and 
their  works  were  more  frequently  considered  curiosities  than 
scientific  productions.  I  need  here  only  recall  the  case  of 
Rosenbach,  who  endeavoured  to  develop  therapeutic  views  to 
a  great  extent  in  opposition  to  the  theory  of  suggestion,  but 
who  nevertheless  admitted  that  the  incentive  to  his   studies 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  36 1 

came  from  hypnotism.  At  all  events,  it  is  almost  entirely  due 
to  the  general  interest  in  psycho-therapeutics  aroused  by 
hypnotism  that  the  psycho-therapeutic  works  of  Rosenbach 
and  others  were  recognized.  This  is  shown  by  the  numerous 
works  that  have  appeared  on  the  influence  of  the  emotions  on 
the  body — for  instance,  those  of  Mosso  and  Lehmann,  and 
more  recently,  Paul  Cohn  and  H.  Berger.  It  was  already 
known  how  much  menstruation  is  influenced  by  excitement 
and  fear.  Many  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  imagination 
were  also  known,  such,  for  instance,  as  imaginary  pregnancy. 
But  there  was  nothing  systematic  in  all  this;  the  occasional 
observations  made  were  disparaged  and  contemptuously  re- 
ferred to  cases  of  hysteria.  It  was  too  much  the  custom  to 
look  on  a  case  as  merely  interesting  and  rare,  not  as  a  clear 
indication  of  the  existence  of  a  great  branch  of  therapeutics. 

A  comparison  between  modern  works  on  nervous  diseases, 
hysteria,  and  neurasthenia,  and  those  that  appeared  flve-and- 
twenty  years  ago  at  once  shows  how  the  value  of  psycho- 
therapeutics has  risen  in  medical  estimation.  Let  any  one  who 
thinks  that  hypnotism  has  opened  up  no  new  paths  just  take 
up  one  of  the  medical  text-books  of  those  days,  and  he  will 
find  as  far  as  hysteria  is  concerned,  to  say  nothing  of  other 
diseases,  all  kinds  of  therapeutic  measures  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed, but  that  the  most  important — viz.,  mental  treatment, 
though  not  entirely  ignored,  receives  but  cursory  mention. 
He  will  find  exact  instructions  for  the  application  of  leeches  to 
ihepor^io  vaginalis^  what  waters  are  to  be  drunk,  what  bathed 
in,  and  what  form  of  electricity  is  indicated.  But  that  all  such 
matters  are  of  insignificant  importance  in  comparison  to  mental 
treatment  was  unknown,  although  the  importance  of  mental 
remedies  was  occasionally  admitted,  as  in  the  case  of  hysteria. 
As  far  as  diseases  are  concerned — I  make  no  mention  of 
mental  maladies,  which  only  received  a  place  in  psycho- 
therapeutics at  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century — 
psycho-therapeutic  influence  was  almost  totally  ignored.  It 
must  also  be  admitted  that  many  new  branches  of  psycho- 
therapeutics are  not  directly  linked  to  hypnotism,  though  they 
have  been  indirectly  influenced  by  it;  to  such  belongs,  for 
instance,  attendance  on  and  care  of  the  weak,  which  is  a 
psycho-therapeutic  factor  of  the  first  order.  But  admitting 
even  this,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  hypnotism  has  exerted  a 


368  HYPNOTISM. 

found  to   be  continually  on   the  increase.      Such  timorous 
persons  should,  if  necessary,  be  referred  to  works  presenting 
the  opposite  view — for  instance,  to  the  works  of  Jenny  Koller, 
who  has  proved  that  there  is  more  likelihood  of  inherited  taint 
existing  in  the  case  of  healthy  people  than  is  generally  assumed, 
that  the  regenerative  factor  is  sometimes  extraordinarily  strong, 
and  that  many  diseases  supposed  to  carry  an  hereditary  taint 
are  of  no  importance  whatever  in  that  respect.     A  recent  work 
of  Wagner's  may  also  be  referred  to,  as  its  author  has  arrived 
at  similar  conclusions.     In  other  cases — when,  for  instance,  a 
patient  thinks  he  is  suffering  from  lung  trouble  because  of  pains 
in  the  chest — it  should  be  pointed  out  that  jt  is  the  muscles 
and  not  the  lungs  that  are  affected,  and  proof  of  this  should  be 
given  by  showing  that  the  muscles  are  painfully  sensitive  to 
even  the  slightest  touch.     Many  a  person  who  imagines  that 
he  is  suffering  from  serious  stomach  trouble  and  that  he  can- 
not digest  anything,  can  be  easily  freed  from  apprehension  by 
washing  out  his  stomach  and  thereby  proving  that  his  digestion 
is  normal.     Rosenbach  pointed  this  out  long  ago.     Of  course 
it  is  relatively  easy  to  give  this  satisfaction  when  the  patient  is 
a  doctor,  but  even  in  the  case  of  a  layman  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  demonstrate  the  error  by  comparing  the  contents  of 
his  stomach  with  those  of  a  healthy  man.     It  occasionally 
requires  an  educational  process  to  induce  a  patient  to  submit 
to  treatment.     Many  people  erroneously  consider  their  malady 
incurable,  and  refuse  treatment  on  that  account.     Berillon  and 
Jennings  have  pointed  out  that  many  morphinists  refuse  to 
submit  to  treatment  because  they  are  convinced  that  their 
affliction  is  incurable.     It  is  sometimes  even   necessary   to 
explain  the  theory  of  his  disease  to  a  patient,  so  that  he  may 
help  to  bring  about  its  cure.     Many  cases  of  sexual  perversion 
can  be  cured,  and  some  prevented,  by  giving  the  necessary 
explanation.     This,  of  course,  refers  particularly  to  the  tincie 
when  the  sexual  impulse  is  still  undifferentiated.     As  Max 
Dessoir  has  shown,  perversion  appears  in  the  earliest  days  of 
puberty  and  often  leads  to  "perverse"  tendencies,  but  tVie 
latter  disappear  altogether  when  taken  in  time  and  properly 
treated.     It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  such  young 
people  should  be  warned  against  wretches  who  would  lea.<i 
them  astray  and  endeavour  to  make  them  believe  that  tVi^^r 
perverse  tendencies  are  incurable.     For  this  purpose   it     i^ 
sometimes  necessary  to  explain  how  sexual  perversion  coi 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  369 

about  and  all  that  appertains  to  it,  if  the  victim  is  to  be  ren- 
dered amenable  to  medical  advice.  A  similar  method  of 
procedure  is  necessary  in  some  other  cases;  Oppenheim,  for 
instance,  was  only  able  to  make  a  sufferer  from  akinesia  algera 
follow  his  instructions  after  he  had  explained  the  origin  of  the 
disease  and  the  nature  of  the  underlying  mental  factor.  Some- 
times it  is  as  well  to  convince  the  person  who  comes  for  advice 
that  he  has  nothing  the  matter  with  him.  There  are  patients 
who  imagine  they  are  impotent  merely  because  their  powers 
are  not  the  same  as  others.  It  is  beneficial  to  let  such  people 
know  that  men  boast  of  powers  they  do  not  possess.  Similarly, 
sensitive  young  men  who  have  never  tried  their  prowess  on 
ladies  of  easy  virtue  should  be  taught  that  that  is  no  reason 
why  in  married  life  they  should  prove  impotent  in  the  arms  of 
a  modest  woman. 

In  other  cases  it  may  be  essential  to  prove  that  the  disease 
from  which  the  patient  thinks  he  is  suffering — cancer,  softening 
of  the  brain,  spinal  disease,  kidney  disease,  etc. — does  not 
exist  There  are  times  in  which  such  fears  are  epidemic;  this 
is  especially  the  case  when  a  disease  is  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  in  the  papers  because  some  public  person  is  suffer* 
ing  from  it,  or  that  medical  investigations  or  some  other 
circumstance  have  led  to  its  discussion.  When  the  Emperor 
Frederic  was  suffering  from  cancer,  thousands  of  people  went 
to  their  doctor  to  know  if  they  were  not  developing  cancer  of 
the  larynx.  Many  of  them  were,  of  course,  suffering  from 
some  organic  affection  of  the  larynx,  such  as  catarrh,  but  very 
many  others  had  not  even  that  trouble.  The  same  thing  is 
observed  when  an  epidemic  like  cholera  is  raging;  people  take 
a  harmless  diarrhoea  for  the  severe  disease  cholera.  We  must 
also  include  here  people  who  think  they  are  suffering  from  a 
disease  because  they  have  misunderstood  the  description  given 
of  it.  This  fear  of  disease  frequently  arises  from  reading  nasty 
popular  works  on  medicine,  but  it  also  happens  to  young 
medical  students  when  they  first  hear  diseases  minutely 
described.  The  best  method  of  quieting  and  curing  such 
patients  is  to  submit  them  to  a  searching  examination;  that 
will  generally  satisfy  them  that  their  fears  are  groundless.  This 
method  does  not,  of  course,  succeed  in  serious  cases;  it  is  then 
necessary  to  leave  it  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  doctor  to  devise 
some  means  of  satisfying  the  patient.  A  doctor  once  took 
severe  measures  with  a  patient  who  would  not  believe  that  he 

24 


370  HYPNOTISM, 

was  not  suffering  from  hydrophobia;  the  doctor  kissed  the 
patient  on  the  lips  as  a  proof  that  he  had  no  fear  of  infection. 

It  must  be  explained  to  patients  who  occasionally  suffer 
from  headache  or  loss  of  appetite  that  such  things  happen  to 
the  healthiest  people  and  are  of  no  importance.  Special  care 
must  be  taken  to  do  this  with  patients  who  have  at  one  time 
suffered  from  a  severe  disease  and  who  dread  its  return  every 
time  any  trouble  reminds  them  of  it.  A  patient  who  has 
suffered  from  ulceration  of  the  stomach  will  generally  be  very 
frightened  when  he  has  a  slight  pain  in  the  region  of  that 
organ.  He  should  then  be  told  that  such  pains  are  not  as  a 
rule  the  result  of  organic  changes. 

In  many  cases  explanation  should  be  directed  to  prognosis 
and  therapeusis.  A  patient  who  is  suffering  from  a  chronic 
disease  should  be  told  that  it  is  seldom  cured  spontaneously^ 
and  that  there  may  even  be  exacerbations  of  the  malady  while 
the  curative  process  is  gradually  going  on.  It  is  often  as  well 
to  point  out  these  matters  beforehand,  so  that  the  patient  may 
be  prevented  from  being  frightened  by  anything  that  may 
occur  and  from  drawing  unfavourable  conclusions  therefrom. 
It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  give  the  patient  a  proof  that  the 
trea^tment  is  doing  him  good— to  show  a  diabetic,  for  instance, 
that  the  analysis  of  his  urine  points  to  a  diminution  in  the 
excretion  of  sugar.  This  is  calculated  to  make  him  more 
inclined  to  follow  his  doctor's  advice  in  the  future.  It  will 
also  sometimes  be  necessary  to  point  out  to  patients  that  the 
remedies  they  have  proposed  are  useless,  perhaps  injurious. 
For  example,  people  who  suffer  from  insomnia  should  be  told 
that  the  constant  use  of  hypnotics  is  injurious  and  may  set  up 
a  condition  even  worse  than  the  loss  of  sleep. 

Of  course,  doctors  who  practise  psycho-therapeutics  must  be 
as  careful  to  avoid  overdoing  it  as  when  using  any  other 
method  of  treatment.  It  is  just  this  explanatory  system  of 
treatment  that  so  easily  gives  rise  to  such  errors.  Many  a 
doctor  thinks  he  is  making  matters  clear  to  a  patient  when  he 
is  doing  nothing  of  the  kind.  For  this  reason  I  will  point  out 
an  error  that  was  formerly  very  common,  though  it  does  not 
occur  so  frequently  nowadays.  It  should  never  be  drummed 
into  a  patient  that  he  is  not  ill  because  he  has  no  organic 
lesion  and  that  his  malady  is  consequently  imaginary.  Folks 
frequently  make  such  remarks;  but  a  psychologically  trained 
doctor  should  scrupulously  avoid  anything  of  the  kind  at  all 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  371 

times.  He  should  know  that  the  expression  '*  imaginary 
pain  "  is  false.  Such  "  imaginary  pains  "  have  been  excellently 
compared  with  hallucinations.  Now,  we  can  say  that  the 
hallucinatory  object  is  imaginary;  but  it  is  false  to  say 
the  perception  is  imaginary;  it  has  a  central  cause,  whether 
the  object  is  imaginary  or  not.  Similarly,  a  pain  that  is 
felt  is  the  result  of  a  definite  central  process.  It  is  a  matter  of 
indifference  whether  the  central  process  is  caused  by  a  peri- 
pheral one  such  as  a  prick,  or  by  suggestion  by  a  spontaneous 
mental  act.  The  pain  exists  in  both  cases,  and  is  not 
imaginary.  If  in  the  latter  case  the  patient  were  to  refer  it 
to  an  external  stimulus  he  would  be  wrong.  But  the  doctor 
must  take  the  pain  the  patient  says  he  feels  to  be  real.  To 
combat  and  remove  such  pains  is  just  as  much  the  duty  of  a 
doctor  as  the  healing  of  a  wound.  A  doctor  may  be  able  to 
detect  and  explain  the  functional  nature  of  a  pain,  and  even 
trace  it  to  its  mental  origin,  but  he  should  never  say  that  it  is 
imaginary.  It  may  possibly  not  be  invariably,  easy  for  him  to 
avoid  mistakes;  for  there  are  patients  who  think  their  disease 
is  not  understood  when  a  doctor  assures  them  of  its  purely 
functional  nature.  A  doctor  must  not  only  take  into  con- 
sideration the  education  a  patient  has  received,  he  must  also 
think  of  the  degree  of  intelligence  possessed  by  the  latter.  He 
must  remember  that  a  patient's  power  of  thinking  logically  is 
influenced  by  disease  in  so  far  as  the  patient's  own  conclu- 
sions as  to  his  disease  are  concerned.  There  are  well- 
educated  people,  people  who  as  a  rule  think  logically^  and  who 
are  yet  unable  to  understand  that  a  functional  complaint  is 
just  as  much  a  disease  as  an  organic  one,  and  may  even  bring 
about  more  serious  consequences  than  the  former.  Experience 
and  tact  are  the  best  aids  a  doctor  has  for  getting  over  such 
difficulties. 

As  years  go  on  I  am  more  and  more  convinced  that  upright- 
ness, truth  and  candour  afford  the  best  help  a  doctor  can  give 
his  patient,  and  that  the  reserve  that  used  to  be  displayed  is 
only  too  often  inimical  to  the  patient's  interests.  Even  when 
we  tell  a  patient  truthfully  that  we  cannot  cure  his  disease,  the 
truth  is  often  of  use.  Kant  tells  of  himself  that  his  flat  and 
narrow  chest,  which  gave  but  little  play  to  his  heart  and 
lungs,  predisposed  him  to  hypochrondriasis.  He  suffered  from 
cardiac  oppression,  but  the  conviction  that  the  cause  of  the 
oppression  could  not  be  removed  soon  made  him  cease  to 


372  HYPNOTISM. 

dwell  upon  it.  *'The  oppression  is  still  there,  for  it  is  caused 
by  the  build  of  my  body,  but  I  have  mastered  its  influence  on 
my  thoughts  and  actions  by  distracting  my  attention  from  it, 
as  though  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  me."  A  man  suffering 
from  hemiplegia  following  an  apoplectic  fit,  with  no  sign  of 
improvement  as  time  goes  on,  will  often  be  greatly  benefited 
by  a  doctor  who  teaches  him  to  take  no  notice  of  the  paralysis, 
provided,  of  course,  that  the  chance  of  curing  him  is  very  small 
or  nil.  Such  a  method  of  treatment  will  be  more  advantageous 
to  the  patient  than  sending  him  from  one  expensive  doctor  to 
another  or  from  this  to  that  institution  and  finally  landing 
him  in  the  hands  of  a  quack.  When  the  chance  of  obtaining 
a  cure  is  small,  the  question  of  expense  is  generally  important. 
It  is  better  for  a  doctor  himself  to  inform  a  patient  that  he  is 
suffering  from  tabes  doralis  than  to  let  him  be  brutally  told  the 
truth  by  some  one  else.  It  is  just  in  cases  of  tabes  that  a  truth- 
ful explanation  lessens  the  patient's  dread  of  his  disease. 
Recent  statistical  investigations  have  shown  that  the  average 
duration  of  life  is  not  affected  by  locomotor  ataxy.  There  are 
cases  in  which  the  name  of  the  disease  terrifies  the  patient,  and 
yet  good  may  be  done  by  explaining  its  nature;  as,  for  instance, 
when  a  doctor  explains  that  diabetes  is  an  inclusive  term  and 
does  not  mean  a  definite  disease,  and  that  there  are  forms  of 
diabetes  which  are  in  nowise  dangerous. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  I  rate  explanation 
and  instruction  very  highly.  But  this  must  not  be  overrated 
as  a  curative  factor,  as  some  have  done — for  instance,  Dubois. 
People  forget  that  suggestion  plays  a  great  part  in  all  explana- 
tions, and  cannot  be  altogether  excluded.  The  patient  who 
trusts  the  doctor  from  whom  he  receives  instruction  and 
explanation  is  subject  to  the  influence  of  that  doctor's  sugges- 
tion. Much  that  Dubois  and  others  put  down  to  instruction 
is  really  due  to  suggestion.  But  apart  from  this,  there  are 
cases  in  which  suggestion  is  more  effective  than  instruction. 
Many  forms  of  auto-suggestion  belong  to  this  category.  A 
patient  who  suffers  from  diarrhoea  after  taking  black  coffee  may 
be  relieved  of  this  inconvenience  by  explaining  that  it  is  the 
result  of  auto-suggestion.  In  other  cases  counter-suggestion 
proves  much  more  effective.  Explanation  will  always  improve 
the  condition  of  a  person  suffering  from  imperative  ideas.  The 
patient  clearly  recognizes  the  foolishness  of  the  idea,  but  is 
unable  to  resist   it.      When  it  is  possible  to   induce   deep 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  373 

hypnosis  in  such  cases  good  results  can  be  more  readily 
obtained  than  by  instruction.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
explanation  given  at  a  wrong  time  is  absolutely  dangerous.  I 
can  recall  the  cases  of  patients  who  were  weaned  from  the 
drug  habit  by  sham  injections — indifferent  solutions  that  they 
imagined  contained  morphia.  But  when  such  patients  are 
told  the  truth,  they  invariably  return  to  their  old  habit.  Ex- 
perience, at  least,  shows  this. 

Of  course,  many  patients  feel  flattered  when  they  are  told 
that  they  will  not  be  treated  by  suggestion  but  that  their  own 
intelligence,  powers  of  thought  and  will,  will  be  brought  into 
play.  Suggestive  treatment  usually  appears  easier  to  the 
patient,  but  his  vanity  is  flattered  by  the  explanatory  method. 
Nevertheless  I  think  there  are  many  cases  in  which  it  is 
carrying  suggestion  too  far  to  tell  a  patient  that  he  is  being 
cured  by  instruction,  whereas  in  reality  the  improvement  in  his 
condition  is  mainly  due  to  suggestion.  Unintentional  sugges- 
tive therapeutics  may  consist  in  the  suggestion  to  a  patient  that 
he  is  being  cured  by  instruction  and  his  own  will.  People  who 
in  the  present  day  discard  suggestion  as  a  therapeutic  method 
go  too  far.  In  the  same  way  that  Rosenbach  formerly  did, 
Grasset  has  recently  held  up  suggestive-therapeutics  as  psycho- 
thirapie  infirieure  in  contradistinction  to  psycho-thirapie 
supirieure  as  generally  accepted.  Nevertheless,  catchwords 
should  be  avoided,  and  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  what 
is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  about  by  psycho-thirapie 
supirieure  is  often  the  result  of  veiled  suggestion,  the  patient 
being  convinced  that  his  own  will  and  intelligence  have 
restored  him  to  health. 

Of  course  we  must  make  all  possible  use  of  every  psycho- 
therapeutic factor,  especially  of  the  explanatory  method  as  I 
have  described  it.  The  last  remarks  I  made  on  this  subject 
were  merely  intended  as  a  warning  against  exaggeration. 

I  now  come  to  the  discussion  of  volitional  therapeutics. 
This  is  often  confused  with  explanatory  therapeutics,  and  even 
Rosenbach  and  Eschle  do  not  make  a  proper  distinction 
between  the  two.  Although  both  methods  are  sometimes  used 
together  as  "  educational  therapeutics  " — there  are  many  cases 
in  which  the  patients  can  only  be  induced  to  exercise  their 
will  by  first  of  all  instructing  them  as  to  the  necessity  of  this 
procedure, — they  may  be  employed  independently.  As  far  as 
volitional  therapeutics  is  concerned,  we  must  remember  that 


374  HYPNOTISM. 

the  activity  of  the  will  is  of  two  kinds — the  external  or 
objective,  which  is  shown  in  the  external  movements  and 
actions  that  depend  upon  the  will,  and  the  internal  or  sub- 
jective, which  can  arbitrarily  arouse  mental  processes,  such  as 
ideas,  feelings,  and  emotions.  Both  the  external  and  the 
internal  activity  of  the  will  may  excite  or  inhibit ;  the  will  can 
cause  movements  and  actions,  or  check  them;  in  the  same 
way  it  can,  within  certain  limits,  arouse  ideas,  feelings,  and 
emotions,  or  suppress  them.  One  part  of  volitional  thera- 
peutics is,  historically,  closely  connected  with  hypnotism,  but 
some  •  of  its  branches  have  developed  independently.  We 
come  across  the  external  activity  of  the  will  in  the  form  of 
active  mental  gymnastics  long  before  the  days  of  modern 
hypnotism;  and  that,  too,  as  a  branch  of  physical  therapeutics, 
although  it  might  equally  well  be  included  in  psycho- 
therapeutics. For  instance,  the  attempts  that  have  long  been 
made  to  improve  the  conditions  set  up  by  apoplexy  by  means 
of  exercises  really  constitute  an  employment  of  the  activity  of 
the  will.  This  branch  of  psycho-therapeutics  has  long  been 
used  for  disturbances  of  speech  following  apoplexy,  the  patients 
being  instructed  to  repeat  sentences  and  go  through  other 
exercises.  Whether  the  compensation  produced  is  organic  or 
functional  in  such  cases — we  are  following  Luciani's  scheme — 
has  no  bearing  on  the  inclusion  of  this  method  of  treatment  in 
psycho-therapeutics.  Moreover,  hypnotism  has  not  been  with- 
out influence  on  the  external  gymnastics  of  the  will.  The 
name  of  this  branch  of  treatment  is  occasionally  associated 
with  hypnotism.  Under  the  name  of  suggestion-gymnastics 
Lehmann  has  described  a  method  of  gymnastics  for  the 
paralyzed  with  the  object  of  rendering  non-conductive  but 
undestroyed  paths  permeable  by  the  will.  The  chief  point  is 
for  the  patient  to  concentrate  his  will  as  much  as  possible  on 
the  movements  to  be  performed,  and  to  learn  to  believe  in  the 
results  of  his  own  activity.  Frenkel  has  also  recommended  that 
the  treatment  of-  ataxy  should  be  considered  a  branch  of 
psycho-therapeutics.  Our  object  should  be  to  restore  the  lost 
power  of  co-ordination  by  exercises  in  which  the  mind  plays 
thejgreatest  part.  Of  course  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  the  patient  should  concentrate  his  whole  will  on  the 
correct  co-ordination  of  the  movements  he  is  told  to  carry  out. 
Granted  that  the  influence  of  hypnotism  on  muscular  gym- 
nastics is  not  to  be  denied,  it  is  of  much  greater  importance 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  375 

•where  the  inhibitive  effect  ©if  the  external  activity  of  the  will  is 
concerned.  It  has  frequently  been  used  in  recent  times  to 
suppress  convulsive  movements,  and  often  gives  good  results 
in  cases  of  chronic  chorea,  though  it  is  less  effective  when  the 
complaint  is  acute.  But  it  is  particularly  useful  in  all  other 
kinds  of  convulsions,  especially  such  as  are  termed  tics. 
Meige,  Feindel,  Brissaud,  Oppenheim,  and  others  have  given 
examples  of  the  great  efficacy  of  will-gymnastics.  The  influence 
of  the  will  must  be  methodically  strengthened  by  at  first  limit- 
ing the  suppression  of  the  unpleasant  symptom  to  only  a  few 
moments,  indeed  only  to  seconds,  and  then  gradually  increas- 
ing the  duration  of  the  effort.  It  will  always  be  possible  to 
increase  the  effect  by  using  all  kinds  of  accessory  measures, 
such  as  making  the  patient  look  in  a  mirror  while  he  is  per- 
forming the  exercise,  as  he  would  otherwise  fail  to  notice  the 
involuntary  movements  he  makes.  It  is  also  important  to  let 
the  patient  rest  for  a  time  after  his  attention  has  been  kept 
fixed.  Although  this  branch  of  psycho-therapeutics  has  been 
greatly  furthered  by  hypnotism,  it  is  not  altogether  new.  In 
former  times  people  were  often  enough  somewhat  hazy  as  to 
the  psycho-therapeutic  character  of  this  method  of  treatment. 
I  remember  the  treatment  of  writer's  cramp  that  was  recom- 
mended by  the  writing-master  Julius  Wolff  a  long  time  ago, 
and  which  consisted  in  a  combination  of  massage  and  gym- 
nastics. The  treatment  of  stammering  also  has  its  place  here. 
The  exercises  in  breathing  and  speaking  that  are  set  a 
stammerer  likewise  serve  to  strengthen  the  influence  of  the 
will  on  the  motor  sphere  of  speech.  The  treatment  of 
stammering,  moreover,  shows  how  little  we  are  able  to  separate 
the  suggestive  element  from  other  influences.  Apart  from  the 
fact  that  a  patient  is  often  influenced  suggestively  when  the 
doctor  who  is  treating  him  holds  out  the  possibility  of  his  being 
cured  by  exercises  in  talking,  we  have  to  consider  that  such 
exercises  as  well  as  the  whole  milieu  tend  to  strengthen  his 
trust  in  his  own  capabilities.^ 

But  it  is  especially  in  its  relation  to  hypnotism  that  the 
importance  of  the  internal  activity  of  the  will  has  been  recog- 
nized as  a  mental  remedy.  Certainly  it  had  already  met  with 
popular  commendation.    Anybody  suffering  from  pain  was  told 

^  It  often  happens  that  ihe  effect  of  suggestion  is  favoured  by  telling  the 
stammerer  that  the  doctor  who  is  treating  him  formerly  suffered  in  the 
same  way  and  was  cured  by  the  method  he  advocates. 


376  HYPNOTISM, 

he  should  not  think  of  it,  but  pull  himself  together.  But  no 
methodical  efforts  were  made  to  strengthen  the  patient's 
energy.  In  this  respect  hypnotism  cleared  the  way.  By  show- 
ing how  much  can  be  done  by  hypnotic  suggestion,  it  raised 
the  question  whether  the  same  results  could  not  in  many  cases 
be  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  patient's  own  will.  In  many 
cases  this  question  must  be  answered  in  the  affirmative,  although 
it  may  often  happen  that  a  methodical  strengthening  of  the  will 
is  first  of  all  necessary.  I  must  here  refer  to  what  Payot,  who 
has  thoroughly  discussed  the  therapeutic  employment  of  the 
will,  has  said  of  the  influence  of  the  latter  on  the  sequence  of 
ideas.  He  has  rightly  pointed  out  that  every  recollection  that 
is  not  from  time  to  time  repeated  gradually  fades,  and  finally 
disappears  from  memory.  We  are  to  a  great  extent  master  of 
the  attention  we  pay  to  anything,  and  we  might  easily 
eliminate  a  memory-picture  by  striving  to  resist  its  recurrence. 
But  as  the  patient  has  frequently  no  tendency  to  do  this,  his 
doctor  must  guide  him.  In  many  cases  of  imperative  ideas, 
either  with  or  without  a  feeling  of  dread,  the  evil  may  be  com- 
bated by  gradually  and  methodically  increasing  the  pressure 
brought  to  bear  on  the  patient.  In  a  case  of  agoraphobia  the 
doctor  should  recommend  the  patient  to  gradually  increase  the 
length  of  his  walk,  or  to  take  a  companion  with  him  at  first — 
this  generally  does  away  with  the  feeling  of  fear, — and  then  to 
increase  the  distance  from  the  companion  gradually.  I  have 
often  seen  this  method  succeed  with  people  who  were  afraid  of 
railway-travelling.  This  enables  the  patient  to  take  longer 
journeys,  and  it  is  often  noticeable  that  people  who  have  made 
some  little  progress  in  this  way  get  on  rapidly  afterwards.  For 
instance,  when  a  patient  who  could  only  remain  a  few  minutes 
in  a  train  gradually  becomes  able  to  stay  in  one  for  half  an 
hour,  the  transition  to  journeys  lasting  days  and  nights  will  be 
very  rapid. 

Another  phenomenon,  often  closely  connected  with  im- 
perative ideas,  may  also  be  beneficially  influenced  by  gradually 
increasing  the  patient's  energy.  Many  patients  who  suffer 
from  imperative  ideas  feel  a  constant  impulse  to  talk  about 
their  malady.  This  is  very  trying  to  those  about  them,  and 
gradually  alienates  any  sympathy.  In  such  cases  it  will  prove 
beneficial  to  the  patient  and  his  surroundings  little  by  little  to 
teach  him  self-control.  I  have  often  observed  that  patients 
^ho  are  given  permission  to  talk  about  their  complaints  for  ^ 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  3/7 

specified  time,  such  as  an  hour  twice  a  day,  never  take 
advantage  of  the  permission,  even  in  those  cases  where  they 
were  formerly  in  the  habit  of  complaining  about  the  imperative 
ideas  that  troubled  them,  every  time  they  met  a  relative.  Even 
if  this  treatment  fails  to  bring  about  any  improvement  in  the 
patient's  disease  it  is  none  the  less  of  importance,  for  it 
prevents  him  from  annoying  his  relatives  with  constant  com- 
plaints, and  thus  enables  him  to  retain  their  sympathy.  This 
circumstance  must  not  be  underrated,  for  there  is  a  limit  to 
the  forbearance  that  relatives  can  be  expected  to  exhibit. 

Volitional  therapeutics,  especially  the  exercise  of  the  internal 
activity  of  the  will,  of  course  often  greatly  taxes  the  patient's 
powers.  From  this  it  should  be  evident  that  it  will  generally 
be  as  well  to  explain  to  the  patient  the  purport  of  the  treat- 
ment he  is  to  undergo,  especially  when  the  disease  that  he  is 
to  assist  in  eradicating  is  not  precisely  irksome  to  himself. 
This  refers  particularly  to  the  affections  included  in  the  generic 
term  sexual  perversion.  I  shall  enter  into  a  somewhat  detailed 
discussion  of  this  point,  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  treat- 
ment- of  sexual  perversion  by  the  influence  of  the  activity  of  the 
patient's  own  will  constitutes  a  paradigm  for  therapeutics  of 
this  nature;  and,  in  the  second  place,  because  the  importance 
of  volitional  therapeutics  in  combating  such  affections  has  been 
very  much  underestimated.  When  a  person  suffering  from 
perversion — a  henjosexual,  for  instance — is  to  be  cured  by  the 
activity  of  his  own  will,  he  must  be  addressed  in  something  like 
the  following  terms: — **  All  sexual  thoughts,  whether  normal  or 
perverse,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  according  to  their 
mode  of  origin — the  voluntary  and  the  involuntary.  The  latter 
often  arise  without  its  being  possible  to  state  the  cause.  An 
accidental  meeting  with  a  sympathetic  person,  a  sentence  in  an 
otherwise  harmless  book,  or  an  organic  stimulus  such  as  the 
accumulation  of  semen  will  often  arbitrarily  arouse  sexual  ideas. 
But  sexual  ideas  are  frequently  produced  voluntarily.  People 
try  to  create  voluptuous  feelings  by  recalling  past  events  of  an 
exciting  nature  and  giving  free  scope  to  their  imagination.  It 
is  hardly  possible  for  there  to  be  a  normal  man  who  has  not  at 
times  let  his  fancy  run  on  such  subjects.  And  this  applies 
equally  to  the  perverse  as  to  the  normal  individual."  The 
method  by  which  perversion  is  to  be  combated  must  depend 
upon  a  distinction  being  made  between  voluntary  and  in- 
voluntary sejfual  ideas,     The  victim  of  perversion  cannot  fight 


378  HYPNOTISM. 

involuntary  ideas  successfully,  but  he  should  concentrate  all 
his  energy  on  avoiding  the  voluntary  creation  of  perverse 
fancies.  Indeed,  whenever  perverse  ideas  crop  up  involuntarily, 
he  must  endeavour  to  suppress  them  by  an  effort  of  will.  It  is 
immaterial,  in  this  respect,  whether  the  patient  endeavours  to 
create  normal  sexual  pictures  in  his  mind  or  betakes  himself  to 
some  occupation  that  will  distract  his  attention,  provided  he 
does  his  utmost  to  suppress  perverse  mental  images.  Although 
the  vast  majority  of  patients  assert  that  the  perverse  thoughts 
arise  involuntarily,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  voluntary 
ones  must  first  be  got  rid  of  if  we  are  to  succeed  in  suppressing 
such  as  are  involuntary.  But  in  addition  to  this  we  must  exert 
ourselves  to  make  the  patient  sensitive  to  normal  sexual 
stimuli.  For  this  purpose  he  should  either  be  led  from  time 
to  time  to  direct  his  attention  to  normal  sexual  processes,  or 
else  should  be  occasionally  given  an  opportunity  of  testing  his 
capacity  to  react  to  normal  sexual  stimuli.  This  can,  for 
instance,  be  accomplished  in  the  case  of  a  homosexual  man  by 
placing  him  in  the  right  kind  of  female  society.  The  chief 
point,  however,  is  not,  as  some  occasionally  assume,  that  the 
homosexual  individual  should  seek  intimate  heterosexual  inter- 
course, but  rather  that  he  should  learn  to  react  to  the  charms 
of  persons  of  the  opposite  sex  by  frequently  associating  with 
them.  There  can  be  no  manner  of  doubt — and  this  refers 
equally  to  the  homosexual,  the  paedophile,  the  fetishist,  the 
masochist,  and  the  sadist — that  many  persons  can  be  brought 
in  this  way  to  lead  a  normal  sexual  life  without  any  suggestive 
treatment  The  central  idea  of  the  treatment  is  that  the 
patient  should  avoid  the  voluntary  induction  of  perverse  sexual 
notions,  and  should  also  attempt  to  combat  any  that  may  arise 
involuntarily;  on  the  other  hand,  he  ought  to  force  himself 
to  create  normal  sexual  ideas.  I  have  often  found  it  of  great 
assistance  that  the  patient  should  form  sexually  normal  ideas 
shortly  before  going  to  sleep.  This  frequently  appears  to  act 
beneficially  in  bringing  about  dreams  that  are  normal  from  the 
sexual  point  of  view,  which,  it  is  well  known,  hardly  ever  occur 
in  cases  of  perversion. 

It  is  perfectly  clear  that  the  activity  of  the  will  can  only  be 
employed  in  combating  sexual  perversions  where  the  patient  is 
endowed  with  moral  strength  of  a  high  order.  A  person  who 
is  sexually  perverse  will  be  as  little  inclined  to  avoid  dwelling 
on  lascivious  ideas  as  is  the  normal  individual  to  turn  away 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  379 

from  agreeably  voluptuous  thoughts.  The  real  danger  consists 
in  the  disinclination  of  the  patient  to  give  up  sexual  fancies 
congenial  to  himself,  and  to  substitute  for  them  a  set  of 
ideas  which  are  just  as  unsympathetic  to  him  as  would  be 
the  perverse  notions  to  a  normally  constituted  man.  But  ex- 
perience teaches  us  that  many  of  the  perverse  do  develop  the 
necessary  energy.  And  experience  also  proves  that  in  many 
of  those  cases — especially  of  young  people — in  which  the 
patient  co-operates  with  his  medical  adviser,  the  result  is 
thoroughly  satisfactory.  When  the  patient  avoids  all  voluntary 
perverse  fancies,  normal  sensation  not  infrequently  ensues. 

I  have  only  given  sexual  perversion  as  an  example ;  tjiere 
are  many  other  cases  in  which  much  can  be  accomplished 
by  voluntary  efforts  at  suppression — such,  for  instance,  as 
idiosyncrasies  of  auto-suggestive  origin,  and  all  kinds  of 
psychogenic  disturbances. 

The  foregoing  considerations  show  the  close  connection 
that  subsists  betwdön  volitional  therapeutics  and  habit.  We 
are  able  tQ  attain  the  power  of  influencing  all  kinds  of  mental 
processes  by  regularly  and  methodically  employing  the  will ; 
we  are  further  able  to  modify  the  functions  of  the  body  very 
considerably  by  increasing  the  influence  of  the  will,  as  we  saw, 
for  instance,  in  the  case  of  muscular  activity.  .  It  is  even 
possible  to  acquire  an  influence  over  functions  not  controlled 
by  the  conscious  will — those  of  the  bowels,  for  instance.  It 
is  possible  by  inducing  a  habit  to  bring  about  action  of  the 
bowels  in  the  chronic  constipation  from  which  so  many  nervous 
people,  and  sometimes  even  whole  families,  suffer.  A  remedy 
that  is  often  recommended  consists  in  advising  the  patient  only 
to  go.  to  the  closet  at  a  specified  hour  every  day  and  also  to 
resist  to  the  utmost  any  inclination  in  that  direction  at  other 
limes.  We  often  observe  when  employing  this  method  that 
although,  in  many  cases,  the  patient  may  not  at  first  have  a 
motion  at  the  specified  time,  he  gradually  gains  such  control 
over  his  bowels  that  one  very  soon  occurs  regularly  at  the 
time  intended.  On  the  other  hand,  many  people  bring  on 
constipation  from  a  false  sense  of  modesty;  this  occurs,  for 
instance,  with  school-girls  who  are  often  ashamed  to  let  their 
companions  know  that  they  could  possibly  be  troubled  with 
a  natural  function  of  that  kind.  Frequent  suppression  of  the 
natural  desire  to  defecate  gradually  sets  up  a  sluggish  action 
of  the  bowels  and  finally  brings  on  chronic  constipation. 


382  HYPNOTISM. 

prove  harmful  to  a  pampered  individual.  These  facts  must  be 
taken  into  special  consideration  where  children  are  concerned, 
for  it  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  latter  can  be  made  resistant. 

Powerful  or  sudden  emotions  have  also  been  known  in 
many  cases  to  exert  a  favourable  influence  on  health. 
Hysterical  paralyses  have  been  cured  by  horror.  A  well- 
known  historical  instance  is  that  of  the  son  of  Croesus,  who 
recovered  his  speech  when  he  saw  a  soldier  attempting  to  kill 
his  father.  Fright  is  also  sometimes  of  service.  Hack  Tuke 
relates  that  an  epidemic  of  somnambulism  in  a  school  stopped 
directly  a  couple  of  buckets  of  cold  water  had  been  thrown 
over  one  of  the  pupils  just  as  he  was  beginning  to  walk 
in  his  sleep.  Boerhaave  brought  an  epidemic  of  convulsions 
to  an  end  by  threatening  to  use  the  actual  cautery.  Every 
practitioner  of  experience  has  observed  some  similar  occurrence, 
though  often  only  by  accident.  But  we  must,  as  a  rule,  be 
very  cautious  in  the  use  of  sudden  emotions,  especially  horror, 
for  the  consequences  may  be  serious  and  cannot  always  be 
foreseen.  It  is  certainly  more  frequently  possible  to  utilize 
fear  as  a  therapeutic,  at  least  indirectly.  Many  patients  only 
follow  the  advice  given  them  when  the  consequences  of 
disobedience  are  brought  home  to  them.  A  patient  of  mine 
who  was  suffering  from  alcoholic  neuritis,  and  who  was  at  the 
same  time  convinced  that  he  could  not  do  without  alcohol, 
became  an  abstainer  directly  I  told  him,  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  truth,  that  otherwise  his  paralysis  would  get  worse 
and  locomotor  disturbances  set  in.  The  faradic  brush,  so 
often  used  in  therapeutics,  in  many  cases  only  has  a  mental 
influence,  and  that  either  by  suggestion  or,  as  Rosenbach 
points  out,  by  the  patient's  fear  of  the  pain  that  a  repetition  of 
its  use  would  again  bring  on.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the 
hope  of  reward  or  the  fear  of  refusal  in  respect  to  some  special 
wish  may  induce  the  patient  to  exert  greater  energy  in  the 
direction  desired.  This  may  be  observed  even  in  the  case  of 
functions  that  take  place  involuntarily — nervous  vomiting,  for 
example.  A  patient  troubled  in  this  way  sometimes  ceases  to 
be  sick  when  she  is  told  that  she  will  have  to  be  fed  in  a  very 
unpleasant  way  artificially,  perhaps  per  anumy  should  the 
vomiting  continue.  Again,  a  patient  suffering  from  all  kinds 
of  tics  will  work  all  the  harder  to  suppress  them  if  it  be 
hinted  that  he  will  be  rewarded  by  a  visit  to  the  theatre  or 
some  other  form  of  amusement.     Nevertheless,  we  must  not 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  383 

fail  to  recognize  that  ethical  considerations  impose  certain 
restrictions  on  a  medical  man.  The  psycho-therapeutic  use  of 
fear  must  never  partake  of  the  character  of  a  punishment,  for 
no  doctor  is  ever  justified  in  inflicting  that.  No  matter  how 
far  a  medical  man's  rights  may  be  thought  to  extend,  we  must 
at  least  exclude  from  the  sphere  of  his  activity  the  power  of 
inflicting  anything  that  bears  even  the  remotest  resemblance  to 
an  indignity,  under  which  head  the  question  of  the  infliction  of 
punishment  by  a  doctor  certainly  comes.  Such  matters  must 
be  left  to  the  proper  authorities. 

Volitional  therapeutics  and  diversion  of  the  attention  have 
already  given  us  an  opportunity  of  mentioning  treatment  by 
occupation.  Although  we  occasionally  find  mention  made  of 
it  earlier,  it  is  only  in  quite  recent  times  that  it  has  come  to  be 
seriously  recognized  as  an  accessory  therapeutic  agent  that 
should  be  used  methodically.  Occupation  not  merely  provides 
the  patient  with  a  temporary  diversion  from  his  troubles,  but 
very  frequently  proves  a  true,  indeed,  the  only  remedy. 
Health  in  the  case  of  most  people  presupposes  well-regulated 
and  active  habits.  Even  in  cases  of  incurable  disease  it  is 
often  of  the  greatest  importance,  since  it  provides  the  quickest 
means  of  suppressing  the  feeling  of  being  ill.  It  is  of  far 
greater  benefit  to  a  sufferer  from  locomotor  ataxy  to  keep  him 
suitably  employed  than  to  leave  him  to  his  fate.  "  Even  in 
cases  of  real  sickness  we  must  carefully  distinguish  between 
the  illness  and  the  feeling  of  being  ill.  For  the  most  part  the 
latter  greatly  exceeds  the  former"  (C.  W.  Hufeland).  It  is 
just  the  very  feeling  of  being  ill  that  is  soonest  lessened  by 
regular  work. 

Of  course,  we  must  individualize  as  much  as  possible  in 
choosing  the  occupation.  Many  kinds  of  work  are  precluded 
by  the  nature  of  the  disease.  But  apart  from  this,  the  cap- 
abilities, interests,  degree  of  education,  social  position, 
pecuniary  circumstances,  age,  sex,  nationality  of  the  patient, 
besides  the  tendencies  of  the  times  and  many  other  matters, 
may  any  one  of  them  determine  what  particular  occupation  is 
to  be  recommended.  In  that  satirical  but  very  instructive 
book  entitled  Stolpertus^  the  Young  Doctor  at  the  Bedside^  that 
appeared  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  the  author  expresses 
the  opinion  that  many  a  fine  lady  would  be  better  off"  with  a 
besom  in  her  hand  than  a  fan.  However  right  this  may  be, 
and  however  justified  we  may  be  in  not  laying  too  great  a 


384  HYPNOTISM. 

stress  on  the  patient's  social  position  when  choosing  him  an 
occupation,  each  of  the  factors  mentioned  above  has  to  be 
taken  into  earnest  consideration.  We  cannot  employ  an 
educated  person  merely  with  cleaning  rooms,  and  on  the 
other  hand  we  should  hardly  recommend  to  a  simple,  un- 
educated woman  the  study  of  the  history  of  Italian  art  as  an 
occupation.  A  doctor  must  also  avoid  basing  the  advice  he 
gives  on  his  own  personal  tastes.  Because  he  is  himself  an 
enthusiastic  Wagnerite,  he  must  not  therefore  recommend  a 
patient  who  has  no  ear  for  music  to  attend  Wagner's  operas  or 
sit  out  symphony  concerts.  Even  though  an  interest  in  works 
of  art  is  often  only  aroused  by  being  brought  into  contact  with 
them,  the  question  of  natural  disposition  yet  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  selection  of  the  work.  The  colour-blind  can  never 
see  things  as  the  normal  do,  and  there  is  an  analogous  distinc- 
tion  between  persons  of  different  mental  constitution.  A 
doctor  should  also  never  allow  himself  to  be  influenced  by 
the  patient's  relatives ;  and  he  should  therefore  pay  no  attention 
to  those  mothers  and  husbands  who  still  believe  they  have  a 
right  to  deprive  young  girls  and  married  women  of  every  book 
dealing  with  the  woman-question  or  similar  problems.  Times 
have  changed,  and  any  one  who  wishes  to  be  convinced  of 
this  fact  need  only  listen  to  the  conversation  that  goes  on 
between  young  men  and  young  women  nowadays.  At  all 
events,  we  have  no  business  to  withhold  such  books  from 
women  of  a  properly  earnest  disposition  or  to  deny  them  a 
suitable  sphere  of  activity. 

In  certain  cases  the  doctor  will  lay  the  chief  value  on  the 
mental,  in  others  on  the  bodily  activity  caused  by  the  occupa- 
tion. It  is  often  necessary  to  prescribe  visits  to  the  theatre, 
concerts,  museums,  a  particular  course  of  reading,  to  the 
importance  of  which  B.  Laquer,  Loewenfeld,  Oppenheim  and 
others  have  drawn  attention.  The  further  education  of  adults 
has  also  to  be  attended  to  by  giving  instruction  either  in 
languages  or  in  other  subjects.  It  sometimes  has  a  very  good 
effect  if  the  doctor  superintends  the  patient's  work;  recom- 
mends him,  for  instance,  to  read  some  book  and  then  makes 
him  repeat  what  he  has  read,  or  else  gives  him  a  written 
exercise — a  translation,  for  example — and  himself  supervises 
the  performance  of  the  task.  About  the  only  thing  a  doctor 
had  to  do  formerly  was  to  write  prescriptions,  but  his  duties 
nowadays  are  very  diversified. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  38S 

B.  Laquer  has  attempted  to  classify  the  books  that  should 
prove  useful  to  patients  according  to  Dunin's  three  chief  types 
of  the  molimina  presented  by  the  sick.  He  has  consequently 
made  the  selection  of  a  book  depend  upon  whether  diversion, 
soothing,  or  encouragement  is  indicated.  But  I  hardly  think 
that  a  patient's  reading  can  be  arranged  in  this  way  according 
to  types  of  disease.  This  method  of  differentiation  will  not,  as 
a  rule,  hold  good  in  practice,  the  other  aforesaid  factors  playing 
too  great  a  part  Similarly,  it  is  very  often  futile  to  attempt 
to  improve  the  frame  of  mind  of  a  patient  suffering  from  very 
low  spirits  by  giving  him  humorous  or  farcical  books  to  read. 
And  I  think  the  old  rule  that  a  malade  tmaginaire  should 
never  be  allowed  to  obtain  possession  of  a  book  of  the  kind 
called  humorous  still  holds  good  in  many  cases  of  hypo- 
chondriasis. 

Although  we  may  consider  the  reading  of  suitable  books  a 
remedial  measure,  we  must  remember,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  unsuitable  books  are  injurious.  Every  practitioner  knows 
the  amount  of  misery  that  popular  works  on  the  ^  terrible " 
consequences  of  masturbation  have  caused.  The  discussion 
of  mental  diseases  plays  an  important  part  in  modern  literature, 
and  Ibsen's  works  in  particular  must  be  considered  inimical  to 
the  public  good.  Of  course  we  must  admit  that  forbidden 
fruit  tastes  sweetest,  and  it  is  therefore  often  better  to  give 
direct  advice  as  to  what  should  be  read — 1>.,  the  patient 
should  not  be  forbidden  to  read  dangerous  books,  but  rather 
recommended  useful  ones.  It  is  often  prohibition  that  first 
leads  a  patient  astray. 

Moreover,  the  dangers  connected  with  the  nature  of  the  book  read  were 
pointed  out  many  years  ago.  In  1839  there  appeared  a  work  by  Bird, 
entitled  Mesmerism  and  Belies  Lettres^  in  which  the  author  made  a 
special  attack  on  Justinus  Kerner  for  trenching  on  the  domain  of  psychiatrics 
in  a  poem  and  a  novel.  Kerner's  productions  were  compared  with  Shake- 
speare's ;  and  Bird  made  out  that  Kerner,  in  contradistinction  to  Shake- 
speare, had  done  harm  because  his  descriptions  were  wrong. 

Muscular  activity  must  also  be  included  in  treatment  by 
occupation.  It  as  frequently  satisfies  the  indications  of 
psycho-therapeutics  as  it  does  those  of  physical  therapeutics. 
Here  also  the  individuality  of  the  patient  must,  of  course,  be 
taken  into  account.  All  kinds  of  physical  sport  belong  here, 
such  as  cycling,  riding,  skating,  tennis,  gymnastics,  and  likewise 

25 


386  HYPNOTISM. 

ordinary  walking  exercise.     We  need  not  hesitate  to  recom- 
mend rough  work  occasionally,  and  too  great  attention  should 
not  be  paid  to  the  question  of  its  suitability  to  the  patient's 
station  in  life.     It  is  the  man  engaged  in  head-work  who  so 
often  derives  great  mental  benefit  from  physical  labour — tree- 
felling,   sawing,   grass-mowing,   for  instance.     Cutting  down 
trees  did    the   English    statesman,   Gladstone,   an   immense 
amount  of   good.      The    way  in  which    muscular    activity 
influences  the  patient's  mind  must  be  judged  from  the  stand- 
point of  psycho-therapeutics.     Cycling,  for  instance,  from  both 
the  mental  and  physical  standpoint  of  therapeutics.     The 
speed  with  which  long  stretches  of  ground  are  covered  and 
the   relatively  small  amount  of  muscular  energy  expended 
have  a  salutary  effect  on  the  consciousness.     Fürbringer  lays 
great  value  on  the  way  in  which  the  work  is  divided  among 
the  cerebral  centres.     "The  cyclist  whose  attention  is  chiefly 
directed  to  the  road  and  the  surrounding  country  is  compelled 
to  make  very  great  calls  on  the  lower  centres,  the  organs  of 
sense,  and  as  the  heavy  thoughts  which  cloud   his    brain 
disappear  cuts  off  those  factors  that  were  depriving  him  of 
mental  rest."    To  be  able  to  rest  from  mental  labour  of  an 
exhausting  nature  is  certainly  an  essentially  remedial  factor  in 
many  cases.     On  the  other  hand,  Monnier  has  rightly  pointed 
out  that  many  kinds  of  work — e.g,,  turning  the  ergostat,  the 
"hygienic  promenade,"  the  use  of  dumb-bells,  knitting  and 
the  like  are  not  to  the  purpose,  because  they  only  exercise  the 
lower  cerebral  centres.     It  is  far  better  to  attempt  the  cure  of 
habitual  abnormal  activity  of  the  brain  by  diverting  the  activity 
into  centrifugal  paths,  and  we  should  therefore  select  some 
kind  of  work  that  requires  constant  application  of  the  attention 
and  can  only  be  carried  out  by  the  primary  consciousness. 
Both  authors  are  correct  in  their  advice,  though  they  seem  to 
contradict  one  another  somewhat.     They  entirely  agree  that  a 
form  of  muscular  activity  should  be  chosen  which  has  some 
definite  object  in  view.      We  should  hardly  think  of  using 
a  treadmill,   for  instance,  as  a  therapeutic  agent,  since  its 
employment  is  aimless.     Other  kinds  of  labour  may  be  of 
much  greater  use — even  chopping  up  blocks  of  wood,  for  that 
produces  tangible  results. 

Much  attention  is  paid  to  praxi-therapeutics  nowadays, 
especially  in  institutes.  We  have  certainly  here  to  distinguish 
between  cases  in  which  the  patients  have  only  to  work  a  short 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  387 

time — ^.^.,  an  hour  or  two  in  the  garden,  and  those  in  which 
the  work  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  the  treatment  The 
latter  form  of  treatment  plays  a  great  part  in  those  institutions 
for  nervous  diseases  among  the  poor  which  were  first  erected 
on  Benda's  recommendation.  The  form  of  ergo-therapeutics 
employed  in  such  establishments  is  that  recommended  by 
Krafil-Ebing,  Eulenburg,  Mobius,  but  more  especially  by 
Grohmann  and  Schwarz.  Its  object  is  to  render'  the  patient 
once  more  a  useful  member  of  society.  The  system  is  worked 
on  economic  principles,  the  patient's  work  being  utilized  for 
the  benefit  of  the  establishment,  and  a  portion  of  the  expenses 
are  thereby  covered.  Quite  recently,  training  patients  to 
work  has  come  to  be  looked  on  as  an  essentially  remedial 
factor  even  in  establishments  for  those  who  are  better  off. 
Marcinowski  deserves  special  mention  in  this  respect. 
Although  great  importance  must  be  ascribed  to  the  use  of 
ergo-therapeutics  outside  such  institutions,  the  latter  afibrd 
special  advantages  for  its  employment.  The  supervision  is 
very  much  better,  provided  the  doctor  really  troubles  about 
his  patients  and  does  not  conduct  the  establishment  as  though 
it  were  merely  an  hotel.  Monnier  very  properly  insists  that 
only  a  few  patients  at  a  time  should  be  placed  under  the 
guidance  of  a  specially  qualified  director,  otherwise  the  treat- 
ment degenerates  only  too  easily  into  a  mere  matter  of  routine. 
Very  much  depends  on  the  personality  of  the  director,  who 
must  understand  how  to  permanently  increase  the  patient's 
trust  in  himself  and  his  confidence  that  his  morbid  symptoms 
are  disappearing,  by  advice  and  suggestive  influence.  Such 
institutions  are  also  specially  adapted  for  praxi-therapeutic 
treatment,  because  good  example  is  just  as  infectious  as  bad. 
A  patient  will  be  much  more  inclined  to  work  when  he  sees 
others  employed,  and  also  observes  how  well  their  work  makes 
them  feel.  As  a  rule  no  compulsion  is  necessary,  and  Mobius 
would  even  forbid  the  use  of  any  such  in  an  institute.  It  is 
generally  quite  unnecessary,  because  patients  who  are  at  first 
disinclined  to  work  very  soon  follow  the  good  example  given 
them. 

With  regard  to  the  curative  value  of  work,  views  differ 
somewhat  according  to  the  results  achieved.  Although  any 
differences  in  the  results  obtained  may  partly  be  due  to  the 
doctor,  the  nature  of  the  disease  also  conditions  such  diversities. 
Schwarz  has  pointed  out  that  better  effects  are  produced 


388  HYPNOTISM. 

with  nervous  people  than  with  psychopathies.  Monnier  has 
attempted  to  make  the  indications  even  more  definite.  It  is 
specially  in  quite  fresh  cases  of  hysteria  that  imperative  ideas 
and  impulses,  tendency  to  brooding  and  auto-suggestion, 
parsesthesiae  of  all  kinds  and  the  like,  also  the  phenomena  of 
neurasthenia,  can  be  removed.  Where  the  patients  are  weak- 
minded,  psychopaths,  or  drunkards,  the  results  depend  essen* 
tially  on  hereditary  disposition  and  the  duration  of  the  disease. 
To  succeed  in  training  such  people  to  work  has  the  very  best 
influence  not  only  on  the  patient  himself  but  on  his  com- 
panions as  well.  The  work-cure  is  not  so  beneficial  in  cases 
of  hypochrondiasis  and  paranoia;  in  the  former,  restlessness 
and  the  constant  desire  for  change,  and  in  the  latter  the 
persecutory  ideas,  prevent  the  patients  from  persisting  in  the 
treatment. 

Treatment  by  occupation  is  also  of  great  economical  im- 
portance to  many  patients,  as  it  enables  them  to  be  trained 
once  more  for  professional  work.  To  practice  a  profession 
has  a  very  salutary  effect  on  a  human  being's  health.  Unfor- 
tunately, medicine  has  usually  underrated  the  importance  of 
this  question  of  following  a  profession,  and  even  when  this  has 
not  been  the  case  the  matter  has  been  judged  on  false  premises. 
Physically  weak  people  with  a  tendency  to  tuberculosis  have 
before  now  been  recommended  to  betake  themselves  to  garden- 
ing or  agriculture,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  these  occupations 
make  such  severe  calls  on  a  person's  physical  strength  as  to 
nullify  the  advantages  derived  from  working  in  the  open  air. 
Nevertheless,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  advisability  of  being 
engaged  in  some  calling  has  for  some  time  past  obtained  at 
least  casual  recognition  from  the  standpoint  of  somato- 
therapeutics,  whereas  the  psycho-therapeutic  importance  of 
occupation  has  been  almost  totally  ignored.  Forel  has 
pointed  out  that  numbers  of  people  pine  away  because  they 
are  not  allowed  to  choose  a  calling  suited  to  their  talents  and 
inclinations.  I  have  frequently  noticed  the  quarrels  that  have 
arisen  in  this  way.  A  doctor  must  always  endeavour  to  over- 
come the  prejudices  of  parents  and  relatives.  This  is  often 
observable  in  the  case  of  daughters.  Many  young  girls  desire 
serious  occupation,  but  their  parents,  who  were  brought  up 
with  old-fashioned  ideas  and  who  are  disinclined  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  ideas  of  the  day,  refuse  their  consent  for 
fear  of  damaging  the  reputation  and  social  position  of  the 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  389 

family.  The  result  is  that  a  girl  who  is  thus  thwarted  in  her 
desire  to  engage  in  an  occupation  congenial  to  her  mental 
disposition  falls  ill,  becoming  more  especially  hysterical  and 
nervous,  or  when  either  of  these  two  morbid  states  already 
exists  their  cure  is  impeded.  In  nearly  every  case  the 
healthiest  course  is  that  of  allowing  a  woman  to  occupy  herself 
in  whatever  manner  best  imparts  fulness  to  her  life.  This,  of 
course,  is  not  intended  to  run  counter  to  the  view  that  a 
happy  marriage  generally  fulfils  the  object  of  a  woman's  life. 
But  when  financial,  social,  or  other  reasons  prevent  such  ä 
marriage  taking  place,  or  even  when  a  married  woman  fails  to 
find  that  marriage  entirely  fills  her  life,  we  have  to  think  of 
some  form  of  activity  to  make  good  the  deficiency. 

Naturally,  these  considerations  in  the  choice  of  a  calling  do 
not  only  apply  to  the  female  sex  but  to  the  male  as  well, 
though  prejudice  plays  a  greater  part  in  coming  to  a  decision 
in  the  former  case.  Of  course  when  a  doctor  has  to  take  part 
in  such  a  dispute  he  must  make  a  most  careful  study  of  the 
individuality  of  the  person  in  question.  Forel,  who  warmly 
recommends  professional  occupation  as  a  therapeutic  measure, 
utters  a  word  of  warning  against  considering  every  one  an 
unappreciated  genius  whose  parents  do  not  at  once  let  him 
have  his  own  way.  Psychopathic  persons,  and  especially  the 
weak-minded  and  the  very  hysterical,  are  just  the  people  who 
so  very  frequently  misjudge  and  overrate  their  powers.  Such 
people  always  want  to  imitate  any  person  who  has  made  a 
public  success.  One  wants  to  be  a  singer,  a  girl  to  become  an 
actress,  and  a  third,  who  has  perhaps  been  a  passable  business 
man,  suddenly  thinks  he  has  a  call  to  reform  electro-technics 
or  the  policy  of  the  country.  The  psycho-therapeutist  must 
carefully  distinguish  between  the  moods  of  such  insignificant 
persons  and  tendencies  that  have  to  be  taken  seriously. 
Individuals  of  the  former  type  only  look  to  results;  they 
object  to  devoting  years  of  arduous  study  to  attain  the  end. 
It  is  different  with  people  who  are  really  in  earnest.  It  is  not 
so  much  the  desire  to  pose  as  leaders  of  thought  that  actuates 
them,  but  rather  the  instinctive  impulse  to  engage  in  some 
occupation  for  which  they  feel  themselves  to  be  naturally  fitted. 
It  often  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  doctor  to  smooth  their  way  and 
overcome  any  opposition  their  relatives  may  offer.  Of  course, 
he  will  not  invariably  be  in  a  position  to  decide  which  of  the 
two  cases  he  is  dealing  with  in  any  particular  instance.    Know- 


390  HYPNOTISM. 

ledge  of  human  nature,  earnest  study  of  the  individual  in 
question,  consultation  with  other  specialists,  and  often  a  lucky 
shot,  will  lead  to  a  correct  decision,  the  importance  of  which 
can  hardly  be  overrated. 

We  have  seen  that  in  many  cases  the  patient  himself  asks 
for  some  professional  occupation,  and  the  doctor's  assistance 
is  then  only  necessary  to  overcome  the  opposition  of  his  family 
and  thereby  render  the  way  smooth.  But  in  other  cases  the 
very  thing  the  doctor  has  to  do  is  to  combat  the  patient's 
opposition  to  work  by  explaining  to  him  that  he  can  only 
maintain  or  regain  his  health  by  taking  on  some  serious 
occupation.  These  considerations  also  apply  to  elderly  persons 
whose  tendency  to  hypochrondia  and  brooding  can  often  only 
be  overcome  by  their  being  engaged  in  some  form  of  regular 
work.  The  impulse  to  work  which  this  brings  rejuvenates 
them  and  has  a  salutary  efifect  on  their  disposition  and  health. 
Even  the  occasional  cares  and  excitement  attached  to  business 
are  often  far  less  injurious  to  the  nervous  system  than  doing 
nothing  and  the  absence  of  any  impulse  to  work.  I  must  here 
refer  to  what  I  said  concerning  traumatic  neuroses  on  page  349, 
where  I  pointed  out  that  the  certain  prospect  of  a  permanent 
income  and  the  absence  of  any  compulsion  from  without  have 
proved  injurious  to  many  people. 

Of  other  psycho-therapeutic  measures  I  may  mention  treat- 
ment in  an  institute,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
occasionally  made.  Hospital  treatment  was  recommended  for 
many  affections  long  ago,  but  its  field  of  activity  has  been 
greatly  widened  in  recent  times.  It  is  often  advisable  that  a 
patient  should  be  admitted  into  an  institute  because  many 
therapeutic  measures  can  only  be  properly  carried  out  there — 
a  complicated  hydro-therapeutic  treatment,  diet  cures,  opera- 
tions, etc.  Treatment  in  an  institution  is  also  often  necessary 
on  psycho-therapeutic  grounds.  The  patient  has  to  be  removed 
from  his  former  surroundings  and  relieved  of  his  business  and 
domestic  cares.  He  requires  relief  from  the  injurious  influence 
of  over-anxious  friends,  and  from  everything  tending  to  counter- 
act the  doctor's  advice  or  upset  his  plans;  or  it  may  even  be 
that  it  is  advisable  to  place  the  patient  under  the  doctor's  con- 
tinuous influence.  Anything  of  this  sort  can  rarely  be  accom- 
plished at  home,  though  it  may^very  well  be  in  a  good  institutes- 
There  are  many  other  influences  to  be  considered  in  this 
connection,  and  Wiedeburg  has  called  attention  to  them  in  a 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  39 1 

pamphlet  Sometimes  a  patient  is  benefited  when  he  hears 
that  he  is  to  visit  an  establishment  of  which  he  has  heard  good 
accounts.  Many  estabh'shments  possess  the  advantage  of  a 
good  position,  the  opportunities  they  afford  for  excursions,  for 
enjoying  the  pleasures  of  nature  and  indulging  in  sports  and 
harmless  games.  Work-cures,  to  which  I  have  already  called 
attention,  are  best  carried  out  in  institutes.  But  one  point  on 
which  special  weight  must  be  laid,  and  to  which  attention  has 
already  been  drawn,  is  that  a  doctor  is  better  able  to  bring  his 
personal  influence  into  play  inside  an  institute  than  out.  The 
discipline  that  so  many  patients  require  can  be  best  exerted  by 
a  conscientious  and  energetic  hospital  doctor.  Every  one, 
even  the  rich  and  pampered,  should  submit  to  it.  It  is  just 
this  compulsory  subjection  that  proves  beneficial  in  so  many 
cases. 

It  is  certainly  easy  to  understand  that  every  institute  is  not 
suitable  for  the  purposes  mentioned  above,  especially  when  we 
come  to  consider  that  the  personal  influence  of  the  doctor  is 
greater  the  smaller  the  establishment.  All  large  institutions 
conducted  on  the  lines  of  an  hotel  must  therefore  be  rigidly 
excluded  when  it  is  intended  that  such  personal  influence  of 
the  medical  director  is  to  play  the  chief  part  in  the  treatment. 
In  the  same  way,  when  rest  is  essential  for  the  patient  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  select  one  of  those  badly-planned  establish- 
ments in  which  the  position  of  the  rooms  is  calculated  to 
endanger  the  patient's  peace  and  quiet.  Unfortunately,  in 
many  establishments  the  thoughtlessness  of  the  servants  and 
the  constant  din  of  music  frequently  disturb  the  patient's  rest 
at  night  It  should  be  the  duty  of  every  doctor  to  avoid 
recommending  any  establishment  in  which  a  patient  is  likely 
to  be  annoyed  and  disturbed.  This  does  not  imply  that  large 
establishments  are  not  without  their  advantages,  especially  for 
patients  who  are  more  in  need  of  the  stimulus  of  social  inter- 
course than  of  the  personal  influence  of  the  doctor.  But  even 
in  such  cases  an  establishment  should  be  selected  that  is  built 
and  conducted  in  a  way  calculated  to  save  the  patient  from 
any  kind  of  annoyance.  As  Edinger  has  rightly  pointed  out, 
many  a  one  is  more  benefited  by  a  trip  to  the  hills  than  by  the 
treatment  he  was  advised  to  undergo  in  an  establishment.  In 
the  latter  form  of  treatment  special  care  must  be  taken  to  give 
prominence  to  the  psycho-therapeutic  moment.  Patients  who 
enter  an  institute  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  rest,  only  to  find 


392  HYPNOTISM. 

that  the  whole  day  is  occupied  in  exhausting  hydropathic  treat- 
ment, massage,  etc.,  may  easily  be  seriously  injured  by  such 
processes.  In  any  case,  even  where  somatic  treatment  is  con- 
cerned, the  importance  of  mental  influence  should  never  be 
overlooked. 

The  psycho-therapeutic  effect  of  treatment  in  an  institute 
may  often  be  considerably  increased  by  strictly  isolating  the 
patient.  That  can  hardly  ever  be  done  outside.  Attempts  to 
isolate  a  patient  in  his  own  home  scarcely  ever  succeed.  Even 
when  the  patient's  relatives  promise  to  do  so,  the  doctor  may 
assume  with  a  degree  of  probability  bordering  on  certainty  that 
there  will  be  no  really  strict  isolation,  and  that  either  the 
curiosity  or  anxiety  of  the  relatives,  or  else  their  desire  to 
prevent  the  patient  becoming  ennuyi^  will  soon  lead  to  his 
instructions  being  evaded.  The  good  effect  of  solitary  treat- 
ment, especially  in  cases  of  hysteria,  has  long  been  known. 
Charcot  was  a  particularly  warm  advocate  of  the  method,  and 
he  was  quite  right  in  considering  isolation  the  working  principle 
in  the  Weir-Mitchell  treatment.  When  discussing  that  system 
Charcot  called  attention  to  the  interesting  historical  fact  that 
Weir  had  already  recommended  isolation  for  the  treatment  of 
demoniacal  obsession.  From  the  psycho-therapeutic  stand- 
point isolation  may  be  just  as  necessary  for  preventing  un- 
favourable influences  being  brought  to  bear  on  a  patient  as  it 
sometimes  is  from  the  standpoint  of  somato-therapeutics  for 
safeguarding  a  patient  from  the  acquisition  of  noxious  drugs — 
morphia,  for  instance. 

Of  course,  strict  isolation  is  only  possible  in  relatively  speak- 
ing few  cases.  It  also  presents  certain  dangers:  the  possi- 
bility of  a  patient  devoting  too  much  attention  to  his  morbid 
fancies  calls  for  special  consideration  in  cases  of  hysteria.  But 
then  there  are  contra-indications  in  every  form  of  therapeusis, 
and  they  have  also  to  be  thought  of  in  the  case  of  treatment  in 
an  institute.  It  is  rarely  possible  for  a  doctor  entirely  to 
prevent  patients  discussing  their  maladies,  no  matter  how 
flrmly  he  forbids  it,  and  we  can  understand  how  injurious  such 
conversation  is  to  very  impressionable  people.  How  great 
these  dangers  really  are  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  when  I  was 
in  Paris  I  often  heard  the  SalpHriere  referred  to  as  a  Fabrique 
{Thysterie^  notwithstanding  the  authority  exercised  there  by 
Charcot.  We  must  therefore  be  most  cautious  before  placing 
an  impressionable  girl  in  an  institution  where  she  is  likely 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  393 

to  get  into  conversation  with  hystericals,  victims  of  fear, 
etc.  Morphinomaniacs  may  also  be  dangerous  companions, 
and  I  know  of  patients  who,  having  stayed  in  an  institute  on 
account  of  some  neurasthenic  trouble,  have  there  become  per- 
verted to  the  morphia  habit.  The  essential  thing  in  every 
institute  is  the  spirit  that  pervades  it,  and  that  depends  more 
especially  on  the  doctor  who  has  the  post  of  medical  director. 
But  even  where  the  conditions  are  most  favourable  we  must 
not  expect  miracles  to  be  worked.  There  are  many  cases  in 
which  the  disappointment  is  all  the  greater  because  the  symp- 
toms that  disappeared  while  the  patient  was  being  treated 
break  out  afresh  when  he  leaves  the  place.  A  balance  must 
be  struck  between  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  treat- 
ment in  an  institute,  and  it  is  for  the  doctor  to  find  out  which 
is  the  right  establishment  in  each  particular  case. 

Just  now  I  made  mention  of  the  danger  of  mental  infection 
occurring  in  institutions.  It  may  also  happen  outside  such 
establishments,  especially  in  the  consultant's  waiting-room.  I 
will  take  traumatic  neurosis  as  an  example.  It  only  requires 
one  such  patient  to  describe  his  sufferings  and  their  cause  for 
a  number  of  others  at  once  to  imagine  they  are  suffering  in  the 
same  way,  because  they  have  met  with  an  accident  at  some 
time,  or  at  least  think  they  have.  In  the  same  way  we  often 
observe  that  many  a  waiting-room  in  the  out-patients'  depart- 
ment of  a  busy  hospital,  for  instance,  is  a  very  hot-bed  of 
"traumatic  neuroses."  Of  course  there  are  many  other  oppor- 
tunities for  morbid  symptoms  to  be  created  in  a  similar  way; 
we  can  never  entirely  exclude  this  possibility;  but  we  are 
bound,  as  doctors,  to  bear  it  in  mind  and  do  our  best  to  avoid 
the  risk  of  any  such  danger  arising.  We  are  sometimes  able 
to  do  this  by  requesting  patients  who,  for  instance,  are  likely 
to  prove  dangerous  to  others,  only  to  visit  us  at  times  when 
they  will  find  nobody  in  the  waiting-room.  Of  course,  we 
should  not  go  so  far  as  to  attempt  to  prevent  every  possible 
kind  of  injurious  influence;  we  are  not  able  to  do  this,  and  it 
would  be  opposed  to  a  wise  system  of  psycho-hygienics. 

Finally,  I  must  mention  religion  as  the  most  effective 
psycho-therapeutic  remedy  we  possess.  I  do  not  mean  those 
forms  of  religion  that  involve  superstitious  practices,  because 
they  may  prove  injurious  by  causing  the  necessary  somato- 
therapeutic  to  be  neglected,  although  they  do  at  times  have  a 
therapeutic  effect;  what  I  really  mean   is  the  religion   that 


394  HYPNOTISM. 

enables  a  patient  to  face  even  the  most  terrible  situations  with 
equanimity.  There  must  always  be  cases  in  which  the  disease 
is  either  incurable  or  to  an  extent  stationary  or  progressive, 
where  the  patient  can  no  longer  be  buoyed  up  by  any  influence 
his  doctor  can  bring  to  bear.  In  these  cases  religious  belief 
is  the  best  medicine  for  the  patient.  When  a  patient  says, 
"  The  Lord  our  God  must  indeed  love  me,  or  he  would  not 
inflict  such  sufliering  on  ine,''  a  doctor  cannot  but  reflect,  as 
Loewenfeld  rightly  insists,  that  he  can  never  provide  a  patient 
with  such  consolation  from  any  other  source. 

I  have  intentionally  abstained  from  going  any  farther  into 
the  indications  for  the  employment  of  psycho-therapeutics. 
The  examples  I  have  already  given  show  that  it  is  as  well- 
calculated  to  satisfy  the  indicatio  causalis  as  it  is  to  fulfil  the 
indicatio  morbi  and  the  indicatio  symptomatica.  But  we  must 
be  very  careful  in  our  delineation  of  these  indications.  It  is 
frequently  assumed  that  in  cases  of  functional  disease  all  that 
is  requisite  is  to  satisfy  the  indicatio  causalis  or  even  the  indicatio 
morbi. 

It  is  generally  admitted  in  the  present  day  that  the  use  of 
psycho-therapeutics  is  more  frequently  indicated  than  was  the 
case  twenty  years  ago,  when  it  was  thought  desirable  to  limit 
its  application  entirely  to  hysteria.  There  is  hardly  any  disease 
in  which  it  does  not  play  a  part.  This  applies  as  much  to 
functional  diseases  as  to  organic  ones,  to  curable  as  well  as  to 
incurable,  or  to  stationary  or  progressive,  acute  or  chronic 
maladies.  The  way  in  which  psycho-therapeutics  has  come  to 
be  looked  on  in  the  present  as  an  important  factor  in  the 
treatment  of  exactly  the  severest  diseases,  proceeds  from  the 
recognition  that  the  care  of  the  sick  now  enjoys,  the  influence 
of  which  on  a  patient's  mind  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Even 
in  surgical  cases  in  which  a  superficial  judge  would  consider 
psycho-therapeutics  superfluous,  it  really  plays  a  great  part. 
Klaussner  has  called  attention  to  this  in  a  small  pamphlet. 
A  very  essential  point  is  how  a  surgeon  makes  his  preparations 
for  an  operation;  whether  he  selects  his  instrument  in  the 
presence  of  the  patient,  or  whether  the  latter  hears  the  cries  of 
pain  emitted  by  others  or  even  sees  the  blood  of  those  who 
have  just  been  operated  on.  All  these  matters  come  within 
the  scope  of  psycho-therapeutics  and  have  been  much  too  long 
neglected.     Of  course,  the  object  for  which  a  doctor  employs 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  395 

psycho-therapeutic  remedies  will  be  different  in  each  particular 
case.  Sometimes  psycho-therapeutics,  for  example,  praxi- 
therapeutics,  will  be  employed  to  prevent  the  patient  being 
conscious  of  his  disease,  sometimes  to  cure  the  disease 
itselfl  The  form  of  mental  influence  to  be  used  must  be 
so  chosen  as  to  suit  not  only  the  nature  of  the  disease 
but  the  patient's  individuality  as  well.  Age  and  sex,  finan- 
cial conditions  and  social  position,  nationality,  temperament, 
character  and  degree  of  culture,  religious  belief,  and  many 
other  facts  are  all  determinants  in  the  selection  of  the  kind  of 
influence  to  be  employed.  A  simple  talking-to  by  the  doctor 
without  any  other  accessory  sufi&ces  in  the  case  of  a  child 
(Comby),  but  it  may  be  much  more  difficult  to  make  an  impres- 
sion on  a  grown-up  person.  With  weak-minded  persons  we  shall 
have  to  pursue  a  different  course  to  that  we  should  take  with 
the  intelligent;  but  no  doctor  has  ever  any  right  to  neglect 
psycho-therapeutics.  From  the  age  at  which  a  human  being 
becomes  susceptible  to  mental  influence  down  to  the  hour 
when  he  is  lying  unconscious  in  the  death-agony,  psycho-thera- 
peutics has  to  be  taken  into  account.  Indeed,  in  respect  to 
the  latter  point,  I  must  draw  special  attention  to  the  fact  that 
a  dying  person  is  in  most  urgent  need  of  the  psycho-therapeutic 
influence  of  the  doctor  and  of  those  at  the  bedside,  and  that 
those  somatic  influences — injections  of  camphor,  for  instance, 
and  all  the  other  tortures  to  which  the  dying  are  so  often 
subjected — are,  in  numerous  cases,  quite  opposed  to  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  psycho-therapeutics  and  humanity.  I  also 
take  this  opportunity  of  giving  a  word  of  warning  against 
assuming  that  the  death-agony  is  accompanied  by  unconscious- 
ness in  cases  in  which  the  patient  may  possibly  still  be 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  those  around  him.  Solicitude 
for  the  dying  person's  peaceful  passing  (euthanasia)  opens  up 
a  wide  field  to  psycho-therapeutics.  I  have  discussed  this  point 
in  great  detail  in  my  work  Arztliche  Ethik, 

It  follows  from  the  foregoing  explanations  that  the  use  of 
psycho-therapeutic  influence  is  not  limited  solely  to  specialists. 
I  must  here  refer  the  reader  to  what  I  said  about  medical 
specialists  for  hypnotic  treatment  on  page  326  ^/  seq.  But  there 
are  certainly  many  cases  in  which  a  doctor  who  has  made  a 
speciality  of  psycho-therapeutics  is  better  suited  to  carry  out 
the  treatment  than  another,  but  every  other  doctor,  whether  he 
is  engaged  in  general  practice  or  in  some  special  branch  of 


396  HYPNOTISM. 

medicine,  is  bound  to  have  many  opportunities  for  employing 
psycho-therapeutic  influence.  In  many  cases  certain  quite 
definite  factors  also  play  a  part.  Thus  there  are  cases  in 
which  a  doctor  who  is  almost  a  stranger  is  able  to  exert  a 
greater  influence  than  one  who  is  a  friend  of  the  patient.  It 
is  an  old  story  that  when  a  doctor  is  on  intimate  terms  with 
his  patient,  his  influence  on  the  latter  is  frequently  lessened, 
though  it  sometimes  happens  that  old  acquaintanceship  in- 
creases the  influence.  Take  the  case  of  a  family  doctor  who 
has  attended  the  same  family  for  twenty  years,  seen  its  members 
in  happiness  and  in  suffering,  watched  the  children  grow  up, 
been  consulted  on  all  serious  matters  of  health,  and  without 
whose  knowledge  no  other  doctor  has  ever  been  called  in.  We 
can  well  understand  that  such  a  family  doctor  is  often  able  to 
exert  the  very  strongest  influence  on  such  patients.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  doctor  who  is  a  family  doctor  in  name  only,  but 
who  in  reality  occupies  the  degraded  position  of  advertising 
agent  to  specialists,  hydropathic  establishments  and  sanatoria, 
can  never  under  any  circumstances  be  calculated  to  exercise 
such  influence.  It  often  happens  that  a  doctor,  whose  reputa- 
tion for  special  skill  has  preceded  him  and  whose  extensive 
practice  forbids  the  devotion  of  sufficient  time  to  each  patient, 
oi)tains  the  best  results ;  his  every  word  seems  a  revelation  to 
the  patient.  There  are  many  other  cases  in  which  it  is  much 
better  for  a  patient — a  neurasthenic  with  all  kinds  of  hypochon- 
driacal troubles,  for  instance — to  seek  the  advice  of  a  doctor 
who  can  devote  sufficient  time  to  his  case  to  go  into  all  bis 
complaints,  and  who  can  also  direct  him  to  some  occupation 
and  activity.  But  this  will  generally  have  to  be  a  doctor  who 
is  not  very  busily  employed. 

Of  course,  a  doctor  should  not  bide  by  a  mere  schematic 
use  of  the  psycho-therapeutic  remedies  that  have  been  described, 
or  even  think  that  he  has  only  to  use  one  of  them  at  a  time. 
It  has  only  been  my  intention  to  give  a  general  sketch  of  the 
question,  and  I  have  consequently  omitted  many  details.  As 
a  rule,  a  doctor  will  not  merely  combine  mental  with  psychic 
treatment,  but  will  employ  several  mentally  curative  factors 
simultaneously.  I  have  already  repeatedly  touched  on  this 
question.  When  a  doctor  intends,  for  instance,  to  use  volitional 
therapeutics  or  praxi-therapeutics  he  ought,  almost  invariably, 
to  explain  to  the  patient  the  importance  of  such  methods  in 
the  treatment  of  his  disease — /.^.,  instructional  therapeutics 


THE  MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  397 

should  precede  volitional  therapeutics.  It  often  happens  that 
hypnotic  treatment  cannot  be  employed  until  its  character  has 
been  explained  to  the  patient.  Also  we  are  not  always  able 
to  separate  the  action  of  the  emotions,  more  especially  that  of 
expectant  attention,  from  the  action  of  suggestion.  For  this 
the  numerous  holy  shrines  visited  by  so  many  pilgrims,  and  of 
which  Lourdes  is  the  most  famous  in  Europe,  afford  an  admir- 
able field  of  observation.  It  was  at  La  Bonne  Sainte  Anne  in 
Quebec,  where  sick  people  have  resorted  for  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  which  is  even  now  visited  yearly 
by  several  thousand  Catholic  pilgrims,  that  I  was  able  to  obtain 
the  clearest  insight  into  the  manifold  nature  of  the  influences 
at  work.  For  a  long  time  beforehand  the  patients  are  prepared 
for  the  journey  and  filled  with  hopes  of  its  results.  Intercourse 
with  the  other  patients,  the  influence  of  religious  exercises, 
especially  of  prayer  and  the  impressive  services  of  the  Church, 
each  of  these  produces  its  effect  Patients  may  be  seen  praying 
fervently  before  the  numerous  ex  voto  crutches  offered  by  their 
lame  and  spectacles  by  their  blind  predecessors. 

Similarly,  we  shall  often  find  it  necessary  in  scientific  medicine 
to  combine  mental  remedies  with  others. 

In  many  cases  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  use  psycho- 
therapeutics for  preventive  purposes  in  the  form  of  psycho- 
hygiene.  O.  Binswanger  rightly  advises  that  children  who  are 
disposed  to  hysteria  should  early  be  subjected  to  a  process  of 
mental  hardening.  We  should  begin  as  early  as  possible  to  com- 
bat their  timidity  and  nervous  fears,  and  carefully  avoid  any  but 
class-instruction,  since  it  is  constant  emulation  with  companions 
of  their  own  age  which  will  best  combat  their  morbid  egoism 
and  self-will  and  reduce  their  hyper-sensitiveness  to  a  normal 
degree.  Much  modern  agitation  against  over-pressure  in  schools 
may  easily  lead  to  very  serious  results.  I  have  already  alluded 
to  this  in  my  work  on  Der  Einfluss  des  grosstädtiscken  Lebens 
und  des  Verkehrs  auf  das  Nervensystem  (The  Influence  of 
Public  Life  and  Business  on  the  Nervous  System).  Perpetual 
public  discussion  of  the  so-called  over-pressure  in  schools  must 
in  the  end  enervate  the  pupils  and  diminish  their  powers  of 
resistance.  There  are  cases  known  to  me  in  which  children* 
have  excused  their  laziness  under  the  pretext  of  over-pressure, 
the  dangers  of  which  they  knew  had  been  recognized  by  medical 
men  !  Without  entering  into  the  question  of  the  injury  done  to 
education    by  thus  undermining  the  respect    in  which   the 


398  HYPNOTISM. 

scholars  should  hold  their  school,  I  for  my  part  consider  that 
the  published  accounts  of  such  discussions,  which  young  people 
only  too  readily  read,  do  them  on  the  one  hand  more  harm  by 
debilitating  them,  than  they  can  on  the  other  ever  repair. 
Instead  of  considering  external  stimulus  a  danger  and  exag- 
gerating its  importance,  it  is  a  far  better  plan  to  endeavour  to 
render  children,  and  adults  too,  capable  of  offering  resistance 
by  accustoming  them  to  the  action  of  certain  stimuli. 

I  must  here  point  out  the  dangers  to  psycho-hygiene  that 
generally  arise  from  modem  hygiene.  It  frequently  happens 
that  the  good  hygiene  was  going  to  do  results  in  evil,  and  for 
this  many  a  bacillus-hunter  is  to  blame.  Eschle  reminds  us 
that  Rosenbach  gave  warning  of  this  danger  fifteen  years  ago. 
Every  opportunity  seems  to  be  taken  of  harassing  the  public 
with  the  fear  of  infection;  now  it  is  books  from  the  lending 
library,  now  combs,  or  knives. and  forks  that  the  hygienists 
denounce  as  dangerous.  But  apart  from  the  fact  that  these 
dangers  are  often  exaggerated  and  frequently  unavoidable,  since 
human  beings  must  do  business  with  one  another  and  each  of 
us  cannot  shut  himself  up  in  his  own  isolation-hut,  this  creation 
of  scares  is  very  reprehensible  from  a  psycho-hygienic  point  of 
view.  It  has  brought  about  such  a  dread  of  infection  as  to 
amount  to  a  veritable  mental  epidemic  Of  course  we  ought 
not  to  ignore  the  teachings  of  hygiene,  but  we  should  never 
press  them  so  far  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  a  man  to  touch 
anything  or  transact  any  business  without  nervously  inquiring 
"What  danger  am  I  running  into?"  The  care  of  the  mind  is  as 
much  the  purport  of  a  true  system  of  hygiene  as  that  of  the 
body,  and  that  is  a  point  which  our  hygienists  should  take 
into  consideration.  Instead  of  so  doing,  some  of  them  are 
much  too  addicted  to  giving  the  greatest  publicity  to  the  results 
of  laboratory-research,  with  the  result  that  the  public  is  thrown 
into  an  unhealthy  state  of  constantly  dreading  infectioa 

We  must  as  carefully  guard  against  any  exaggeration  where 
psycho-therapeutics  is  concerned  as  in  the  case  of  any  other 
therapeutic  measures.  Finot  thinks  we  ought  to  be  able  to 
prolong  life;  it  is  auto-suggestion  produced  by  constantly 
thinking  of  death  that  causes  people  to  die  earlier  than  they 
should.  He  mentions  Spitzka's  observation  that  many  people 
die  after  starving  for  two  or  three  days,  although  investigation 
of  the  cases  of  fasting  men  like  Succi  and  Tanner  has  shown 
that  it  is  possible  to  live  without  food  much  longer  than  that. 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  399 

Cases  have,  indeed,  been  cited  in  which  people  are  said  to  have 
died  because  they  feared  that  they  were  going  to  be  killed. 
In  those  cases  in  which  people  quickly  succumb  to  starvation, 
Finot  ascribes  the  early  death  of  the  subjects  to  auto-suggestion 
and  fear.  But  we  should  be  very  careful  in  drawing  such 
conclusions,  and  it  is  always  a  great  mistake  to  generalize  from 
isolated  observations.  Experience  has  shown  that  even  when 
the  conditions  are  very  unfavourable,  as  in  cases  of  shipwreck 
or  of  explosions  in  mines,  where  the  fear  of  death  puts  every- 
thing else  in  the  background,  life  may  be  maintained  for  a  very 
long  time  even  without  food.  But  although  these  facts  prove 
that  the  mental  influences  in  question  have  no  such  general 
tendency  to  shorten  life  as  people  are  inclined  to  assume  from 
the  reports  they  have  read  of  isolated  cases,  we  ought  not  to 
fall  into  the  error  of  seeing  perchance  in  auto-suggestion  an 
essential  means  of  prolonging  life.  And  further,  our  anta- 
gonism to  exaggeration  and  capricious  fancies  should  never 
lead  us  to  disregard  the  therapeutic  importance  of  mental 
influence. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  mention  all  the  details  of 
psycho-therapeutics  in  a  single  chapter,  and  out  of  the 
question  to  attempt  to  give  instruction  in  them.  The  space 
at  our  command  would  not  suffice  for  the  former  purpose, 
and  the  latter  can  never  be  fully  accomplished.  But  it  must  be 
said  that  the  personality  of  the  practitioner  plays  an  essential 
part,  and  the  characteristics  that  go  to  make  a  good  psycho- 
therapeutist  are  partly  innate,  partly  acquired.  They  may  be 
developed  later  on,  but  cannot  be  created.  It  is  upon  such 
characteristics — patience,  quickness  of  perception,  presence  of 
mind,  knowledge  of  human  nature,  power  of  individualizing — 
that  much  of  the  success  obtained  by  laymen  depends.  There 
are  personal  characteristics  that  make  a  man  a  born  psycho- 
therapeutist.  This  is  not  merely  a  question  of  the  suggestive 
force  that  emanates  from  them,  but  of  the  far-reaching  nature 
of  the  influence  they  exert.  This  is  often  as  impossible  to 
analyze  as  many  other  reciprocal  human  relations.  Certainly, 
suggestive  influence  begotten  of  confidence  plays  a  great  part 
here :  but  we  are  not  always  able  to  trace  the  origin  of  the 
confidence.  It  often  happens  that  the  confidence  of  new 
patients  is  due  to  the  doctor's  scientific  reputation  having  pre- 
ceded him;  in  others,  to  his  successes  being  known.  But 
confidence  need  not  be  due  to  success.    A  doctor  often  gains 


400  HYPNOTISM. 

a  great  reputation  for  skill  without  bis  knowing  the  reason. 
He  is. often  told,  to  his  astonishment,  that  cases  he  has  con- 
sidered failures  were  successes,  or  that  little  impression  has 
been  produced  by  what  he  considered  a  brilliant  result 
Patients'  minds,  and  more  especially  their  logic,  are  often  the 
most  enigmatical  things  a  doctor  has  to  deal  with.  I  remember 
a  patient  whom  I  tried  to  cure  of  a  nervous  gastro-enteritic 
trouble,  not  only  by  means  of  all  kinds  of  physical  and  chemical 
remedies  but  also  by  mental  treatment  I  considered  the 
case  a  complete  failure,  and  yet  shortly  afterwards  a  number 
of  people  came  to  me  from  the  district  in  which  that  patient 
lived  and  begged  I  would  help  them  as  I  had  helped  their 
neighbour.  They  said  my  treatment  had  cured  him  of 
neuralgia.  But  the  man  had  never  complained  to  me  of 
neuralgia.  Whether  he  really  suffered  from  neuralgia  in  the 
first  instance,  or,  as  is  easily  conceived,  imagined  so  later  on, 
through  some  misconception,  I  cannot  tell. 

The  wider  a  doctor's  knowledge  of  human  nature  the  grater 
his  presence  of  mind  and  the  better  he  is  able  to  individualize 
— the  latter  is  an  art  that  is  also  given  to  but  few — ^the 
greater  will  his  psycho-therapeutic  successes  be.  Things  that 
apparently  have  no  great  significance  become  important 
remedies  in  the  hands  of  an  able  doctor.  Many  a  patient — a 
man,  for  example,  suffering  from  the  fixed  idea  that  he  is 
going  out  of  his  mind — requires  to  be  told  frequently  by  the 
doctor  that  the  whole  thing  is  merely  an  utterly  groundless 
fixed  idea;  whilst  in  another  case  the  constant  repetition  may 
prove  injurious  and  only  weaken  the  impression  intended  to 
be  made.  An  occasional  visit  to  the  doctor  should  be  insisted 
on  in  the  case  of  many  patients  merely  to  report  progress,  and 
not  for  the  purpose  of  securing  fresh  advice.  I  have  thus 
found  it  a  very  salutary  measure  in  many  cases  of  alcoholism 
to  insist  on  the  patients  paying  me  a  regular  visit  on  a  stated 
day,  every  quarter  or  half-year,  in  order  to  let  me  know  how 
they  had  been  going  on  in  the  interval.  The  value  of  this 
procedure  may  also  be  observed  in  cases  of  sexual  perversion. 
The  sense  of  moral  responsibility  awakened  in  the  patient  by 
the  doctor's  display  of  confidence  may  act  in  these  cases  as  a 
strong  preventive  against  temptation.  I  am  told  that  in  one 
establishment  for  inebriates  the  patients,  on  obtaining  their 
discharge,  receive  a  small  ribbon,  which  they  pledge  their 
word  of  honour  to  return  directly  they  relapse  into  their  former 


THE   MEDICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  401 

drunken  habits.  Even  such  an  apparently  unimportant  matter 
as  wearing  a  bit  of  ribbon  may  exert  a  very  great  influence. 
The  relative  importance  of  verbal  and  written  instruction 
should  also  be  carefully  borne  in  mind.  It  may  at  times  be 
desirable  that  medical  advice  should  be  imparted  in  the  form 
of  a  written  communication.  If,  for  instance,  one  wishes  to 
induce  the  patient  to  engage  in  serious  work,  a  much  better 
result  will  be  obtained  by  a  letter  to  that  effect  than  by  any 
verbal  instructions  given  in  the  consulting-room.  Similarly, 
experience  teaches  that  written  instructions  as  to  diet  are 
carried  out  more  implicitly  than  mere  verbal  advice  on  that 
question.  In  other  cases,  instruction  by  word  of  mouth  proves 
more  effectual.  Even  here,  things  that  are  apparently  of  no 
moment  are  really  of  the  greatest  importance.  To  tell  one  of 
the  people  who  accompany  the  patient  what  the  latter  should 
do  often  creates  a  greater  impression  than  addressing  the 
patient  himself.  In  short,  things  that  appear  insignificant  from 
the  standpoint  of  physiology  and  physics  are  often  of  funda- 
mental import  to  the  psychologist.  This  is  the  reason  why 
every  attempt  hitherto  made  to  give  a  physiological  explanation 
of  mental  processes  was  foredoomed  to  failure.  I  refer  the 
reader  to  what  I  said  on  this  point  on  page  278.  The  more 
medicine  takes  this  to  heart,  the  better  able  will  it  be  to 
perfect  psycho-therapeutics,  and  this  is  an  absolute  necessity. 
Even  '^{  it  be  not  possible  to  teach  all  the  details  of  the  system, 
every  doctor  should  be  as  well  acquainted  with  its  fundamental 
principles  as  with  those  of  other  methods  of  treatment.  When 
these  facts  come  to  be  fully  recognized,  we  shall  achieve  results 
utterly  unattainable  at  a  time  when  the  medical  profession 
neglected  psychology  and  psycho-therapeutics. 


26 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   LEGAL   ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOTISM. 

Some  of  the  old  adherents  of  animal  magnetism — Kieser,  for 
instance,  and  later  on  Charpignon — already  recognized  the 
legal  importance  of  the  subject.  Thus  the  commission  which 
investigated  the  matter  in  Deslon's  time,  besides  their  official 
verdict,  sent  in  a  private  report  to  the  king,  brought  to  light 
apparently  by  the  Revolution,  in  which  they  point  out  the 
special  dangers  by  which  it  seemed  to  them  morality  was 
threatened.  Liebeault  also  thoroughly  discussed  this  question 
from  the  standpoint  of  hypnotism  in  his  book  in  1866,  and 
his  explanations  are  very  valuable  even  now.  Gilles  de  la 
Tourette,  Li^geois,  and  especially  Forel,  Lilienthal,  Bentivegni, 
Drucker,  Heberle,  Loos,  Reden,  Bonjean,  Reese,  Mesnet, 
Neumeister  and  Halgan  have  since  studied  the  legal  side  of 
the  question. 

The  first  point  I  shall  consider  is  the  relation  of  hypnosis  to 
crime,  and  I  shall,  as  is  customary,  distinguish  between  crimes 
committed  on,  and  by,  hypnotic  subjects. 

Of  course  all  those  crimes  that  can  be  committed  on  a 
person  in  a  waking  state  are  equally  perpetrable  on  the 
hypnotic.  But  some  crimes  are  particularly  interesting  in 
this  respect,  and  of  such  I  must  give  the  first  place  to  offences 
against  morality.  F.  C.  Müller  supposes  that  the  fact  that  but 
few  such  cases  have  hitherto  come  to  the  notice  of  the  law  is 
accounted  for  by  loss  of  memory,  the  subject  being  usually 
unaware  of  them.  But  Forel's  supposition  seems  to  me  more 
probable;  the  experimenters  know  quite  well  that  the  per* 
manence  of  the  loss  of  memory  is  not  to  be  relied  on.  They 
are  also  well  aware  that  the  subject  may  unexpectedly  remember 
the  occurrences  of  former  hypnoses.  Liegeois,  who  certainly 
seems  to  have  exaggerated  the  danger,  suggested  a  kind  of 
moral  preventive  inoculation.     According  to  him,  everybody 

402 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.  403 

should  be  tested  as  to  their  susceptibility  to  deep  hypnosis, 
and  the  susceptibles  should  have  it  suggested  to  them  that 
no  one  will  ever  be  sfble  to  hypnotize  them. 

From  time  to  time  a  whole  series  of  such  cases  have  been 
the  subject  of  judicial  investigation.  In  a  case  published  by 
Wolfram  in  182 1,  a  doctor  was  accused  of  having  assaulted  a 
woman  during  the  magnetic  sleep^  and  of  having  endeavoured 
to  avoid  the  consequences  by  procuring  abortion,  but  when 
brought  to  justice  he  was  acquitted.  Liegeois  has  collected 
in  his  book,  De  la  Suggestion^  a  series  of  cases  that  occurred 
in  France ;  others  are  to  be  found  in  Golddammer's  Archiv  for 
1863,  and  in  F.  C.  Miiller's  book,  Die  Fsycho-patkologie  des 
Bewusstseins,  The  number  would  be  slightly  increased  if  some 
cases  of  auto-somnambulism  were  counted  among  them. 

Iwill  only  mention  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  cases. 

One  case  mentioned  by  Liegeois  is  that  of  a  professional 
raagnetizer  of  Marseilles,  who,  in  1853,  assaulted  a  girl  in  the 
magnetic  sleep.  The  experts,  Coste  and  Broquier,  with  whom 
the  well-known  authorities  on  medical  jurisprudence,  Devergie 
and  Tardieu,  agreed,  gave  their  opinion  that  a  magnetized 
subject  might  be  assaulted  against  her  will  and  without  her 
consciousness.  The  case  of  Castellan  in  1865,  reported  by 
Prosper  Despine,  is  better  known.  Liegeois  refers  the  case  to 
suggestion;  Castellan  must  have  suggested  to  his  victim, 
Josephine  H.,  to  love  him,  trust  him,  etc.  But  we  can  quite 
well  understand  what  happened  without  referring  to  any  special 
suggestive  influence ;  it  was  merely  a  case  of  rape  committed 
on  a  hypnotic.  Castellan  was  condemned  to  twelve  years' 
penal  servitude  upon  the  report  drawn  up  by  Roux  and  Auban, 
with  whom  the  doctors  Heriart,  Paulet,  and  Theus  were 
associated. 

The  Levy  case,  in  1869,  is  also  interesting.  A  dentist  of 
Rouen,  named  Levy,  was  charged  with  assaulting  a  girl,  B.,  in 
the  magnetic  sleep.  The  case  is  remarkable,  because  the  girPs 
mother  was  present  and  noticed  nothing.  Levy  had  placed 
his  dentist's  chair  so  that  what  he  was  doing  could  not  be 
seen.  Brouardel  gave  his  opinion  on  the  case  and  Levy  was 
imprisoned  for  ten  years.  But  the  case  certainly  gave  rise  to 
much  conjecture.  Levy  admitted  the  intimacy  but  denied 
that  he  had  hypnotized  the  girl :  she  was  perfectly  willing.  As 
KrafTt-Ebing  remarks,  "  it  is  impossible  to  decide  on  scientific 
grounds  whether  she  was  hypnotized  or  not"    Maschka  also 


404  HYPNOTISM. 

thinks  that  this  case  was  never  properly  cleared   up,  and 
Brouardel  evinced  some  doubts  at  the  trial. 

The  Mainone  case,  of  which  Schrenck-Notzing  has  given  a 
detailed  account,  has  recently  attracted  considerable  attention 
(1901).     Mainone,  who  advertised  in  the  papers  as  a  magneto- 
path  and  nature-doctor,  treated  a  certain  girl,  Marie  B.     He 
was  accused  of  inducing  her  to  illicit  intercourse  while  in  the 
hypnotic  state.     Although  all  the  specialists  called  in,  including 
Schrenck-Notzing,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  girl  was  an 
unwilling  participant  in  the  act,  the  jury  acquitted  the  defend- 
ant.    Obviously  the  weak-minded  Marie  B.  did  not  strike  the 
jury  as  being  a  particularly  reliable  witness,  especially  concern- 
ing events  supposed    to    have  taken    place  while  she   was 
hypnotized.      Quite  recently  a  magnetopath  in   Hanover  was 
accused  of  assaulting  two  girls  whom  he  had  deprived  of  will- 
power by  hypnosis.     The  trial,  at  which  Bruns,  Schwabe,  and 
Delius  appeared   as  experts,  ended    in   the   prisoner   being 
condemned  for  an  attempted  offence  against  morality.     In  a 
case  reported  from  Buda-Pesth,  in  1901,  a  woman  was  said  to 
have  been  seduced   by  being  shown  a  photograph,  with  the 
result  that  she  became  neurotic.      A  few  years  ago  a  manu- 
facturer of  bicycles  in  Vienna  was  punished  for  seducing  several 
girls  while  they  were  in  the  hypnotic  state.     A  case  of  this 
kind  occurred  in  Berne,  in  1903,  in  which  a  nature-doctor,  R., 
was  accused  of  committing  a  number  of  assaults  on  girls.     R. 
was  convicted  of  hypnotizing  and  assaulting,  while  they  were 
unconscious,  girls  and  married  women  who  came  to  him  to  be 
treated  for  some  disease  or  other.     Some  of  the  witnesses  in 
the  case  had  been  assaulted  by  R.  years  before,  and  when 
asked  by  the  judge  why  they  had  not  complained  to  the  police 
at  the  tin^e,  replied  that  R.  had  forbidden  them  to  do  so.     As 
a  proof  that  such  a  command  may  retain  its  force  for  a  time, 
at  least,  without  the  aid  of  hypnosis,  I  should  like  to  call 
attention  to  the  number  of  cases  in  which  children  are  forbidden 
by  servants  to  tell  their  parents  certain  things.     Parents  would 
often  be  very  much  surprised  if  they  were  only  aware  what  | 

their  children  know  but  conceal  from  them  at  a  servant's 
bidding.  Even  a  grown-up  person  sometimes  feels  so  swayed 
by  another  that  he  obeys  the  latter's  order  not  to  disclose 
anything. 

I  was  once  called  in  as  an  expert  in  the  case  of  a  charlatan 
who  advertised    that    he   treated  disease  by  suggestion   and 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS   OF  HYPNOTISM.  405 

hypnosis.  He  was  accused  of  having  forced  several  women  to 
sleep  with  him.  In  one  of  the  cases  the  examining  magistrate 
had  so  strong  a  suspicion  that  the  victim  had  been  hypnotized, 
that  he  asked  me  at  the  outset  of  the  examination  to  make  a 
very  careful  investigation  of  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
After  taking  every  point  into  consideration,  I  was  only  able  to 
state  that  in  all  probability  an  attempt  had  been  made  to 
hypnotize  the  woman,  but  that  I  could  not  assert  that  hypnosis 
had  been  induced.  The  accused,  who  was  very  importunate 
the  first  time  the  patient  visited  him,  had  on  the  second 
occasion  suddenly  seized  her  by  the  shoulders,  placed  her 
hands  on  his  shoulders,  then  stared  hard  at  her,  forced  her 
towards  the  sofa,  and  finally  thrown  her  on  it.  At  the  same 
time  she  stared  at  him.  The  whole  procedure  was  reminiscent 
of  fascination  (cf,  p.  73).  When  we  consider  what  the  accused 
did,  and  all  the  other  facts  that  came  out  during  the  investiga- 
tion, we  can  only  conclude  that  at  the  most  an  attempt  at 
hypnosis  had  been  made. 

There  are,  moreover,  cases  in  which  girls  assert  they  have 
been  assaulted,  although  nothing  of  the  kind  has  taken  place. 
Some  of  these  appear  to  be  the  result  of  auto-suggestion.  It 
may  have  been  so  in  a  case  in  which  the  public  prosecutor 
referred  to  me  about  a  report  sent  in  by  my  locum  tenens^  Dr. 
Hirschlaff,  during  my  absence,  and  that  led  to  the  matter 
being  discussed.  A  girl  had  told  Dr.  Hirschlaff  that  she  had 
been  hypnotized  and  rendered  enceinte  by  some  man. 
Hirschlaff  then  hypnotized  her  himself  and  was  convinced 
from  the  detailed  statements  she  made  in  hypnosis  that  there 
was  no  objective  ground  whatever  for  the  charge.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  the  girl  believed  the  charge  to  be  true  even  when 
she  was  in  the  waking  state.  The  case  reported  by  William 
Lee  Howard  was  probably  of  a  similar  nature.  Two  girls  who 
were  employed  by  a  travelling  hypnotizer  in  his  experiments, 
fell  into  a  condition  of  hysterical  auto-hypnosis,  and  accused 
Dr.  Picken  of  seducing  them  while  they  were  in  the  hypnotic 
state.  Judge  Bailey  applied  to  Howard,  who  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  case  was  one  of  auto-suggestive  iself- 
delusion. 

But  there  are  other  cases  in  which  there  is  nothing  of  the 
kind  last  mentioned:  the  woman  invents  the  hypnosis,  or  at 
least  the  rape,  simply  to  hide  a  faux-pas  she  has  made,  to 
extort  money,  to  make  herself  appear  interesting,  or  for  some 


406  HYPNOTISM. 

Other  reason.  Tardieu  had  already  seen  a  case  of  that  kind  in 
which  a  sixteen-year-old  girl  brought  an  obviously  false  charge. 
Another  case  of  this  nature  was  reported  on  by  Ladame  in 
Geneva  in  1882.  The  supposed  offender  was  acquitted,  as  the 
accusation  was  probably  false.  I  have  frequently  seen  such 
cases,  and  have  found  that  it  is  not  always  quite  easy  to  explain 
them.  A  case  that  came  before  the  court  in  a  town  of  South- 
west Germany  not  long  ago  was  obviously  difficult;  a  doctor 
was  charged  with  hypnotizing  a  young  girl  by  stroking  her 
forehead  and  then  behaving  indecently  to  her.  Edinger,  who 
was  called  as  an  expert  witness,  admitted  that  the  case  might 
possibly  be  one  of  auto-suggested  delusion.  Schrenck-Notzing 
has  also  published  a  case  in  which  a  hypnotized  child  was 
supposed  to  have  been  used  for  immoral  purposes.  But 
Schrenck-Notzing  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  a  case  of 
retro-active  falsification  of  the  memory,  or  perhaps  even  of 
conscious  simulation.  Certainly  we  must  exercise  great  care 
before  assuming  that  there  is  conscious  lying  on  the  part  of 
the  accuser  in  such  a  case.  The  confused  notions  of  hypnosis 
and  suggestion  that  are  still  so  prevalent  make  it  quite  possible 
for  a  woman  to  mistake  intense  sexual  excitement  for  hypnosis, 
and  this  appears  all  the  more  likely  when  we  come  to  consider 
that  sexual  excitement,  when  artificially  aroused,  renders  a  girl 
quite  as  incapable  of  offering  resistance  as  hypnosis  or  sugges- 
tion. Of  course,  from  the  human  point  of  view  we  may  be 
charitably  inclined  in  such  cases,  but  as  experts  we  must 
rigidly  distinguish  between  them  and  hypnoses.  Czynski's  case, 
tried  at  Munich  in  December  1894,  belongs  here.  Czynski, 
who  had  studied  hypnosis  and  animal  magnetism,  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Baroness  X.  He  was  charged  with  seducing 
her  by  means  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  This  was  followed 
by  a  sham  marriage  ceremony  performed  by  one  of  his  ac- 
quaintances, a  man  named  Wartalsky.  The  jury  acquitted 
Czynski  of  having  committed  an  offence  against  morality,  but 
he  was  condemned  to  three  years'  imprisonment  for  his  con- 
duct in  respect  of  the  mock  marriage.  The  opinions  expressed 
by  the  experts  engaged  in  the  case  were  somewhat  at  variance. 
Grashey  took  up  the  standpoint  that  the  baroness's  love  was 
not  normal,  but  hypnotic;  her  love  was  aroused  by  Czynski's 
declaration  of  love,  which  he  made  while  she  was  in  hypnosis. 
Although  Schrenck-Notzing  and  Preyer  expressed  the  same 
view,  I  think  that  Hirt  was  right  in  ascribing  very  little  im- 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  407 

portance  to  hypnosis  in  this  case.  To  my  mind  the  most 
probable  explanation  is  that  the  baroness  did  fall  in  love  with 
Czynski,  and  that  the  question  of  hypnosis  was  only  introduced 
into  the  case  later  on  when  it  became  known  that  the  accused 
had  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  that  subject.  He  may 
possibly  have  made  use  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion ;  but  I  do 
not  think  that  was  necessary,  considering  the  terms  on  which 
the  parties  stood.  But  attention  must  certainly  be  called  to 
the  dangers  of  exaggeration  where  hypnosis  is  concerned,  and 
this  view  is  in  nowise  affected  by  the  fact  that  the  relatives  of 
a  girl  who  has  been  criminally  assaulted,  and  very  often  the 
girl  herself,  are  firmly  convinced  that  she  was  hypnotized. 
Just  as  some  strong  perfume  used  to  be  considered  the  over- 
powering agent  in  cases  of  criminal  assault  in  the  train,  so 
nowadays  hypnosis  is  unjustly  blamed;  though  we  must  at  once 
admit  that  such  assaults  may  be,  and  frequently  have  been, 
made  during  hypnosis.  All  I  want  to  warn  against  is  the 
tendency  to  lend  too  ready  an  ear  to  such  reports. 

When  the  facts  of  any  such  case  are  clear,  the  legal  decision 
to  be  arrived  at  should  present  no  difficulties.  Here  the 
following  provisions  of  the  Criminal  Code  would  apply: — 

§  176,  Sec,  2. 

(2)  Any  man  who  has  criminal  connection  with  a  female  who  is  deprived 
of  will-power,  or  who  is  unconscious  or  insane,  shall  be  punished  with 
penal  servitude  up  to  ten  years. 

%^nof/he  Criminal  Code* 

Anybody  who  by  force  or  threats  enhancing  danger  to  life  and  limb 
forces  a  female  to  have  criminal  connection  with  him,  or  who  has  criminal 
connection  with  a  woman  whom  he  has  deprived  of  will-power  or  rendered 
unconscious  for  his  purpose,  shall  be  punished  with  penal  servitude. 

§  178  o/the  Criminal  Code, 

Should  any  of  the  acts  mentioned  in  §§  176  and  177  lead  to  the  death  of 
the  injured  party,  the  punishment  shall  be  penal  servitude  for  life,  or  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  ten  years. 

These  paragraphs  give  us  the  punishment  that  enforced 
illicit  intercourse  with  a  person  deprived  of  will  or  in  an  un- 
conscious state  entails.  But  even  if,  as  we  have  seen,  there  is 
no  question  of  unconsciousness  in  hypnosis,  but  only  of  a  dis- 
turbance of  consciousness,  and  also  that  the  deprivation  of  will 


408  HYPNOTISM. 

has  its  limits,  we  must  abide  by  the  phraseology  of  the  Criminal 
Code,  which  differs  from  that  of  psychology.  Different  mean- 
ings  are  given  to  the  idea  **  deprivation  of  will."  Casper  and 
Liman  thought  that  the  law  intended  by  the  term  "  deprivation 
of  will"  to  protect  persons  who  are  mentally  incapable  of 
understanding  the  criminal  nature  of  certain  acts.  This  would 
include  persons  who  are  easily  hypnotized.  Krafft-Ebing 
certainly  thinks  that  deprivation  of  will  as  mentioned  in  §  176, 
sec.  2,  should  be  limited  to  those  cases  in  which  it  is  physically 
impossible  for  the  person  assaulted  to  offer  resistance.  But 
since  a  physical  impediment  may  be  of  mental  origin — as,  for 
instance,  would  be  the  case  in  paralysis  caused  by  suggestion — 
this  interpretation  would  place  many  hypnotic  states  within  the 
meaning  of  the  paragraph.  Nevertheless,  other  cases  might 
present  difficulties.  The  question  of  deprivation  of  will  has 
recently  been  discussed  in  all  its  details  by  Aschaffenburg  in 
Hoche's  Handbuch  der  gerichtlichen  Psychiatrie,  Aschaffen- 
burg  contests  Becker's  definition  of  deprivation  of  will  as  a 
morbid  state  of  mental  activity  which  is  not  produced  by 
mental  disease,  but  in  which  free-will  cannot  be  exercised  in 
respect  to  certain  actions  (sexual  misuse  in  this  case),  and  he 
interprets  the  idea  of  deprivation  of  will  as  follows : — A  woman 
who  cannot  be  described  as  mentally  diseased,  but  whose 
bodily  and  mental  condition  renders  her  incapable  of  exercising 
her  will  in  respect  to  sexual  advances,  is  to  be  considered  as 
deprived  of  her  will-power.  At  the  same  time,  Aschaffenburg 
gives  a  definition  of  unconsciousness  that  implies  that  the 
inhibition  of  a  person's  power  of  resistance  must  depend  on 
the  state  of  his  consciousness.  At  all  events,  there  should  be 
no  difficulty  in  including  hypnosis  in  the  state  of  deprivation 
of  will  in  the  sense  of  the  above-mentioned  paragraphs.  In 
those  cases  of  deep  hypnosis  in  which,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
is  disturbance  of  self-consciousness,  a  state  of  unconsciousness 
of  the  nature  implied  in  those  paragraphs  would  necessarily 
have  to  be  admitted. 

It  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  decide  how  far  sexual  excitement  that 
is  artificially  produced  should  be  considered  a  condition  of  deprivation  of 
will  within  the  meaning  of  §§  176  and  177.  The  above  question  was  also 
discussed  by  me  in  the  case  I  have  already  mentioned,  in  which  I  was 
called  upon  to  express  an  expert  opinion  on  a  criminal  assault  that  had 
apparently  been  committed  on  a  girl  who  was  hypnotized,  on  account  of 
the  manipulations  to  which  the  girl  had  been  subjected  by  the  accused, 
apparently  for  the  purpose  of  excitinj[  her  sexually.     One  of  the  witnesses 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  409 

even  expressly  declared  that  the  accused  had  only  made  digital  explorations 
for  the  purpose  of  rendering  her  amenable  to  his  desires.  There  can  be  no 
manner  of  doubt  that  when  sexual  excitement  has  reached  a  certain  degree 
the  will  becomes  unable  to  resist  the  libido  sexuaiis  or  prevent  the  actus 
itself.  But  it  must  be  left  to  jurists  to  decide  whether  the  paragraphs 
mentioned  apply  in  such  cases.  At  all  events,  this  kind  of  deprivation  of 
will  has  nothing  to  do  with  hypnosis. 

But  there  are  cases  that  seem  to  us  offences  against  morality 
and  yet  are  not  deemed  punishable  according  to  the  Criminal 
Code.  A  case  of  this  kind  actually  occurred  in  Berlin,  or  at 
least  was  reported  to  the  authorities  as  such.  A  boy  aged 
fifteen  asserted  he  had  been  hypnotized  by  a  gentleman,  who 
had  then  committed  an  unnatural  offence  on  him  while  he  was 
in  the  hypnatic  state.  The  authorities  came  to  me  for  my 
opinion,  and  I  expressed  my  conviction  that  the  boy  was  lying ; 
apparently  he  had  stayed  away  from  home  too  long,  and  then 
had  invented  the  yarn  as  an  excuse  for  his  absence.  Still, 
such  a  case  might  really  happen,  and  would  come  under 
paragraph  185,  which  deals  with  defamation  of  character.  It 
could  hardly  be  considered  a  punishable  offence  against 
morality,  for  §  176,  sec.  3,  of  the  Criminal  Code  only  provides 
for  punishment  up  to  ten  years*  penal  servitude  in  cases  of 
unnatural  offences  committed  on  persons  under  fourteen  years 
of  age,  and  sec.  2  of  that  paragraph  prescribes  the  same 
punishment  for  any  one  who  forces  a  woman  to  illicit  inter- 
course while  she  is  deprived  of  will  or  in  an  unconscious  state. 
It  would  therefore  appear  from  the  paragraphs  that  unnatural 
offences  committed  on  hypnotized  or  narcotized  persons  who 
are  over  fourteen  years  of  age  are  not  punishable. 

Among  other  punishable  offences  against  hypnotics  I  may 
mention  bodily  injury,  which  in  some  cases  might  be  caused 
intentionally — by  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  for  instance.  We 
have  seen  that  paralyses,  loss  of  memory,  etc.,  may  be  thus 
brought  about.  Jendrässik  saw  a  case  in  which  post-hypnotic 
paralysis  persisted  for  several  days.  It  is  not  exactly  probable 
that  these  suggestions  will  ever  be  important  from  a  legal  point 
of  view,  and  Lafforgue's  supposition  that  a  man  might  try  to 
evade  military  service  by  causing  a  disease  to  be  suggested  to 
him  seems  to  me  even  more  improbable.  At  all  events,  the 
provision  of  the  law  as  to  intentional  bodily  injury  would  apply 
in  such  cases.  It  is  much  more  likely  for  bodily  injury  to  be 
caused  by  inattention  to  the  proper  precautions.     Weinbaum 


4fO  HYPNOTISM. 

published  a  case  of  this  kind.  A  "  suggestor  "  named  Welmann, 
who  was  giving  a  performance  at  Insterburg,  experimented  on 
L.,  a  schoolboy  in  the  first  form  at  the  local  high  school. 
Even  while  the  performance  was  going  on  L.  behaved  very 
strangely.  Insomnia  followed,  and  in  three  days'  time  L.  was 
found  to  be  mentally  deranged  and  suffering  from  attacks  of 
acute  mania,  sense-delusions,  and  megalomania;  and  at  the 
end  of  a  year  he  was  still  uncured.  Although  Embacher, 
Meschede,  and  Weinbaum,  the  experts  called  in,  came  to  the 
conclusion,  with  which  the  Court  concurred  unconditionally, 
that  there  was  a  causal  connection  between  the  experiments 
and  the  subsequent  mental  derangement,  the  defendant  was 
acquitted,  because  it  could  not  be  proved  that  he  had  been 
guilty  of  negligence.  Special  attention  was  drawn  to  the  fact 
that  the  President  of  the  Local  Government  and  the  police 
authorities  had  sanctioned  the  performance,  and  that  the 
defendant,  therefore,  had  a  right  to  consider  himself  justified 
in  undertaking  such  experiments.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
hypnotizer  and  professional  healer,  who  used  to  give  "  sugges- 
tion-parties "  at  his  house  in  Hanover,  in  1905,  was  condemned 
for  causing  one  of  his  subjects  bodily  injury  through  neglect. 
At  these  entertainments  he  had  performed  most  unwarrantable 
experiments  on  a  work-girl,  suggesting  among  other  things  that 
a  man  would  undress  in  front  of  her  to  bathe,  then  jump  into 
the  water  and  be  drowned.  As  the  girl  was  taken  seriously  ill 
after  the  experiments,  the  expeiimenter  was  charged  and 
convicted. 

The  quack  use  of  hypnotism  also  may  possibly  lead  to  injury 
to  health.  Hirschlaff  has  communicated  numerous  observa- 
tions he  has  made  in  this  respect.  I  was  called  as  an  expert 
witness  in  a  criminal  case  in  which  a  former  railwayman  who 
had  taken  to  hypnotizing  had  apparently  brought  on  an  attack 
of  acute  mental  disease  in  a  patient  whom  he  had  hypnotized. 
Although  there  was  much  in  favour  of  the  view  that  ^he  mental 
disorder  was  produced  by  hypnotizing,  I  was  unable  to  state 
so  with  absolute  certainty.  On  the  strength  of  my  report  the 
case  was  not  proceeded  with. 

It  is  still  doubtful  whether  hypnotic  suggestion  can  be  used 
to  procure  abortion.  Although  Liebeault's  experiences  in  this 
respect  were  negative,  Laurent  has  reported  a  case  in  which  a 
student  hypnotized  his  cousin  whom  he  had  got  into  trouble, 
and  succeeded  in  procuring  abortion  by  suggestion. 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  411 

It  has  also  been  asked  (Roux-Freissineng)  whether  suicide 
might  not  be  caused  by  suggestion;  on  theoretical  grounds' 
and  from  practical  experience  I  agree  with  Krafft-Ebing  that 
it  would  be  possible  provided  the  suggestion  were  adroitly 
made.  There  was  a  case  reported  from  Russia  a  short  time 
ago  of  a  young  married  woman  who  had  admitted  to  her 
doctor  while  she  was  in  the  hypnotic  state  that  her  husband 
had  suggested  to  her  that  she  should  commit  suicide  on  a 
certain  day,  and  it  was,  moreover,  to  take  place  after  her 
husband  had  heavily  insured  her  life  in  his  favour.  Of  course 
we  need  not  believe  this  or  any  other  story  that  is  not 
properly  substantiated,  but  at  the  same  time  we  must  admit 
that  there  is  nothing  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  such  a 
suggestion  being  made.  A  case  described  by  Näcke  under 
the  heading  "Suicide  by  Suggestion"  was  obviously  some- 
what different.  A  Parisian  student  fell  in  love  with  a  married 
woman  and  his  love  was  returned.  He  received  a  letter  from 
the  woman  telling  him  to  commit  suicide,  and  he  did  so. 
Näcke  has  properly  criticized  this  case,  which  was  very 
imperfectly  reported,  and  I  think  it  very  doubtful  whether  any 
suggestion  was  the  essential  cause  of  the  suicide. 

The  question  has  also  been  frequently  discussed  whether  a 
person  might  not  be  murdered  by  means  of  hypnosis.  In  one 
experiment  Bramwell  observed  the  pulse-rate  drop  to  40  beats 
and  then  rise  to  150.  He  thinks  that  these  limits  might  have 
been  exceeded,  only  he  was  afraid  of  endangering  the  subject's 
life.  The  possibility  of  death  being  produced  by  hypnosis  was 
specially  discussed  in  connection  with  the  case  of  Fräulein 
Ella  V.  Salamon,  who  died  during  hypnosis.  Fräulein  v. 
Salamon  was  employed  by  a  layman  named  Neukomm  for 
clairvoyant  experiments  in  the  hypnotic  condition.  She  was 
to  diagnose  symptoms  of  disease,  and  as  is  well  known,  people 
hypnotized  for  this  purpose  often  feel  the  symptoms  they 
diagnose  in  others.  In  this  case  Fraulein  v.  Salamon  had  to 
describe  the  disease  of  a  man  who  in  her  opinion  was  dying, 
and  this  produced  a  strong  emotional  effect  on  her,  which,  by 
its  influence  on  the  vasomotors  and  the  heart,  caused  the  brain 
to  be  emptied  of  its  blood  and  death  ensued.  "Ella  v. 
Salamon  was  a  victim — and  certainly  neither  the  first  nor  the 
last  victim — not  of  hypnosis  itself,  but  of  that  truly  modern 
mixture  of  notoriety-hunting  and  refinement  of  nerve-torture, 
of  humbug  and  mysticism,  deceit  and  self-deception,  frivolity 


412  HYPNOTISM. 

and  delirium,  which  seems  utterly  inseparable  from  all 
hypnotic  entertainments  and  experiments"  (Eulenburg). 
Another  death  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  hypnosis  caused 
great  excitement  in  America  in  1897.  A  nigger  boy,  Spurgeon 
Young,  died  suddenly  under  circumstances  that  led  the 
authorities  to  institute  inquiries.  It  appeared  that  he  had 
frequently  been  the  subject  of  hypnotic  experiment,  and  that 
he  had  latterly  suffered  from  glycosuria  or  diabetes.  An 
attempt  was  apparently  made  to  establish  a  connection 
between  the  hypnotic  experiments  and  the  diabetes,  so  that 
the  lad's  death  might  be  ascribed  to  hypnosis.  But  in  spite 
of  all  the  exertions  of  Eowen,  who  conducted  the  official 
inquiry,  and  in  spite  of  the  investigations  of  Clark  Bell,  to 
whom  he  applied  to  throw  light  on  the  question,  the  matter 
was  never  explained.  No  proof  could  be  adduced  that  the 
subject's  death  was  even  probably  due  to  hypnosis. 

In  the  older  literature  of  animal  magnetism  we  also  find  mention  made 
of  a  few  cases  in  which  serious  injury  to  health,  and  even  death,  was 
ascribed  to  magnetizing.  I  have  already  mentioned  the  crises  on  p.  292. 
Severe  cases  of  collapse  are  also  frequently  mentioned.  In  the  later  years 
of  mesmerism  Varges  published  such  a  case  (in  1853)  in  which  the  subject 
suffered  severe  collapse,  pulse  imperceptible,  etc.,  during  the  magnetic 
sleep.  The  case  presented  a  certain  amount  of  resemblance  to  one  of 
Kraffl-Ebing*s  observations  in  which  the  patient,  who  was  fully  awake, 
thought  she  had  been  poisoned  by  belladonna.  A  dangerous  collapse 
resulted  from  this  auto-suggestion  and  was  only  cured  by  hypnotic 
suggestion.  Lafontaine  expressly  condemns  the  practice  of  magnetism  by 
inexperienced  persons,  as  it  might  lead  to  the  production  of  insanity, 
epilepsy,  paralysis,  idiocy,  and  even  to  sudden  death. 

The  hypnotic  state  might  be  used  to  get  possession  of 
property  illegally.  People  can  be  induced  hypnotically  and 
post-hypnotically  to  sign  promissory  notes,  deeds  of  gift,  etc. 
I  reported  to  the  Society  of  Prussian  Medical  Officers  a  case 
of  a  man  who  in  the  post-hypnotic  state  promised  a  donation 
to  the  society,  and  carefully  explained  in  writing  that  he  did  it 
of  his  own  accord,  after  I  had  suggested  to  him  that  he  should 
think  so.  Testamentary  disposition  might  be  influenced  in 
the  same  way.  A  case  of  this  kind  occurred  in  England  a 
few  years  ago.  A  lady  left  her  doctor,  who  was  a  hypnotist,  a 
large  fortune.  The  will  was  contested  on  the  ground  that  its 
provisions  had  been  suggested  by  the  doctor  while  the  testatrix 
was  under  his  hypnotic  influence.      But  the  validity  of  the 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOTISM.  413 

will  was  finally  recognized,  because  it  was  discovered  that  the 
patient  had  never  been  hypnotized  at  all !  I  shall  speak  later 
on  of  the  significance  of  such  acts  in  civil  law,  when  quoting 
Bentivegni.  As  far  as  the  criminal  law  is  concerned  it  would 
be  difficult  to  obtain  a  conviction  in  such  cases.  The  para- 
graphs dealing  with  fraud  would  probably  apply  in  some  cases, 
and  occasionally  those  that  treat  of  embezzlement — when, 
for  instance,  a  certain  sum  of  money  is  obtained  by  suggestion 
but  is  not  returned — but  in  other  cases  it  would  be  difficult  to 
establish  a  punishable  offence.  The  paragraphs  that  deal  with 
coercion  would  hardly  be  applicable,  although  the  idea  of 
force  here  includes  vis  compulsiva.  Many  people  will  probably 
consider  this  a  defect  in  the  criminal  law.  B^rillon  in  France, 
in  a  note  dealing  with  a  communication  of  Merlier  concerning 
the  influence  of  "waking  suggestion"  on  testators,  even  de- 
scribes it  as  a  flaw  in  the  law  that  suggestion  so  exercised 
entails  no  punishment  on  the  perpetrator.  But  if  we  were  to 
make  the  use  of  every  suggestive  influence  in  life  a  punishable 
ofience,  we  should  be  even  worse  off  than  we  are  now. 

The  question  has  also  been  discussed  whether  it  would  not 
be  considered  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  the  individual 
to  hypnotize  any  one  against  his  will.  In  such  a  case  §  239  of 
the  Criminal  Code  would  have  to  be  considered ;  it  prescribes 
imprisonment  for  any  one  who  intentionally  or  unlawfully 
confines  or  deprives  another  of  his  or  her  personal  freedom. 
Now,  a  hypnotic  is  deprived  of  his  personal  freedom,  and 
therefore  in  any  concrete  case  it  would  have  to  be  decided 
whether  the  unlawful  action  of  the  hypnotizer  was  not  punish- 
able. A  case  of  this  kind  was  tried  in  Bavaria  in  1 905 ;  a 
fourteen*year-old  boy  had  been  used  for  hypnotic  experiments 
without  his  parents'  knowledge,  but  the  indictment  for 
deprivation  of  liberty  fell  through.  In  an  earlier  case  that 
occurred  at  Nürnberg  a  similar  charge  was  brought  against  a 
commercial  traveller  who  had  hypnotized  a  waitress.  He  also 
was  acquitted  because  the  court  "was  not  satisfied  that  the 
accused  had  been  conscious  of  the  illegal  nature  of  his  action ; 
he  might  have  been  of  the  opinion  that  the  waitress  was  fully 
aware  of  the  consequences  of  hypnosis,  since  he  had  often 
carried  out  such  experiments  in  her  presence,  and  she  was 
therefore  a  consenting  party"  (Heberle). 

Every  medical  man  who  has  had  any  considerable  experience 
in  the  domain  of  hypnosis  has  probably  come  across  laymen 


LANE  LIBRARY.  STANFORD  UNIVERSITY 


414  HYPNOTISM. 

who  endeavour  to  ascribe  to  hypnosis  anything  they  find  very 
pecuUar,  or  for  some  reason  or  other  unpleasant^  or  that  they 
cannot  quite  understand.  At  times  it  is  a  case  of  seduction 
or  a  mysterious  love  affair,  at  others  the  provisions  of  a  will 
or  the  exploitation  of  some  business,  that  puzzles  them. 
When  any  lady  of  rank — a,  princess,  may  be — falls  in  love 
with  a  man  of  the  lower  classes,  there  are  always  plenty  of 
people  ready  to  ascribe  the  episode  to  hypnosis,  though  it  is 
precisely  in  such  cases  that  ladies  are  led  astray  by  the 
influence  of  sexual  love.  And  we  must  make  a  careful 
distinction  between  cases  of  hypnotic  or  suggestive  influence 
and  those  which  have  been  so  tellingly  described  by  von 
Kra£rt-Ebing,  and  so  aptly  termed  sexual  bondage  by  him, 
in  which  an  individual  of  the  one  sex  becomes  entirely 
dependent  on  one  of  the  other  through  the  influence  of  sexual 
impulse.  As  I  have  already  mentioned,  Hirt  very  properly 
opposed  the  notion  that  there  was  any  question  of  hypnotic 
influence  in  the  Czynski  case.  The  position  seems  to  have 
been  somewhat  similar  in  the  case  published  by  Preyer  under 
the  heading,  A  Remarkaifle  Case  of  Fascination,  A  young 
woman  who  was  married  to  a  Herr  v.  Porta  was  induced  by  a 
man  named  Pander,  who  was  a  friend  and  relative  of  her 
husband,  to  leave  the  latter  and  blindly  follow  her  seducer. 
Unless  we  shift  the  line  that  demarcates  hypnosis,  a  case  of 
this  kind  can  only  be  described  as  analogous  to  hypnosis,  not 
as  hypnosis  itself.  When  we  see  that  many  a  woman  is 
.strangely  aff'ected  by  the  foreign  appearance  of  a  man,  by  his 
broken  speech  and  peculiar  complexion,  when  we  further 
observe  that  many  women  fall  in  love  with  bull-fighters  and 
lion-lamers,  that  actors  are  dangerous  to  some  females,  and 
that  the  male  sex  affords  analogous  cases,  we  must  be  very 
careful  how  we  ascribe  such  processes  to  the  action  of 
hypnosis.  And  the  word  "suggestion"  must  not  be  turned 
into  a  catch-word  to  be  applied  to  any  remarkable  case  in 
which  influence  may  have  been  exerted.  "To  speak  of 
waking  suggestion  in  such  cases  would  be  to  do  away  with  the 
whole  idea  of  hypnotism.  There  would  then  only  remain  the 
old  experience  that  there  are  people  who  are  easily  influenced, 
which  would  have  to  be  considered  in  some  criminal  cases 
but  could  have  no  psychiatric  significance  "  (Strassmann). 

Some  time  ago  the  parents  of  a  young  girl  came  to  me 
because  their  daughter  was  altogether  under  the  influence  of 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  415 

an  unprincipled  man,  X.^  who  knew  how  to  get  all  her  money 
from  her.  X.  was  not  accused  of  sexual  intimacy  with  the 
girl,  but  only  of  extorting  money  from  her,  and  this  the  parents 
could  only  ascribe  to  hypnotic  influence.  Of  course,  when 
once  such  a  suspicion  crops  up,  every  action,  every  movement 
of  the  person  suspected  is  considered  from  that  point  of  view 
alone.  Directly  the  parents  observed  that  X.  was  looking  at 
their  daughter  they  assumed  he  was  exerting  hypnotic  influence. 
It  is,  of  course,  quite  right  to  investigate  the  details  of  such 
cases,  but  we  should  not  think  that  every  striking  case  of 
influence  is  due  to  hypnosis.  There  are  so  many  other  forms 
of  influence  that  one  human  being  may  bring  to  bear  upon 
another  that  we  must  be  very  careful  before  we  assume  that 
hypnosis  has  been  employed.  And  we  must  place  even  less 
reliance  on  those  newspaper  reports  that  are  only  written  to 
produce  a  sensation.  I  recall  a  case  that  occurred  in  Paris, 
in  1894,  in  which  a  married  woman  was  reported  to  have 
found  her  husband  lying  motionless  at  home,  and  it  was  said 
that  a  burglary  had  been  committed  by  men  who  had  first 
hypnotized  the  husband.  Another  case  of  this  kind  was 
reported  in  1890 :  a  well-known  English  author  was  said 
to  have  filched  a  work  from  a  brother  literary  man  whom  he 
had  hypnotized,  and  then  published  it  as  his  own. 

There  are  important  diflerences  of  opinion  about  the 
ofl*ences  which  hypnotic  subjects  may  be  caused  to  commit. 
Liegeois  thinks  this  danger  very  great,  while  Delboeuf,  Gilles 
de  la  Tourette,  Pierre  Janet,  Benedikt,  Ballet,  Foveau  de 
Courmelles,  and  Kötscher  deny  it  altogether,  and  others,  Joire, 
Forel,  Eulenburg  and  Dalley  take  an  intermediate  position. 
Liegeois  thinks  that  about  4  per  cent,  can  be  influenced  by 
criminal  suggestion ;  this  would  give  about  80,000  people  in 
Berlin.  Others,  as  already  observed,  deny  the  danger  entirely. 
In  any  case  we  must  not  be  too  ready  to  believe  the  stories  of 
robbery  we  find  in  the  newspapers ;  they  are  written  rather  to 
"make  people's  flesh  creep"  or  create  a  sensation  than  to 
advance  science. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  subjects  may  be  induced  to  commit 
all  sorts  of  imaginary  crimes  in  one's  study.  I  have  hardly 
made  any  such  suggestions,  and  have  small  experience  on  the 
point.  In  the  first  place,  the  continuous  repetition  of  the 
same  experiment  is  superfluous.  If  the  conditions  of  the 
experiment  are  not  changed,  it  is  useless  to  repeat  it  merely 


4l6  HYPNOTISM. 

to  confirm  what  we  already  know.  In  the  second  place,  these 
criminal  suggestions  are  repugnant  to  me,  although  I  do  not 
believe  they  injure  the  moral  sense  of  the  subject,  for  the 
suggestion  may  be  negatived  and  forgotten.  Thirdly,  experi- 
ments carried  out  in  the  study  prove  nothing,  because  some 
trace  of  consciousness  always  remains  to  tell  the  subject  he  is 
playing  a  comedy  (Franck,  Delboeuf),  consequently  he  will 
offer  no  resistance.  He  will  more  readily  try  to  commit  a 
murder  with  a  piece  of  paper  than  with  a  real  dagger.  These 
experiments  carried  out  by  Liegeois,  Li^beault,  Foureaux  and 
others  in  their  studies  do  not,  therefore,  prove  the  danger. 

Certainly  Liegeois  has  made  some  such  experiments  in  all 
apparent  earnestness,  and  in  the  presence  of  officers  of  the  law, 
by  hypnotic  and  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  and  even  by  sug- 
gestion  in  the  waking  state.  He  made  a  girl  fire  a  revolver, 
which  she  thought  was  loaded,  at  her  mother;  and  another  put 
arsenic  in  the  drink  of  a  relation.  Delboeuf  shows  good  reason 
for  not  considering  these  experiments  convincing.  Yet  we 
must  admit  the  possibility  that  a  crime  may  be  committed  in 
this  way,  though  we  must  be  on  our  guard  against  any  exag' 
geration  in  this  respect.  Few  people  are  so  suggestible  as  to 
accept  the  suggestion  of  a  criminal  act  without  repeated 
hypnotization.  It  is  also  true  that  many  would  refuse  to 
commit  a  crime  even  after  a  long  hypnotic  training  (Delboeuf). 
If  Kahler  really  thought  that  imperative  ideas  produced  by 
hypnotic  suggestion  resemble  impulsive  ideas  of  pathological 
origin,  particularly  on  account  of  their  violence,  we  cannot 
agree  with  his  conclusion  that  post-hypnotic  imperative  ideas 
never  lead  to  acts  of  violence,  since  pathological  impulsive 
ideas  do  sometimes  lead  to  such  acts.  According  to  Gilles  de 
la  Tourette  we  are  specially  protected  from  such  crimes  being 
committed  by  the  fact  that  a  criminal  who  suggested  any  such 
offence  would  be  no  more  protected  from  discovery  than  if  he 
committed  the  crime  himself.  On  the  other  hand,  Forel  insists 
that  the  greatest  danger  is  that  at  the  time  the  criminal  sug- 
gestion is  made  the  subject  may  be  induced  to  believe  that  he 
is  acting  on  his  own  initiative,  and  is  unaware  of  any  constraint. 
Still,  as  most  investigators  assume,  only  people  whose  general 
moral  character  renders  them  capable  of  committing  criminal 
acts  could  be  influenced  in  this  way.  Forel,  however,  does 
not  admit  this  unconditionally*  He  made  various  experiments, 
for  the  purpose  of  enlightening  a  lawyer  named  Höfelt,  who 


i 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.  417 

was  writing  a  dissertation  on  the  connection  between  hypnotism 
and  criminal  law.  In  one  case,  for  instance,  he  induced  ß. 
hypnotic  subject  to  fire  several  shots  at  Höfelt  with  a  revolver 
that  was  capped  but  not  loaded.  According  to  Forel,  the 
experiment  was  so  arranged  that  the  hypnotic  could  not  have 
been  conscious  that  he  was  only  playing  at  shooting,  though  I 
think  we  cannot  straightway  accept  this  explanation.  It  was 
different,  however,  in  the  case  of  an  otherwise  modest  girl,  who 
was  yet  induced  by  Forel  to  strip  to  the  waist  in  the  presence 
of  a  strange  man.  Forel  thinks  that  this  experiment  dis- 
poses of  the  objection  that  only  such  acts  can  be  successfully 
suggested  in  hypnosis  as  are  agreeable  to  the  subject's  moral 
disposition.  I  myself  think  that  we  must  admit  that  in  ex- 
ceptional cases  it  is  possible  for  a  person  to  be  induced  to 
commit  acts  that  are  contrary  to  his  disposition,  but  that  there 
is  not  any  great  general  danger  from  criminal  suggestion.  In 
any  case  the  sphere  within  which  such  suggestion  would  work 
must  necessarily  be  a  very  limited  one.  ''We  may  take  it  as  a 
general  rule,  that  the  criminal  acts  we  should  have  to  deal 
with  here  are  those  which  demand  no  special  aptitude  on  the 
part  of  the  agent — no  particular  qualification,  that  is  to  say — 
nor  any  special  preparation,  nor  such  complicated  manipulations 
as  would  involve  deliberation  and  perspicacity,  nor  yet  the  co- 
operation of  others  "  (M.  Weiss). 

In  remarking  just  now  that  the  general  importance  of  sug- 
gestion in  criminal  cases  did  not  appear  to  me  very  great,  I 
would  yet  make  it  clear  that  we  must  carefully  distinguish 
between  its  general  practical  importance  and  its  significance  in 
any  special  case.  For  the  above-named  reasons  the  general 
importance  is  slight.  But  it  is  quite  another  question  whether 
hypnotic  suggestion  must  not  be  taken  into  serious  consideration 
in  a  concrete  case  in  which,  for  instance,  the  accused  person 
has  not  only  been  constantly  hypnotized,  but  the  hypnotizer  is 
also  known  to  derive  considerable  advantages  from  the  crime, 
whilst  other  circumstances  point  to  his  participation.  And 
this  question  we  must  certainly  answer  in  the  affirmative. 

The  question  as  to  whether  hypnotic  suggestion  can  play  a  part  in  the 
commission  of  a  crime  has  frequently  been  before  the  courts  in  recent  years. 
To  these  belongs  the  case  of  Eyraud  and  Bompard,  who  were  accused  in 
1890  of  murdering  an  employe  of  the  courts,  named  Eyraud.  Sacresta, 
the  family  doctor  of  the  Bompards,  informed  the  court  that  he  had  frequently 
hypnotized  the  accused,  and  Li^eois,  who  was  called  as  an  expert,  declared, 

27 


41 8  HYPNOTISM. 

in  opposition  to  the  opinion  expressed  by  Brouardel,  Motet,  and  Ballet, 
that  the  woman  Bompard  had  committed  the  crime  under  the  influence  of  a 
hypnotic  suggestion  she  had  received  from  her  lover  Eyraud.  Both  of  the 
accused  were  convicted.  Eyraud  was  executed,  and  Bompard  condemned 
to  twenty  years'  penal  servitude,  from  which  she  was  released  after  serving 
thirteen  years.  After  she  came  out  of  prison,  Li^geois  submitted  her  to  a 
series  of  hypnotic  experiments,  the  result  of  which  was  to  strengthen  the 
opinion  he  had  formed  in  the  first  instance.  Although  she  at  first  resisted, 
he  finally  succeeded  in  making  Bompard,  while  in  the  hypnotic  state, 
re-act  the  scenes  in  which  the  crime  was  originally  suggested  to  her.  The 
Weiss  and  Chambige  cases  also  excited  a  considerable  amount  of  interest. 
In  the  former,  a  Madame  Weiss,  in  Algiers,  attempted  to  poison  her 
husband,  and  was  condemned  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment,  whereupon 
she  committed  suicide  by  poison.  Liegeois  believes  this  was  a  case  of 
post-hypnotic  suggestion  received  by  the  woman  from  her  lover ;  but  the 
possibility  of  this  was  not  seriously  investigated  by  the  court.  In  the  other 
case  a  married  woman  who  had  previously  been  a  model  wife  and  mother 
was  killed  by  a  man,  Chambige,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  her,  and  who 
afterwards  attempted  suicide.  Liegeois's  explanation  is  that  the  woman 
was  hypnotized  by  Chambige,  and  then  by  suggestion  induced  to  forget 
her  husband  and  children  and  fall  in  love  with  him,  Chambige.  Liegeois 
supports  this  argument  by  the  defence  put  forward  by  the  advocate  Durier. 

In  another  case,  A.  Voisin  expressed  the  expert  opinion  that  a  certain 
woman  accused  of  theft  had  been  induced  by  suggestion  to  commit  the 
crime,  and  was  therefore  irresponsible.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  from  the 
ofHcial  report  of  this  case  whether  it  was  one  of  hypnotic  or  of  waking 
suggestion. 

Hypnotic  suggestion  has  also  often  been  made  a  pretext  in  other  criminal 
cases.  A  few  years  ago  a  woman  was  charged  in  Liegnitz  with  attempting 
to  murder  her  husband.  Here  also  the  possibility  of  hypnosis  being  in 
some  way  connected  with  the  crime  was  discussed.  It  seemed  at  first  as 
though  it  was  intended  to  present  the  accused  lover  in  the  light  of  a  victim 
to  the  hypnotic  suggestions  of  the  woman,  because  he  had  often  been 
hypnotized,  but  as  the  case  proceeded  it  was  shown  that  hypnosis  was 
only  used  to  prove  that  his  mental  capacity  was  of  a  very  low  order.  There 
was  a  case  a  short  time  ago  in  Berlin  in  which  a  magnetopath,  Reichel,  and 
a  rich  widow,  with  whom  he  was  on  intimate  terms,  were  accused  of  suborn- 
ing witnesses.  One  of  the  persons  involved  in  the  case  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  widow  was  under  the  hypnotic  influence  of  her  fellow- 
prisoner.  In  a  case  that  occurred  in  Vienna,  Caroline  Ullrich,  a  former 
dancer,  who  was  accused  of  slander,  asserted  that  she  was  hypnotized  by 
her  husband  and  wrote  the  slanderous  letters  while  she  was  in  that  state» 
It  was  this  very  case  that  showed  what  confused  notions  about  hypnosis 
obtain  in  the  public  mind. 

A  few  years  ago  I  was  called  in  as  an  expert  in  a  case  of  this  kind  in 
Germany.  A  young  girl,  X.,  had  fallen  into  the  clutches  of  a  procuress, 
Y.,  who  gave  spiritualistic  seances ^  and  who  drove  the  girl  to  prostitution 
and  crime  by  means  of  automatic  (?)  writing.  The  woman  Y.  used  to  write 
down  the  commands  of  the  spirits,  and  a  number  of  documents  were  im- 
pounded minutely  detailing  what  X.  was  to  do.  The  seed  fell  on  fruitful 
ground,  for  the  girl  was  a  spiritualist  and  therefore  believed  that  she  was 
bound  to  do  all  that  the  spirits  ordered.     Y.  was  greatly  assisted  by  the 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  419 

artistic  ambition  of  the  girl,  who  had  been  trained  as  a  singer.  Fame, 
honour,  and  riches  were  promised  the  girl  if  she  would  only  obey  the 
spirits*  commands.  The  girl  consequently  became  intimate  with  all  kinds 
of  men,  and  Y.  always  took  the  money.  Finally,  X.  took  a  blackmailing 
letter  to  the  man  who  had  first  seduced  her.  That  letter  also  was  instigated 
by  Y,  Similarly,  X.  let  herself  be  induced  to  attempt  to  procure  abortion, 
to  be  guilty  of  breach  of  contract,  etc.,  at  the  instigation  of  the  spirits. 
This  uncanny  influence,  as  we  must  call  it,  that  Y.  exerted  over  the  girl 
X.,  caused  many  people  to  think  of  hypnotic  influence,  particularly  in 
respect  to  the  spiritualistic  stances,  X.'s  own  father  finally  gave  informa- 
tion to  the  police,  so  as  to  release  his  daughter  from  the  overwhelming 
influence  of  the  woman  Y.  But  careful  consideration  of  all  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case  gives  no  ground  for  considering  that  the  girl  had  been 
hypnotized ;  it  was  rather  a  case  of  the  superstitious  tendencies  of  an 
obviously  nervous  girl  being  artfully  utilized  by  a  procuress  for  her  own 
gain. 

There  are  many  other  criminal  actions  in  connection  with  which  the 
possibility  of  hypnotic  suggestion  having  played  a  part  has  been  discussed. 
This  happened  some  years  ago  in  the  charge  of  murder  brought  against 
two  men  in  Kansas,  named  Gray  and  Macdonald.  Gray,  who  found  a 
certain  Patton  an  irksome  witness  in  a  case  in  which  he  was  interested, 
artfully  induced  Macdonald  to  murder  Patton  by  representing  the  latter  to 
be  an  enemy  of  his,  Macdonald's.  Macdonald  was  acquitted,  but  Gray 
was  condemned  to  death.  It  was  frequently  urged  at  the  time  in  the  press 
that  hypnotic  suggestion  had  been  employed,  though  in  reality  the  case  was 
of  a  totally  different  nature.  The  court  did  not  accept  the  plea  of  hypnotic 
suggestion,  but  assumed  that  another  kind  of  influence  had  been  brought 
into  play  (William  Hirsch). 

Since  we  cannot  unconditionally  deny  the  possibility  of  a 
crime  being  brought  about  by  hypnotic  or  post-hypnotic 
suggestion,  it  behoves  us  to  consider  what  the  legal  position 
would  be  in  such  cases;  and  we  must  at  the  same  time 
distinguish  between  an  action  carried  out  in  hypnosis  and  one 
that  is  the  result  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion. 

It  is  certainly  less  likely  that  such  an  act  will  be  performed 
in  hypnosis  than  post-hypnotically.  But  the  former  possibility 
is  by  no  means  entirely  excluded.  We  have  only  to  think  of 
spiritualist  mediums  who  in  a  state  of  trance,  which  is  to  be 
considered  an  auto-hypnosis,  deceive  their  fellow-men,  no 
matter  whether  they  do  so  at  the  special  suggestion  of  their 
accomplices  or  spontaneously.  (I  will,  moreover,  take  this 
opportunity  of  adding  that  I  am  convinced  that  many  cases  ot 
supposed  trance  are  only  simulations  of  that  state.)  Never- 
theless, we  have  to  discuss  the  question  of  a  criminal  action 
being  carried  out  by  a  person  who  is  in  the  hypnotic  state. 
Par.  51  of  the  Criminal  Code  would  apply  here : — 


420  HYPNOTISM. 

An  action  shall  not  be  punishable  when  the  agent  at  the  time  he  com- 
mitted it  was  in  a  state  of  loss  of  consciousness,  or  of  such  a  morbid 
disturbance  of  his  mental  faculties  as  to  render  him  incapable  of  free 
volition.  • 

According  to  Schwartzer,  Casper,  and  Liman,  loss  of  con- 
sciousness includes  abnormalities  of  consciousness,  but  accord- 
ing to  Krafft-Ebing  it  means  abnormality  of  the  self-conscious- 
ness. It  was  the  intention  of  our  law-givers  to  include  in  the 
idea  of  loss  of  consciousness  certain  conditions  that  cannot  be 
straightway  considered  morbid  disturbances  of  the  mental 
activity — such  as  states  of  drunkenness,  certain  emotional 
states,  somnambulic  conditions,  etc.  (Casper,  Li  man,  Krafft- 
Ebing).  There  would  therefore  not  be  the  slightest  difficulty 
in  including  hypnosis  here.  But  the  position  would  be  different 
if  the  incriminating  action  were  performed  through  the  agency 
of  hypnotic  suggestion.  We  have  already  seen  (p.  165  et  seq.) 
that  the  mental  states  in  which  post-hypnotic  suggestions  are 
realized  differ.  Now  the  state  is  normal,  now  an  abnormal 
one.  Whether  we  consider  the  latter  an  ordinary  hypnosis, 
or  a  special  condition,  as  Liegeois,  Beaunis,  and  Gurney  do, 
is  immaterial  from  the  forensic  point  of  view,  since  §  51  might 
apply  at  any  time. 

Whether  §  52,  which  declares  that  an  action  is  not  punish- 
able when  the  agent  is  driven  thereto  by  some  irresistible 
force,  would  include  those  cases  in  which  a  suggestion  is 
carried  out  in  the  waking  state  must  be  left  to  jurists  to  decide, 
and  their  views  as  to  whether  irresistible  force  only  applies 
to  physical  influence  differ  considerably.  Olshausen  has  ex- 
pressed himself  in  favour  of  the  **  physical  force  "  view,  whereas 
Neumeister  would  apply  §  52  to  cases  of  hypnotic  suggestion. 
Krafft-Ebing  had  much  earlier  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
many  cases  of  impulsive  action  should  be  considered  as  the 
effect  of  compulsion  by  irresistible  force  in  the  meaning  of 

§52. 

I  have  here,  and  also  previously  (p.  166),  called  those  states  waking 
states  in  which  a  hypnotic  suggestion  was  carried  out  when  the  mental 
state  was  not  |>erceptibly  abnormal,  except  on  the  one  point.  But  I  only 
did  this  to  avoid  making  the  discussion  too  complicated.  This  question 
was  at  first  passed  over  as  unimportant,  but  Bentivegni  has  recently  called 
special  attention  to  it.  I  will  therefore  now  consider  whether  there  is  a 
mental  state  which  may  be  called  normal  in  spite  of  irregularity  on  one  I 

point,  as  would  be  the  case  when  suggestions  are  carried  out  in  an 
apparently  normal  state. 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  42 1 

We  will  take  a  simple  case.  I  say  to  X.  in  hypnosis,  "  When  you  Wake 
you  will  give  A.  a  blow  in  the  ribs."  X.  wakes  and  performs  the  suggested 
action;  and  he  will  accept  no  other  suggestion  either  before,  during,  or 
after  the  act.  Thus  it  appears  that  he  is  quite  normal  except  on  the  one 
point.  But  modern  psychiatry,  and  forensic  psycho-pathology  in  particular, 
say  that  a  man  cannot  be  mentally  abnormal  on  one  point  only;  they 
rather  suppose  a  mental  disturbance  showing  itself  on  one  point,  which  is  a 
symptom  of  general  mental  disturbance  (Krafft-Ebing,  Morel,  Maudsley, 
etc.,  etc.).  Therefore  the  state,  in  carrying  out  a  post -hypnotic  suggestion, 
would  really  be  abnormal,  though  it  appeared  normal,  as  Bentivegni 
insists.  But  this  author  further  thinks  that  this  certainly  cannot  be 
supposed  in  all  cases  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  otherwise  we  should  be 
obliged  to  think  every  man  who  accepted  a  therapeutic  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  was  in  an  abnormal  state  when  he  carried  it  out.  Take  the 
following  case,  for  instance:  Y.  is  hypnotized  in  my  very  warm  room,  and 
I  tell  him  to  say  in  half  an  hour,  **  Your  room  is  frightfully  hot."  Now 
supposing  it  is  really  hot  in  my  room,  the  carrying  out  of  this  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  would  by  no  means  suffice  to  prove  that  the  subject  had  again 
fallen  into  an  abnormal  state. 

The  question  we  have  now  to  consider  is  how  we  are  to  decide  whether 
the  subject  is  in  a  normal  or  an  abnormal  state.  A  diagnostic  point  is 
difficult  to  find,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  Bentivegni's  is  the  only  one  we 
have  to  guide  us,  although  it  at  times  depends  on  subjective  distinctions. 
He  says,  ''The  state  while  carrying  out  a  post -hypnotic  suggestion  can 
only  be  thought  normal  when  the  motive  force  developed  by  the  suggestion 
is  such  as  can  also  be  explained  by  the  normal  disposition  of  the  subject, 
and  when  it  is  not  so  opposed  to  reality  that  the  normal  individual  would 
at  once  discover  and  correct  it."  According  to  the  last  clause,  post- 
hypnotic sense-delusions  without  a  renewed  state  of  suggestibility  would  at 
once  prove  an  abnormal  mental  state,  and  particularly  so  in  those  cases  of  sense- 
delusion  to  which  Bergmann  ascribes  a  physiological  and  not  a  pathological 
character.  An  abnormal  state  of  consciousness  would  also  have  to  be 
assumed  for  the  carrying  out  of  numerous  post-hypnotic  acts,  but  not  for 
all,  even  when  there  is  no  renewed  state  of  suggestibility.  Let  us,  for 
instance,  consider  the  two  cases  mentioned  above.  One  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  was  that  X.  should  give  A.  a  blow  in  the  ribs.  Let  us  suppose 
that  X.  is  a  peaceful  man  and  not  ill-disposed  towards  A.  ;  then  the 
motive  of  X.'s  act  would  be  inexplicable  from  his  normal  disposition;  con- 
sequently, according  to  Bentivegni,  his  post-hypnotic  state  would  be 
abnormal.  Y.'s  remark  about  the  heat  was  different.  It  was  a  natural 
remark,  supposing  that  the  room  was  really  warm.  Consequently,  we 
have  no  reason  to  conclude  that  the  carrying  out  of  a  post-hypnotic  act 
presupposes  a  generally  abnormal  state.  In  many  cases  the  question  is  no 
doubt  difficult  to  decide,  because  "normal  disposition"  is  hard  to  define. 
However,  Bentivegni  has  at  least  given  us  an  essential  point  of  view  from 
which  these  post-hypnotic  suggestions  may  be  judged,  and  one  which  in 
many  cases  will  enable  us  to  decide  whether  the  subject's  mental  state  is 
normal  or  abnormal. 


Having  learned  how  to  judge  post-hypnotic  states  in  which 
there  are  no  signs  of  a  fresh  hypnosis,  we  will  return  to  the 


422  HYPNOTISM. 

criminal  importance  of  such  cases.  We  have  seen  that  post- 
hypnotic crimes  may  be  committed  in  an  apparently  normal 
state,  but  that  §  52  of  the  Criminal  Code  would  not  save  such 
persons  from  punishment,  although  they  were  driven  to  commit 
the  acts  by  some  irresistible  power.  But  according  to  Benti- 
vegni's  explanations,  we  might  perhaps  even  here  assume  a 
state  of  loss  of  consciousness  within  the  meaning  of  §51,  but 
then  we  should  have  to  make  it  quite  clear  that  we  were  giving 
a  wider  meaning  to  the  idea  contained  in  the  paragraph  than 
was  originally  intended.  Still,  from  a  practical  point  of  view 
such  an  interpretation  of  the  paragraph  is  a  rational  one. 

Desjardins,  in  France,  expresses  the  opinion  that  any  person 
who  commits  a  crime  by  hypnotic  or  post-hypnotic  suggestion 
is  punishable,  because  he  might  have  seen  the  possibility  of 
such  a  suggestion.  Yet  according  to  Lilienthal  such  a  position 
is  quite  untenable  in  Germany.  It  would  certainly  be  quite 
contrary  to  the  whole  spirit  of  the  German  Criminal  Code  to 
punish  a  person  for  an  act  committed  when  he  was  in  a  state 
of  irresponsibility  and  without  intention. 

The  case  would  be  diflferent  if  the  subject  had  caused  the 
criminal  act  to  be  suggested  to  him  in  hypnosis,  perhaps  with 
the  view  of  carrying  it  out  more  courageously.  Lilienthal 
thinks  that  in  this  case  the  hypnotic  would  be  punishable. 
The  power  of  self-determination  would  be  normal  at  the 
moment  of  decision.  The  induction  of  the  hypnosis  would 
be  the  cause  of  the  act,  and  therefore  the  hypnotic  ought  to 
be  punished. 

Campili,  who  has  thoroughly  discussed  the  different  legal 
questions  connected  with  hypnosis,  distinguishes  between  the 
standpoints  of  two  schools — the  classical  and  the  anthropo* 
logical.^  According  to  the  former,  there  is  no  guilt  in  the 
last-mentioned  case,  as  there  can  be  no  reflection  when  the 
crime  is  committed;  according  to  the  latter,  the  criminal  must 
be  punished  because  such  people  as  he  are  dangerous  to 
society. 

Of  course,  every  one  who  accepts  a  criminal  suggestion  in 
hypnosis  and  then  carries  it  out  would  not  receive  the  benefit 

^  These  are  the  names  of  the  two  schools  of  criminology  in  Italy ;  the 
classical  recognizes  freedom  of  will,  and  the  anthropological  does  not. 
However,  the  last-named  also  agrees  to  the  punishment  of  the  criminal ; 
but  only  because  he  is  dangerous  to  society,  not  because  his  will  is  free 
when  he  commits  the  offence. 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.  423 

o^  ^51  and  52  of  the  Criminal  Law.  It  would  be  essential 
that  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis  and  the  suggestibility  of  the 
subject  satisfied  the  relative  conditions  contained  in  §51, 
which  demand  the  exclusion  of  free  volition,  or  a  morbid 
disturbance  of  the  mental  activity  if  the  action  is  to  go  un- 
punished. A  light  state  of  hypnosis  would  in  nowise  satisfy 
those  conditions;  and  similarly,  when  applying  §  52,  we  should 
have  to  consider  whether  the  power  was  really  irresistible. 

In  the  foregoing  I  have  discussed  the  question  whether  and 
to  what  extent  a  subject  is  responsible  who  commits  an  offence 
either  in  hypnosis  or  from  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  Another 
question  to  be  considered  concerns  the  responsibility  of  the 
person  who  makes  the  suggestion.  The  legal  decision  of  this 
question  would  depend  upon  whether  the  subject  were  re- 
sponsible or  not  according  to  either  §51  or  §52.  If  the 
subject  is  not  responsible,  the  person  who  made  the  suggestion 
would  have  to  be  considered  the  agent.  Any  person  who 
causes  a  lunatic  to  commit  a  crime  is  considered  the  actual 
agent  (Liszt)  and  not  mere  inciter,  because  a  lunatic,  being 
irresponsible,  cannot  commit  a  crime.  It  would  be  the  same, 
of  course,  with  a  subject  who  commits  a  suggested  crime  either 
in  hypnosis  or  post-hypnotically,  and  is  not  considered  answer- 
able. It  is  only  when  the' subject  who  commits  the  crime  is 
punishable — as,  for  instance,  when  the  hypnosis  is  not  deep 
enough,  or  the  suggestibility  insufficient,  to  exclude  responsi- 
bility— that  the  person  who  made  the  suggestion  would  have 
to  be  considered  merely  the  instigator  of  the  crime  (Preyer, 
Krafft-Ebing,  Neumeister).  Therefore  any  person  who  orders 
a  hypnotic  who  is  still  in  a  condition  of  responsibility  to  take 
anything  away  from  a  third  party  would,  if  the  theft  were 
carried  out,  be  punishable  as  the  instigator  of  the  crime. 
Further,  as  Preyer  has  pointed  out,  §49A  of  the  Criminal 
Code  would  probably  be  applicable;  according  to  it,  it  is  a 
punishable  ofience  to  instigate  the  commission  of  a  crime. 

The  importance  of  hypnosis  in  civil  law  was  not  seriously 
considered  at  first.  Most  investigators  passed  it  over,  suppos- 
ing that  hypnosis  could  only  be  important  in  criminal  law. 
However,  Bentivegni  has  put  forward  the  contrary  in  his  work. 
Die  Hypnose  und  ihre  zivilrechtlicke  Bedeutung  (Leipsic,  1890), 
and  Drucker  has  also  expressed  a  similar  opinion.  I  know 
from  my  own  experience  that  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  the 


424  HYPNOTISM. 

loser  in  a  doubtful  legal  transaction  to  ask  for  a  written  expert 
opinion  to  the  effect  that  his  signature,  etc.,  was  obtained  by 
hypnotic  suggestion.  The  main  points  of  what  follows  are  on 
the  lines  of  Bentivegni's  work,  which  touches  the  root  of  the 
matter  even  in  the  present  day,  although  it  appeared  before 
the  civil  law  was  codified.  Bentivegni,  in  discussing  hypnotism 
in  its  relation  to  civil  law,  distinguishes  between  responsibility 
in  business  and  liability  for  damages.  The  first  means  such  a 
degree  of  freedom  of  will  as  is  necessary  for  the  transaction  of 
business  in  connection  with  legal  affairs.  Liability  for  damages 
means  that  degree  of  freedom  of  will  which  causes  responsi- 
bility for  unlawful  acts. 

Responsibility  in  business  is  dealt  with  in  §  105  sec.  ö  of 
the  Civil  Code: — 

A  declaratory  act  or  transaction  is' also  invalid  if  effected  while  in  a  state 
of  loss  of  consciousness  or  of  temporary  disturbance  of  mental  activity. 

According  to  Bentivegni,  a  state  of  hypnotic  suggestibility  is 
enough  to  exclude  responsibility  in  business;  but  this  certainly 
pre-supposes  a  certain  depth  of  hypnosis.  Bentivegni  also 
points  out  that  not  only  such  acts  as  are  carried  out  through 
hypnotic  suggestion  are  invalid,  but  that  the  mere  existence  of 
hypnotic  suggestibility  is  enough  under  some  circumstances 
to  exclude  business  responsibility,  even  when  the  acts  are  not 
suggested. 

Bentivegni  thinks  the  same  about  many  post-hypnotic  states 
in  which  anything  of  the  nature  of  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion 
is  carried  out.  Here  he  makes  several  distinctions.  All 
transactions  are  invalid  which  are  effected  in  a  post-hypnotic 
state  in  which  there  is  renewed  suggestibility.  We  may 
certainly  agree  with  this  by  reason  of  §  105  sec.  2  of  the  Civil 
Code.  Also,  according  to  Bentivegni,  the  state  during  the 
carrying  out  of  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  if  it  is  united  with 
forgetfulness  of  the  post-hypnotic  act,  excludes  responsibility, 
provided  the  state  shows  no  signs  of  suggestibility.  Certainly 
there  are  distinctions  to  be  made  here.  We  saw  (p.  166)  that 
a  person  may  be  apparently  awake  and  yet  carry  out  a  post- 
hypnotic suggestion  without  remarking  it,  without  falling  into 
a  new  hypnosis^  and  calmly  talking  meanwhile.  Whether  such 
post-hypnotic  suggestions  affect  business  responsibility  is 
decided    by    Bentivegni    according    to    the    nature    of   the 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  425 

suggestion.  When  the  post-hypnotic  suggestion  is  merely  a 
movement  or  action,  which  the  subject  often  does  automati- 
cally at  other  times,  there  is  no  reason  to  question  the 
responsibility.  There  are  people  who  have  a  habit  of  scrib- 
bling on  paper.  Now,  according  to  Bentivegni,  if  a  person 
does  this  post-hypnotically  he  is  not  unfit  for  business.  But 
he  is  unfit  when  he  does  post-hypnotically  what  he  would  not 
do  under  normal  circumstances.  Bentivegni  thinks  that  when 
the  post-hypnotic  act  is  done  without  renewed  suggestibility 
and  without  loss  of  memory,  the  question  becomes  very 
difficult.  He  thinks  that  in  such  a  case  all  depends  on  the 
nature  of  the  suggestion.  Are  the  suggested  acts,  and  their 
possible  motives,  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  willingly  received 
into  the  consciousness  of  the  subject  and  to  be  generally 
compatible  with  the  context  of  his  consciousness,  or  not? 
Bentivegni  gives  the  two  following  examples: — i.  A.  owes 
B.  £2^,  but  has  forgotten  it;  in  hypnosis  he  is  told  to  pay  B. 
the  money  at  the  first  opportunity,  which  he  does  post- 
hypnotically.  2.  C.,  who  is  not  in  good  circumstances,  is 
told  in  hypnosis  to  make  a  present  of  his  whole  personal 
property  to  D.,  whom  he  does  not  like.  He  wakes,  and  the 
idea  occurs  to  him  when  he  sees  D.;  he  resists  at  first,  but 
finally  formally  obeys  the  order.  According  to  Bentivegni, 
in  example  i.  neither  responsibility  for  the  particular  act  nor 
the  capacity  for  business  in  general  need  be  doubted,  because 
the  suggestion  was  acceptable  to  the  motives  pre-existing  in 
the  subject's  consciousness.  But  in  example  2.  there  is  a 
diflference;  here  there  must  be  a  revolution  in  the  subject's 
consciousness  before  he  will  obey  a  suggestion  so  contrary  to 
his  interests.  Therefore,  Bentivegni  thinks  the  responsibility 
is  doubtful,  at  least  as  far  as  the  single  act  is  concerned. 

In  other  cases  the  business  incapacity  is  much  more  exten- 
sive, because  delusive  ideas  may  be  post-hypnotically  suggested, 
which  may  cause  incapacity  for  business  so  long  as  they  last, 
in  the  same  way  as  do  the  delusions  of  the  insane.  Bentivegni 
thinks  it  should  be  provisionally  supposed  that  a  subject  who 
is  under  the  influence  of  a  post-hypnotically  suggested  idea 
must  be  considered  unfit  for  business  when  this  idea  is  of 
such  a  kind  that  its  spontaneous  recurrence  would  partially 
or  wholly  do  away  with  his  responsibility. 

Finally,  besides  the  posthypnotic  suggestions  which  do  not 
interfere  with  consciousness,  and  those  which  alter  conscious- 


426  HYPNOTISM. 

ness,  as  insane  ideas  do,  Bentivegni  discusses  a  third  category 
of  suggestions.  For  example,  a  subject  might  be  told  in 
hypnosis  that  a  particular  engraving  was  an  oil-painting.  In 
such  a  case  the  error,  the  inability  to  perceive  the  real  facts, 
would  have  to  be  considered  from  the  legal  point  of  view — />., 
as  laid  down  in  §119  of  the  Civil  Code,  which  allows  the 
validity  of  a  statement  to  be  disputed  by  the  person  who  made  it, 
if  there  be  a  presumption  that  he  did  so  when  he  was  not  fully 
aware  of  the  nature  of  the  case.  It  is  also  possible  that  §  123, 
which  deals  with  intentional  malicious  deception,  might  apply. 

But,  as  a  general  rule,  the  objection  in  such  a  case  would 
have  to  be  based  on  the  above-mentioned  §  105  sec.  2  of  the 
Civil  Code.  Only,  let  it  be  remembered,  this  clause  of  the 
law  must  be  intelligently  interpreted.  For  even  if  it  only  treats 
in  a  general  way  of  a  state  of  unconsciousness  or  of  disturb- 
ance of  the  mental  activity,  and  not  of  one  that  excludes  free 
volition,  we  must  remember — and  this  is  a  point  referred  to  by 
the  most  different  interpreters  of  the  law — its  provisions  must 
be  considered  in  conjunction  with  other  laws  bearing  on  the 
question,  and  consequently  an  infinitesimal  disturbance  of  the 
mental  activity,  such  as  may,  indeed,  be  brought  about  by 
post-hypnotic  suggestion  or  some  other  occurrence,  does  not 
straightway  render  a  declaratory  act  void. 

Besides  capacity  for  business,  Bentivegni  discusses  liability 
for  'damages.  This  implies  an  illegal  act  committed  in  a 
responsible  state,  for  which  the  civil  law  prescribes  indemni- 
fication.    But  §  827  of  the  Civil  Code  states: — 

A  person  who  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness  or  in  a  state  of  morbid 
disturbance  of  mental  activity  that  precludes  free  volition  causes  injury  to 
another,  is  not  responsible  for  the  injury.  Should  the  person  have  placed 
himself  temporarily  in  a  state  of  this  nature  by  the  use  of  spirituous  drinks 
or  similar  means,  then  he  is  responsible  for  any  damage  done  by  him  while 
in  this  state,  as  he  would  be  for  an  act  of  negligence ;  there  is  no  responsi- 
bility when  the  state  was  not  of  his  own  creating. 

The  conclusions  drawn  above  consequently  hold  good  for 
acts  entailing  liability  for  damages,  but,  naturally,  all  the  special 
provisions  of  the  code  have  to  be  considered  as  well.  For 
instance,  §  829  also  under  certain  circumstances  holds  a  person 
liable  for  damages,  who,  while  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness  or 
in  such  a  state  of  morbid  disturbance  of  his  mental  activity  as 
precludes  free  volition,  yet  causes  damage.  At  all  events, 
there  is  otherwise  no  liability  for  damages  for  acts  done  in 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.  427 

hypnosis,  provided  the  hypnosis  is  deep  enough.  The  same 
holds  good  for  post-hypnotic  states  in  which,  on  the  grounds 
already  mentioned,  there  is  no  capacity  for  business.  On  the 
other  hand,  any  man  who  causes  himself  to  be  hypnotized 
only  that  he  may  not  be  responsible  for  his  misdeeds,  must 
make  reparation  for  every  damage.  Bentivegni  has  pointed 
out  that  the  Prussian  common  law  contained  clauses  applic- 
able in  such  cases,  and  the  new  Civil  Code  makes  no  exceptions, 
as  may  be  seen  from  §  827,  cited  above.  Ernst  Schultze  has 
pointed  out  that  in  its  original  form  the  paragraph  only  states 
that  a  man  who  got  drunk  intentionally  would  be  liable  for 
damage  committed  by  him  while  in  that  condition.  However, 
Mendel,  Liszt,  and  Schmidt  had  already  advised  that  it  would 
not  be  right  to  limit  the  provisions  of  the  clause  to  the  effects 
of  alcohol,  and  Liszt,  in  particular,  had  proposed  the  same 
treatment  for  any  one  acting  in  the  hypnotic  state  or  while 
under  the  influence  of  any  kind  of  narcotic,  since  omission 
may  just  as  well  be  the  object  of  an  illegal  action  as  com- 
mission. And  this  is  the  conclusion  which  has  been  arrived 
at  in  the  present  day.  Therefore,  any  man  who  lets  himself 
be  hypnotized  so  that  he  may  injure  another  must  make 
reparation  for  the  damage. 

Just  as  the  common  law  formerly  held  the  hypnotizer  re- 
sponsible in  certain*  circumstances  for  the  damage  done  by  the 
hypnotic  in  hypnosis  or  during  the  states  following  it,  so  in  the 
present  day  would  those  clauses  of  the  Civil  Code  that  deal  with 
illegal  acts.  Bentivegni  recognized  in  a  strict  application  of  the 
provisions  of  the  common  law  an  effective  preventive  of  those 
improprieties  which  might  arise  from  frivolous  hypnotization  or 
the  possible  employment  of  hypnosis  as  a  society  pastime,  and 
we  may  say  the  same  for  the  Civil  Code. 

Of  course,  I  have  been  unable  to  enter  into  detail  on  all 
points;  but  I  have  discussed  the  most  important  questions 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  civil  law  in  connection  with 
Bentivegni's  Die  Hypnose  und  ihre  zivilrechtliche  Bedeutung^ 
which  treats  the  subject  exhaustively,  and  is  still,  in  spite  of 
the  new  Civil  Code,  an  illuminating  treatise  on  all  points  in 
question. 

There  is  another  direction  in  which  hypnosis  might  be  of 
importance  in  law;  it  can  be  used  to  falsify  testimony.  By 
means  of  retro-active  hallucinations,  which  we  discussed  in  an 


430  HYPNOTISM. 

der  Psychiatrie,  Henneberg,  Koppen,  Hinrichsen,  Fritz  Hart- 
mann, and  others  have  thrown  further  light  on  the  question  by 
their  analyses  of  cases. 

As  the  name  indicates,  pathological  lying  is  a  morbid  process, 
but  the  investigations  of  other  seekers  have  shown  that  there 
is  also  an  immense  amount  of  involuntary  lying  perpetrated  by 
normal,  healthy  people.     A  number  of  works  on  this  question 
have  appeared  during  the  last  few  years,  partly  in  scientific 
journals  and  partly  also  in   the  daily  press,   in  which  the 
question  of  witnesses  being  influenced  by  suggestion  has  fre- 
quently been  discussed  in  connection  with  some  sensational 
trial.     But  it  is  particularly  the  Archiv  für  Kriminalanthro- 
pologie (edited  by  Hanns  Gross)  and  the  Beiträge  zur  Psycho- 
logie der  Aussage  that  have  contained  a  number  of  papers 
dealing  with   some  special    items  of   the  question,   as,    for 
instance,  the  differences  arising  from  age  and  sex,  the  influence 
of  the  degree  of  culture  attained,  the  way  in  which  the  im- 
pression affects  the  trustworthiness  of  the  testimony,  etc.     The 
psychology  of  testimony  has   become  a  very  wide  field  of 
inquiry   for   the    investigator.     Binet,    Henry,   L.    W.    Stern, 
Wreschner,  Placzek,  Jaffa,  Lobsien,  Lipmann,  Heilberg,  E. 
Bernheim,  Hanns  Gross,  Minnemann,  L.  W.  Weber,  Bogdanoff, 
Stooss,  Cramer,  Plüschke,  Marie  Borst,  Schneickert,  Radbruch, 
Agahd,  R.  Sommer,  Rodenwaldt,  Siemens,  ClaparMe,  Schott, 
Gmelin,  Rauschburg,  and  a  number  of  other  investigators  have 
contributed  materials  to  the  construction  of  the  fabric.     Many 
of  these  works  deal  very  particularly  with  the  evidence  given 
by  children,  and  I  must  not  miss  this  opportunity  of  mention- 
ing the  valuable  investigations  made  by  the  Berlin  Society  of 
Child-Psychology  at  the  request  of  Kemsies.     The  lying  and 
the  testimony  of  children   have  been   made  the  subject  of 
special  investigation.     Special  mention  must  here  be  made  of 
Kemsies  himself,  of  Piper,  Marcinowski,  K.  L.  Schaefer,  and 
again,  quite  particularly,  of  O.  Lipmann.     These  works  have 
laid  the  foundation  of  great  distrust  in  evidence.     Let  us  hope 
that  Sommer  may  be  right  in  his  assumption  that  the  minute 
analysis  of  each  individual  case  will  enable  us  to  recognize,  in 
the  apparently  confused  mass  of  false  testimony,  that  which  is 
psychologically    legitimate    and    thus    to    create    a    critical 
diagnostic. 

I  take  this  opportunity  of  correcting  an  historical  error  that  has  recently 
been  creeping  more  and  more  into  Germany.     Representations  are  made 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  43  1 

which  would  lead  me  to  believe  that  Binet  and  L.  W.  Stern  were  the  first 
to  make  experiments  of  this  kind  in  the  psychology  of  testimony.  Thus 
O.  Lipmann  states: — "The  question  whether  and  in  what  respect  the 
context  of  a  reproduced  idea  differs  from  the  corresponding  percept  is  no 
new  problem  in  psychology.  Yet  these  investigations  referred  almost  in- 
variably to  experiences  of  colour,  sound,  and  the  like,  and  are  consequently 
as  good  as  inapplicable  to  daily  life,  in  which  we  certainly  have  invariably 
to  operate  with  manifold  and  complicated  memory-images.  Binet  alone 
once  attempted  to  institute  such  experiments  in  a  way  that  might  not  *  too 
far  remove  them  from  the  actualities  of  life*  ('lebensfern') — />.,  so  that 
the  results  obtained  might  be  to  a  certain  extent  applicable  to  practical 
life."  Lipmann  mentions  Stern  as  a  second  originator  in  this  respect.  He 
goes  still  further  and  says: — "This  problem  of  testimony  is,  as  we  see, 
first  and  foremost  a  question  for  the  jurist  and  the  historian,  and  Stern  was 
the  first  to  point  this  out  thoroughly."  L.  W.  Stern  himself  commences 
his  work  Zur  Psychologie  der  Aussage^  1902,  with  the  words,  **It  is  to  a 
problem  in  applied  psychology  that  this  dissertation  is  intended  to  be  a 
first  contribution."  All  these  historical  statements  are  in  so  far  false  that 
a  number  of  investigators  had  made  experiments  relating  to  the  psychology 
of  testimony  long  before  Binet  and  Stern  did  so.  Stern's  work  appeared 
in  1902,  whereas  the  works  I  refer  to  appeared  in  the  eighties  and  nineties 
of  the  previous  century.  Not  only  were  such  experiments  made  in  those 
days,  but  their  application  in  the  administration  of  justice  was  thoroughly 
discussed  at  the  time.  There  were  investigators  in  the  domain  of  hypnotism 
who  made  such  experiments  long  before  Stern.  It  is  true  that  hypnotism 
was  their  starting-point,  but  they  very  soon  recognized  that  very  similar 
falsifications  of  memory  could  be  produced  without  calling  in  the  aid  of 
hypnosis.  Thus,  Bernheim,  of  Nancy,  had  already  published  in  his  book 
on  suggestion  that  appeared  in  1886  several  experiments  of  that  kind  which 
he  had  been  induced  to  undertake  by  the  Tisza-Eszlar  trial.  Even  as  early 
as  that  he  and  Liegeois  discovered  that  many  very  complicated  scenes 
could  be  suggested  to  subjects  as  their  own  personal  experiences,  even 
without  the  induction  of  hypnosis.  Among  the  other  investigators  who  at 
that  time  worked  in  this  field  I  may  further  mention  Berillon  (Revue  de 
T Hypnotisme^  1890-92)  and  Joire  (1896).  Also,  at  the  Congress  of  Criminal 
Anthropology  held  at  Geneva  in  1891,  Berillon  had  brought  forward  a 
proposition  to  the  effect  that  in  legal  investigations  a  contradictory  pro- 
cedure should  be  followed  instead  of  the  present  secret  method,  so  as  to 
prevent  as  far  as  possible  the  testimony  delivered  being  influenced  by  un- 
conscious suggestion.  In  consequence  of  the  researches  that  had  already 
been  made  in  hypnotism  and  suggestion,  a  man,  who  was  tried  at  the 
Aisnes  Assizes  in  1892  for  murder  and  attempted  murder,  was  acquitted, 
because  the  Court  held  that  suggestion  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
evidence.  Consequently  this  field  of  research  is  not  quite  so  new  as 
Lipmann  and  Stern  represent.  If  they  had  only  looked  through  the 
literature  of  hypnotism  and  the  back  numbers  of  the  Revue  de  PHypnotisme, 
they  would  have  straightway  discovered  that  a  great  number  of  experiments 
had  already  been  made  in  respect  to  the  question  of  falsification  of  memory 
without  the  use  of  hypnosis.  It  is  certain  that  these  falsifications  of 
memory  came  about  in  two  ways;  in  some  cases  the  retro-active  suggestion 
caused  the  subjects  to  relate  almost  spontaneously  as  personal  experience 
of  their  own  something  that  had  never  occurred,  but  in  others  the  falsifica- 


434  HYPNOTISM. 

few  cases.  I  have  hardly  a  personal  experience  in  this  direc- 
tion. I  once  observed  a  case  of  lock-jaw  when  the  subject 
feared  some  word  would  escape  him.  The  spasm  was  so 
strong  that  it  was  impossible  to  end  it  artificially. 

Lichtenstädt  declared  in  1816  that  he  knew  of  no  case  of 
somnambulism  in  which  indiscreet  questions  were  answered. 
Delboeuf  goes  further,  and  says  that  when  a  hypnotic  betrays 
what  he  wants  to  conceal,  the  apparent  confei^sion  is  false.  A 
woman  who  confesses  infidelity  under  hypnosis,  but  denies  it 
in  the  waking  state,  Delboeuf  would  certainly  regard  as  faithful. 
At  all  events,  it  is  a  fact  that  when  such  questions  are  put  in 
hypnosis  only  the  answer  is  easily  suggested,  not  the  betrayal 
of  a  real  secret.  According  to  Danillo,  the  statements  made 
by  hypnotic  subjects  are  so  untrustworthy  that  he  would  on 
principle  refuse  their  being  admitted  in  a  court  of  justice. 

It  is  much  easier  to  attain  the  end  in  a  circuitous  way  than 
by  simple  suggestion;  by  suggesting  a  false  premise,  for 
example,  as  I  have  mentioned  on  p.  151.  Let  the  subject  be 
told,  for  instance,  that  some  person  is  present  in  whom  he 
would  confide,  or  that  the  people  he  does  not  wish  to  tell  are 
absent.  But  all  such  statements  must  invariably  be  received 
with  caution.  For  it  is  perfectly  certain  that  hypnotized  people 
can  tell  falsehoods  as  well  as  if  they  were  awake  and  that 
subtle  webs  of  falsehood  are  invented  in  hypnosis.  Lombroso 
tried  in  one  case  to  obtain  a  confession  of  a  crime  that  had 
been  proved,  though  the  subject  had  always  denied  it.  The 
attempt  was  useless ;  the  subject  told  the  same  tissue  of  lies  as 
when  awake.  Delboeuf,  Algeri,  and  Laurent  relate  similar 
experiences.  In  any  case,  a  statement  made  in  hypnosis  must 
be  received  with  caution ;  it  might  be  an  indication,  but  never 
a  proof. 

Du  Prel  relates  the  case  of  a  man  named  K.,  who  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  murder.  There  was  another  prisoner 
in  the  Same  cell,  and  K.,  who  talked  in  his  sleep,  described  the 
murder,  and  stated  he  had  committed  it,  but  when  he  awoke 
he  declared  he  knew  nothing  of  what  had  occurred.  The 
other  prisoner  was  then  induced  to  question  K.,  while  asleep, 
as  to  all  the  details  of  the  crime.  K.  complied.  But  he  was 
acquitted  of  the  crime  of  robbery  attended  by  murder,  because 
the  confession  he  made  in  his  sleep  could  not  be  used  against 
him.  Howard  has  reported  several  American  cases  in  which 
confession  made  in  hypnosis  was  used  to  obtain  conviction. 


THE   LEGAL  ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOTISM.  435 

A  case  of  this  kind  occurred  in  Indianapolis ;  in  another  case 
that  happened  in  California,  Gardener  was  induced  to  hypnotize 
a  man  accused  of  murder,  and  is  said  to  have  obtained  a 
confession  of  the  murder  in  that  way. 

I  must  take  this  opportunity  of  remarking  that  the  rest  of  Du  Prel's 
statements  in  his  work  on  hypnotic  crimes  will  not  bear  serious  criticism. 
He  proposed  to  employ  clairvoyant  somnambulists  in  the  detection  of  all 
kinds  of  crime,  simply  because  he  believes  in  any  and  every  occult  pheno- 
menon. Kron  justly  thinks  that  such  views  indicate  a  golden  age  of 
criminology. 

Interested  by  Max  Dessoir's  experiments  in  automatic 
writing,  1  tried  to  arrive  at  results  in  the  same  way  with  a 
subject  whose  consent  I  had  previously  obtained.  I  put  a 
pencil  into  his  hand  with  the  point  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and 
ordered  him  to  answer  certain  questions,  but  not  to  write 
purposely»  The  subject  answered  every  question  in  writing, 
and  betrayed  every  secret.  In  this  way  he  told  me  many 
family  secrets  without  knowing  it  or  wishing  it. 

Another  way  in  which  hypnosis  might  possibly  be  used  in 
law,  would  be  to  decide  whether  a  person  were  hypnotizable  or 
not;  or  to  obtain  a  statement  which  the  accused  or  the  witnesses 
cannot  give  in  the  waking  state.  Such  a  case  may  occur,  and 
has  already  been  of  practical  importance. 

Such  statements  in  hypnosis  would  be  valuable  because 
subjects  remember  in  later  hypnoses  all  that  has  occurred  in 
earlier  ones.  Now,  if  it  is  suspected  that  the  subject  has  been 
the  victim  or  the  instrument  of  a  crime  which  he  forgets  in  the 
waking  state,  it  is  evident  that  hypnotism  should  be  used  when 
there  is  no  other  means  of  clearing  up  the  case. 

But  according  to  Lilienthal  there  is  certainly  a  legal  limita- 
tion here.  He  thinks  an  accused  person  or  witness  may  be 
hypnotized  if  he  consents.  But  hypnotization  is  only  permiss- 
ible to  confirm  the  fact  of  hypnotizability,  whereas  a  judicial 
examination  in  hypnosis  is  illegal.  Lilienthal  thinks  that  a 
deposition  made  in  hypnosis  is  inadmissible,  because  the 
testimony  of  an  unsworn  witness  is  only  allowed  in  certain 
cases,  and  an  oath  could  not  be  administered  to  a  hypnotized 
subject,  and  it  would  also  be  impossible  to  make  him  swear  to 
his  statement  after  waking.  The  statements  of  an  accused 
person  in  hypnosis  are  likewise  inadmissible,  because  he  should 
not  be  compelled  to  make  statements  against  his  will. 


436  HYPNOTISM, 

But  I  certainly  think  that  Lilienthal's  view  must  be  essentially 
modified.  In  the  first  place  as  far  as  the  judicial  examination 
of  a  hypnotized  witness  is  concerned,  the  exceptional  circuni- 
stances  in  which  the  testimony  of  unsworn  persons  is  allowed 
are  mentioned  in  §56  of  the  Rules  of  Criminal  Procedure. 
But  as  the  case  of  the  hypnotized  person  is  not  mentioned 
therein,  it  would  appear  that  his  evidence  is  actually  excluded. 
But  in  reality  the  position  is  somewhat  different.  Certainly 
every  witness  should  be  sworn,  whether  the  decision  is  based 
on  unsworn  testimony  or  not.  But  as  Dalcke  has  specially 
pointed  out,  the  High  Court  has  not  been  invariably  consistent 
in  this  respect ;  it  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  only  granted 
a  fresh  trial  because  the  verdict  was  based  on  unsworn  testimony. 
It  is  therefore  -  quite  possible  for  a  hypnotic  witness  to  be 
examined  without  being  sworn,  provided  the  verdict  is  not 
made  to  depend  on  his  statements.  But  in  addition  to  thi» 
there  are  other  points  to  be  considered.  A  case  may  be  sa 
thoroughly  cleared  up  by  the  hypnotization  of  a  witness  at  ther 
preliminary  investigation  that  no  charge  is  preferred.  But  at  a- 
preliminary  investigation  the  oath  may  only  be  administered 
under  very  exceptional  circumstances.  Finally,  specialists» 
when  giving  evidence  at  a  trial  are  oftened  questioned  on« 
matters  which  are  not  the  special  subject  of  the  trial.  It  is- 
therefore  quite  conceivable  that  a  specialist  may  make  hypnotic 
experiments  before  the  trial  and  subsequently  relate  the  results- 
in  the  witness-box.  In  the  case  already  mentioned^  in  which' 
Hirschlaff  sent  in  a  written  opinion  in  the  same  terms  he  had! 
used  at  the  preliminary  investigation,  the  question  was  one  of 
a  woman  who  had  made  statements  to  him  in  hypnosis.  There 
is  certainly  the  possibility  of  the  statements  of  a  hypnotized 
witness  being  worked  into  the  evidence  in  a  circuitous  way. 

As  far  as  the  accused  is  concerned,  I  certainly  think  that 
Lilienthal  has  overlooked  the  fact  that  an  accused  person 
cannot  be  said  to  testify  against  his  will  when  he  asks  to  be 
hypnotized  so  that  he  may  give  evidence  that  he  cannot  give 
in  the  waking  state.  At  most  this  would  be  testimony  given 
without  the  subject's  conscious  will,  but  not  against  his  will* 
Whether  there  are  any  legal  objections  to  this  I  cannot  venture 
to  decide,  but  I  wish  to  point  out  that  according  to  §  242  of 
the  Rules  of  Criminal  Procedure  the  accused  ought  to  be 
further  examined  in  the  manner  laid  down  in  §  136,  according 
to  which  he  should  be  given  every  opportunity  of  refuting  the 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.  437 

evidence  against  him  and  of  putting  forward  all  the  facts  that 
tell  in  his  favour.  In  a  case  in  which  hypnosis  is  indicated,  it 
would  be  a  contravention  of  the  above  paragraphs  to  omit 
hypnotizing  the  accused. 

We  will  now  discuss  what  should  be  done  when  the  accused 
person  pleads  that  he  has  committed  the  offence  through 
hypnotic  or  post-hypnotic  suggestion,  or  when  he  says  he  has 
been  the  victim  of  a  crime  in  hypnosis.  Unless  such  a  plea  is 
made  hypnosis  will  never  have  to  be  judicially  considered. 
The  point  requiring  consideration,  as  Forel  points  out,  is  that 
when  the  crime  is  successfully  suggested  it  may  also  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  subject  that  he  shall  think  he  has  acted  freely. 
If  any  regard  were  paid  to  it,  we  should  be  obliged  to  take  into 
consideration  that  every  case  of  crime  might  be  a  result  of 
hypnotic  suggestion.  According  to  Delboeuf,  indeed,  this  is 
especially  the  case  when  the  crime  does  not  in  any  way  benefit 
the  accused.  But  in  reality  the  question  whether  the  patient 
was  h3rpnotized  or  not  will  only  have  to  be  investigated  when 
hypnosis  is  pleaded.  But  we  must  not  straightway  reject  the 
plea  merely  because  it  is,  as  Riant  thinks,  of  great  advantage 
to  the  accused. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  accused  asserts  that  he  acted  under 
the  influence  of  hypnotic  or  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  He  may 
perhaps  add  that  he  felt  a  subjective  constraint,  and  that  he 
has  often  been  hypnotized,  but  that  he  does  not  remember  any 
criminal  suggestion. 

It  would  then  have  to  be  judicially  decided — (i)  whether  the 
accused  was  really  hypnotized;  (2)  whether  the  commission 
of  a  crime  was  suggested  to  him  in  this  state;  (3)  who  was  the 
originator  of  the  suggestion;  (4)  to  what  degree  he  was  sug- 
gestible (Max  Dessoir). 

Now,  if  the  statements  of  witnesses  were  insufficient,  the 
accused  could  be  hypnotized.  Very  little,  however,  would  be 
gained  by  that;  but  the  hypnosis  might  be  employed  in  further 
endeavours  to  ascertain  the  truth — I  am,  of  course,  assuming 
that  examination  and  statements  made  in  hypnosis  are  legally 
admissible.  Making  use  of  the  memory  in  hypnosis  we  should, 
first  of  all,  ask  the  accused  whether  he  had  been  hypnotized 
previously  and  by  whom,  and  who  had  made  the  criminal 
suggestion.  If  no  answer  was  obtained — since  the  instigator 
might  also  have  suggested  loss  of  memory — an  indirect  method 
must  be  used,  such  as  Liegeois  mentions;  the  instigator  might 


438  HYPNOTISM. 

be  discovered  by  means  of  association,  if  any  one  were  decidedly 
suspected.  He  might,  for  instance,  be  told  to  cough,  laugh,  etc., 
when  he  saw  the  instigator  or  his  photograph,  or  heard  his 
name.  I  believe  the  instigator  might  be  detected  in  this  way, 
and  that  some  such  devices  would  prove  successful  even  when 
suspicion  attached  to  no  one  in  particular.  Automatic  writing 
might  also  be  used — in  some  cases  with  certainty  of  success. 
I  think  it  certain  the  aim  could  be  attained  by  repeated  efforts, 
in  spite  of  loss  of  memory;  for  a  suggested  loss  of  memory 
must  eventually  disappear  before  repeated  contrary  suggestions, 
cleverly  made. 

Finally,  we  must  endeavour  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  sug- 
gestibility by  making  fresh  experiments  in  suggestion. 

But  the  case  would  be  much  more  complicated  if  the 
instigator  of  the  crime  had  suggested  that  the  subject  should 
not  be  hypnotizable  by  anybody  but  himself.  Still  my  own 
experience  makes  it  seem  probable  that  even  such  a  suggestion 
might  be  made  ineffectual  by  repeated  opposed  suggestions  in 
new  hypnoses,  supposing,  of  course,  that  a  repetition  of  the 
original  suggestion  could  be  prevented.  Del  bceuf  has  expressed 
the  same  view.  He  proposed  that  a  more  indirect  method  of 
hypnotization  should  be  chosen.  The  subject  should  be  pre- 
vented as  far  as  possible  from  thinking  of  the  hypnotization, 
and  the  necessary  suggestions  should  only  be  made  casually. 

Goltdammer  relates  that  this  question  of  the  use  of  hypnotism 
in  law  called  up  a  discussion  in  a  court  of  justice  between  the 
defending  counsel  and  the  counsel  for  the  crown,  in  a  suit  at 
Verona  thirty-seven  years  ago.  It  was  a  case  of  rape  in 
magnetic  sleep.  There  was  loss  of  memory  in  the  waking  state. 
The  defending  counsel  opposed  the  counsel  for  the  crown, 
who  proposed  to  re-magnetize  the  assaulted  person,  but  the 
court  agreed  to  his  doing  so,  as  it  considered  the  induction  of 
the  magnetic  sleep  merely  as  a  method  of  proof.  The  victim 
made  important  statements  in  the  sleep  artificially  induced, 
and  in  consequence  of  these  the  accused  was  condemned.  A 
case  of  Motet's  was  somewhat  different.  Motet  hypnotized  a 
person  accused  of  unnatural  offences  so  as  to  prove  that  the 
accused  was  probably  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness  when  he 
committed  the  incriminating  acts. 

The  case  would  be  the  same  if  a  person  asserted  he  had 
been  the  victim  of  a  crime;  here  also  new  hypnosis  must  under 
certain  circumstances   be  induced,  and  if  there  was  loss  of 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  439 

memory  the  question  must  be  cleared  up  by  examination  in 
hypnosis,  supposing  the  law  allowed  it. 

All  this  shows  what  difficulties  stand  in  the  way  of  turning 
hypnosis  to  practical  account  in  law.  Hypnotization  would 
only  result  in  a  certain  degree  of  probability,  since,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  (i)  there  is  intentional  falsehood  in  hypnosis;  (2) 
the  statements  may  be  influenced  by  previous  suggestions; 
(3)  there  is  danger  that  answers  may  be  influenced  by  the  way  in 
which  the  questions  are  put;  (4)  previous  suggestion  may  make 
new  hypnosis  very  hard  to  induce. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  we  should  take  similarly  into  con- 
sideration all  the  details  of  the  case,  such  as  the  act  itself,  and 
the  question,  who  might  expect  to  benefit  by  the  crime.  This 
would  be  the  only  way  when  the  person  supposed  to  have  been 
influenced  by  suggestion  is  already  dead,  as  is  conceivable  in  a 
will  case.  Such  a  case  does  not  seem  to  be  unlikely,  and 
would  be  very  difficult  for  an  expert  to  clear  up.  In  all  cases 
of  legal  hypnotization  the  possibility  of  simulation  must  be 
considered  as  well  as  the  possibility  of  a  purposely  false 
accusation  (Ladame). 

Many  proposals  have  been  made  for  avoiding  the  possible 
dangers  of  hypnosis  to  health  as  well  as  to  morality.  As  early 
as  1880  Friedberg  demanded  that  hypnotic  experiments  should 
only  be  allowed  in  the  presence  of  a  doctor.  Grasset  and 
others  joined  him  in  this  contention  later  on.  Delacroix,  in 
France,  propounded  a  law  making  hypnotization  legal  only  for 
doctors,  and  then  only  when  at  least  two  are  present.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  carry  out  such  regulations:  to  begin  with,  the 
exact  limitation  of  the  idea  "hypnosis"  is  still  a  matter  of 
dispute,  and  then  again,  as  Preyer  thought,  other  difficulties 
would  be  raised  by  the  fact  that  many  people  can  hypnotize 
themselves. 

All  experts — medical  men,  psychologists,  lawyers  (Drucker, 
Lilienthal,  Li^geois,  etc.) — agree  that  difficulties  should  not 
be  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  use  of  hypnosis  by  doctors  for 
therapeutic  purposes.  This  is  recognized  in  the  law  that  was 
passed  in  Belgium  at  the  special  instigation  of  the  Minister  of 
Justice,  Le  Jeune.  It  certainly  does  not  restrict  the  per- 
mission to  hypnotize  to  doctors.  The  original  draught  con- 
tained a  paragraph  according  to  which  the  hypnotizing  of 
minors  and  the  insane  was  only  to  be  entrusted  to  physicians. 
When  this  question  came  to  be  discussed  Merveille  expressed 


440  HYPNOTISM. 

the  opinion  that  the  courts  might  wink  at  an  evasion  of  the 
law  should  a  layman  hypnotize  such  a  patient  at  the  latter'3 
request.  Finally,  on  the  motion  of  Soupart,  it  was  agreed 
that  by  special  authorization  an  exception  might  be  made  in 
favour  of  those  who  were  not  physicians.  The  first  exception 
made — it  was  in  favour  of  Ast^re  Denis — certainly  raised  a 
storm  of  indignation  in  the  Belgian  Academy  of  Medicine, 
Brasseur  having  described  the  authorization  in  a  pamphlet  as 
state  support  of  Charlatanism. 

Public  exhibitions  of  hypnotism  are,  however,  forbidden  by 
law  in  Belgium.  In  other  ways  also  the  representatives  of 
science  have  generally  opposed  such  exhibitions.  They  ought 
to  be  prohibited  on  both  moral  and  hygienic  grounds.  It  is 
perfectly  true  that  at  one  time  such  public  exhibitions  served 
to  draw  the  attention  of  scientists  to  hypnotism,  but  nowadays 
they  are  more  calculated  to  repel  people  from  the  scientific 
study  of  that  question,  since  they  degrade  hypnosis  into  an 
object  of  vulgar  curiosity,  instead  of  elevating  it  to  one  of 
research.  For  this  reason  alone  it  is  a  good  thing  that  the 
Prussian  Government,  acting  on  the  advice  of  the  members  of 
the  Scientific  Committee  on  Medical  Affairs,  permanently 
suppressed  public  exhibitions  of  hypnosis  in  1881.  Un- 
fortunately, hypnotizers  know  of  many  ways  in  which  they 
could  evade  the  law.  Since  it  was  only  public  exhibitions 
that  were  prohibited  they  removed  their  entertainments  to  the 
premises  of  private  societies  to  which  members  and  their 
guests  have  free  access.  Now,  if  such  a  society  is  only  used  to 
screen  an  evasion  of  the  law,  the  authorities  would  have  as 
much  right  to  interfere  with  a  prohibited  exhibition  on  its 
premises  as  if  the  performance  were  publicly  advertised.  It  is 
difficult  to  understand  why  the  authorities  do  not  make 
requisite  use  of  the  power  entrusted  to  them.  How  important 
this  point  is  may  best  be  judged  by  the  fact  that,  in  a  case 
we  have  already  mentioned,  a  "suggester"  named  Weltmann, 
who  was  charged  with  inflicting  bodily  injury  on  a  subject, 
was  acquitted  by  the  court  because  the  competent  authorities 
had  given  him  permission  to  perform  his  experiments.  The 
prohibition  as  to  public  exhibitions  also  applies  to  the 
female  '* dream-dancers"  and  "sleep-dancers,"  so  many  of 
whom  have  appeared  of  recent  years.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
police  authorities^  and  perhaps  also  the  medical  officials  who 
work  with  them,  are  even  now  tricked  by  the  actors  who 


THE  I.EGAL  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.  44I 

advertise  their  performances  as  experiments  in  suggestion  in 
the  waking  state.  The  hypnotizer  is  nowadays  called  a 
"suggester."  Under  the  pretext  of  only  making  suggestions  in 
the  waking  state,  the  "  suggesters,"  Weltmann,  Viebig,  Ignot, 
and  Krause  have  cairied  out  ordinary  hypnotic  experiments  in 
public,  and  the  police  authorities  have  apparently  let  them, 
selves  be  deceived  by  the  words  "suggestion  in  the  waking 
state."  Forel  also  called  attention  to  this  on  account  of  a 
statement  made  by  Speyrs  that  in  the  case  of  the  '*  suggester  " 
Krause  the  experiments  were  entirely  hypnotic,  and  similarly 
Neustätter  has  shown  that  this  was  the  case  and  that  the 
subjects  were,  in  a  manner,  surprised  into  hypnosis  which  was 
not  induced  in  the  ordinary  way. 

If  the  authorities  and  their  medical  colleagues  are  not  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  these  questions  they  would  do  well  to  consult  specialists, 
just  as  the  courts  often  do.  It  is  impossible  for  a  man  to  know  everything. 
Cramer  proffers  the  advice  that  doctors  who  are  without  personal  ex- 
perience in  the  domain  of  hypnotism  had  best  decline  to  report  on  such 
cases,  and  Ernst  Schultze  says  the  advice  is  excellent  and  should  be 
followed  implicitly.  For  instance,  he  declares  he  would  never  pass  an 
opinion  on  the  value  of  hypnotism  in  civil  law,  since  he  lacks  the  necessary 
experience.  If  he  were  asked  to  do  so  he  would  request  to  be  excused 
from  undertaking  the  duties  of  a  specialist.  I  strongly  advise  all  forensic 
physicians  and  psychiatrists  to  take  these  words  to  heart.  It  will  hardly 
increase  the  authority  of  our  police  and  medical  officials  if  they  let  them- 
selves be  so  deceived  by  sham  waking  suggestions  that  they  fail  to  see  the 
real  hypnoses. 

Public  exhibitions  have  also  been  objected  to  in  other 
countries.  They  were  prohibited  in  Austria  as  early  as 
1880,  chiefly  on  account  of  Hansen's  appearance  in  public. 
A  commission,  of  which  Hofmann  was  a  member,  expressed  a 
fear  that  such  performances  were  not  unattended  with  danger 
to  health.  The  matter  was  again  investigated  by  the  Chief 
Sanitary  Board,  and  Kraflt-Ebing  drew  up  a  report.  On  this 
occasion  it  was  pointed  out  that  as  far  back  as  1795  the  Court 
Chancellor  of  Vienna  had  issued  a  decree  placing  essential 
limits  to  experiments  in  animal  magnetism,  and  that  in  1845 
it  was  agreed,  at  the  request  of  Professor  Lippich,  that  the 
employment  of  animal  magnetism  should  only  be  sanctioned 
in  the  case  of  qualified  medical  men.  Another  official  note 
was  published  by  the  Austrian  Sanitary  Council  in  1895 — 
Krafft-Ebing  again  acted  as  reporter^dealing  with  the  use  of 


1 


442  HYPNOTISM. 

hypnosis  by  spiritualist  societies.  This  note  was  in  favour 
of  the  suppression  of  spiritualistic  societies  on  account  of  a 
report  sent  by  Schlager  in  1883,  in  condemnation  of  such  bodies. 
In  Italy  public  exhibitions  were  forbidden  in  consequence 
of  Donato's  performances.  Notices  of  prohibition  were  also 
issued  in  Switzerland — at  the  request  of  the  sanitary  authorities 
of  the  Canton  of  Aargau,  among  others.  The  first  person  to 
bring  about  the  prohibition  of  public  exhibitions  in  America 
was  Prendergast,  a  sanitary  officer  in  Cincinnati,  etc. 

Though  I  consider  the  public  exhibitions  of  hypnotism 
that  take  place  in  the  present  day  mischievous,  I  do  not  wish 
to  depreciate  the  services  of  those  who  have  drawn  attention 
to  hypnotism  by  public  exhibitions.  Just  as  I  refuse  to  join 
in  the  general  condemnation  of  Mesmer,  I  try,  and  recommend 
others  to  try,  to  judge  such  men  as  Hansen,  Bollert,  and 
Donato,  fairly.  Their  motives  may  have  been  selfish,  but  they 
have  certainly  been  of  great  service  to  science.  Que  les  savants 
n^oublient  jamais  que  si  Von  suppritnait  de  Vhistoire  de  Phypna- 
tisme  Us  quaire  ou  cinq  vulgarisateurs  Strangers  ä  la  midecine 
qui  ont  eu  la  force  et  le  courage  de  prouver  les  faits  aux  quatre 
coins  de  V Europe  depuis  cinquante  ans^  cette  histoire  ^icroulerait 
entilrement}  To  the  honour  of  those  mentioned,  it  should  be 
expressly  stated  that  all  three  of  them  were  invariably  ready  to 
help  the  representatives  of  science  in  the  most  straightforward 
way.  Heidenhain,  Michael,  Delboeuf,  Wernicke,  Morselli,  and 
others  have  emphatically  recognized  thi^.  None  the  less, 
such  exhibitions  are  reprehensible  in  the  present  day,  and 
Delboeufs  supposition  that  they  are  the  best  means  of 
spreading  a  knowledge  of  hypnotism,  and  thus  lessening  its 
dangers,  in  nowise  justifies  them.  They  are  accompanied  by 
danger  to  health,  as  I  have  often  explained.  And  it  must 
be  added  that,  from  the  moral  point  of  view,  there  is  no 
justification  for  putting  people  into  a  condition  which  deprives 
them  of  will,  for  no  higher  object  than  for  the  amusement  of 
the  uncultured  persons  who  constitute  the  major  portion  of 
the  audience  at  such  exhibitions. 

Many  Bills  dealing  with  this  question  have  been  promoted 

^  "  It  should  never  be  forgotten  by  scientists,  that  if  from  the  history  of 
hypnotism  we  wiped  out  the  work  of  vulgarization  done  by  four  or  five 
outsiders,  who  with  courage  and  perseverance  have  proved  its  main  facts 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  Europe  during  the  past  fifty  years — 
that  history  itself  would  entirely  fall  to  pieces." 


THE  LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.  443 

in  Germany.  Still  I  think  that  the  law  as  it  stands  is  able  to 
prevent  any  abuse  in  this  respect.  A  few  years  ago  Lentner 
asked  whether  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  insert  in  the 
Criminal  Code  a  clause  making  the  use  of  hypnosis  by 
swindling  quacks  and  money-grabbing  showmen  a  punishable 
offence,  as  constituting  a  danger  to  health  and  personal  safety. 
Rosenfeld  also  considers  the  existing  regulations  adequate. 
At  all  events  it  would  be  difficult  to  justify  the  inclusion  of 
such  a  clause  in  the  Criminal  Code  unless  it  were  made 
applicable  to  those  cases  in  which  performers  are  compelled  to 
risk  their  lives.  Hanns  Gross  proposes  that  it  is  the  people 
who  organize  such  performances  who  should  be  punished. 

Attempts  have  occasionally  been  made  to  restrict  the  misuse 
of  hypnotism  by  means  of  administrative  measures.  This 
happened,  for  instance,  in  Hamburg,  where  a  well-known 
hypnotizer  was  fined  for  advertising  his  method  of  treating 
disease.  The  Senate  of  that  town  issued  a  decree  on  ist  July, 
1900,  dealing  with  the  practice  of  medicine  by  unqualified 
persons,  and  §  2  of  the  decree  prohibited  the  advertisement  of 
methods  of  treating  human  complaints,  should  such  methods 
be  calculated  to  endanger  health.  In  a  case  at  the  Hamburg 
Assizes,  I  was  called  in  to  express  my  opinion,  as  an  expert, 
whether  hypnosis,  as  advertised  in  the  case  before  the  court, 
was  to  be  considered  dangerous  to  health.  In  the  end,  no 
importance  was  attached  to  this  point,  since  the  court  held 
that  the  decree  of  the  Senate  was  inconsistent  with  the  general 
trade  regulations,  and  therefore  null  and  void. 

This  completes  our  consideration  of  the  bearing  of  hypnotism 
on  jurisprudence.  We  have  seen  the  direct  practical  import- 
ance of  hypnotism  to  jurisprudence,  and  also  that  it  must  not 
be  exaggerated.  The  legal  importance  of  hypnosis  is  similar 
to  the  medical.  It  is  not  the  fact  that  a  hypnotic  can  be  made 
the  victim  or  the  instrument  of  a  crime;  it  is  not  the  fact  that 
we  can  induce  retro-active  suggestions  hypnotically  and  thereby 
falsify  testimony,  that  is  all  important  in  this  respect,  but  rather 
the  number  of  instructive  lessons  in  jurisprudence  that  hyp- 
notism has  indirectly  supplied  us  with.  By  teaching  us  the 
importance  of  suggestion  it  has  opened  up  many  a  fresh  field 
of  view  to  the  science  of  jurisprudence.  In  the  instigation  of 
crime,  factors  that  are  very  similar  to  those  employed  in 
hypnotic  suggestion  often  play  a  part;  indeed,  it  may  be  that 


446  HYPNOTISM. 

of  a  single  finger,  or  even  of  one  phalange.  We  can  induce 
loss  of  memory  in  respect  to  a  single  word  or  a  whole  system 
of  ideas,  and  that,  too,  without  producing  any  other  change  in 
the  subject's  consciousness  or  in  the  least  degree  influencing 
his  critical  faculties  (Vogt).  When  we  consider  how  readily 
psychologists  have  at  all  times  made  use  of  dreams  in  the 
investigation  of  mental  life,  but  that  hypnosis  is  accessible  for 
purposes  of  experiment  in  quite  a  different  way  to  night- 
dreams,  and  that  when  suitable  suggestions  are  made  a 
hypnotic  is  more  capable  of  self-observation  than  a  person  who 
is  dreaming,  it  follows  that  Villa's  dogmatic  decision  can  only 
be  ascribed  either  to  total  ignorance  or  lack  of  reflection. 

Wundt  has  ascribed  at  least  a  limited  amount  of  importance 
to  hypnotism — about  as  much  as  to  other  abnormal  states. 
He  puts  it  down  as  a  phenomenological  method  of  research. 
More  recently — in  his  Grundriss  der  Psychologie — he  has  gone 
so  far  as  to  admit  that  partial  hypnosis  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  be  considered  a  general  method  of  research. 
Beaunis  ascribes  even  a  still  greater  importance  to  hypnotism 
in  respect  to  psychology.  According  to  him,  hypnotism  is  to 
psychologists  what  vivisection  is  to  physiologists.  Krafft-Ebing 
and  Forel  have  expressed  similar  views,  and  Max  Dessoir  and 
Münsterberg  also  gave  timely  recognition  to  the  psychological 
importance  of  hypnotism.  Ribot  and  Wizel  have  used  the 
hypnotic  state  for  purposes  of  experiment,  and  have  studied 
the  mental  life  of  persons  in  that  state;  they  also  made  use  of 
it  for  comparing  the  hypnotic  with  the  non-hypnotic  state. 
They  found  that  hystericals  give  more  accurate  answers  in 
hypnosis  than  in  the  waking  state. 

Vogt  has  certainly  gone  much  farther.  He  perceives  in 
hypnotic  experiments  a  possible  means  of  arriving  at  psycho- 
logical  results  of  a  more  universal  character.  Two  conditions 
are  necessary  for  a  hypnotic  state  to  be  suitable  for  this  purpose: 
(i)  The  subject,  in  order  to  present  as  high  a  degree  of 
suggestibility  as  possible,  must  be  thrown  into  as  deep  a  sleep 
as  is  compatible  with  the  removal  at  pleasure  of  this  sleep- 
inhibition  ;^  (2)  there  must  be  a  preservation  of  the  waking 
state  within  a  certain  compass,  so  as  to  facilitate  self-observa" 
tion  on  the  part  of  the  subject.     These  conditions  are  best 

^  By  sleep-inhibition  Vogt  means  the  inhibition  produced  by  sleep ;  this 
might  easily  prove  misleading,  since  according  to  the  ordinary  rules  of 
etymology  sleep-inhibition  would  mean  the  inhibition  of  sleep. 


HYPNOSIS  AND   PSYCHOLOGY.  447 

satisfied  by  that  systematic  partial  preservation  of  the  waking 
state,  which,  while  affording  a  thorough  waking  state  for  all 
those  elements  of  consciousness  that  appertain  to  the  special 
experiment,  causes  a  deep  sleep  for  all  others.  In  addition  to 
this,  Vogt  further  recommends  the  normal  waking  state  in  which 
there  is  a  single  realized  suggestion;  that  is  to  say,  a  partial 
systematic  state  of  disassociation.  He  obtains  the  systematic 
partial  preservation  of  the  waking  state  either  by  partially 
waking  the  subject  from  a  general  sleep  or  by  putting  him 
partially  to  sleep.  And  he  does  not  even  think  it  either 
practical  or  desirable  to  procure  deep  sleep,  since  a  lighter 
degree  will  give  us  conditions  more  advantageous  than  are  to 
be  had  in  the  waking  state.  Here  a  state  of  contracted 
consciousness,  in  which  the  only  noticeable  thing  is  a  marked 
dulness  in  response  to  any  commotion,  is  quite  sufficient.  By 
concentrating  his  attention,  a  hypnotic,  while  in  these  states,  is 
capable  of  making  a  very  different  analysis  of  mental  processes 
to  that  which  would  otherwise  lie  in  his  power.  Thus,  Vogt 
thinks  that  we  are  better  able  in  these  states  to  concentrate  our 
attention  on  the  problem  that  has  to  be  analyzed  in  complicated 
mental  processes  than  we  should  otherwise  be ;  if,  for  example, 
a  tuning-fork  is  struck  we  first  hear  a  composite,  not  a  simple, 
sound ;  we  further  feel  a  tension  in  our  ears,  an  agreeable  or 
disagreeable  feeling,  our  frame  of  mind  is  affected,  respiration 
altered,  other  organic  sensations  take  place,  we  may  perhaps 
be  able  to  fix  associations  called  up  by  the  sound,  etc.,  etc. 
All  these  phenomena  require  analyzing,  but  that  can  only  be 
done  by  concentrating  the  attention  on  one  phenomenon  at  a 
time  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
find  a  better  way  of  doing  this  than  by  employing  a  state  of 
partially  preserved  wakefulness,  systematically  maintained. 

That  is  the  way  in  which  Vogt  has  made  a  qualitative 
analysis  of  feeling.  Wundt,  in  consequence  of  his  more  recent 
researches,  has  now  rejected  the  generally  accepted  notion 
that  our  feelings  may  be  classified  as  those  of  like  and  dislike. 
In  his  opinion,  where  phases  of  feeling  are  concerned  the 
differentiation  lies  not  merely  between  Hke  and  dislike,  but 
between  excitation  and  inhibition,  tension  and  relaxation  as 
well.  Vogt  now  thinks  that  Wundt's  view  is  substantiated  by 
the  self-observations  of  hypnotic  subjects.  According  to  Vogt, 
there  are  two  couples  of  qualities,  the  one  '*  agreeable  and 
disagreeable,"  the  other  **  elevating,  exhilarating,  buoying  up. 


448  HYPNOtlSM. 

relaxing,  depressing,  saddening.''  He  calls  the  latter  acdentua- 
tion  of  feeling  sthenic,  in  contradistinction  to  the  hedonistic 
form.  In  one  of  Vogt's  subjects,  the  feeling  of  tension  released 
a  certain  feeling  of  volition.  Vogt  thinks  that  he  is  able  to 
refute  the  charge  that  he  suggested  the  analysis  to  the  hypno- 
tized subject  in  this  case  by  ther  fact  that  he  was  originally  an 
opponent  of  Wundt's  method  of  analysis,  of  which  be  only 
became  an  adherent  in  consequence  of  the  analyses  made  by 
hypnotics.  Certainly  this  would  not  suffice  to  refute'  that 
objection,  which,  moreover,  may  also  be  raised  with  regard  to 
analyses  made  in  the  normal  waking  state.  It  would  then 
have  to  be  proved  that  the  subject  experimented  on  had  no 
notion  of  Wundt's  analysis,  and  could  not  receive,  either  by 
word  or  sign  from  any  one  present,  any  intimation  of  that 
analysis.  Lcewenfeld  has  raised  the  further  objection,  that 
many  of  the  states  used  by  Vogt  in  these  analyses  and  ascribed 
by  him  to  hypnosis  have  nothing  to  do  with  that  condition. 
Vogt,  by  including  all  mental  states  in  which  unemotional 
suggestions  are  carried  out,  gives  far  too  wide  a  meaning  to 
the  concept  hypnosis.  This  objection  of  Lcewenfeld's  is  fully 
justified.  According  to  Lcewenfeld,  Vogt  also  exaggerates  the 
value  of  hypnosis  as  a  means  of  psychological  research,  in  that 
he  fails  to  give  due  consideration  to  the  question  of  the 
possibility  of  the  persons  concerned  acquiring  the  power  of 
making  such  analyses  solely  by  learning  and  practising  the  art 
of  observing,  without  any  hypnotic  measures  being  necessary. 
Finally,  we  should,  according  to  Lcewenfeld,  still  have  to 
decide  whether  the  analyses,  as  made  by  Vogt's  subjects,  apply 
generally,  or  only  to  the  few  persons  whom  they  concern. 
Certainly  some  of  the  objections  are  justified;  at  least,  they 
have  not  yet  been  refuted  by  Vogt.  Consequently,  we  must 
leave  the  question,  whether  valuable  analytical  results  have  as 
yet  been  obtained  by  means  of  hypnosis,  as  provisionally 
unanswered.  But  we  certainly  have  no  right  to  reject  the 
method  as  such ;  we  must,  on  the  contrary,  admit  that  further 
investigation  is  called  for. 

We  have  to  take  up  the  same  standpoint  in  respect  to  other 
investigations;  such,  for  example,  as  those  of  Ach,  who, 
prompted  by  Vogtes  works,  has  investigated  the  capabilities  of 
persons  in  the  state  of  contracted  consciousness  about  which  I 
spoke  on  page  139.  The  performances  of  the  dream-dancer, 
Magdeleine  G.,  led  F.  E.  Otto  Schultze  to  submit  her  to  a 


HYPNOSIS  AND  PSYCHOLOGY.  449 

series  of  acoustic,  psychological,  and  sesthetic  investigations. 
In  this  way  Schultze  was  going  to  examine  the  chief  elements 
of  music  and  speech  separately,  and  to  endeavour  to  obtain,  by 
psychological  experiments  in  tone-perception,  an  answer  to  the 
question  whether  all  reactions  present  the  same  conformity  to 
law  in  hypnosis  that  they  do  in  normal  life.  But  the  value  of 
the  experiments  is  very  considerably  discounted  by  the  fact 
that  we  are  unable  to  decide  what  was  due  to  training  and 
what  was  spontaneous  on  the  part  of  the  subject.  Several 
investigators,  Farez  and  Vogt  in  particular,  have  investigated 
the  hypermnesia  of  hypnotics  psychologically.  Vogt  studied 
associations  in  this  way,  and  thinks  that  associations,  for  which 
the  connecting  link  is  wanting  in  waking  life,  may  be  explained 
by  increased  power  of  memory  in  hypnosis.  HirschlafF  certainly 
denies  the  existence  of  hypermnesia  in  hypnosis  in  toto,  and 
considers  the  results  as  more  probably  due  to  unintentional 
suggestion.  Other  investigations  of  hypermnesia  in  hypnotics 
certainly  belong  to  the  domain  of  psychopathology.  I  may 
here  recall  the  experiments  of  Breuer  and  Freud,  who  tried  to 
discover  an  etiological  moment  in  the  production  of  hysteria  by 
using  the  increased  power  of  memory  exhibited  by  hypnotics 
{cf.  page  335).  I  also  refer  to  what  I  said  (page  349)  con- 
cerning modern  researches  in  hysteria,  to  the  advancement  of 
which  hypnotism  has  greatly  contributed,  especially  from  the 
psychological  point  of  view.  I  may  further  mention  the 
impulsive  actions  and  imperative  ideas  which  we  are  able  to 
induce  experimentally  by  means  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion. 
The  presumption  that  what  here  occurs  as  the  result  of  post- 
hypnotic external  suggestion  appears  in  other  cases  as  a 
pathological  phenomenon  produced  by  auto-suggestion,  is 
certainly  justified.  Bentivegni  has  called  attention  to  this 
affinity  between  post-hypnotic  suggestions  and  many  imperative 
ideas.  When  the  signal  for  a  post-hypnotic  action  to  be 
performed  is  perceived,  the  subject  experiences  certain 
impulses  in  the  same  way  that  a  morbid  person  feds  im- 
pelled to  commit  murder  or  suicide  at  the  sight  of  a  knife 
or  of  water  (Cullerre).  Höfler  has  pointed  out  the  importance 
of  post-hypnotic  suggestion  to  normal  psychology  as  well. 
He  showed  how  it  certainly  stimulated  research  into  the  after- 
effects of  conclusions.  I  must  here  further  refer  to  the 
creation  of  feelings  and  moods  by  means  of  post-hypnotic 
suggestion.     We  are  able  to  arouse  feelings  of  like  and  dislike 

29 


450  HYPNOTISM. 

without  the  subject  being  even  conscious  of  the  ideas  con- 
nected with  those  feelings.  A  man's  whole  frame  of  mind 
may  be  made  either  pleasant  or  unpleasant  without  his  ever 
knowing  what  influenced  him,  since  he  does  not  recollect  the 
command  he  received.  This  likewise  throws  light  on  those 
cases  in  every-day  life  in  which  people  are  unable  to  explain 
why  they  feel  in  a  good  or  bad  frame  of  mind,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Hypnotism  and  the  theory  of  suggestion  have  also 
exercised  a  great  influence  on  our  estimation  of  synopsia, 
colour-audition,  etc.  At  the  present  day  some  of  these 
phenomena  are  very  properly  considered  the  result  of  sug- 
gestion ;  others  may  be  referred  to  associations  of  a  purely 
psychological  character,  but  not  on  that  account  attributable  to 
suggestion.  Others  may  possibly  have  a  different  origin — one 
of  a  purely  physiological  nature.  At  all  events,  the  possibility 
of  such  phenomena  originating  in  auto-suggestions  was  first 
put  in  its  true  light  by  hypnotism.  Hypnotism  has  also  done 
much  to  promote  the  study  of  sleep,  and  especially  of  dreams. 
By  means  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion  we  are  certainly  able  to 
induce  any  dream  we  will 

There  is  another  direction  in  which  hypnotism  has  acquired 
importance.  This  brings  me  to  the  theory  of  primary  and 
secondary  consciousness.  That  there  are  subconscious  mental 
acts  was  known  long  before  the  advent  of  modern  hypnotism. 
But  what  we  owe  to  hypnotism  is  a  new,  almost  ideal  method  of 
putting  such  acts  to  the  test  of  experiment.  In  this  connection 
hypnotism  has  proved  most  fruitful.  Post-hypnotic  suggestion 
shows  us  how  delicate  the  workings  of  the  secondary  conscious- 
ness sometimes  are,  and  that,  too,  without  there  being  any 
question  of  the  presence  of  those  automatic  processes  that 
practice  unconsciously  produces.  A  hypnotic  is  told  that  when 
he  wakes  he  is  to  do  something  or  other.  He  wakes,  does  not 
remember  what  has  happened,  and  yet  at  the  expiration  of  the 
hour  performs  the  act  more  or  less  'punctually.  We  are  able 
to  observe  that  the  process  of  counting  goes  on  in  the  secondary 
consciousness  of  our  subjects;  on  this  point  I  refer  the  reader 
to  the  experiments  described  oh  page  164.  How  accurately 
time  is  sometimes  calculated  in  the  secondary  consciousness — 
j'tf.,  how  the  secondary  consciousness  executes  a  complicated 
task — is  shown  by  Delboeuf  and  Bram well's  experiments  (p.  163), 
in  which  thousands  of  minutes  were  counted  and  estimated. 
To  the  superficial  observer,  or  the  man  who  has  no  experience 


HYPNOSIS  AND  PSYCHOLOGY.  45 1 

of  hypnotism,  many  of  these  reports  must  appear  incredible;* 
yet  these  are  just  the  very  experiments  that  have  been  made, 
and  their  details  recounted,  by  experienced  and  critical  ex- 
perimenters— by  such  a  man  as  Delbceuf,  in  particular.  Even 
if  such  experiments  only  succeed  in  a  few  cases,  hypnotism  has 
nevertheless  provided  us  with  an  excellent  method  of  testing 
the  secondary  consciousness  experimentally. 

A  few  investigators  went  even  farther,  and  thought  they  were 
able  to  prove  by  means  of  hypnosis  that  the  composite  nature 
of  human  personality  is  the  result  of  consciousness  consisting 
of  two  halves,  each  of  which  operates  more  or  less  independently 
of  the  other.  As  Clemens  Sokal  and  S.  Landmann  pointed 
out,  these  experiments  have  formed  the  essential  part  of  French 
psychology  for  a  number  of  years.  I  merition  Binet  as  first 
and  foremost  in  this  respect,  then  F.  Myers  and  Gurney  in 
England.  In  Germany,  Max  Dessoir,  who  dedicated  his  Doppel- 
Ich  to  the  subject,  once  held  similar  opinions,  but  he  has 
latterly  modified  his  views  on  the  plurality  of  human  personality 
very  essentially. 

In  the  same  way,  hypnotism  has  shed  light  on  a  problem  that 
is  usually  considered  to  belong  to  philosophy,  but  that  yet 
presents  an  essentially  psychological  side;  I  refer  to  the  question 
of  free-will.  Post-hj^notic  suggestion  has  shown  the  relative 
worthlessness  of  the  feeling  of  free-will  as  a  proof  of  its  ex- 
istence. 

Spinoza's  saying,  "  The  illusion  of  free-will  is  nothing  but  our 
ignorance  of  the  motives  which  determine  our  choice,"  appears 
to  find  striking  support  in  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  If  we 
suggest  to  a  subject  in  hypnosis  to  move  a  chair  when  he  wakes, 
he  very  frequently  does  as  he  was  told.  When  asked  to  find  a 
motive  for  the  act,  the  subject  sometimes  replies  that  he  felt 
compelled  to  act  so,  or  sometimes  says  he  believes  he  acted  so 
of  his  own  accord,  and  gives  some  reason  or  other  for  his  action 
— ^anything  but  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  This  feeling  of  free- 
dom of  will  when  there  is  actually  an  irresistible  impulse  at 
work  has  frequently  been  used  as  an  argument  in  support  of 
determinism.  We  see  here  that  a  state  has  been  induced  by 
experiment,  in  which  the  subject  has  the  feeling  that  he  is  acting 
freely,  while  in  reality  his  will  has  already  been  directed  in  a 
particular  manner.  Ribot,  Fofel  and  others  have  called  atten- 
tion to  the  light  that  post-hypnotic  suggestion  has  thrown  on 
the  problem  of  free-will.     The'  following  experiment  that  I  have 


453  HYPNOTISM. 

frequently  made,  and  that  can  be  repeated  by  any  one  on  a 
suitable  subject,  illustrates  the  illusion  of  free-will  very  clearly. 
I  suggest  to  a  hypnotic  subject,  X.,  to  lay  an  umbrella  on  the 
ground  after  he  wakes.  He  wakes,  and  I  now  tell  him  to  do 
anything  he  pleases,  but  that  he  is  to  act  entirely  of  his  own 
free-will;  at  the  same  time  I  give  him  a  folded  paper  on  which 
I  have  written  what  he  is  to  do.  X.  does  what  I  suggested, 
and  is  then  much  astonished  to  find  written  on  the  paper  the 
action  he  has  carried  out  and  in  the  performance  of  which  he 
firmly  believed  he  acted  of  his  own  free-will. 

Of  course,  we  must  not  exaggerate  the  importance  of  these 
hypnotic  experiments,  neither  should  we  draw  general  con- 
clusions about  free-will  from  them;  for  we  may  be  nearly  certain 
that  there  will  be  a  feeling  of  free-will  only  when  the  action  is 
agreeable  to  the  individuality  of  the  subject.  If,  for  instance,  a 
morally  normal  man  were  told  to  take  another's  watch  or  to 
commit  some  other  improper  act,  the  feeling  of  aversion  would 
be  strong  enough  to  suppress  the  feeling  of  free-will.  A 
subjective  constraint  would  then  be  felt.  The  feeling  of  free- 
will is  much  more  likely  to  be  aroused  by  post-hypnotic 
suggestion  when  the  acts  suggested  are  indifferent  and  unimport- 
ant than  when  they  are  momentous  and  at  the  same  time 
opposed  to  the  subject's  individuality.  We  come  across 
something  similar  in  the  normal  waking  state;  in  that,  as 
Freud  has  rightly  pointed  out,  the  feeling  of  free-will  arises 
soonest  when  the  proceedings  are  unimportant,  while  when 
more  important  decisions  are  concerned  the  feeling  of  being 
unable  to  act  in  any  but  one  way  almost  invariably  predominates. 
Finally,  we  must  also  beware  of  exaggerating  the  importance 
of  hypnotic  experiment,  since  we  do  not  by  any  means  find 
these  deep  hypnoses  and  subjective  delusions  of  the  judgment 
in  all  subjects.  Such  subjects  are  invariably  very  few  in 
number,  and  after  repeated  experiments  most  of  them  begin  to 
observe  themselves,  which  makes  them  conscious  of  the  con- 
straint put  upon  them.  Finally,  I  must  not  omit  to  mention 
that  hypnosis  has  taught  us  nothing  absolutely  new  in  this 
respect;  for  in  every-day  life,  also,  we  are  often  able  by  an 
adroit  manipulation  of  circumstances  and  conditions  to  give 
definite  guidance  to  the  will  of  some  people  without  their 
knowing  it.  Goethe's  saying,  "  Du  glaubts  zu  schieben,  und 
Du  wirst  geschoben,"^  expresses  this  fact.    I  will,  moreover,  take 

*  Roughly,  "You  think  the  force  is  yours, — and  you  are  forced." 


HYPNOSIS  AND   PSYCHOLOGY.  453 

this  opportunity  of  referring  to  the  art  of  conjuring.  A  well- 
known  trick  of  the  conjurer  is  to  allow  a  card  to  be  drawn  from 
a  pack  and  to  guess  it  at  once.  The  trick  is  thus  explained :  the 
spectator  thinks  he  has  freely  chosen  the  card,  but  in  reality 
the  conjurer  has  directed  him  to  one  in  particular,  and  compelled 
him  to  take  it.  The  conjurer  attains  this  end  by  putting  the 
card  he  wishes  chosen  where  it  will  naturally  be  the  first  to  be 
taken  up.  We  have  as  little  right  to  assert  that  the  hypnotic 
experiments  already  described  disprove  the  doctrine  of  free-will, 
as  we  have  to  consider  that  the  above  experiments  in  waking 
life  do  so.  Few  can  have  made  such  experiments  often 
without  fresh  doubts  of  freedom  of  will  arising,  but  from  these 
doubts  to  scientific  proof  is  an  immense  step. 

In  one  very  particular  respect  hypnotism  has  given  us  a 
lesson  of  the  greatest  importance  to  psychology:  it  has  proved 
that  special  precautionary  measures  must  be  taken  in  planning 
psychological  experiments.  It  has  shown  that  an  essential 
source  of  error  in  psychological  experiments  was  formerly  over- 
looked or  considerably  underrated.  The  training  of  hypnotics 
has  thrown  light  on  this  source  of  error.  I  must  refer  the 
reader  to  what  I  said  on  this  question  on  page  156  et  seq,; 
here  I  will  only  point  out  once  again  that  a  hypnotizer  may, 
often  without  knowing  it,  by  the  tone  of  his  voice  or  by  some 
slight  movement,  cause  the  hypnotic  to  exhibit  phenomena 
that  at  first  could  only  be  produced  by  explicit  verbal  sugges- 
tion, and  that  altogether  the  signs  used  by  the  hypnotizer  to 
cause  suggestions  may  go  on  increasing  in  delicacy.  A 
dangerous  source  of  error  is  provided  by  the  hypnotic's 
endeavour  to  divine  and  obey  the  experimenter's  intentions. 
This  observation  has  also  proved  useful  in  non-hypnotic  ex- 
periments. We  certainly  knew  before  the  days  of  hypnotism 
that  the  signs  by  which  A.  betrays  his  thoughts  to  B.  may 
gradually  become  more  delicate.  We  see  this,  for  example,  in 
the  case  of  the  schoolboy,  who  gradually  learns  how  to  detect, 
from  the  slightest  movement  made  by  his  master,  whether  the 
answer  he  gave  was  right  or  not.  We  find  the  same  sort  of 
thing  in  the  training  of  animals — the  horse,  for  instance,  in 
which  the  rough  methods  at  first  employed  are  gradually  toned 
down  until  in  the  end  an  extremely  slight  movement  made  by 
the  trainer  produces  the  same  effect  that  the  rougher  move- 
ments did  originally.  But  even  if  this  lessening  in  the  intensity 
of  the  signals  exists  independently  of  hypnosis,  it  is  the  latter 


454  HYPNOTISM. 

that  has  shown  us  how  easily  neglect  of  this  factor  may  lead  to 
erroneous  conclusions  being  drawn.  The  suggestibility  of  the 
hypnotic  makes  these  infinitesimal  signals  specially  dangerous 
in  his  case.  But  when  once  this  danger  was  recognized,  greater 
attention  was  paid  to  this  source  of  error  in  non-hypnotic  cases 
than  before.  It  is  certain  that  many  psychological  experi- 
ments are  vitiated  by  the  fact  that  the  subject  knows  what  the 
experimenter  wishes.  Results  are  thus  brought  about  that 
can  only  be  looked  upon  as  the  effects  of  suggestion ;  they  do 
not  depend  on  the  external  conditions  of  the  experiment,  but 
on  what  is  passing  in  the  mind  of  the  subject.  Just  as  we 
saw  on  page  343  et  seq,y  that  to  certain  medicaments  chemical 
activity  is  only  ascribed  because  the  doctor  expects  a  thera- 
peutic action  which  he  intentionally  suggests  to  the  patient,  so 
is  it  with  psychological  experiments. 

Perhaps  many  of  the  results  obtained  experimentally  in  con- 
nection with  the  injurious  effects  of  alcohol  belong  here,  since 
the  subject  is  only  too  inclined  to  present  the  condition  ex- 
pected by  the  experimenter.  Many  experiments  have  been 
made — Kohlschiitter's  were  the  first — to  measure  the  depth  of 
sleep  by  the  intensity  of  the  sound  necessary  to  wake  the 
.sleeper.  Forel  has  pointed  out  that  these  experiments  prove 
nothing,  since  a  noise  to  which  a  person  is  accustomed  soon 
loses  its  power  of  waking  him,  whereas  gentle  but  unwonted 
noises  wake  one  at  once.  In  addition  to  this,  we  have  to 
consider  auto-suggestion  as  a  source  of  error,  particularly  the 
subject's  expectation  that  he  will  be  wakened  by  some  noise 
or  other,  a  circumstance  that  considerably  enhances  the  prob- 
. ability  of  his  being  awakened.  As  early  as  1831  Kohl- 
schütter himself  had  pointed  out  that  the  subject  cannot  get 
rid  of  the  feeling  of  expecting  the  signal  agreed  upon. 
Naturally,  these  objections  call  for  earnest  consideration. 
Certainly  Michelson,  who  has  also  studied  the  question, 
thinks  that  the  unanimity  of  the  results  already  obtained  dis- 
poses of  any  importance  that  might  attach  to  this  source  of 
error.  There  is,  indeed,  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of  Michel- 
son's  point  of  view,  although  his  contention  may  not  repose 
on  an  entirely  sound  basis.  We  must  also  admit  that  the 
experimenter  is  frequently  in  anything  but  a  position  to  exclude 
the  action  of  suggestion.  Consequently,  it  would  be  wrong  to 
consider  that  all  the  earlier  psychological  experiments  in  which 
suggestion  possibly  played   a   part  were   simply  superfluous; 


HYPNOSIS  AND   PSYCHOLOGY.  455 

many  of  them  would  probably  give  the  same  results  if  sugges- 
tion were  excluded.  If,  however,  one  is  unable  in  every  single 
instance  to  carry  out  the  most  extreme  precautionary  measures, 
one  must  at  least  be  careful  so  to  do  before  venturing  on  far- 
reaching  conclusions.  We  should  take  Laplace's  words  to 
heart,  and  examine  phenomena  with  all  the  greater  care  in 
proportion  to  the  difficulty  we  have  in  accepting  them.  This 
principle  should  guide  us  in  respect  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
action  of  suggestion.  An  event  which  at  the  time  of  its 
occurrence  created  a  considerable  commotion  (I  refer  to 
the  case  of  Clever  Hans),  will  show  how  far  we  may  be  led 
by  neglecting  the  above  lesson  taught  us  by  hypnotism. 
If  the  Berlin  psychologist  Stumpf,  the  scientific  director  of  the 
committee  of  investigation,  had  but  taken  into  consideration 
the  teachings  of  hypnotism  he  would  never  have  made  the 
fiasco  of  admitting  that  the  horse.  Clever  Hans,  had  been 
educated  like  a  boy,  not  trained  like  an  animal. 

Clever  Hans  answered  questions  by  tapping  his  hoof  on  the 
stage;  and  the  observers,  more  particularly  the  committee 
presided  over  by  Stumpf,  believed  that  the  answers  tapped  out 
were  the  result  of  due  deliberation  on  the  part  of  the  horse, 
exactly  as  spiritists  believe  that  the  spirits  hold  intelligent 
intercourse  with  them  by  means  of  "raps."  One  tap  denoted 
a,  two  taps  b^  three  taps  ^,  etc. ;  or,  where  numbers  were  con- 
cerned, one  tap  signified  i,  two  taps  2,  etc.  In  this  way 
the  animal  answered  the  most  complicated  questions.  For 
instance,  it  apparently  not  only  solved  such  problems  as  3 
times  4  by  tapping  12  times,  and  6  times  3  by  tapping  18 
times,  but  even  extracted  square  roots,  distinguished  between 
concords  and  discords,  also  between  ten  different  colours,  and 
was  able  to  recognize  the  photographs  of  people ;  altogether, 
Clever  Hans  was  supposed  to  be  at  that  time  about  upon  a 
level  with  a  fifth-form^  boy.  After  investigating  the  matter, 
Stumpf  and  the  members  of  his  committee  drew  up  the  follow- 
ing conjoint  report,  according  to  which  only  one  of  two  things 
was  possible — either  the  horse  could  think  and  calculate  inde- 
pendently, or  else  he  was  under  telepathic,  perhaps  occult, 
influence: — 

The  undersigned  met  together  to  decide  whether  there  was  any  trickery 
in  the  performance  given  by  Herr  v.  Osten  with  his  horse— i.^.,  whether 

^  I«owest  form  but  one  in  a  German  gymnasium. 


4S6  HYPNOTISM. 

the  latter  was  helped  or  influenced  intentionally.  As  the  result  of  the 
exhaustive  tests  employed,  they  have  come  to  the  unanimous  conclusion 
that,  apart  from  the  personal  character  of  Herr  v.  Osten,  with  which  most 
of  them  were  well  acquainted,  the  precautions  taken  during  the  investiga- 
tion altogether  precluded  any  such  assumption.  Notwithstanding  the  most 
careful  observation,  they  were  unable  to  detect  any  gestures,  movements, 
or  other  intimations  that  might  serve  as  signs  to  the  horse.  To  exclude  the 
possible  influence  of  involuntary  movements  on  the  part  of  spectators,  a 
series  of  experiments  was  carried  out  solely  in  the  presence  of  Herr  Busch, 
Councillor  of  Commissions.  In  some  of  these  experiments,  tricks  of  the 
kind  usually  employed  by  trainers  were,  in  his  judgment  as  an  expert, 
excluded.  Another  series  of  experiments  was  so  arranged  that  Herr  v. 
Osten  himself  could  not  know  the  answer  to  the  question  he  was  putting  to 
the  horse.  From  previous  personal  observations,  moreover,  the  majority 
of  the  undersigned  knew  of  numerous  individual  cases  in  which  other 
persons  had  received  correct  answers  in  the  momentary  absence  of  Herr  v. 
Osten  and  Herr  Schillings.  These  cases  also  included  some  in  which  the 
questioner  was  either  ignorant  'of  the  solution  or  only  had  an  erroneous 
notion  of  what  it  should  be.  Finally,  some  of  the  undersigned  have  a 
personal  knowledge  of  Herr  v.  Oiten's  method,  which  is  essentially  different 
from  ordinary  ** training"  and  is  copied  from  the  system  of  instruction 
employed  in  primary  schools.  In  the  opinion  of  the  undersigned,  the 
collective  results  of  these  observations  show  that  even  unintentional  signs 
of  the  kind  at  present  known  were  excluded.  It  is  their  unanimous  opinion 
that  we  have  here  to  deal  with  a  case  that  differs  in  principle  from  all 
former  and  apparently  similar  cases;  that  it  has  nothing  to  do  with 
** training"  in  the  accepted  sense  of  the  word,  and  that  it  is  consequently 
deserving  of  earnest  and  searching  scientific  investigation.  Berlin,  Sept. 
1 2th,  1904.  (Here  follow  the  signatures,  among  which  is  that  of  Privy 
Councillor  Dr.  C.  Stumpf,  University  Professor,  Director  of  the  Psycho- 
l)gical  Institute,  Member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences.) 

Any  one  who  has  done  critical  work  in  the  domain  of 
hypnotism,  after  the  manner  insisted  on  by  the  Nancy  school, 
cannot  help  considering  Stumpfs  method  of  investigation 
erroneous  from  the  very  outset.  I  had  visited  Herr  v.  Osten, 
the  owner  of  Clever  Hans,  more  than  a  year  before  Stumpf 
wrote  his  deplorable  report;  and,  on  the  ground  of  my  experi- 
ences in  the  domain  of  hypnotic  experiment  and  suggestion,  I 
had  at  once  thought  of  those  signs,  which  we  make  uninten- 
tionally and  sub-consciously,  as  primary  sources  of  error.  I 
therefore  at  once  so  arranged  the  conditions  of  the  experiments 
that  no  one  present,  not  even  myself,  could  know  the  correct 
result.  In  consequence  of  this  every  experiment  turned  out  a 
failure,  as  I  explained  to  the  Psychological  Society  of  Berlin  at 
a  time  when  Stumpf  had  not  yet  retreated  from  his  erroneous 
position.  A  first  source  of  error  that  had  to  be  considered 
was  that  some  one  present — it  might  have  been  Herr  v.  Osten 


HYPNOSIS  AND   PSYCHOLOGY,  457 

or  it  might  have  been  any  one  else — unintentionally  gave  the 
horse  a  sign  when  to  stop  tapping.  It  cannot  be  considered 
sufficient,  as  stated  in  Stumpfs  report,  that  Herr  v.  Osten  did 
not  know  the  answer;  no  one  should  be  present  who  knows  it. 
This  is  the  first  condition  to  be  fulfilled  when  making  such 
experiments.  Anybody  who  has  been  engaged  in  training 
hypnotized  subjects  knows  that  these  insignificant  signs  con- 
stitute one  of  the  chief  sources  of  error.  Some  of  the  leading 
modern  investigators  in  the  domain  of  hypnotism — Charcot 
and  Heidenhain,  for  instance — were  misled  by  them  at  the 
time  they  thought  they  hstd  discovered  new  physical  reflexes  in 
hypnosis.  But  in  1904,  by  which  time  suggestion  had  been 
sufficiently  investigated  to  prevent  such  an  occurrence,  a 
psychologist  should  not  have  fallen  into  an  error  that  had  been 
made  more  than  twenty  years  previously.  It  is  necessary  to 
make  these  remarks  openly,  no  matter  how  highly  we  may 
prize  Stumpfs  services  to  psychology  in  other  respects.  As 
may  be  seen  from  the  above  report,  Stumpf  made  the  mistake 
of  believing  that  he  must  see  the  signs  if  any  were  given. 
Since  this  was  not  the  case,  he  simply  excluded  the  presence 
either  of  voluntary  signs — t  e.^  tricks — or  of  involuntary  ones. 
But  a  psychologist  like  Stumpf  could  not  help  knowing  that  it 
is  especially  the  involuntary  signs  that  may  be  so  delicate  that 
not  only  the  person  who  makes  them  is  unaware  that  he  is  so 
doing,  but  even  the  spectators  also  are  unable  to  detect  them 
unless  they  employ  special  instruments  for  the  purpose.  But 
the  main  point  is  this:  signs  that  are  imperceptible  to  others 
are  nevertheless  perceived  by  a  subject  trained  to  do  so,  no 
matter  whether  that  subject  be  a  human  being  or  an  animal. 
Stumpfs  mistaken  report  has  led  to  the  propagation  of  the 
erroneous  notion  that  a  horse  can  be  taught  to  extract  square- 
roots,  to  perform  the  most  complicated  calculations,  and  be 
generally  educated  by  a  method  of  instruction  like  that  em- 
ployed in  primary  schools.  The  chief  point  for  the  experi- 
menter is  not,  as  Stumpf  thought,  that  he  ought  to  be  able  to 
perceive  signs,  but  that  he  should  work  under  conditions  that 
render  it  impossible  for  signs  to  be  made.  Stumpf  ought  from 
the  very  first  to  have  made  use  of  that  critical  system  of  re- 
search that  alone  has  been  employed  for  the  last  twenty  years 
by  persons  making  experiments  in  connection  with  telepathy, 
clairvoyance,  and  the  action  of  drugs  at  a  distance — a  domain 
I  shall  treat  of  in  the  last  chapter.     Since  he  had  failed  to 


458  HYPNOTISM. 

draw  from  the  experiences  of  the  investigators  of  hypnotism 
and  suggestion  those  conclusions  requisite  for  the  purposes  of 
his  investigations,  he  was  bound  to  come  to  grief  over  Clever 
Hans.^ 

I  have  intentionally  gone  into  the  case  of  Clever  Hans  in 
detail,  because  it  shows  in  the  clearest  manner  possible  what 
hypnotism  has  taught  those  who  are  conversant  with  that 
subject  It  is  certain  that  the  investigation  of  many  other 
experimental  researches  made  by  some  psychologists  would  bring 
to  light  the  existence  of  the  same  source  of  error  that  I  have 
demonstrated  in  the  case  of  Clever  llans.  Only,  in  the  latter 
case,  the  error  produced  such  serious  consequences;  for  the 
horse  that  was  supposed  to  be  able  to  calculate  not  only  created 
an  immense  sensation,  but  even  led  a  well-known  professional 
psychologist  to  pen  one  of  the  most  absurd  expert  reports 
ever  drawn  up. 

Hypnotism  has,  moreover,  helped  us  to  understand  many 
erroneous  scientific  theories  by  the  light  it  has  thrown  on  the 
effects  of  auto-suggestion  on  investigators.  Soury  has  pub- 
lished a  study  of  a  case  of  scientific  auto-suggestion  affecting 
several  Italian  physicians.  Rainaldi  and  Giacomo  Lombroso 
had  believed  that  it  was  possible  to  excite  certain  brain  centres 
and  contract  the  related  muscles,  by  mechanically  irritating  the 
scalp  above  those  centres.  Soury  shows  convincingly  how 
doubtful  the  doctrine  of  localization  is,  and  that  every  author 
always  succeeds  in  causing  contractions  in  accordance  with  his 
own  views  as  to  motor  centres.  Similar  errors  were  very 
prevalent  in  the  early  days  of  hypnotic  research.  But  we  find 
a  very  similar  auto-suggestive  process  outside  the  domain  of 
hypnotism,  as,  for  instance,  when  authors  discover  exactly 
what  they  want.  Auto-suggestion  is  a  hindrance  to  objective 
contemplation. 

^  Later  on,  after  I  had  given  him  the  correct  explanation  privately  and 
publicly,  Stumpf  relinquished  his  erroneous  views  when  he  was  a  meml>er 
of  a  second  committee.  Unfortunately,  he  did  not  make  a  public  admission 
of  his  error,  as  he  was  in  duty  bound  to  do ;  on  the  contrary,  he  fogged 
the  issue  by  representing,  that  in  his  first  report  he  only  denied  that  volun- 
tary signs  had  been  made.  That  he  was  also  on  the  look-out  for  involuntary 
signs,  and  did  most  emphatically  deny  that  any  such  were  made,  is  irre- 
futably proved  by  the  report  reproduced  above,  in  which  I  have  italicized 
the  sentences  relating  to  this  point.  In  making  the  statement  that  he  only 
dealt  with  (he  question  of  tricks — ?.^.,  intentional  signs — in  his  first  report, 
Stumpf  has  said  that  which  is  substantially  uiitrue. 


HYPNOSIS  AND  PSYCHOLOGY.  459 

It  was  also  the  influence  of  modern  researches  in  hypnosis 
and  suggestion  that  first  shed  a  brighter  light  on  that  domain 
which  we  call  the  psychology  of  crowds.  Among  the  investi- 
gators who  have  worked  in  this  domain  I  may  mention  Tarde, 
Sighele,  Sidis,  Lombroso,  Friedmann,  Bechterew,  Binet, 
Loewenfeld,  Le  Bon,  Bleuler,  Straticb.  The  soul  of  a  crowd 
is  not  merely  a  combination  of  the  souls  of  the  individuals 
composing  it;  on  the  contrary,  it  presents  certain  peculiarities. 
So,  too,  the  suggestibility  of  a  crowd  is  of  a  different  nature  to 
that  of  the  individual.  Even  if  opinions  differ  as  to  how  it 
happens  that  a  crowd  is  often  influenced  by  factors  that  have 
no  effect  on  the  individual,  still  all  agree  that  the  suggestibility 
of  a  crowd  is  something  special.  Loewenfeld  thinks  it  is 
elective  in  that  it  is  not  absolutely  greater  than  that  of  the 
individual,  but,  at  the  most,  heightened  in  a  definite  direction. 
Moral  contagion,  which  had  already  been  discussed  long  before 
hypnotism,  is  closely  connected  with  suggestion ;  and,  as  Tarde 
has  rightly  pointed  out,  suggestibility  is  the  condition  necessary 
for  it  to  prove  effective.  Sighele  expresses  similar  views: — 
•*It  is  quite  clear  to  me  that  this  suggestion  is  the  cause  of  the 
movements  and  actions  of  crowds,  and  that  a  cry  raised  by 
some  individual  in  the  midst  of  a  crowds  or  the  word  of  a 
speaker,  or  the  act  of  some  desperado,  so  seizes  the  whole 
mass  in  its  suggestive  grasp,  that  it  is  carried  away  to  acts  of 
destruction  like  a  wild  and  will-less  herd."  Certainly  the 
catchword  *•  suggestion"  alone  does  not  explain  the  psychology 
of  crowds.  Numerous  other  psychological  factors  play  a  part, 
and  these  have  been  pointed  out  in  a  more  or  less  convincing 
manner  by  the  authors  mentioned  above.  But  whether  we  are 
dealing  with  social  or  political  events,  or  with  artistic  tendencies 
and  scientific  currents  of  thought,  the  suggestibility  of  the 
crowd  invariably  makes  itself  felt  in  a  particular  direction. 
The  same  thing  occurs  where  questions  of  religion  or  civiliza- 
tion are  concerned,  even  should,  in  the  latter  case,  the  question 
be  merely  one  of  fashion  in  dress.  The  part  that  is  also  played 
in  religious  questions  by  the  suggestibility  of  crowds  is  evident 
from  the  enormous  influence  exerted  on  huge  multitudes  by 
the  religious  hallucinations  of  any  hysterical  female  who 
imagines  she  has  seen  the  Madonna.  We  find  the  same  thing 
occurring  with  those  founders  of  sects,  who  have  known  how  to 
infect  thousands  and  thousands  of  people  with  their  own 
peculiar  hallucinations.     Similarly,  the  suggestibility  of  crowds 


460  HYPNOTISM. 

throws  light  on  many  phenomena  recorded  in  universal  history 
and  the  history  of  civilization,  no  matter  whether  we  take  the 
Crusades  or  those  mental  epidemics  known  as  St.  Vitus's 
dance,  dancing  mania,  and  the  flagellation  mania,  which  at 
one  time  raged  so  furiously  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and 
Italy,  and  processes  analogous  to  which  are  reported  as  also 
occurring  in  Abyssinia  (J.  F.  C.  Hecker);  it  matters  not,  I  say, 
whether  we  are  dealing  with  the  obsessions  of  the  Middle 
Ages  or  with  epidemics  of  convulsions,  none  of  these  pheno- 
mena is  comprehensible  from  the  psychological  point  of  view 
unless  we  take  the  suggestibility  of  crowds  into  consideration. 
Flechsig  endorses  Bechterew's  statement  that  history,  and  more 
particularly  the  history  of  civilization,  affords  such  striking 
instances  of  the  mighty  effects  of  suggestion  that  it  should 
hardly  be  possible  for  any  historian  to  pass  them  by  unnoticed. 

Hypnotism  sometimes  accomplishes  a  marvellous  feat  in 
providing  us  with  an  explanation  of  mental  epidemics,  as,  for 
instance,  in  those  cases  in  which  whole  districts  have  been 
infected  with  lycanthropia,  or  zoanthropia--/.^.,  their  inhabi- 
tants suddenly  imagined  they  were  turned  into  wolves  or  other 
animals.  Epidemics  of  zoanthropia  occurred  frequently  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  even  later.  People  usually  believed  they 
were  changed  into  wolves,  and  they  then  attacked  and  tore 
others,  and  displayed  the  fierceness  and  instincts  of  wild 
beasts.  This  phenomenon  was  usually  supposed  to  be  the 
work  of  the  devil.  Herodotus  and  Pliny  mention  the 
occurrence  of  like  phenomena  in  ancient  times,  and  Johann 
Wier  has  given  us  details  of  later  epidemics.  Baret  reports 
that  in  a  form  of  insanity  occurring  in  Japan  the  subject 
believes  that  he  has  been  changed  into  a  fox.  It  is  popularly 
believed  that  such  a  person  is  possessed  by  a  fox,  and  the  con- 
dition is  called  Kitsune-tsuki,  This  at  once  recalls  those  cases 
in  which  hypnotized  persons  are  induced  by  suggestion  to 
believe  that  they  are  transformed  into  animals. 

The  foregoing  considerations  should  show  the  extent  to 
which  hypnotism  has  enriched  the  most  different  domains  of 
psychology.  But  we  shall  see  from  what  follows  that  recog- 
nition of  the  psychological  value  of  hypnosis  has  helped  to 
advance  other  branches  of  research — ethnology  and  the  history 
of  civilization,  for  instance.  This  is  solely  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  psychological  character  of  hypnosis  has  become  more 
and  more  recognized,  but  this  has  only  taken  place  gradually. 


HYPNOSIS  AND  PSYCHOLOGY.  46 1 

I  may  here  remind  the  reader  that  in  1880,  when  Heidenhain 
considered  hypnosis  a  purely  physical  state,  Rosenbach  pointed 
out  the  psychological  importance  of  hypnosis  and  was  almost 
completely  ignored!  Heidenhain  thought  that  the  imitative 
movements  were  simple  reflexes  caused  by  the  subject  seeing 
similar  movements  made ;  catalepsy  and  echolalia  were  mere 
physical  reflexes,  and  psychic  influence  was  entirely  ignored. 
Charcot,  also,  did  not  escape  making  similar  mistakes.  Since 
then,  the  importance  of  psychic  influence  for  inducing  the 
symptoms  of  hypnosis  has  been  recognized  to  such  an  extent 
through  the  efforts  of  the  Nancy  School  that  the  physical 
symptoms  are  probably  even  underrated.  This  change,  which 
gradually  led  from  the  former  physical  to  the  present-day 
psychological  conception  of  hypnosis,  could  not  help  having 
an  important  effect  on  psychology  in  general,  since  it  brought 
with  it  hitherto  unsuspected  proofs  of  the  importance  of 
certain  psychical  processes,  especially  suggestion.  To-day, 
impartial  examination  shows  that  in  many  places  psychology 
contains  traces  of  hypnotism  and  of  the  theory  of  suggestion. 
I^et  the  reader  take  a  modern  work — such,  for  example,  as  the 
Leitfaden  der  Psychologie  of  Lipps,  who  is  one  of  the  few 
independent  psychologists  of  the  present  day — and  he  will 
there  find  evidences  of  hypnotic  research  in  sections  other  than 
those  specially  devoted  to  that  domain.  The  theory  of  self- 
projection  is  so  intimately  connected  with  suggestion  that 
without  the  latter  Lipps  would  have  been  quite  unable 
to  establish  the  former.  We  find  something  similar  in  other 
provinces  of  modern  psychology  (zi  Ribot's  works  on  Memory, 
Personality,  Will,  etc.).  Psychology  has  also  benefited  by  the 
fact  that  many  persons  first  acquired  a  general  interest  in 
psychological  processes  through  studying  hypnotism.  And  by 
providing  psychology  with  so  many  fresh  fields  of  view, 
hypnotism  has  helped  to  prevent  numerical  psychology  from 
exercising  supreme  power  to-day  in  the  manner  the  repre- 
sentatives of  this  domain  of  research  hoped  only  twenty 
years  ago. 

Of  course,  we  must  also  avoid  exaggerating  the  importance 
of  hypnotism.  Some  people  thought  they  were  able  even  to 
solve  the  chief  problems  in  cerebral  physiology  by  means  of 
hypnosis,  but  this  turned  out  to  be  erroneous.  Mistaken 
interpretations  have  given  rise  to  these  errors.  I  may  here 
refer  to  what  I   said  about  phreno-hypnotism  on   page  86, 


462  HVPNOTISM. 

Nevertheless,  such  errors  recur  occasionally.  Just  as  B^rillon 
did  formerly,  so  Grasset  in  the  present  day  still  believes  that 
hemi-hypnosis  proves  that  the  two  cerebral  hemispheres  act 
independently.  This  is  but  an  instance  of  the  kind  of 
exaggeration  met  with  in  every  domain  of  research  (cf,  p. 
87).  Similarly,  the  theory  of  the  Double-Ego  has  nothing  to 
do  with  any  disturbance  in  the  equilibrium  of  the  two  cerebral 
hemispheres,  as  some  assume  to  be  the  case.  Krauss,  in  his 
biography  of  Ribot,  lays  stress  on  the  fact  that  the  latter  has 
refuted  this  theoretical  deduction.  There  are  individuals  who 
think  they  possess  a  triple  personality ;  thus,  a  priest  got  himself 
so  involved  in  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  that,  he  believed 
himself  to  be  three  distinct  persons,  and  wanted  three  places 
laid  for  him  at  table.  Here  we  see  the  above-mentioned 
physiological  interpretation  of  hypo-consciousness  carried  at 
once  ad  absurdum. 

Hypnotism  has,  nevertheless,  had  its  influence  on  physiology, 
if  only  more  in  a  negative  way,  in  that  physiological  explana- 
tions have  had  to  give  way  to  psychological  ones.  At  the 
same  time,  it  must  certainly  be  admitted  that  psychical 
influences  are  ultimately  physiological  processes,  only  we  are 
to-day  so  far  off"  any  possible  means  of  explaining  this,  that  it 
is  better  to  keep  our  conception  of  them  untrammelled  by 
physiology.  In  former  times  the. possibility  of  explaining  such 
states  as  sleep  by  means  of  chemical  and  physical  theories  was 
often  exaggerated.  Nevertheless,  it  is  impossible  to  establish 
a  satisfactory  theory  of  sleep  without  taking  psychology,  and 
suggestion  in  particular,  into  consideration.  This  is  not  to  be 
taken  to  mean  that  we  look  upon  sleep  itself  as  a  phenomenon 
of  auto-suggestion — a  view  to  which  some  people  incline — 
but  that  the  psychological  factors  must  invariably  be  considered 
in  conjunction  with  the  physiological ;  both  play  a  part.  The 
fact  that  excitement  will  banish  the  severest  symptoms  of 
fatigue  instantaneously,  discloses  the  psychological  factor;  and 
the  fact  that  sleep  becomes  a  necessity  after  a  long  vigil 
probably  has  a  physiological  explanation.  It  is  the  same 
with  muscular  fatigue.  Vignolle  has  recently  published  a 
work  on  fatigue,  in  which  he  very  properly  separates  the  sub- 
jective moment  in  the  production  of  fatigue  from  the  objective. 
Even  if  muscular  fatigue  is  brought  about  by  chemical  and 
physical  changes,  it  is,  nevertheless,  greatly  influenced  by 
psychical  processes.     The  thought  of  soon  getting  tired  may 


HYPNOSIS   AND   PSYCHOLOGY.  463 

bring  on  the  feeling  of  fatigue.  It  is,  for  example,  in  conse- 
quence of  psychical  processes  that  people  who  are  thoroughly 
worn  out  by  a  long  tramp  lose  the  feeling  of  fatigue  without 
taking  the  rest  necessary  for  the  elimination  of  the  "  fatigue- 
stuffs  " — a  phenomenon  often  observed,  for  instance,  when  the 
goal  is  nearly  reached.  There  are  many  other  cases  in  which 
it  could  be  shown  that  the  study  of  hypnotism  has  diminished 
the  domain  of  physiological  theories  in  this  connection,  in 
that  it  has  demonstrated  the  importance  of  suggestion,  and 
especially  that  of  auto-suggestion. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SOME   FURTHER   ASPECTS   OF   HYPNOTISM. 

It  is  evident  from  explanations  given  in  the  earlier  parts  of 
this  book,  but  more  particularly  from  the  last  chapter,  in  which 
I  spoke  about  the  effect  of  suggestion  on  masses  of  people, 
that  hypnotism  has  contributed  very  essentially  to  the  elucida* 
tion  of  the  history  of  civilization.  This  refers  most  particularly 
to  that  domain  of  the  history  of  civilization  that  we  know  as 
superstition.  I  have  already  discussed  in  the  ninth  chapter 
what  hypnotism  has  done  towards  rendering  medical  super- 
stition intelligible.  In  the  final  chapter  I  shall  return  to  the 
connection  between  hypnotism  and  some  of  the  phenomena 
ascribed  to  occultism.  But  there  are,  moreover,  numerous 
other  domains  of  superstition  into  which  hypnotism  has  given 
us  a  clear  insight 

I  am  here  going  to  call  attention  to  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  chapters  in  the  history  of  civilization,  I  mean 
the  superstitious  belief  in  witches  that  obtained  during  the 
Middle  Ages  and  the  first  centuries  of  modern  times.  Not 
only  has  hypnotism  enabled  us  to  understand  the  universal 
diffusion  of  the  belief  in  witches  by  demonstrating  the  sug- 
gestibility of  large  masses  of  people,  but  it  is  also  due  to 
modern  researches  in  hypnotism  and  hysteria  that  light  has 
been  thrown  on  the  mental  state  of  the  witches  themselves. 
We  are  now  justified  in  tracing  to  auto-suggestion  in  auto- 
hypnotic  and  similar  states  the  witches'  belief  in  their  inter- 
course with  the  devil.  Macario  thinks  that  the  fixed  ideas 
and  sense-delusions  of  the  witches  were  the  result  of  erroneous 
sense-perceptions  during  sleep,  and  that  the  witches  were  so 
firmly  convinced  of  the  reality  of  their  delusions  that  they 
faced  torture  and  even  death  without  flinching  (Sante  de 
Sanctis).  Lovatelli  points  out  in  her  Roman  Essays^  one  of 
which  is  devoted  to  the  dreams  and  hypnotism  of  antiquity, 
that  the  belief  in  tncubi  and  succuhcß — male  and  female  daemons 

464 


SOME   FURTHER   ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.        465 

whose  imaginary  embraces  were  due  to  disturbing  dreams — 
already  existed  among  the  old  Chaldaeans  and  Babylonians; 
the  amours  with  devils  reported  in  the  Middle  Ages  were 
nothing  but  a  revival  of  this  ancient  belief.  Paul  Blum  also 
touches  on  the  antiquity  of  such  phenomena  in  his  dissertation 
on  psychical  anaesthesia.  Greeks^  Romans,  and  also  Buddhists, 
would  have  exhibited  these  phenomena  just  as  witches,  mag- 
netized persons,  and  hypnotics  have  done. 

The  lethargic,  cataleptic,  and  somnambulic  states,  which 
hypnotism  likewise  explains,  and  whose  victims  have  often 
enough  acquired  a  reputation  for  special  sanctity,  provide  a 
kind  of  counterpart  to  the  witches  damned  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  One  has  only  to  peruse  the  literature  of  the  bygone 
days  to  see  what  an  impression  a  girl  made  who  lay  in  a  deep 
sleep  for  weeks  and  months,  and  how  any  one  who  fell  in 
convulsions  before  a  sacred  picture  was  .looked  upon  as  a 
being  favoured  of  God.  Or  let  us  take  those  cases  of  auto- 
somnambulism  which  have  so  frequently  obtained  for  their 
subjects  the  fame  of  being  divinely  inspired.  Felix  Rocquain 
has  devoted  a  chapter  of  a  recent  work,  Notes  et  Fragments  de 
PHistoire,  to  the  question  of  hypnotism  in  the  Middle  Agesj 
he  thinks  that  hypnotic  states  would  account  for  phenomena 
that  have  hitherto  been  disputed  and  ascribed  to  fraud,  as,  for 
example,  the  case  of  Marie  d'Oignies,  who  lived  in  Belgium  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  by  falling 
into  states  of  ecstasy,  in  which  she  was  so  animated  with  a 
burning  desire  to  give  a  representation  of  the  wounds  of  the 
Saviour  on  her  own  body  that  she  hacked  herself  with  a  knife. 
A  reputation  for  special  sanctity  was  even  more  common  in  the 
case  of  those  auto-somnambulists  who  delivered  addresses 
which  conveyed  to  pious  minds  the  impression  of  divine,  or 
at  least  supernatural  inspiration.  Believers  in  religion  and 
spiritualists  are  alike  in  this  respect.  We  know  with  what 
earnestness  the  poet  Brentano  listened  to  and  recorded  the 
sayings  of  Katarina  Emmerich,  the  stigmatist;  and  the  speeches 
of  mediums  are  believed  by  spiritualists  to  emanate  from  spirits, 
whereas  they  are  in  reality  nothing  but  the  rhapsodies  of 
persons  in  a  state  of  trance — /.^.,  in  hypnosis,  as  Thoma  very 
properly  assumes  from  his  analysis  of  a  special  case.  The 
circumstance  that  these  people  often  speak  quite  fluently,  in 
spite  of  their  lack  of  education,  conveys,  to  uncritical  audiences, 
the  impression  of  special  inspiration,  although  we  have   no 

30 


466  HYPNOTISM. 

difficulty  in  explaining  that  all  mediumistic  eloquence  is  duel 
to   the   fact   that   a   hypnotic    subject    is    often   much    more 
loquacious  than  a  man  who  is  awake.     Some  cases  also  present 
an   increased  power   of  recollection,   like    that    occasionally 
described  as  occurring  in  hypnosis,  and  hyperesthesia  of  the 
organs   of  sense.      Bastian   has  pointed  out    that  a   similar 
heightening  of  the  faculties  is  also  observed  in  the  auto-som- 
nambulic  states  of  uncivilized  peoples.     Nowadays^  hypnotism 
certainly  enables  us  to  understand  these  observations,  but  we 
must  add  that  most  of  the  reports  dealing  with  the  heightened 
faculties  of  auto-somnambulic  individuals  are  so  devoid  of 
criticism  that  they  afford  no  basis  for   scientific  discussion. 
An  example  of  this: — A  blacksmith's  apprentice,  Köhn,  aroused 
considerable  attention  during  the  middle  of  last  century  at  a 
placo  near  Dantzig,  by  delivering  religious  addresses  in  which 
he  repeated  passages  from  the  Bible  with  literal  accuracy  when 
in  the  somnambulic  state.     Beesel  furnished  a  report  of  this 
case  to  a  medical  journal  in  1853,  and  remarked  how  wonder- 
ful it  was  that  a  man  like  Köhn,  who  was  unacquainted  with 
the  Bible,  should  deliver  such  addresses,  but  he  adduced  no 
proof  that  the  somnambulist  had  not  previously  read  the  Bible. 
It  is  just  the  same  with  many  other  cases  in  which  special 
capabilities  have  been  attributed  to  somnambulics.    Lehmann's 
contention  that  the  existence  of  higher  intellectual  power  in 
somnambulism   has   never   been   attested   by   persons   whose 
discrimination  and  judgment  could  be  relied  on,  is  at  least  true 
in  the  majority  of  cases.     The  literature  of  the  question  shows 
that  the  miraculous  mental   performances   of  somnambulists 
were  hardly  ever  submitted  to  real  scientific  control.     Such 
control  is  often  quite  out.  of  the  question — as,  for  instance, 
when  a  medium  describes  what  it  looks  like  on  the  moon  or 
the  planet  Mars.     I'hat  credulous  spiritualists  should  believe 
such  statements  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.     But  it  is  not  to 
be  denied  that  people  occasionally  exhibit  somewhat  greater 
capability  in  hypnosis  than  when  they  are  awake.     But  even 
if  this  is  the  case,  it  can  be  explained  by  the  special  character- 
istics  of  hypnosis   which   have  just   been   mentioned,    more 
pKirticularly  the  greater  freedom  of  movement,  the  increased 
power  of  memory,  and  hyperaesthesia  of  the  organs  of  sense. 
We  can  likewise  trace  to  hypermnesia  those  cases  in  which  a 
medium  makes  a  speech  which   he  would   be   incapable  of 
«delivering   if  he  were  awake;    be  remembers  things  that  are 


SOME  FURTHER  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.       467 

completely  forgotten  in  the  waking  state.  I  may  here  refer 
the  reader  to  what  I  said  about  this  on  page  126  et  seq.  There 
is  no  credible  case  on  record  in  which  a  medium  has  been 
proved  to  have  delivered  a  speech  which  he  had  not  learned 
beforehand. 

There  are,  in  this  connection,  many  other  phenomena  that 
can  be  explained  by  hypnosis.  Of  these  I  may  mention  the 
assertion  that  fakirs  and  ecstatics  do  not  bleed  when  pricked 
with  a  needle.  Lloyd  Tuckey  says  he  has  observed  the  same 
thing  in  the  case  of  deeply-hypnotized  subjects  (cf,  p.  107). 

In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  I  have  purposely  discussed  some 
phenomena  which  belong  to  the  domain  of  spiritualism,  but 
which  hypnosis  explains  in  the  simplest  manner.  It  uhed  to 
be  assumed  that  mediums  simulated  a  state  of  trance  on  the 
ground  that  no  such  state  really  existed,  but  hypnotism  has 
shown  this  assumption  to  be  erroneous,  though  it  must  certainly 
be  admitted  that  a  state  of  trance  is  very  often  simulated.  The 
foregoing  remarks  ought  also  to  show  that  hypnotism  has 
contributed  in  many  other  ways  to  the  refutation  of  spiritualism. 
And  it  ought  not  to  be  considered  a  mere  matter  of  chance 
that  spiritualists,  and  more  particularly  mediums  and  their 
accomplices,  find  critical  investigators  the  most  unpleasant 
experimenters  they  have  to  deal  with — people  who  should  be 
kept  away  from  spiritualistic  siances  at  any  cost.  Mediums 
know  quite  well  that  a  man  who  understands  hypnotism  and 
is  also  a  critical  observer — there  are  people  who  understand 
hypnotism  and  yet  suffer  from  the  same  auto-suggestions  as 
spiritualists — is  best  able  to  detect  those  sources  of  error  which 
have  to  be  considered. 

I  will  now  make  brief  mention  of  another  phenomenon 
which  has  been  wrongly  interpreted  and  ascribed  to  fraud, 
because  it  did  not  appear  easily  explainable — I  refer  to  the 
bleeding  of  the  skin,  which  has  played  a  part  in  the  mysteries 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  It  is  reported  of  stigmatics  that  they 
exhibit  bleeding  of  the  skin  in  placies  that  correspond  to  the 
wounds  of  Christ.  It  was  first  observed  in  Francis  of  Assisi. 
Bournet,  who  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  case,  asserts 
that  the  assumption  that  the  phenomenon  was  the  result  of 
heightened  imaginative  power  was  first  put  forward  by  Jacobus 
de  Voragine  in  the  thirteenth  century.  As  time  went  on,  the 
number  of  stigmatics  increased  very  considerably.  According 
to  Imbert-Gourbeyre,  there  had  been  one  hundred  and  forty-five 


468  HYPNOTISM. 

stigmatics  up  to  1873,  ^^  which  year,  he  adds,  eight  were  still 
alive.     The  best-known  case  of  modern  times  is  that  of  Louise 
Lateau,  of  Bois  d'Haine,  near  Mons,  who  was  much  talked  of 
in  1868.     The  anatomical  process  in  her  case  was  rather  a 
complicated  one  (Virchow,  Lefebvre).     Blisters  first  appeared, 
and  after  they  burst  there  was  bleeding  from  the  corium  (true 
skin)  without  any  visible  injury.     In  the  descriptions  given 
of  other  stigmatics,  we  also  find  very  complicated  processes 
described  as  stigmatization.     In  the  case  of  the  stigmatic 
of  Gendringen,  described  by  Welscher  in  1844,  the  bleeding 
was  preceded  by  the  formation   of  blisters.     Delboeuf  and 
others  believe  that  the  phenomena  of  stigmatization  were  due 
to  auto-suggestion.     Louise  Lateau  directed  her  attention  con- 
tinually to  those  parts  of  her  body  which  she  knew  corresponded 
to  the  wounds  of  Christ,  and  the  anatomical  lesions  resulted 
from  this  strain  of  attention,  just  as  they  did  from  external 
suggestion   in   other  cases.     Virchow  thought  that  fraud  or 
miracle  were  the  only  alternatives;  but  it  must  be  added  that 
Louise  Lateau  was  supposed  to  have  refused  all  nourishment. 
Warlomont  decided^  after  personal  investigation,  that  fraud 
was  impossible.     It  must  be  admitted  that  no  exact  investiga- 
tion,  such  as  science  demands,  was  undertaken  in  the  case  of 
Lateau,  and  my  own  examination  of  other  such  cases  has  never 
revealed  one  which   had  been   submitted  to  the  unbiassed 
investigation  of  true  science.     At  the  same  time,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  mechanical  production  of  such  hemorrhages 
is  withm  the  limits  of  possibility.     On  the  other  hand,  if  we 
take  the  results  of  modern  hypnotic  research  into  consideration, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  bleeding  might  have  been  the 
result  of  auto-suggestion,  as  pointed  out  above,  but  even  then 
we  should  have  to  remember  that  the  ecstasy  of  the  stigmatic 
bears  a  great  likeness  to  hypnosis — both  states  are  possibly 
identical  (Mantegazza).     Nevertheless,  the  auto-suggestive  inter- 
pretation must  be  considered  justified.     And  Nussbaum  thinks 
it  does   not  run  counter  to  the  teachings  of  the   Catholic 
Church  if  we  consider  that  the  pious  maidens  who  became 
stigmatics  were  so  deeply  embued  with  the  impression  that 
they  felt  the  pains  and  exhibited  the  five  wounds  of  the  Saviour, 
that  real  drops  of  blood  oozed  through  their  skin. 

The  Catholic  clergy,  many  of  whom,  like  Sancha  Hervas, 
condemn  hypnotism  altogether,  object  to  the  identification  of 
stigmatization  with  bleeding  from  the  skin.     Meric  asserts  that 


SOME  FURTHER  ASPECTS  OF  HYPNOTISM.       469 

the  stigmatics,  so  far  from  being  in  an  abnormal  state,  were 
quite  awake.  But  apart  from  the  fact  that  this  would  not 
traverse  the  assumption  that  auto-suggestion  produced  the 
bleeding,  Meric's  supposition  is  undoubtedly  wrong.  It  is 
perfectly  clear  from  the  descriptions  given  by  various  stigmatics 
that  their  state  was  abnormal.  As  far  as  Louise  Lateau  is- 
concerned,  she  was  in  a  state  closely  related  to  hypnosis;  that 
is,  if  we  take  it  for  granted  there  was  no  fraud  in  the  case. 
There  was  even  some  rapport^  for  Lateau,  like  a  hypnotic, 
spoke  to  certain  persons  only.  Other  objections  to  the 
explanation  afforded  by  suggestion  are  also  unwarranted. 
Gombault  considers  stigmatization  a  supernatural  (priter- 
nature!)  process.  He  is  opposed  to  Surbled,  who,  like  him- 
self, did  not  admit  the  psychical  origin  of  stigmatization,  but, 
nevertheless,  thought  that  although  a  scientific  explanation  is 
still  wanting,  the  future  may  well  be  expected  to  supply  one. 
Such  a  standpoint,  which  is  in  itself  thoroughly  logical,  Gom- 
bault considers  mistaken;  he  thinks  that  if  stigmatization  can- 
not be  explained  in  the  present  day,  for  that  very  reason  the 
view  that  it  is  of  supernatural  origin  is  the  only  one  that  is 
warranted.  In  total  opposition  to  this  view,  we  are  to-day 
much  more  justified  in  asserting  that  hypnosis  and  suggestion 
have  provided  us  with  a  possible  explanation  of  the  phenomenon. 
The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  reports  of  other  miracles, 
even  if  believers  very  frequently  controvert  the  explanation 
provided  by  suggestion  or  other  similar  psychical  influences. 
Lelong,  for  example,  does  this  with  regard  to  the  psycho-thera- 
peutic view  of  the  cures  which  have  occurred  at  Lourdes;  but 
what  he  advances  as  disproof  will  hardly  convince  a  scientific 
investigator — viz.,  a  child  that  was  supposed  to  be  dying  was 
plunged  into  the  ice-cold  spring  in  February  and  got  well. 
For  Lelong  this  can  only  be  explained  by  a  miracle.  Now,  it 
is  exactly  the  study  of  hypnotism  and  suggestion  that  proffers 
numerous  inducements  for  accepting  a  scientifically  psycho- 
logical view  of  the  action  of  Lourdes  on  patients.  One  of 
these  inducements — viz.,  the  psycho-therapeutic  factor  observ- 
able in  the  action  of  Lourdes,  I  have  already  discussed  on 
page  355.  As  the  result  of  a  thorough  investigation  of  original 
sources  of  information,  Rouby  has  recently  published  A  Study 
of  Lourdes^  in  which  he  describes  how  that  place  came  to 
acquire  its  renown.  He  traces  everything  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  case  of  Bernadette  Soubirous  hysteria  was  overlooked  at 


470  HYPNOTISM. 

the  time.  It  is  usually  related  of  this  girl,  that  in  1858,  when 
she  was  fourteen  years  old,  she  saw  the  Virgin  Mary  in  the 
grotto.  Rouby  proves  from  authoritative  sources  that  one  day 
when  the  child  was  gathering  sticks  she  stayed  somewhat 
behind  her  companion,  so  as  to  take  off  her  shoe,  and  hearing 
a  rustling  noise,  looked  up.  When  asked  by  her  sister  what 
was  the  matter,  the  child  at  first  only  said  she  had  seen  some- 
thing white.  'Later  on  this  developed  into  a  marvellously 
beautiful  lady  of  medium  stature,  clothed  in  a  white  dress  with 
a  blue  girdle,  and  to  this  story  fresh  details  were  gradually 
added  from  time  to  time.  A  simple  noise  had  caused  a  sense- 
delusion  in  an  obviously  morbid  child !  It  is  not  exactly 
improbable  that  the  girl  did  at  first  actually  see  something 
white,  and  that  afterwards  all  the  other  details  were  worked 
into  the  story  by  means  of  suggestive  questions.  It  is  extremely 
instructive  to  observe  how  a  harmless  incident  has  made 
Lourdes  what  it  is  to-day,  and  naturally  the  suggested  thera- 
peutic action  of  a  locality  so  glorified  was  bound  to  keep  the 
renown  of  the  place  ever  on  the  increase  amongst  emotional 
believers.  It  is  probable  that  the  Oracles,  Temples  of  Sleep, 
and  other  holy  places  of  antiquity  were  created  in  a  very 
similar  manner. 

In  hypnotism,  we  may,  perhaps,  yet  discover  the  key  to 
many  other  miracles.  Among  such  is  the  changing  of  a  serpent 
into  a  rod,  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Verworn  reports  in  his 
work  on  the  so-called  hypnosis  of  animals,  that  when  experi- 
menting with  an  Egyptian  spectacle-snake,  he  observed  that  the 
snake  lay  motionless  if  adroitly  seized  at  the  back  of  the  head 
and  the  nape  of  the  neck  pressed  with  the  fingers.  He  connects 
this  state  of  the  snake  with  the  changing  of  a  serpent  into  a 
rod.  Moreover,  he  himself,  in  contradistinction  to  other 
investigators,  does  not  reckon  these  states  of  animals  as  true 
hypnoses.  If  these  and  other  miracles  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
admit  of  an  easy  explanation  through  researches  based  on 
hypnotism,  the  attacks  which  some  people  have  on  that 
account  made  on  investigators  of  hypnotism  are  surely  quite 
unjustified.  Rohnert  and  Ziegler,  for  example,  are  particularly 
opposed  to  any  attempt  being  made  to  explain  the  miracles  of 
the  Bible  by  hypnosis.  They  consider  it  disparaging  to  Holy 
Writ.  Even  if,  as  is  only  natural,  nobody's  feelings  should 
be  wounded  by  the  scientific  explanation  of  miracles,  we  ought 
not  to  prevent  investigators  to-day  explaining  in  a  scientific 


.     SOME   FURTHER   ASPECTS   OF    HYPNOTISM.        47 1 

way  things  which  at  one  time  passed  for  miracles.  The  piety 
of  people  who  after  earnest  deliberation  can  yet  see  in  this  any 
danger  to  religion,  must  be  only  very  superficial.  For  certainly 
some  people,  and  perhaps  not  the  most  irreligious,  consider  it 
jthe  most  miraculous  work  of  the  Deity  that  all  things  follow 
immutable  laws.  From  the  standppint  of  religion,  the  scientific 
explanation  of  miracles — i.e.,  the  explanation  according  to  the 
law  of  causality,  will  appear  much  more  sublime  than  the 
dogmatic  acceptance  of  insignificant  wonders.  At  all  events, 
the  ass4imption  that  hypnotism  is  undermining  religion  by 
explaining  miracles,  is  quite  untenable. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  we  have  become  acquainted 
with  ihe  connection  of  hypnotism  with  the  history  of  civilization, 
and  there  is  just  such  a  connection  with  ethnology.     Moral 
contagion,  and  the  suggestibility  upon  which  its  efficacy  depends, 
plays   a  great   part   in  the  morals,  customs,  and  actions   of 
uncivilized  races.     Vierkandt  denotes  it  absolutely  as  an  im- 
portant advance  in  ethnology,  that  more  attention  is  paid  to 
the  action  of  emotion,  of  suggestion,  and  of  the  prevailing 
habits  of  thought  than  was  done  formerly;  moreover,  he  openly 
expresses  the  opinion,  suppressed  by  so  many  people,  that  our 
own  convictions  also,  and  the  actions  that  proceed  from  them, 
are  frequently  on  no  higher  level  than  those  of  yore.     But  there 
is  another  special  part  that  hypnotism  plays  with  respect  to 
ethnology,  and  to  this  Vierkandt  has  likewise  called  attention, 
He  ascribes  to  suggestion  an  essential  influence  in  producing 
the  belief  in  sorcery,  that  certainly  constitutes  so  essential  a 
portion   of  the  domain   of  ethnological   research.     "Human 
beings,  especially  when  in  a  state  of  great  excitement  or  of 
tnental  disturbance  caused  by  the  prevailing  idea,  often  believe 
themselves   really  changed   into  animals.     People   who  have 
unwittingly  eaten  tabooed   fruit   have  sometimes  died  when 
their  offence  was  subsequently  made  known  to  them.     It  has 
frequently  been  proved  that  the  knowledge  of  being  bewitched 
can  make  people  really  ill.     On  the  other  hand,  we  see  even  in 
the  present  day  how  belief  in  the  powers  of  sorcery  can  free 
from  disease."     Bartels,  also,  in  his  Medizin  der  Naturvölker 
gives  many  details  concerning  the  suggestive  power  of  magic 
practices.     These  and  many  other  considerations  prove,  with- 
out further  trouble,  how  hypnotism   has  assisted   ethnology, 
and,  more  particularly,  ethnological  psychology. 

Ix)ng  ago,  Stoll  had  supposed  that  ethnological  psychology 


472  HYPÄOTISM. 

would  be  furthered  in  a  twofold  respect  by  hypnotism  and  the 
study  of  suggestion;    (i)   suggested  sense-delusions   in   the 
waking  state  would  be  explained,  (2)  wholesale  suggestion 
would  be  rendered  more  readily  comprehensible.     And  Regnier 
had  expressed  similar  views  in  his  Hypnoiisme  et  Croyances 
anciennes.     He  thought  that  if  hypnotism  were  studied,  our 
comprehension    of  ancient    magic,   in  particular,   would    be 
essentially  facilitated.     In  hypnosis  those  phenomena  are  arti- 
ficially produced  which  played  so  great  a  part  in  ancient  magic 
in    cases  of   somnambulism    with  its    accompanying    sense- 
delusions.     Here  also  would  belong  the  marvellous  things  we 
hear  reported  about  fakirs  and  yogis,   about  which  I  have 
already  spoken  on  page  203  et  seq.     It  is,  especially,  certain 
states  of  sleep  presented  by  these  people  that  we  may  count  as 
phenomena  of  auto-hypnosis.     How  far  the  other  marvels  we 
occasionally  hear  reported  of  these  people — for  instance,  their 
being  buried  alive,  power  to  make  plants  grow  artißcially,  etc. 
-^depend  on  truth  I  will  not  here  decide.     I  will  only  mention 
that,  according  to  communications  I  have  received  quite  recently, 
probably  all  the  miracles  of  the  fakirs  and  yogis  would  be  as 
little  able  to  withstand  an  investigation  conducted  on  modern 
lines  as  are   the   miracles  of   our  spiritist   mediums.      The 
mysteriousness   of    India  and  its  remoteness  are  obviously 
extraordinarily   favourable  conditions   for    the  cultivation   of 
legends. 

One  such  fakir,  who  enjoyed  a  certain  amount  of  celebrity,  appeared  on 
closer  acquaintance  to  prove  a  very  good  man  of  business.  1  have  received 
the  following  report  about  him.  The  miracle  performed  by  this  fakir  was 
said  to  consist  in  his  lying  perpetually  on  a  bed  made  of  nothing  but  thorns. 
It  appeared  on  closer  inspection  that  there  were  no  thorns  in  the  bed — 
or,  more  correctly,  that  the  thorns  were  very  blunt.  Also,  the  man  himself 
never  lay  on  the  bed  except  when  paid  for  so  doing.  As  a  rule,  he  raised 
the  objection  that  it  was  not  quite  his  time  for  lying  down.  But  even 
when  paid  he  invariably  remained  but  a  few  minutes  on  the  bed.  The 
mystery  of  the  thorns  that  did  not  penetrate  his  skin  is  therefore  very 
easily  explained.  At  all  events,  my  informant  has  never  yet  spoken  to  any 
one  who  had  seen  the  man  lying  on  the  bed  except  when  he  had  been 
specially  requested  to  do  so.  The  same  gentleman,  who  knows  India 
thoroughly,  told  me  he  considered  it  quite  out  of  the  question  that  fakirs 
would  ever  really  submit  to  being  watched  under  the  strictest  scientific 
conditions;  such  a  thing  would  be  quite  contrary  to  the  Indian  national 
character. 

The  foregoing  explanations  alone  ought  to  show  what  a  great 
advantage  we  may  expect  to  gain  in  the  fight  against  superstition 


SOME  FURTHER  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.       473 

by  studying  hypnotism  and  suggestion.  When  Virchow  was 
as  afraid  of  the  blossoming  forth  of  hypnotism  as  he  was  of 
that  of  animal  magnetism  and  homoeopathy,  it  was  obviously 
because  he  was  too  much  accustomed  to  pathological  anatomy 
to  be  always  able  to  find  the  right  standard  by  which  to  test 
p>sychological  questions.  In  the  final  chapter  still  further 
material  will  be  produced  to  show  that  it  is  exactly  the  theory 
of  suggestion  that  has  exposed  the  most  important  sources  of 
error  in  investigating  occult  phenomena.  For  this  reason, 
Henning  in  his  book  Wunder  und  Wissenschaft^  like  Lehmann 
in  his  Aberglaube  und  Zauberei^  makes  a  thoroughly  appreciative 
use  of  hypnotism  and  suggestion  in  explaining  the  most 
diverse  forms  of  superstition. 

The  use  of  hypnotism  in  education  has  also  been  frequently 
discussed.  Cases  of  masturbation  have  been  treated  by  hyp- 
notic suggestion.  Bdrillon  employed  suggestion  to  cure  the 
habit  of  biting  the  nails  (onychography),  which  is  said  to  be 
particularly  prevalent  among  degenerates,  and,  according  to 
J.  Voisin,  is  often  associated  with  masturbation.  Here  also 
would  belong  cases  in  which  exaggerated  bashfulness  and 
timidity,  particularly  the  dread  of  being  looked  at,  about  which 
Harten  berg,  Bechterew,  and  Soukhanoflf  have  written,  were 
treated  by  hypnotic  suggestion.  Most  of  the  cases  set  down 
as  coming  within  the  province  of  the  educational  use  of  hyp- 
notic suggestion  might  with  equal  justice  be  reckoned  medical 
cases.  The  distinctions  here  made  are  rather  arbitrary.  When 
a  child  is  attacked  with  involuntary  movements  through  imitat- 
ing choreatic  movements,  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  the  evil 
habit  ends  and  the  disease  begins.  It  is  indifferent  whether 
we  say  that  hypnotism  is  used  in  such  cases  to  cure  disease  or 
in  the  interests  of  education;  the  point  is  to  know  what  is 
meant.  There  is  nothing  opposed  to  this  in  the  view  held  by 
Forel,  Dekhtereff,  and  probably  all  other  serious  investigators, 
that  the  use  of  hypnosis  for  educational  purposes  should  be 
reserved  for  medical  men  experienced  in  this  domain,  and  that 
laymen  should  not  be  allowed  to  hypnotize  for  this  purpose,  as 
was  proposed  by  Decroix.  When  an  anonymous  German 
author  thought  he  made  the  question  ridiculous,  or  refuted  the 
adherents  of  the  educational  use  of  hypnotic  suggestion  by 
banishing  hypnotism  from  the  schools,  he  was  simply  com- 
bating a  proposal    that    had   never   been   made.      B^rillon, 


474  HYPNOTISM. 

HÄment,  Netter,  Ledere,  Ladame,  Brunnberg,  A.  Vois-n, 
Collineau,  Sinani,  Natanson,  Pamart,  and  Pigeaud,  who  de- 
voted his  thesis  La  Suggestion  en  Fidagogie^  Paris,  1897,  to 
the  question,  merely  mean  by  the  educational  use  of  hypnosis 
that  certain  faults  in  children,  which  many  people  consider 
actually  pathological,  should  be  cured  by  medical  hypnotic 
suggestion.  According  to  Berillon,  the  chief  value  of  this  is 
that  it  enables  us  to  combat  automatisms  by  the.  influence  of 
suggestion  on  the  inhibitory  centre.  Whether  hypnotic  sugges- 
tion produces  great  results  in  such  .cases  is  another  question. 
Binet  was  probably  right  in  severely  criticizing  the  enthusiastic 
report  in  which  Luckens  recounted  his  impressions  of  a  visit 
to  Berillon.  Nevertheless,  we  shall  be  able  to  obtain  good 
results  from  hypnotic  suggestion  in  some  cases,  if  we  only 
apply  it  as  indicated  above,  either  for  pathological  phenomena 
or  for  such  as  lie  ih  the  borderland  between  education  and 
therapeusis. 

Only,  we  must  avoid  all  exaggeration.  Some  people  have  even  imagined 
that  the  hypnotic  state  could  be  used  to  learn  a  language  quickly,  be- 
cause the  accompanying  hypermnesia  would  prove  of  great  assistance. 
And  an  American  doctor  named  Quackenbos  asserts  that  he  has  cured 
certain  defects  of  character  by  means  of  hypnotic  suggestion:  untruthful- 
ness, kleptomania,  alcoholic  tendencies  and  murderous  impulses,  want  of 
respect  for  superiors  and  uncontrollable  impulse  for  play,  all  these  can  he 
overcome  by  suggestion.  Low  impulses  and  diriy  tendencies  can  be  trans- 
formed into  noble  characteristics.  Shakiness  in  syntax  can  be  changed  ifito 
correct  grammatical  English,  and  a  tendency  to  slang  into  elegant  speech. 
I  have  only  given  a  small  selection  from  all  that  Quackenbos  has  achieved  J 
In  1903,  the  Dutch  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Children  applied  to 
several  investigators — Winkler,  Schuyten,  and  Renterghem — for  iheir 
opinion  on  the  question.  Renterghem  replied  that  he  had  seen  good  results 
obtained  in  cases  of  various  bad  habits(onychography,  masturbation),  but 
Winkler  expressed  a  fear  that  if  it  were  suggested  to  a  child,  "Thou  shalt 
not  steal,"  only  the  word  steal  would  be  remembered.  Schuyten  declined 
to  answer  the  question  on  the  ground  of  inexperience,  but  stated  he  was 
very  sceptical  as  to  the  educational  use  of  hypnosis. 

Even  if  I  believe  that  the  educational  use  of  hypnosis  only 
concerns  us  in  the  manner  mentioned  above — /.^.,  that  its 
province  is  a  very  limited  one — I  nevertheless  believe,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  frequent  objection  (Blum,  Seeligmüller) 
that  hypnosis  would  turn  children  into  machines  instead  of 
human  beings  is  erroneous.  Hypnotic  suggestion  and  sugges- 
tion out  of.  hypnosis,  and  also  education  in  general,  have  all 


SOME   FURTHER  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTLSM.       4/5 

the  same  aim — to  determine  the  subject's  will  in  a  certain 
direction.  Just  as  we  endeavour  in  ordinary  education  to  lead 
the  subject  to  do  right  of  his  own  conscious  will,  and  not  on 
compulsion,  so  is  it  with  hypnotic  suggestion.  In  the  latter 
we  endeavour  to  let  the  external  suggestion  become  an  auto- 
suggestion. Even  if  people  often  oppose  the  teaching  of 
suggestion,  experience  and  unprejudiced  investigation  show 
that  numerous  suggestive  factors  co-operate  in  every  system  of 
education,  even  the  best.  In  a  work  devoted  to  the  physiology 
and  psychology  of  attention,  Nayrac  has  discussed,  among  other 
things,  the  cultivation  of  the  attention  where  it  is  morbidly 
impaired.  Even  if  he  is  very  reserved  in  his  remarks  on 
*  hypnotic  suggestion,  he  nevertheless  ascribes  a  prominent  part 
to  waking  suggestion  in  such  cases.  I,  also,  believe  that  hardly 
anything  will  ever  be  accomplished  without  the  latter. 

The  relations  of  hypnotism  to  Art  have  often  been  discussed, 
and  the  hope  has  been  expressed  that  it  would  lend  its  help  as 
an  incentive  to  art.  Braid  discussed  the  influence  of  music  on 
hypnotics  in  his  Neurypnology :  music  enabled  the  hypnotic  to 
move  most  gracefully  and  dance  to  perfection.  Hypnotics 
were  also  enabled  to  maintain  a  definite  posture  without  any 
exertion,  and  Braid  even  thought  that  the  Greeks  owed  the 
perfection  of  their  artistic  skill  in  sculpture  to  hypnotism.  The 
achievements  of  the  Bacchantes,  also,  were  due  to  the  hypnotic 
state  in  which  they  must  be  assumed  to  have  been,  because,  as 
Ovid  said,  non  sentit  vulnera  Maenas.  Ordinary  people  of  no 
education  moved  in  hypnosis  with  the  grace  of  the  most 
accomplished  ballet-dancer.  Braid  went  so  far  as  to  construct 
a  connecting-link  between  the  art  of  dancing  in  his  day  and 
the  dance  executed  by  hypnotized  persons  in  the  ancient  Greek 
mysteries. 

Braid's  observations  should  arouse  interest,  especially  con- 
sidering the  appearance  of  sleep-dancers  in  recent  years.  As 
far  as  these  sleep- dancers  are  concerned,  Madame  Magdeleine 
G.  has  caused  the  most  sensation.  Endeavours  were  made  to 
utilize  her  for  the  study  of  certain  problems,  sometimes  of  a 
scientific  and  sometimes  of  an  artistic  nature,  and  stress  was 
laid  on  the  following  details  as  being  particularly  noteworthy. 
In  the  first  place,  the  gracefulness  and  expressiveness  of  her 
dancing,  and  particularly  of  her  mimicry,  were  said  to  be  so 
perfect    that    the  like   had   hardly  ever   been   seen   before; 


476  HYPNOTISM. 

secondly,  it  was  said  that  the  talent  for  this  only  came  to  her 
in  hypnosis,  and  that  it  was,  in  fact,  aroused  sometimes  by  the 
influence  of  suitable  music,  sometimes   by  the  influence  of 
suitable  words,  which,  for  example,  expressed  the  emotion  to 
be  depicted ;  thirdly,  it  was  expressly  stated  that  the  lady  had 
no  knowledge  of  music  when  in  the  waking  state;  and  fourthly, 
that  the  very  perfection  of  her  movements  first  appeared  quite 
spontaneously  in  hypnosis,  and  had  not  been  taught  her  in  any 
way. 

When  calmly  considered,  the  only  thing  that  remains  of  all 
these  assertions  is  that  most  people  acknowledged  that  the  lady 
knew  how  to  express  emotions  in  the  most  exquisite  way  by 
mimetic  and  other  movements.     With  regard  to  the  investiga- 
tions of  experts,  we  may  also  take  it  as  proved  that  the  lady  is 
hypnotizable,  and  at  least  sometimes  showed  her  artistic  skill 
when  in  the  hypnotic  state.     In  this  respect,  at  all  events,  the 
investigations  of  experts  are  more  trustworthy  than  the  h priori 
decisions  of  laymen,  whether  the  latter  sport  a  doctor's  hood 
or  not.     Of  course  it  does  not  follow  from  these  investigations 
that  Madame  Magdeleine  G.  was  always  in  hypnosis  when  she 
appeared  in  public.     But  apart  from  these  two  facts  (hypno- 
tizability  and  an  exquisite  skill  in  the  portrayal  of  emotions), 
everything  else  that  has  been  reported  about  her  achievements 
is  to  be  considered  unproved.     It  has  not  been  proved  that 
she  only  possesses  this  artistic  skill  when  in  the  hypnotic  state, 
for  Schrenck-Notzing's  apodictical  assertions  on  this  point  can- 
not take  the  place  of  proof.     One  is  so  easily  led  astray.     I 
myself  remember  a  subject  who,  when  hypnotized,  showed 
marvellous  skill   in   representation   in   response  to  the  most 
diverse  suggestions — changes  of  character,  for  instance.     For 
a  long  time  I  thought  that  it  was  only  possible  for  the  subject 
to  represent  the  most  diverse  characters  and  emotions  when  in 
hypnosis ;  but  one  day  it  turned  out  that  the  subject  possessed 
an  extraordinary  talent  for  this  sort  of  thing  in  the  waking 
state  as  well,  and  that  all  that  was  added  in  hypnosis  was  the 
possibility  of  situations  being  called  up  by  suggestion.     Every- 
thing else  was  just  as  possible  in  the  waking  state.     Now, 
when  we  come  to  consider  that  to  make  a  sensation  of  the 
whole  affair  by  laying  stress  on  the  hypnosis  was  always  to  the 
interest  of  Madeleine  G.  and  her  impresario,  the  magnetizer 
Magnin,  it  follows  that  we  must  greatly  distrust  all  unsubstan- 
tiated statements  to  the  effect  that  the  woman  did  not  possess 


SOME   FURTHER  ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.       477 

the  same  talents  when  in  the  waking  state.  It  has  just  as  little 
been  proved,  and,  moreover,  was  never  asserted  by  Schrenck- 
Notzing,  that  the  lady  is  not  musical,  or  is  less  sensitive  to 
music  in  the  waking  state.  There  is,  also,  no  proof  whatever 
that  she  had  not  received  a  long  training  in  the  art  of  ex- 
pressing various  emotions.  Certainly  Schrenck-Notzing  has 
accepted  these  assertions  of  the  impresario,  Magnin,  as  accurate. 
Schrenck-Notziqg  says: — "No  instruction  had  ever  been  given 
in  dramatic  art  or  in  ballet-dancing.  .  .  .  Magnin  tried  the 
effect  of  music  on  the  sleeping  somnambulist;  and  at  the  very 
first  of  these  experiments  she  passed  into  a  state  of  active 
somnambulism,  and  accompanied  the  sensations  aroused  in 
her  by  the  music  with  the  most  exquisite  plastic  poses  and  a 
dramatic  skill  in  expressing  emotion  that  far  surpassed  anything 
that  the  highest  order  of  acting  is  capable  of  achieving.  Her 
phenomenal  dramatic  skill  is  consequently  a  ready-made  gift  of 
nature.  In  all  she  can  do  she  has  received  but  little  assistance 
from  practising  and  developing  her  latent  talents."  So  many 
sentences,  so  many  assertions,  which  is  all  the  more  striking  in 
the  case  of  Schrenck-Notzing,  since  he  never  seems  able  to  be 
suspicious  enough  when  dealing  with  the  experiments  of  other 
investigators.  I  call  to  mind,  for  instance,  his  thoroughly 
justifiable  criticism  of  the  statements  made  about  the  produc- 
tion of  organic  changes  by  suggestion.  Schrenck-Notzing  will 
doubtless  understand  that  we  do  not  yet  consider  his  con- 
fidence in  the  trustworthiness  of  his  subject  a  proof  of  that 
trustworthiness. 

As  far  as  his  statement  that  she  had  received  no  instruction 
whatever  is  specially  concerned,  it  has  nevertheless  certainly 
been  proved  that  she  comes  of  a  dancing-master's  family.  I 
am  inclined  to  doubt  whether  that  exactly  proves  that  she  had 
received  no  instruction.  Moreover,  Lcewenfeld  also  takes  it 
for. granted  that  at  least  Madame  Magdeleine  G.'s  capabilities 
were  specially  cultivated  when  she  was  in  the  hypnotic  state. 

Thus  much  for  the  actual  material,  which  has  not  brought  us 
any  essential  scientific  benefit.  For  it  was  known  long  before 
Madame  Magdeleine  G.'s  much  puffed  performances  took 
place,  that  music,  either  with  or  without  hypnosis,  could  cause 
susceptible  persons  to  display  emotion.  I  here  refer  the  reader 
to  what  I  said  on  page  143  et  seq.,  to  which  I  may  add  a  recent 
observation  made  by  Pamart.  The  latter  saw  a  lady,  who.  was 
listen mg  to  a  pianist  playing  a  piece  by  Beethoven,  approach 


478  HYPNOTISM. 

the  performer  with  staring  eyes  and  sink  down  weeping  beside 
him,  in  a  state  of  complete  catalepsy.     Numerous  other  cases 
of  sleep-dancing  have  also  not  proved  of  any  greater  importance 
to  science.     At  the  most,  we  need  only  feel  interested  in  the 
infection  which  one  such  case  can  spread.     Madame  Magdeleine 
G.  was  followed  by  a  whole  series  of  sleep-dancers.     We  also 
heard  of  a  lady  who  could  draw  in  her  sleep,  and  another  who 
could  ride  in  her  sleep.     The  latter,  who  had  never  been  on  a 
horse  before,  suddenly  developed  into  an  accomplished  horse- 
woman in  the  somnambulic  state.     In  conversation  with  me, 
an  expert  to  whom  the  lady  had  referred  certainly  denied  in 
toto  that  she  possessed  any  such  skill. 

As  far,  then,  as  the  relation  of  hypnosis  to  art  is  concerned, 
we  must  pay  no  attention  to  the  case  of  Madame  Magdeleine 
G.,  which  caused  such  an  unreasonable  sensation,  but  we  must 
discuss  the  question  generally,  for  the  very  reason  that  it  has 
never  been  proved  that  Madame  Magdeleine  G.  had  to  be  in 
hypnosis  for  her  to  represent  emotions  and  feelings. 

In  itself,  there  is  no  objection  to  the  opinion  that  hypnosis 
may  be  used  for  artistic  purposes.  Not  only  are  we  able  to 
succeed  in  the  arbitrary  suggestion  of  emotions  and  feelings — 
/.e.,  to  produce  such  experimentally — in  the  case  of  a  suggestible 
person  in  hypnosis,  but  we  have  also  to  consider  that  the 
inhibition  which  is  often  caused  by  the  surroundings  is  less 
likely  to  occur  in  the  case  of  a  hypnotic  than  in  that  of  a 
waking  person.  We  can  therefore  understand  that  under 
circumstances  a  hypnotic  may  be  able  to  pose  as  a  good  model 
for  the  representation  of  feelings  and  emotions.  That  hypnosis 
itself  can  be  used  for  artistic  representation  goes  without 
saying,  and  has  already  been  mentioned  by  me  (p.  32).  At 
all  events,  the  possibility  of  utilizing  hypnosis  cannot  be  denied. 
The  representation  of  the  emotions  given  us  by  Charcot  and 
Richer,  Luys,  Rochas  and  others  should  certainly  favour  this 
possibility. 

As  far  as  the  further  relations  of  hypnosis  lo  art  are 
concerned,  Lcewenfeld  mentions  a  case  of  Dufay's,  who  sent  an 
actress  to  sleep  and  suggested  that  she  should  undertake,  for  a 
sick  colleague,  a  part  she  had  never  studied  but  only  seen 
played.  The  actress  played  the  part  excellently,  and  it  was 
necessary  for  Dufay  to  wake  her  after  the  performance  was 
over.  However,  one  would  hardly  be  so  ready  to  venture  on 
such  an  experiment.     But,  as  Lcewenfeld  also  insists,  there  is 


SOME   FURTHER   ASPECTS  OF   HYPNOTISM.        479 

another  direction  in  which  the  use  of  hypnosis  for  artistic 
purposes  might  well  be  considered,  and  this  brings  us  into 
touch  with  a  domain  that  is  closely  connected  with  medicine 
and  education.  Actresses  and  other  artists  have  not  infre- 
quently expressed  a  wish  to  be  relieved  of  their  fear  of  "going 
on"  by  means  of  hypnotic  suggestion.  It  is  undoubtedly 
possible  to  do  this  in  a^  whole  series  of  cases,  and  we  certainly 
have  a  right  to  accede  to  such  a  request  even  when  the 
nervousness  has  not  quite  reached  a  pathological  stage.  Like 
many  others,  I  am  convinced  that  a  very  great  service  might  be 
rendered  some  persons  in  this  way. 

Thus  much  about  the  relation  of  hypnosis  to  art.  I  may 
add  that  I  have  not  here  discussed  the  use  of  hypnosis  in 
belletristics,  because  I  have  already  mentioned  the  chief  points 
of  that  question  in  the  first  chapter  (p.  32  ^/  se^.). 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

OCCULTISM. 

In  this  chapter  I  shall  treat  of  the  so-called  phenomena  of 
occultism,  which,  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  all  internal 
affinity,  are  constantly  mentioned  in  connection  with  hypnotism, 
the  connection  being  for  the  most  part  merely  determined  by 
their  historic  development.     Though  I  for  my  own  part  consider 
the  deductions  drawn  from  such  observations  to  be  inexact,  I 
am  yet  of  opinion  that  they  demand  unprejudiced  investigation, 
all  the  more  because  of  the  greater  service  which  by  a  scientific 
refutation  we  may  render  truth,  than  by  simply  dismissing  the 
question   on   ä  priori  grounds.     I   am   strengthened   in    my 
conviction  of  the  expediency  of  investigating  these  phenomena 
by  my  further  belief  that  this  course  alone  will  afford  us  the 
means  of  successfully  opposing  the  uncritical  occultism  of  the 
present  day.     It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  occultic  movement 
has   no.w   become   very  widespread   throughout   the  civilized 
world;  no  less  in  America  than  in  Europe,  and  in  Protestant 
as  much  as  in  Catholic  countries;  to  the  same  extent  among 
nations  accounted  liberal,  such  as  England  and  the  United 
States,  as  among  those  which,  like  Russia,  still  seem  to  belong 
to  the  Middle  Ages;  everywhere  occultism  has  been  steadily 
gaining   ground   within   recent  years.     Further,   this   interest 
pervades  the  most  widely  differing  strata  of  society.     Among 
the  aristocracy  of  birth,  in  the  first  place,  we  find  it  largely 
represented.     Occultic,  and  more  especially  spiritistic  tendencies 
extend  to  the  highest  circles,  and  now — as  under  King  Frederick- 
William  II.  and  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  for  instance — 
find  at  many  of  the  Courts  of  Europe  powerful  support.     Next, 
we  must  mention  the  plutocracy,  in  this*  as  in  so  much  else  a 
close  imitator  of  the  aristocrat  nobility.     Let  it  not  be  thought, 
however,  that  leanings  to  occultism  are  confined  to  these  upper 
ranks  of  society.     On  the  contrary,  a  host  of  small  officials, 

480 


OCCULTISM.  481 

schoolmasters,  and  tradespeople  are  to  be  met  in  its  campi 
whose  forces  are,  in  a  word,  recruited  among  all  social  classes. 
It  is  a  noteworthy  circumstance  that  some  really  eminent 
scholars  may  be  found  among  them.  Just  for  this  reason  I 
advocate  careful  scrutiny  of  the  problems  and  exposure  of  all 
sources  of  error.  The  names  of  these  individual  men  of  learn- 
ing being  constantly  invoked  by  other  occultists  as  a  guarantee 
of  their  testimony,  this  circumstance,  together  with  the  natural 
bent  of  mankind  to  accept  authority  in  matters  of  belief,  con- 
stitutes a  very  real  danger.  The  fact  is  perpetually  overlooked 
that  a  man  may  be  an  authority  in  his  own  sphere  without 
having  the  slightest  claim  to  be  considered  an  expert  in  any 
other,  and  that  the  foremost  scientists,  should  they  momentarily 
betake  themselves  outside  their  specia.1  department,  are  often 
utterly  at  a  loss  how  to  avail  themselves  of  methods  of  research 
so  different  to  those  employed  in  their  own  daily  work.  Mere 
superficial  observation  does  not  take  this  diversity  of  method 
at  all  into  account.  Even  the  scientists  in  question  are  apt  to 
be  themselves  completely  unaware  of  having  entered  a  foreign 
domain.  In  reality,  however^  their  ordinary  methods  may 
differ  fundamentally  from  those  which  they  are  suddenly  called 
upon  to  apply.  A  few  examples  will  serve.  Lombroso,  in 
dealing  with  Eusapia  Palladino,  fancied  himself  specially 
qualified  for  the  detection  of  imposture,  on  account  of  the 
experiences  concerning  simulation  which  his  work  as  a  psychi- 
atrist led  him  daily  to  collect.  As  if  the  trickery  of  spiritistic 
mediums  had  anything  in  common  with  the  simulation  of 
persons  supposed  to  be  mentally  afflicted.  With  regard  to 
such  tricks,  conjurers  are  the  proper  experts,  not  alienists. 
The  same  may  be  alleged  agaiost  Wallace,  who  has  affirmed 
the  trustworthiness  of  spiritistic  phenomena.  Specially  con- 
vincing appeared  to  him  the  experiment  of  a  certain  Mrs. 
Marshall,  in  which  a  blank  sheet  of  paper  placed  under  a  table 
showed,  when  withdrawn,  inscribed  upon  it  the  name  of  a 
person  with  whom  the  medium  was  supposed  to  be  wholly 
unacquainted.  It  was  the  impossibility  of  producing  the 
writing  mechanically  which  at  the  time  chiefly  impressed 
Wallace.  And  yet  even  here  it  may  be  objected  that  Wallace's 
statement  that  a  blanic  sheet  of  paper  was  laid  under  the  table 
by  no  means  suffices  to  prove  that  it  had  not  already  been 
written  on.  The  gentlemen  who  occupy  ihemselves  with  these 
phenomena  should  only  take  the  trouble  to  acquire  a  little  of 

31 


482  HYPNOTISM. 

the  prestidigitator's  art,  and  they  would  soon   find  out   into 
what  an  entirely  unknown  world  they  have  stepped. 

Stumpf,  too,  whose  report  concerning  the  horse  Clever  Hans 
I  discussed  on  page  457,  must  be  reckoned  in  this  category. 
I  reproduced  (page  455)  this  document.     It  admitted   of  a 
two-fold  interpretation :  either,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  horse 
really  did  solve  most  complicated  arithmetical  problems,  that 
it   knew   the   clock,   recognized   different  people   from    their 
photographs;  in  a  word,  gave  proof  of  real  intelligence,  of  a 
mental  proficiency  which  Stumpf  described  as  having   been 
acquired   by   something    akin    to   the   system   of   instruction 
at  an  elementary  school.     One  loop-hole  was  left — the  state- 
ment admitting  the  possibility  of  occult  agency,  of  a  telepathic 
influence  being  exerted  upon  the  horse.     Stumpf  thought  him- 
self, as  a  psychologist,  necessarily  an  expert  in  the  investiga- 
tion, whilst  in  reality  the  method   of  inquiry  requisite   here 
totally  differed  from  any  that  he  was  accustomed  to  follow. 
Had  he  but  considered  the  matter  objectively  from  the  first, 
had  he  but  once  carefully  read  through  any  single  piece  of  the 
evidence  drawn  up,  not  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  scientist, 
but  with  a  man's  sound  common-sense,  he  must  at  once  have 
recognized  his  error.     Must  he  not  have  thought  it  strange  that 
the  horse,  then  only  eight  years  old,  should  already  know  more 
than  a  child  of  the  same  age;  that  it  appeared,  in  fact,  to  have 
mastered  the  whole  German  language,  which  human   beings 
spend  long  years  in  acquiring  ?     A  current  joke  of  the  time 
was  that  the  horse  stood  on  the  level  of  a  good  pupil  in  the 
fifth  class  of  a  German   grammar-school — one  about   to   be 
removed  to  the  fourth.     In  reality,  however,  we  should  have 
to  place  the  animal  on  a  still  higher  stage, — unless  we  accept 
the  theory  of  a  very  grave  delusion.     A  protocol  placed  at  my 
disposal   contains,    for   instance,    the   following    questions: — 
"  Look,  Hans,  there  is  the  general  you  know  so  w^ell;  what  are 
the  colours  of  the  order  he  is  wearing?  tell  us  the  first!" 
"Hans,  a  silver  five-mark   piece  is  being   shown  you;  how 
many  marks  are  there  in  the  next  smaller  silver  coin?"     Many 
such  questions  were  put  to  the  horse  and  correctly  answered. 
If    we   take    further   into   consideration    that    it    recognized 
melodies,  distinguished  one  chord  from  another,  could  extract 
roots  or  square  numbers,  in  a  word,  solve  quite  complicated 
arithmetical   problems — remembering  all   this,    it   seems   im- 
possible that  Stumpf  should  not  see  the  necessity  of  proceeding 


OCCULTISM.  483 

with  the  very  greatest  caution  before  putting  his  name  to  such 
a  report.  The  mere  fact  of  overlooking  so  important  a  point 
as  the  horse's  complete  knowledge  of  the  German  language  is 
a  characteristic  example  of  the  ease  with  which  scientists  may 
be  deceived,  directly  they  enter  a  field  in  which  the  method  of 
inquiry  is  quite  new  to  them. 

That  which  happened  here  to  Stumpf  took  place  also  in  the 
case  of  those  investigators  who  entered  on  observations  with 
the  spiritistic  medium  Slade,  concerning,  for  example,  the 
deflection  of  the  magnetic  needle.  I  shall  have  to  return  to 
this,  and  will  merely  remark  here  that  these  men  were  also 
obliged,  even  though  they  may  themselves  not  have  been 
aware  of  it,  to  deal  with  this  matter  according  to  methods  of 
inquiry  which  were  perfectly  new  to  them.  These  investigators 
were  most  assuredly  most  admirable  workers  both  in  the  study 
and  the  laboratory,  but  there  they  had  merely  to  contend  with 
error,  never  with  fraud.  And  now,  where  it  was  at  all  events 
within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  they  were  about  to  witness 
a  sort  of  conjurmg  trick,  their  science  was  utterly  at  fault; 
they  formed  a  circle,  holding  one  another's  hands,  doing  every- 
thing, in  fact,  that  the  trickery  of  the  medium  demanded  of 
them.  The  observer,  far  from  making  his  own  conditions, 
allowed  them  to  be  imposed  on  him,  and  did  not  even  perceive 
that  he  was  doing  nothing  but  just  what  seemed  good  to  the 
medium.  The  same  thing  occurred  with  Crookes,  whose 
belief  it  was  that  spiritistic  mediums,  and  Home  in  particular, 
were  able  by  means  of  a  psychic  force  at  their  command  to 
make  material  objects  lighter  or  heavier,  and  consequently  to 
set  them  in  motion.  Never  once  did  Crookes  remark  that  he 
had  entered  a  sphere  of  observation  in  which  he  was  not  at 
least  at  home.  It  is  Lehmann's  greatest  merit  to  have  pointed 
out  that  those  experiments  of  Crookes,  so  often  brought 
forward  in  support  of  spiritism,  really  prove  nothing  at  all. 
From  the  accounts  of  the  proceedings  published  by  Crookes 
himself,  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  not  only  did  he  insist  on  no 
objective  conditions  at  all,  but  that  he  simply  allowed  himself 
to  be  completely  directed  by  Home.  And  there  are  such 
fundamental  differences  between  the  two  accounts,  that 
Lehmann  was  able  from  the  second  publication  to  furnish 
proofs  of  the  impossibility  that  the  siance  should  really  have 
taken  its  course  in  the  manner  depicted  in  the  first.  He  shows 
that  Crookes  had  not  the  vaguest  conception  of  the  extreme 


4S4  HYPNOTISM. 

importance  of  those  particulars  which  he  passed  over  in  his 
first  report.  The  two  descriptions,  according  to  Lehmann, 
differ  so  entirely,  that  had  Crookes  himself  realized  those  dis- 
crepancies he  could  not  have  given  the  one  "  without  laying 
himself  open  to  a  charge  of  conscious  fraud." 

It  has  already  been  hinted  in  the  above  that  it  is  not  from 
men  of  science,  who  believe  themselves-  a  final  court  of  appeal 
in  these  investigations,  that  a  decision  is  as  a  rule  to  be  sought, 
but  rather,  in  very  many  cases,  from  the  conjurer.     I  am,  how- 
ever, perfectly  well  aware  that  conjurers  have  been  found  to 
maintain  the  genuine  character  of  the  phenomena.     Zöllner^ 
for  instance,  invoked   the  testimony  of  Bellachini.     But   in 
according  this  unquestioning  recognition  to  Bellachini's  evid- 
ence, Zöllner  himself  entered  a  territory  with  which  he  was 
totally  unacquainted.     In  the  first  place,  not  every  conjurer  is 
necessarily  a  competent  judge  of  his  own  art.     And  just  with 
regard  to  Bellachini,  it  is  well  known  that  he  was  often  quite 
taken  aback  by  the  performance  of  some  new  trick.     In  the 
profession  he  was  never  looked  upon  as  a  really  quick-witted 
conjurer.     We  must,  therefore,  not  consider  all  conjurers  pro- 
perly qualified  to  examine  occultistic  phenomena.   The  question 
further  depends  not  merely  on  the  professional  competency  of 
the  conjurer,  but  also  on  his  personal  character,  and  more 
particularly  on  his  regard  for  the  interests  of  science.     Let  it 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  conjurer  regards  as  a  colleague  the 
medium  engaged  in  the  service  of  occultism,  and,  as  we  know, 
clericus  clericum  non  decimat     As  an  instance  of  the  lengths  to 
which  isprit  de  corps  may  be  carried  in  these  matters,  let  me 
cite  the  following: — About  fifteen  years  ago  a  so-called  mag- 
netic lady,  Mrs.  Abbott,  made  her  appearance  in  Berlin.     The 
strongest  men  tried  in  vain  to  lift  her  from  the  ground;  their 
united  efforts  were  equally  unavailing  to  lift  the  chair  on  which 
she  was  sitting.    In  one  special  attitude  it  was  found  impossible 
to  make  her  fall  back  an  inch;  together  with  more  to  the  same 
effect.     I  pointed  out  at  the  time  that  the  whole  thing  turned 
on  a  very  clever  application  of  the  laws  of  mechanics  relating 
to  the  lever.     To  remove  all  remaining  doubt  the  famous 
wrestler  Abs  was  called  to  Berlin,  and  he  declared  in  public 
that   he  found  it   impossible  to  raise  the  woman  from  the 
ground.    I  do  not  think  I  am  guilty  of  the  slightest  indiscretion 
if  I  now  state  that  the  chief  actor  in  the  scene  has  long  since 
acknowledged  the  accuracy  of  my  explanation,  and  admitted 


OCCULTISM.  485 

the  imposture.  And  just  the  same  motives  which  prevented 
him  from  exposing  it  would  prevail  with  very  many  ponjurers 
under  similar  circumstances.  All  this  one  must  remember  in 
judging  of  the  value  of  evidence  from  these  sources. 

I  am,  of  course,  not  at  least  opposed  to  the  serious  investi^ 
gation  of  the  phenomena  of  occultism  by  real  inquirers;  I 
even  go  so  far  as  to  consider  this  most  desirable.  .Only  let 
one  beware  of  believing  oneself  an  expert,  unless  one  is 
really  so.  I  hold  the  impartial  examination  of  these  matters 
perfectly  legitimate,  and  think  that  all  those  who,  like 
Wundt,  would  forbid  it,  utterly  in  the  wrong.  It  is  customary 
with  ä  priori  reasoners  to  perceive  in  the  mere  fact  that  any 
one  is  making  a  study  of  either  occultism  or  spiritism  a 
,  sufficient  proof  that  he  is  himself  a  spiritist  or  occultist.  With 
just  as  good  logic,  retorts  Dessoir,  might  we  argue  that  all 
criminologists  must  of  necessity  be  criminals.  It,  unfortunately, 
happens  that  in  point  of  fact  a  really  unprejudiced  inquiry 
into  occultistic  phenomena  hardly  ever  takes  place.  On  the 
one  hand,  we  have  investigators  who  either  overlook  or  under- 
rate the  most  important  sources  of  error,  and  therefore  them- 
selves become  duped;  whilst,  on  the  other,  are  those  who,  like 
Wundt,  simply  disdain  to  apply  any  test  at  all.  Neither  course  is 
justifiable.  It  must,  however,  be  conceded  that  the  occultists 
themselves  hardly  ever  allow  their  phenomena  to  be  subjected 
to  impartial  observation,  and  that  notwithstanding  their  loudly 
proclaimed  readiness  to  court  inquiry  beforehand,  during  the 
siance  itself  some  pretext  will  always  be  found,  either  by  the 
medium  or  his  assistant,  or  by  some  occultist  or  spiritist,  to 
upset  every  attempt  at  scientific  investigation.  And  yet, 
whatever  the  difficulties,  it  is  the  scientific  method  of  dealing 
with  such  phenomena  which  alone  can  enable  us  to  disprove 
them.  In  the  year  1877,  Wieland  wrote  a  little  tract  on 
"Magnetism"  well  worth  reading.  In  it  he  blamed  the 
general  tendency  to  turn  into  ridicule  everything  alike  that 
had  to  do  with  magic,  apparitions,  or  mesmerism,  and  to  treat 
as  fools,  mad  enthusiasts,  or  impostors  all  those  who  occupied 
themselves  with  such  matters.  It  is  the  bounden  duly  of 
science,  as  Wieland  at  that  date  already  clearly  perceived,  to 
give  these  things  due  attention ;  whenever  the  cry  of  the  were- 
wolf is  raised  let  the  monster  be  hunted  down,  and  it  will 
invariably  turn  out  to  be  an  ordinary  wolf  among  other  wolves, 
or  perhaps  rather  bigger  than  the  rest  of  the  pack.     The  task 


486  HYPNOTISM. 

incumbent  on  science  has  been  sketched  by  Wieland  in  a  few 
decisive  vords,  which  to  this  day  retain  all  their  force.      Let 
us  not  now  be  too  optimistic  as  to  the  results  of  scientific 
investigation  of  these  phenomena.     Mysticism  is  too   deeply 
implanted  in  human  nature,  and  as  a  contemporary  current  of 
thought,  forms,  perhaps,  a  too  inevitable  reaction  against  recent 
materialism  for  us  to  be  over  sanguine  on  this  score.      The 
fact,  howeverj  remains  that  rational  inquiry  and  explanation 
are  the  only  weapons  with  which  we  may  hope  successfully  to 
combat  uncritical  occultism. 

The  phenomena  which  I  am  about  to  discuss  are  as  follows : 
(i)  animal  magnetism,  (2)  the  influence  of  mineral  magnetism 
on  human  beings,  (3)  super-sensual  thought-transference 
(telepathy,  suggestion  menta1e\  (4)  clairvoyance,  (5)  trans- 
position of  the  senses,  (6)  the  effect  of  drugs  on  approach  or 
contact,  (7)  occultism  in  general. 

In  animal  magnetism  a  leading  part  is  played  by  the 
personal  influence  exerted  by  one  individual  over  another,  an 
influence  brought  about  neither  by  suggestion  nor  by  any 
other  psychic  agency.  The  following  examples  will  make  this 
clear. 

An  individual.  A.,  says,  for  instance,  to  another,  B.,  "You 
cannot  speak."  B.  hears  this  and  is  mute.  This  is  suggestion. 
If,  now,  A.  makes  mesmeric  passes  over  B.'s  arm,  and 
analgesia  results  in  consequence,  this  may  also  be  attributed 
to  suggestion,  as  B.  is  perfectly  aware  that  A.  has  made  the 
passes.  Let  us  now  suppose  that  C.  also  makes  passes  over 
B.'s  arm,  without  analgesia  ensuing.  This,  too,  may  be 
explained  by  suggestion,  by  the  belief  on  B.'s  part  that 
A.  alone  can  produce  analgesia,  in  consequence  of  which 
C.'s  manipulation  remains  ineffective.  Suggestion  then  will 
account  for  all  these  phenomena.  But  the  case  is  a  different 
one  if  B.  does  not  know  whether  it  is  A.  or  C.  who  makes  the 
passes.  According  to  the  believers  in  animal  magnetism,  the 
so-called  mesmerists,  B.  does  then  experience  analgesia  when 
magnetized  by  A.,  but  not  when  it  is  C.  who  magnetizes.  It 
is  just  by  virtue,  they  maintain,  of  a  peculiar  force  residing  in 
him  that  a  personal  influence  is  exercised  by  A.,  which  neither 
suggestion  nor  any  psychic  process  will  account  for.  They 
alone  who  are  endowed  with  this  force  are  able  to  magnetize 
others.     These  illustrations  may  serve  to  show  what  is  at  the 


OCCULTISM.  487 

present  day  understood  by  the  expression  anfmal  magnetism 
(vital  magnetism,  bio-magnetism,  zoo-magnetism,  mesmerism). 
There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  of  opinion  among 
believers  in  this  power  as  to  the  precise  meaning  to  be 
attached  to  it.  Some  consider  it  a  common  property  of  all 
mankind,  which,  however,  under  unfavourable  conditions  in 
many  cases  remains  simply  latent.  To  some  its  possession 
implies  the  capability  of  influencing  all  people  alike,  whilst 
others,  again,  hold  certain  individuals  alone  to  be  receptive  to 
this  influence.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of  suggestion,  there  are 
those  who  admit  the  theory  that  an  individual  who  has  proved 
refractory  to  the  experiments  of  one  magnetizer  may,  after  all, 
quite  well  be  magnetized  by  another. 

They  who  are  endowed  with  magnetic  power  are  supposed 
to  be  enabled  thereby  to  produce  certain  active  results,  such 
as  local  or  general  analgesia,  or  contractions,  also  either  partial 
or  general,  on  the  persons  of  those  magnetized  by  them. 
According  to  Rochas,  the  subject  may  occasionally,  in  spite  of 
analgesia,  perceive  some  stimulus,  such  as  a  prick,  for  instance, 
at  a  certain  distance  from  the  epidermis.  Boirac  cites  similar 
instances,  without,  however,  adducing  satisfactory  evidence 
that  in  the  carrying  out  of  his  experiments  proper  precautions 
were  taken.  Voisin's  testimony  is  negative,  whilst  Crocq  goes 
so  far  as  to  deny  the  feasibility  of  utilizing  such  experiments  as 
the  basis  of  any  theory  of  animal  magnetism,  pointing  out  the 
wide  scope  for  error  they  afibrd,  it  being  impossible  to  control 
the  vibrations  of  the  air  and  fluctuations  of  temperature  by 
means  of  which  the  magnetized  person  could  become  aware  of 
the  approach  of  the  needle. 

Among  the  further  results  of  mesmerism  must  be  noted  the 
healing  powers  to  which  it  lays  claim.  Magnetism  has  the 
power,  we  are  told,  of  restoring  the  sick  to  health.  In  reply 
to  the  possible  objection  that  these  cures  might  be  attributed 
to  the  influence  of  suggestion,  special  stress  is  laid  on  the  fact 
that  quite  small  children,  infants  less  than  a  twelvemonth  old, 
have  been  successfully  magnetized.  Liebeault,  who  pub- 
lished a  refutation  of  animal  magnetism  in  1866,  subsequently, 
in  1883,  recanted,  the  change  in  his  opinions  being  chiefly 
brought  about  by  his  observation  of  the  susceptibility  of  small 
children  to  magnetic  influences,  to  which  his  attention  had 
been  drawn  by  the  magnetizer,  Longpretz.  The  cures  effected 
among  children  had,  Liebeault  avers,  completely  convinced 


488  HYPNOTISM. 

him   of  the  existence  of  animal   magnetism.      Even    if  the 
greater  part  of  that  which  was  set  forth  among  the  claims  of 
mesmerism  were  easily  to  be  explained  by  suggestion,  there 
yet,  he  thought,  remained  something  inexplicable  except   by 
the  hypothesis  of  animal  or  zoo -magnetism, — ^to  adopt   the 
name  that  had  been  used  by  Athanasius  Kircher,  and  after- 
wards  by  Bartels   at   the  very  beginning  of  the   nineteenth 
century.     Later  on,  Liebeault  certainly  gave  up  his  belief  in 
animal  magnetism.     That  in  these  experiments  on  children 
wrong   conclusions   are   often   drawn   may  surely  in  a  great 
measure  arise  from  the  fact  that  the  frequency  of  spontaneous 
cures  is  so  constantly  overlooked.     I  have  already  referred 
(p.  297)  to  this  very  fruitful  source  of  error,  which  plays  a 
much    greater    part    in    misleading    us    than    is    commonly 
supposed. 

In  support  of  their  view  that  animal  magnetism  is  something 
entirely  distinct  from  hypnotism  or  suggestion,  Du  Prel  and 
others  of  its  adherents  bring  forward  the  following  arguments. 
It  is  possible,  they  say,  to  magnetize  animals,  whilst  with  them 
suggestion  is  unavailing.     I  am  certainly  quite  of  the  opinion 
that  suggestibility,  in  the  sense  of  the  word  in  which  we  use  it 
with  regard  to  human  beings,  is  not  to  be  looked  for  among 
animals,  for  the  simple  reason  that  suggestion  always  implies  a 
very  complicated  psychic  process.     It  assumes  the  capacity  for 
consciously  undergoing  a  decided  change,  and  I  do  not  believe 
that  the  understanding  powers  of  animals — ^and  more  particularly 
of  those,  such  as  the  cat,  dog,  horse  and  lion,  supposed  to  be 
specially  susceptible  to  the  magnetic  influence, — are  sufficiently 
developed  for  this  to  take  place.     But  I  am  also  equally  firmly  ' 
convmced  that  certain  occurrences,  reported  as  having  taken 
place  among  animals,  and  accepted  as  furnishing  proofs  of 
magnetism,   in   reality  afford  no  proof  at  all.     Here,  again, 
evidence  of  the  healing  powers  of  magnetism  has  been  con- 
stantly produced,  and  here,  just  as  with  human  beings,  the 
simple  fact  of  spontaneous  healing  has  been  too  much  neglected. 
Other  results  cited,  such  as  the  soothing  effect  of  patting  and 
stroking  a  horse  or  dog,  or  the  fascination  exercised  by  the  eye 
of  the  rattlesnake,  have  in  reality  nothing  to  do  with  magnetism 
at  all.     For  however  inacceptable  we  may  find  the  idea  of 
suggestion  as  applied  to  animals,  the  possibility  of  very  many 
psychic  processes  yet  remains  to  be  considered.     In  the  results 
obtained  by  reward  or  punishment  we  see  these  at  work.     And 


OCCULTISM.  489 

in  the  guise  of  magnetism  the  very  same  thing  often  takes 
place.  When  we  quiet  an  excited  animal  by  stroking  it,  the 
success  of  our  effort  is  partially  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  animal  has  never  been  in  the  habit  of  connecting  such 
treatment  with  impending  danger.  And  in  addition  to  this 
there  are  inherited  reflex-mechanisms  of  a  physiological  nature. 
Preyer  relates  in  his  book,  Die  Seele  des  Kindes  (The  Soul  of 
the  Child),  that  an  infant,  little  more  than  a  fortnight  old,  was 
instantaneously  quieted  in  a  violent  fit  of  screaming  by  being 
laid  face  downwards,  on  a  pillow.  He  speaks  also  of  the 
soothing  effect  of  singing,  whistling,  or  a  gentle  touch  of  the 
hand,  even  on  infants  yet  unweaned.  Nor  does  he  at  all  see 
in  this  a  reflex-inhibition,  but  merely  the  driving  out  of  an 
unpleasurable  sensation,  with  its  motor  consequences  or  reflex 
activity,  by  a  new  sensation.  Pflüger  had  already  cited  the 
similar  instance  of  a  new-born,  brainless  infant,  when  screaming 
violently,  being  easily  quieted  by  having  a  finger  given  it  to 
suck.  In  any  case,  we  do  not  require,  in  order  to  explain  the 
soothing  influence  of  the  touch  of  the  hand,  etc.,  to  assume 
the  intervention  of  some  mysterious  magnetic  force.  With 
regard  to  the  supposed  magnetizing  of  animals,  just  the  same 
holds  good.  The  results  are  to  be  traced  in  part  to  physio- 
logical reflex  movements,  in  part  to  psychological  influences. 
And  however  gradual  may  be  the  transition  from  the  physio- 
logical to  the  psychological  action,  we  are  in  no  way  justified 
in  accepting  the  theory  of  magnetic  intervention  in  this 
"  magnetizing ''  of  animals. 

At  all  events,  there  is  no  series  of  experiments  extant  that 
would  compel  us  to  admit  the  magnetizing  of  animals.  I  have 
myself  sedulously  read  through  all  the  literature  bearing  on  the 
subject,  without  being  able  to  '  find,  either  among  the  old 
mesmerists  or  their  successors,  anything  that  could  be  termed 
a  scientifically  conducted  experiment.  Everywhere  we  have 
the  same  casual  observation,  the  same  detached  experiments, 
lacking  all  exactness  and  serious  control,  everywhere  the  same 
disregard  of  those  pitfalls  (e.g,^  spontaneous  cures,  etc.),  against 
which  I  have  so  often  warned.  In  the  eyes  of  the  general  public, 
magnetic  influence  is  very  important  in  the  relations  of  man  to 
the  animal  world.  This  arose  partly  from  the  air  of  mystery  in 
which  trainers  of  performing  animals  were  wont  to  invest  their 
craft.  They  were  often  led  to  this  by  the  very  natural  wish 
to  prevent  some  very  clever  trick  from  being  seen  through,  and 


490  HYPNOTISM. 

in  order  to  throw  dust  in  the  eyes  of  the  spectators  they  b^an 
by  ascribing  to  themselves  mysterious  powers.  I  need  only 
recall  the  extraordinary  sensation  excited  by  the  performances 
of  the  horse-trainer  Rarey,  some  fifty  years  ago.  In  his  book 
on  the  training  of  unmounted  horses,  Loiset  advised  the  trainer 
to  insist  on  being  quite  alone  with  his  horse  while  putting  him 
through  certain  trials,  lest  the  animal's  attention  should  be 
diverted  from  its  task.  This  momentary  isolation — which  is,  by 
the  way,  a  feature  in  the  training  of  nearly  all  performing 
animals — gave  rise  to  innumerable  vague  allusions  to  the  secret 
powers  and  mysterious  methods  employed. 

Du  Prel  sees  a  further  proof  of  animal  magnetism  in  the 
experiments   carried    out   on   individuals   during   sleep.      All 
possibility  of  suggestion  is,  he  thinks,  excluded  by  the  sleeper's 
own  unconsciousness  that  he  is  being  experimented  on.     To 
this  argument  .it  must,  however,  be  objected,  in  the  first  place, 
that  sleep  and  unconsciousness  are  not  synonymous  terms,  as 
the  mere  act  of  voluntarily  waking  from  sleep  (p.  164)  clearly 
proves;  and  secondly,  that,  as  we  have  also  seen  (p.  181)  in  the 
case  of  dreams  induced  by  nervous  stimulation,  a  person  in 
sleep  may  be  perfectly  susceptible  to  external  influences.     With 
regard  to  the  whole  question  of  experiments  on  sleeping  persons, 
the  same  remarks   apply  which   I   above   made   concerning 
experiments  on  animals.     Any  number  of  sweeping  general 
assertions  are  made  on  the  subject  of  influences  exerted  over 
people  during  sleep,  and  incidentally  even  experiments  quoted 
with  much  fulness  of  detail;   but  for  anything  resembling  a 
series  of  experiments,  subjected  to  strict  scientific  control,  and 
therefore  admissible  as  trustworthy  evidence,  we  may  look  in 
vain.     We  are  constantly  assured  that  such  experiments  have 
been  successfully  carried  out,  but  for  my  own  part,  I  have  been 
quite  unable  to  find  any  that  afforded  exact  proof  of  that 
which  was  to  be  demonstrated. 

We  are  also  told  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  magnetize  people 
who  are  themselves  unaware  that  this  is  taking  place,  as,  for 
instance,  at  a  great  distance.  Magnetism  must  exist,  it  is 
argued,  to  account  for  this,  as  for  the  kindred  phenomena  of 
telepathy  (super-sensual  thought  transference)  to  which  I  shall 
return  shortly.  Then,  again,  we  have  the  magnetizing  of 
plants,  with  its  stimulating  action  on  their  growth,  the  trans- 
mission of  the  magnetic  force  to  inanimate  substances,  such  as 
water,  which  then  carries  on  the  action  of  the  magnetizer, — all 


OCCULTISM.  491 

these  are  given  as  proofs  of  magnetism.  In  the  same  category 
we  find  are  ranged  the  following: — the  creation  of  somnambulic 
states,  during  which  the  marvellous  phenomena  of  clairvoyance, 
transposition  of  the  senses,  etc.,  etc.,  occur;  the  attraction 
exercised  over  the  magnetized  person  by  the  magnetizer,  the 
perception  of  the  magnetic  fluid  by  the  former,  his  sudden 
acquaintance  with  languages  he  has  never  learned,  variations  in 
the  weight  of  bodies,  said  to  become  heavier  and  lighter  under 
the  influence  of  animal  magnetism,  the  setting  in  motion  of 
objects  without  mechanical  means  being  employed,  fluctuations 
of  the  magnetic  needle,  power  of  destroying  animal  life  by  a 
look, — and  much  more  of  the  same  kind. 

Some  of  these  questions  I,  must  still  deal  with.  Very  nearly 
all  the  assertions  of  the  mesmerists  I  have  myself  minutely 
tested,  and  have  given  an  account  of  some  portion  of  my 
observations  in  my  book.  Der  Rapport  in  der  Hypnose^  published 
in  Leipzig,  1892.  Several  other  investigators  had  associated 
themselves  with  me  in  this  inquiry  into  the  existence  of  animal 
magnetism.  On  critical  examination,  the  result  of  all  our 
experiences  was  negative.  The  mesmerists  themselves  con- 
stantly misinterpret  their  own  observations.  That  a  magnetized 
person  may  at  times  discern  "magnetized"  water,  is  correct. 
It  has,  however,  nothing  on  earth  to  do  with  magnetism.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  very  often  impossible  to  prevent  a  slight 
rise  in  the  temperature  of  water  that  has  just  been  magnetized. 
Secondly,  it  is  highly  probable  that  in  the  act  of  magnetizing, 
which  is  generally  accompanied  with  the  gesture  of  flourishing 
something  in  the  direction  of  the  water,  chemical  substances 
may  be  introduced  into  the  latter,  and  may  bring  about  an 
alteration  in  its  taste.  But  chemical  dissociations  have  nothing 
in  common  with  magnetism,  which  is  supposed  to  represent  a 
physical  force.  This  intentional  confusion  between  chemical 
agencies  and  the  magnetic  force  is  a  good  proof  of  the  want  of 
clearness  prevailing  on  the  subject  amongst  most  mesmerists. 
Just  the  same  want  of  clearness  distinguishes  the  attempt  to 
fix  magnetic  impressions  by  photography.  It  cannot  possibly 
be  denied  that  the  atmosphere  immediately  surrounding  the 
body  may  exercise  an  influence  on  the  photographic  plate,  that 
heat  rays  and  chemical  rays — /.^.,  rays  imperceptible  to  human 
vision — may  very  often  come  into  play  here.  But  what  all  this 
has  to  do  with  animal  magnetism  it  is  not  so  easy  to  see.  As  a 
specimen  of  the  utter  confusion  of  ideas  prevailing  among 


492  HYPNOTISM. 

mesmerists  in  general,  I  need  only  give  my  own  experience  of 
the  trial  of  the  Tilsit  quack-doctor,  which  I  attended  in  the 
character   of  professional  expert.      During    the  whole    pro- 
ceedings, Schröter,  the  mesmerist  in  question,  kept  trying  to 
convince  me  that  he  had  a  certain  magnetic  force  under  his 
control.     The  argument  on  which  he  chiefly  relied  consisted 
in  taking  in  one  hand  an  india-rubber  bladder  filled  with  water, 
which  he  pressed  against  the  window-pane;  he  then  placed  his 
other  hand  flat  against  the  pane,  and  showed  that  round  this 
one  a  light  film  formed,  not,  however,  round  the  bladder.     To 
this  vaporous  deposit,  produced  by  cold,   Schröter  pointed 
triumphantly  as  a  proof  of  his  own  magnetic  powers.     Exactly 
the  same   confusion    of  ideas   attends  the   photography  of 
irradiations  and  similar  experiments. 

For  the  present  only  this  much  can  be  said :  the  statements 
of  most  mesmerists  are  extremely  confused;  things  that  have 
no  possible  connection  with  magnetic  force  are  cited  by  them 
in  proof  of  its  existence.  Nowhere  do  we  find  any  series  of 
exact  experiments  reported,  in  the  conduct  of  which  all 
sources  of  error  were  so  carefully  excluded  as  to  furnish  a 
satisfactory  proof  of  the  existence  of  animal  magnetism.  On 
all  sides  only  unproved  assertions. 

Mesmerists  have  propounded  quite  a  long  list  of  theories, 
only  the  principal  of  which  I  can  allude  to  here.  According  to 
Mesmer  himself,  whose  theory  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
much  misrepresentation,  the  whole  universe  is  filled  with  a 
fluid,  more  subtle  than  the  ether,  just  as  this  is  more  subtle 
than  air,  and  air  more  so  than  water.  Vibrations,  he  main- 
tained, take  place  throughout  this  fluid,  just  as  they  do 
throughout  the  ether,  air  and  water.  And  just  as  light  is 
transmitted  by  the  vibrations  of  the  ether,  so,  he  concluded, 
are  phenomena  of  another  nature  constantly  produced  by  the 
vibrations  of  this  all-pervading  fluid.  On  these  vibrations  he 
believed  the  mutual  attraction  and  repulsion  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  to  depend,  and  that  they  also  determine  the  interchange 
of  attraction  and  repulsion  between  bodies  endowed  with 
animal  life.  In  the  vibrations  of  this  fluid  Mesmer  considered 
animal  magnetism  to  reside.  Mesmer's  theory  of  the  magnetic 
fluid  has  often  been  confounded  with  another,  according  to  which 
the  nerves  of  the  human  body  contain  a  fluid  that  may  be  con- 
veyed to  the  surface  by  motion  from  within.  This  was  propa- 
gated by  the  celebrated  physiologist  of  the  eighteenth  century, 


OCCULTISM.  493 

Albrecht  von  Haller,  who  even  went  so  far  as  to  set  forth 
against  Mesmer  claims  of  priority  of  discovery,  although,  as  is 
perfectly  obvious,  the  two  theories  are  quite  distinct  the  one 
from  the  other.  That  the  activity  of  the  sensitive  nerve-fibres 
may  be  exercised  at  a  certain,  though  perhaps  very  limited 
distance,  was  admitted  also  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  and 
his  opinion  was  concurred  in  by  the  well-known  anatomist  and 
clinician,  Reil.  More  than  once  the  hypothesis  has  been  put 
forward  of  electric  activities  being  called  up  by  the  mesmeric 
passes  (Rostan,  J.  Wagner).  Tarchanoff  has  demonstrated 
that  the  application  of  gentle  stimuli  to  the  skin  will  excite  in 
it  slight  electric  currents,  and  that,  moreover,  a  strong  effort  of 
concentration  of  the  will,  with  the  muscular  contraction  by 
which  it  is  invariably  attended,  will  also  suffice  to  produce  the 
same.  Now,  since  mesmerists  always  insist  on  the  necessity  of 
strong  tension  of  the  will  on  the  part  of  the  mesmerizer  while 
making  his  passes,  may  not  a  peripheral  development  of 
electricity  be  induced  in  his  person  and  passed  on  to  that  of 
the  individual  he  is  mesmerizing  ? 

Contenting  myself  with  mere  reference  to  the  fact  that 
certain  mesmerists  (Nasse,  Barbarin,  and  others)  do  not 
believe  in  the  existence  of  the  magnetic  fluid,  I  pass  over 
various  theories,  practically  valueless  from  the  scientific  point 
of  view. 

In  support  of  their  contention  that  the  magnetic  conditions 
are  in  no  way  connected  with  hypnotism,  mesmerists  often 
bring  forward  the  argument  that  sleep  is  by  no  means  requisite 
for  the  exercise  of  magnetic  influence.  In  reply  to  this,  we 
may  remark,  that  also  with  persons  being  hypnotized  it  is  only  in 
the  case  of  a  comparatively  small  minority  that  sleep  is  induced 
(cf,  p.  60).  And  in  any  case,  suggestion  may,  as  we  have 
seen,  be  exercised  independently  of  either  sleep  or  hypnosis. 
As  a  further  distinction,  they  are  fond  of  pointing  out  the 
important  part  played  by  the  personality  of  the  magnetizer,  in 
the  means  he  employs.  The  very  use  of  magnetized  objects 
shows,  however,  that  this  is  not  absolutely  correct,  even  were 
the  magnetizing  of  the  same  as  essential  as,  without  sufficient 
evidence,  they  constantly  assert.  Not  that  mesmerists  are  in 
the  least  embarrassed  to  account  for  these  discrepancies. 
Should  an  object,  as  in  following  Braid's  method,  not  have 
passed  through  a  magnetizer's  hands,  then,  as  Moricourt 
explains,  it  will  suffice  for  the  subject  to  gaze  fixedly  at  it  so 


494  HYPNOTISM 

that  his  own  magnetic  fluid  may  be  reflected  therein^  and  by 
this  he  will  in  turn  himself  be  influenced. 

Nor  must  the  simple  fact  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  another 
person  to  provoke  physiological  or  psychological  results,  which 
we  ourselves  by  the  use  of  apparently  precisely  similar  means 
cannot  obtain,  be  interpreted  as  an  argument  in   favour  of 
animal  magnetism.      Take   the  well-known   example    of  the 
laughter  occasioned  by  tickling.     We  can  none  of  us   make 
ourselves   laugh    by   tickling.      And  there    are   plenty    more 
examples  of  the  same  kind.     I  had  earlier  (p.  85)  occasion  to 
remark,  how  if  another  person's  hand  approaches  our  eye,  we 
have  a  natural  tendency  to  close  it,  even  if  we  do  not  in  the 
least  dread  actual  contact.     In  another  place  (p.  400)  I  pointed 
to  the  special  results  obtained  by  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  words  on  the  part  of  the  doctor;  these  results  the  patient 
is  quite  powerless  to  produce,  however  carefully  he  may  repeat 
the  same  words  to  himself.     It  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  by 
the  touch  of  a  sympathetic  person  a  pleasurable  sensation  may 
be  evoked,  and  by  that  of  an  unsympathetic  person  a  disagree- 
able  one.      In   the   case   of  local   pains   and   certain   other 
sensations,  the  touch  of  a  sympathetic  person  may  have  a 
beneficial  effect, — not  that  of  an  unsympathetic  one.     It  thus 
becomes  evident,  that  the  very  same  physiological  and  psycho- 
logical stimuli,  when  applied  by  ourselves,  may  be  very  far  from 
giving  the  results  obtained  by  them  when  they  originate  with 
another   person.     The   whole   question   still   demands    much 
elucidation,  although  endless  physiological  and  psychological 
theories  have  been  started  for  the  purpose.     That  of  Demonchy 
would  attribute  the  sleep-inducing  power  that  lies  in  the  touch 
of  a  hand  to  a  merely  thermal  influence.     And  yet  this  would 
most  assuredly  not  suit  all  cases,  the  application  of  warm 
compresses,  for  instance,  having  very  varying  results.     It  is 
undeniable  that  purely  physiological  processes  often  play  here 
a  highly  important  part.     This  appears  most  clearly  in  sexual 
intercourse,  in  which  the  very  same  physiological  stimulus  and 
the  very  same  psychological  process  produce  quite  different 
results,  according  to  the  degree  in  which  they  correspond  to 
the  feeling  of  the  person  employing  them,     ^formal  sexual 
intercourse,  even   at   the   supreme   moment,  never   produces 
complete  gratification  in  a  homo-sexual  man.     And  yet  here 
the  peripheral  stimulus  cannot  be  said  to  be  at  fault,  but  simply 
the  fact  that  it  does  not  correspond  to  the  feeling  in  question* 


OCCULTISM.  495 

In  this,  as  in  other  examples  given  of  difference  in  the  results 
brought  about  by  similar  physiological  agencies,  animal  mag- 
netism plays  no  part.  We  have  in  reality  to  deal  here  with 
innate  tendencies  and  psychological  processes,  a  detailed 
analysis  of  which  certainly  at  present  exceeds  our  powers. 
The  assumption  of  the  existence  of  animal  magnetism  is, 
however,  utterly  superfluous,  and  it  furnishes  no  explanation 
at  all  of  the  phenomena  under  consideration,  whether  the 
reflex-closing  of  the  eyelids,  or  the  effect  produced  by  the 
touch  of  the  hand  or  persistent  repetition  of  the  same  words. 

It  is  surely  a  somewhat  wrong-headed  proceeding,  if,  in 
order  to  account  for  phenomena  which  are  not  quite  clear  to 
us,  we  drag  in  the  agency  of  a  perfectly  hypothetical  force, 
when  we  know  the  whole  time  that  this  force,  even  if  its 
existence  were  proved,  would  be  incapable  of  explaining  the 
phenomena  in  question.  Already  some  time  ago,  Lemoine, 
in  his  book.  Du  Sommeil^  laid  stress  on  the  fact  that  the 
phenomena  of  magnetic  somnambulia,  clairvoyance,  transposi- 
tion of  the  senses,  etc.,  cannot,  even  if  we  accept  them,  be 
explained  by  animal  magnetism.  The  attempt,  therefore,  to 
make  these  phenomena,  even  if  we  admit  their  existence,  the 
basis  of  a  theory  of  animal  magnetism,  must  be  distinctly 
negatived. 

To  convey  magnetic  force  from  one  person  to  another, 
various  manipulations,  and  more  especially  the  magnetic  passes, 
are  constantly  employed.  At  times  mere  contact,  the  inter- 
change of  a  fixed  gaze,  or  light  breathing  of  the  magnetizer 
over  the  subject,  may  prove  efficacious  (Barety).  In  conjunction 
with  such  manipulations,  or  even  without  them,  according  to 
some  of  the  older  mesmerists  (Puysegur,  Nasse),  entire 
concentration  of  thought  and  of  the  will  on  the  result  aimed 
at  is  specially  recommended,  and  there  are  not  wanting  in  the 
younger  school  of  mesmerists  those  who  consider  that  this 
should  in  itself  suffice.  In  all  books  dealing  with  animal 
magnetism  are  to  be  found  a  number  of  precepts  concerning 
the  best  method  of  magnetizing.  Much  information  is  also 
given  about  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  passes.  Accordingly 
as  they  are  made  upwards  or  downwards,  and  with  the  palm  or 
the  back  of  the  hand,  their  effect  is  said  to  vary.  There  is 
also  supposed  to  be  a  difference  observable  in  their  action  on 
the  right  and  left  side  of  the  body.  Reference  to  magnetic 
polarity  is  also  made*     The  principle  had  been  admitted  with 


496  HYPNOTISM. 

regard  to  man  by  Fludd,  Heller,  Mesmer,  and  a  little  later  by 
Scoresby,  and  has  been  defended  in  our  day  by  Chazarain, 
Decle,  Durville,  Rochas  and  Barety.  But  they  contradict  one 
another  so  flatly  concerning  the  divergence  of  these  poles, 
that  I  feel  constrained  for  the  moment  to  look  upon  the 
supposed  polarity  as  an  involuntary  outgrowth  of  professional 
training, — in  other  words,  as  a  piece  of  unconscious  self-deception 
on  the  part  of  the  experimenter.  Baraduc  even  alludes  to  an 
instrument  by  means  of  which  he  thought  it  possible  to  measure 
the  exact  magnetic  relations  of  human  beings  one  to  the  other, 
and  to  reduce  them  to  a  formula. 

The   doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  has   been   turned   to 
practical  account  in  its  use  in  therapeutics  by  the  so-called 
magnetopaths  or  medical  magnetizers.     Already  some   time 
ago,  Göler  von  Ravensburg  and  others  called  attention  to  the 
numerous  sources  of  error  in  this  field,  and  these  are  equally 
prolific  at  the  present  day.     Magnetopaths  claim   that   the 
existence  of  animal  magnetism  is  demonstrated  by  their  cures, 
overlooking  the  very  important   point   that   these  cures  are 
partially   assisted    by    suggestion,    partially    by    spontaneous 
improvement  in  the  health  of  the  patient.     They  also  pretend^ 
it  is  true,  to  effect  cures  in  cases  of  such  diseases  as  cancer, 
tabes  dorsalis,  etc.,  incurable  by  scientific  medical  treatment. 
But  in  spite  of  all  their  noisy  self-assertion,  the  true  position  of 
affairs  is  this:   not  one   single  well-authenticated  case  exists 
of  a  disease  of  this  nature  having  been  cured  by  magnetic 
treatment.     To  start  with,  it  would  be  a  necessary  condition  of 
such  cures  that  a  proper  diagnosis  of  cancer,  or  whatever  the 
disease  might  be,  should  be  established  in  an  unassailable 
fashion  by  scientiäcally  qualified  medical  practitioners  prior  to 
the  magnetic  treatment.    The  absence  of  a  serious  scientific 
diagnosis  (cf,  p.  319)  can  never  be  compensated  for  either  by 
those  furnished  by  the  patients  themselves,  or  by  the  magneto- 
paths, quite  capable  of  taking  an   inflammation   for  cancer, 
or    neurasthenia    for    tabes    dorsalis.      As    to    the    manner 
in   which  their  diagnoses  are  made,  a  single   instance   may 
suffice.      A  good   many   years    ago   I    had  a  visit    from    a 
Fräulein  von  X.,  "  qualified  medical  magnetizer,"  as  was  stated 
on  her  card,  who  wished  to  convince  me  of  her  magnetic  powers. 
When  I  inquired  how  she  proposed  to  accomplish  this^  she 
assured   me  that  she    had  quite  recently  cured    a  case   of 
erysipelas  in  the  face  by  a  course  of  magnetizing.     To  my  next 


OCCULTISM.  497 

inquiry  as  to  how  her  diagnosis  had  been  made,  she  replied: — 
"It  was  a  red  spot  that  turned  white  on  pressure;  consequently 
it  must  have  been  erysipelas."  And  this  is  the  sort  of  diagnosis 
we  are  asked  to  accept  as  evidence  of  the  curative  powers  of 
magnetism !  The  very  names  given  to  some  of  the  illnesses  are 
enough  to  arouse  suspicion.  Thus  one  patient  is  said  to  have 
been  cured  by  magnetism  of  "swelling  of  the  cardiac  valves."- 
Another  is  described  as  having  suffered  from  "gout  in  the 
head";  while  in  a  third  case,  that  of  a  patient  one  of  whose 
lungs  was  seriously  affected,  a  three  weeks'  treatment  is  reported 
to  have  caused  the  diseased  organ  to  "scab  over."  Another 
patient  had  "serious  oppression  of  the  stomach,"  and  one 
woman's  organs  were  "all  of  a  wobble."  The  more  appalling 
the  diagnosis,  the  greater  should  be  our  caution  in  accepting  it 
as  correct.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  magnetopaths  very 
often  employ  other  methods  simultaneously  with  their  own. 
They  prescribe,  for  instance,  rules  of  diet  which  are  in  reality 
the  principal  factors  in  their  treatment,  the  magnetizing  itself 
having  no  specific  action.  But  it  is  to  magnetism  that  the  good 
results  are  ascribed,  which  are,  of  course,  in  fact  due  to  diet. 
An  alcoholic  patient  while  being  magnetized,  received  the 
injunction  from  the  magnetopath  to  abstain  from  drink.  It 
will  be  very  readily  believed  that  the  condition  of  a  man 
suffering  from  alcoholism  will  improve  as  long  as  he  gives  up 
drinking.  Only  this  is  no  argument  whatever  for  the  existence 
of  animal  magnetism. 

Magnetopaths  constantly  complain  that  science  does  not 
recognize  their  powers.  In  point  of  fact  one  magnetopath  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  recognize  the  power  of  a  fellow  magnetopath. 
The  magnetopath  A.  hears  with  a  pitying  smile  of  the  magnetic 
power  over  which  the  magnetopath  B.  claims  to  hold  control. 
It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  my  readers  if  I  here  reproduce 
a  letter  written  to  an  acquaintance  of  mine  by  a  magnetopath. 
It  shows  how  these  gentry  make  their  diagnoses,  and  also  what 
one  magnetopath  thinks  of  another.  The  gentleman,  who  had 
once  been  a  patient  of  mine,  wrote  a  description  of  his  malady 
to  the  magnetopath  and  received  the  following  reply : — 

*'Dear  Sir, — I  have  received  your  esteemed  communication,  and  will 
make  an  exception  in  your  case,  a  thing  I  otherwise  never  do  without  a 
fee  of  twenty  marks  [£i)i  because  I  have  been  taken  in  too  often  by  the 
general  public.  As  your  complaint  is  neither  dilatation  of  the  heart  nor 
poverty  of  blood,  kindly  give  up  taking  iron,  or  your  stomach  will  be 

32 


498  HYPNOTISM. 

completely  ruined.  Your  whole  trouble  is  the  result  of  a  perfectly  normal 
circulation  of  the  blood  caused  by  the  abdomen^  which  does  not  functionate 
properly.  The  best  I  can  say  and  advise  is  come  to  me,  then  you  will 
certainly  be  cured  of  your  complaint.  You  should  write  to  me  beforehand, 
so  as  to  enable  me  to  make  an  appointment,  as  my  services  are  in  great 
request.  Yours  faithfully,  [here  follows  the  signature].  I  do  not  know 
of  a  magnetizer  named  N.,  in  the  locality  you  mention,  and  I  must  warn 
you  to  l^  very  careful  whom  you  take  to  be  a  magnetizer  1!! " 

This  magnetopath  also  exhibited  the  virtue  of  being  a  friend  to  his  own 
family.  When  he  was  again  questioned  about  a  magnetizer  in  Magdeburg 
or  Münster,  he  replied,  he  did  not  know  of  any  such  in  those  towns: 
*' There  are  very  few  trustworthy  magnetizers  in  Germany."  To  this 
communication  there  was  also  a  postscript :  '*  My  son  Henry  can  also  cure 
diseases  at  a  distance.  You  may  apply  to  him  here"  (address  given) 
"with  perfect  confidence." 

Magnetopaths  certainly  assert  that  they  can  prove  their 
magnetic  powers  in  another  way.  As  a  rule,  the  proof  is 
supposed  to  be  in  the  results  they  say  they  have  obtained. 
As  I  have  already  mentioned,  the  experiments  I  made  in 
conjunction  with  other  investigators  only  gave  negative  results. 
But  since  1892,  I  have  repeatedly  expressed  my  willingness  to 
experiment  with  persons  who  believe  that  they  possess  magnetic 
powers,  provided  the  conditions  are  stringent.  Although  it  is 
frequently  asserted  by  occultists,  and  also  by  magnetopaths, 
that  they  are  ignored  by  doctors,  hardly  any  one  of  them  has 
placed  himself  at  my  disposal.  The  few  who  have  done  so 
came  completely  to  grief.  One  of  them  was  the  well-known 
Herr  Scheibler.  When  proper  precautions  were  taken,  Herr 
Scheibler  could  never  prove  that  he  possessed  any  magnetic 
power  whatever.  These  experiments,  to  which  I  shall  again 
revert,  could  only  be  explained  in  other  ways.  A  second 
gentleman,  a  well-known  Berlin  magnetopath  possessing  an 
honorary  diploma,  also  placed  himself  at  my  disposal.  I 
experimented  on  him  in  conjunction  with  three  of  my  Berlin 
colleagues,  Drs.  Gumpertz,  Leo  Hirschlaff,  and  Fritz  Koch. 
The  experiments  led  to  nothing,  a  fact  which  the  subject 
himself  had  to  admit.  He  had,  for  example,  asserted  that  he 
could  produce  any  sensation  he  wished — warmth,  cold,  twinges, 
etc.  But  every  experiment  failed  when  the  subject  was  unaware 
of  the  sensation  that  was  intended  to  be  produced.  Recently, 
a  doctor  who  called  himself  a  magnetopath  came  to  me  for  the 
purpose  of  making  experiments;  but  he  turned  out  to  be  just 
like  other  magngtopaths.  To  him  the  simplest  suggestive 
influence  only  meant  animal  magnetism. 


OCCULTISM.  499 

I  once  received  a  communication  from  abroad,  in  which  a 
magnetopath  invited  me  to  make  certain  experiments.  But  I 
must  candidly  admit  that  the  letter,  which  I  reproduce  verbatim, 
did  not  inspire  me  with  much  confidence  in  my  correspondent: 
consequently  I  did  not  see  my  way  to  carry  out  experiments 
which  would  be  free  from  reproach.  This  letter  should  show 
the  mental  level  of  many  of  these  magnetizers.  The  letter^ 
runs  as  follows  :  — 

Dear  Sir, — I  have  been  possessor  of  your, book  Hypnotism  about  a  year. 
In  case  it  may  afford  you  satisfaction,  I  will  bring  you  a  proof  of  the 
telepathy  p.  323  of  your  work,  that  I  really  have  a  special  power  at  my 
command — i.e.y  even  if  I  only  possess  such  but  nevertheless  cure  the  sick  Qt 
every  kind  without  selected  medicines  and  other  manipulations  but  solely 
by  mere  words  suspending  amulets  or  as  Christ  the  Lord  also  did,  go  and 
wash  thyself  seven  times  in  the  river  Jordan  (meaning  the  same  as  in  the 
Spree,  Seine,  Rhine,  Danube,  or  the  tub  at  home)  again  to  another  go  thy 
faith  hath  helped  thee,  but  only  where  such  is  certainly  present  can  I  assur^ 
this  but  specially  expressly  for  each  particular  case  further  this  is  all  on 
condition  the  sick  person  tells  me  all  the  circumstances  and  accessory 
circumstances  upon  which  I  tell  him  whether  a  cure  can  possibly  be  made 
by  me  for  death  and  constant  sickness  also  demand  their  victims.  More- 
over it  must  be  mentioned  that  in  certain  diseases  the  patient  is  not  at 
once  convinced  I  mean,  that  he  is  cured,  but  this  differs  about  eight  days 
to  one  month  or  several  or  even  beyond  that.  This  is  one  and  the  same 
power  with  which  Christ  healed  but  it  necessitates  a  specially  individual 
call  selection  by  the  Deity  which  I  have  specially  underlined  for  your  better 
comprehension  in  the  prospectus  enclosed  herewith.  That  I  am  called  I 
am  firmly  convinced  because  the  gift  of  clairvoyance  has  enabled  one  to 
foresee  the  events  of  my  life  for  years  that  something  of  this  kind  would 
become  very  powerful  as  it  progresses  that  in  time  princely  equipages  will 
make  way  for  me  in  the  street,  even  if  only  spiritually  understood  and 
then  worldly  authority  will  want  to  punish  me  and  will  not  be  able  to  do 
any  harm  and  all  this  from  the  beginning  up  till  to-day  lies  in  the  same 
power  described  above.  Similarly  a  man  of  the  same  kind  prophesied  of 
me  when  I  was  to  be  apprenticed  to  a  joiner  in  answer  to  my  mother's 
question  whether  she  should  put  me  to  it  the  man  mentioned  above  said 
yes,  but  that  I  would  not  always  remain  at  it,  which  proved  true  in  not 
quite  a  year.  This  power  I  have  achieved,  the  foundation  must  be 
innate  which  must  be  developed  by  earnest  endeavour  reading  the  Bible 
this  I  call  light  from  above  for  otherwise  the  words  are  true  ihey  have  eyes 
and  see  not,  ears  and  hear  not,  understanding  and  do  not  understand  and 
it  just  the  same  with  that  beautiful  work  2  volumes  Prevorst  mentioned 
by  you  which  moreover  perfected  clairvoyance,  but  what  does  J.  Kerner 
say  of  the  countess  who  was  cured ;  vol  i.  p.  208.  Behold  here  intelligent 
reader  the  power  of  mental  correspondence  of  prayer  and  child-like  faith 
at  the  end  of  his  narrative.     Now  if  you  would  like  to  have  convincing 

*  I  do  not  pretend  to  be  able  to  do  justice  to  this  letter. — Translator. 


500  HYPNOTISM. 

proof  of  what  I  have  stated  about  myself  you  might  request  any  sick  person 
you  choose  to  write  to  me  and  you  would  discover  what  you  cannot  now 
believe  and  I  remark  in  addition  that  you  will  be  allowed  to  read  every 
thing  I  communicate  to  the  patient,  and  also  test  and  examine  everything. 
Further  I  will  add  about  what  you  write  on  p.  207  (Post-hypnotic  Sense- 
delusions)  about  that  most  wise  and  just  man  Socrates,  that  I  also  have 
developed  this  gift  but  that  there  can  be  no  question  of  hallucinations  and 
delusions  but  of  the  most  convincing  reality,  but  to  this  must  be  added  that 
any  one  who  wants  to  undertake  such  things  must  first  of  all  have  complete 
power  over  his  body  and  be  very  much  like  the  noblest  character  god  as 
far  as  it  is  possible  for  a  human  being  if  he  does  not  wish  to  come  to 
temporal  and  eternal  grief.     For  the  devil  can  quite  well  be  reasoned 
With,  only  one  must  know  how  to  do  this  as  well  and  better  than  with 
many  a  neighbour  for  he  is  a  very  clear-sighted  gentleman  and  as  the 
Bible  already  tells  us  only  quarrelled  with  Purity  i,e.  Heaven  because  he 
could  not  stand  anything  superior  to  himself.     Therefore  it  may  also  be 
obvious  to  you  that  it  is  very  much  better  to  reason  with  the  Prince  of 
Darkness  than  with  stupidity  t.e,  poverty  of  mind  and  supper-cleverness 
with  which  the  world  of  to-day  is  crammed  where  the  gods  themselves 
strive  in  vain.     If  you  my  dear  Sir  doubt  this  and  refer  it  to  the  realm  of 
hallucination  you  must  do  just  the  same  with  Kerner's  Seeress,  but  I  am 
convinced  this  is  most  profoundly  true  from  my  own  experience,  but  how 
to  understand  this  is  disclosed  by  no  science  only  with  99%  belief  are  the 
profundities  of  all  knowledge  disclosed  as  Göthe  already  said. 
Awaiting  your  kind  agreement  and  reply. 

I  remain  yours  faithfully. 

{Signaiure), 

The  assertion  made  by  magnetopaths  and  similar  persons 
that  they  are  totally  disregarded  by  doctors,  is  in  any  case 
incorrect.  Apart  from  the  fact,  that  during  the  period  of  its 
greatest  prosperity  animal  magnetism  played  a  part  in  officially 
recognized  science,  magnetopaths  have  at  all  events  had 
opportunities  for  having  their  supposed  powers  tested  scientifi- 
cally. I  have  offered  to  make  such  tests,  and  undoubtedly 
others  would  do  so  also.  Considering  the  constant  complaint 
of  magnetopaths  that  they  are  ignored  by  medical  men,  one 
would  think  they  would  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity 
given  them  for  having  their  powers  tested ;  but  this  is  far  from 
the  case,  for  during  the  fifteen  years  that  have  elapsed  since  I 
offered  to  carry  out  such  experiment  only  three  of  these 
gentlemen  have  allowed  their  supposed  magnetic  power  to  be 
tested. 

I  now  come  to  the  question  of  mineral  magnetism.  Belief 
in  the  action  of  the  magnet  on  human  beings  is  very  old. 
The  magi  of  the  East  used  the  magnet  to  cure  disease,  and 


OCCULTISM.  SOI 

the  Chinese  and  Hindoos  did  so  long  ago.  Albertus  Magnus 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  later  Paracelsus,  Helmont  and 
Kircher  also  used  it.  So  did  the  astronomer  and  ex-Jesuit 
Hell,  of  Vienna,  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was 
from  him  that  Mesmer  is  said  to  have  learned  the  influence  of 
the  magnet  on  human  beings.  As  we  saw  on  page  6,  Mesmer 
used  the  magnet  at  first,  though  even  then,  some  doctors — 
Deimann  of  Amsterdam,  for  instance — denied  the  therapeutic 
action  of  the  magnet  and  asserted  that  brass  plates  did  as  well. 
Reil  also  used  the  magnet  In  the  year  1845  Reichenbach 
asserted  that  some  sensitive  persons  had  peculiar  sensations 
when  they  were  touched  with  a  magnet.  He  also  said  they 
saw  light — the  so-called  Od  light;  an  assertion  that  was  long 
supposed  to  be  disproved,  but  which  has  lately  been  again 
made  by  Barrett  in  London,  and  by  Luys  in  Paris,  on  the 
ground  of  fresh  experiments.  According  to  Schrenck-Notzing, 
Jastrow  and  Pickering  have  specially  opposed  the  revival  of  the 
Od  doctrine.  Still,  the  opinion  that  the  magnet  exerts  a 
specific,  and,  more  especially,  a  therapeutic  action  on  the 
human  body,  has  many  adherents.  Maggiorani,  in  Italy,  has 
lately  contended  for  the  therapeutic  use  of  the  magnet  (Belfiore), 
and  the  school  of  Charcot  has  asserted  the  influence  of  the 
magnet  on  certain  individuals.  Benedikt  also,  in  opposition 
to  a  few  American  investigators — Peterson,  Kennelly — who 
had  attributed  the  therapeutic  action  of  the  magnet  to  sug- 
gestion, advocated  its  specifically  physiological  curative  action. 
But  some  people  suppose  that  there  are  further  af][inities  of 
mineral  magnetism  to  man.  Formerly,  it  was  occasionally 
assumed  that  some  people  could  deflect  the  magnetic  needle 
by  merely  approaching  it,  and  more  particularly  by  putting  a 
finger  near  it.  Wolfart  relates  of  himself  in  his  Erläuterung 
zum  Magnetismus^  that  he  could  cause  the  magnetic  needle  to 
deflect  and  incline  downwards  by  bringing  his  finger  near  either 
pole,  and  that  the  needle  was  so  firmly  fixed  in  its  new  position 
that  it  did  not  at  once  react  to  a  strong  magnet,  whereas 
Wolfart  was  able  to  restore  its  normal  equilibrium  by  making  a 
few  counter-passes  with  his  finger.  He  consequently  supposed 
that  there  is  a  definite  connection  between  mineral  and  animal 
magnetism.  Further,  Du  Potet  reports,  that  a  subject  named 
Angelika  Cottin  could  deflect  the  magnetic  needle  by  merely 
bringing  her  arm  near  it  (Perty).  Fechner,  who  was  very 
sceptical  with  regard  to  Reichenbach's  Od  doctrine,  and  who 


502  HYPNOTISM. 

was  more  inclined  to  look  upon  the  deflection  of  the  magnetic 
needle  as  a  disproof  and   not  a  support  of  that  doctrine, 
experimented  on  one  of  Reichen  bach's  subjects,  a  Frau  Ruf, 
and  was  convinced  that  this  lady  could  deflect  the  magnetic 
needle.     When  Frau  Ruf  waved  her  finger  over  one  of  the 
poles,  the  needle  oscillated  just  as  if  a  bar-magnet  were  being 
waved  over  it     Although  the   strictest   conditions  were   not 
imposed — Fechner  wanted  to  do  so,  but  the  magnetic  power  of 
the  lady  abated — Fechner  did  not  consider  himself  justified  in 
assuming  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  subject,  and  declared  he 
was   convinced   by  the  experiments.      He  added,  with    that 
modesty  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  real  savant^  that  he 
had  thought  of  the  possibility  of  hallucination,  but  he  considered 
he  must  discard  that  suspicion  because  another  investigator, 
Professor    Erdmann,    witnessed    the    experiments    and    also 
observed  the  same  phenomenon.     But  we  are  quite  justified  in 
thinking  that  Frau  Ruf  produced  the  eßects  by  means  of  some 
steel  object  which  she  had  concealed  about  her.     Moreover, 
Fechner  does  not  claim  that  other  people  were  convinced  by 
the  experiments.     Only,  at  the  end  of  his  book  he  strongly 
recommends  investigators  to  be  on  the  look-out  for  some  such 
fraudulent  procedure.     As  Ulrici  reported  in  his  work  on  so- 
called  spiritualism,    Slade  was  able  to  deflect   the  magnetic 
needle.     In  the  presence  of  W.  Weber,  Scheibner  and  Zöllner, 
Slade  deflected  the  needle  40°  to  60"  until  it  finally  made  several 
complete  revolutions,  although  his  hand  was  quite  a  foot  from 
the  compass.     He  is  also  said  to  have  magnetized  steel  knitting- 
needles.     The  Tilsit  magnetopath,  Schröter,  asserted  when  on 
trial  for  quackery,  that  he  could  deflect  the  magnetic  needle 
himself  without  employing  any  friction.     In  connection  with 
Harnack's  experiments,  which  I  shall  presently  discuss,  I  may 
here   mention   that    Max   Breitung   states   that    he   also   has 
employed  a  thin  knitting-rod,  such  as  is  used  in  making  fishing- 
nets,    to   test   his   own    magnetic    power,    and    that   he   first 
magnetized  the  rod  with  a  horse-shoe  magnetic  and  then  hung 
it  up.     He  states  that  when  he  laid  the  thumb  and  first  two 
fingers  of  his  right  hand  together  and  brought  them  near  the 
needle  which  was  freely  suspended,  the  needle  followed  his 
hand  to  the  right  no  matter  which  pole  was  approached.     The 
needle  literally  ran  after  his  hand.     On  using  the  fingers  of  his 
left  hand  the  needle  was  deflected  to  the  left.     But  smce 
Breitung  himself  states  that  he  cannot  deflect  the  needle  of  a 


OCCULTISM.  503 

compass  by  means  of  his  finger-tips,  it  would  be  as  well  to  find 
out  whether  there  was  not  some  source  of  error  in  his  experi- 
ments with  the  knitting-needle,  such  as  draughts,  etc. 

It  has  also  occasionally  been  pointed  out  that  there  are  some 
people  who  are  so  electric  that  they  may  even  emit  sparks. 
Du  Bois-Reymond  doubted  these  statements  and  thought,  more- 
over, that  the  whole  question  was  of  but  little  interest.  It  has 
also  been  stated  that  steel  becomes  magnetic  in  certain  persons' 
hands.  Eisenstein  relates  of  his  subject  Leopoldine  R.,  who 
was  chief  subject  in  the  Viennese  experiments  mentioned  on 
P^gc  13)  ^hat  she  could  turn  ordinary  steel  needles  into 
magnets  simply  by  touching  them.  She  told  the  audience  and 
Dr.  Hummel,  who  was  controlling  the  experiments,  that  she 
only  possessed  this  power  when  she  was  tired  and  worn  out, 
but  not  when  she  felt  quite  well.  But  when  the  experiments 
were  more  carefully  controlled,  her  assertions  were  not 
substantiated.  The  magnetizer  Lafontaine  also  stated  that  he 
could  render  iron  magnetic,  and  could  produce  a  north  or 
south  pole  at  will,  according  to  the  passes  he  made ;  he  further 
stated  that  he  was  able  to  deprive  a  steel  magnet  of  its 
magnetism  by  a  proper  process  of  magnetizing.  He  also  further 
asserted  that  he  could  render  water  so  magnetic  that  it  would 
cause  a  galvanometer  to  show  a  defiection  of  from  10°  to  20°. 
With  one  of  his  patients,  Thilorier,  he  approached  the  Acadimie 
des  Sciences  with  a  request  that  this  fact  might  be  tested.  On 
June  10,  1844,  the  Academy  appointed  a  commission  con- 
sisting of  Pouillet,  Dutrochet,  Eecquerel,  Chevreul,  Regnault, 
and  Magendie.  The  experiments  proved  unsuccessful.  Lafon- 
taine blamed  Thilorier  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  did  not 
understand  the  business ;  but  he  refused  to  make  any  further 
experiments,  asserting  that  the  commission  was  prejudiced. 

Certain  experiments  that  have  recently  attracted  attention 
are  of  a  somewhat  different  nature.  Erich  Harnack,  for 
instance,  is  convinced  that  he  can  deflect  the  compass-needle 
by  rubbing  the  glass-plate  with  his  finger.  Harnack  assumes 
that  the  friction  produces  statical  electricity,  that  we  have  to 
deal  with  a  process  that  is  not  merely  mechanico-physical, 
but  with  one  that  is  distinct  and  peculiar  to  certain  individuals. 
He  came  to  this  conclusion,  because  (i)  apparently  stronger 
currents  of  frictional  electricity  did  not  deflect  the  needle,  (2) 
the  finger-tips  of  numerous  individuals  did  not  possess  this 
faculty^  (3)  he  only  possessed  it  at  times.      Harnack  thought 


5Ö4  HYPNOTISM. 

he  refuted  the  objection  that  the  process  was  only  mechanico- 
physical,  because  he  tested  the  tension  and  found  it  over  looo 
volts.  This  assumption  has  been  disputed,  notably  by  Bethe, 
who  experimented  with  his  own  finger  and  also  on  the  corpse 
of  a  man  sixty-nine  years  of  age.  Bethe  ^was  able  to  get  a 
tension  of  looo  volts  with  the  finger  of  thedead  man  when  it 
had  been  dried  in  the  exsiccator. 

But  in  spite  of  these  objections,  Harnack's  experiments  seem 
to  me  to  be  of  such  great  importance,  and  so  interesting,  that 
we  cannot  but  earnestly  desire  that  they  should  be  put  to  a 
further  objective  and  scientific  test.     But  the  question  whether 
the  processes  were  physiological  or  merely  mechanical  does 
not  seem  to  me  solved.     The  rapidity  with  which    Harnack 
obtained  such  a  high  tension — 600  volts  with  one  pass — is 
certainly  extremely  remarkable.     Experts  must  examine  this 
question  further,  and  objectively.     This  is  particularly  necessary 
so   as  to   prevent    occultists   and    magnetopaths    making   an 
unscientific   use   of    Harnack's    experiments,   as    they    might 
otherwise  do. 

Of  course,  experiments,  the  results  of  which  can  be  made 
use    of,    should    only    be    carried    out    under   the    strictest 
conditions.      I    think   I   may   assume   from    Harnack's    own 
publications,  that  he  was  not  invariably  as  careful  as  he  might 
have  been.    He  speaks  of  cases  in  which  people  were  supposed 
to    cause    deflection    of    the    magnetic    needle    by    merely 
approaching  it,  though  he  himself  had  to  rub  the  glass-plale. 
He  was  able  to  experiment  with  two  people  who  were  said  to 
possess  this  power.    With  one  of  them  the  experiment  failed — 
he  assumed  the  subject  was  only  a  magnetopath  in  her  leisure 
hours.     Hamack  writes,    "I   obtained   better  results   in   the 
second  case,  that  of  a  woman  of  the  educated  classes.     It  was 
only  by  accident  that  she  became  aware  that  she  possessed 
this  peculiar  power.     She  told  me  at  once  that  she  did  not 
always  succeed  in  deflecting  the  needle  by  approaching  and 
withdrawing  her  finger  (she  never  rubbed  the  glass-face)."     In 
his  experiments  with  this  lady,  Harnack  used  a  rather  large, 
but  simply  constructed  compass,  with  a  glass-face;  the  needle 
was   about   4   inches   long,    and   very   sensitive.     When   the 
experiment  had  been  going  on  for  about  ten   minutes,  the 
needle  suddenly  deflected  in  the  direction  of  the  subject's 
finger-tips.     The  deflection  gradually  increased  to  from  20°  to 
25°.      Harnack    considers  this   experiment,    which   he  often 


~  -^  ■-■"-- 


OCCULTISM.  505 

repeated,  thoroughly  convincing.  During  the  experiments 
**  the  lady  wore  nothing  that  was  made  of  steel,  and  no  stays," 
and  Harnack  thinks  that  this  excluded  all  possibility  of  fraud, 
because  if  the  subject  had  had  anything  made  of  steel  about 
her,  the  needle  must  have  been  affected  directly  she  approached 
the  compass,  but  nothing  of  the  kind  ever  happened  Harnack 
further  thinks  that  the  lady  and  her  husband  took  no  special 
interest  in  the  matter,  but  were  solely  concerned  in  serving  the 
cause  of  truth. 

But  the  experiments  Harnack  made  with  this  lady  are  not 
convincing.  His  assumption  that  if  she  had  had  anything 
steel  about  her  it  would  have  caused  the  needle  to  deflect 
directly  she  approached  the  compass,  is  incorrect.  That 
would  depend  upon  whether  the  steel  object  were  freely 
movable,  so  that  she  might  weaken  its  action  when  she  wished. 
At  all  events,  I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  anything  in 
Harnack's  publications  showing  that  those  precautions  were 
taken  which  are  absolutely  necessary,  if  the  possibility  of  some 
steel  object  being  concealed  about  the  subject  is  to  be 
precluded.  It  would  have  been  all  the  better  if  the  proper 
precautions  had  been  taken  in  this  case,  as  it  is  the  only  one 
in  which  Harnack  saw  the  needle  deflected  without  the  glass 
plate  being  rubbed;  /.^.,  supposing  the  observation  was  free 
from  error,  we  have  here  a  proof  that  friction  is  unnecessary. 
Unfortunately,  Harnack  did  not  take  the  necessary  precautions 
in  the  case  of  this  lady;  perhaps  he  was  unable  to  do  so,  for 
it  is  especially  diflicult  to  get  any  one,  particularly  a  lady,  to 
observe  all  the  necessary  conditions  of  a  scientifically  controlled 
experiment.  Moreover,  Harnack^s  great  confidence  in  the 
veracity  of  the  lady  and  her  husband  is  merely  subjective,  and 
does  not  fully  prove  their  truthfulness. 

I  have  good  authority  for  stating  that  this  lady,  who  is  supposed  to  be 
able  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle,  is  the  very  same  person  as  the  spiritist 
medium  called  ihe  femme  mcisquie^  about  whom  Wilhelm  Winkler  has 
written  in  his  work,  Zur  Reform  des  sogenannten  Spiritismus,  Leipzig, 
1905,  I  have  experimented  on  her  on  three  different  occasions  during  the  last 
eleven  years.  These  opportunities  have  also  enabled  me  to  follow  up  the 
"evolution"  of  the  lady  s  powers.  I  first  of  all  investigated  ths  "raps" 
which  caused  such  a  stir  in  the  spiritistic  world.  A  feuilleton  of  the 
Hamburger  Nachrichten,  of  March  29th,  1905,  contains  an  account  of  one 
of  the  sittings  I  then  held  with  this  lady ;  it  was  written  by  Eugen  Reichel, 
who  was  present.  The  experiments  were  made  in  my  house,  and  a 
number  of  vigorous  and  loud  raps  were  heard  as  long  as  the  lady  wore  her 


506  HYPNOTISM. 

boots,  but  directly  I  got  her  to  wear  list-slippers  the  sounds  were  gentle 
and  dull,  and  when  I  held  her  feet  down  there  were  no   sounds  at  all. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  she  made  the  raps  with  her  feet,  toes,  etc.,  etc. 
I  again  experimented  with  her  about  three  or  four  years  ago.      At  that  time 
the  question  investigated   was  the  supposed  deflection  of  the   magnetic 
needle,  and  also  whether  other  objects,  such  as  wooden  ones,  or  a  ring 
suspended  by  a  thread,  would  move  in  her  presence  without  any  mechani- 
cal aid.      A  whole  series  of  sittings  that  I  held   with   the    lady — who, 
moreover,  came  to  me  most  willingly  and  charged  no  fee — gave  none  but 
negative  results.     I  now  come  to  the  third  period  in  which  I  experimented 
with  this  lady.     In  the  years  that  had  intervened  she  had  greatly  improved 
as  a  medium.     She  could  see  spirits,  and  there  are  numbers  of  photographs 
of  spirits  extant,  of  spirits  whom  she  is  said  to  have  materialized  by  means 
of  her  mediumistic  power.     She  was  now  also  said  to  be  able  to  remove 
objects  from  cases  that  were   firmly  fastened  and  sealed,   without  any 
n;iechanical  assistance.     Unfortunately,  when  this  experiment  was  tried  in 
my  house,  it  proved  a  complete  failure;   even  the  spirits  did  not  appear, 
though  the  voices  of  a  few  supposed  spirits  were  heard.     I   have   never 
doubted  for  one  moment  that  this  was  nothing  but  ventriloquism   on  the 
part  of  the  medium,  who  may,  or  may  not  have  been  in  a  trance.     Test  ex- 
periments— 1.^.,  experiments  carried  out  under  strictly  scientific  conditions, 
which  the  husband  had  promised  I  should  have  the  opportunity  of  making, 
were  not  made  after  this.     Indeed,  Mr.  X.  wrote  to  me  and  said  that  it 
was  generally  thought  that  I  was  quite  unable  to  provide  a  proper  miiieu  in 
my  house  for  the  occurrence  of  occult  phenomena.     I  can  only  hope  that 
the  lady's  spouse,  who  put  me  off  to  some  later  date,  will  not  defer  the 
fulfilment  of  his  promise  ad  Calendas  graecas.     In  any  case,  Harnack  must 
admit,  that  if  spirits  appear  to  a  lady,  and  her  presence  is  said  to  render 
solid  substances  penetrable — the  experiment  failed  when  tried  before  me — 
we  ought  to  be  particularly  cautious  when  dealing  with  experiments  made 
with  the  magnetic  needle. 

I  have  expressly  given  a  somewhat  detailed  account  of  this 
case,  as  it  affords  a  warning  against  the  naivete  and  credulity 
with  which  scientists  so  often  enter  a  domain  of  research 
that  is  new  to  them.  On  this  point  I  refer  to  what  was 
said  on  page  482.  It  is  an  unfortunate  necessity,  but  men 
of  science  must  always  mistrust  persons  who  are  strangers 
to  them. 

/  am  not  for  one  moment  asserting  that  it  is  utterly  impossible 
for  human  beings  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle  without  the  aid  of 
contact  or  friction.  A  priori  negation  is  an  error  often  com- 
mitted in  scientific  circles,  unfortunately.  There  can  hardly  be 
any  question  of  impossibility  where  science  is  concerned. 
Only,  we  must  demand  the  most  exact  demonstration  where 
such  far-reaching  assertions  are  made.  And  we  will  do  so  in 
this  case  to  prevent  discredit  falling  on  the  extremely  interesting 
experiments  Harnack  has  made  on  himself.     It  is  necessary 


OCCULTISM.  507 

that  Harnack  should  experiment  on  others,  and  only  under  the 
strictest  conditions. 

The  greatest  caution  is  necessary  for  the  very  reason  that 
occultists  and  magnetopaths  are  only  too  ready  to  put  their 
own  interpretation  on  all  such  things.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
magnetopaths  certainly  obtain  no  support  from  the  experiments 
which  Harnack  made  on  himself.  For  if  we  consider  the 
capacity  for  generating  electricity  a  proof  of  the  existence  of 
curative  magnetism,  Harnack  must  be  a  very  good  healing 
magnetizer,  but  then  the  magnetopaths  would  first  of  all  have 
to  prove  that  they  possess  this  capacity.  Apart  from  this,  we 
can  quite  easily  generate  the  same  quantity  of  electricity  by 
means  of  the  electrical  machine,  which  means  that  persons 
possessing  magnetic  power  are  quite  superfluous. 

I  have  hitherto  only  discussed  the  mental  relations  between 
human  beings  and  mineral  magnetism.  But  it  has  been 
asserted  that  certain  special  relations  subsist  between  hypnosis 
and  mineral  magnetism.  I  have  already  spoken  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  magnet  for  inducing  hypnosis  (p.  46),  as  well  as 
of  the  action  of  ihe  hypnoscope  (p.  48).  But  the  magnet  is 
also  said  to  produce  special  effects  during  hypnosis.  The 
phenomena  of  transference  must  first  be  mentioned  here. 
According  to  the  school  of  Charcot,  transference  means  that 
certain  phenomena,  influenced  by  some  aesthesio-genetic 
expedient,  particularly  the  magnet,  change  the  place  of  their 
appearance.  Charcot  says  that  such  phenomena  occur  in 
hysterical  patients.  Thus,  contractures  on  the  right  side  can 
be  transferred  to  the  left,  so  also  can  anaesthesias.  But  most 
experimenters  supposed  that  the  subject's  expectation  pro- 
duced the  effect,  and  not  the  magnet.  They  also  found  that 
sealing-wax,  bones,  etc.,  produced  the  same  result,  provided 
only  that  the  subject  expected  it  (Westphal).  The  school  of 
Charcot  say  that  phenomena  of  transference,  similar  to  those 
observed  in  the  case  of  hystericals,  also  take  place  in  hypnosis. 
Binet  and  Fere  think  they  have  discovered  laws  governing  the 
course  of  the  transference  in  each  particular  hypnotic  state. 
When  lethargy  on  one  side  of  the  body  and  catalepsy  on  the 
other  have  been  induced  by  closing  one  eye,  the  approach  of 
a  magnet  causes  catalepsy  on  the  lethargic  side,  and  on  the 
cataleptic  side  lethargy.  In  the  same  way,  when  the  state  is 
somnambulic  on  one  side  and  cataleptic  or  lethargic  on  the 
other,  the   magnet  causes  transference.     But  also,  in   each 


508  HYPNOTISM. 

particular  hypnotic  state,  symptoms  can  be  transferred  from 
one  side  to  the  other — e.g.y  contractures  in  lethargy,  particular 
postures  of  the  limbs  in  catalepsy,  hallucinations  of  one  side, 
and  hemi-anaesthesias  in  the  somnambulic  state,  etc.,  etc. 
Binet  and  Fer6  say  that  when  hypnotic  subjects  write  with  the 
right  hand,  they  write  with  the  left  hand  under  the  influence 
of  the  magnet,  and  at  the  same  time  reverse  the  direction  of 
the  writing. 

Another  method  of  influencing  hypnotic  subjects  with  the 
magnet  is  called  polarization.  It  is  a  reversal  of  a  functional 
state  (Belfiore).  Binet  and  Ferd  are  the  authors  of  the  experi- 
ments on  polarization,  which  are  confirmed  by  Bianchi  and 
Sommer.  It  is  probable  that  these  are  all  cases  of  unintentional 
suggestion.  It  is  said  that  in  some  cases  the  magnet  resolves 
a  contracture  induced  by  suggestion  (motor  polarization). 
It  can  banish  a  suggested  hallucination,  and  can  change  the 
mental  pictures  of  colours  into  their  complementaries;  if  a 
subject  believes  he  sees  blue,  he  thinks  he  sees  yellow  (sensory 
polarization).  Sometimes  there  is  an  arbitrary  change  in  the 
colour-sensation — for  example,  yellow  changes  into  red ;  this  is 
called  dispolarization  (Lombroso  Ottolenghi).  The  magnet  is 
also  said  to  change  a  happy  frame  of  mind  into  a  sad  one 
(mental  polarization).  A  committee  of  the  Medical  Congress 
at  Padua  was  unable  to  confirm  these  phenomena.  Tanzi  was 
quite  right  in  referring  them  all  to  unintentional  suggestion. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  analogous  assertions  concerning 
matters  which  partially  belong  to  the  domain  of  therapeutics. 
Venturi  and  Ventra  used  mental  polarization  therapeutically, 
and  they  say  they  conquered  a  fixed  idea,  an  auto-suggestion, 
by  applying  the  magnet  in  the  waking  state.  The  reverse  of 
this  has  been  observed.  Raggi  thinks  that  the  approach  of  a 
magnet  in  hypnosis  often  causes  subjective  discomfort.  In 
other  cases  the  magnet  is  said  to  have  put  an  end  to  the 
hypnosis. 

Tamburini  and  Seppilli  state  that  when  a  magnet  is  brought 
close  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach  it  influences  respiratory  move- 
ments in  hypnosis.  Later  on,  Tamburini  and  Righi  found 
that  other  metallic  bodies  produced  the  same  effect;  the 
strength  of  the  effect,  however,  depended  on  the  size  of  the 
piece  of  metal.  The  electro-magnet  is  said  to  have  the  same 
effect  whether  the  current  is  open  or  closed.  For  this  reason 
Tamburini  supposed  later  that  it  is  only  the  temperature  of 


OCCULTISM.  509 

the  metal  which  has  the  effect,  and  that  the  magnetic  force 
may  have  no  influence. 

Lastly,  I  must  mention  Babinski's  and  Luys'  experiments. 
If  a  hypnotized  subject  and  a  sick  person  are  set  back  to  back, 
a  magnet  put  between  them  will  cause  the  sick  person's 
symptoms  to  pass  over  to  the  hypnotized  subject.  Hysterical 
contractures  and  dumbness  have  been  thus  transferred,  as  also 
the  symptoms  of  organic  disease — e.g.y  multiple  sclerosis.  The 
transference  is  said  to  take  place  even  when  the  hypnotic  has 
no  notion  what  the  sick  person's  symptoms  are — />.,  when 
suggestion  is  excluded.  Luys  went  even  farther.  When  he 
places  a  magnet  first  on  a  sick  person's  head  and  then  on 
a  hypnotic's,  the  morbid  symptoms  of  the  first  person  are 
supposed  to  appear  in  the  hypnotized  person. 

In  these  experiments  of  Babinski  and  Luys  we  have  an 
obvious  combination  of  the  phenomena  of  mineral  and  animal 
magnetism.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  such  assumptions  as 
these  have  hardly  ever  been  made  in  recent  times  by  men  who 
must  be  taken  seriously.  We  are,  therefore,  justified  in  now 
assuming  that  the  results  obtained  by  Babinski  and  Luys  in 
those  experiments  were  due  to  suggestion — i,e.^  that  there*  was 
self-deception  on  the  part  of  the  experimenters,  who  at  the 
time  were  not  so  well  acquainted  with  suggestion  as  a  source 
of  error  as  we  are  to-day.  Of  course,  all  this  does  not  prove 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  magnet  to  influence  human  beings. 
Obersteiner  supposes  that  there  may  possibly  be  a  special 
magnetic  sense,  which  may  come  into  activity  with  many 
people  during  hypnosis,  and  which  is,  perhaps,  localized  in 
some  terminal  organs  whose  functions  are  still  unknown. 

I  have  hitherto  discussed  the  influence  of  the  magnet  on 
human  beings,  and  vice  versa,  I  have  mentioned  cases  in 
which  the  magnet  is  said  to  have  influenced  human  beings, 
and  others  in  which  human  beings  are  said  to  have  influenced 
the  magnet  and  also  steel.  To  make  this  summary  complete, 
I  may  further  mention  that  there  are  said  to  be  persons  who 
can  not  only  attract  or  repel  the  magnetic  needle,  but  other 
bodies  as  well,  even  such  as  are  made  of  wood.  This  at  once 
leads  us  into  the  domain  of  spiritism,  whose  adherents  may 
be  divided  into  two  groups:  (i)  spiritists  in  the  narrower  sense, 
persons  who  trace  all  the  supposed  phenomena  to  spirits;  (2) 
the  animists  or  psychicists,  who  assume  that  a  force  which 
emanates  from  the  psyche  of  certain  persons,  the  mediums, 


510  HYPNOTISM. 

is  able  to  make  objects  move,  and  the  like.  Innumerable 
cases  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  in  the  literature  of  the 
subject.  But  I  have  never  seen  anything  of  the  sort  happen 
when  the  strictest  conditions  were  enforced.  Everything  that 
I  have  seen  in  this  domain — e.g.,  in  the  case  of  Eusapia  Palla- 
dino,  was  undoubtedly  the  result  of  purely  mechanical  action, 
and,  therefore,  I  can  only  deeply  regret  that  a  man  of  science 
like  Lombroso  should  have  let  himself  be  victimized  by  the 
frauds  which  such  persons  perpetrate. 

The  following  was  recently  told  me  of  a  medium  in  Berlin, 
a  youth  of  sixteen,  who  is  supposed  to  possess  special  magnetic 
powers: — Objects  hang  on  to  his  fingers  when  he  has  mag- 
netized them;  sticks  and  other  objects  remain  in  an  oblique 
position  in  spite  of  gravity,  because  of  his  magnetism.  I  was 
allowed  to  take  this  medium  in  hand,  and  the  results  were  very 
different.  It  is  quite  true  that  plates  and  ash-trays  stuck  to 
his  fingers,  and  that  sticks  apparently  disobeyed  the  laws  of 
gravity.  But  nothing  of  the  kind  happened  when  I  took  the 
precaution  of  dressing  the  young  man  in  a  long  coat  and 
covering  the  objects  with  a  cloth  so  as  to  cut  off  all  connection 
with  them.  The  medium  certainly  stated  he  was  not  accus- 
tomed to  that  sort  of  thing,  and  that  his  magnetism  did  not 
suffice  to  overcome  such  obstacles.  But  the  magnetizer  was 
unable  to  sustain  his  explanation  when  I  produced  the  string 
that  ran  from  the  leg  of  one  of  his  stockings  to  the  other.  He 
admitted  the  fraud,  said  it  was  the  first  time  he  had  been 
caught,  and  left  our  "circle." 

The  phenomena  of  supersensual  thought-transference,  sug- 
gestion  mentale,  or,  as  Mayerhofer  fittingly  calls  it,  telaesthesia, 
are  closely  related  to  animal  magnetism.  Telepathy  means 
the  transference  of  thoughts,  feelings,  sensations,  etc.,  from  a 
person  A.  to  a  person  B.  by  some  means  other  than  the 
recognized  sense-perceptions  of  B.  (Consequently  such  thought- 
reading  is  excluded  in  which,  as  described  on  page  62,  one 
person  guesses  the  thought  of  another  by  means  of  the  tremors 
in  his  muscles — i.e.,  by  a  recognized  kind  of  perception).  B. 
is  to  feel  A.'s  sense-perceptions;  if  A.  is  pricked  B.  feels  it;  if 
A.  tastes  salt,  B.  tastes  it.  It  is  also  said  that  A.  can  make  B. 
act,  merely  by  concentrating  his  thoughts  on  what  B.  is  to  do. 
Others  think  that  it  is  the  concentration  of  A.'s  will  on  B. 
which  causes  the  action.  Perronnet  even  maintains  that  it  is 
possible  to  influence  the  pulse  and  cause  vasomotor  changes 


OCCULTISM.  511 

telepathically  by  an  effort  of  will.  Numerous  experiments  have 
been  made  in  this  way — for  instance,  in  guessing  numbers. 
The  agent  A.  concentrates  his  thoughts  on  a  number  which 
the  subject  B.  is  to  find  out.  In  many  cases  the  number  is 
written  down  and  A.  gazes  at  it,  concentrating  his  thoughts  the 
while.  Or  the  same  sort  of  thing  is  done  with  cards.  A.  picks 
out  any  card  he  chooses,  looks  at  it  earnestly,  and  B.  then  has 
to  name  it.  A  further  series  of  experiments  deals  with  move- 
ments. A.  makes  a  movement,  or  thinks  of  one  which  B.  is 
to  carry  out.  Telepathic  experiments  are  also  very  frequently 
made  with  drawings.  A.  makes  a  drawing,  or  concentrates  his 
thoughts  on  a  particular  one,  such,  for  instance,  as  of  a  circle, 
a  square,  or  a  human  being,  and  B.  then  has  to  execute  a 
drawing  of  the  same. 

In  many  of  the  experiments  in  thought-transference  the 
passive  party — i.e.,  the  recipient — was  first  of  all  hypnotized,  as 
this  is  supposed  tp  make  the  transference  easier.  But  experi- 
ments have  also  been  made  when  both  persons  were  quite 
awake,  by  Guthrie,  for  example.  Sometimes,  also,  both  were 
hypnotized.  We  can  understand  that  the  recipient  being  in 
hypnosis  largely  increases  the  number  of  successes,  because  a 
hypnotic  has  a  much  greater  tendency  to  pay  attention  to 
the  smallest  sign  made  by  the  experimenter,  than  a  person 
who  is  awake  has.  But  it  is  just  in  this  that  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  error  lies,  because  what  in  reality  depends  on  the 
influence  produced  by  such  insignificant  signs  is  very  often 
taken  to  be  the  result  of  telepathic  influence. 

Telepathy  is  to  an  extent  connected  with  animal  magnetism, 
some  magnetizers  seeing  in  it  a  proof  of  the  existence  of 
animal  magnetism.  But  there  is  still  another  connection 
between  the  two,  to  which  Ochorowicz,  in  particular,  has  drawn 
attention.  The  mesmerizing  of  B.,  who  has  to  find  out  the 
thought,  by  A.,  who  transfers  it,  is  said  to  have  a  successful  result 
essentially,  and  more  particularly  when  B.  falls  into  a  magnetic 
sleep. 

This  is  jocularly,  though  perhaps  somewhat  drastically,  described  in 
Pudenda^  Leipzig,  1817: — **You  know  from  the  writings  of  Gmelin, 
Wienholt,  and  Kluge,  that  when  a  magnetizer  puts  pepper  or  salt  in  his 
mouth,  his  clairvoyante  makes  a  grimace,  but  gives  signs  of  gratification 
when  he  drinks  good  wine ;  further,  that  when  he  pricks  himself,  she  feels 
it  in  the  same  part  of  her  body;  when  he  has  diarrhoea,  she  gets  an  attack 
of  it.     Why,  there  is  even  the  case  of  the  lady,  who,  although  only  in 


512  HYPNOTISM. 

natural  rapport  with  her  married  sister»  felt  a  sensation  in  her  nipples  when 
her  sister  was  suckling  her  child."  Probably  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  whole  subject  appear  ridiculous,  the  author  of  the  article  further  states 
that  he  also  practised  magnetism  on  a  well-behaved  young  girl  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  She  was  extraordinarily  virtuous,  and  so  was  he.  Yet 
when  he  kissed  his  wife,  his  clairvoyante  felt  the  kisses  energetically,  and, 
finally,  when  his  wife  was  confined,  the  girl  suffered  from  severe  pains 
because  he  had  put  the  two  women  en  rapport.  Conversely,  it  is  some- 
times asserted  that  the  magnetizer's  magnetism  renders  him  clairvoyant  in 
jespect  to  disease  in  others,  or  makes  him  feel  the  disease  himself  He 
then  feels  the  pain  in  the  same  place  as  the  patient,  without  the  latter 
telling  him  where.  In  the  law  case  which  has  already  been  mentioned, 
the  magnetizer  declared,  for  instance,  that  when  a  patient  was  suffering 
from  liver  trouble,  he,  the  magnetizer,  also  felt  pains  in  his  liver,  upon 
which  a  specialist  asked  him  whereabouts  he  would  feel  the  pain  when  he 
was  trying  to  diagnose  the  case  of  a  woman  suffering  from  a  disease  of  the 
womb.  It  is  always  a  .very  good  thing  to  consider  what  the  consequences 
of  any  particular  assumption  may  be;  for,  when  the  consequences  are 
absurd,  one's  distrust  in  the  accuracy  of  the  assumption  is,  of  course, 
particularly  strengthened. 


The  transference  of  thought  is  usually  said  to  be  brought 
about  by  A.  firmly  concentrating  his  mind  on  the  thought  to 
be  transferred.  The  nearer  A.  is  to  B.  the  better,  but  the 
phenomena  are  also  said  to  have  been  observed  when  subject 
and  agent  were  separated  by  several  kilometres.  It  is  said  to 
be  even  possible  to  hypnotize  certain  people  at  great  distances 
by  concentration  of  thought;  such  experiments  are  said  to  have 
succeeded  at  Havre. 

The  supposed  revelations  of  dying  people  are  also  often 
referred  to  some  such  action  at  a  distance.  It  is  reported 
that  dying  people,  at  the  moment  of  death,  or  just  before, 
it,  appear  to  some  near  relative  or  friend  who  is  far  away. 
Adherents  of  telepathy  refer  this  to  some  such  mental  action 
at  a  distance  being  facilitated  by  the  dying  person's  intense 
thoughts  of  loved  ones  who  are  away  from  him.  The  English 
Society  for  Psychical  Research  has  studied  this  domain 
thoroughly.  The  Society  made  an  inquiry  as  to  the  frequency 
of  hallucinations  in  the  waking  state  (the  appearance  of  some 
particular  person),  and  also,  in  a  second  question,  asked 
whether  the  waking  hallucination  corresponded  in  point  of 
time  with  the  death  of  the  person  who  appeared  in  the  vision. 
The  English  investigators  endeavoured  to  meet  the  objection 
that  the  events  of  a  waking  hallucination  are  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  visible  processes  accompanying  death,  by  comparing 


OCCULTISM.  513 

the  numerical  results  provided  by  the  answers  to  the  two 
questions,  so  as  to  ascertain  the  probability  of  the  waking 
hallucination  coinciding  with  the  death  of  the  person  supposed 
to  be  seen  in  the  vision.  The  inquiry  showed  that  the  number 
was  much  too  small  to  admit  of  any  coincidence  being 
accepted. 

Parish,  however,  has  criticized  all  the  available  material,  and 
thinks  that  all  the  results  admit  of  a  different  explanation. 
The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  retroactive  hallucination. 
As  soon  as  the  news  of  a  death  is  communicated  fo  a  person, 
he  thinks  he  has  had  a  vision  of  the  event.  But  the  second 
objection,  the  adaptability  of  the  memory,  is  much  more 
important.  Supposing  a  person  has  a  hallucinatory  perception 
of  an  event  at  the  time  of  its  occurrence,  his  memory  will  later 
on  retain  the  hallucination  as  though  it  were  the  recollection 
of  something  really  experienced.  A  third  objection  is  raised 
by  Parish — he  thinks  that  there  is  no  question  of  waking 
hallucinations,  but  that  we  have,  rather,  in  many  cases  to  deal 
with  the  phenomena  of  a  dream-state  in  which  the  memory  is 
much  less  clear.  Finally,  he  opines  that  the  waking  hallucina- 
tions are  sometimes  called  up  by  circumstances  which  have 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  death  of  a  person  who  is  far 
away.  There  might  have  been  factors  which  led  to  the 
hallucination  in  some  way  or  other.  It  is  often  very  difficult  to 
discover  how  the  hallucination  came  about.  But  it  is 
extremely  dangerous  to  assume  straightway  that  such  an 
event  as  a  death  at  a  distance  is  a  cause,  instead  of  proving 
that  no  other  contributory  causes  have  been  at  work. 

I  have  just  explained  that  Parish  has  criticized  the 
spontaneous  occurrence  of  the  perception  of  things  distant,  as 
far  as  the  large  amount  of  material  at  his  disposal  permitted. 
Against  this  criticism,  we  can  hardly  oppose  the  reports  that 
occasionally  reach  us  of  cases  which  tell  in  favour  of  such 
action  at  a  distance,  and  in  which  not  only  dying  persons  are 
concerned  but  other  important  events,  such  as  serious  injuries, 
as  well.  The  only  cases  demanding  earnest  consideration  are 
those  in  which  the  person  concerned  has  written  down  the 
nature  of  the  phenomenon.  In  such  cases  there  would  be  no 
question  of  delusion  or  adaptation  of  memory.  Still,  the  last 
of  the  sources  of  error  mentioned  by  Parish  would  have  to  be 
considered.  Isolated  cases  of  this  kind,  in  which  all  that 
happened  was  put  down  in  writing  at  the  time,  have  been 

33 


514  HYPNOTISM. 

reported  to  me.  Thus,  a  Mr.  X.  who  lived  in  America  wrote 
to  me  as  follows : — "One  day  when  I  was  half  asleep,  I  seemed 
to  see  my  father,  who  appeared  rather  *  elevated,'  come  round 
the  corner  of  a  house  I  did  not  know,  and  walk  across  the 
courtyard ;  I  saw  him  slip  on  a  large  flat  stone  at  the  foot  of 
the  stack-pipe  leading  from  the  gutter  attached  to  the  roof,  and 
he  lay  there  with  the  blood  streaming  from  him  over  the 
stone."  As  X.  recognized  the  second  face,  he  at  once  wrote 
down  all  he  had  seen  in  his  notebook,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
verify  the  day  and  hour  later  on.  When  he  saw  his  relatives  in 
Europe  a  year  later  and  visited  his  parents'  new  home,  he  went 
into  the  courtyard,  and  *^  there  I  saw  the  stone  exactly  as  I 
had  seen  it  in  my  dream.  I  at  once  called  my  mother,  pointed 
out  the  stone,  and  told  her  what  had  happened.  As  it  had 
been  intended  to  keep  the  accident  a  secret  from  me,  she 
asked  who  had  told  me  about  it.  I  told  her  what  I  knew,  and 
showed  her  the  entry  in  my  notebook.  The  hour  given  in  my 
note  was  perfectly  correct — /.^.,  after  making  due  allowance  for 
W.  longitude.  On  the  day  in  question,  my  father  had 
completed  a  large  business  transaction  for  a  capitalist,  and  the 
latter  had  passed  the  bottle  freely,  making  my  father  drink  more 
wine  than  he  wanted  to."  The  man  who  told  me  this  thought 
his  father  had  never  been  drunk  on  any  other  occasion.  He 
did  not  think  the  coincidence  accidental.  In  spite  of  this 
detailed  communication — I  have  received  others  of  a  similar 
nature — I  must  add  that  in  this  case,  particularly,  the  fourth  of 
the  sources  of  error  mentioned  by  Parish  is  not  excluded.  At 
all  events,  any  one  who  does  not  wish  to  be  lost  in  a  maze  of 
miracles,  must  carefully  consider  these  sources  of  error  when 
dealing  with  such  statements  as  are  occasionally  made. 

As  we  see,  the  cases  of  thought-transference  that  have  been 
observed  fall  into  two  groups — the  spontaneous,  which  I  have 
just  noticed,  and  the  experimental,  which  I  mentioned  first  of 
all.  Those  produced  experimentally  do  not  call  for  any  serious 
criticism.  All  that  Du  Prel,  Mensi,  Welsch,  and  many  others 
have  published  on  this  hardly  requires  even  moderate  criticism. 
Among  those  who  vouch  for  the  reality  of  telepathy  I  mention 
Charles  Riebet,  Ochorowicz,  Pierre  Janet,  Gibert,  F.  Myers,  A. 
Myers,  Gurney,  Lombroso,  Birchall,  Guthrie,  Eeden,  Glardon, 
Schrenck-Notzing.  I  had  an  opportunity  of  being  present  at 
Mrs.  Sidgwick's  very  neat  experiments  at  Brighton.  Two 
persons  were  in  the  hypnotic  condition,  and  one  had  to 


OCCULTLSM.  515 

indicate  a  number  thought  of  by  the  other.  The  proportion 
of  correct  answers  was  extremely  large.  As,  however,  the  two 
persons  experimented  on,  though  separated  by  a  folding  screen, 
were  somewhat  near  together,  the  experiments  were  not 
conclusive.  Mrs.  Sidgwick  admitted  the  justice  of  this 
criticism.  Also  the  experiments  made  by  the  other  persons  I 
have  mentioned  do  not  stand  serious  criticism.  My  own  experi- 
ments, especially  those  I  made  some  years  ago  in  conjunction 
with  Max  Dessoir,  only  gave  negative  results  when  the 
necessary  precautions  were  taken.  Still,  I  agree  with  Loewen- 
feld  that  we  cannot  deny  the  possibility  of  there  being  such  a 
thing  as  telepathy,  or  at  least  the  possibility  of  their  being  ways 
of  influencing  others  about  which  we  know  nothing  in  the 
present  day.  But  up  to  the  present  no  proof  of  this  has  been 
forthcoming. 

I  intend,  in  conclusion,  to  give  all  the  sources  of  error  to 
which  occultism  is  liable,  in  a  connected  form,  but  here  I  will 
just  mention  a  principal  source  of  error  in  connection  with 
thought-reading,  which  is  not  invariably  properly  considered, 
to  wit,  involuntary  unconscious  or  subconscious  signals.  I 
discussed  thought-reading  on  page  63,  where  I  mentioned  that 
steadfast  concentration  of  the  thoughts  on  an  object  or  a 
place  causes  muscular  contractions  that  guide  the  subject  to 
the  place  where  the  object  is.  In  any  case,  it  is  a  fact  that 
steadfast  concentration  of  thought  sets  up  involuntary,  and 
for  the  most  part  unconscious  movements,  that  are  often  so 
slight  that  they  can  only  be  detected  by  means  of  very  fine 
instruments,  as,  for  example,  P'reyer,  Riebet,  and  Sommer  have 
stated.  These  very  slight  movements  are  often  tactually 
perceptible  without  being  visible.  It  also  frequently  happens 
that  certain  persons  can  see  them  while  others  cannot.  A 
certain  amount  of  practice,  perhaps  also  a  special  capacity, 
enables  some  persons  to  perceive  signs  that  are  so  slight  that 
others  overlook  them.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with 
hypnotics;  their  whole  attention  is  so  fixed — possibly  sub- 
consciously— on  these  signs,  that  they  are  able  to  perceive 
signs  of  the  existence  of  which  the  spectators  have  no  notion. 
The  signs  can  be  made  in  ways  that  differ  very  considerably. 
One  is  inclined  to  look  at  an  object  which  one  is  thinking  of 
steadfastly.  Any  one  who  has  drawn  a  card  and  looks  at  it 
hard,  is  inclined  to  make  some  corresponding  movement  with 
his  lips.     Strieker  mentioned  in  his  work,  De  la  Parole  et  des 


5l6  HYPNOTISM. 

Sons  intirieurs^  an  articulation  faibie  si  peu  perceptible  que  nous 
ne  la  retnarquons  pas  d^kabitude.  It  is  from  such  movements 
that  A.,  provided  he  has  had  practice,  can  sometimes  guess  the 
card  that  has  been  drawn,  because,  for  example,  B.  who  has 
drawn  the  queen  of  spades  moves  his  lips  as  though  he  were 
going  to  say  queen  of  spades.  The  subject  sometimes  even 
whispers  gently,  as  Lehmann  and  Hansen  have  pointed  out. 
Similarly,  adequate  movements  are  also  made  with  other  parts 
of  the  body.  When  anybody  thinks  steadfastly  of  a  number 
he  is  inclined  to  make  the  necessary  movements  with  his 
fingers  for  writing  down  that  number.  I  mentioned  when 
dealing  with  thought-reading  that  other  muscles  occasionally 
participate  in  such  movements.  The  whole  body  is  impelled 
towards  the  object  of  which  the  person  is  thinking  (Tarchanoflf). 

Sometimes  the  signals  given  are  somewhat  different.  We 
may  observe  in  cases  of  thought-reading,  that  when  the  reader 
is  taking  a  wrong  direction  the  person  who  is  concentrating 
his  thoughts,  or  often  some  one  else  who  is  present,  will 
involuntarily  give  a  sign  that  at  once  tells  the  practised  thought- 
reader  that  he  is  on  the  wrong  tack.  A  loud  breath,  for 
example,  will  do  this.  A  rapid  and  distinctly  audible  inspiration 
will  very  often  tell  the  thought-reader  that  he  is  making  a 
mistake.  Also,  two  Italian  authors,  Guicciardi  and  Ferrari, 
have,  as  Gley  informs  us,  ascribed  an  important  part  to  changes 
in  respiration  during  experiments  in  thought-transference. 
In  other  cases  some  rougher  movement  of  the  body  is  noticed 
by  the  thought-reader  if  his  eyes  are  not  bandaged ;  but  it  may 
quite  well  be  audible. 

In  any  case,  the  movements  just  described  guide  the 
thought-reader  in  the  right  direction,  and  this  may,  indeed, 
occur  even  when  he  is  not  touching  the  person  who  is 
concentrating  his  thoughts.  Now,  as  a  rule  the  thought-reader 
generally  has  his  eyes  bandaged.  As  we  saw  on  page  63, 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  thought-reader  should  be  able 
to  see  when  he  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  subject,  be- 
cause such  direct  contact  enables  him  to  feel  the  movements 
that  are  made.  But,  since  the  involuntary  movements  just 
described  are  also  audible,  we  can  understand  that  the  thought- 
reader  can  solve  the  problem  that  is  set  him  correctly  even 
when  his  eyes  are  bandaged  and  he  is  not  in  direct  contact 
with  the  subject  experimented  on.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a 
whole  series  of  cases  has  occurred  in  which  thought-reading 


OCCULTISM.  517 


k« 


was  accomplished  although  the  reader's  eyes  were  bandaged 
and  he  was  not  in  contact  with  the  subject.  Consequently, 
such  a  case  is  not  necessarily  an  instance  of  telepathy,  although 
uncritical  experimenters  would  probably  ascribe  it  thereto. 
It  is  very  much  like  the  game  of  hide-and-seek  which  most  of 
my  readers  probably  played  when  they  were  children.  One  of 
a  number  of  children  is  sent  to  a  distance  while  the  others  hide 
something.  The  child  sent  away  is  then  recalled  and  told  to 
find  the  hidden  object ;  so  long  as  the  child  is  far  off  the  object 
it  is  looking  for  the  others  cry  out,  "  cold,"  when  it  gets  nearer, 
"warm,"  and  when  quite  close  to  it,  "hot."  Just  in  the  same 
way  the  thought-reader,  even  when  his  eyes  are  bandaged  and 
he  is  not  in  contact  with  the  person  experimented  on,  finds 
out  whether  he  is  performing  his  task  correctly  or  not.  He 
can  tell  from  the  sighs  and  changes  in  the  respiration  of  his 
audience,  and  also  from  other  signs,  whether  he  is  going  in  the 
right  direction  or  not. 

It  is  possible  that  with  certain  people  tactual  sensibility 
plays  a  special  part — at  least  in  some  of  the  cases.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  thought-reader  finds  himself  quite  close 
to  the  person  who  is  concentrating  his  thoughts,  and  that  the 
latter  stretches  out  his  hand  while  the  thought-reader's  is  close 
to  his  hand  or  arm.  Now,  supposing  the  subject  makes  some 
movement  with  his  hand  or  whole  body  in  the  direction  of  the 
object  to  be  discovered — it  is  easy  enough  to  show  that  such 
movements  may  be  considerable — and  supposing  the  thought- 
reader  possesses  a  very  fine  sense  of  temperature,  then  we  can 
readily  understand  that  the  thought-reader's  hand  should  tell 
him  the  direction  in  which  the  movements  are  being  made. 
The  amount  of  resistance  offered  by  the  air  may  also  have 
something  to  do  with  this.  There  are  persons  who  are  quite 
able  to  perceive  in  the  dark  whether  they  are  near  a  wall  or 
any  other  solid  substance.  The  resistance  of  the  air  to 
movements  is  different  near  a  wall  to  what  it  is  in  the  middle 
of  a  room  (cf.  p.  99).  Consequently,  it  is  possible  for  the 
thought-reader  to  tell  from  the  resistance  of  the  air  the  direction 
in  which  the  subject's  hand  is  moving,  and  this  fact  helps  him 
to  solve  the  problem  that  has  been  set  him.  Nevertheless,  it 
is  probable  that  less  weight  should  be  laid  on  this  circumstance 
than  on  perception  by  means  of  the  sense  of  hearing. 

Lively  discussions  have  recently  taken  place  as  to  whether 
the  blind  possess  a  special  sense  or  not.     One  author,  Ludwig 


5l8  HYPNOTISM. 

Cohn,  who  is  himself  blind,  has  asserted  that  such  is  the  case; 
while  Brandstaeter,  an  instructor  of  the  blind,  has  denied  its 
existence.  A  special  point  that  has  been  raised  in  this  dis- 
cussion is  how  it  comes  about  that  the  blind  are  quite  able  to 
orientate,  or  take  their  bearings  as  to  the  position  of  things 
about  them,  either  in  a  room  or  in  the  street :  they  can  even 
distinguish  whether  they  are  close  to  a  wall  or  not.  Some 
ascribe  this  to  the  sensation  produced  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  differs  when  the  surrounding  space  is  clear 
from  what  it  would  be  in  the  proximity  of  a  wall.  At  all 
events,  the  sensibility  may  be  so  delicate  that  a  blind  person 
shut  in  a  room  can  tell  the  size  of  it  or  the  position  of  the 
furniture  in  it  without  touching  anything.  Opinions  differ  as 
to  whether  normal  individuals  can  accomplish  as  much. 
Important  authorities,  Zell  and  Hauptvogel,  for  example,  have 
answered  this  question  in  the  affirmative.  We  will  certainly 
take  this  source  of  error  into  consideration  in  all  cases  of 
telepathy  and  also  of  clairvoyance. 

Benoit's  supposition  that  delicacy  of  the  sense  of  smell  is  of  importance 
in  thought-reading  seems  to  me  more  than  problematical.  Wernicke,  who 
is  a  very  objective  investigator,  has  expressed  a  similar  view  to  Benoit's, 
but  with  all  reserve.  He  thinks  that  concentration  of  the  will,  coupled 
with  a  cheery  expectation  that  the  experiment  will  succeed,  or  a  depressing 
feeling  that  it  will  fail,  may,  so  to  speak,  bring  about  a  change  in  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  the  hypnotizer  and  thereby  act  indirectly  on  the 
subject's  extremely  delicate  sense  of  smell.  Consequently,  it  might  be 
possible  for  the  subject  to  detect  from  some  change  in  the  sensation  of 
smell  the  direction  in  which  the  experimenter's  will  is  working,  and  to  act 
accordingly.  Wernicke  therefore  proposed  that  experiments  should  be 
made  with  experimenter  and  subject  separated  by  a  glass-plate  so  as  to 
exclude  the  possibility  of  the  sense  of  smell  being  affected. 

I  have  discussed  these  sources  of  error  in  some  detail, 
because  their  importance  is  so  frequently  underrated.  At  all 
events,  let  us  firmly  bear  in  mind  that  the  possibility  of 
recognized  sense-impressions  leading  to  the  correct  solution  of 
a  problem  is  far  greater  than  superficial  observation  would  lead 
us  to  imagine.  Thus,  some  persons  think  that  when  the  subject 
is  blindfolded  and  is  not  in  contact  with  the  experimenter, 
supersensual  thought-transference  takes  place,  whereas,  as  I 
have  just  explained,  there  are  numerous  other  sources  of 
perception  besides  whispering.  Consequently,  it  would  be 
very  rash  to  conclude  that   such   experiments   establish    the 


OCCULTISM.  519 

existence  of  supersensual  thought-transference,  or  that  the  latter 
in  any  way  supports  the  theory  of  animal  magnetism. 

It  is  also  on  these  grounds  that  I  have  already  mentioned  that  Scheibler 
could  not  prove  the  existence  of  animal  magnetism.  Herr  Scheibler 
pretended  he  could  do  so  by  means  of  thought-transference.  The  experi- 
ments were  carried  out  as  in  ordinary  thought-reading.  Not  only  was 
Scheibler  blindfolded,  bat  he  was  also  not  allowed  to  touch  the  subject 
experimented  on.  Scheibler  left  the  room,  and  it  was  arranged  during  his 
absence  what  he  was  to  do — for  example,  to  fetch  a  book  from  the  table 
and  put  it  on  a  chair.  Scheibler  was  then  brought  in  blindfolded,  and  his 
friend  A.  was  told  to  think  steadfastly  of  the  allotted  task.  Scheibler  did 
not  touch  A.,  but  the  latter's  hand  was  quite  close  to  him.  As  it  turned 
out,  Scheibler  certainly  did  sometimes  perform  the  task  set  him  correctly, 
though,  as  a  rule,  only  after  some  failures. 

Carefully  conducted  controlling  experiments  showed  that  the  successes 
were  not  due  to  any  magnetic  or  unknown  power.  Directly  Scheibler  was 
made  to  wear  gloves,  and  had  his  ears  stopped  as  well  as  his  eyes  bandaged, 
the  experiments  failed.  From  this  it  follows,  at  all  events,  that  the 
experiments  did  not  prove  successful  when  the  recognized  sense-impressions 
were  excluded.  I  think  it  probable  that  auditory  impressions  were 
responsible  for  the  successful  cases.  Any  one  who  has  the  opportunity  for 
making  or  seeing  such  experiments,  and  who  at  the  same  time  carefully 
watches  the  spectators,  will  be  astonished  to  find  how  distinct  and  loud  the 
sounds  sometimes  are,  that  the  uncritical  occultists  consider  excluded. 

I  have  here  intentionally  discussed  but  one  source  of  error 
in  telepathy ;  I  shall  come  to  the  others  later  on.  I  will  only 
further  remark,  that  the  exclusion  of  one  source  of  error  alone 
is  never  sufficient.  On  the  contrary,  all  sources  of  error  must 
be  excluded  if  we  are  to  arrive  at  an  unimpeachable  conclusion. 

I  now  come  to  clairvoyance,  which  is  the  perception  of 
things  distant  in  time  or  space.  In  the  former,  forthcoming 
events  are  foretold,  or  past  ones,  about  which  the  clairvoyant 
could  have  learned  nothing  by  normal  means,  recounted;  in 
the  latter,  things  are  seen  which  are  so  placed  in  space  as  to  be 
invisible — />.,  they  are  either  separated  from  the  clairvoyant  by 
some  non-transparent  substance,  or  they  are  too  far  off  to  be 
seen.     The  somnambulic  state  ^  induced  by  magnetizing  is 

^  The  magnetic  states  in  which  such  phenomena  as  clairvoyance,  thoucht> 
transference,  etc.,  occur,  are  specially  called  somnambulia  by  mesmerists. 
Consequently  the  word  somnambulia  is  used  in  several  senses :  t.  One  of 
Charcot's  stages  is  often  called  somnambulia  {cf»  p.  81);  2.  The  Nancy 
school  calls  that  state  somnambulia  in  which  there  is  loss  of  memory  after 
waking ;  3.  Some  identify  hypnotism  with  somnambulia ;  4.  Somnambulia 
is  a  sleep  in  which  there  are  actions  and  movements  (p.  184) ;  5.  The 
mesmeric  state  described  above  is  called  somnambulia. 


520  HYPNOTISM. 

said  to  favour  clairvoyance.  For  a  long  time  clairvoyant 
somnambulia  was  a  special  profession,  and  is  so  to  the  present 
in  many  towns.  The  belief  in  clairvoyance  goes  back  as  far  as 
history ;  1  need  only  refer  to  the  Bible  and  the  Greek  Oracles. 
It  seems  that  the  state  of  the  Pythia  was  like  a  hypnosis, 
although  toxic  methods  were  probably  also  used.  Kluge,  £d. 
von  Hartmann,  and  others,  think  that  the  state  was  somnam- 
bulia. It  was  the  same  thing  with  the  Sibyl  of  Cumae.  Other 
phenomena  of  antiquity  must  also  be  included  here — for 
example,  the  reports  of  Apuleius  about  the  prophesying  of 
boys;  as  well  as  many  phenomena  reported  in  recent  times 
from  various  countries.  Stecker  tells  us  that  in  the  camp  of 
King  John  of  Abyssinia,  1882,  a  boy  in  an  apparently 
somnambulic    condition    was   employed    to  discover   a   thief 

(C^  P-  3)- 

When  animal  magnetism  blossomed  forth  at  the  end  of  the 

eighteenth  century,  clairvoyance  became  more  and  more 
associated  with  it.  It  is  not  certain  whether  Mesmer  himself 
believed  in  clairvoyance ;  but  it  would  appear  from  one  of  his 
letters,  published  by  Du  Potet,  that  he  did,  but  did  not  go 
deeply  into  the  question.  The  numerous  scientific  commissions 
which  have  investigated  clairvoyance  have  failed  to  establish 
the  occurrence  of  the  phenomena.  Nevertheless,  many  people 
had  a  lasting  belief  in  it,  especially  philosophers — Schopenhauer, 
for  instance.  Even  Braid,  about  whose  views  there  are  so 
many  mistaken  opinions,  believed  in  clairvoyance,  at  all  events 
at  first.  There  is  a  passage  in  his  Neurypnology  (p.  22), 
which  I  can  interpret  in  no  other  way.  Braid  thought  clair- 
voyance proved,  though  he  had  never  seen  it  and  could  not 
induce  it  himself;  but  he  thought  that  a  number  of  those  who 
vouched  for  its  reality  were  scientific  and  truth-loving  enough 
to  be  believed. 

Gilles  de  la  Tourette  has  given  a  number  of  details  con- 
cerning the  treatment  of  the  sick  through  the  agency  of  Parisian 
somnambulists  in  his  work  on  the  forensic  importance  of 
hypnotism.  However,  it  is  not  to  be  imagined  that  such  things 
only  occur  in  Paris.  Hirschlaif  tells  of  a  magnetopath  in 
Berlin,  who  employed  a  somnambulist,  and  I  have  not  the 
least  doubt  that  the  same  thing  is  done  in  many  other  German 
towns.  A  Bavarian  medical  ofiicial,  Wetzler,  who  thought  he 
was  suffering  from  rheumatism,  treated  himself  with  medicines 
ordered  by  a  somnambulist.     A  man  named  Jost,  who  had 


OCCULTISM.  521 

formerly  been  a  tailor,  while  in  a  state  of  assumed  hypnosis 
prescribed  cures  for  hundreds  of  sick  people.  On  the  testimony 
of  the  medical  expert,  Fürstner,  he  was  tried  and  condemned 
for  fraud  and  simulated  hypnosis. 

Somnambulists  are,  moreover,  also  made  use  of  to  diagnose 
their  own  disease,  predict  its  course,  and  indicate  the  necessary 
remedies.  When  a  somnambulist  describes  the  appearance  of 
his  own  internal  organs,  he  usually  does  so  in  such  vague, 
general  terms,  that  his  statements  are  not  worth  the  trouble  it 
would  take  one  to  substantiate  or  disprove  them.  But  the 
foretold  onset  of  morbid  symptoms  occurs  with  extreme 
punctuality.  I  remember  being  called  to  a  lady  who  often 
suffered  from  attacks  of  hysteria.  When  I  visited  her,  she 
declared  that  a  voice  had  told  her  that  the  last  attack  would 
occur  the  following  night.  A  colleague  and  I  advised  her  to 
refrain  from  taking  any  further  measures  to  combat  the  attacks, 
as  the  prophecy  would  possibly  be  fulfilled;  and  it  was.  The 
most  natural  explanation — and  one  based  on  our  present-day 
knowledge — is,  that  the  patient  caused  the  onset  or  cessation 
of  certain  morbid  symptoms  by  auto-suggestion,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  prophecy  proved  correct.  Here  there  are, 
perhaps,  other  circumstances  to  be  taken  into  consideration  as 
well.  F.  Myers  pointed  out  the  importance  of  the  secondary 
ego.  He  thought  that  the  latter  obviously  possessed  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  organism,  and  could  consequently  make  a 
more  reliable  diagnosis  than  the  primary  ego.  He  also  thought 
that  auto-suggestion  would  account  for  the  prediction  of  the 
course  of  a  disease;  indeed,  he  even  considered  that  death 
might  be  caused  by  auto-suggestion,  the  patient  becoming  so 
anxious  and  depressed  from  the  auto-suggestion  of  approaching 
death  as  to  cause  his  vitality  to  fail  gradually.  But  in  his 
opinion  real  cognition  of  the  secondary  ego  was  of  far  greater 
importance.  We  know  of  something  analogous  in  dreams. 
As  far  back  as  1866,  Liebeault  pointed  out  that  many  morbid 
symptoms  give  warning  of  their  approach  in  dreams.  I  will 
give  a  few  instances  of  this  from  my  own  practice.  A  lady 
dreamed  she  was  suffering  from  severe  toothache.  In  the  day- 
time she  was  free  from  pain,  and  nothing  could  be  discovered 
the  matter  with  her  teeth,  A  few  days  later  one  of  her  teeth 
was  found  to  be  diseased.  Again,  a  gentleman  of  my  acquaint- 
ance frequently  complained  of  dreams  in  which  he  suffered 
from  pains  on  the  right  side  of  his  chest.     On  one  occasion  he 


522  HYPNOTISM. 

dreamed  be  was  fighting  with  burglars,  one  of  whom  struck 
him  on  the  chest  with  a  hammer.  During  this  period  he  also 
dreamed  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  A  good  many  days 
later  he  had  symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  pleura  on  the 
right  side.     Ribot  has  reported  similar  cases. 

Those  diagnoses  which  are  made  from  objects  belonging  to 
sick  persons  or,  more  especially,  from  their  hair,  also  belong 
to  the  domain  of  clairvoyance.  Many  years  ago,  in  conjunction 
with  Max  Dessoir,  I  made  a  whole  series  of  experiments  with 
a  woman  who  at  the  time  had  a  great  reputation  in  Berlin  for 
making  such  diagnoses  by  means  of  patients'  hair.  The  in- 
vestigation proved  a  complete  failure.  Not  one  single  disease 
was  correctly  diagnosed,  and  the  number  of  cases  in  which 
such  details  as  age,  sex,  etc.,  were  correctly  given  did  not 
exceed  the  numerical  value  of  the  probability  of  chance 
success.  I  have  given  the  results  of  these  experiments  in  my 
work.  Über  den  Rapport  in  der  Hypnose,  In  a  number  of 
other  cases  in  which  I  succeeded  in  getting  to  the  bottom  of 
the  matter  the  diagnosis  invariably  turned  out  to  be  incorrect. 
A  Dutch  woman  also,  who  was  said  to  be  able  to  diagnose 
diseases  from  patients'  hair,  made  a  wrong  diagnosis  in  a  case 
that  was  carefully  controlled.  I  observed  the  same  thing  in 
the  case  of  a  man  in  Germany,  who  had  a  reputation  for  diag- 
nosing diseases  from  objects  belonging  to  patients.  He  also 
failed  utterly  in  his  attempts. 

There  are  various  sources  of  error  to  be  reckoned  with  where 
such  diagnoses  are  concerned.  In  the  first  place  there  are 
vague  diagnoses,  such  as  nervousness,  a  weak  stomach,  head- 
ache at  times,  occasional  sleeplessness,  that  would  apply  to 
any  number  of  cases.  In  addition  to  this,  the  diagnosis  often 
includes  a  number  of  morbid  symptoms — I  came  across  one 
in  which  nearly  a  dozen  were  given,  such  as  headache,  weak- 
ness, bad  digestion^  weak  kidneys,  excitability,  weakness  of  the 
stomach,  etc. — some  one  or  other  of  which  would  most  prob- 
ably be  present.  Most  people,  but  more  especially  uncritical 
individuals  and  marvel-mongers — and  these  form  the  bulk  of  the 
people  who  consult  clairvoyantes — are  much  more  impressed 
by  one  success  than  by  many  failures.  Any  one  who  knows 
how  to  criticize  can  correct  these  errors,  but  not  so  a  person  in 
whom  that  faculty  is  wanting.  Consequently,  even  when  the 
clairvoyante  is  only  right  as  to  one  of  ten  symptoms  that  she 
has  described,  but  is  wrong  as  to  the  other  nine,  many  people 


OCCULTISM.  523 

think  that  on  ihe  whole  the  case  is  a  proof  of  clairvoyance. 
Another  important  point  is,  that  as  a  rule  such  patients  sub- 
sequently ponder  long  over  the  question  whether  they  did  not 
at  some  time  suffer  from  one  or  other  of  the  complaints 
mentioned  to  them;  and  with  a  little  reflection  any  one  com- 
plaining of  sleeplessness  will  soon  discover  that  they  once 
suffered  from  some  gastric  affection.  Finally,  much  is  straight- 
way accepted  as  true  without  any  investigation.  For  example, 
suppose  a  woman  who  is  suffering  from  pains  in  her  back  is 
told  by  a  clairvoyante  that  she  has  a  uterine  complaint,  she 
will  take  the  assertion  for  an  established  fact,  and  when  a 
doctor  tells  her  later  on  that  her  womb  is  perfectly  healthy, 
she  will  in  all  probability  put  her  trust  in  the  clairvoyante. 
Many  of  the  diagnoses  made  by  clairvoyantes  are  of  such  a 
nature  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  submit  them  to  revision. 
Thus,  stagnation  of  the  blood,  impurity  of  the  lymph,  etc.,  play 
an  important  part  in  such  diagnoses.  At  all  events,  I  have 
gone  through  the  literature  of  the  subject  carefully,  but 
nowhere  have  I  found  a  series  of  experiments  that  would 
bear  triticism,  and  would  prove  that  a  number  of  correct 
diagnoses  had  been  made  by  means  of  clairvoyance  in 
excess  of  the  numerical  value  of  the  probability  of  chance 
success. 

Moreover,  I  have  never  obtained  a  positive  result  in  my 
other  experiments  in  clairvoyance,  although  my  investigations 
were  frequently  made  with  that  object,  especially  during  the 
earlier  years  of  my  researches.  When  the  ordinary  sources  of 
error — I  shall  deal  with  these  together  later  on — were  avoided, 
the  experiments  gave  none  but  negative  results.  As  a  rule,  so 
little  mention  is  made  of  scientific  conditions  in  the  reports 
other  authors  have  published  of  the  positive  results  they  say 
they  have  obtained,  that  we  cannot  consider  such  reports  proofs 
of  the  assertions  they  contain.  Or  careful  investigation  shows 
that  the  results  have  been  artfully  interpreted,  and  we  know 
that  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity  anything  can  be  proved. 
In  any  case,  artful  interpretation,  chance,  fraud,  signs  made  by 
spectators,  and  similar  sources  of  error,  play  such  an  important 
part  in  the  reports  hitherto  made,  that  at  present  we  are 
perfectly  justified  in  considering  clairvoyance  a  product  of 
fraud  and  self-delusion.  Clairvoyantes  who  cause  such  a 
sensation  among  the  **  faithful,"  hardly  ever  submit  to  scientific 
investigation. 


524  HYPNOTISM. 

We  must  here  include,  for  example,  the  *'seeress"  Frau  Ferriem,  of 
Berlin.     I  was  invited  to  experiment  with  her  in  November  1904,  and  I 
at  once  expressed  my  readiness  to  do  so  under  scientific  conditions.     I  had 
hardly  accepted  the  offer  when  I  received  the  following  communication  : — 
**  The  seeress  is  for  the  present  prevented  from  placing  herself  at  your 
disposal,  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  she  will  do  so  later  on."    At  the  same 
time  an  invitation  to  the  seeress's  lectures  was  promised  me;    but  the 
promise  was  not  fulfilled.     As  the  seeress  had  been  silent  for  more  than  a 
year,  I  reminded  her  in  December  1905  of  her  promise,  and  I  received 
the  following  reply  : — "  Unfortunately,  the  seeress  is  at  present  still  unable 
to  be  at  your  service.     In  consequence  of  the  protracted  illness  of  one  of 
the  members  of  her  family,  her  head  is,  in  a  manner,  full  of  trouble  which 
prevents  her  bringing  the  necessary  interest  to  bear  on  the  experiments  in 
question,  at  present."     I  was  promised  a  further  communication  in  a  few 
months,  but  I  have  never  received  it.     Clairvoyantes  and  their  followers 
behave  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  spiritist  mediums;    they  promise  to 
submit  to  be  experimented  on  under  strict  conditions ;    but  when  it  comes 
to  Hie  Rhodus^  hie  salta^  a  convenient  attack  of  mtgraiiie  sets  in,  or  some 
member  of  the  family  meets  with  an  accident,  and  so  forth. 

Another  Berlin  clairvoyante  also  beat  a  retreat  at  the  very  moment  in 
which  she  ought  to  have  proved  her  powers.  This  was  the  case  of  a  lady 
who  was  apparently  of  a  very  religious  disposition,  and  who  was  supposed 
to  be  able  to  see  forms  so  clearly  in  visions  that  she  could  at  once  draw 
them  and  then  write  down  a  description  of  them  in  her  diary.  It  turned 
out  that  the  lady  invariable  met  the  person  who  had  appeared  to  her  on 
the  same  day  or  shortly  after.  Her  drawings  and  descriptions  were  usually 
so  accurate  that  her  husband  could  at  once  recognize  the  person  from  them. 
One  night  I  went  to  a  lecture  at  which  I  was  to  meet  this  lady.  After  the 
lecture  was  over  I  was  introduced  to  her,  and  directly  she  heard  my  name 
she  declared  that  she  had  known  that  morning  that  she  would  meet  me  in 
the  evening.  Also  she  had  written  a  description  of  my  personal  appearance 
in  her  diary.  I  begged  her  to  allow  me  to  have  a  look  at  her  diary,  and 
she  promised  to  do  so.  But  when  we  (the  lecturer  and  I)  asked  her  to  let 
us  drive  home  with  her  at  once — precautions  appeared  necessary  in  the 
interest  of  truth — the  lady  first  of  all  explained  that  her  house  was  some 
way  off,  and  when  we  persisted  in  our  request  her  confidence  abated 
considerably  and  she  gradually  admitted  that  although  she  had  seen  me 
quite  distinctly  in  a  vision,  on  this  occasion  she  had  not  written  down 
anything  about  it.  It  is  obvious  that  falsification  of  memory  and  a  habit 
of  romancing  played  an  extraordinarily  great  part  in  this  lady's  case. 

The  following  case  shows  how  easily  simple  things  may  be 
misinterpreted  and  expanded  into  something  wonderful,  how 
easily  a  perfectly  straightforward  process  may  be  turned  into 
an  act  of  clairvoyance,  and  on  the  other  hand  how  simply  this 
can  be  explained.  One  day  a  married  woman  was  missed  from 
a  village  in  North  Germany.  About  three  days  later  her  son 
said  he  had  dreamed  that  his  mother  had  been  murdered  at  a 
spot  lying  between  the  villages  A.  and  B.  The  boy  mentioned 
his  dream  to  several  people,  who  related  it  farther.     A  search 


OCCULTISM.  525 

was  made  for  the  body,  and  it  was  found  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  high  road  running  from  A.  to  B. — />.,  where  the  boy 
had  seen  it  in  his  dream.  The  authorities  who  were  conducting 
the  investigation  now  sent  to  tell  me  the  facts  of  the  case  and 
to  ask  my  advice,  particularly  with  respect  to  the  boy's  dream. 
The  official  who  called  on  me,  explained  in  a  very  matter  of 
fact  way  that  the  authorities  considered  the  affair  incredible 
and  very  remarkable.  As  they  wished  their  investigations  to 
be  as  complete  as  possible,  they  were  anxious  to  have  the 
advice  of  an  expert,  and  therefore  sent  to  me  for  my  opinion. 
The  details  of  the  case  that  came  out  were  extremely  interesting. 
In  the  first  place,  it  was  discovered  that  the  boy  had  given 
different  accounts  of  his  dream.  Thus,  he  said  he  had  also 
seen  the  murderers  in  his  dream,  but  the  description  he  gave 
of  them,  even  as  to  their  number,  varied  at  each  recital.  He 
also  gave  different  versions  of  the  way  in  which  his  mother 
was  murdered,  and  the  only  thing  he  adhered  to  was,  that  in  a 
dream  he  had  seen  his  mother  murdered  at  a  spot  between  the 
places  A.  and  B.  But  this  riddle  admitted  of  a  very  simple 
solution :  the  day  before  he  had  the  dream,  the  boy  had  heard 
people  say  that  the  woman  could  only  have  been  murdered 
between  A.  and  B.  The  investigation,  therefore,  proved  con- 
clusively that  it  was  known  that  people  were  on  their  way  to 
look  for  the  body  between  A.  and  B.  the  day  before  he  had 
the  dream.  All  the  other  details  of  the  dream  proved  false, 
and  the  boy  gave  a  contradictory  account  of  them  in  each 
successive  statement.  In  spite  of  this,  the  story  was  at  once 
spread  about  that  the  boy  had  had  the  power  of  clairvoyance 
in  his  dream,  and  the  authorities  ought  to  follow  the  matter 
up  in  the  direction  indicated.  It  is  an  old  experience  that,  if 
one  unimportant  point  in  an  event  fits  into  a  prophecy,  people 
who  have  a  mania  for  the  miraculous  straightway  take  everything 
else  to  be  correct,  and  that,  too,  without  making  any  investi- 
gation whatever.  So  it  was  in  this  case.  At  all  events,  the 
whole  miracle  was  reduced  to  the  following  simple  fact:  the 
boy  had  had  a  dream  in  which  he  had  dreamed  of  something 
he  had  heard  the  previous  day.  All  the  rest  was  due  to 
imagination. 

Transposition  of  the  senses  bears  a  certain  amount  of 
resemblance  to  clairvoyance.  In  it,  stimuli,  which  normally 
would  only  affect  a  particular  organ  of  sense,  affect  some  other 
part  of  the  body.     For  example,  letters  are  said  to  be  read  by 


526  HYPNOTISM. 

means  of  the  skin  instead  of  the  eyes,  without  any  heightening 
of  the  sense  of  touch  such  as  is  found  in  the  blind.  On  the 
contrary,  the  part  of  the  skin  concerned  is  supposed  to  be 
stimulated  by  the  light  rays,  even  without  direct  contact.  One 
of  the  most  commonly  mentioned  phenomena  is  reading  with 
the  pit  of  the  stomach,  or  hearing  with  the  stomach.  In  Paris, 
I  saw  a  woman  who  was  supposed  to  read  with  the  lateral 
cartilages  of  her  nose,  even  at  a  distance  of  several  feet  But 
when  those  parts  were  covered  with  wadding  the  experiment 
failed.  It  is  tolerably  certain  that  she  saw  with  her  eyes ;  for 
though  they  appeared  to  be  covered  with  wadding  and 
bandaged.  Braid  has  pointed  out  that  such  bandaging  is  of 
very  little  use. 

I  will  here  mention  some  experiments  of  Heidenhain's  which  are 
generally  misunderstood,  and  which  at  any  rate  may  be  easily  misander- 
stood.  Heidenhain  maintained  that  his  hypnotized  subjects  repeated 
whatever  he  said  to  them  when  a  stimulus  was  applied  to  their  stomachs  ; 
it  was  necessary  to  speak  close  to  the  stomach  to  stimulate  it.  According 
to  him  the  vagus  nerve  was  set  vibrating,  and  the  phonetic  sound-centre 
was  stimulated,  and  thus  a  sound  was  made  which  corresponded  to  the  one 
heard;  but  he  thought  the  sound  was  heard  by  the  ear  and  not  by  the 
stomach,  the  nerves  of  which  merely  stimulated  the  sound-centre  and  thus 
induced  imitation  of  what  was  heard  by  the  ear.  It  might  he  concluded 
from  many  accounts  that  Heidenhain  thought  his  subjects  heard  with  their 
stomachs,  but  nothing  was  further  from  his  thoughts.  I  have  already 
mentioned  on  page  86  that  Heidenhain  was  wrong  in  many  of  his  other 
conclusions.  This  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  he  ignored  psycho- 
logical factors,  and  was  dominated  by  the  desire  to  explain  everything  he 
could  by  means  of  some  physiological  diagram. 

The  law,  of  the  individual  capacity  of  the  sense-organs  would 
be  violated  by  transposition  of  the  senses.  According  to  this 
law  each  organ  of  sense  has  its  own  specific  stimulus,  which 
has  no  effect  on  any  other  organ — e.g.,  the  eye  is  stimulated  by 
light,  but  not  the  sense  of  touch,  or  the  stomach.  Of  course, 
the  fact  that  transposition  of  the  senses  would  be  a  violation  of 
the  above-mentioned  law  does  not  justify  our  denying  that 
such  transposition  has  ever  occurred;  here  also  we  must 
demand  proof-positive  of  its  occurrence.  Of  all  the  innumer- 
able cases  that  have  been  reported,  I  do  not  know  a  single  one 
in  which  the  various  sources  of  error  were  satisfactorily 
excluded.  Here  again,  the  trifling  signals  which  are  given  by 
spectators,  and  which  act  as  a  guide,  constitute  the  chief  source 
of  error. 


OCCULTISM.  527 

I  now  come  to  the  action  of  drugs  at  a  distance.  At  the 
present  moment  this  is  generally  supposed  to  be  disproved, 
though  some  authors  still  assert  it.  It  would  not  be  surprising 
if  the  number  of  its  adherents  were  to  increase.  And  certainly 
the  belief  in  the  divining-rod,  which  has  recently  gained  fresh 
supporters,  can  only  be  considered  an  analogous  phenomenon. 

P'or,  the  divining-rod  also  implies  action  at  a  distance,  in  this 
case  that  of  water  or  metals,  on  certain  persons.  Formerly,  the 
divining-rod  was  often  used  for  the  purpose  of  finding  springs 
or  veins  of  metal,  whereas  in  the  present  day  the  possibility  of 
at  least  discovering  springs  by  means  of  it  is  still  believed  in  by 
a  few  trustworthy  people.  Heim  and  Franzius,  in  particular, 
have  expressed  their  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the  divining-rod, 
and  many  others — e,g.,  the  district  councillors  v.  Biilow- 
Bothkamp  and  v.  Uslar — are  active  water-finders.  Heim  is  very 
cautious  in  his  statements,  and  considers  the  scientific  geologist 
a  better  water-finder  than  the  man  with  the  divining-rod. 
Nevertheless,  he  believes  that  there  are  persons  who  can  detect 
the  presence  of  water  hidden  deep  beneath  the  earth's  surface, 
and  he  thinks  that  their  success  depends  upon  either  a 
psychological  or  a  physiological  process.  In  his  opinion,  the 
divining-rod  is  merely  a  detail.  It  is  the  movements  and 
slight  contractions  or  twitchings  of  the  diviner's  muscles  that 
are  all  important — the  rod  merely  acts  as  a  lever  of  contact, 
and  its  movements  are  due  to  the  movements  of  the  fingers 
and  hand  caused  by  the  slight  muscular  contractions  just 
mentioned.  The  reason  why  the  excursions  of  the  distal  end 
of  the  rod  are  greater,  and  therefore  more  readily  perceived 
than  those  of  the  fingers,  is  to  be  found  in  its  greater  length. 
According  to  Heim,  the  process  may  be  a  psychological  one, 
the  diviner's  knowledge  of  the  terrain  leading  to  the  idea  of  the 
presence  of  water  directly  he  comes  to  stand  on  ground  under 
which  it  is  lying.  This  idea  would  then  cause  involuntary 
muscular  movement  as  in  thought-reading,  and  the  rod  would 
sway  in  consequence.  He  certainly  thinks  that  the  process  is 
purely  physiological  in  other  cases.  He  believes  that  there  are 
persons  upon  whom  the  proximity  of  water  acts  as  an  excitant 
and  produces  a  kind  of  tremor,  the  presence  of  which  may  be 
evinced  by  the  rod  swaying  j  but  in  this  case,  also,  the  rod  is 
only  of  secondary  importance. 

Although  at  the  present  time  some  people  express  their 
appreciation  of  the  divining-rod,  others  are  strongly  opposed  to 


528  HYPNOTISM. 

it.  Wolff  and  Weber,  for  example,  have  pointed  out  the 
number  of  failures  connected  with  its  use.  In  any  case,  it  is  a 
fact  that  exact  proof  of  its  efficacy  has  not  yet  been  brought 
forward.  At  least,  no  one'  has  hitherto  shown  that  the  number 
of  successes  obtained  exceeds  the  probability  of  chance  success. 
Even  Heim's  work  in  this  connection  is  not  convincing.  He 
quotes  almost  entirely  from  memory,  and  admits  that  he  did 
not  make  notes  systematically,  because  at  first  he  attached  too 
little  importance  to  the  question.  This  is  a  pity,  and  compels 
us  to  receive  his  statements  with  reserve,  because  experience 
shows  that  positive  results  are  much  better  retained  by  the 
memory  than  negative  ones.  Consequently,  although  Helm 
only  estimates  the  number  of  successes  at  lo  per  cent.,  we  are 
compelled  to  ask  whether  this  percentage  is  not  much  too  high, 
and  also  whether  the  results  might  not  equally  as  well  be 
attributed  to  chance  and  falsification  of  memory  as  to  the  action 
of  the  divining-rod.  In  addition  to  this,  we  have  also  to 
consider  the  possibility  of  intentional  fraud.  Heim  himself 
relates,  that  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  person  whose 
knowledge  of  the  ground  enables  him  to  detect  the  presence  of 
water  will  use  the  divining-rod,  because  of  the  greater 
impression  thereby  produced.  In  any  case,  I  do  not  think 
that  Heim  paid  sufficient  attention  to  these  sources  of  error, 
especially  those  arising  from  falsification  of  memory.  Here, 
also,  objective  investigation  is  the  only  correct  method  of 
procedure ;  neither  ä  priori  negation  nor  uncritical  assent  is 
justifiable. 

As  I  have  already  mentioned,  the  divining-rod  was  formerly 
used  to  find  veins  of  metal,  just  as  it  is  nowadays  to  find  water. 
It  has  long  been  supposed  that  some  metals  have  an  influence 
on  certain  persons,  and  the  assumption  has  been  made  use  of 
in  medicine.  We  must  here  include  Burq*s  metalloscopy  and 
metallotherapy,  in  which,  however,  there  was  contact  with  the 
metals.  Certain  persons  were  supposed  to  be  influenced  by 
particular  metals — copper,  for  example — which  even  caused 
symptoms  of  disease  to  disappear.  Such  assertions  were  made 
long  ago.  Brandis,  for  example,  observed  pain  and  convulsions 
result  from  contact  with  gold  and  silver. 

The  later  investigations  on  the  action  of  drugs  at  a  distance 
apparently  proved  that  certain  drugs  in  hermetically  closed 
tubes  would,  when  brought  close  to  human  beings,  act  in 
the  same  way  as  if  they  were  administered  internally.    Thus, 


OCCULTISM.  529 

strychnine  was  supposed  to  cause  convulsions,  ipecacuanha 
vomiting,  opium  sleep,  alcohol  drunkenness. 

Experiments  of  this  kind  were  a)so  made  even  earlier.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  Pivati  of  Venice  asserted  that  if  odorous 
substances  were  shut  up  in  glass  tubes,  the  fragrance  would 
penetrate  the  glass  and  exert  a  specific  influence  on  human 
subjects  as  soon  as  the  tubes  were  rendered  electric  by  friction. 
Verati  and  Bianchi  found  this  correct,  and  so  did  Winkler, 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipzig.  As  a  result,  such  tubes 
were  much  used  at  Leipzig  for  the  treatment  of  disease  during 
the  middle  of  tha  eighteenth  century.  There  were  anti- 
apoplectic  tubes,  anti-hysterical  tubes,  etc.  Abbe  NoUet  then 
went  to  Italy  to  investigate  the  matter,  but  he  was  unable  to 
confirm  the  phenomena.  He  found  that  the  statements  that 
had  been  made  were  the  outcome  of  inaccurate  observation, 
exaggeration,  and  fraud.  Bianchini,  professor  of  medicine  at 
Padua,  came  to  the  same  conclusion  (Lichtenberg). 

Similar  experiments  were  more  recently  made  by  Grocco  in 
Italy,  and  Bourru  and  Burot  in  Rochefort.  They  experimented 
with  both  waking  and  hypnotized  subjects;  Luys  and  Dufour 
repeated  the  experiments  with  hypnotized  subjects,  and  con- 
firmed them;  so  did  Duplouy,  Alliot,  and  Peter.  The  last- 
named  even  asserted,  on  the  strength  of  experiments  he  had 
carried  out  on  one  subject  with  Caron  and  Martinet,  that 
contact  with  gold  would  produce  a  burn  of  the  second  degree, 
without  the  subject  knowing  what  had  touched  him.  So  far 
as  can  be  seen,  the  experiment  was  not  very  carefully  carried 
out.  Luys  went  farther;  he  even  found  distinctions,  according 
as  the  ipecacuanha  was  applied  to  the  right  or  left  side.  These 
experiments  have  been  repeated  by  many  other  investigators — 
e.g.^  by  Jules  Voisin,  Forel,  Seguin,  and  Laufenauer,  without 
result;  Luys  brought  the  subject  before  the  French  Academy 
of  Medicine,  which  appointed  a  commission  (Brouardel, 
Dujardin-Beaumetz,  and  several  others)  to  test  the  question  in 
the  presence  of  Luys;  they  came  to  a  conclusion  opposed  to 
his.  Seeligmüller  also  attacked  Luys'  experiments,  and  proved 
that  tlie  conditions  were  not  sufficiently  stringent;  the  Nancy 
school  came  to  the  same  conclusion.  Suggestion  and  training 
were  shown  to  be  the  chief  sources  of  error.  The  subject's 
great  suggestibility  enables  him  to  gather  from  the  experi- 
menter's manner  what  is  wanted  of  him.  For  this  reason  the 
Nancy  school  raised  the  objection  that  no  experiments  on  the 

34 


530  HYPNOTISM. 

action  of  drugs  at  a  distance  could  be  considered  conclusive  if 
any  one  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  the  tubes  were  in  the 
room.  I  am  unacquainted  with  any  series  of  experiments  in 
which  these  conditions  were  strictly  adhered  to  and  the  subject 
nevertheless  exhibited  the  correct  reaction. 

In   the  preceding  part  of  this  chapter  I  have  discussed 
questions  that  are  usually  included  in  the  domain  of  occultism. 
I  had  already  mentioned  some  points  in  this  connection  in  the 
previous  chapter.     Many  believers  in  these  occultistic  pheno- 
mena go  much  farther.     This  is  particularly  noticeable  in  their 
attitude  towards  spiritism,  of  which  many  occultists  are  followers 
even  if  they  do  not  always  admit  the  fact.     Of  course  one  may 
be  a  believer  in  animal  magnetism,  thought-reading,  or  even 
in  spatial  and  previsional  clairvoyance,  without  that  necessarily 
making  one  a  spiritist.     Spiritism  is  the  doctrine  or  belief  that 
spirits,  more  especially  those  of  the  dead,  appear  to  human 
beings  under  certain  circumstances.     The  presence  of  certain 
persons,  called  mediums,  who  act  as  intermediaries  between 
the  spirits  and  human  beings,  is  said  to  be  a  preliminary  con- 
dition.    Sometimes  the  manifestations  of  the  spirits  consist  of 
raps  which  can  be  heard  at  different  parts  of  the  room,  on 
tables,  chairs,  the  walls,  etc.,  and  by  means  of  these  raps  the 
audience  and  the  supposed  spirits  are  often  able  to  carry  on 
a  conversation;  at  other  times,  objects  in  the  room  begin  to 
move  of  their  own  accord — e.g.,  the  furniture  jumps   about 
without  any  perceptible  mechanical  assistance.     But  the  most 
important  manifestation  is  the  materialization  of  spirits.     The 
spirit  manifests  itself  not  merely  by  raps  and  the  like,  but  its 
astral  body  appears^-/>.,  the  body  which  under  normal  con- 
ditions constitutes  the  ethereal  frame  of  the  soul.     It  is  easy 
to  understand  that  a  person  may  believe  in  other  occultistic 
phenomena  without  being  a  spiritist  and  tracing  such  pheno- 
mena  to   the   spirits   of  the   dead,  and,  as   I   have   already 
mentioned,  the   mentalists   are   opposed   to   spiritism  in   the 
narrower  sense  of  the  term.     In  spite  of  this,  it  cannot  be 
denied   that   there   is   a  connection   between   occultism   and 
spiritism   (in    the   restricted  sense).      Spiritists  readily  admit 
that  clairvoyance  is  a  means  of  obtaining  glimpses  of  the  spirit- 
world  which  is   hidden  to  the  view  of  human  beings  in   a 
normal  state.     Conversely,  it  is  asserted  that  the  only  explana- 
tion  of  clairvoyance  is  that  the  spirits  inform  the  medium  of 


OCCULTISM.  531 

the  things  to  be  seen.  We  generally  observe  that  whoever 
believes  in  the  phenomena  of  one  domain  of  occultism — ^.^., 
animal  magnetism — takes  the  phenomena  of  all  the  other 
domains  for  granted.  This  will  not  surprise  any  one  who  has 
watched  spiritists  and  occultists  when  close  to  them,  more 
especially  when  they  are  joining  hands  at  some  stance  held  by 
one  of  their  "circles."  It  is  the  peculiar  frame  of  mind  of  the 
participants  that  plays  such  an  important  part  in  such  pro- 
ceedings. 

I  have  never  asserted  that  any  one  of  the  occultistic  pheno- 
mena hitherto  described  is  impossible.  Although  we  have  no 
right  to  say  that  a  phenomenon  is  impossible,  there  is  an 
immense  difference  between  the  recognition  of  a  phenomenon 
contingent  on  its  being  observed  when  the  necessary  pre- 
cautions are  taken  and  the  uncritical  acceptance  of  all  the 
phenomena  of  occultism. 

Of  course,  we  are  bound  to  admit  the  reality  of  phenomena 
observed  in  experiments  carried  out  under  the  strictest  con- 
ditions, and  with  the  various  sources  of  error  excluded. 
But  we  must  insist  that  these  sources  of  error  really  are 
excluded.  Laplace's  remarks,  mentioned  on  page  455,  would 
apply  here.  He  stated  that  neither  animal  magnetism  nor  the 
influence  of  an  ordinary  magnet,  nor  the  impression  that  may 
be  produced  by  the  proximity  of  metals  or  flowing  water,  was 
impossible.  He  was  also  perfectly  correct  in  his  statement 
that  we  have  no  right  to  say  that  these  phenomena  are  impos- 
sible, because  they  are  not  observed  in  every  case.  Least  of 
all  should  we  deny  their  existence,  because  the  science  of  the 
day  fails  to  explain  them.  And  he  added,  that  for  this  very 
reason,  all  the  more  vigilance  should  be  exercised  by  those 
investigating  such  phenomena. 

I  have  never  observed  anything  of  an  occultistic  nature 
occur  during  my  own  experiments,  provided  the  necessary  pre- 
cautions were  taken.  A  favourite  reply  of  occultists,  and  more 
especially  spiritists,  to  this  is  that  the  experiments  will  not 
work  in  the  presence  of  sceptics,  who  disturb  that  harmony  of 
the  "  circle,"  which  is  so  necessary  if  successful  results  are  to 
be  obtained.  I  can  very  well  imagine  that,  if  there  really  are 
any  such  subtle  psychic  processes,  the  constitution  of  the 
environment  is  of  importance.  But  if  such  phenomena  cannot 
be  exhibited  under  scientific  conditions^  no  pretence  should  be  mcuie 
0/ proving  their  occurrence  scientifically;  rather  should  it  be  openly 


532  HYPNOTISM. 

admiiied  that  the  whole  question  is  a  matter  of  belief ,  Science 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  questions  of  belief,  and  every 
man  is  free  to  believe  what  he  wishes.  I  must  also  state,  that 
the  longer  and  oftener  I  have  devoted  my  energies  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  occultism  and  spiritism,  the  more  have  I  become 
convinced  that  conscious  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  mediums 
and  their  accomplices  plays  a  far  more  important  part  than  I 
formerly  imagined.  But  I  am  also  convinced  that  many 
occultists  and  spiritists,  even  if  they  are  not  guilty  of  intentional 
fraud,  nevertheless  attempt  to  impede  the  investigation  of  the 
phenomena  by  raising  frivolous  objections  and  employing  all  the 
arts  of  evasion,  and  that  they  thereby  facilitate  the  perpetration 
of  fraud. 

I  used  to  think  that  it  was  extremely  wrong  of  men  of 
science  not  to  investigate  spiritistic  phenomena,  and  I  still 
maintain  that  it  is  far  better  to  subject  such  matters  to  the  test 
of  scientific  investigation  than  to  leave  them  severely  alone. 
But  I  must  admit  that  we  have  no  right  to  blame  men  of  science 
seriously  in  this  respect,  for  it  is  hardly  possible  to  obtain  an 
opportunity  for  investigating  the  phenomena  scientifically.  As 
a  rule,  the  so-called  scientific  seances  are  merely  caricatures  of 
scientific  investigation,  and  in  nearly  every  case  the  whole  affair 
is  nothing  but  a  farce.  Directly  an  attempt  is  made  to  proceed 
on  scientific  lines,  the  medium  usually  begins  to  weep  and 
wail,  or  feels  injured  at  being  distrusted,  and  it  is  almost 
certain  that  some  of  the  spectators  will  support  and  condole 
with  the  poor,  dear  creature.  Occultists  and  spiritists  are 
generally  present  at  these  seances;  indeed,  their  presence  is 
necessary  for  the  "Harmony  of  the  Circle."  A  scientific 
stance,  at  which  Eusapia  Palladino  was  the  subject  experi- 
mented on,  was  described  to  me  by  a  person  who  was  present 
My  informant  told  me  that  when  he  took  a  tight  hold  of 
Eusapia  Palladino,  so  as  to  prevent  her  getting  her  hands  free, 
the  doctor  who  was  directing  this  "scientific"  meeting  shouted 
to  him  that  he  must  not  grip  so  firmly.  In  the  case  I 
mentioned  above,  in  which  I  proved  that  the  magnetism  of  the 
magnetizer  was  due  to  a  string  fastened  to  him,  many  of  the 
audience  were  filled  with  pity  for  him  and  called  out,  "Good 
heavens,  how  terribly  hot  it  is!"  directly  I  put  a  cloak  over 
him  to  prevent  him  from  using  the  string.  Such  are  the 
methods  employed  to  nullify  scientific  precautions.  Indeed^ 
most  mediums  have  no  need  to  submit  to  scientific  conditions,. 


OCCULTISM.  533 

they  have  enough  faithful  followers  as  it  is.  A  thorough-going 
medium  is  more  spoiled  than  a  first-class  prima  donna,  A 
whisper  of  doubt,  and  the  medium  stops  the  seance.  That  is 
what  happened,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  Mrs.  Abbott,  the 
magnetic  lady  I  mentioned  above.  I  once  attended  a  so- 
called  test  seance  given  by  her,  and  directly  it  was  proposed 
to  take  scientific  precautions  she  declared  the  proposition 
was  an  insult^  and  left  the  room.  It  was  only  at  the  earnest 
request  of  an  ardent  spiritist  that  she  could  be  induced  to 
return. 

As  Max  Dessoir  very  properly  points  out,  scientific  investi- 
gation should  be  confined  to  one  simple  phenomenon  at  a 
time.  This  phenomenon  should  be  investigated  under  varying 
conditions,  but  the  medium  should  never  be  allowed  to 
prescribe  the  conditions.  As  long  as  such  investigations  are 
impossible  or  are  declined,  and  as  long  as  investigators  continue 
to  allow  the  mediums  to  prescribe  the  conditions — e,g,y  whether 
the  room  is  to  be  darkened,  or  whether  a  screen  is  to  be  placed 
in  front  of  the  medium — we  shall  only  be  dealing  with  assertions 
that  cannot  prove  anything. 

Schrenck-Notzing,  also,  would  like  to  see  mediumistic 
phenomena  investigated.  He  strongly  objects  to  the  credulity, 
fanaticism,  and  lack  of  criticism  displayed  by  the  spiritists. 
Like  Lodge,  he  advocates  the  founding  of  a  kind  of  psycho- 
logical laboratory,  with  all  the  necessary  equipment  for  carrying 
out  experimental  researches  in  every  branch  of  psychology  and 
psycho-physics.  Mechanical  recording-instruments  should  be 
used,  so  as  to  keep  the  results  as  free  as  possible  from  errors 
that  might  arise  from  delusions  of  the  organs  of  sense.  I  also 
agree  with  Schrenck-Notzing,  that  persons  who  call  themselves 
mediums  should  not  straightway  be  treated  as  impostors  when 
under  examination.  There  are  some  who  do  not  intentionally 
deceive.  With  them  it  is  a  case  of  self-deception,  either  in  or 
out  of  the  auto-hypnotic  state.  Although  I  agree  with  Schrenck- 
Notzing  with  regard  to  the  methods  of  investigation,  I  cannot 
help  blaming  him  for  not  having  taken  his  own  very  clear 
instructions  sufficiently  to  heart. 

The  way  in  which  he  intervened  in  the  case  of  Mme.  Magdeleine  G.,  the 
sleep-dancer,  was  calculated  to  make  the  public  think  there  was  something 
occultistic  about  her  performances,  and  was  very  reprehensible.  I  am 
referring  to  his  unjustifiable  assertion  that,  in  the  first  experiment,  the 
effect  of  the  music  on  the  somnambulic  lady  was  such,  that  she  developed 


534  HYPNOTISM. 

a  power  of  dramatic  expression  "far  beyond  the  possibilities  of  the  actor's 
art."  Still  more  reprehensible  was  the  way  in  which  he  foisted  this  lady, 
whose  performances  contributed  nothing  new  to  science,  upon  an  un- 
suspicious public.  In  my  opinion,  the  way  in  which  he  stage-managed  the 
lady's  performances  in  the  presence  of  large  audiences  was  an  insult  to 
science,  and  such  methods  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  the  laboratory 
of  the  psychologist.  Considering  the  strict  conditions  under  which 
Schrenck-Notzing  would  have  the  investigation  of  mediumistic  phenomena 
carried  out,  he  ought  to  be  particularly  careful  himself,  and  refrain  from 
puffing  the  scientifically  unimportant  proceedings  of  such  a  person  as  Mme. 
Magdeleine  G.  in  a  manner  which,  according  to  Willy  Hellpach,  constitutes 
a  downright  misdemeanour. 

I  must  also  blame  Schrenck-Notzing  for  his  conduct  on  a  recent  occasion. 
In  spite  of  his  repeated  protests  that  all  such  matters  should  be  investigated 
under  the  scientific  conditions  that  obtain  in  the  laboratory,  he  nevertheless 
attempted  to  prevent  the  scientific  examination  of  a  medium  in  Berlin  a  few 
months  ago.  He  had  heard  that  certain  sceptical  Berlin  investigators, 
whose  names  were  given,  had  been  invited  to  the  seance  of  a  medium.  He 
stated  that  this  was  unfortunate  and  that  the  meeting  ought  to  be  prevented 
as  it  might  injure  the  lady's  mediumistic  powers,  which  were  still  in 
the  developmental  stage.  He  said  he  was  induced  to  take  this  step,  because 
professors  at  the  University  of  Munich,  and  noted  neurologists,  had  declared 
that  a  promise  made  to  a  mediumistic  "  circle  '"need  not  be  kept,  and  that 
the  only  scientific  way  of  getting  at  the  truth  is  to  catch  the  phantasm  and 
hold  it  fast.  I  am  unaware  that  Munich  scientists  have  ever  advocated 
perjury.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  find  any  other  motive,  as  Schrenck- 
Notzing  calls  it,  for  his  action  than  his  spiritistic  tendencies,  of  which  he 
may,  perhaps,  be  unconscious.  In  an  earlier  work,  Schrenck-Notzing 
attacked  the  experts  who  had  pronounced  against  thought-transference,  and 
he  also  expressed  the  opinion  that  many  of  their  assertions  were  due  to  ä 
priori  aversion,  and  were  not  based  on  experimental  research.  "  I  am 
convinced  this  is  the  most  unscientific  way  of  getting  rid  of  questionable 
proceedings.  Consequently  we  are  spared  the  necessity  of  submitting  such 
verdicts  to  a  searching  criticism."  Here  we  have  Schrenck-Notzing 
blaming  the  men  who  do  not  experiment,  and  yet  on  other  occasions  he 
does  his  best  to  hinder  those  who  are  willing  to  investigate  the  question 
experimentally.  I  very  much  doubt  whether  a  man  who  deprecates 
scientific  stances — and  it  is  only  with  such  that  we  are  concerned — has  any 
right  to  set  himself  up  as  an  objective  investigator  of  mediumistic 
phenomena.  But  all  this  can  be  easily  explained  if  we  remember  that 
Schrenck-Notzing  is  an  honorary  member  of  the  German  Society  of  Spiritists; 
that  in  the  very  article  in  which  he  advocates  the  investigation  of  medium- 
istic phenomena,  he  also  indulges  in  a  hopelessly  uncritical  disquisition  on 
the  **  unexplained  residuum,"  and  that  he  also  poses  as  the  champion  of 
Eusapia  Palladino  and  similar  persons.  In  reality,  Schrenck-Notzing  is  so 
entangled  in  the  meshes  of  spiritism,  that  he  has  apparently  lost  the  power 
of  observing  and  thinking  objectively. 

I  have  already  on  previous  occasions  referred  to  the  numerous 
sources  of  error  which  we  must  not  overlook  in  our  inquiry 
into  occultistic  experiments.     These  sources  are  to  be  found 


OCCULTISM.  535 

either  in  the  person  of  the  subject  of  the  experiment,  or  in  that 
of  the  experimenter  or  of  some  one  else  present. 

Let  us  first  deal  with  those  contained  in  the  person  of  the 
subject.  The  following  important  points  have  all  to  be  taken 
into  consideration : — 

1.  Intentional  deception  on  the  part  of  the  subject  with  or 
without  hypnosis.  Simulation  of  hypnosis  is  in  this  connection 
of  little  moment ;  for  it  is  evident  that  if  any  one  professes  to 
see  without  using  his  eyes,  the  whole  question  turns  on  the 
truth  of  that  assertion,  and  that  it  matters  little  whether  or  not 
it  is  supposed  to  occur  during  hypnosis.  But  we  must  also 
remember  that  the  deepest  hypnosis  does  not  exclude  the 
possibility  of  fraud.  An  instance  of  deception  practised  during 
hypnosis  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  case  of  Eisensteines 
somnambulist,  who  prophesied  that  she  was  about  to  spit  blood. 
Czermak,  Voigt,  and  Langer  subsequently  showed,  microsco- 
pically, that  this  was  bird's  blood,  which,  of  course,  the 
somnambulist  had  previously  placed  in  her  mouth. 

2.  Unintentional  delusion,  if  such  an  expression  may  be 
used.  The  subject  may  receive  impressions  through  the  ear, 
for  instance,  without  being  conscious  of  it.  This  occurs  in 
transposition  of  the  senses,  the  subject  perhaps  believing  that 
it  is  with  his  stomach  he  hears.  Or  it  may  be  in  consequence 
of  previous  training  that  on  the  approach  of  the  magnet 
transference  takes  place.  It  being  assumed  by  the  subject 
that  the  approach  of  the  magnet  suffices  to  produce  transference, 
he  acts  in  perfect  unconsciousness  that  he  is  leading  the 
experimenter  astray.  In  the  same  way  the  percipient  in  telepathy 
guesses  the  other  person's  thoughts  by  signs,  but  himself  thinks 
that  the  thoughts  are  transferred  to  him  directly  and  without 
any  signs  being  made. 

3.  Hyperjesthesia  of  the  subject's  organs  of  sense.  We  have 
already  come  across  this  in  hypnosis;  it  sometimes  permits  the 
hypnotic  to  perceive  things  imperceptible  to  others.  Let  us, 
however,  bear  in  mind  that  the  term  "  hyperaesthesia  of  the 
organs  of  sense  "  is  not  quite  accurate,  for  the  processes  here 
concerned  are  really  central.  This  so-called  hyperaesthesia  can 
be  produced  by  practice,  and  also  without  hypnosis.  By 
neglecting  to  take  this  circumstance  into  consideration  we  may 
easily  be  led  into  drawing  erroneous  conclusions. 

4.  Increased  power  of  the  intellectual  faculties — e.g,^  the 
memory — may  also  prove  misleading.     I  recall  the  cases  of 


536  HYPNOTISM. 

people  who  spoke  in  languages  they  had  never  learned  {cf, 
p.  466).  We  must  also  here  include  the  increased  power  of 
drawing  conclusions.  This  sometimes  takes  place  in  the 
secondary  consciousness.  Hennig  relates  the  following  case : — 
"A  friend  of  mine,  head  master  of  a  school,  once  dreamed 
that  he  was  being  touched  by  the  cold  hand  of  his  father,  who 
had  just  died.  The  shock  woke  him  up,  and  he  heard  a 
hissing  sound;  but  after  a  careful  search  he  found  that  the  gas 
was  turned  on  and  escaping.  His  secondary  consciousness 
had  perceived  this,  recognized  the  danger,  and  warned  the 
sleeper  in  a  symbolical  dream."  In  any  case,  hypnotics  and 
people  who  are  dreaming  often  come  to  such  subconscious 
conclusions,  but  part  of  the  conclusion  may  also  be  arrived  at 
subconsciously  in  the  waking  state.  Sometimes,  also,  an  in- 
creased power  of  the  intellectual  faculties,  a  telepathic  influ- 
ence or  the  like,  is  erroneously  assumed  when  we  are  really 
only  dealing  with  a  combination  of  circumstances  well  within 
the  experiences  of  daily  life.  It  may  easily  happen  in  thought- 
reading,  as  well  as  in  telepathic  experiments,  that  when  the 
percipient  is  led  in  some  way  or  other  close  up  to  a  box  of 
cigars  or  a  book-shelf,  he  will  take  a  cigar  or  a  book,  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  that  this  was  what  was  wanted  of  him.  The 
process  is  so  simple,  that  we  need  not  look  to  any  heightening 
of  the  subject's  intellectual  faculties  or  other  extraordinary 
influence  for  an  explanation. 

I  have  hitherto  spoken  of  the  sources  of  error  that  lie  in  the 
person  of  the  medium.  I  will  now  discuss  certain  others  that 
are  external  to  the  medium. 

I.  We  must  first  of  all  consider  the  mental  state  of  the 
"believers."  I  have  already  intimated  that  most  occultists 
exhibit  a  peculiar  turn  of  mind.  I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that 
there  is  any  question  of  insanity  in  their  case,  though  spiritism 
may  be  the  result  of  mental  disease.  Aural  delusions  some- 
times lead  their  victims  to  refer  the  words  they  hear  to  the 
voices  of  spirits.  But  this  is  an  exception.  In  the  case  of 
spiritists,  a  peculiar  weakness  of  mind  is  of  somewhat  more 
frequent  occurrence.  But  this  also  is,  relatively  speaking, 
rarely  the  case.  On  the  other  hand,  we  much  more  frequently 
find  unbounded  credulity  and  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  their 
own  powers  of  observation  on  the  part  of  spiritists.  With 
regard  to  the  latter  pointy  it  is  interesting  to  observe  how  fond 
occultists  and  spiritists  are  of  accusing  men  of  science  of  over- 


OCCULTISM.  537 

weening  self-confidence  and  exaggerating  the  value  of  science, 
although  it  is  hardly  possible  to  find  in  any  branch  of  science 
men  who  suffer  from  overweening  self-confidence  to  the  same 
extent  that  the  overwhelming  majority  of  spiritists  and  occult- 
ists do.  The  latter  believe  that  they  cannot  be  deceived, 
because  of  the  precautions  they  take,  and  also  because  their 
powers  of  observation  safeguard  them  from  deception.  But 
these  precautions  do  not  satisfy  the  requirements  of  objective 
investigators.  Let  me  give  an  example.  A  spirit  appears  after 
the  medium  has  been  bound  with  cords.  This  sets  a  careful 
investigator  thinking  whether  the  medium  may  not  have  got 
loose  and  be  representing  the  spirit,  whereas  the  spiritist  thinks 
that  the  medium  could  not  get  free,  because  he  bound  him 
himself.  He  takes  no  notice  whatever  of  the  fact  that  the 
medium  was  only  bound  to  his  own  liking.  The  real  man  of 
science  is  fully  aware  that  he  is  liable  under  certain  circum- 
stances to  sense-delusions,  and  more  especially  to  delusions  of 
memory.  This  fact,  also,  is  never  considered  by  occultists. 
It  is  astonishing  what  different  accounts  people  who  have  taken 
part  in  such  stances  give  of  what  occurred,  when  they  are 
subsequently  questioned  separately.  This  applies  equally  to 
cases  of  spiritistic  phenomena  and  clairvoyance.  Nevertheless, 
occultists  are  firmly  convinced  that  their  memory  never  plays 
them  false. 

As  might  be  expected,  numbers  of  occultists  and  spiritists 
are  led  by  their  exaggerated  mystical  tendencies  to  recognize 
occult  phenomena.  Every  one  may  possibly  have  a  touch  of 
mysticism  in  him.  Even  men  of  science  are  not  necessarily 
exempt,  but  they  should  be  extremely  cautious  before  accept- 
ing anything  as  scientifically  proved.  //  is  their  duty  to  draw 
a  sharp  line  between  the  domain  of  Belief  and  that  of  Science, 
Occultists  do  nothing  of  the  kind;  their  mystical  tendencies 
utterly  prevent  the  spirit  of  scientific  research  having  anything 
to  do  with  the  investigation  of  these  phenomena,  and  they 
therefore  believe,  with  a  child-like  credulity,  anything  they 
choose.  In  addition  to  this,  many  occultists  and  spiritists  hate 
science,  because  it  includes  them  in  one  category.  Instigated 
by  the  desire  to  affirm  anything  that  science  refuses  to  re- 
cognize, they  accept  the  most  impudent  performances  of 
fraudulent  mediums  as  proofs  of  clairvoyance,  transposition  of 
the  senses,  animal  magnetism,  Od-radiations,  and  the  like. 
The  fact,  already  mentioned,  that  most  of  the  people  who 


538  HYPNOTISM, 

ascribe  a  special  domain  to  occultistic  phenomena  also  believe 
in  any  other  kind  of  occultistic  phenomena,  no  matter  how 
disconnected  they  may  be,  is  extremely  characteristic.  I  have 
already  mentioned  that  animal  magnetism  cannot  explain 
clairvoyance;  nevertheless,  we  find  that  most  believers  in 
clairvoyance  are  also  upholders  of  animal  magnetism.  The 
converse  is  also  the  case.  It  is  also  noticeable  that  many 
occultists  are  also  believers  in  homoeopathy,  nature-cures, 
vegetarianism  and  Jäger's  all-wool  regime,  although  these 
questions  are  in  no  way  connected  and  have  nothing  to  do 
with  occultism.  To  a  magnetopath,  who  describes  himself  as  a 
representative  of  homoeopathy  and  nature-cures,  we  can  only 
say  that  homoeopathy  has  no  connection  whatever  either  with 
magnetic  therapeutics  or  with  nature-cures.  In  the  same  way 
it  is  chiefly  spiritists  who  believe  in  astrology.  I  have  also 
heard  it  remarked  in  conversation  that  many  occultists  and 
spiritists  believe  that  premature  burial  is  anything  but  a  rare 
occurrence.  Some  people  have  even  assured  me  that  there 
are  fire-proof  human  beings — i.e.,  persons  who  cannot  be 
destroyed  by  fire.  It  is  obvious  that  many  are  influenced  to 
enter  on  these  matters  simply  because  of  the  implied  revolt 
against  orthodox  opinion,  nor  can  it  be  denied  that  the  cause 
of  occultism  is  furthered  by  the  arbitrary  refusal  of  many 
adherents  of  academic  learning  to  give  it  a  hearing.  Hatred 
of  science  and  the  joy  of  opposing  it,  combined  with  an  un- 
critical tendency  to  mysticism,  explain  how  it  is  that  occultists 
acknowledge  a  belief  in  such  heterogeneous  domains  of  the 
the  phenomenal  as  those  of  the  divining-rod,  animal  mag- 
netism, homoeopathy,  and  the  action  of  the  magnet  on  human 
beings.  //  would  be  safe  to  bet  lo  to  i  that,  if  science  were  to 
give  ofßcial  recognition  to  animal  magnetism  and  transposition  of 
the  senses,  a  very  large  number  of  occultists  would  at  once  com- 
mence an  attack  on  those  beliefs. 

2.  As  further  sources  of  error,  I  must  mention  sense-delusions 
and  all  kinds  of  errors  of  perception.  Spiritists  are  particularly 
prone  to  sense-delusions.  One  can  readily  observe  at  spiritistic 
seances  the  way  in  which  semi-darkness  facilitates  the  appear- 
ance of  all  kinds  of  forms,  and  how  everything  is  magnified  by 
imagination.  I  remember  a  stance  at  which,  on  a  lady  declar- 
ing she  could  see  an  apparition,  a  gentleman  present  told  her 
to  close  her  eyes,  because  she  was  obviously  not  seeing  with 
them,  but  with  her  stomach;  and  that,  therefore,  she  could  see 


OCCULTISM.  539 

much  better  with  her  eyes  closed.  It  is  often  very  difficult  to 
distinguish  accurately  from  what  direction  the  sounds  and 
noises  come.  For  this  reason,  spiritists  who  are  in  a  dark 
room  believe  they  hear  the  music  of  guitars  that  are  floating 
about  in  the  air,  whereas  the  instruments  really  remain  in  the 
same  place  all  the  time.  It  is  the  same  with  the  "  raps  "  which 
Spiritists  declare  proceed  from  the  tablecloth  or  the  table 
itself,  although  they  are  really  produced  by  the  medium's  foot. 
These  illusions  of  perception  extend  even  farther..  Any  one 
who  wishes  to  see  inanimate  objects  move  of  their  own  accord, 
and  who  for  a  considerable  time  vividly  expects  the  occurrence 
of  the  phenomena,  is  very  likely  to  see  such  movements, 
although  the  objects  never  stir  from  their  respective  positions. 
It  was  precisely  in  the  case  of  Harnack's  subject  (p.  505)  that 
I  saw  how  easily  tension  of  the  apparatus  of  attention  leads  to 
the  illusory  perception  of  movements  which  objective  investiga- 
tion proves  never  took  place. 

3.  Illusions  of  memory  constitute  another  source  of  error. 
I  have  already  pointed  out  their  importance  when  discussing 
cases  of  the  supposed  appearance  of  dying  persons  to  friends 
or  relatives  at  a  distance,  and  will  only  add  that  Christian 
considers  illusions  of  memory  a  special  source  of  error  in 
telepathic  experiments.  In  clairvoyance,  also,  it  may  happen 
that  when  a  phenomenon  occurs  many  people  may  believe 
that  they  have  seen  it  before.  Mnemonic  adaptation,  which 
has  already  been  mentioned,  is  just  as  important  as  illusions  of 
memory,  because  details  that  do  not  favour  an  occultistic  in- 
terpretation of  the  phenomena  may  be  subsequently  eliminated 
by  a  capricious  use  of  the  imagination. 

There  is  one  special  form  of  illusion  of  memory  that  has  to 
be  considered  in  many  cases.  It  has  been  described  by 
Bernard  Leroy,  a  French  author,  who  calls  it  Illusion  de  fausse 
reconnaissance,  but  Sander,  Kraepelin  and  others  had  previously 
reported  cases  of  the  kind.  The  phenomenon  consists  in  a 
person  having  the  impression  that  he  sees  or  experiences 
something  for  a  second  time,  which  is  really  perfectly  new  to 
him.  Although  in  most  cases  the  error  is  at  once  corrected 
and  the  illusion  recognized,  there  are  others  in  which  this  does 
not  occur.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  mental  disease,  but 
it  may  also  happen  when  the  subject  is  perfectly  normal.  The 
effect  produced  on  some  people  by  this  phenomenon  is  peculiar. 
They  neither  consider  the  whole  affair  an  illusion,  nor  do  they 


540  HYPNOTISM. 

believe  that  the  incident  had  ever  really  once  happened  to 
them ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  convinced  that  this  is  its  first 
occurrence,  but  they  believe  that  they  have  once  had  a  mental 
vision  of  it  This  leads  them  to  the  conviction  that  they 
possess  the  power  of  prevision,  and  some,  indeed,  declare  they 
are  clairvoyant  in  their  dreams,  others  in  the  waking  state. 
Undoubtedly  this  mnemonic  error  explains  many  cases  of 
prophetic  dreams  and  also  of  second  sight,  which  latter, 
according  to  Perty,  is  but  the  vision  of  a  present  or  coming 
event  seen  in  a  rapidly-passing  delirium  occurring  in  the 
waking  state. 

We  have  also  to  reckon  with  a  further  source  of  error  that 
lies  in  the  memory.     It  consists  in  a  person  being  under  a 
delusion  as  to  what  he  recollected  at  a  particular  time.     An 
example  of  this.     X.  went  to  a  clairvoyante  who  told  him  of 
something  that  had  happened  to  him  years    before.       He 
admitted   the  accuracy  of  her  statement,  but   subsequently 
explained  that  he  had  completely  forgotten  that  episode  of  his 
life  until  the  clairvoyante  reminded  him  of  it.     From  this  he 
would  have  us  believe  that  the  clairvoyante  could  not  have 
acquired  any  knowledge  of  his  past  either  by  telepathy  or 
from   any  signs   made   by  him.      A  careful  investigation   of 
several  of  these  cases  has  provided  me  with  almost  irrefutable 
evidence  that  X.  may  quite  well  have  recollected  the  episode 
during  the  stance  but  have  afterwards  believed  that  he  had 
previously  forgotten  all  about  it  until  reminded  of  it.     During 
the  stances  the  clairvoyante  by  her  remarks  drew  X.'s  attention 
to  things  he  had  forgotten,  and  the  associations  thereby  aroused 
refreshed  his  memory  on  various  points.     The  excitement  that 
prevailed  and  X.'s  feeling  of  expectance  favoured  the  stirring 
up  of  such  recollections.    As  we  saw  when  discussing  telepathy, 
directly  a  subject  recollects  anything  the  fact  is  easily  betrayed 
by  his  making  some  sign.     The  prevailing  excitement  smooths 
the  way  for  subsequent  mnemonic  errors,  so  that  X.  is  quite 
unable  to  decide  later  on  whether  he  remembered  the  episode 
at  a  certain  moment  or  whether  the  clairvoyante  made  him 
think  of  it  at  that  moment.     We  know  that  tliis  kind  of  con- 
fusion of  memory  often  occurs,  and  I  consider  it  far  from 
improbable  that  the  stances  of  the  "  great  medium  "  Mrs.  Piper 
may  be  partly  explained  in  this  way. 

Mrs.  Piper  is  an  American  medium.     It  is  said  of  Mrs.  Piper — or,  rather, 
of  the  spirit  that  is  supposed  by  spiritists  to  act  through  her — that,  in  the 


OCCULTISM.  54 1 

course  of  some  very  carefully  conducted  experiments,  she  spoke  of  things  of 
which  she  could  previously  have  had  no  knowledge.  The  most  frequently 
cited  cases  are  those  in  which  she  held  stances  with  Professor  Hyslop,  to 
whom  she  communicated  facts  concerninghis  dead  relatives,  which  apparently 
she  could  not  have  learned  in  any  ordinary  way.  Max  Dessoir  does  not 
consider  this  a  case  of  simple  fraud,  and  we  must  admit  that  if  it  was,  the 
fraud  was  perpetrated  very  cunningly.  But  Max  Dessoir  also  thinks  that 
the  telepathic  theory  fails  to  afford  an  explanation,  for  the  very  reason  that 
Hyslop  may  very  well  at  one  time  have  known  of  these  matters,  but  that 
he  was  certainly  unaware  of  them  when  the  medium  related  them.  Now, 
Max  Dessoir  thinks  that  there  is  certainly  no  instance  of  a  medium  having 
acquired  by  telepathic  means  a  knowledge  of  what  is  unconsciously  retained 
in  another  person's  memory.  Since  Hyslop,  moreover,  was  unconscious 
of  these  matters  at  the  time  the  medium  mentioned  them,  it  seems  that 
we  may  exclude  the  possibility  of  his  having  guided  her  by  signs.  Never- 
theless, I  do  not  think  that  it  is  necessary  to  appeal  to  occultism  for  an 
explanation  of  the  case.  In  the  first  place,  the  theory  of  fraud  was  not 
actually  disproved  by  the  investigators.  They  say  they  took  all  kinds  of 
precautions,  but  it  has  not  been  proved  that  Mrs.  Piper  might  not  have 
previously  found  out  at  least  much  of  what  she  communicated.  There  is 
no  necessity  to  assume  that  all  successes  can  be  explained  in  this  way. 
Dessoir  certainly  further  admits  that  some  of  the  successes  might  be 
accounted  for  by  the  medium  carefully  putting  together  all  that  she  heard 
during  the  stance.  When,  for  example,  the  medium  posed  as  the  spirit 
of  Hyslop's  dead  father  and  said  to  the  son,  "  You  are  not  the  strongest 
man,"  and  the  son  remarked,  **  He  warned  me  hundreds  of  times  that  I 
was  not  as  strong  as  other  people,"  Max  Dessoir  thinks  that  this  can  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  any  one  could  see  that  Hyslop  was  not  very 
robust.  At  all  events,  some  of  the  cases  could  quite  well  be  explained  in 
this  way.  When  we  further  come  to  consider  that  in  a  whole  series  of 
cases  the  statements  were  wrong,  there  seems  to  be  very  little  necessity 
indeed  for  our  assuming  that  Mrs.  Piper  possesses  unknown  powers. 

The  fact  that  memory  is  not  infallible  also  Hlls  me  with  mistrust.  In 
any  case,  some  one  was  present  at  Hyslop's  experiments  who  was  acquainted 
with  the  episodes  related  by  the  medium,  and  of  whom,  at  least,  it  was  not 
proved  that  he  was  ignorant  of  their  occurrence.  We  may  add  that  letters 
subsequently  received  showed  that  some  of  the  communications  made  by 
Mrs.  Piper  were  correct.  As  we  shall  see  later  on,  some  of  these  cases 
can  be  very  easily  explained  as  mere  toincidences. 

4-  Suggestive  gestures  and  other  signs,  by  means  of  which 
the  subject  learns  what  he  or  she  is  expected  to  do,  play  an 
important  part  in  those  sources  of  error  that  lie  outside  the 
person  of  the  subject.  When  dealing  with  the  question  of  the 
training  of  hypnotics  I  explained  how  often  the  latter  perceive 
signals  in  the  most  unimportant  signs.  We  can  readily  under- 
stand that  such  insignificant  signs  given  by  the  experimenter  or 
anybody  else  present  constitute  an  important  source  of  error. 
It  is  essentially  to  hypnotism  that  we  owe  the  discovery  of  this 


542  HYPNOTISM. 

source  of  error,  since  the  training  of  hypnotics  clearly  showed 
that  even  insignificant  signs  act  suggestively  on  the  subject 
experimented  on.  When  discussing  super-normal  thought- 
transference,  I  gave  a  detailed  explanation  of  the  way  in  which 
the  most  diverse  organs  of  sense  may  help  the  subject  to  make 
use  of  such  signs.  Consequently,  whenever  there  is  the 
possibility  of  the  subject  being  influenced  by  signs,  it  is  the 
first  duty  of  the  experimenter  to  impose  such  conditions  that 
the  subject  will  be  unable  to  perceive  such  signs.  As  another 
of  the  chief  sources  of  error  I  must,  moreover,  add  the  circum- 
stance, that  if  the  experimenter  or  any  other  person  present 
believes,  or  begins  to  believe,  in  the  reality  of  the  phenomena, 
they  very  easily  become  unintentional  accessories  of  the 
medium.  It  is  just  the  same  as  whh  table-turning,  in  which 
the  believers  push  harder  than  the  unbelievers  and  so  set  the 
table  in  motion. 

It  must  also  be  pointed  out,  that  by  means  of  signs  things 
may  be  communicated  which,  at  the  same  time,  are  non- 
existent in  the  primary  consciousness  of  the  agent  who  com- 
municates them.  We  have  already  seen  this  in  automatic 
writing  (p.  246).  But  if,  as  Lehmann  and  Hansen  have  pointed 
out,  unintentional  whispering  plays  so  great  a  part,  it  is  quite 
conceivable  that  some  people,  perhaps  those  who  are  psychic- 
ally predisposed  to  the  influence  of  processes  going  on  in  the 
secondary  consciousness,  may  be  induced  to  whisper  by  such 
processes.  I  am  led  to  this  assumption  by  the  reflection  that 
involuntary  whistling  is  a  process  analogous  to  automatic 
writing.  If  subconscious  processes  can  be  communicated  by 
means  of  automatic  writing,  it  is  presumable  that  the  same 
thing  can  be  done  by  whispering.  In  any  case,  I  have 
recently  learned  from  some  experiments  I  made — they  did  not 
produce  anything  new  in  this  respect — that  thought-reading  is 
possible  even  when  the  subject  is  not  conscious  of  what  has 
to  be  done.  I  requested  a  hypnotized  subject  to  write  down 
the  problem  I  was  to  solve  on  a  piece  of  paper.  In  one  case 
I  was  to  take  a  duster  from  its  place  and  put  it  in  a  cigar-box. 
The  subject  wrote  this  down  on  a  piece  of  paper  which  she 
folded  while  I  stood  apart  and  therefore  had  no  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  the  task.  I  then  suggested  to  the  subject,  who 
was  still  in  hypnosis,  that  on  waking  she  was  to  fix  her 
thoughts  intently  on  the  task  but  was  not  to  remember  its 
nature  consciously.     At  the  same  time  I  suggested  to  her — I 


OCCULTISM.  543 

had  often  made  the  ordinary  thought-reading  experiments  with 
her — that  she  was  not  to  notice  whether  she  made  any  move- 
ment or  was  guiding  me.  I  then  woke  her  up.  In  spite  of 
the  fact  that  I  did  not  know  what  the  task  was,  I  performed  it 
correctly,  guided  by  her.  Since  the  task  was  written  on  the 
paper  the  experiment  was  easily  controlled.  The  subject 
neither  knew  that  she  moved  nor  was  she  conscious  of  the 
processes  that  made  her  do  so.  This  case  is  only  intended  to 
show  that  processes  going  on  in  the  secondary  consciousness 
can  cause  the  subject  to  make  signals.  The  experiment  was 
quite  a  simple  one.  Finally,  if  this  sort  of  thing  does  happen, 
the  assumption  that  there  are  people  who  can  make  known  the 
processes  of  their  secondary  consciousness  unintentionally  and 
without  noticing  it  would  not  be  contrary  to  our  scientific 
ideas  or  the  views  we  already  hold.  This  is  also  a  very 
important  source  of  error  in  clairvoyance,  and  may  have  played 
a  part  in  Hyslop's  experiments,  for,  at  all  events,  it  was  never 
proved  that  he  had  not  previously  heard  of  the  things  that 
were  then  told  him  about  his  relatives — />.,  that  the  matters  in 
question  were  not  hidden  in  his  secondary  consciousness. 
Eberhard  Wolff  even  attempts  to  utilize  the  case  of  Mrs.  Piper 
as  a  proof  that  unintentional  whispering  does  not  explain  the 
phenomena  of  telepathy.  I  do  not  consider  that  the  con- 
clusions hitherto  arrived  at  finally  decide  whether  subconscious 
processes  may  not  be  communicated  by  involuntary  whispering. 
4.  Fictitious  interpretation.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  vast  majority  of  prophecies  are  as  indefinite  as  the  sayings 
of  the  Delphian  Oracle,  but  that  the  subsequent  interpretation 
of  them  leads  the  uncritical  to  believe  that  even  clairvoyance 
is  an  established  fact.  We  come  across  a  similar  phenomenon 
in  cases  of  thought-transference.  As  Lehmann  and  Hansen 
have  shown,  the  drawings  said  to  be  reproduced  by  telepathy 
are  often  so  indefinite  that  they  may  be  taken  to  represent 
anything  you  please.  They  have  shown,  for  example,  that  the 
same  drawing  will  do  for  a  candlestick  or  a  cat.  Whoever 
wishes  to  prove  the  reality  of  telepathy  gives  any  interpretation 
he  likes  to  a  drawing.  A  book  by  an  anonymous  writer,  H., 
that  appeared  in  1848,  contains  much  interesting  information 
on  prophesying.  We  are  told  that  should  the  event  not  agree 
with  the  prophecy,  we  must  remember  that  everything  contained 
in  a  prophecy  is  not  to  be  taken  literally,  so  much  is  only  meta- 
phorical.    As  an   example   of  the  ambiguity   of  prophecies 


544  HYPNOTISM. 

Hennig  cites  the  case  of  Malachi,  who  is  said  to  have  charac- 
terized each  Pope  by  a  short  descriptive  epitheton.     Thus 
Leo  XIII.  is  said  to  be  referred  to  in  the  words  Lumen  de 
Coclo,   and   his  successor  is  characterized  by   Ignis   ardens. 
Now,    Hennig   shows   to   how  many  cardinals  this  prophecy 
might  apply  if  only  a  little  ingenuity  were  exercised  in  inter- 
preting it.     It  would  describe  that  restless  being  RampoIIa 
accurately.     Cardinal  Svampa  might  also  have   been  meant, 
for  svatnpa  is  Italian  for  torch;  but  it  would  also  apply  to 
Cardinal  Gotti,  whose   coat-of-arms  contains  a  torch;    or  to 
Cardinal   Capecelatro,   an   idealist  Riled  with  modern  ideals. 
But  it  would  apply  even  better  to  Cardinal  Hohenlohe,  whose 
name   is  a   literal  translation   of  Ignis   ardens.      But    when 
Cardinal  Sarto,  of  whom  nobody  had  ever  thought,  was  made 
Pope,  Malachi's  prophecy  was  interpreted  as  pointing  to  him. 
But  as  there  was  nothing  fiery  about  Cardinal  Sarto,  either 
intellectually  or  in  his  temperament,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
Malachi  could  not  have  prophesied  falsely,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  coat-of-arms  of  S.  Dominic,  on  whose  day  (August  4th) 
Sarto  was  elected  Pope,  contains  a  dog  from  whose  mouth  a 
flame  issues,  and  it  was  at  once  said  that  the  prophecy  Ignis 
ardens  referred  to  Cardinal  Sarto,  and  thus  Malachi's  prophecy 
was  fulfilled.     Hennig  has  done  a  great  service  in  dissecting 
this  case  so  thoroughly.     It  is  only  by  quibbling  that  so  many, 
many  prophecies  are  made  out  to  have  come  true. 

Spiritists  have  lately  been  very  fond  of  quoting  the  following  case  as  a 
proof  of  clairvoyance.  On  the  evening  of  June  loth,  1903,  Charles  Richet 
held  a  mediumistic  seance.  The  people  present  wished  to  hear  **raps," 
and  they  did.  The  following  words  were  rapped  out : — **  Bancalamo  "  and 
**RtguettefamilIe."  Directly  Richet  read  these  words  he  is  supposed  to 
have  been  struck  with  the  idea  that  they  formed  a  complete  sentence  with 
a  definite  meaning,  and  he  deciphered  them  as  follows: — Bama  la  ntori 
guette  faviille.  This  communication  was  rapped  out  between  10.45  ^-w. 
and  II  P.M.  On  the  following  day  the  news  arrived  that  Queen  Draga  of 
Servia,  together  with  the  king  and  her  family  had  been  murdered  over- 
night, and  the  sentence  was  immediately  made  to  refer  to  that  crime.  To 
accomplish  this  the  following  method  of  interpretation  was  necessary. 
Banca  was  converted  into  Panta.  Richet  thought  it  was  so  easy  to  mistake 
a  B  for  a  P.  The  Germans  have  a  way  of  saying  ponne  bouteille  instead  of 
bonne  bouteille^  and  the  Servian  pronunciation  of  T  is  best  represented  by 
the  French  C  or  Z.  The  name  of  Queen  Draga's  father  was  Panta,  and 
the  sentence  consequently  referred  to  him  and  a  threat  to  murder  his  family. 
Richet  certainly  admitted  that  the  words,  'Ma  mort  guette  famille,"  might 
apply  to  any  number  of  families,  and  that  it  was  consequently  necessary  to 
calculate  the  probability  of  Banca  having  been  rapped  out  correctly.     This 


OCCULTISM.  545 

he  found  to  be  i :  zo,ooo.  Consequently  the  choice  lay  between  coincidence 
and  clairvoyance.  Riebet  assumed  that  it  was  a  case  of  clairvoyance» 
because  a  Press  Agency  in  Paris  received  the  news  of  the  murder  at  10.45 
P.M.  the  same  evening. 

I  have  asked  different  people  what  they  would  read  into  such  a  sentence 
as  **  Banca  la  morte  guette  famille,"  and  most  of  them  replied  that  the 
word  **  Banca  "  would  make  them  think  of  *'  a  bank,"  and  that  they  should 
never  think  of  turning  it  into  "  Panta.'*  At  all  events,  I  should  have  been 
much  more  inclined  to  find  the  case  one  of  clairvoyance  if  any  great  bank 
had  feiled  and  driven  one  or  two  people  to  suicide.  The  theory  of  clair- 
voyance would  have  applied  equally  well  to  either  supposition,  mine  or 
Richet's.  Another  man  I  questioned  thought  the  sentence  referred  to  death 
on  a  glacier.  He  considered  "  Banca"  meant  **  Bianca,"  white  death,  or 
death  on  a  glacier.  I  think  that  any  one  from  the  Sunda  Islands  would  have 
referred  it  to  Banca,  an  island  east  of  Sumatra.  A  man,  who  was  interested 
in  ancient  arms,  said  it  must  mean  Bancal,  a  term  for  a  curved  sabre.  A  lady 
to  whom  I  showed  Richet's  lettering,  "bancalamo  rtguettefamille,"  said 
it. made  her  at  once  think  of  calamus,  as  if  something  had  been  done  with 
calmus.  Another  man  said  it  reminded  him  of  a  Ban  of  Croatia,  because 
** ban"  was  the  French  for  it.  I  looked  this  up  in  the  dictionary,  and  can 
only  say  that  ''ban"  has  so  many  meanings  that  it  might  be  made  to 
supply  a  dozen — nay,  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  interpretations  of  that 
prophecy.  But  Riebet  was  determined  to  have  it  that  the  murder  of  the 
Servian  Royal  Family  was  conveyed  to  Paris  by  means  of  clairvoyance, 
and  so  he  proved  it. 

Richet's  method  of  turning  Panta  into  Banca  and  Banca  into  Panta 
reminds  one  of  those  philological  tricks  against  which  we  were  warned  in 
our  school- days — the  little  dodges  by  means  of  which  one  word  could  be 
derived  from  another  by  changing  a  letter ;  always,  of  course,  on  apparently 
scientific  grounds. 

6.  The  probability  of  chance  success.  As  many  experiments 
fail,  it  should  be  considered  whether  the  number  of  successful 
ones  exceeds  probability.  Preyer,  however,  is  inclined  to  think 
that  for  our  objects  statistics  of  probability  have  little  signifi- 
cance. But  if  such  calculations  are  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion they  must  be  made  correctly.  Richet's  case  shows  how 
little  this  is  thought  of.  He  calculated  the  probability  of 
"Banca"  having  been  correctly  given  at  i  to  10,000.  But  he 
quite  overlooked  the  fact  that  "  Banca  "  was  not  spelled  as  one 
word;  it  was  wrapped  out  as  "Bancalamo."  He  also  over- 
looked the  fact  that  if  the  sentence  had  not  been  made  to  fit 
in  with  the  murder  of  the  Servian  king,  it  might  equally  well 
have  been  made  to  refer  to  a  thousand  other  episodes,  as  I 
showed  in  my  explanation  of  fictitious  interpretations.  More- 
over, he  did  not  take  into  account  the  frequency  of  false 
prophecy,  or,  more  especially,  how  often  •  things  have  been 
communicated  at  his  own  seances  which  were  never  substanti- 
as 


546  HYPNOTISM. 

ated.  It  is  only  when  all  these  matters  are  taken  into  account 
that  we  can  ascribe  any  reasonable  importance  to  probability. 
But  to  pick  out  arbitrarily  some  point  that  favours  clairvoyance, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  pass  over  unsuitable  elements,  cannot 
give  a  correct  picture  of  the  probability  that  the  clairvoyant 
was  accurate  in  his  prediction.  It  almost  invariably  happens 
that  prophecies  to  which  but  one  meaning  can  be  ascribed  are 
only  published  when  the  event  prophesied  has  occurred,  a 
circumstance  that  does  not  exactly  show  that  much  credence 
is  to  be  placed  in  previsional  clairvoyance.  Nevertheless,  a 
few  cases  have  been  published  beforehand,  though  certainly 
with  marvellously  bad  results.  Only,  spiritists  are  much  too 
fond  of  suppressing  their  failures;  for  example,  I  have  been 
unable  to  find  that  any  further  mention  has  been  made  of  the 
prophecy  published  in  1899  that  Dreyfus  would  die  in  1904. 
There  can  be  no  sense  in  calculating  the  probability  of  success 
in  cases  of  clairvoyance  unless  the  failures  are  included  in  the 
calculation. 

7.  Coincidence.  E.g,,  a  command  given  in  thought  may  be 
obeyed,  because  by  chance,  or  for  some  other  reason,  experi- 
menter and  subject  think  of  the  same  thing.  In  telepathy 
the  first  order  thought  of  is  nearly  always  that  the  right  arm 
should  be  raised.  This  source  of  error  is  both  great  and 
interesting.  It  has  lately  been  carefully  examined  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  American  branch  of  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  C.  S.  Minot  Thus,  it  has  been  discovered  that 
every  one  prefers  certain  figures,  etc.,  which  recur  strikingly 
often,  even  when  the  choice  is  left  open.  Now,  when  in  a 
telepathic  experiment  A.  thinks  of  a  number  which  is  to  be 
divined  by  B.  without  the  latter  making  use  of  any  known 
method  of  perception,  it  would  be  necessary  to  discover  if  they 
prefer  the  same  figures,  if  they  have  the  same  "  number  habit" 
This  must  also  be  weighed  in  experiments  with  cards,  in  which 
it  appears  to  me  the  ace  of  hearts  is  very  often  chosen.  It  is 
evident  that  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  drawing  con- 
clusions, and  that  the  study  of  mysterious  phenomena  leads 
to  the  recognition  of  important  laws. 

We  have  already  come  across  coincidence  as  a  source  of 
error  in  the  supposed  appearance  of  dying  persons  to  their 
friends  who  are  far  away.  What  Parish  considered  as  coming 
under  the  fourth  source  of  error  was  really  a  special  case  of 
coincidence.      Coincidence    and   fictitious   interpretation   to- 


OCCULTISM.  S47 

gether  very  frequently  lead  investigators  into  error,  because 
the  greater  the  number  of  interpretations  that  can  be  given 
to  a  manifestation—^^.,  in  clairvoyance — the  more  likely  will 
the  case  be  one  of  coincidence. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  probability  of  coincidence  is 
so  great  that  the  manifestation  is  utterly  valueless.  In  the  case 
of  the  medium,  Mrs.  Piper,  it  is  mentioned  that  Hyslop  was 
asked  by  the  ghost  of  his  father  at  one  of  the  seances :  "  Do 
you  remember  the  penknife  with  which  I  used  to  clean  my 
nails?"  Hyslop  said,  "No";  and  the  spirit  replied,  "You  must 
remember  the  little  knife  with  a  black  handle,  that  I  first  of  all 
cairried  in  my  waistcoat-pocket  and  then  in  my  coat-pocket?" 
Hyslop  then  wrote  to  some  of  his  relatives  and  learned  that 
his  father  had  possessed  a  black  penknife  with  which  he 
cleaned  his  nails.  "  Only  it  appeared  that  Hyslop  senior  did 
not  carry  the  knife  either  in  his  waistcoat-pocket  or  in  his 
coat-pocket,  but  in  his  trouser-pocket."  In  the  preface  to  the 
German  edition  of  the  book  in  which  Mrs.  Piper's  feats  are 
described,  Schrenck-Notzing  remarks  with  regard  to  the 
above  and  other  cases: — "These  examples  are  quite  satisfactory 
as  far  as  minor  details  are  concerned."  I  must  acknowledge 
that  this  example  does  not  satisfy  me,  and  that  I  am  as  little 
satisfied  with  the  other  examples  with  regard  to  either  major 
or  minor  details.  In  any  case,  numbers  of  people  carry  a 
black-handled  knife  with  which  they  clean  their  nails.  Hyslop's 
experiment  failed  in  one  important  point ;  his  father  did  not 
carry  the  knife  in  his  waistcoat-pocket  or  coat-pocket,  but  in 
his  trouser-pocket.  This  point  is  certainly  mentioned,  but  only 
in  a  way  that  would  make  the  error  appear  to  be  of  no  im- 
portance. I  do  not  quite  understand  what  things  of  this  nature 
are  intended  to  prove.  At  all  events,  as  far  as  the  knife  was 
concerned,  the  probability  of  chance  success  was  so  great,  that 
the  whole  episode  cannot  be  said  to  have  proved  anything. 

If  any  good  is  to  come  from  the  investigation  of  the 
phenomena  of  occultism,  the  way  in  which  the  minutes  of 
occultistic  seances  are  kept  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  I 
consider  a  systematically  kept  protocol  a  necessity,  but  I  no 
longer  think  such  documents  as  convincing  as  I  used  to  do. 
A  superficial  glance  at  the  published  protocols  is  often 
convincing,  and  spiritists  are  very  much  astonished  when 
doubts   are  expressed   as   to  the  accuracy  of  the   reports. 


548  HYPNOTISM. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  generally  found  to  be  quite  right  to  doubt 
whether  these  reports  are   a  faithful  reproduction   of    what 
actually  occurred.     A  few  years  ago,  I  was  able,  in  an  essay 
entitled   Physician  and  Judge^   to   throw  some  light   on    the 
untrustworthiness  of  the  official  records  kept  of  the  proceedings 
in    magistrates'  courts,   about    which    I  gave  the   following 
explanation: — "These  records  are  not  calculated  to  give  a 
correct  view  of  how  such  cases  are  conducted.     If  a  protocol 
is  to  have  any  claim  to  accuracy  it  ought  not  to  be  a  mere 
risumi  of  the  proceedings,  but  should  be  an  accurate  tran- 
scription of  the  shorthand  notes  of  every  question  and  answer. 
It  ought  to  be  possible  to  gather  from  the  report  whether  the 
witness  hesitated  or  vacillated,  whether  a  question  was  first  of 
all  answered  in  the  negative  and  whether  an  affirmative  answer 
was  only  given  after  the  question  had  been  frequently  repciated. 
In  such  a  case  the  affirmative  answer  ought  not  to  be  quoted 
by  itself.     It  is  only  when  the  protocol  records  that  the  witness 
hesitated  or  was  at  first  silent,  that  any  weight  can  be  laid  on 
such  a  document."    The  above  concerned  judicial  records. 
But  I  hold  the  opinion  that  we  must  demand  as  much  of  the 
records  of  occultistic  investigations.     When  much  conversation 
goes    on  at    such    seances,   only  an    extremely  expert    and 
persevering  stenographer  can  follow  the   proceedings.     But 
even  such  a  one  is  quite  unable  to  reproduce  mimetic  signs  in 
writing.     In  addition  to  being  an  extremely  expert  shorthand- 
writer,  he  must  be  able  not  only  to  decide  when  he  is  to  insert 
the  word  "stop"  in  his  notes,  but  also  the  tone  in  which  it  was 
said,  and  that  is  hardly  possible.     In  short,  even  stenographic 
notes  are  extremely  untrustworthy.     In  addition  to  this,  most 
of  the  minutes  are  not  even  taken  down  in  shorthand ;  or»  at 
least,  not  in  the  same  way  that  the  proceedings  in  Parliament 
are.    As  a  rule,  some  one,  who  may  possibly  be  prejudiced, 
dictates  the  notes  at  a  seance.    Of  course,  if  the  person  who 
dictates  is  prejudiced,  and  anything  occurs  that  is  not  in  accord 
with  occultistic  views,  he  will  involuntarily  fail  to  record  it ;  or, 
at  least,  give  it  no  prominence  in  the  report.     He  will  consider 
such  events  mere  trivialities,  whereas  they  are  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  a  really  objective  investigator. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  Crookes  has  written  an  account  of 
his  experiments  with  Home,  which  obviously  contains  many 
important  additions.  But  how  little  value  he  attaches  to  these 
important  "trivialities"  is  best  shown   by  the  fact  that  he 


OCCULTISM.  549 

omitted  them  in  the  first  edition ;  as  a  natural  consequence, 
this  edition  has  long  been  the  mainstay  of  spiritists.  A  second 
edition  appeared  later  on,  which,  as  Lehmann  has  shown, 
entirely  contradicts  the  first,  because  the  "trivialities,"  which 
showed  how  unreliable  the  whole  seance  was,  were  left  out  in 
the  earlier  publication.  Spiritists  are  strikingly  reticent  about 
this  criticism  of  Crookes'  experiments ;  at  least,  they  have  never 
attempted  to  controvert  it.  This  is  all  the  more  important 
because  Crookes'  experiments  were  formerly  held  up  as  the 
nonplus  ultra  of  research,  and  were  said  to  be  unimpeachable; 
If  an  author  leaves  out  of  his  account  of  an  event  the  most 
important  details,  even  when  the  latter  are  mentioned  in  the 
official  records,  it  is  easy  to  guess  what  may  happen  even  in  the 
way  in  which  the  records  of  other  cases  were  originally  drawn 
up.  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  same  sort  of  thing  occurs  in 
many  cases  of  thought-transference.  Schrenck-Notzing  ad- 
mitted, in  reply  to  some  critical  remarks  which  Riebet  and  I 
had  made  about  his  telepathic  experiments,  that  he  "  did  not 
consider  it  altogether  impossible  that  some  of  the  published 
reports  were  so  coloured — unintentionally  and  involuntarily,  of 
course — ^as  to  give  a  favourable  impression  of  the  results 
obtained."  It  is  particularly  important  when  investigating 
cases  of  telepathy  and  clairvoyance,  to  notice  the  different 
things  the  mediums  have  a  shot  at.  Any  one  can  easily  observe 
at  such  seances  that  the  correct  result  is  only  obtained  after 
three  or  four  failures,  but  that  once  obtained,  the  spiritists 
present  are  jubilant  and  suppress  any  reference  to  the  failures. 
It  is  anything  but  easy  to  decide  to  what  extent  these  failures 
that  are  so  quickly  forgotten  are  considered  in  the  published 
reports.  I  certainly  surmise  that  they  are  left  out  in  numerous 
cases,  and  that  only  the  successes  are  reported,  most  of  which 
can  be  explained  by  the  laws  of  probability,  or  by  a  correct  com- 
bination of  the  circumstances  of  the  case  having  been  made. 

In  short,  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  official  report  of 
a  seance  gives  an  accurate  account  of  what  really  occurred. 
For  example,  a  clairvoyante  as  a  rule  never  gives  a  consecutive 
account  of  anything  she  is  supposed  to  be  describing;  she 
hesitates  and  pauses  until  some  one  present,  either  by  nodding 
or  shaking  his  head — perhaps  unintentionally — gives  her  the 
cue  that  she  is  on  the  right  track ;  or  some  one  sighs,  which 
is  also  a  sufficient  hint.  Grützner  has  already  very  properly 
emphasized  the  fact  that  certain  subsidiary  details  which  are. 


5  so  HYPNOTISM. 

of  great  importance  may  easily  escape  the  observer.  Here  we 
have  just  the  same  thing  happening  as  in  juggling,  in  which 
those  of  the  onlookers  who  think  themselves  smartest  believe 
they  see  everything,  whereas  they  really  miss  every  essential 
detail.  I  should  like  to  refer  once  more  to  the  case  of  "  Clever 
Hans,"  because  it  shows  the  exact  value  of  these  protocols.  It 
is  true  that  Stumpf  did  not  publish  the  detailed  report  upon 
which  his  fallacious  statement  was  based.  But  Stumpfs  own 
statement  clearly  proves  that  he  did  not  see  the  most  important 
thing  that  happened — viz.,  the  signs  given  to  the  horse.  If  we 
adhere  to  the  fact  that  such  a  thing  occurred  in  the  case  of  a 
committee  over  which  Stumpf  presided,  we  can  make  a  very 
shrewd  guess  as  to  what  happens  where  other  experimenters 
are  concerned.  The  gentlemen  who  are  supposed  to  investigate 
clairvoyance  and  other  mediumistic  phenomena  are  taken  in, 
just  as  Stumpf  was  in  the  case  of  the  horse.  When  we  are 
assured  that  the  clairvoyantes  were  acquainted  with  things  that 
no  one  else  knew,  I  am  compelled  to  add  that  the  same  was 
said  of  '* Clever  Hans";  for  example^  Herr  Grabow,  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Education,  and  one  of  Stumpfs  committee-men, 
persistently  maintained  that  "Clever  Hans"  made  correct 
arithmetical  calculations,  even  when  no  one  present  was  aware 
of  the  problem  set 

We  have  also  to  reckon  with  the  fact  that  most  of  the  people 
who  make  such  experiments  are  lovers  of  the  mysterious  and 
earnestly  desire  successful  results.  In  such  cases  everybody 
sees  what  he  wants  to  see.  I  do  not  intend  to  blame  spiritists^ 
etc.,  specially  in  this  respect,  for  it  is  a  matter  of  daily 
observation  that  preconceived  notion  obscures  the  view  of 
scientists  as  well.  A  few  examples  will  show  how  easily  this 
occurs  in  other  respects.  There  are  districts  in  which  prayers 
are  offered  up  for  rain  when  there  is  a  long-continued  drought 
Any  one  who  believes  in  the  efficacy  of  prayer  is  easily  able  to 
prove  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  such  petitions  are  answered. 
A  second  example:  I  remember  a  lawyer  in  Silesia  who  firmly 
believed  in  a  preparation  for  making  the  hair  grow ;  although 
nobody  could  perceive  any  diminution  in  his  baldness,  he  was 
thoroughly  convinced  that  he  was  putting  on  a  fairly  strong 
fresh  growth  of  hair.  He  looked  in  the  glass  every  day,  and 
always  thought  he  could  detect  fresh,  hairs.  A  third  example : 
Children  are  convinced  that  the  song,  "Fly  away,  lady-bird!" 
really  makes  the  insects  fly.     They  keep  on  singing  until  the 


OCCULTISM,  551 

lady-birds  fly  off  of  themselves,  and  then  they  believe  that  the 
song  was  the  cause.  In  short,  we  observe  how  in  each  of  these 
cases  the  wish  to  see  a  thing  happen  misguided  the  judgment, 
and  the  same  thing  occurs  in  spiritistic  seances,  but  more 
especially  with  respect  to  the  way  in  which  the  minutes  are 
kept.  Even  in  the  case  of  doubters  the  experiments  cause 
such  a  tension  of  the  apparatus  of  attention  that  their  mental 
condition  cannot  be  said  to  favour  the  exercise  of  criticism. 
We  have  also  to  consider  that  the  whole  environment  rarely  or 
never  favours  the  formation  of  an  objective  decision.  With 
some  people  it  provokes  laughter,  but  on  others  the  emotional 
effect  is  such  that  they  cannot  judge  the  proceedings  from  a 
cold-blooded  point  of  view. 

As  I  have  already  mentioned,  we  need  not  attach  much 
importance  to  the  fact  that  a  few  savants  uphold  the  reality  of 
occultistic  phenomena.  I  myself  formerly  attached  a  certain 
amount  of  importance  to  this  fact.  But  since  I  have  observed 
the  utter  helplessness  of  savants  directly  they  enter  on  methods 
of  investigation  with  which  they  are  not  thoroughly  acquainted, 
I  have  become  convinced  that  mediums  easily  lead  great 
savants  by  the  nose.  After  one  or  two  seances,  mediums  easily 
recognize  what  will  satisfy  one  person  but  not  another.  I 
remember  once  meeting  a  savant  of  my  acquaintance,  who  was 
a  believer  in  occultistic  phenomena  and  especially  in  the 
miracles  lof  Eusapia  Palladino,  and  how  instructive  that 
rencontre  proved  to  me.  When  he  explained  to  me  that  he 
had  seen  objects  move  and  tables  which  were  not  attached  to 
the  medium  jump  up  in  the  air,  I  told  him  that  I  had 
witnessed  similar  phenomena,  but  did  not  consider  them 
convincing,  as  the  whole 'proceeding  could  very  well  be  wqrked 
by  means  of  a  string.  He  thereupon  assured  me  that  he  had 
examined  the  subject,  and  was  therefore  convinced  that  she 
had  no  string  about  her.  I  then  asked  him  how  long  the 
examination  lasted,  and  his  answer  showed  that  it  only  took  up 
a  few  minutes.  I  then  told  him  how  astonished  I  was  that  he 
should  think  himself  able  to  discover  in  a  minute  or  two 
whether  a  woman  had  a  string  concealed  about  her  person,  and 
I  further  assured  him  that  all  professional  jugglers  would  agree 
with  me  that  a  thorough  examination  was  extremely  difficult. 
But  he  remained  obdurate ;  it  was  enough  for  him  that  he  had 
examined  the  woman.  This  only  shows  how  careful  we  should 
be  to  avoid  being  imposed  on  by  authorities ! 


552  HYPNOTISM. 

When  I  come  to  look  through  the  vast  literature  of  occultism, 
I  find  that  /  am  totally  unable  to  discover  even  one  single  series 
of  experiments  that  carries  with  it  a  convincing  firoof  of  the 
reality  of  occultistic phenomena  ;  nothing  but  casual  observations 
or  unchecked  experiments.    There  was  a  time  when  some  of 
the   telepathic   experiments   carried   out   in    England — more 
especially  those  made  by  Guthrie  and  Birchall — ^appeared  to 
me,  relatively  speaking,  free  from  error.     Nevertheless,  when 
I  take  into  consideration  the  way  in  which  the  reports  are 
drawn  up,  I  am  compelled  to  admit  that  those  experiments 
are  not  convincing.     As  Max  Dessoir  has  pointed  out,  it  is 
only  when  a  single  experiment  is  selected  and  then  performed 
under  varying  conditions  that  we  can  speak  of  a  scientific 
investigation  {rf,  p.  533). 

There  is  nothing  to  be  said  against  the  present  investigation 
of  inexplicable  things.     Almost  all  great  steps  in  natural  science 
have  been  made  by  some  one  who  had  the  courage  to  contest 
existing  views,  in  spite  of  the  danger  of  looking  ridiculous. 
Harvey  was  obliged  to  struggle  with  the  prejudices  of  his 
colleagues  for  years  before  the  circulation  of  the  blood  was 
accepted.     The  fall  of  meteors  projected  by  other  celestial 
bodies  was  long  denied.     Modern  anatomy  was  founded  by 
Andreas  Vesalius,  who  had  to  fight  hard  against  the  prejudices 
of  his  day.     Helmholtz  relates  that  a  very  distinguished  surgeon 
told  him  he  would  never  use  the  ophthalmoscope,  because  it 
was  dangerous  to  throw  a  glaring  light  into  a  patient's  eye. 
Another  declared  that  the  instrument  might  do  for  doctors 
afflicted  with  weak  sight,  but  his  eyesight  was  good  and  did 
not  require  such  assistance.     As  we  see,  the  fact  that  a  thing 
is  attacked  ought  not  to  prevent  its  being  investigated.     The 
assertion  that  a  thing  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  nature  and 
therefore  wrong  should  not  be  considered  conclusive.     The 
contradiction  is  often  merely  apparent,  and  the  laws  of  nature, 
as  we  call  them,  are  only  derived  from  facts  we  have  observed 
When  new  facts  are  observed  which  do  not  agree  with  laws  of 
nature  we  have  been  accustomed  to  accept,  it  is  our  duty  not 
to  deny  the  facts,  but  to  modify  those  laws.     Theories  never 
precede  facts.     Observation  and  experience  come  first,  then 
theory  (Spencer).     The  electric  current  does  not  cause  muscles 
to  contract  because  the  book  says  so;  the  book  saySs  so  because 
the  current  causes  the  contraction. 

In  spite  of  scientific  doubt,  truly  great  men  always  endeavour 


X 


OCCULTISM.  553 

to  avoid  dogma  and  ä  priori  conclusions.  If  they  cannot 
examine  everything  themselves,  they  yet  consider  a  scientific 
examination  even  of  the  improbable  necessary.  An  example 
which  Delbceuf  brings  forward  may  be  mentioned.  Darwin 
once  wished^  it  is  said,  to  examine  the  influence  of  music  on 
the  growth  of  plants,  because  such  an  influence  had  been 
spoken  about  before  him,  and  he  therefore  made  some  one 
play  the  bassoon  for  several  days,  close  to  some  planted  beans. 
If  this  anecdote  is  not  true,  it  is  well  invented.  The  non- 
recognition  of  dogma  distinguishes  science  from  blind  faith^  but 
to  say  a  fact  is  impossible  because  it  is  opposed  to  the  laws  of 
nature  is  to  dogmatize. 

Our  knowledge  of  nature  is  still  very  defective.  No  one 
has  ever  explained  even  the  simplest  mental  process.  No  one 
has  explained  how  an  ovum,  fertilized  but  soulless,  develops 
into  a  being  with  a  soul.,  We  have  not  the  remotest  notion 
what  goes  on  in  the  brain  when  the  will  acting  through  it  and 
the  nerves  causes  the  muscles  to  contract.  Indeed,  we  do  not 
even  know  why  an  apple  falls  to  the  ground.  The  most 
elementary  processes  are  inexplicable  wherever  we  look,  and 
most  people  do  not  think  them  inexplicable  because  they  see 
them  every  day.  Some  one  has  justly  said  that  dreams,  as 
well  as  hypnotism,  might  be  called  swindles  if  they  did  not 
happen  every  day.  The  world  still  puts  so  many  riddles  before 
us  that  it  is  quite  inadmissible  to  attempt  to  shirk  the  in- 
vestigation of  certain  processes  on  the  ground  that  they  are 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  nature.  Science  is  still  very  far  from 
having  achieved  a  position  that  would  Justify  such  an  attitude. 

We  do,  indeed,  flatter  ourselves  that  knowledge  has  reached 
an  extraordinarily  high  degree  of  perfection.  But  if  we  look 
back,  we  find  that  the  same  opinion  was  held  in  the  past. 
"No  one  acquainted  with  universal  history  and  the  ever- 
increasing  field  of  scientific  research  can  doubt  that  our  century 
which  is  now  drawing  to  a  close,  and  more  especially  the  last 
ten  years  of  it,  will  be  placed  by  an  impartial  posterity  at  the 
head  of  the  most  brilliant  and  marvellous  epochs  in  the  annals 
of  mankind.  .  .  .  No  matter  whether  we  direct  our  attention  to 
the  domain  of  the  sciences  or  the  realms  of  nature,  we  are 
filled  with  astonishment  and  wonder  at  the  extraordinary 
progress  made  in  our  days."  That  was  the  opinion  expressed 
by  Fikenscher  in  1799.  And  Wieland  wrote  in  his  essay  on 
magnetism,   published    in    1787: — "At  a  period    in  which 


554  HYPNOTISM. 

knowledge  is  so  much  more  general  than  it  used  to  be,  and 
science  stands  on  a  higher  pedestal  than  it  ever  did  before, 
etc"  Belief  in  the  unparalleled  development  of  science  is 
common  to  all  ages,  and  for  this  very  reason  it  is  our  duty  to 
discover  whether  it  is  justified.  Our  knowledge  is  so  incom- 
plete, and  whichever  way  we  look  so  many  riddles  meet  our 
gaze,  that  we  have  no  right  to  flatly  refuse  to  recognize  any 
domain  of  research. 

In  spite  of  the  progress  which  the  exact  sciences  have  made, 
we  must  nevertheless  admit  that  the  inner  connection  between 
the  body  and  the  mental  processes  is  utterly  unknown  to  us. 
Under  these  circumstances  we  should  not  refuse  to  examine 
the  apparently  inexplicable.  Let  us^  however^  impose  severe 
conditions^  and  not  accept  any  facts  on  authority  without  proof . 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

As  I  have  read  nearly  all  the  authors  I  have  quoted,  in  the  original, 
it  would  take  too  much  space  to  mention  them  in  detail.  There 
are  catalogues  for  certain  periods — ^those  of  Möbius  in  Schmidt's 
Jahrbücher  lox  the  movement  of  1880,  and  Max  Dessoii'^s  Biblio- 
graphy of  1888,  with  an  appendix  containing  a  list  of  the  works 
that  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  schools  of  Charcot  and  Nancy, 
and  also  a  list  of  the  earlier  works  produced  by  the  followers  of 
those  schools.  Bibliographies  are  also  occasionally  published  in 
the  ReTme  de  PHypnotisme^  In  response  to  numerous  requests,  I 
append  a  list  of  some  of  the  more  important  works. 

L    Books  giving  a  General  Account  of  Hypnotism. 

1.  FoREL,  Der  Hypnotismus:    Fourth  edition,  Stuttgart,  1902. 

(This  is  an  interesting  book  and  contains  many  aphorisms. 
It  explains  the  general  importance  of  hypnotism.) 

2.  Bramwell,  J.   Milne,  M.B.,  CM.,  Hypnotism:  its  History^ 

Practice y  and  Theory,  London,  1903.  (Bram well's  book  is  based 
on  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  subject.  He  gives  the  results 
of  his  own  psychological  experiments;  for  example,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  suggestion  after  a  long  interval  during  which  the  time 
is  calculated  subconsciously.) 

3.  Crocq,  LHypnotisme  scientifique.    Second  edition,  Paris,  1900. 

(A  monograph  dealing  with  the  views  of  the  Charcot  and 
Nancy  schools  separately.) 

4.  Grasset,  LHypnotisme  et  la  Suggestion,     Paris,  1903. 

5.  PREYER,    Der    Hypnotismus,      Vienna    and     Leipzig,    189a 

(Lectures  delivered  by  the  late  Professor  Preyer  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  containing  many  historical  facts.) 

6.  LcEWENFELD,  Dr.  L.,  Der  Hynotismus,     Handbuch  von  der 

Lehre  der  Hypnose  und  der  Suggestion  mit  besonderer 
Berücksichtigung  ihrer  Bedeutung  für  Medizin  und  Rechts- 
pflege, Wiesbaden,  1901.  (A  good  work  and  to  the  point. 
Suggestion  is  treated  as  a  special  phenomenon.) 


5S6  HYPNOTISM. 

7.  MiNDE,   Ueber  Hypnotismus,     Munich,  1891.      (An    objective 

historical  study,  dealing  especially  with  the  older  mesmeric 
literature.) 

8.  BiNET    AND    FerÄ,    Le    Magndiisme   animal,      Paris,    1887. 

(Contains  the  views  of  the  Salpetri^re  school.) 


II.    Historical  Works. 

1.  Ennemoser,  Der  Magnetismus.      Leipzig,   18 19.      (Contains 

much  historical  information  about  animal  magnetism.) 

2.  Regnault,  Hypnotisme^  Religion,    Paris,  1897. 

3.  Stoll,  Suggestion  und  Hypnoiismus  in  der  Völkerpsychologie, 

Second  edition,  Leipzig,  1904.  (This  book  deals  far  more 
with  the  part  played  by  suggestion  than  with  that  played  by 
hypnotism  in  ethnological  psychology.  At  the  same  time,  it 
contains  much  important  information  on  the  two  questions 
with  regard  to  both  civilized  and  uncivilized  races.) 

4.  Bechterew,  Die  Bedeutung  der  Suggestion  im  sozialien  Lebau 

Wiesbaden,  1905.  (This  book  treats  of  the  general  signißcance 
of  suggestion  in  social  life.  It  contains  accounts  of  epidemics 
of  convulsions,  the  suicidal  tendencies  of  sectarians,  epidemic 
sorcery,  demoniacal  obsession,  the  epidemic  spread  of  mythical 
'  doctrines,  panics  among  men  and  animals,  the  effect  of  sug- 
gestion on  crowds,  etc..) 

III.    Medical  Works. 

1.  LiEBEAULT,  Du  Sommeil  et  des  Etats  analogues  considdre's 

surtout  au  point  de  vue  de  r action  du  moral  sur  le  physique. 
Paris,  1866.  A  German  translation  appeared  in  1892. 
(Psychological  analysis  of  hypnotic  and  ordinary  sleep.  Full 
of  information  gained  from  case-books.) 

2.  Bernheim,  Hypnotisme^  Suggestion^  Psychotherapie.    Second 

edition,  Paris,  1903.  (Shows  the  universal  importance  of 
suggestion  with  and  without  hypnosis.  Written  for  doctors. 
Many  cases  cited.) 

3.  Grossmann,  Die  Bedeutung  der  hypnotischen  Suggestion  als 

Heilmittel.  Berlin,  1894.  (A  collection  of  reports  drawn  up 
by  doctors  in  different  countries  on  the  importance  of  sug- 
gestion as  a  therapeutic  agent.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  557 

4.  HiItsCHLAFF,  HypnöHsmus  und  Suggestiv-therapie,  Leipzig^ 
1905.  (This  is  a  thoroughly  revised  edition  of  Hirsch's  book. 
Strongly  recommends  the  use  of  the  author's  method  of 
superficial  hypnosis.  Deep  hypnosis  is  superfluous  in  medicine, 
since  it  possesses  no  therapeutic  value  and  is  only  useful  for 
experimental  purposes.) 

IV.    Law  Treatises  on  Hypnotism. 

1.  LlEGEOlS,  De  la  Suggestion  et  du  Somnambulisme  dans  leurs 

rapports  avec  la  Jurisprudence  et  la  Midicine  legale,  Paris, 
1899.    (A  rather  diffuse  book,  containing  much  of  deep  interest.) 

2.  Bentivegni,  Die  Hypnose  und  ihre  zivilrechtliche  Bedeutung, 

Leipzig,  1890.    (A  clever  and  thoughtful  work.) 

3.  Delbceuf,  LHypnotisme  devant  les  Chambres  legislatives  beiges, 

Paris,  1892.  (The  author  advocates,  among  other  things, 
public  exhibitions  of  hypnotism.) 

V.    Psychological  Works. 

1.  Janet,  Pierre,  LAutomatisme  psychologique,     Paris,   1889. 

(Detailed  psychological  experiments  on  human  consciousness, 
its  analysis  by  means  of  hypnosis,  etc.) 

2.  WUNDT,  Hypnotismus  und  Suggestion,    Leipzig,  1892.    (Deals 

with  the  psychological  importance  of  hypnotism  and  suggestion. 
An  attempt  to  give  a  psychological  explanation  of  the 
phenomena.) 

3.  Dessoir,  Max,  Das  DoppeUIch,    Second  edition,  Leipzig,  1896t 

(Short  psychological  studies,  partly  connected  with  hypnotic 
experiments.) 

VL    Psycho-therapeutics. 

1.  Lcewenfeld,  Lehrbuch  der  gesamten  Psychotherapie,     Wies- 

baden, 1897.  (Contains  much  interesting  information  on 
medical  psychology.  Loewenfeld  draws  a  sharp  theoretical 
distinction  between  suggestion  and  other  psycho-therapeutic 
remedies,  but  he  does  not  deal  so  thoroughly  with  the  latter  in 
the  practical  part  of  his  treatise.) 

2.  Rosenbach,  Nervöse  Zustände  und  ihre  psychische  Behandlung, 

Second  edition,  Berlin,  1902.  (Treatment  by  means  of  a  kind 
of  educational  therapeutics,  to  the  exclusion  of  suggestion.) 


558  HYPNOTISM. 

3.  ESCHLE,  Die  Krankhafte  Willenschwäche  und  die  Aufgaben  der 

erziehlichen  Therapie,  Berlin,  1904.  (Somewhat  on  the  same 
lines  as  the  preceding  work.) 

4.  Dubois,  Les  Psychon^roses  et  leur  traitemeni  moral.     Second 

edition,  Paris,  1905.    (Instructional  treatment.) 

5.  Camus  et  Pagniez,  Isolement  et  Psychotherapie:  Tratiement 

de  PHystMe  et  de  la  Neurasthenie^  Pratique  de  la  reeducation 
morale  et  physique.  Paris,  1904.  (The  title  of  the  book 
indicates  the  contents.  The  book  also  contains  evidences  of 
patient  historical  research  in  psychology  on  the  part  of  the 
authors.) 


VII.    Books  on  Suggestion  without  Hypnosis. 

1.  SiDls,  The  Psychology  of  Suggestion,    New  York,  1898. 

2.  BiNET,    La    Suggestibility.      Paris,    1900.      (Experiments    on 

children.) 

3.  Lefevre,  Z^s  Phenomlnes  de  suggestion  et  d autosuggestion^ 

prdc^dds  dun  essai  sur  la  Psychologie  physiologique.  Brussels, 
1903.  (Treats  of  both  the  psychological  and  medical  im- 
portance of  suggestion.  Special  reference  is  made  to  the  part 
played  by  suggestion  in  pathogenesis.) 


VIII.    Occultism. 

1.  OCHOROWICZ,  De  la  Suggestion  mentale.    Paris,  1887.    (Though 

the  book  does  not  prove  telepathy  convincingly,  it  is  written 
with  scientific  earnestness,  and  is  clever  and  interesting.) 

2.  Proceedings  of  the   Society  for  Psychical  Research.     (These 

volumes  contain  a  number  of  interesting  works,  many  of  which, 
particularly  the  earlier  communications  of  Gumey  and  F. 
Myers,  are  of  great  importance  to  scientific  psychology.) 

3.  Lehmann,  Aberglaube  und  Zauberei  von  den  ältestan  Zeiten  an 

bis  in  die  Gegenwart.    Stuttgart,  1898. 

4.  Hennig,  Richard,    Wunder  und  Wissenschaft.     Hamburg, 

1904.  Also  by  the  same  author.  Der  moderne  Spuk-  und 
Geisterglaube.     Hamburg,  1906. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  559 

IX.    Other  Works. 

1.  Verworn,  Beiträge  zur  Physiologie  des  Zentralnervensystems^ 

Part  /..•  Die  sogenannte  Hypnose  der  Tiere,  Jena,  1898. 
(Opposes  the  view  that  animals  can  be  experimentally 
hypnotized  as  men  are.) 

•» 

2.  Krafft-Ebing,  Eine  experimentelle  Studie  auf  dem  Gebiet  des 

Hypnotismus,  Third  edition,  Stuttgart,  1893.  (A  detailed  and 
accurate  study  of  an  interesting  case.) 

3.  Revue  de  VHypnotisme^  1887  to  the  present  day. 

4.  Zeitschrift  für  HyPnotismus^  1892  to  1902. 


INDEXES. 


/.   INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 
II.   INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


36 


564 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Animals,  hypnosis  of,  199-202 

magnetization  of,  488,  489 

Annamites,  3 

Antagonism,  276,  399 

Antelopes*  dung,  46 

Antifebrin,  288,  365 

Antiquity,  I,  2,  4,  359,  461,  464, 

465,  470,  536 

Antisepsis,  362 

Anxiety,  317 

Aperients,  113,  186,  285,  307 

Aphasia  (loss  of  speech),  86, 
128,156.  See  Speech,  abnor- 
malities of 

Aphonia  (loss  of  voice),  321,  334, 

337 
Aphrodisiac,  353 

Apoplexy,  271,  289,  312-314,  372, 

374,  529 
Appantions,  485,  506,  514,  539 

Apperception,  237,  276 

centre  for,  276,  277 

Appetite,  107,  150,  345 

loss  of,  107,  307,  320,  370 

A  priori  conclusions,  etc.,  285,  476, 

481,  485,  506,  528,  534,  569 
Arabs,  339,  359 
Aristocracy,  481 
Armenia,  204 
Art,  27,  32,  33,  265,  381,  384,475- 

479 
Asafoetida,  365 

Asepsis,  362 

Associations,  66,  95,  100,  lOi,  132, 
133.  135, 140,  149,  182,  231,  238, 
249,  252,  256,  260,  261,  263,  267, 

275.   438,   447,   449,   540,     See 

Ideas,  association  of 
Association,  fibres  of,  272 

laws  of,  62,  135 

Associative  paths,  277 

Astasia,  300 

Asthma,  322,  350 

Astral  body,  530 

Astrology,  5,  538 

Ataxy,  298,  374 

Atmosphere,  518 

Attention,  38,  39,  43,  50,  53,  54, 

65,  76,  134,  136,  137,  143,  182, 
191,  198,  230,  234,  235,  239,  240, 
244,  247,  263,  264,  266, 276,  376, 
381,  386,  475,  515 


Attention,  diversion  of  the,  65,  ^o- 
243,  266,  317,  322,  350,  372,  380- 

383»  490 
expectant,  228,  234,  301,  397, 

540,  551 

fixed,  43.     See  Fixation 


Attraction,  magnetic,  74,  491 

Austria- Hungary,  9,    14,   24,   202, 

441 

Authority,  240,  242,  283,  284,  55 1, 

554 
Aut(^raphs,  15 

Autohypnosis,  2,  3,  39,  40,  57»  I95, 
203,  204, 293,  294,  340,  419,  464, 

472.  533 
Automatic  actions,  169,  243,  247, 

250 

movements,  77 

writing,   136,  147,  245,  246, 

255,  418,  435.  438,  542 

Automatism,  146,  217 

Auto-somnambulism,  157,  205,  465, 
466 

Auto-suggestibility,  157,  305,  349 

Autosuggestion,  2,  37,  52,  67,  68, 
77,95»  105.  115,  124,  125,  135, 
138, 140,  153,  155,  179,  180,  203, 
220,  238,  241,  294,  300,  301,  308, 

315.  320,  332,  340,  348.  349.  351. 
356.  365,  372,  380,  388,  399,  405, 
406,  412,  429,  432, 449,  450,  454, 
462, 463,  467-469,  475»  508,  521 

Awakening,  47.     See  Waking 

spontaneous,  48 

Axis  cylinder,  272 

Babylon,''465 

Bacchantes,  475 

Bacillus-hunter,  398 

Balassa's  method  with  horses^  2o2 

Ballet-dancing,  477,  478 

Balneo-therapeutics,  302,  346 

Baquety  7 

Barcelona,  21 

Bavaria,  13,  356,  520 

Belgium,  20,  439,  440,  465 

Bigaienunt  graphiqiie^  305 

Belief,  226,  228-231,  2S7,  363,  499, 

500,  538,  553 
Believers,  470,  536,  538 
Belladonna,  288 
Belleletristics,  12,  33,  385,  433,  479 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


56s 


Bell-harmonica,  74 

Benediction,  4 

Berlin,   9,   10,   30,  415,  484,  498, 

522,  524 
Berlin-Brandenburg  Medical  Board, 

284 
Berlin  University,  10 
Bet,  a  safe,  538 

Bible,  75»  446 

Birmingham,  21 

Bleeding,  114,  116,  119,  127,  467, 

468 
Blepharospasm,  306 
Blindness,  see  Amaurosis 
Blisters,  117- 119,  207,  318,  468 
Blood,  circulation  of,  107- no,  204, 

552.     See  Pulse 

tears  of,  115 

Blushing,  67,  107,  109,  211,  325 

fear  of,  67,  228,  325 

Books,  injurious,  385 

suitable,  384,  385 

Bordeaux,  16,  18 

Braidism,  15 

Braid's  method,  40,  340,  493.     See 

Fixation 
Brain,  114,  178,  272,  274,  275,  462, 

553 
anaemia  of  the,  273,  274,  278 

centres,  386,  458 

circulation  of  blood  in,  43,  273- 

276,  411 

cortex  of  the,  202,  267,  270, 

277,  279,  295,  303 
plasma,  272 

proplasmic  process  of  nerve 


cells,  272,  273 

—  softening;  of  the,  369 

stimulation  of  the  cortex,  295 


Brazil,  23 

Breathing  on  the  subject,  5,  495 

Bremen,. 8,  9,  13 

Breslau,  18,  19,  281 

Brighton,  514 

British  Medical  Association,  21,  22, 

28 
Buda-Pesth,  19,  43 
Buddhists,  42,  465 
Burial,  premature,  538 
Burns,  117,  221,  529 

California,  5,  435 


Cancer,  289,  319,  355,  496 

Capsula  interna,  injury  to,  270 

Captation,  73.    See  Fascination 

Captivation,  61 

Carbolic  acid,  288 

Cards,  experiments  with,  100,  511, 

515 
Carlsruhe,  9 

Casque  vibrant^  40 

Cases  treated  hypnotically,  notes  of, 
320-326 

Catalepsy,  8,  15,  17,  54,  74,  75,  80, 
87,  88,  107,  113,  143,  148,  153, 
194,  204,  214-216,  277,  306,  461, 

478,  507 

by  suggestion,  75 

Cataleptic  posture,  87,  201 

stages,  81,  82,  83,  107,  202, 

208 

Cataleptoid  state,  81 

Cataplexy,  200 

Cataract,  340 

Catchwords,  264,  348,  373 

Cathartic  method,  24,  300,  335,  336 

Catheterization,  42 

Catholic  Church,  10,  115,  465,  467, 

468 
Central  nervous  system,  physiology 

of,  268,  269,  271,  279 
Centres,  subcortical,  268,  270,  279 
Cerebral  cortex,  see  Brain 
Cerebral  hemispheres,  equilibrium 

of  the  two,  462 

independent  action  of,  87 

independence  of  the  two,  462 

Cervical  vertebrae,  pressure  on,  42 
Civil  Code,  German,  424-427 
Civilized  peoples,  4,  481 
Chance  success,  528,  545,  547 
Character,  63,  103,  150,  170,  303 

defamation  of,  489 

Character-reading,  27 
Charcot's  classification,  57,  81 
experiments,  17,  19,  21 

school,   19,  28,  40,  82,  116, 

207,  208,  287,  501,  507 

stages,   57,   81-83,    157,  194, 


See 


202,  210,  274,  507,  519 
Charlatanism,      353,      354. 

Quackery 
Charlatans,  see  Quackery,  Magneto 

paths 


566 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Chemical  rays,  491 

Chemnitz,  18 

Child,  the  soul  of  the,  4S9 

Child- psychplc^jy,  430 

Children,  27,  29,  42,  51,  130,  132, 

144,  149,  151,  157,  184,  18s.  230, 

239.  259,  260,  382,  395, 404, 430, 

432.  455.  482,  489 
Children's  lies,  432 

testimony,  430,  432 

Chili,  22 

Chinese,  the,  3,  501 

Chloral,  288 

Chloroform,  45,  46,  56,  194,  288, 

291,  342,  409 

death  from,  288 

Chorea,  ,190,  306,  312,  324,  460, 

473 
chronic,  323,  375 

Christian  science,  357 

Clairvoyance,  3,  8,  9,  12,  16,  32, 

79.  98.  134.  229,  294,  411,  459, 

486,   491»  495.  499.    5".   S18. 

519  525,  530.  535»  537-539.  543- 

546,  549 
Clairvoyantes,  523,  524,  540,  549, 

550 
Clever  Hans,    157,  202,  456-456i 

458,  482,  550 
Clitoridectomy,  347 
Clock,  mental  (Kopfuhr),  164 

striking  of  the,  162,  168,  256 

Clonus,  ankle,  72 

wrist,  72 

Cognate  states,  176-204 
Coincidence,   513,  514,   541,  546, 

547 
Colour-blindness,  105,  384 

hearing,  140,  450 

sensation,  105,  508 

Columbus,  U.S.A.,  16 

Coma,  205 

post-epileptic,  55 

Commissions,  7,  402,  455,  458,  503, 

520,  529,  550 
Common  law,  427 

sensation,  105,  106,  138 

Compass,   experiments  with,    503- 

Com  pass- test,  94,  98 
Concords,  455 
Conditions,  adequate,  65 


1 


Conditions,  inadequate,  65,  66 

Condition  primey  167 

Condition  seconde  />roTwquJe,  167 

Confusion  nientale^  192 

Congresses,  20,  22,  28,  29,  -^^^  262, 

431 
Conjuring,  see  Juggling 

Consciousness,  142-144»   148,   176, 

177.  240,  245,  250,  269.  275 

contraction  of,  268 

double,  128,  129,  24^-247 

loss  of,  81,  82, 142-144,  194. 

244.  395. 403.  407-409. 420»  422, 

424,  426.  438,  490 

in  law,  420 

primary,    245-247,     248-250, 

254-256,  257-260,  268,  336,  386, 

450,  542 

secondary,  8j,  214,  245-2C7, 

248-250,  254-258,  261,  3cx>,  450, 

451,  462,  515.  536,  542,  543 
splitting  of,  127,  248,  257 

threshold  of,  136 


Constipation,    chronic,    307,    323, 

379 

Constellation,  277 

Contact,  4,  6,  41,  etc. 

Contagion,  moral,  235,   333,   392, 

393,  458.     See  Mental  epidemics 
Contractures,  71,  76,  77,  80,   81, 

83-86,  135,  183,  197,  209,  281, 

337.  338,  367,  487,  507.  508 

tonic,  80.     See  Contractures 

Contra-indications,  288,  289,  292, 

320,  326,  340,  392 

Control,      scientific,      466.        See 

Investigations,  sc  entific 
Conversation.  182,  185,  246,  250, 

251.  257.  381.  393 
injurious,  392 

modem,  384 

Convulsions,   291,   292,   300,   306, 

321,  528 
Copenhagen,  20,  31 
Corium  (true  skin),  468 
Cough,  71,  321,  438 
Counter-commands,  77 

suggestions,    293,    295,    350, 

372,  438 
Credulity,  232,  407,  466,  533.  53^ 
Criminal  Code,  German,  419,  420, 

422,  423 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


567 


Criminal  suggestion,  155,  415-423, 

437.  438 

Criminology,  Italian  schools  of,  422 

Crises^  292,  412 

Criticism,  513,  550    Su  Investiga- 
tions, scientific 

Crookes'  accounts  criticized,  548- 

549 
Crowds,  psychology  of,  353,  459, 

460 

soul  of,  459 

suggestibility  of,  460, 464, 471 

Crusades,  460 

Cuba,  22 

Cures,  miraculous,  290,  319,  355 

spontaneous,   297,   298,   302, 

318,  345.  348.  352.  488,  489,  496 
sympathetic,  6,  318 


Customs,  habits,  etc.,  see  Ethnology 
Cycling,  240,  386 

Dancing,  42,  142,  162,  476 

mania,  461 

Daily  Press,  31,  43 

Daily  speech,  influence  of  hypnotism 

on.  33 
Damages,  liability  for,  426,  427 

Deaf-mutism,  355 

Deafness,  105,  147,  239,  337,  355 

Deafness,  suggested,  97,  147 

Death,  deaths,  288,  289,  412,  464, 

471,  499,  521 
agony,  143,  395 

fear  of,  398,  399 

Deception,  116,  526,  535.  See 
Fraud,  Simulation 

malicious,  426 

Deep  sleep  and  hypnosis,  difference 
between,  182 

Deformative  polyarticular  rheuma- 
tism, 326 

Degeneration,  reaction  of,  23 

Dehypnotization,  45.     See  Waking 

Delirium,  187,  188,  189,  192 

tremens,  193 

Deltoid  muscles,  83 

Delusions,  loi.  See  Sense-delusions 

Delusion,  unintentional,  536 

Denmark,  20 

Dervishes,  5,  43 

Devil,  agency  of  the,  26 

Devils,  amours  with,  465 


Diabetes,  370,  372,  412 
Diagnosis.  211,  285,  312,  315,  327, 

337-339,  351,  355,  4",  49^,  497, 
512,  521-523 
Diarrhoea,  fear  of,  317,  369,  372, 

5" 
Dietetics,  380,  390,  497 

Dipsomania,  22,  308 

Dirty  tendencies,  474 

Discords,  455 

Disease,  forewarning  of,  521,  522 

Thomsen's,  194 

Diseases,  functional,  300,  305,  312« 

315.  337-339,  351,  371,  394 
mental,  11,  21,  49,  76,   104, 

131,  180,  i88,  189, 191-193,  195» 
198,  206,  222,  232,  249,  262,  276, 

293,  311,  318,  347,  359,  361.  385, 
408,  410,  424,  425,  442,  460,  536, 
540 

mental,  and  dreams,  187-189 

most    suitable    for   hypnotic 


treatment,  305-309 
—  nervous,  24,  25.    See  Neuroses 
organic,    120,   298,  311-319, 


325,  326,  337-339,  351.  354,  355. 

394 
Disgust,  106 

Dispositions,  testamentary,  312,  313 

Dissertations,  treatises,  etc.,  2,  3, 

4,  10,  13,  15,  16,  18,  20,  21,  22, 

25-30.  32,  33,  62,  65,  76,  141, 

187,  192,  203,  243,  248,  288,  290, 

330,  353.  355,  359,  360,  363-365. 
367,  385,  403.  408,  414.  427. 
429.431,  433,  446,  451, 461,  465, 

473.  474,  489,  505.  553 
Dissociation,  277,  447 

Divination,  i 

Divining-rod,  427,  428,  538 

Doctor,  the  family,  396 

personality  of,  366,  399,  400 

Doctors,  ancient  Jewish,  359 

(medical    men),    11,    53,   56, 

233.  302,  303,  326-328,  343-345. 

350,  354-357,  365-372.  380,  394- 

396,  399.  400, 401, 406, 412,  413, 

439-441,  474,  494,  552 

and  hypnotic  treatment,  326, 


330 
Dogma,  471,  553 

Donatism,  73 


568 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Ponnice,  Forel's  experiments  with, 

Drama,  see  Belleletristics 

Pread  of  hypnosis,  292,  320,  330 

Preams,  4,  loi,  122-125,  '44*  ^45* 
148,  162,  167,  178-183,  184.  186- 
189,  192,  196,  216,  247,  276,  291, 
307,  446,  450,  464,  512,  514.  521, 
522,  524,  52s,  536,  540.  553 

"  arising    from    association    of 

ideas,  178-180 

and  mental  disorder,  192 

suggested,  179-181,  450 

Dream-consciousness,  183, 225,227, 
233,  235-239.  242,  243,  250,  251, 
262,  263,  266,  267 

psychoses,  366 

Presden,  9,  11 

Drowsiness,  47,  176,  294,  305 

Drugs,  46,  289,  365,  381 

- —  action  at  a  distance  of,  457, 
486,  527-530 

modern  puffing  of,  8 

Prummond  light,  41 

Prunkenness,  221,  248,  420 

Dumb-bells,  386 

Dying,    apparition    of    the,    512, 

539 
Dynamometric  investigations,  88 

Dysmenorrhoea,  307 

Ear,  40,  41,  84,  85,  88,  92,  94,  137, 

141,  447,  516,  526,  535 
Ebers  papyrus,  4 
Echolalia  (imitative  speech),  86,  88, 

157»  461 
Eclampsia,  307 
Ecstasy,  42,  141,  464 
Education,  aim  of,  475 

use  of  hypnotism  in,  473 

Effect  weakened  by  repetition,  52, 

400 
Effort,  244 
Ego,   double,   128,  129,  244,  245- 

247,  451.  462 

dream,  183 

primary,  521 

secondary,  521 

Egypt,  I,  2,  4,  356 

Electricity,  42,  43,  89,  90,  272,  365, 

493»  503.  504.  507»  529»  552 
^ —  static,  302,  493 


Electro-biology,  15 
Electro-therapeutics,  291,  302,  313, 

333»  365 
Elephants'  dung,  46 
Eloquence,  mediumistic,  466 
Emotions,  no,  112,   138-142,  188, 

238,  252,  259,  293,  301,  307,  317, 

335»  361.  374.  381,  382,  397,  411, 
420,  471,  476-478 

artistic  expression  of  the,  476- 


478 


influence  on  health,  382 


Emission,  112 
England,  14,  17,  21,  356,  480 
Enuresis  nocturna,  323,  344 
Epidemics,  mental,  317,  356,  369, 

382,  398 
Epilepsy,  125,  150,  194,  299,  307, 

337»  347»  412 

Erection,  112 

Ergostat,  386 

Ergo-therapeutics,  387.  See  Occu- 
pational treatment 

Erysipelas,  288 

Error,  sources  of,   127,    156,    163, 

337.  342-344»  351»  453.  454,  45^. 

457,  467»  481,  487-489»  492,  496, 
503.  509»  511»  513-515»  518,  519, 
522,  523,  526,  529,  531,  534-545 

Establishments,  see  Institutes 

£ta^  second,  192 

Ether,  45,  125,  194,  342,  492 

Ethics,  155,  288,  383,  416,  417, 
440,  442 

Ethnology,  204,  460,  471.  See 
Psychology,  ethnological  ;  Un- 
civilized peoples 

Etiology  of  neuroses,  336 

Euthanasia,  395 

Exaggeration,  280,  282,  289,  304, 
334,  362,  367,  389,  428,  461 

Excitability,  electrical,  72 

Excitement,  293,  309,  341,  359, 
360,  471 

Exhaustion,  36 

Exorcist,  356 

"  Expectant  attention,"  228 

Experiments,  412,  440,   445,  453, 

458,  514 

Experiments,  exact,  468,  490.      See 

Investigations,  scientific 
Experimenters,  exp)erienced,  5a 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


569 


Experimentum  mirabile  Kircheri^ 

199 
Kxperts,  404,  406,  409,  439,  443, 

476,  525 
Explanation    and    instruction,   64, 

282,    335,   367,   369,   371,   373, 

375,  see  Instructional  treatment 
Expression,  facial,   114,   139,   141, 

168,  198,  209,  318 
Eye,  the,  39,  40,  78,  79.  85,  90-92, 
99,   101-103,  139,  207,  491,  516, 

517.  519,  526,  552 
Eye-balls,  position  of  the,  79 
Eyes,  closing  of  the,  33,  35,  43, 

44.  53.  5860,  78,  79,  81.  85,  87, 

96,  loi,  107,  151,  209,  222,  235, 

238,  278,  336,  494,  539 
Eyes,  convergence  of,  80,  209,  212 
Eye,  the  evil,  74 
Eye-lids,  fibrillary  twitchings  of,  209 

Faculties,  heightening  of,  136,  137, 
466*      See    Hyperaesthesia    and 
Hypermnesia 
Faith-healing,  287,  357 
Faith  in  authority,  228,  232 
Fakirs,  i,  3,  203,  467,  472 
Faradic  brush,  96,  365,  382 

current,  43,  47,  139,  140,  302 

Fascination,  35,   73,   74,   79,   107, 

195.  199,  202-204,  405.  414,  488 
Fascinating  gaze,  74 
Fashion,  283 
Fatigue,  45,  47,  105, 171, 176,  222, 

238,  292,  299,  464 
Fatigue-stuff,  463 
Fear,  113,  138,  307,  317,  334,  350, 

376,  390,  393.  398,  479 
Feeling,    qualitative    analysis    of, 

447,448 

common,  96 

see  Analgesia,  Ansesthesia 

Fetishism,  309,  378 

Fictitious  interpretation,  543-545 

Fire-proof  people,  538 

Fixation,  33,  43-45,  54,  59,  60,  78, 

81,  90-92,   108,   112,    191,   202, 

222,  238,  290,  493,  495 
Flagellation,  460 
Flexihilitas  cerea,  80,  81 
Ford's  stages,  58 
Fractional  method,  45 


France,  8,  12,  299 
Fraud,  11,  118,  465,  467,  468,481, 
483,    502,   510»    521,    523,   528, 

535.541. 
conscious,  484 

Frauenfeld,  10 
Free-will,  173,  451,  452 
French  law,  modern,  20 
French  Revolution,  8,  11,  402 
Fright,  death  from,  399 
paralysis  from,  41.     See  Cata- 
plexy 
Frogs,  cataleptic,  83 

• hypnotic,  201 

Fruit,  tabooed,  471 

Galvanic  current,  81,  281,  302 
Galvanometer,    experiments    with, 

503 
Gamblers,  253 

Games,  sports,  etc.,  385,  386 

Games,  391 

Ganglion    cells,    co-operation    of, 

273 
Gardening,  387 

Gazing  at  crystals,  etc.,  i 

the  umbilicus,  2 

Gastric  juice,  secretion  of,  113 

General  Considerations,  II.,  34-68 

Geneva,  18 

Germany,  8,  9,  11,  18 

Gestures,  35,  73.     See  Signs 

Giddiness,  61,  191 

Globus  hystericus,  48 

Glogau,  17 

Gnostic  schools,  2 

Gods,  apparitions  of  the,  2 

Grand  hypnotisme^  33,  81 

Grande  hysiirie^  194 

Grande  nhfrose  hypnotiqtte^  194 

Grand  Penitentiary,  10 

Graphologists,  27 

Greece,  20 

Groningen,  20 

Guiana,  5 

Guitars,  floating,  538 

Hair,  diagnosis  from  the,  522 
Hallucinations,  2,  37,  loi,  104,  105, 
140,  144-146,  147,  162,  188,  189, 
218,  219,  236,238,  241,  262,  371, 
513.     See  Sense-delusions 


570 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Hallucinations  negative,  see  Sense- 
delusions,  negative 

positive,  see  Sense-delusions 

Halle,  359 

Hamburg,  13 

Plands,  laying  on  of,  4 

Haschisch,  45,  78,  195 

Havre,  12 

Headache,  289,  300,  306,  320,  350, 

352,  522 
Head-work,  386 
Hearing,  see  Ear 
Hearing,  delusions  of,  102,  536 
Heart-disease,  297,  351,  367 
Heaviness  in  the  limbs,  176,  294 
Heilbronn,  9 
Hemiansesthesia,  97,  207 
Hemianopsia,  105 
Hemicrania,  angioparalytic,  274 
Hemichorea,  306 
Hemi-hypnosis,  86,  87 
Hemiplegia,  115,  201,  281,  372 
Heredity,  49,  368,  388 
Heretics,  persecution  of,  7 
Hetero-hypnosis,  39,  40 
Hesychasts,  the,  2 
Hibernation,  203 
HirschlafTs  groups,  153,  154 
Histology,  272,  273,  284 
History  of  Hypnotism,  1-33 
Holland,  11,  20 
Holy  places,  479 
Homoeopathy,  348,  473,  538 
Horse- trainers,  202,  490 
Hydro-therapeutics,  281,  302,  303, 

346,  365»  390 
Hygiene,  modern,  dangers  of,  398 
Hygienic  promenade,  386 
Hyperaesthesia,  97-100,   134,    466, 

S26,  535 
Hyper-excitability,  neuro-muscular, 

81,  83,  84,  215 

senso-muscular,  84 

Hypermnesia       (heightening       of 

memory),    124,    126,    130,   300, 

335»  336,  449,  466,  474,  536 
Hypnagogic  slate,  180 
Hypnobat,  14 
Hypnoscope,  14,  48,  507 
Hypnoses,  abnormal,  153-155,  179, 

220 
classification  of,  57,  58 


Hypnoses,  groups  of,  59,  91,  122, 
144,  148,  226,  251,  254 

Ilypnosigenesis  (induction  of  hyp- 
nosis), I,  2,  34-46,  153,  197-200, 
224-225,  234,  235,  250,  269,  277, 
330 

Hypnosis,  38,  168,  197,  272,  281, 
286,   289,   308,   406,   408,   439, 

450,  507,  5".  512,  542,  553 

active,  78 

animal,  18,  199-202 

the  concept,  448 

dangers  of,  23,  24,  174,  287- 

295»  341,  408.412.  441.  442 
deep,  48,  50,  51,  60.  93,  95, 


102,  122,  132,  134,  136,  138,  144, 
148,  150,  152,  153,  158,  177.  182, 
185,  189,  194,  2i6,  250,  266,  294, 

301,  323,  325,  326,  33i>  332,  452. 
467.  535 

—  fear  of,  292,  320,  330 

—  fractional,  39,  45 

—  harmlessness  of,  320 

—  involuntary,  55,  174,  413 

—  legal  aspect  of,  19,  402-444 

—  medical  aspect  of,  280-342 

—  and  mental  disorder,  191-194 

—  passive,  78 

—  physiology  of,   18,  19,  27,  69- 
121.     See  Physiology 

—  psychology  of,  121 -159.     See 
Psychology 

—  psychol(^ical  concept  of,  461 
symptomatology    of,    15,  69- 


159 


tendency  to,  48-57 

theories  of,  267-279 

Hypnosi-therapeutics,  25,  27,  280- 

337 
factors  in,  299-301 

Hypnotism,   public    exhibition  of, 

440-443 

Hypnotizability,  48-53,  55-57,  234, 

293,  298,  304,  3".  338,  403,  435, 
476 

Hypnotization,  collective,  333 

Hypochondriasis,    305,    371,    385, 

388,  390,  396 
Hyposmia,  97 
Hypotaxy,  57,  58 
Hysteria,  25,  28,  33,  36,  47-49,  82, 

114,  H5,  125,  150,  153-155,177» 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


571 


i86, 194,  208,  215,  259,  289,  291, 
294.  303-305, 312,  314.  315»  321, 

335-33».  347,  349,  352-355,  361, 
364-366,  389,  392,  394,  397,  429, 

432,  449,  469,  507,  509,  529 
Hysteria,  attacks  of,  321 

castration  for,  347 

-^ —  inonosymptomatic,  305 

polysymtomatic,  305 

Hysterical  aphonia,  321 

Hystero-epilepsy,  17,  79,  82,  291, 

299 
Ideas,  association  of,  122,  214,  255- 

257.     See  Associations 

confusion  of,  367,  492 

fixed,  311,332,  508 

dream,  4 

imperative,  68,  210,  253,  258, 

305,  324,  336,  376,  377,  380,  388, 
416 
old-fashioned,  388 

Idiosyncracy,  203,  351,  379 

Illusions,  lOi,  539 

Illusion  de  jfausse  reconnaissance^ 

53? 
Imagination,  7,  359,  360,  371 

power  of  the,  367 

Imbecility,  193 

Imitation,  38,  60,  63,  72,  73,  83, 

156,  195,  .270,  306,  473 

Imponderabilia,  327 

Impulses,  139,  252,  253,  331 

low,  474 

Incendiarism,  259 

Incubi,  464 

India,  2,  11,  472 

Infection,   478.      See    Moral    con- 
tagion 

fear  of,  369,  370,  398 

Impotence«  229,  369 

Indicatio  causalisj  319,  394 

morbi,  313,  394 

symptomcUtca,  394 

Individuality,  53,  63,  66,  68,  148, 

365,  385.  433.  452 
Influence,  personal,  53,  232,  333, 

391,  486,  493 

Inhibition,  no,  265,  269,  271,  272, 

276,   277,   375,   380,  446,   447, 

474 
Injections,  Brown-S^quard's,  306 


Injections,  epidural,  344 

Inner  perspective,  235 

Insanity,  alternating  (circular),  185 

Ischuria,  325 

Insensibility,  self-induced,  2 

Insomnia,  22,  289,  307,  310,  320, 

326,  329,  337,  354,  370,  380,  522 
Inspiration,  supernatural,  45 
Institutes,  297,  328,  333,  372,  386, 

387,  390-393,  400 
Instigation,  criminal,  418,  423,  444 
Instruction,  see  Explanation,  etc. 
Intellectual     faculties,      increased 

power  of,  535-536 
Intelligence,  49,  138,  246,  371 
Interpretation,  fictitious,  543-545 
Intoxication,  194,  195,  338 
Investigations,  scientific,  285,  345, 

455,  472,  474,  481-483,  486,  489, 

491,  500,  502,  505,  519,  524,  529, 

531-534,  547,  550-553 
Ireland,  21  ' 

Irradiations,  photography  of,  492 

Italy,  II,  30 

Itching,  62,  65,  102,  160,  216,  323 

Jack-pudding,  381 

Japan,  i,  2,  55,  462 

Jena,  18,  359 

Jesuits,  10,  501 

Jews,  2,  75 

Jiu-jitsu,  55 

Journals  devoted  to  hypnotism,  29, 

Juggling,  63,  204,  240,  453,  482- 

484.  550 
Jumpers,  195 

Katatonia,  193 

Kidney  diseases,  297,  369 

Kitsune-tsuki,  460 

Kleptomania,  474 

Knee-jerk,  90 

Knitting,  386 

Knitting  needles,  experiments  with, 

502,  503 

La  Bonne  Sainte  Anne,  397 
Lata,  195 
Lapps,  40 

Laughter,  71,  11  y  78,  85,  131,  184, 
210,  211,  216,  265 


572 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Laughter,  involuntarv,  77 

pathological,  78 

Laymen  (outsiders),   11,    14,  206, 

219,  476,  489 
Lebascha  children,  3 
Lectures,  11 
Leipzig,  13,  529 
Uthargie  lucicU,  82 
Lethargy,  42,  48,   143,   154,   194, 

207,  465,  507,  508 
Lethargic  stages,  82,  90,  107,  194, 

274 
Leyden,  20 

Liege,  20 

Lille,  31 

Localization,  doctrine  of,  271,  273, 

258 

power  of,  94 

Locomotor  ataxy,  see  Tabes  dorsalis 

disturbances,  see  Paralyses 

Logic,  65,  66,  133,  134,  182,  183, 

226,  227,  230-233,  289,  300,  371, 

400,  485 
London,  15,  16,  21 
Lourdes,  287,  355,  356,  366,  397, 

469,  470 
Love  turned  to  hate,  310 
Lungs,  disease  of  the,  355,  368 
Lycanthropia,  460 
Lying,    150,   304,   354,  429,  439, 

474 
pathological,  429,  430 

Lyons,  8 

Magdeburg,  11 

Magi,  the,  i,  $OQ 

Magic,  472,  485 

Magnet,  46,  48,  287,  486,  500-502, 

509,  531,  535,  538 
Magnetic  force,  5,  9,  487-489,  491, 

495,  497 

fluid,  14,  41,  491-494 

lady,  484,  533 

needle,  deflection  of,  501-506, 

509 


passes,  see  Passes,  mesmeric 

sense,  509 

sleep,  55,  123,  124,  158,  341, 

403,438,  5" 
Magnetism,  animal,  6-16,  32,  46, 

134-136,  319,  339,  340,  354,  356, 
359,  402,   406,   412,  441,  473, 


486-500,  510-512,  519,  520,  530, 

531,  538 
Magnetism,  mineral,  6,  7,  13,  4S6, 

500-509 

taught  to  the  clergy,  10 

Magnetization,  41,  51,  76,  135,  210, 
230,  293,  465,  486,  489,  496-498, 

511,519 
Magnetopaths,  404,  496,  498,  500, 

502-504,  507,  520,  538 
Magnetopaths'  diagnoses,  496-498 

letters,  497-500 

Malicious  deception,  426 

Mania,   188,    192,   311,  41Q.     See 

Disease,  mental 
Manias,  drug,  308 
Manchester,  21 
Manila,  3 
Marburg,  5 
Marriage,  389 
Masochism,  309,  378 
Masturbation,  106,  473 
Materialist,  268 
Meadow  crowfoot,  307 
Medical  culture,  history  of,  355,  356 
Medicine,  ancient,  352,  353,  356 
theoretical  considerations  on, 

343-356 
Mediums,  spiritist,  109,  419,  466, 

f;  467,  481-485,  501,  502,  505,  506, 
509,  510,  530,  532,  534,  536,  537, 

539.  547,  550,  551-    S^^  Spiritism 
Medulla  oblongata,  201,  211 
Melancholia,  188,  305,  311 

attonita,  193 

Melancholia  cum  stupore,  76 

Memory,  38,  59,  61,  93,  121-123, 

124-127,  143,  161,  167,  172,  175, 

176,  179,  192,  219,  233, 243-250, 

252,  254, 255,  259, 260,  268,  335, 

336,  376, 432,  435, 437, 461,  537, 

540.  See  Amnesia 

chains  of,  122,  126,  244,  247- 


249 


delusions  of,  see  Suggestion, 


retro-active 

—  illusions  of,  539,  540 

—  loss  of,  see  Amnesia 
post -hypnotic,  255 


Menorrhagia,  114,  307 
Menstruation, '114,  229,  350,  361 
disorders  of,  1 14,  296,  307 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


573 


Mental  life,  the  five  facts  of,  226-235 

states,  abnormal,  196,  248, 249 

262,  421,  446,  468,  469 
Mesmerism,  7,  33,  299,  340,  385, 

,  485 

Mesmer's  name,  6 

Mesmerists,  the  old,  51,  99,   iii, 

122,  126,  135,  160,  163,  179,  486, 

489,  495 

■ meeting-places  of,  15 

Mesmerists'  confused  ideas,  491,492 
Metabolism,  69,  113 
Metalloscopy,  528 
Metallo-therapeutics,  352,  528 
Middle  Ages,  5,  460,  464 
Milk,  secretion  of,  112 
Miracles,  313,  353,  486-471 

Bible,  470 

scientific  explanation  of,  471 

Modesty,  false,  379 
Mohammedans,  5,  74 
Morsburg  (Meersburg),  7 
Mongols,  the,  3 
Monist,  268 
Montanists,  the,  2 
Moon,  influence  of  the,  5 
Morality,  offences  against,  20,  402- 

409 

Morbus  hypnoticuSy  195 

Morphia,  45,  194,  269,  273,  285, 
288 

Morphinism,  308, 333,  338,  373, 393 

Moscow,  31 

MouvemerU  psychiqtu^  48 

Movements,  64,  71,  139,  140,  148, 
151,  160,  182-185,  197»  218,261, 
264,  265,  267,  270,  374, 476,  492, 

5"i  515.  516,  517,  527.  See 
Automatic  movements,  Continued 
movements 

continued,  77,  151,  183 

of  inanimate  objects,  491,  506, 

510»  530»  S42 

imitative,  35,  156,  270,  271, 


461 


rotatory,  206 

in  sleep,  182,  183 

Multiple  sclerosis,  325,  509 

Munich,  ii,  13 

Murder,  259,  417,  418,  433,  449, 

474 
Muscles,  antagonistic,  70,  81 


I 


Muscles,  functional  abnormalties  of 
the,  80 

involuntary,  1 1 1 

voluntary,  59, 69-91,  106,  176, 

229,  234-236,  331 

Muscular  relaxation,  78 

sense,  42,  72,  88,  89,  97,  135, 

139 
Music,  influence  of,  42,  74,  141,  142, 

178,  179,  202,  476-478,  533 
Mutism,  306 
Myriachit,  195 
Misere  psyc  hi  que  y  235 
Mysticism,   12,  225,  233,  267,'  537, 

538 

Nancy  method,  36 

school,  18,  19,  21,  23,  28,  36, 

44,  51,  83,  207,  280,   360,  456, 

461,  519.  529 
Narcolepsy,  195,  322 
Narcotics,  308. 
Nationality,  51,  299,  383 
Neuralgia,  306,  346,  400 
Neurasthenia,    25,    48,    155,    187, 

297,  309,  346,,  393»  396,  496 
Neuroglia,  functions  of,  272 
Neurokym,  277 
Neurons,  272,  273 
Neuroses,  194,  196,  305,  316,  317, 

336,  346 

of  emotion,  309 

traumatic,  188,  309,  321,  338, 

348,  393 
Neurosismus,  305 
Nervous  diseases,  180,  314,  355 

tremors,  306 

Neurypnology,  15,  475,  520 
Nightmare,  187 
Nimbus  of  the  hypnotizer,  57 
Nitrite  of  amyl,  273 
Norway,  2ü 
Nosophobia,  307 
Notoriety 'hunting,  411 
Novelty,  stimulus  of,  352,  353 
Number  habit,  546 
Nutrition,  diseases  of,  329 

Objections,  285- 287 

Objectivaiion  des  iyfes,   130.      See 

Personality,  change  of 
Obsessions,  248,  460 


574 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Obstetrics,  341 

Occultism,  26,  225,  435,  455,  464, 
473.  4Ä)-S50 

lacks  scientific  proof,  531,  532 

Occultists,  498,  504,  507,  537,  538 

mental  state  of,  536-540 

Od  doctrine,  13,  501 
Omphalopsychists,  the,  2 
Onirism,  187 
Onychophagy,  473 
Ophthalmoscopic       examinations, 

273»  274 
Opinion,  orthodox,  538 

Operations,    14-16,  96,   114,    230, 

242,  238,  316,  317, 337, 339-341, 

347.  390,  394 
Oppression,  feeling  of,  106,  107 

Oracles,  470,  520,  543 

Organic  changes,  114-121, 208, 213, 

220,  315,  335.  355,  370,  468 

Organo-therapy,  353 

Orient,  i 

Organs  of  sense,  hypersesthesia  of, 

97,  466,  535 
Ovaries,  42,  347 

Paedophile,  378 

Pain,   22,   94-96,    102,    106,  118, 

160,    186,    193,   210,   228,  230, 

243,  265,  281,  300,  306,  312, 
313,  316,  317,  326,  332,  338, 
371,  375.  380,  468,  512 

"imaginary,"  371 

Panacea,  universal,  302 
Parsesthesiae,  306,  388 
Paralyses,  72,  128,  148,  193,  197, 
198,   281,   297,   312,   321,   339, 

348,  352,  355,  374,  409 
Paralysies  systimcUiques^  128 
Paralysis,  hysterical,  67,  217,  229, 

306,  338,  382 

agitans,  190,  338 

general,  of  the  insane,  193 

'*  Paralysis    dependent    on    idea" 

(*'  paralysis  by  imagination  "),  71 
Paramyoclonous,  306 
Paranoia,  388 
Paris,  7,  12,  16,   18,  19,  28,  520, 

545 
Passes,  mesmeric,  33,  34,  41,  45, 

47,  53,  75.  76,  107,  340,  486, 

492,  493.  495 


Patellar  reflex,  cessation  of,  97 
Patients,  preparation  of,  330-332 

relatives,  influence  of,  384 

Percentages,  56,  57 

Perception,    178,    233,    266,    510. 

538.  539 
Performances,  dangerous,  443 

Peristalsis,  iii 

Persia,  i,  2 

Personal  freedom,  deprivation  of, 

413 
Personality,  22,  131,  132,  183,  228, 

232,    244,   249,   280,   318,    389, 

452 
change  of,  131,  132,  183,  195, 

476 

double,  244,  245 

plurality  of,  281,  451 

triple,  462 

Petit  hypnotisme^  81 

Photographs,     experiments     with, 

100,  161,  174,  455,  482 
Phreno-hypnotism,  86,  461 
Phrenology,  86 
Physiognomy,  see  Expres^on 
Physiology,  19,  %T,  268-279,  286, 

417 
Planets,  influence  of,  6 

Plutocracy,  481 
Points  tie  repire^  100,  137 
Polarity,  magnetic,  495,  496 
Polarization,  508 
Polyuria,  hysterical,  307 
Potassium  chlorate,  288 

iodide,  288 

Powers  of  observation,  536,  537 
Praxi-therapeutics,  387,  395.     See 

Occupational  treatment 
Pregnancy,  vomiting  of,  307,  312 
Premise,  false,  133*  151.  434 
Prisms,  experiments  with,  211,  212 
Probability,    439,   513,   522,    523, 

528,  543-547,  549 
Prohibition,  36 

Prophecy,  134,  5*1,  53 1,  54«.    See 

Clairvoyance 
Prophecy,    fictitious  interpretation 

of,  ,543 
Promissory  notes,  412 

Protocols,  drawing  up  of,  547-550 

Pruritus,  cutaneus  nervosus,  323 

Prussian  Government,  lo 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


575 


Pseudo-authorities,  283 
P§eudo-hypnosiS|  61 
Pseudo-rabies,  30S 
Psychical  Research,  Societies  for, 

21,  26,  244,  262,  512 
Psycho-hygiene,  397,  398 
Psychology,  19,  22,  26,  27,  29,  30, 

225,   226,   268,   269,   285,   329, 

353»  362,  408,  431,  445-463 

ethnological,  3,  355,  471 

numerical,  461 

Psycho-therapeutics,  24,   30,   282, 

286,  287,  296,  304,  312-315,  317, 

319,  328,  343»  346,  374-417,  469 
Psychotherapie  inferUure^  373 

superieurey  373 

Puberty,  368 

Public  authorities,  440,  441,  525 

Pudenda,  511,  512 

Pulse,  107-110,  142,  189,  257,  367, 

411 
Pupils  of  the  eye,  90,  91,  209,  337 

reflexes  of,  91,  212 

Pythia,  520 

Quackery,  31,  120,  227,  282,  286, 
290,  318,  320,  327,  341,  354, 
355.  372,  404»  410.  See  Mag- 
netopaths 

Quinine,  281,  288 

Railway-travelling,  fear  of,  376 
Rapport,    16,  36,  48,  84,  85»  95» 

134-136,  177»  198,  199»  239.  240, 

469,  512 

isolated,  143,  240,  270 

Raps,  453,  506,  530,  539,  544 

Reaction-time,  136,  137 

Reflexes,  48, 80-86, 90, 91,  96, 127, 

201,  202,  210,  216,  217,  243, 

252,  266,  270,  272,  278,  350, 


mental,  85,  86,  252 

new,  83,  457 

physical,  83-85,  184,  208,  270, 

461,  489 
Religion,  69,  188,  232,  263,  355, 

459.  465.  469.  471 

Religion  the  greatest  psycho-thera- 
peutic agent,  393,  394 

Religious  philosophy,  2 

Remedies,  dangerous,  288-2904  342 


Respiration,  107-109,  no,  142, 
189,  202,  204,  208,  215,  257, 
367,  447..508,  516,  517 

Responsibility,  423,  424,  426 

Rest,  299,  375,  381 

Rewards,  382,  488 

Ride  of  the  Valkyries,  142 

Rontgen-rays,  42 

Rotatory  movements,  201 

Royal  touch,  4 

Russia,  II,  19,  20,  329 

Sadism,  309,  378 

Salp^triere,    40.       See    Charcot's 

school 
Saratoff*,  20 
Savant,  the  real,  502 
Scheveningen,  20 
Schleich's  method  of  local  analgesia, 

347.  348 
Scholars,  eminent,  481 
Science  and  belief,  537 

and  dogma,  553 

duty  of,  501 

hatred  for,  538 

Scientific  doubt,  552-554 

remedies,  so-called,  297 

societies,  26,  29 

Scientists,  duped,  481-483 
Scotland,  21 
Stances,  see  Spiritism 
Sea-sickness,  36,  309,  335 
Secrecy,  professional,  333 
Secretions,  the,  69,  in- 113 
Sceress  exposed,  524 
Self-confidence,  overweening,  536 
Self-consciousness,  148,   149,   175- 

178,  216,  226,  408,  420,  445 
Self-deception,  221,  228,  406,  496, 

509,  523 . 
Self-determination,  412 

Self-observation,    173,    225,    445, 

447 
Self-projection,    Lipps'  theory  of, 

264 

Self-suggestion,  see  Auto-sugges- 
tion 

Semi-circular  canals,  injury  to, 
201 

Sensation,  common,  69,  105,  106 

Sensations,  62,  91-105,  233,  281, 
300,  306,  366,  494,  498,  510 


576 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Sense-delusions,  101-106>  139}  144} 
146,  147,  151, 160, 169, 17s,  178, 
180,  181, 185,  188, 189,  190,  198, 
199}  209, 210,  212,  217, 218, 236- 
239,  250, 262, 263,  266,  293,  311, 
410,  463,  500.  See  Hallucina- 
tions, Illusions 

methods  of  suggesting,    102- 


negative,  104,  105,  129,  146, 
147,  191,  224,  239,  240-243,  246, 
266 

—  positive,    104.        See    Sense- 
delusion 

post-hypnotic,  261-263,  500 


Sense,  organs  of,  69,  92-105,  275, 

386,  526,  542 
Sense-perceptions,  62,  91-105,  518 
Senses,  increased  keenness  of,  97- 

100 
Sense-slioiuli,  40,  42-44,  84,  181, 

239 
Senses,  transposition  of,  8,  98,  486, 

491,  495»  525,  526,  535,  537,  53» 

Sensitiveness  increased  by  sugges- 
tion, 98 

Sensory  functions,  cessation  of,  97, 
105 

Sequelae  of  suggestion,  97 

Serpents,  470 

Sex,  51,  383,  389,  395,  430,  522 

Sexual  bondage,  232,  414 

feeling  influenced  by  sugges- 
tion, 106 

intercourse,  106,  407,  494 

perversion,  139,  260,  309, 331, 


333,  368,  377-379,  40c 

processes,  153,  336,  347,  368, 


379,  406 
Shamans,  204 
Sihame,  317 
Shrines,  353,  366,  397 
Sibyl,  520 

Sickness,  nervous,  322 
Sight,  see  Eye 

delusions  of,  103,  146,  212 

Signals,   counting,   138,   163,    164, 

256 
(signs),  74,  155,  156,  162,  163, 

256,  257,  448,  453,  456,  515-517» 
.  523,  526,  535,  540,  542,  543,  550 
Signs,  increased  delicacy  of,  453 


Simulation,  56,  87,  148,   150,  205- 
223,  304,  381.  406,  419,  439,  481, 
521 
Slanderers,  professional,  7,  8 
Sleep,  3,  4,  44,  46,  53,  60,  78,  90, 
103,    125,    144,    145,    163,   176, 
191-194,  195,  197,  225,  237-239, 
250,  251,  257,  272,  274,  276-278, 
311,  366,  450,  462,  490,  529 

rapport  in,  185 

theories  of,  272,  273,  463 

Sleep-dancers,  33, 79, 142,  209, 440, 

443,.  475-478,  533 
Sleep-inhibition,  446 
Skin,  bleeding  of,  115,  467-469 
Smell,  sense  of,  40,  86,  92,  93,  97, 

99,  100,  365,  518 

hallucination  of,  199,  230 

Somnambulia,  see  Somnambulism 
Somnambulism,  8, 39,  50, 57-59,  81, 

134, 153, 163,  177, 184, 185, 194, 

288,  294,  307,  322, 420,  466,  478, 

491,  508, 519,  535 

artificial,  8 

cured  by  fright,  382 

spontaneous,    136,    153,    185, 

etc.     See  Somnambulism 

the  three  stages  of,  184 

Somnambulisme  mort^  82 

provoqui^  l^ 

vivani,  82 

Somnoform,  45 

Somnolence,  57,  58 

Soothsayer,  134 

Sorcerers,  4 

Sorcery,  471 

Soul,  rays  emitted  by  the,  5 

South  America,  22 

Spain,  20 

Specialism,  327-330 

Specialists,    149,    206,    320,    44I, 

512 
Speech,  70,  71,  72,  130,  131,   141, 

157,  182,  382,  449 
abnormalities  of,  129, 162,  229, 

375.     See  Aphasia 
inhibition  of,  35 


Spiritism,  183,  246,  263,  293,  418, 
467,  480,  481,  483-485,  502,  506, 
509,  530,  531-533,  536,  538,  544, 
531 

lacks  scientific  proof,  531,  533 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


577 


Spiritists,  455,  465,  466,  509,  53 1> 

532,  537-539.  544,  S4Si  547549 
and  sense-delusions,  538,  539 

credulous,  466 

mental  state  of,  536-540 

Spirits,  materialization  of,  530 

photographs  of,  506 

Spiritualism,  see  Spiritism 

Spiritus  viialis^  6 

Squinting,  79,  209 

Stammering,  67,  1S6,  194,  229,  306, 

334.  375 
States,  post-hypnotic,  167,  i68](4«l, 

422,421 

Stenographers,  difficulties  of,  548 
Stigmatisation,  115,  116,  150,  465, 

467-469 
Stimulants,  308 

Stimuli,  152,   183,  275,  278,  279, 

494.  525 
Stockholm,  15,  20 

Stoics,  358 

Stomach,  disorders  of  the,  112,  306, 

307,  320,  351,  355.  368,  523 

hearing;  with  pit  of,  8,  526 

reading  with  the,  79 

St.  Petersburg,  17 

Strassburg,  9 

Strychnine,  288 

Succubse,  464 

Suggestibility,  (susceptibility  to  sug- 
gestion), 27,  61,  68,  71,  91, 
III,  154,  166169,  180,  195-197, 
210, 230,  263,  264,  265,  280,  294, 

299.  300,  309.  349.  421,  423-425. 
428, 438, 446,  454, 459, 460, 471, 
504 
Suggestion,  i,  2,  4.  ".  iS.  I7-I9, 
21-30,  32,  33.  37,  43.  46,  48,  55, 
58,  61,  64-68,  70, 81,  83.98.  loi- 
106,  108-120,  122,  123, 126, 133, 
135-141,  143-156.  158,  161-163, 
170,  182,  191,  195, 198, 199.  201, 
217,  218,  230-231,  240,  242,  256, 
257, 260, 262, 263,  266,  267,  270, 
273.  276, 277, 282, 286, 287, 290, 
291,  297,  300-3O2,  305-3^3.  315. 
318, 324,  333.  339,  343-348,  350, 

352,  353.  356, 371, 372,  373.  382, 
403,  410, 411,  414,  448,  459-461, 
469,  471-476,  486-488,  490,  498, 
508,  509.    See  Auto-suggestion 


(( 


Suggestion,  ä  SMance^  16.2  ^ 

Iw  letter,  27 

(f  attitude,  62,  157 

definitions  of,  64,  65 

excluded,"  347,  456 

—  gymnastics,  374,  375 

—  indirect,  54,  333 

—  in  waking  life,  64,  196-198, 
252,  357,  411,  414.  441,  444. 
474 

—  mentale^  510 

— par  distractipn,  2^0 

—  post-hypnotic,  IV.,  46,  54,  58, 
112,  123,  129,  133,  143,  145,  158, 
162-175,  180,  186-189,  195.  210, 
218,  247,  251-263,  295,  321,  322, 
341,  406,  407,  409,  416,  419-421, 
423-425,  437,  449-451 

—  pre-hypnotic,  68,  301,  332 
psychology   of,    22,   263-268. 


See  Psychology 

retroactive,  128-130,  406, 428- 


433.  443.  513 

—  social  importance  of,  27,  459 

verbal,  4,  71,  73,  92,  136,  139, 


140,  156,  281,  356,  366,  453 
Suggestions,  absurd,  170,  173 
ä  veilUj  192.     See  Suggestion 

in  waking  life 

inditerminies^   (indeterminate 


suggestion),  133 
Suicide,  259,  411 
Superstition,  26, 151,  204,  233,  354, 

393.  419.  464.  473 
Surgery,  14-16,  339-341 
Surroundings,  149,  158,  235,  329, 

350.  376 
Susceptibility,  see  Suggestibility 
Suspension,  treatment  by,  288,  344 
Sweat,  bloody,  115.    See  Stigmatiz- 

ation 
secretion  of,   107,   112,   115, 

213 
Sweden,  20 

Switzerland,  ii,  20,  23 
Swallowing,  movements  of,  60,  81 
Swindlers,  12,  429 
Sympathetic  remedies,  318 
Symptoms  of  Hypnosis,  69-159 
Symptoms,  the  treatment  of,  297, 

312,  314,  326,  354 
Synopsia,  450 

37 


578 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Sypthilis,  319 
Syringomyelia,  312 

Tabes  dorsalis   (locomotor  ataxy), 
89,  98,  211,  281,  298,  308,  312, 

319.  344.  352.  372i  383»  496 
Table-turning,  542 

Tachycardia,  no 

Tact,  371 

Tagals,  the,  3 

Talking  in  sleep,  125,  185,  322, 434 

Talmud,  75 

Taskodrugites,  the,  2 

Taste,  sense  of,  40,  93,  102,  103, 

139,  140,  161,  510 
Tears,  secretion  of,  103,  112,  115, 

213.  289,  309 
Technique,  24,  294 
Tedium,  movements  of,  213 
Telaesthesia,  510 
Telepathy,   8,  99.   I34.   I57,  293. 

457,  482,  486,  490,  498,  499,  510- 

519,  527,  530,  534,  536,  539-544, 

546,  549,  552 
Temperament,  154,  184,  395 
Temperance  Societies,  329 
Temperature,    109,  134,  487,  494, 

508 
— :-  sense  of,  41,  99,  102 
Temples,  356, 470 
Tendon-reflex,  81,  90 
Terminology,  37,  38 
Testimony,  falsification  of,  427-432 

the  psychology  of,  430-432 

The  Hague,  20 

Theories,  materialistic,  valuelessness 

of,  278 

physiological,   234,   268-279, 

421 

—~ the  valuelessness  of,  279 

psychological,  263-267 

Therapeutics,  23.     See  Medicine 

hypnotic,   see   Hypnosi-thera- 

peutics 
mental,  J^^  Psycho-therapeutics 

occupational,  see  Treatment, 

occupational 

suggestive,  17,  20,  25,  28,  280, 

281,  282, 285,  297,  304,  358, 365- 
367 

volitional,  283,  373-379,  3^3, 

496 


Thing  in  itself,  the,  227 

Thomsen's  disease,  194 

Thoughts,    concentration    of,    138, 

191,  268, 336,  374,  447, 495,  511, 

512,  515  * 
Thought-reading,  62,  63,  I57.  246, 

510,  516-518,  527,  536,  542 

transference,  see  Telepathy 

Thunderstorms,  dread  of,  310 

Thuringia,  6 

Tics,  306,  363,  375 

Time,  calculation  of,  258 

Tobacco,  332 

Toothache,  316,  317 

Touch,  sense  of,  40,  93,  94,  102, 

230,  516 

increased  sensitiveness  to,  98 

Torture,  464 

Training,   68,  80,   102,   127,    131, 

139-141,  147,  155-158,  261,  333, 

449,  453,  455,  490,  529,  535,  54 1 
unintentional,  82 

Trance,  247,  293,  419,  465,  467,  506 

self-induced,  2 

simulated,  419 

Trance- waking,  167 
Trauma,  mental,  188,  336 
Traumatic  paraphegia,  321 
Travellers,  3 

Treatment,    instructional   and  ex- 
planatory, 296,  367-373,  396 
occupational,  380-383,  385-388, 

395,  396 
professional    occupation    as, 

387-390 
Trembling,  71,  155,  208,  214,  216, 

325 
Tremor  nervosus,  324 

Trional,  288 

Trivialities,  548,  549 

Tuition,  64,  477 

Twitchings,  fibrillary,  209 

Ulnar  nerve,  81 

Uncivilized  peoples,  3,  40,  42,  46, 

245,  354,  445,  466 
Unnatural  ofiences,  409 
Unscientific  persons,  33 
Urine,  112,  113,  370 
Urticaria,  119,  351 

Vaccination,  28  r 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


579 


Vaginismus,  306 

Vasomotor  abnormalities  (variation 
in  the  quantity  of  blood  circu- 
lating in  an  organ),  72,  207,  276, 
510 

Vegetarianism,  191,  538 

Veille  somnambuliqttey  167,  198 

Vertebral  arteries,  274 

Vertigo,  191,  320 

Vessels,  see  Vasomotor  abnormalities 

Vibrations,  492 

Vienna,  7 

Vision,  experiments  on  the,  93 

field  of,  concentrically  nar- 
rowed, 208 

increased  power  of,  99 

Volition,  arbitrary,  71 

Vomiting,  85,  m,  304,  320,  322, 

383 
Vomiting,  nervous,  382 

Waking,  47,  56,  122,  124,  144,  153, 
164,  167,  186,  187,  210,  214,  243, 
255,270,  291,  311 

method    of,   36,   47-48,    i77» 

278,  290 

Water-finders,  527 

Water,  magnetized,  491 

Warts,  5,  115,  318 

West  Borneo,  3 

Wheals,  116,  119,  120 

Wholesome  dissipation,  389 

Whispering,  55,  93,  516,  518,  542 

Will,  66,  71,  85, 148-150,  152,  177, 
219,  251,  252,  254,  256,  265,  269, 
27 1 1  29s»  312,  373»  377,  403»  436, 
493.  495»  518,  553.  See  External 
activity  of  the  will.  Internal 
activity  of  the  will 


Will,  deprivation  of,  407,  408 

external  activity  of,  149,  150, 

373»  374«   ^^  Movements,  Volun- 
tary muscle 
Will,    external  gymnastics  of  the, 

374 

internal  activity  of,  375-379 

weakness,  50,  364 

Willing-game,  the,  62 

Witches,  46 

Witchcraft,  15 

Witnesses,  hypnotization  of,  433- 

437 
Wittenberg,  359 

Woman-question,  the,  384 

Womb,  the,  350,  512,  523 

Work,  282,  349,  380,  383,  386,  387, 
388 

curative  value  of,  387,  388 

kinds  of,  386 

useless,  386 

Work-cure,  see  Occupational  treat- 
ment 

Worry,  390 

Wounds,  355.     See  Operations 

Writers'  cramp,  306,  375 

Writing,  mediumistic,  246.  See 
Automatic  writing 

Yawning,  195 
Yoga  sleep,  2,  204 
Yogis,  the,  i,  472 
Yohimbin,  344 

Zoanthropia,  460 
2^nes  hypnoginesy  41 

iocUog^neSy  141 

Zoo-magnetism,  7,  487 


II. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 

A  single  date  in  the  index  means  the  year  in  which  the  author^ s 
work  on  hypnotism^  or  his  most  important  work^  appeared;  two 
dates  mean  the  times  of  his  birth  and  death,  A  "  ^."  means  that 
the  author  is  dead  The  displayed  figures  refer  to  his  most 
important  work. 


Abbott,  Mrs.,  called  the  magnetic 
lady,  1892,  484,  533 

Abel,  Kurt,  1889,  32 

Abs,  Karl,  well-known  wrestler, 
1892,  484 

Abundo,  G.  d',  1886,  prof,  of  psy- 
chiatry and  neurology,  Catania, 

99 
Ach,    Narciss,    Strassburg,    1899, 

448 

Achille,  1890,  French  author,  32 

Adamkiewicz,  O.,  formerly  prof, 
of  pathology  in  Cracow,  18 

Agahd,  Konrad,  teacher,  Rixdorf 
n.  Berlin,  ^30 

Agassis,  Louis,  1807-1873,  zoolo- 
gist and  geologist,  New  Cam- 
bridge, 183 

Agatson,  Sigmund,  1902,  American 
physician,  308 

Aim^,  Henri,  1897,  assistant  to 
Bernheim,  Nancy,  29 

Albert!,  Michael,  1682  - 1757, 
authority  on  medical  jurisprud- 
ence, Halle,  359 

Albertus  Magnus,  1 193 -1280, 
eminent  philosopher,  501 

Alcock,  doctor,  Goole,  Yorkshire, 

89,98 
Aldrich,    Frank,    doctor,  Clapton, 

340 


Algeri,G.,  1887,  Italian  alienist,  434 
Alliot,  1886,  French  doctor,  529 
Alphandery,  George,  1885,  French 

doctor,  363 
Althaus,    Julius,   d.    1900,   neuro- 
logist, London,  308 
Althotas,  tutor  to  Cagliostro  as  a 

boy,  I 
Altschul,  Walter,  doctor,  Prague, 

36s 
Ancke,   ophthalmologist,    Munich, 

79,  209 
Andrieu,    dentist,    Chariti^    Paris, 

340 
Anglade,  1903,  head  physician  at 

the  Asylum,  Bordeaux,  311 
Anton,   G.,    1888,   prof.,  alienist, 

Halle;  291 
Anuforiew,  307 
Apuleius,   Lucius,   2  A.D.,   mystic 

and  author,  Carthage,  520 
Archibald,  230 

Archimedes,  287-212  B.c.,  240 
Aristotle,     384-322     b.c.,     Greek 

philosopher,  psychologist,  natural 

scientist,  186 
Armstrong,  244 

Arndt,  Rudolph,  1835- 1900,  alien- 
ist, prof,  at  Greifswald,  128 
Artigalas,  1892,  French  dermatolo* 

gist,  IIS 


582 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


ArtzroDDy,  V.,   American  doctor, 

204 
Ascbenbom,  Geh.  San. -Rat,  doctor, 

assistant  m  the  education  office, 

Berlin,  2S4 
Aschaffenburg,      alienist,       prof., 

Cologne,  4(ä 
Ashburner,     John,     about     1834, 

doctor,  London,  14 
Assisi,     Francis     of,     1 182-1226, 

Catholic  saint,  467 
Auban,  1865,  French  doctor,  403 
Aubry,  40 

Aup^pin,  Cellicure  de  1*,  117 
Auvard,  1887,  obstetrician,  Paris,. 

341 
Av^-Lallemant,    Friedrich,    1809- 

1892,  police  official  in  Lübeck, 

subsequently  in   Marienfeld  nr. 

Berlin,  6,  299 

Axtell,  22 

Azam,    prof.,   surgeon,   Bordeaux, 

16,  39,  126 

Azoulay,  L^on,  1885,  French 
doctor,  137 

Babinski,  neurologist,  physician  at 
the  Hopital  de  la  Piti^,   Paris, 

17,  307,  509 
Bacchi,  1889,  91,  274 

Bäumler,  Ch.,  professor  of  medi- 
cine, Freiburg,  18,  42 

Baierlacher,  Eduard,  1889,  d., 
doctor,  Nürnberg,  23 

Bailey,  American  judge,  405 

Baillarger,  French  alienist,  188, 
189 

Baillif,  L.  E.,  1868,  French  doctor, 

55 
Bailly,  P.  R.,  1784,  7,  359 

Bakker,  1 8 14,  Dutch  prof,  of 
medicine,  1 1 

Balassa,  Konstantin,  1828,  Austrian 
cavalry  officer,  202 

Baldwin,  James  Mark,  1894,  prof, 
of  psychology,  Princeton  Uni- 
versity, U.S.A.,  27 

Ballet,  Gilbert,  prof,  agrigi^  Paris, 
neurologist,  alienist,  and  phy- 
sician, 43,  195,  415»  418 

Balsamo,  Giuseppe,  real  name  of 
Cagliostro 


Balzac,     Honor^    de,     1799-1850, 

famous  French  novelist,  32 
Bancroft,  Charles,  American  savant, 

76 

Baraduc,  H.,  doctor,  Paris,  496 
Barbarin,     Chevalier     de,      1786, 

Ostend,  356,  493 
Barbaud,  306 

Bardier,  French  physician,  115 
Baret,  French  Navy  surgeon,  460 
Bar6ty,   A.,    1887,    doctor,     Nice, 

495»  496 
Bark  worth,   Thomas,    1889,    Chig- 

well,  Essex,  244,  245 
Barrere,    Peter,    botanist,    doctor, 

Perpignan  (i755).  5 
Barreto,  Brazilian  doctor,  20 
Barrett,    W.    F.,    1884,     prof,    of 

experimental    physics,      Dublin, 

501 

Bartels,  Ernst,  1 81 2,  prof.,  physi- 
ologist, Breslau,  1 1,  488 

Bartels,  Maximilian  Karl  Ang., 
1 843- 1 904,  doctor  and  anthro- 
pologist, Berlin,  471 

Barth,  Adolph,  aural  surgeon,  prof., 
Leipzig,  23 

Barth,  Georg,  1852,  doctor  and 
magnetizer,  London,  16,  112 

Barth,  Henri,  1886,  doctor,  Paris, 

17 
Barth,  doctor.  Bale,  347 

Bastian,    Adolf,    1826- 1905,    prof. 

extraordinary,  Berlin,  founder  of 

modern    ethnology,    director    o« 

the     ethnological     museum     at 

Berlin,   3,    5,   26,  40,  195,  245, 

355»  466 
Bastian,      Charlton,      neurologist, 

London,  17 
Bazin,    1859,    prof,    at   Bordeaux, 

alienist,  16 
Beard,  George  Miller,  1839- 1882, 

neurologist.  New  York,  22,  62, 

195»  266 

Beaunis,  H.,  prof,  of  physiology, 
Nancy,  18,  39,  88,  91,  107,  109, 
no,  117,  121,  122,  133,  137, 
150,  165,  167,  168,  197,  198, 
299,  420,  446 

Beaunnoir,  de,  French  mag- 
netizer, 9 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


583 


Bechterew,  1905,  prof,  in  St. 
Petersburg,  distinguished  alienist 
and  neurologist,  20,  27,  62,  65, 
97,  137,  138,  231,  307,  312,  459, 
460,  473 

Becker,  408 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Cesar,  1788- 
1878,  physicist,  Paris,  503 

Beer  de  Boon,  212 

Beesel,  108,  466 

Beethoven,  1770-1827,  477 

Beisswenger,  1903,  dentist,  Stutt- 
gart, 341 

Belfiore,  Giulio,  doctor,  Naples, 
21,  174,  501,  508 

Bell,  Clark,  1897,  lawyer,  New 
York,  22,  412 

Bellachini,  d.,  juggler,  484 

Bellemani^re,  doctor,  Bellevue 
(Seine-et-Oise),  40 

Bellet,  Emile  Marcel,  1898,  French 
doctor,  363 

Belot,  Adolf,  French  author,  32 

B^nard,  307 

Benavente,  David,  1887,  doctor, 
Santiago,  22 

Benda,  neurologist,  Berlin,  387 

Benedikt,  Moritz,  prof,  extra- 
ordinary in  Vienna,  neurologist, 
18,   24,   28,    29,   46,    124,   287, 

415,  501 
Ben  Jonson,  32 

Bennett,  John,  1812- 1875,  physi- 
ologist and  physician,  Edinburgh, 
272 
Benoit,  Charles,  1893,  5^^ 
Bentivegni,  Adolf  v.,  jurist, 
Gransee,  26,  67,  166,  184,  198, 
233,    242,   258,  262,   266,  421, 

423,  424-427,  449 

Berchtold,  432 

Berend,  i860,  doctor,  Berlin,  17 

Berger,  Hans,  1904,  privatdozent^ 
alienist,  Jena,  361 

Berger,  Oskar,  1844- 1885,  prof,  ex- 
traordinary, neurologist,  Breslau 
(1880),  18,  41,  55,  80,  86,  89, 
90,  94,98,  197,211,  270,  281 

Bergmann,  doctor.  Worms,  61, 
112,  421 

Bergson,  H.,  1886,  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  99 


Berillon,  Edgar,  doctor,  Paris, 
editor  of  the  Revue  de  VHyp- 
noiisme^  inspector  of  lunatic 
asylums,  19,  28-30,  40,  64,  86, 
104,  no,  185,  306,  308,  309, 
368,  430,  432,  462,  473,  474 

Berjon,      1886,      French     doctor, 

114 
Berkhan,  Oswald,  doctor,   Bruns- 
wick, 23 
Bema,  1837,  magnetizer,  Paris,  12 
Bernard,  1904,  doctor,  Cannes,  45 
Bernard- Leroy,  French  doctor,  539 
Bernhardt,  Sarah,  b.  1845,  French 

actress,  32 
Bernheim,  Ernst,  prof,  of  history, 

Greifswald,  430 
Bernheim,  prof,  of  medicine, 
Nancy,  17,  18,  21,  28,  39,  44, 
45»  55,  58,  59,  61,  64,  75,  77,  80, 
108, 123,  143,  160, 176, 194, 197, 
212,  239,  278,  281,  307,  309,  311- 
3^5,  318,  330,  337,  339, 428, 429, 

431,  432 
Bert,     Paul,     18361886,    French 

physiologist  and  politician,  42 
Bertrand,  Alexandre,  1823,  doctor, 

Paris,  12,  55,  104,  127,  156,  239, 

290 
Bethe,  Albert,  1905,  privat -dozeni, 

physiologist,  Strassbur^,  504 
B^zy,    specialist    for    diseases    of 

children,  Toulouse,  429 
Bezzola,  alienist,  Ermatingen,  29 
Bianchi,   Leonardo,    1886,   neuro- 
logist, Naples,  508 
Bianchi,      1681  - 1761,     prof,     of 

anatomy,  Turin,  529 
Bianchini,      1 720- 1 779,     prof,     of 

medicine,  Padua,  529 
Bicker,      Georg,      1787,     doctor, 

Bremen,  8 
Biester,  Johann  Erich,  1749- 1816, 

librarian,  member  of  the  Berlin 

Academy,  10 
Bigelow,    John,    versatile    author. 

New  York,  182,  183 
Bikeles,  doctor,  Lemberg,  193 
Billroth,  Theodor,  1 829- 1 894,  prof., 

eminent  surgeon,  Vienna,  288 
Binder,    Oskar,    alienist,    Schus- 

senried  (Baden),  25 


584 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


Binet,  Alfred,  prof.,  psychologist, 
head  of  the  psycho-physiological 
laboratory  of  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris,  17,  27,  40,  86,  87,  100, 
1x7,    128,    146,   212,  241,   250, 

25s.   430.   43ii  432»  4SI.   459» 
474,  507,  508 
Binswanger,   Otto,    prof.,   alienist 
and  deurologist,   Jena,    18,   25, 
56,  125,  289,  297,  303,  318,  349, 

362,  364,  397 
Binswanger,    R.,    doctor,    Kreuz- 

lirtgen  nr.  Constance,  308 
Birchall,  James,  1883,  secretary  of 

the   Literary   and   Philosophical 
■    Society  of  Liverpool,  514,  552 
Bird,   Friedr.   Ludwig,   1 793-1853, 

alienist,  Bonn,  385 
Bleuler,   Karl,  prof.,   alienist  and 

neurologist,      director     of     the 

Lunatic    Asylum    at    Burghölzi, 

Zurich,    20,    25,   70,    123,    150, 

205,  225,  226,  445,  459 
Block,  306 
Blum,  1886,  prof,  of  philosophy  at 

the  Lyceum,  St.  Omer,  474 
Blum,  Paul,  1906,  French  doctor, 

465 
Böckmann,    Joh.     Lorenz,    1787, 

doctor,  Karlsruhe,  9 
Bollert,  Theod.,d.  i889,hypnotizer, 

Charlottenburg,  442 
Boerhaave,     1668- 1738,     eminent 

j)hysician,  Leyden,  359,  382 
lÖorner,   Paul,    1829-1885,   doctor, 

medical    author    and    hygienist, 

Berlin,  18 
Bogdanoff,    T.,  alienist,   Moscow, 

430 
Boirac,  director  of  the  Academy, 

Grenoble,  39,  487 

Boissarie,  doctor,  president  of  the 
Verification  Office,  Lourdes,  355 

teolton,  27 

Bompard,  Gabrielle,  1890,  417, 
418 

Bonfigli,  Albert,  lawyer,  Verviers,  i 

Bonjean,  Albert,  lawyer,  Verviers, 

*    20,  402 

Boojour,  1895,  neurologist,  Lau- 
sanne, 20 

Bonne,  1901,  329 


Bonnet,  1904,  doctor,  Oran,  309 
Bonniot,  Paul  de,  orthodox  Catholic 

author,  64 
Bonwill,  1877,  doctor,  340 
Booth,  Arthur,  doctor.  New  York, 

22 
Borel,  Belgian  doctor,  25,  79,  105 
Born,   G.,  d.,  prof,  extraorainary 

and  anatomist,  Breslau,  83,  127 
Borst,  Marie,  psychologist,  Getteva, 

430 
Bosse,  Frau,  225 

Bottey,  doctor,  Paris,  48,  56^  112 

Bouchard,  140 

Bouchut,    Ernest,    1875,    eminent 

doctor  for,  diseases  of  children, 

Paris,  274 
Bourdin,  C.  E.,  1883,  alienist  and 

social- psychologist,  429 
Bourdon,   d.   1904,  doctor,   Mern, 

Oise,  France,  331,  340 
Bournet,  467 

Bourneville,  1881,  alienist,  Paris,  17 
Bourru,  prof,  at  the  naval  school  of 

medicine,  physician,   Rochefort, 

1 14,  529 
Boursier,  doctor,  Bordeaux,  34O 

Bowen,  American  judge,  41  ± 

Boyd,  Robert,  1808- 1883,  alienist, 
Southall  Park,  42 

Boyle,  Robert,  1 626- 1 69 1,  eminent 
English  physicist,  356 

Braid,  James,  1795- 1 860,  doctor, 
Manchester,  14-17)  38,  40,  44, 
45»  5h  63,  78,  79»  «6,  88-92,  99, 
107, 112, 126,  137, 139, 197,  211, 
230,  269,  273,  318,  340,  475, 493, 
520,  526 

Bramwell,  J.  Milne,  1903,  doctor, 
London,  17,  21,  29,  56,  88,  89, 
96,  98,  no,  112,  125,  163,  257, 
281,  308,  340,411,450 

Brandis,  Joachim  Dietrich,  1762- 
1845,  pi^of.,  doctor  and  Court 
physician-in-ordinary  at  Copen- 
hagen, II,  49,  62,  150,  163,  185, 
528 

Brandstaeter,  teacher  of  the  blind, 

Brasseur,    Belgian    doctor,   Schar- 

beck,  440 
Breitung,  Max.,  502 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


58s 


Br^maud,  French  naval  doctor, 
Brest,  39,  51,  73,  107,  138,  290, 
294 

Brentano,  Klemens,  1 778- 1 842, 
poet  of  the  Romantic  school,  465 

Breuer,  Jos.,  1895,  doctor,  Vienna, 
24,  124,  153,  300,  335,  336,  449 

Breaking,  psycho-therapeutist, 
Scheorningen,  20 

Briand,  1888,  alienist,  Paris,  114, 
289 

Briele,  van  der,  doctor,  Magde- 
burg, 316 

Brierre  de  Boismont,  Alexandre, 
1 798- 1 88 1 ,  eminent  alienist, 
Paris,  186,  188,  189,  433 

Brigham,  1832,  alienist,  Hartford, 
16,  360 

Brissaud,  neurologist,  Paris,  375 

Broadbent,  doctor,  London,  22 

Broca,  Paul,  1824- 1880,  eminent 
surgeon  and  physiologist,  Paris, 
16 

Brock,  H.,  doctor,  Berlin,  113 

Brodmann,  Korbinian,  alienist  and 
neurologist,  Berlin,  24,  30,  61, 
124,  125,  274,  300,  330,  335 

Brodowski,  1853,  surgeon,  Mar- 
seilles, 20 

Broquier,  1853,  surgeon,  Mar- 
seilles, 403 

Brouardel,  1837-1906,  prof.,  leader 
in  medical  jurisprudence,  Paris, 
403,  404,  418,  529 

Brouillet,  A.,  French  painter,  33 

Brouwer,  S.  Reeling,  alienist,  The 
Hague,  20 

Brown,  Th.,  1778-1820,  Scottish 
physiologist,  62 

Browne,  J.  Crichton,  1 881,  alienist 
and  neurologist,  London,  1889, 
22 

Brown-S^quard,  181 8- 1894,  prof, 
of  physiology,  Paris,  275,  346 

Bruce-Bey,  colonel,  Stockholm,  15 

Briigelmann,  specialist  for  asthma, 
Berlin,  S.,  23,  153,  307,  350 

Brühl,  Count,  9 

Brugia,  Rof.,  alienist,  Lucca,  Italy, 

Brugsch- Pasha,  1827 -1 894,  eminent 
Egyptologist,  2 


Brullard,  1886,  French  doctor,  176 
Brunnberg,  Tyko,  doctor,  Upsala, 

114,  307,  474 
Bruno,  202 

Brunon,  French  doctor,  337 
Bruns,  prof.,  neurologist,  Hanover, 

297,  404 
Bryert,  Father,  5 
Bubnoif,  N.,  1881,  Breslau,  269 
Budge,    Julius,    181 1-1888,  anato- 
mist   and     physiologist,     prof., 

Griefswald,  212 
Bülow-Bothkampf,  Cai  von,  district 

president,  527  , 

Bugney,     1890,     doctor,     Etoile, 

Drome,  307 
Burckhardt,  G.,   1888,  director  of 

the  Maison  de  Sant^,  Pr^fargier, 

Switzerland,  311 
Burdach,  Carl  Friedrich,  1776-1847, 

prof.,  Königsberg,  eminent  anato- 
mist and  physiologist,  183 
Burdin,  the  younger,  1837,  French 

doctor,  member  of  the  Academy 

of  Medicine,  12 
Burney,  21 
Burot,  prof..  School  of  Medicine, 

Rochefort,  112,  114,  311,  529 
Burg  (also  spelt  Burcq),  1823- 1884, 

founder    of   metallotherapeutics, 

524 
Busch,  circus  manager,  Berlin,  456 
Bushnell,  North  American  doctor, 

308 
Busse,    Ludwig,    prof.,    Münster, 

Westphalia,  philosopher,  278 

Cagliostro,  Count  Alexander  de, 
1 743- 1 795,  well-known  adven- 
turer, wonder-worker  and  spirit- 
seer,  I 

Cajal,    Ramon,    prof.,    Barcelona, 

341 

Calkins,  Mary  Whilon,  psycholo- 
gist, Wellesley  College,  U.S.A., 
22,  181 

Campili,  Giulio,  1886,  Italian  jurist, 
422 

Camus,  Jean,  1904,  doctor,  Paris, 

364 
Cantani,    Arnaldo,    1889,     Italian 

physician,  21 


586 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Capecelalro,  cardinal,  544 

Cappie,  James,  M.D.,  1886,  Eng- 
land, 275,  276 

Carlsen,  1887,  Danish  doctor,  20 

Carnochan,  M.,  New  York,  89 

Caron,  doctor,  Paris,  529 

Carpenter,  William,  i8i3-i88S> 
physiolog;ist,  London,  15,  88, 
99.    109,    134,    198,   228,    230, 

273 
Cams,    Karl    Gustav,     1789- 1869, 

eminent  doctor,  philosopher  and 

painter,  Dresden,  13 
Carus,  Paul,  American  philosopher, 

26 
Caryophilis,  prof.,  doctor,  Athens, 

311 
Casper,  Joh.   Ludwig,    1 796- 1 864, 

prof.,  Berlin,  authority  on  medi- 
cal jurisprudence,  142,  408,  420 

Casper,  Leopold,  prof.,  urologist, 
Berlin,  106 

Castelain,  29 

Castellan,  Timoth^e,  1865,  strolling 
magnetizer,  403 

Castracane,  10 

Catlow,  English  magnetizer  (about 
1845),  42 

Cattie,  1888,  Dutch  doctor,  Arn- 
heim,  20 

Celicurre  de  I'Aup^pin,  117 

Celsus,  Roman  savant  and  doctor, 
time  of  Augustus,  41,  358 

Chalande,  doctor,  Toulouse,  86 

Chambard,   1881,  French  alienist, 

4ii45 
Chambige,  418 

Charcot,  Jean  Martin,   1825- 1893, 

prof.,  Paris,  eminent  neurologist, 

17,  18,  19,  21,  23,  28,  32,  39,  40, 

49,  57,  67,  71,  80,  81-84,  85, 
86,  90,  107,  121,  140,  143,  157, 
194,    202,    206-208,    228,    274, 

293,  303.  305,  314,  315,  348, 
349,  355,  363,  392,  457,  461, 
478,  501,  507,  519 

Charles  X.,  King  of  France,  reigned 
I 824- I 830,  4 

Charpentier,  prof,  of  physics,  Nancy, 
212 

Charpignon,  181 5- 1886,  doctor,  Or- 
leans, 104,  186,  291,  402 


Chaslin  Th.^  doctor,  Bicetre  hos- 
pital, 188 

Chatelin«  French  doctor,  344 

Chatelineau,  113 

Cbatrian,  Alexandre,  1826-1S90, 
French   novelist  and    dramatist, 

433 
Chazarain,  1887,  doctor,  Paris,  496 

Chesnais,    see    Le      Menant     des 

Chesnais 
Chevreul,       1 786- 1889,        eminent 

French  chemist,  63,  503 
Child,  Charles  M.,  164,  178,  244 
ChiltofF,  1887,  doctor,  Charkov,  306 
Chodowiecki,    1726-1801,    eminent 

engraver  and  painter,  33 
Choteau,  307 
Christian,  539 
Cicero,     Marcus    Tullius,     106-43 

B.C.,  191 
Clairon,   Claire   Hyppolyte,    1723- 

1803,  celebrated  French  actress, 

132 

Clapar^de,  director  of  the  psycho- 
logical laboratory,  Geneva,  430 

Claretie,  French  novelist,  32 

Clark  Bell,  see  Bell 

Cloquet,  Jules,  1829,  surgeon,  prof., 
Paris,  205,  339 

Clouston,  doctor,  London,  22 

Coates,  1897,  English  doctor,  21 

Coconnier,  1897,  prof,  of  dogmatic 
theology,  Freiburg,  26 

Cohn,  Hermann,  1880,  prof,  extra- 
ordinary, Breslau,  ophthalmolo- 
gist, 91,  105 

Cohn,  Ludwig,  518 

Cohn,  Paul,  1903,  doctor,  Charlot- 
tenburg,  316 

CoUineau,  doctor,  Paris,  474 

Colquhoun,  J.  C,  1836,  writer  on 
occultism,  Edinburgh,  8 

Comby,  395 

Copin,  Paul,  1887,  French  author, 
232 

Cornelius,  C.  S.,  1894,  prof.,  Halle, 
26 

Corning,  1889,  366 

Corval,  v.,  1 831- 1894,  doctor, 
Baden-Baden,  23,  306,  308,  327 

Cory,  Charles  B.,  1887,  Boston, 
146 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


587 


Coste,  1883,  director  of  the  Medical 

School,  Marseilles,  403 
Cosle  de  Lagrave,  doctor,  Durtol, 

Puy-de-Döme,  46 
Cottin,  Angelika,  one  of  Du  Potet's 

somnambulists,  501 
Courmelles,  see  Foveau  de  Cour- 

melles 
Cramer,  Aug.,  alienist,  neurologist, 

prof.,  Göttingen,  430,  441 
Creutzfeldt,  Otto,  doctor,  Harburg, 

23 
Crocq,   Jean,   1900,  doctor,  prof., 

Brussels,  20,  28,  39,  41,  92,  138, 

349,  487 
Crookes,  Sir  William,  1889,  eminent 

chemist  and  physicist,  London, 

v.,  483,  484,  548,  589 
Cruise,  Sir  Francis,  alienist,  Dublin, 

21 
Cullere,  A.,  director  of  the  Asylum, 

La-Roche-sur-Yon,  19,  131,  232, 

271,  449 

Cumberland,  Stuart,  "thought- 
reader,"  62 

Cuvier,  1769- 1832,  eminent  natur- 
alist and  zoologist,  Paris,  10 

Cuvillers,  see  Renin  de,  14 

Czermak,  Johann  Nepomuk,  1828- 
1873,  physiologist  and  laryngolo- 
gist,  Leipzig,  1872,  18,  200 

Czermak,  1845,  prof,  of  physiology, 
Vienna.  13,  535 

Czerny,  Vincent,  surgeon,  prof,  at 
Heidelberg  until  1900,  337 

Czynski,  hypnotizer,  406,  407,  414 

■ 

Dalcke,  P.,  Recorder  of  Ebers- 
walde,  revisor  of  A.  Dalcke's 
Criminal  Law  and   Procedure^ 

436 
Dalby,  judge,  New  York,  415 

Dal  Pozzo,  Errico,  prof,  of  physics, 

Perugia,  174 

Damoglou,    1906,    doctor,    Cairo, 

23 
Dana,  neurologist.  New  York,  22 

Danilewsky,  1885,  prof.,  physiolo- 
gist, Charkov,  200,  201 

Danillo,  S.  N.,  privat-dozent^  St. 
Petersburg,  28,  434 

Darling,  16 


Darwin,  Charles,  1809- 1882,  cele- 
brated naturalist,  founder  of  the 
doctrine  of  descent,  553 

David,  1887,  French  doctor,  39,  91, 

309,  312 
Debove,  1885,  prof,  agrege,  Paris, 

physician,  106,  307 
Dechambre,    Amädie,    1812-1885, 

medical  author  and  doctor,  Paris, 

SI 
Decle,  Ch.,  1887,  French  engineer, 

496 

Decroix,  1888,  chief  veterinary 
surgeon,  Paris,  473 

Deimann,  J.  R.,  about  1775,  doctor, 
Amsterdam,  501 

Dejerine,  prof. ,  neurologist,  doctor, 
Salp6triere,  Paris,  19,  367 

Dekhtereff,  hygienist,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 473    ^ 

Delacroix,  Frederic,  1886,  member 
of  the  Court  of  Appeal,  Besanqon, 

439 
Delasiauve,  middle  of  19th  century, 

alienist,  Bicetre,  Paris,  192 
Delboeuf,  J.,  d.,  prof.,  Liege,  psy- 
chologist, 20,  56,  58,  60,  86, 115, 
121,  123,  149,  157,  160,  164,  165, 
167,  180,  190,  199,  215,  318,  327, 

337.  34 1 1  415,  416,  434,  437, 
438,  442,  450,  451,  468,  553 

Delbrück,  Auton  W.  Adalbert, 
alienist,  Bremen,  429 

Deleuze,  1753- 1835,  scientist,  Paris, 
II,  104 

Delius,  H. ,  specialist,  psycho-thera- 
peutist, Hanover,  23,  307,  404 

Delphin,  G.,  prof,  of  Arabic,  Oran, 
Algiers,  42 

Delprat,  1892,  doctor,  Amsterdam, 

345 
Del  Torto,  Ohnto,  doctor,  Florence, 

21,  30 
Demarquay,      Jean,       1811-1875, 
French  surgeon,    16,    112,    194, 

433 
Demonchy,  1905,  doctor,  Pans,  494 

Denis,  Astere,  hypnotizer,  Verviers, 

440 
Descartes,  Rene,  1 596- 1650,  French 

philosopher  and  mathematician, 

358 


590 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


F^r^,  Charles,  neurologist  and  phy- 
sician, Paris,  17,  40,  86,  87,  100, 
117,  128,  146,186,  188,  212,  236, 
241,  507 

F^ron,  306 

Ferrari,  Henri,  Paris,  132 

Ferrari,  515 

Ferret,  Ahb6,  309 

Ferriiim,  Berlin  seeress,  524 

Ferrier,  David,  eminent  neurologist, 
London,  271 

Ferroni,  doctor,  Vienna,  149 

Feuchtersieben,    Ernst,     Freiherr 
1 806- 1 849,  doctor,  Vienna,  283 

364 
Feuillade,  doctor,  Lyons,  45 

Figuier,  Louis,  1819-1894,  pharma 

cologist,  author  of  popular  seien 

tific  works,  Paris,  42 
Fikenscher,    Georg    W.  Augustin 

1799,   prof,   and  director  of  the 

gymnasium,  Kulmbach,  553 
Fillassier,  1832,  106,  341 
Finkelnburg,    Karl    Maria,     1832 

1896,  hygienist  and  prof.,  Bonn 

290,  291,  293 
Finlay,  R.  F.,  prof,  of  philosophy 

Dublin,  26 
Finot,  Jean,  398 
Fischer,   Engelbert   Lorenz,    1886 

Würzburg,  2,  23,  203 
Fischer,  Fr.,  prof.,  Bale,  13 
Fischer,   Johann  Fred.,  laryngolo 

gist,  Copenhagen,  344 
Fischer,  P.,  doctor,  Cottbus,  288 
Fitzgerald,  doctor  at  the  City  Hospi 

tal,  St.  Louis,  22 
Fitzner,      Rudolf,     authority      on 

ethnology,   Halle -on -the -Saale 

Flach,  doctor,  Aschaflfenburg,  no 
Flatau,  Georg,  neurologist,  Berlin 

24.  30 
Flechsig,  Paul,  alienist,  prof.,  Leip 

zig,  268,  460 
Fleury,  M.  de,  doctor,  Paris,  346 
Flourens,   Pierre,    1 794- 1 864,  phy 

siologist,  Paris,  271 
Flournoy,  Th.,  prof,  of  philosophy 

Geneva,  255 
Fludd,   Robert,   d.    1637,    mystic 

doctor,  London,  5,  496 


FodLchon,  apothecary,  Charmes,  1 1 7 

Forster,  Richard,  d.,  ophthalmolo- 
gist, prof.,  Breslau,  273 

Foissac,  P.,  1825,  doctor,  Paris,  12 

Follin,  E.,  i860,  French  surgeon,  16 

Font,  doctor,  Paris,  367 

Fontan,  J.,  1887,  French  naval  sur- 
geon, Toulon,  58,  151 

Fonvielle,  W.  de,    French   author, 

•  134 

Forbes,  Henry  O-,  naturalist,  zo- 
ologist and  traveller,  Aberdeen, 

19s 
Forel,    August,    formerly   prof,  at 

Zürich,  now   residing  at  Chigny 

nr.  Morges,  alienist,  i>sychologist, 

histologist  (brain),  III.,  20, 23, 26, 

28,  30,  38,  43,  45.  49,  55-58,  61, 
104,  109,  1 14>  118-120,  128,  143, 
149,  158,  161, 165,  169,  173,  176, 
182, 197,  203,  205,  217,  225,  226, 
229,  238, 281,  282,  285,  299,  306, 
307,  311,  329,  331,  333,  340,  342, 
346,  389,  402,  415, 417,  428, 437, 
441,  445,  446,  451,  454,  473,  529 

Foureaux,  lawyer,  Charmes,  416 
Foveau  de  Courmelles,  magnetizer, 

psychologist,  Paris,  415 
Fowler,    1890,  doctor.  New  York, 

355 
Foy,  English  doctor,  21 

Frankel,  1886,  Danish  doctor,  20 

Fränkel,    Moritz,    doctor,    Dessau, 

23 
Fraipont,  1894,  prof,  at  the  lying-in 

hospital,  Liege,  341 

Franchini,  surgeon-colonel  in  the 
Italian  army,  150 

Francis  L,  reigned  1 515-1547,  King 
of  France,  4 

Francke,  doctor,  Munich,  107,  189 

Franco,  1887,  26 

Frank,  director  of  the  lunatic  asy- 
lum, Münsterlingen,  Switzerland, 

29,  128,311,  327 
Franzius,  G.,  Admiralitätsrat,  direc- 
tor of  harbour-construction,  Kiel, 

527 
Franzos,    Karl    Emil,    d.,   author, 

Berlin,  31 
Frederick  the  Great,  reigned  1740- 

1786,  SI,  249 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


591 


Frederick  William  II.,  reigned 
1786- 1 797,  King  of  Prussia,  9, 
480 

Frenkel,   neurologist,    Berlin,   312, 

374 
Freud,    Sigm.,    1895,   neurologist, 

Vienna,  24,  124,  153,  188,   192, 

300.  307,  335.  336,  449,  452 

Frey,  doctor,  Vienna,  24 

Freyer,  Moritz,  district  medical 
officer,  Darkehmen,  341 

Friedberg,  Hermann,  1817  - 1884, 
prof,  extraordinary  at  Breslau, 
authority  on  medical  jurisprud- 
ence, 281,  439 

Friedemann,  Julius,  doctor,  Berlin, 
III,  326,  347 

Friedländer,  Julius,  neurologist, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  307 

Friedmann,  Max,  1901,  neurologist, 
Mannheim,  259,  459 

Friedrich,  L.,  doctor  in  Mexico, 
formerly  in  Berlin,  24,  299 

Fritze,  medical  officer  of  health, 
Magdeburg,  11 

Fuchs,  Alfred,  1899,  doctor,  Pur- 
kersdorf,  nr.  Vienna,  24,  309 

Fuchs,  Fr.,  prof,  extraordinary  of 
medicine,  Bonn,  226 

Fuchs,  Julius,  homoeopathist,  Mun- 
ich, 348 

Fürbringer,  Paul,  prof,  of  medicine, 
Berlin,  386 

Fürstner,  prof.,  alienist,  Strassburg, 
521 

Funkhouser,  American  doctor,  22 

G.  Magdeleine,  **sleep-dancer,'*  33, 
79,  142,  448,  475-478,  533,  534 

Gaiflfe,  40 

Galen,  130-2CX)  A.D.,  Greek  doctor 
and  writer  on  medical  subjects, 

352,  358 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph,  1758  - 1828, 
doctor,  Vienna,  later  Paris; 
eminent  anatomist  and  physiolo- 
gist, founder  of  the  doctrine  of 
cerebral  localization  and  of  phren- 
ology, 86 

Gait,  16 

Gamgee,  Arthur,  prof,  of  physiology, 
Manchester,  21 


Gardener,    alienist,    Napa    Insane 

Asylum,  California,  435 
Gascard,  1889,  doctor,  Paris,  114, 

307 
Gasquet,  21 

Gassner,  Joh.  Jos.,  1727-1729, 
Catholic  priest,  well-known  exor- 
cist in  Regensburg,  EUwang,  etc., 

356 
Gaub,    Hieronymus    David,   1704- 

1780,  pathologist,  359 
Gautier,  Aubin,  1845,  investigator 

of  animal  magnetism,  12 
Geijerstam,     Emmanuel,     doctor, 

Gothenburg,  Sweden,  20 
Gileneau,  1880,  French  doctor,  195 
Gerrish,  22 
Gerster,  F.  Karl,  doctor,  Braunfels- 

on-the-Lahn,  23,  27,  348 
Gessmann,  G.,  technologist,  wiiter 

on  occultism,  Vienna,  48 
Gibert,  doctor,  Havre,  514 
Giessler,  Karl  Max,  pedagogue  and 

psychologist,  Erfurt,  186 
Gigot-Suard,   i860,  dermatologist, 

balneologist,    doctor,  Canterets, 

Hautes- Pyrenees,  40 
Gilles    de  la  Tourette,    d.    1904, 

pupil    of  Charcot,    neurologist, 

Paris,  17,  72,  82,  83,  113,  289, 

293»  314.  402,  415.  416,  520 

Giraud-Teulon,  1816-1887,  oculist, 
Paris,  17,  112,  194,  433 

Gladstone,  1809- 1898,  English 
statesman,  386 

Glanson,  202 

Glardon,  the  Rev.  Mr.,  Tour  de 
Peilz,  Switzerland,  514 

Gley,  Eugene,  1884,  physiologist, 
Paris,  62,  200,  516 

Glogau,  dentist,  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  340 

Gmelin,  Adolf,  doctor,   Stuttgart, 

430 
Gmelin,      Eberhard,      1759-1809, 

physicist,  Heilbronn,  9,  511 
Gmelin,  204 
Gock,    alienist,    Landsberg-on-the 

Weser,  284 
Goclenius,     Rudolph,     1572-1621, 

doctor,   prof,   of   physics,   Mar< 

burg,  5 


592 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


Goler  von  Ravensburg,  prof.,  art 

historian,  Coburg,  496 
Görres,  Jak.  Jos.   v.,    1 776- 1848, 

prof.,  Munich,  romanticist,  204 
Goethe,  J  oh.   Wolfgang  v.,   1749- 

1832,  199,  452,  500 
Golgi,  eminent  histologist  (brain), 

Pavia,  272 
Goltdammer,      Ober-Tribunalsrat, 

Berlin,  403,  438 
Gombault,  469 
Gorodichze,  doctor,  291 
Gotti,  Cardinal,  544 
Gouffe,  417 
Gouge,  Adolf,  1846,  doctor,  Vienna, 

Gousset,  10 

Gowers,  neurologist,  London,  24 

Grabow,   retired    member    of   the 

Committee  of  Education,  Berlin, 

550 
Gräter,    Karl,    1899,     Burghölzli, 

Zürich,  125 
Grandchamps,  1889,  doctor,  Paris, 

341 

Granville,  Mortimer,  doctor,  Lon- 
don, 22 

Grashey,  formerly  prof,  of  psy- 
chiatry, Munich,  406 

Grasset,  prof.,  Montpellier,  neuro- 
logist and' pharmacologist,  19,  48, 

87.  194»  334,  373»  439,  4^2 

Gratiolet,  Louis  Pierre,  181 5- 1865, 
doctor  and  zoologist,  comparative 
anatomist,  Paris,  140 

Gray,  419 

Greatrak(e)s,  Valentine,  about  1770, 
"  healer,"  Ireland,  356 

Gregory,  178 

Griesinger,  Wilhelm,  1817-1868, 
alienist  and  physician,  Berlin, 
187,  192 

Grimes,  1848,  New  England, 
U.S.A.,  16 

Grocco,  1888,  Italian  doctor,  529 

Grohmann,  A.,  writer  on  psycho- 
therapeutics, Zürich,  27,  387 

Gross,  Hans,  prof.,  Graz,  lawyer, 
authority  on  criminal  anthro- 
pology, 429,  430,  443 

Grossmann,  Jonas,  doctor,  Berlin, 
31,  112,  312,  330,  333,  340 


Grossmann,  Karl,  oculist,  Liver- 
pool, 21 

Grützner,  P.,  1880,  prof.,  physio 
logist,  Tübingen,  86,  549 

Gscheidlen,  R.,  1842-18189,  prof. 
extraordinary  at  Breslau,  hygien- 
ist  and  chemist,  55 

Gu6non,  1903,  French  veterinary- 
surgeon-in-cbief,  202 

Gu^rineau,  i860, doctor,  Poitiers,  16 

Guermonprez,  prof.,  doctor,  Lille, 
1887,  48 

Guntner,  1845,  doctor,  Vienna,  13 

Gürtler,  1880,  doctor,  Sagan,  113 

Guicdardi,  Italian  doctor,  516 

Guimbail,  203 

Guinon,  neurologist,  Paris,  194, 291 

Goislain,  Joseph,  1 797- 1860,  alien- 
ist, Ghent,  188 

Gumpertz,  neurologist,  Berlin,  2, 
23,  49.  247,  284,  304,  338,  498 

Gurney,  Edmund,  1847- 1888,  secre- 
tary of  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  London,  psychologist, 
21,  58,  78,  85,  96,  123,  126,  i6o, 
164,  165,  167-169,  213,  250, 255, 
257,  258,  420,  451,  514 

Guthrie,  Malcolm,  1883,  merchant, 
Liverpool,  511,  552 

Guttmann,  S.,  d.  1894,  doctor, 
Berlin,  305 

H.,  1848,  anonymous  author,  543 

H.,  Josephine,  403 

Haab,  O. ,  prof,  of  ophthalmology, 

Zürich,  340 
Haas,  L.,  1893,  prof,  of  philosophy 

at  the  Lyceum,  Passan,  26,  32, 

275 
Haberl,  1818,  doctor,  Munich,  1 1 

Hackländer,  Friedrich,  1905,  doc- 
tor, 344 

Hack  Tuke,  see  Tuke 

Haddock,  Joseph,  1848,  doctor  and 
magnetizer,  London,  15 

HShule,  Karl,  1887,  doctor,  Reut- 
lingen, Würtenberg,  52 

Haigan,  Georges,  1901,  French 
doctor,  20,  402 

Hall,  Stanley,  prof.,  Clark  Uni- 
versity, U.S. A.,  eminent  psy- 
chologist, 21,  137 


INDEX   OF   NAMES. 


593 


Haller,  Albrect  v.,  1708- 1777,  prof., 

anatomist  and  physiologist,  Bern 

and  Göttingen,  493 
Hallervorden,  1896,  privat-dozent^ 

alienist,  Königsberg,  363 
Hammond,     William    Alexander, 

prof.,  alienist    and    neurologist. 

New  York,  22,  195 
Hansen,   1833- 1897,  Danish   mag- 

netizer,  23,  49,   124,  163,   215, 

293.  441,  442,  516,  542,  543 
Haraut,    1892,   pharmacist,   Paris, 

"3 
Hardenberg,    1 750- 1 822,    Prussian 

statesman,  10 

Harnack,  Adolf,  Church  historian, 
prof.,  Berlin,  2 

Harnacb,  Erich,  pharmacologist, 
prof.,  Halle,  502-507,  539 

Hart,  E.,  doctor,  editor  of  the 
British  Medical  /ournal,  Lon- 
don, 21,  203 

Hartenberg,  Paul,  doctor,  Paris, 
43,  363,  473 

Harting,  1882,  prof,  at  Utrecht,  201 

Hartmann,  Edward  von,  1842- 
1906,  eminent  philosopher,  Gross- 
Lichterfelde,  near  Berlin,  233, 
250,  262,  266f  520 

Hartmann,  Fritz,  privcU-dozent ^ 
alienist,  Graz,  1905,  430 

Harvey,  William,  1 578- 1658,  doctor 
and  physiologist,  London,  552 

Hassenstein,  district  medical  officer, 
Prostken,  East  Prussia,  112 

Hauer,  A.,  1889,  assistant  at  the 
institute  for  experimental  path- 
ology, Prague,  107 

Hauptvogel,  blind  teacher  of  lan- 
guages, Leipzig,  518 

Heberle,  Max  Alois,  1893,  lawyer, 
25,  402,  414 

Heboid,  Otto,  alienist,  Wuhlgarten, 
Berlin,  25,  116 

Hecker,  Ewald,  alienist  and  neur- 
ologist, Wiesbaden,  23,  29 

Hecker,  J.  F.  C,  1882,  doctor, 
prof.,  Berlin,  460 

Heer  wagen,  Friedrich,  1888,  Dor- 
pat,  186 

Hegar,  formerly  prof,  of  gynaec- 
ology)  Freiburg,  Baden,  347 


Heidenhain,  August,  doctor,  Steg- 
litz, 225 

Heidenhain,  R.,  1834-1897,  prof, 
in  Breslau,  eminent  physiologist, 
1880;  18,  19,  40,  41,  54,  75,  77- 
80,  83,  86,  89-91,  112,  122,  197, 
221,  228,  265, 268-270,  271,  273, 
442,  457,  461,  526 

Heilberg,  A^y/usiizrat,  430 

Heilbronner,  125 

Heilmann,  26 

Heim,  prof,  at  the  Polytechnic, 
Zürich,  309,  527,  528 

Heineken,  Joh.,  1 761- 185 1,  doctor, 
Bremen,  8,  112 

Hekma,  doctor,  Groningen,  20 

Hell,  Maximilian,  Jesuit  priest, 
astronomer,  501 

Heller,  Ludwig,  283,  496 

Hellich,  Prague,  109 

Hellpach,  Willy,  privat-dozenty 
neurologist,    Carlsruhe,   27,   61, 

231,  304,  349,  432,  534 
Hellwald,    Friedr.   v.,    1842- 1892, 

authority  on  the  history  of  civil- 
ization, Tölz,  Bavaria,  26,  42, 
203,  204,  339 

Helmholtz,  Hermann  v.,  1821-1894, 
eminent  physicist  and  physiolo- 
gist, 31,  552 

Helmont,  Joh.  Baptist  van,  1574- 
1644,  eminent  doctor,  Amsterdam 
and  Brussels,  5,  501 

Heraent,  Felix,  1827- 1892,  vtembre 
du  Conseil  supirieure  de  Pin- 
struction  publique^  474 

Hendriksz,  1814,  surgeon,  Gronin- 
gen, 1 1 

Henika,  137 

Henin  de  Cuviller,  181 3,  investi- 
gator in  the  domain  of  animal 
magnetism,  14 

Henle,  1809- 1885,  prof,  of  anatomy, 
Göttingen,  183 

Henneberg,  privat-dozenty  alienist, 
Berlin,  293,  430 

Hennig,  R.,  physicist,  Berlin  W., 

26,  473»  536,  545 
Henri,  psychologist,  Paris,  430 
Henrijean,  surgeon,  Li^ge,  115 
Henry    IV.,    reigned     1 589-1610, 

King  of  France,  4 

38 


594 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Henry,  Prince,  brother  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  1726-1802,  51 

Hensler,  Philipp  Ignaz,  1 795-1 861, 
prof,  of  physiology,    WUrzburg, 

H^nart,     1865,     French     doctor, 

403 
H^ricourt,  J.,  Paris,  132 
Herodotus,    484-428    B.c.,    Greek 

historian,  460 
Herrero,     Abdon- Sanchez,     1887, 

prof,  of  medicine,  Madrid,  39, 

3" 
.Hermann,   Arthur,    1902,    doctor, 

Breslau,  363 
Hervas,  Sancha,  bishop,   Madrid, 

468 
Herz,  Rahel,  150 

Herzberg,  gynsecologist,  Berlin,  23 
Herzog,  1853,  doctor,  Posen,  15 
Herzog,   doctor,    North    America, 

197 

Herzog,  42 

Hess,   Julius,  doctor,   neurologist, 

Hamburg,  23 
Heubel,  Em.,  1877,  lecturer,  Kiew, 

200 
Hewson,  1877,  doctor,  340 
Heyfelder,      Jobann,      1798- 1869, 

surgeon  and  medical  author,  St. 

Petersburg,  17 
Hildebrandt,    Eduard,    1818-1868, 

eminent       German       landscape 

painter,  203 
Hilger,    Wilh.,     1901,    specialist, 

psycho-therapeutist,  Magdeburg, 

24,  50»  125»  307.  316 

Hilscher,  Simon  Paul,  1738,  prof, 
in  the  medical  faculty,  Jena,  359 

Hinrichsen,  Otto,  assistant  physi- 
cian at  the  Wil  Asylum,  St. 
Gallen,  430 

Hippocrates,    460-364    B.c.,    352, 

3S8 
Hirsch,  Max,  d.  1900,  neurologist, 

Berlin,  1895,  22,  23,  190,  333 
Ilirsch,  Maximilian,  doctor,  Vienna, 

344 
Hirsch,  William,  1896,  neurologist. 

New  York,  25.  61,  65,  231,  419 

Hirschel,    Bernhard,  1840,  doctor, 

Dresden,  13 


Hirschlaff,  Leo,  1905,  Deurolc^t, 
Berlin,  24,  30,  49,  61,  62,  64-66, 
124,  136, 153-157,  179»  184.  219, 
220,  231,  248,  264,  268,  272,  273, 
290,  294, 299,  304.  330,  338, 405, 
410,  436,  449,  498,  520 

Hirt,  profi.  extraordinary,  Breslau, 
neurologist,  23,  24,  29,  42,  309, 
406,  414 

Hitzig,  alienist,  Halle-on-the-Saale, 
25,  29 

Hivert,  doctor,  Paris,  340 

Hoche,  prof.,  alienist,  ^eiburg, 
Baden,  408 

Hoct^s,  132 

Höfelt,  lawyer,  Holland,  1889,  4^^t 

417 
Höfler,  Alois,  prof,   of  pedagogy, 
psychologist,   Prague,    26,    230, 

449 
Hogyes,   1884,  pathologist,    Buda- 

Pesth,  d.,  84 
Hösslin,  v., doctor,  Neuwittelsbacb, 

near  Munich,  23 
Hofmann,  Eduard,  1837- 1897,  prof^ 

of  medical  jurisprudence,  Vienna, 

441 
Hohenlohe,  Prince,  182 1,  Catholic 

priest,  Bavaria,  356,  544 
Hohnbaum,  187 
Home,       well-known       spiritistic 

medium,  V.,  483,  548 
Horsley,  Victor,  surgeon,  London, 

107 
Howard,  William  Lee,  1895,  doctor, 

Baltimore,  22,  340,  405,  434 
Hublier,   1839,  doctor,    Bordeaux, 

12 
Hue,  Gabriel,  1813-1860,   French 

missionary,  42 
Huckel,  A.,  1888,  doctor,  privat- 

dozentf  Tübingen,  25,  86 
Hüfeland,      Christoph      Wilhelm, 

1 762- 1 836,  eminent  doctor,  prof., 

Berlin,  9,  359,  383 
Hufeland,  Friedrich,  1822,  prof,  of 

pharmacology,  Berlin,  9 
Hülst,  Henry,  1894,  doctor.  Grand 

Rapids,  Michigan,  22,  340 
Humboldt,  Alexander  von,   1769- 

1859,  celebrated  naturalist,  Paris, 

Berlin,  493 


INDEX  OF  NAME& 


595 


Humboldt,    Wilhelm   von,    1767- 

1835,    Prussian    statesman    and 

versatile  author,  10 

Hummel,  doctor,  Vienna,  503 

Hunter,  John,  1728- 1793,  celebrated 

English  surgeon  and  anatomist, 

359 
Husson,  Henri  Marie,  183 1,  doctor, 

Paris,  12,  158 

Hfltten,  1887,  Danish  doctor,  83. 
161 

Hyslop,  James  H.,  prof,  of  philo- 
sophy at  the  University  of 
Columbia,     Ohio,      541,     543, 

547 

Ibsen,       1828-1906,      Norwegian 

dramatist,  385 
Iffland,    August     Wilhelm,    1759- 

18 14,  actor  and  dramatist,  Berlin, 

32 
Ignot,  "su^estor,"  441 

Imbert-Gourbeyre,  1873,  prof,  at 
the  medical  school,  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  467 

Inhelder,  1898,  assistant  at  the 
asylum,  Munsterlingen,  311 

Isenberg,  D.,  doctor,  107 

Israel,  James,  prof. ,  surgeon,  Berlin, 

347 

Jacolliot,  Louis,  French  traveller, 

writer  on  occultism  and  student 

of  Sanscrit,  203 
Jaffa,  S.,  lawyer,  430 
Jaguaribe,  doctor,  San  Paolo,  Brazil, 

22 
Jahn,  Max,  pedagogue,  Leipzig,  26 
James,  Constantin,   1888,   French 

doctor,  287 
James,  William,  prof,  of  psychology 

at  Harvard,  U.S.A.,  22,  26,  89, 

*23.  m*  250 

Janet,  Jules,  urologist,  doctor,  Pans, 
82 

Janet,  Paul,  1823- 1899,  philo- 
sopher, numbre  de  V  Institut^ 
Paris,  62 

Janet,  Pierre,  psychologist»  prof., 
Paris,  19,  61,  116,  123,  126,  144, 
147, 164, 171,  I93i  2i3i  235i  250, 
255.  415»  514 


Jastrow,  Josef,  1887,  psychologist, 
prof.,  Wisconsin  University, 
Madison,  U.S.A.,  501 

Jelgersma,  alienist,  neurologist, 
prof.,  University  of  Leyden,  20, 

29 

Jendrdssik,    Ernst,   doctor,   Buda- 

Pesth,  43,  100,   108,  116,  272, 

409 

Jennings,  Oscar,  English  doctor, 
Paris,  30,  368 

Jensen,  Julius,  alienist,  Schar- 
lottenburg,  193 

Jeroboam,  280 

Joachim,  Heinrich,  doctor,  Berlin,  4 

Jobart,  281 

Jodl,  Friedr.,  historian,  psycholo- 
gist, prof.,  Vienna,  237 

Jörg,  Joh.,  1779-1856,  prof.,  obste- 
trician, Leipzig,  341 

John  of  Abyssinia,  reigned  1872- 
1884,  520 

Johannessen,  1886,  Danish  doctor, 
20 

Joire,  doctor,  Lille,  30,  40,  218, 

415.  431 
Jolly,  Friedrich,  1844-1904,  prof., 

aHenist  and  neurologist,  Berlin, 

30,    130,   283,    291,    292,    306, 

349 
Joly,  doctor,  London,  15 

Jong,  Aire  de,  d.  1904,  neurologist. 

The  Hague,   20,  92,  149,  307, 

Jost,   "healer,"  South    Germany, 

520 
Jouffroy,  182 

Journde,  French  doctor,  307 
Jussieu,    Antoine    Laurent,    1748* 

1836,  prof.  I  physician,  botanist, 

Paris,  307 

Kaan,  Hans,  1S85,  doctor,  Graz, 

274 
Kahlbaum,  d.,  alienist,  Görlitz,  193 

Kahler,  1849- 1843,  prof,  of  medi- 
cine, Vienna,  416 
Kant,  Immanuel,  1724-1808,  182, 

227,  358,  359 
Kaschin,  195 

Kayser,  Richard,  1880,  doctor, 
Breslau,  86 


596 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


Kemsies,   Ferd.,   principal  of  the 

Realschule,     Weissensee,      near 

Berlin,  430 
Kennelly,  501 
Kerner,  Justinus,  1786- 1862,  lyric 

poet,  occultist  and  doctor,  Weins- 

berg,  6,  10,  385.  499,  500 
Kerr,    Norman,    doctor,   London, 

21 
Khoyrine,  1903,  34I 
Kiaro,  doctor,  Poitiers,  1847,  15 
Kiernan,  1895,  neurologist,  author- 
ity   on    medical    jurisprudence, 

Chicago,  16 
Kieser,  Dietrich  Georg,  1779- 1862, 

alienist,  prof.,  Jena,  9,  402 
Kiesewetter,      historian,      author, 

Meiningen,  i 
Kingsbury,  doctor,  Blackpool,  21, 

22 
Kirscher,    Athanasius,    1601-1680, 

Jesuit  priest,  Egyptologist,   199, 

488,  501 
Kirchhoff,  Theodor,  alienist,  prof., 

Kiel,  25 
Klein,  Austrian  gymnast,  215 
Klemich,  dentist,  Bromberg,  340 
Klippel,  French  doctor,  187,  192 
Kluge,    1 782- 1 844,    doctor,   prof., 

Berlin,  9,  59,  112,  126,  160,  179, 

281,  359,  5"»  520 

Kneipp,  Sebastian,  182 1 -1897, 
pastor,  Wörishofen,  V.,  357 

Knory,  189S,  doctor,  Odessa,  308 

Köberlin,  Hermann,  alienist.  Erlan- 
gen, 24 

Koch,  Fritz,  doctor,  Berlin,  498 

Kochs,  >yilhelm,  1852-1898,  prof, 
of  physiology,  Bonn,  25 

Köhler,  F.,  1897,  doctor,  Elberfeld, 
130,  171 

Köhn,  C.  W.,  1853,  blacksmith's 
apprentice,  religious  clairvoyant, 
466 

Königshöfer,  prof.,  oculist,  Stutt- 
gart, 105 

Koppen,  430 

Kötscher,  L.  M.,  1905,  doctor, 
Hubertusburg,  415 

Kohlschütter,  E.,  1837- 1905,  prof, 
extraordinary  of  medicine,  Halle, 
1863,  454 


Koller,  Jenny,   1895,   lady  doctor, 

Zürich,  368 
Konräd,  Eugen,  alienist,  Hermann- 

stadt,  193 
Korb,  1893,  doctor,  Döbeln,  32 
Koreff,    David    Ferdinand,     1783- 

185 1,    eminent    doctor,    Berlin, 

Paris,  10 
Kornfeld,  alienist,  Berlin,  193 
Kraepelin,  alienist,  prrof.,    Munich, 

24,  305.  309,  311»  319,  429.  539 
Krafft-Ebing,  R.  v.,  1840- 1902, 
prof,  at  Vienna,  eminent  alienist 
and  investigator  in  the  domain  of 
forensich  psycho-pathology,  24, 
25»  26,  31,  72,  102,  109,  III,  113, 
115,  126,  132,  142,  207,  232,  262, 

309,  336,  348,  3871  403,  408,  411. 

412,  414,  420,  421,  423,  441,  446 
Krakauer,  d.,  aurist,  Berlin,  292 
Krarup,  Danish  doctor,  274 
Krause,  "suggestor,"  441 
Krauss,  462 
Krehl,  prof,  of  medicine,  Strassburg, 

29.  363 

Kron,  doctor,  neurologist^  Berlin, 
59,  206,  435 

Külpe,  Oswald,  psychologist,  prof.,. 
Wllrburg,  26 

Kuhn,  E.,  prof.,  Munich,  compara- 
tive philologist,  204 

Kurella,  alienist  and  neurologist, 
Breslau,  see  Corrections 

Kussmaul,  1822- 1902,  prof.  of 
medicine,  Strassburg,  128 

Laborde,  1881,  French  doctor,  41». 

200 
Ladame,     privat-dozent^    Geneva, 

neurologist,    18,    28,    308,    309, 

406,  439i  474 
Lafforgue,    1887,    French    doctor, 

409 
Lafontaine,  Charles,  French  mag- 

netizer,  14,  48,  341,  412,  503 
Lafontaine,    Jean    de,    162 1- 1695, 

French  poet,  writer  of  fables,  203 
Laguerre,  French  physician,  115 
Lajoie,  39,  91 
Laker,  Karl,  1885,  assistant  at  the 

physiological  institute,  Graz,  274 
Laloy,  19 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


597 


Landau,  Leopold,  g3msecolQgist  and 

obstetrician,  Berlin,  347 
Landgren,    S.,    doctor,    Leksand, 

Sweden,  308 
Landmann,  S.,  d.,  doctor,  Fürth, 

1894,  271,  451 
Landois,    1837- 1902,  prof.,   physi- 
ologist, Greifswald,  269 
Landouzy,      1879,     prof,    H^ighy 

physician,  Paris,  46 
Lange,  Viktor,  344 
Langer,     1845,    demonstrator     of 

anatomy,  Vienna,  535 
Langguth,  Georg  Aug.,  1758,  prof. 

at  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 

359 
Langley,     J.      N.,      physiol(^ist, 

Cambridge,  22 
Lannegrace,  97 
Lanoitte,  van    der,    1896,  doctor, 

Verviers,  272 
Laplace,  1749- 1827,  mathematician 

and  astronomer,  455,  531 
Lapouge,  27 
Laquer,     Benno,      1903,     doctor, 

Wiesbaden,  384 
Laquer,  neurolc^ist,  Frankfort-on- 

the-Main,  345 
Lasegue,  Ch.,  1816-1883,  physician, 

Paris,  17,  44,  192 
Lateau,   Louise,    1850- 1883,    stig- 

matic,      Bois      d' Haine,      near 

Charleroi,  468,  469 
Lauenstein,  doctor,  Hamburg,  349 
Laufenauer,     d.,     prof.,     alienist, 

Buda-Pesth,  1885,  84,  529 
Lauphear,  Emory,  doctor,  Kansas 

City,  340 
Laurent,  Emile,  doctor,  Paris,  332, 

363,  410,  434 
Laurent,    P.,     1850,    magnetizer, 

Paris,  16 
Laurentius,  Andreas,  physician-in- 

ordinary  to  Henry  IV.  of  France, 

4 
Lausanne,  1819,  magnetizer,  281 
Lavater,    Job.    Casp.,    1741-1801, 

theologian    and    physiognomist, 

Zürich,  8 
Laverdant,  217 
Laycock,  i860,  prof,  of  medicine, 

psychologist,  Edinburgh,  15 


Lebailly,      1902,    .doctor,      Point 

D'Ouilly,  19 
Le  Bon,  459 

Leclerc,  French  lawyer,  474 
Lee,      Edwin,      English     doctor 

14 
Lee,  see  Howard 

Lefebvre,  Ferd.,  prof.,  pathologist 
Lou  vain,  468 

Lefbvre,  L.,  1903,  army  doctor 
Brussels,  27,  212,  306 

Le  Fort,  1829- 1893,  surgeon,  prof. 
Paris,  340 

Legrain,  doctor  at  the  asylum 
Ville-Evrard,  306,  329 

Lehmann,  Alfred,  lecturer  on  psy 
chology,  director  of  the  psycho 
physical  laboratory  at  the  Univer 
sity  of  Copenhagep,  20,  26,  30, 
83.  109,  361,  466,  473,  483,  484 
516,  542,  543,  549 

Lehmann,  L.,  doctor,  Oeynhausen 

374 
Leixner,    O.     v.,    author.    Gross 

Lichterfelde,  near  Berlin,  178 
Le  Jeune,   1891,  Belgian  minister 

of  J^stice,  439 
Lelong,  469 
Le  Menant  des  Chesnays,  doctor, 

Ville  d'Avray,  Seine-et-Oise,  307, 

341 
Lemmer,     Jul.     Christian,     1758, 

doctor,  359 

Lemoine,  Albert,  1855,  prof,  of 
philosophy,  Nancy,  495 

Lemoine,  G.,  prof,  of  medicine, 
Lille,  40 

Lentner,  Ferd.,  prof,  of  political 
economy,  Innsbruck,  1896,  443 

Leo  XIII.,  d.  1904,  544 

L^pinay,  M.,  1903,  veterinary 
surgeon,  Paris,  202 

Lepine,  R.,  prof.,  Lyons,  phy- 
sician, 86 

Leroux,  306 

Levillain,  doctor,  Paris,  43 

L^vy,  Paul  Emile,  doctor,  psycho- 
therapeutist,  Paris,  197,  364 

L^vy,  French  dentist,  403 

Lewes,  1817-1878,  eminent  psy- 
chologist, philosopher,  and 
author,  London,  85 


598 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Lewin,      prof.,      pharmacologist, 

Berlin,  288 
Lewis,  W.  Bevan,  1889,  alienist, 

Wakefield,  193 
Lichtenau,  Countess  of,  1752- 1820, 

nh  Enke,  mistress  of  Frederick 

William  IL  of  Prussia,  9 
Lichtenberg,      Georg     Christoph, 

1742- 1 799,     German    physicist, 

satirist,  356,  529 
Lichtenstädt,  J.  R.,  1792- 1849,  49, 

431 
Liebeault,    1866,    doctor,    Nancy, 

1823-1904,  17,  18,  39,  45.  49, 
58,  59,  77, 92,  "4,  160,  174,  176, 
186,  203,  238,  266,  281,  307,  311, 
330,  344,  402,  410,  416,  488, 
521 

Liebermeister,  prof. ,  physician, 
Tübingen,  25 

Li^geois,  lawyer,  prof.,  Nancy,  18, 

29,  38,  151»  165,  167,  174,  197, 
198,  402, 403, 415,  416,  417,  418, 

420,  429,  431,  439 

Liengme,  20 

Lilienthal,  C.  v.,  prof.,  Heidel- 
berg, authority  on  criminal  law, 
25.  402,  422,  428,  433,  435,  436, 

439 

Liman,  K.,  1818-1891,  prof,  extra- 
ordinary, Berlin,  authority  on 
medical  jurisprudence,  142,  408, 
420 

Lind,  Jenny,  1820- 1887,  celebrated 
Swedish  prima  donna,  88 

Lindau,  1893,  P<^^  ^"^^  author, 
Strehlen,  near  Dresden,  248 

Lindsay,  John,  1885,  doctor,  Les- 
mahagow,  363 

Lingg,  Peter  Heinrich,  1775- 1839, 
contributor  to  use  of  gymnastics 
in  therapeutics,  281 

Lipmann,  Otto,  '  psychologist, 
Beriin,  430-432 

Lipp,  prof,  extraordinary,  Graz, 
dermatologist,  116 

Lippich,  441 

Lipps,  prof.,  Munich,  psychologist 
and  philosopher,  26,  27,  61,  65- 
67,  231,  264,  461 

Lisfranc,  Jacques,  1 790- 1847,  emi- 
nent surgeon,  Paris,  339 


Liszt,  v.,  prof.,  authority  on  criminal 

law,  Berlin,  423,  427 
Little,  American  doctor,  96 
Lloyd  Tuckey,  doctor,  London,  21, 

107,  294,  308,  310,  312,  367,  467 
Lobedank,      1892,       stafF-siu^eon, 

Münden,  354 
Lober,     1849- 1888,     prof,    agrege, 

physician,  Lille,  72 
Lobsien,  Marse,  Kiel,  430 
Locke,  John,   1632- 1704,    eminent 

philosopher,  259 
Locojano,  311 

Lodder,  1887,  Dutch  doctor,  201 
Lodge,  Oliver,  physicist,  principal 

of  the  University  of  Birmingham, 

533 
Loeb,  Hanan  W.,  American  doctor, 

365 
Loewenfeld,  L.,  1901,  neurologist, 
Munich.  23,  24,  33,  39,  51,  55, 
60,  61,  66,  107,  109,  120,  13a, 
150,  171,  204,  232,  247,  250,  259, 
268,  284,  327,  336,  345,  350,  364, 

367,  394, 448,  459,.  477,  478,  515 
Lohsing,   Ernst,  jurist,    author    of 

treatises  on  law,  Vienna,  220 
Loiset,  Baptist,    1826,  circus-rider 

and  horse-trainer,  261,  490 
Lombroso,   Cesare,    prof.,    Turin, 

alienist,    authority    on    criminal 

anthropology,  V.,  21,  132,  290, 

293,  459,  598,  510.  514 
Lombroso,  Giacomo,  1886,  doctor, 

Leghorn,  458 
Londe,  chemist,  formerly  assistant 

to  Charcot,  161 
Longpretz,  magnetizer,  Li^ge,  487 
Lorbacher,  homoeopathist,  348 
Loos,  Otto,  1894,  doctor,  25,  402 
Lotze,    Rudolph   Hermann,   1817- 
1881,  prof.,  Gottingen  and  Berlin, 
psychologist,  philosopher,  185 
Lovatelli,    Ersilia    Caetani,    1889, 
eminent  art  historian,  Rome,  464 
Low,  Harrison,  42 
Loysel,  1845»  doctor,  Cherbourg,  15 
Luckens,  American  author,  474 
Luther,  Martin,  1483- 1546,  262 
Luys,  1 828- 1 897,  alienist  and  neur- 
ologist, Paris,  19, 40,  88,  91, 193, 
274,  341,  478,  509,  529 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


599 


Lwoff,  1889,  289 
Lysing,  J.,  203 

Maack,   Ferd.,   doctor,   Hamburg, 

25,  51,  68 
Mabiile,  H.,  1886,  alienist  at  the 

Asylum  of   Lafonde,    Charente- 

inferieure,  114,  127 
Mabru,  G.,  1858,  French  chemist, 

205 
Macarfo,  1857,  Lyons,  136,  247,  464 
Macdonald,   Arthur,   authority   on 

criminal  anthropology,  Washing- 
ton, 195,  419 
Mach,     Ernst,     physicist,      prof., 

Vienna,  200 
Macnish,  Robert,  1 801 -1836,  doctor, 

Glasgow,  145,  178 
Maes,  20 

Magdeleine,  G.,  see  G. 
Magendie,     Franpois,     1783- 1855, 

physiologist,  Paris,  503 
Maggiorani,  Carlo,  1881,  physician, 

prof.,  Rome,  501 
Magnin,  Paul,    doctor,   Paris,    19, 

28,  82,  104,  107 
Magnin,   magnetizer,    Paris,    476, 

477 
Magnus,  Hugo,  prof,  extraordinary, 

oculist,  Breslau,  353 

Mailath,  Count  Johann,  1852,  14 

Mainone,  Karl,  locksmith  and 
magnetopath,  Cologne  and 
Mulheim-on-the-Rhine,  404 

Maira,  Octavio,  1887,  doctor, 
Santiago,  22 

Majewska,  1904,  lady -doctor, 
Paris,  311 

Malachi,  Irish  prelate,  Archbishop 
of  Armagh,  d.  1148,  noted  for 
his  prophecies  concerning  the 
Popes,  544 

Malfatti,   Emanule,    1693,   doctor, 

'   Pistoja,  150 

Mallar,  Belgian  lawyer,  20 

Malten,  E.,  1880,  149 

Manac^ine,  Marie  de,  180,  189 

Manfroni,  Ange,  1901,  doctor, 
Turin,  55 

Mantegazza,  Paolo,  prof.,  anthro- 
pologist and  ethnologist,  Flor- 
ence, 215,  468 


Marandon  de  Monthyel,  1897, 
head  physician  to  the  Asiles 
publics  (TaJiinis  de  la  Seine^  ^oy 

Marcinowski,  psycho-therapeutist, 
Tegel,  Berlin,  225,  362,  367, 
387,  430,  445 

Mares,  Prague,  109 

Marie,  Pierre,  1885,  neurologist, 
Paris,  137 

Marin,  Paul,  198 

Marina,  Alessando  R.,  1887,  doctor, 
Trieste,  89 

Marnay,  1904,  French  doctor,  308 

Marot,  E.,  39,  95,  308 

Marshall,  English  spiritualist 
medium,  481 

Martin,  E.  H.,  Clarkesdale,  Mies., 
U.S.A.,  1904,  312 

Martinet,  Pierre-Maurice,  1894, 
French  doctor,  346 

Martinet,  physician  at  the  H6pital 
Neckar,  Paris,  529 

Marx,  K.  F.  H.,  1796- 1877,  phar- 
macologist, authority  on  the  his- 
tory of  medicine,  Gottingen,  33 

Maschka,  Josef,  1820- 1899,  prof, 
of  medical  jurisprudence,  Prague, 

403 
Mason,     Dr.     Rufus    Osgood,    d, 

1903,  doctor.  New  York,  1 901, 

126 
Massolongo,       Roberto,      doctor, 

Verona,  346 
Mathieu,  doctor,  PariS)  307 
Matveef,  20 
Maudsley,  eminent  English  alienist, 

421 
Maupassant,   Guy   de,    1850- 1893, 

French  novelist,  see  Corrections 
Maury,  Alfred,  i860,  archseologist, 

Paris,  124,  178,  188,  189 
Mavroukakis,   doctor,   Paris,    309^ 

333  ' 

Maxwell,    William,    about     1600, 

Scotch  doctor,  5,  6 
Mayeras,  132 

Mayerhofer,  Austrian  doctor,  510 
Mayo,  Herbert,  1854,  English  sur- 
geon and  physiologist,  15 
Meding,  Oskar,  novelist,  32 
Meige,  doctor,  Paris,  306,  363,  375 
Menant  des  Chesnais,  see  Le  Menant 


6oo 


INDEX   OF   NAMES, 


Mendel,  prof,  extraordinary,  Berlin,   ' 
alienist,  23,  206,  279,  284,  289, 

290,  395.  303»  344,  427. 
Mendelssohn,       neurologist,       St. 

Petershiirg,  90 
Mensi,  Alfred  v.,  author,  Munich, 

$14    . 
Mqric,  Elie,  prof,  at  the  Sorbonne, 

theologist,  26,  469 
Merkel,  15 

Merlier,  190Q,  Roubaix,  413 
Merveille,  439 
Meschede,   prof.   extraoYdinary   of 

psychiatry,  Königsberg,  410 
Mesmer,  Friedr.  Aulon,  1734-1815, 

doctor,  Vienna,  6,  7-1 1,  33,  41, 

SI,    74,    292,   299,   442,  492, 

496,  soil  S20 
Mesnet,  Ernst,  alienist,  physician  at 

the  Hotel-Dieu,  Paris,  20,  341, 

402 
Meunier,    Victor,    French  author, 

118 
Meyer,  J.,  doctor,  Livonia,  20 
Meyersohn,  Bernhard,  1880,  doctor, 

Schwerin,  18 
Meynert,      Theodor,      1833- 1 892, 

prof.,  Vienna,  alienist,  193,  274, 

279,  283,  29s,  348 
Mezeray,  309 
Michael,  J.,  1887,  doctor,  Hamburg, 

23,  60,  442 
Michailow,  1886,  20 
Michaud,     1893,    doctor,     Yoko» 

hama,  3 
Mlchelson,  Eduard,  ¥891,  physician, 

Dorpat,  454 
Miescher,     F.,    d.     1895,    prof., 

physiologist,  Bale,  232 
Miili     John     Stuart,     1806-1873, 

English  philosopher  and  political 

economist,  236 
Milne-Edwardes,   11.,   1882,   com- 
parative anatomist,  Paris,  201 
Minde,  John,  doctor,  Munich,  25 
Minnemann,  C,  physiologist,  Kiel, 

430 
Minot,    Charles    Sedgwick,    1886, 

Boston,  545 

Mirabeau,    Comte  de,    1749  1791, 

French  statesman,  orator,  author, 

29? 


Mitchell,    1846,    alienist.     United 

States,  x6 
Mitchell,  Weir,  physician,  neurolo- 
gist, Philadelphia,  392 
Mittelhäuser,  doctor,  Apolda,  349 
Möbius,  Paul  Julius,  prizfai-dozetUi 
neurologist,  Leipzig,   18,  23,  24, 

294,  303.  304.  345,  349,  '^^l 
Moli,    Karl    Franz,     prof,     extra- 

ordinary,  alienist,    Herzberg  nr. 

Berlin,  J93 
Möller,   Paul,  neurologist,   Grune- 
wald (Berlin),  429 
MöUerup,  1889,  Uanish  doctor,  306 
Moiroud,  1 901,  Frenob  dentist,  340 
Moleschott,     1 822 -1 893,     eminent 

German  physiologist,  Rome,  78 
Monnier,   Henri,  pupil   of    Forel, 

386388 
Moore,     George,     1850,     English 

doctor,  360 
Moosdorf,     Job.     Friedr.,      1721, 

doctor,  359 
Morand,     J.     S.,     1 889,     French 

doctor,  49 
Moravezik,    Emil,    1886,    alienist, 

Buda-Pesth,  25 
Moreau  (de  Jours),  Jacques  Josephe, 

1 804- 1 884,   alienist,   Paris,    186, 

192 
Moreau,  20 
Morel,  Benedictine  Auguste,  1809- 

1873,  celebrated  French  alienist, 

421 
Moricourt,  J.,  doctor,  Paris,  491 
Moritz,  Karl  Philipp,  philosopher 

(aesthetics),    psychologist,    prof., 

Berlin,  359 
Morselli,    alienist,    prof.,    Qepoa, 

21,  56,  73»  90»  103»  442 
Morton,  see  Prince 

Mosing,  William,  regimental  sur- 
geon, Hermannstadl,  24 

Mosso,  Aug.,  prof.,  physiologist, 
Turin,  274,  361 

Most,  G.  F.,  1842,  doctor,  Stadt- 
hagen,  13 

Motet,  1 88 1,  doctor,  Paris,  195, 
418,  429,  438 

Mouillesaux,  1787,  French  mag. 
netizer,  160 

Mourly,  Void,  see  Vo|d 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


60 1 


Moutin,  1887,  French  magnetizer, 

46 

Müller,  C.  W.,  1891,  neurologist 
and  electro-therapeutist,  Wies- 
baden, 345 

Müller,  F.,  prof,  extraordinary, 
neurologist,  Graz,  24 

Müller,  F.  C,  neurologist,  Munich, 

25.  349.  363»  402,  403 
MQUer,    Johannes,    eminent    ana- 
tomist and  physiologist,  professor, 

Bonn  and  Berlin,  265 
MUnsterberg,   Hugo,  psychologist, 

prof,   at   Harvard,  U.S.A.,  26, 

30,  265,  446 
Munter,    D.,    neurologist,   Berlin, 

284 
Muralt,  L.  v.,  1901,  privat'dozcnt^ 

alienist,  Zürich,  125 
Murell,  prof,  in  the  medical  school 

at  Westminster  Hospital,  II2 
Muschik<Droonbere,  Emil,  novelist, 

London,  1895,  286 
Myers,   A.    T.,  d.    1874,  doctor, 

lyondon,  311,  514 
Myers,  Frederick,  d.,  psychologist, 

Cambridge,  21,  28,  33,  45,  109, 

IIS,  231,   250,  255.  451»   514, 

521 

Näcke,  Paul  Adolf,  1 901,  alienist, 
head  physician  and  director  of 
the  Board  of  Health,  Hubertus- 
burg, Leipzig,  186,  187,  411 

Naef,  Max,  1^7,  Burgholzli,  125, 

335 
Nägeli,  346 

Napoleon  L,  1769- 1 821,  53,  249 

Napoleon  HL,  1808-1873,  480 

Naret,  French  doctor,  309 

Nasse,  Christian  Friedrich,  1778- 

1851,    physician,    prof.,    Halle 

and  Bonn,  163,  493,  494 
Katanson,  J.  G.,  physician  to  the 

Maison   de    Santi  cCIvry^    nr. 

Paris,  474 
Nayrac,  Jean- Paul,   1906,    French 

scientist,  475 
Needham,       Frederick,      alienist, 

Gloucester,  22 
Neilson,  doctor,  Kingston,  Canada, 

308 


Netter,    A.,    University    librarian, 

Nancy,  474 
Neukomm,    hypnotizer  and    well- 
sinker,  in  Hungary,  411 
Neumeister,  Georg,    1900,  lawyer, 

Stettin,  25,  402,  420,  423 
Neustätter,  oculist,  Munich,  1905, 

441 
Newbold,     prof,     of     philosophy, 

Philadelphia,  32 
Nicolai,    1733- 181 1,    author    and 

bookseller,  Berlin,  10 
'Nietzsche,      i844-i9CX>,     eminent 

philosopher,   formerly    professor 

at  Bale,  d.  in  Naumburg,  4 
Nizet,  Ph.D.,  lawyer,  Brussels,  19 
Noizet,     French    general,     1820, 

Stenay  and  Paris,  12,  160,  239, 

292 
Nolan,   alienist,   physician   to   the 

Richmond  Asylum,  Dublin,  290 
Nollet,  Jean  Antoine,  1700- 17 70, 

abbot,  physicist,  Paris,  529 
Nonne,    1888,   neurologist,    Ham- 
burg, 23,  25,  56,  81,  305 
North,  W.,  lecturer  on  physiology, 

London,  158,  225 
Nothnagel,    1 841 -1905,    physician, 

prof,  of  medicine,  Vienna,  24 
Nuel,  prof.,  Liege,   1889,  oculist, 

132 
Nussbaum,  Johann  Nepomuk,  1829- 

1890,  prof,  of  surgery,  Munich, 

25.  340,  468 

Obersteiner,  H.,  prof.,  Vienna, 
alienist,  eminent  authority  on 
the  histology  of  the  brain,  23, 
24,  48,  63,  78,  80,  84,  195,  202, 
205,   222,   225,   226,   299,  445, 

509 
O'Brien,  195 

Ochorowicz,    Julian,  psychologist, 

Warsaw,  formerly  m  Leml^rg, 

7,  12,  14,  33,  48,  91,  107,  134, 

5".  514 
Oedmann,  alienist,  Lund,  Sweden, 

327 

Offner,  Max,  tutor  in  the  Gym- 
nasium, Munich,  1 16 

Oignies,  Marie  d',  1173-1213,  ec- 
static, Liege,  465 


6o2 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Olbers,  1758- 1840,  celebrated  as- 
tronomer and  doctor,  Bremen,  8 

Olshausen,  Justus,  Oberreichsan- 
walt,  Leipzig,  420 

Opitz,  Wilh.  Martin,  1880,  doctor, 
Chemnitz,  18 

Oppenheim,  Hermann,  alienist 
and   neurolc^ist,    prof.,.  Berlin, 

24,  305»  363.  367,  369,  375.  380, 

384 
Orlitzky,     Oskar,     1903,    doctor, 

Moscow,  20,  308 

Osgood,  Hamilton,  1904,  doctor, 
Boston,  22,  309 

Osten,  v.,  Berlin,  455-457 

Ottolenghi,  SaWatore,  1887,  alienist 
and  authority  on  medical  juris- 
prudence, Ron^,  21,  508 

Oudet,  Jean  Etienne,  dentist, 
Paris,  339 

Ovid,  43  B.c. — 17  A.D.,  475 

Padioleau,  A.,  1864,  French  doctor, 

360 
Pagniez,    Philippe,    1904,    doctor, 

Paris,  364 
Palladino,  Eusapia,  Italian  medium, 

482,  510,  532,  534,  551 
Pallas,  204 
Pamart,  R.,  French  doctor,  1906, 

474,  477 
Papai,  Franz,  1 7 14,  doctor,  359 

Paracelsus,    Theophrastus,     1493- 

1541,    eminent  doctor    in    Bale 

and  other  places,  5,  501  . 
Parinaud,  oculist,  Paris,  211 
Parish,      psychologist,      ex-officer, 

Munich,  61,  117,  241,  262,  513, 

546 
Pascal,  Blaise,   1623- 1662,  French 

mathematician  and  author,  259, 

380 
Passavant,  Joh.  Karl,  1821,  doctor, 

Frankfort-on-the-Main,  9 
Patrick,  255 
Patton,  419 
Pau  de  St.  Martin,  surgeon  major, 

ist  CI.,  Paris,  40 
Pau  de  St.  Martin,  George  Gaston, 

1869,  French  doctor,  306 
Paulet,      1865,      French     doctor, 

403 


Pauly,  d.,  doctor,  Wiesbaden,  82, 
306 

Payot,  376 

Penzoldt,  prof.,  physician,  Er- 
langen, 25 

Perronnet,  1886,  510 

Perty,  4,  356,  501,  540 

Peter,  physician,  Mdpital  Necker^ 
Paris,  529 

Petersen,  Henrik  G.,  doctor, 
Boston,  U.S.A.,  42,  501 

P^tetin,  1787,  doctor,  Lyons,  8 

Pewnitzki,  doctor,  Odessa,  312 

Pezold,  1 739-1813,  doctor,  Dres- 
den, 9 

PfafF,  Christoph  Heinrich,  1817, 
prof.,  Kiel,  physician  and  sur» 
geon,  9 

Pfander,  homoeopathist,  348 

Pflüger,  E.,  prof.,  Bonn,  eminent 
physiologist,  489 

Pfnor,  Friedrich,  1784- 1867,  philo* 
sopher,  Baden-Baden,  13 

Philips,  pseudonym  of  Durand  de 
Gros 

Pick,  Arnold,  1 885,  alienist,  prof., 
Prague,  281 

Picken,  405 

Pickering,  E.  C,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  U.S.A.,  501 

Pigeaire,  J.,  1839,  doctor,  Paris,  12 

Pigeaud,  1897,  French  doctor,  474 

Piltz,  Jean,  alienist,  Geneva,  212 

Pincus,  i860,  doctor,  Berlin,  for- 
merly in  Gr.-Glogau,  17 

Pinel,  1887,  doctor,  Paris,  308 

Piper,    Mrs.,    American    medium 

540,  541.  547 
Piper,  inspector  of  schools,    Dall- 

dorf,  nr.  Berlin,  430 
Pitres,  A.,  prof.,  Bordeaux,'neurolo- 

gist,  18,  25,  39,  41,  57,  121,  140, 

141,  172 
Pius  X.,  544 
Pivati,  Giovanni  Francesco,  doctor, 

Venice,  529 
Placzek,    neurologist,    Berlin,    23, 

430 
Pliny,     the     elder,     23-79    A.D., 

Roman  natural  philosopher,  460 

Pliischke,    1902,   school  -  manager, 

Goldberg,  Silesia,  430 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


603 


Pobedinski,  307 

Podiapolsky,  1904,  doctor,  Saratoff, 
116 

Poincelot,  Achille,  philosopher, 
Paris,  184 

Poirault,  Georges,  1889,  medical 
student,  Paris,  Q9 

Pope,-  22 

Potet,  see  Du  Potet 

Pouillet,  1790  -  1868,  physicist, 
Paris,  503 

PoKzo,  see  Dal  Pozzo 

Pr^jalinini,  1840,  Italian  doctor,  117 

Prely  see  Du  Pre! 

Preiidergast,  1 891,  sanitary  official, 
Cincinnati,  442 

Preyer,  William,  1841-1897,  prof, 
of  phjrsiology  in  Jena  until  1888, 
subsequently  lecturer  in  Berlin 
and  Wiesbaden,  i,  2,  18,  21,  30, 
38,  S4f  63.  74.  9Ö»  108,  112,  113, 
aoo,   202,   278i  340,  406,  414, 

423.  439,  489.  S^Si  545 
Prince,  Morton,  New  York,  125 

Pritzl,  1885,  gynaecologist,  Vienna, 

341 
Prdll,  Karl,  publicist,  Berlin,  32 

Proust,  1889,  physician,  Paris,  19, 46 

Prudence,  somnambulist,  16 

Puel,  306 

Pulido,  doctor,  Salamanca,  21 

Pupin,  Ch.,   1896,   French  doctor, 

272 
Purgotti,  Luigi,  1887,  doctor,  Pavia, 
'   2^ 
Purkinje,    Johannes,     1787  - 1869, 

prof.,       physiologist,      Breslau, 

Prague,  42,  191 
Puys^gur^   Marquis  Chastenet    de, 

1784,  French  officer  at  Busancy, 

nr.  Soissons,  8,  9,  114,  292,  495 
Fyrrhus,   King  of  Epirus,   d.   272 

B.c.,  14 

Quackenbos,   doctor,    New    York, 

1900,  474 
Quain,  1800- 1887,  physician,  17 

Radbruch,  privai  -  dozenth  jurist, 
Heidelberg,  430 

R.,  Leopoldine,  Viennese  somnam- 
bulist, 1845,  503 


Radestock,  Paul,  1879,  psychologist, 

192 
Raggi,   Antigono,    Italian  alienist, 

508 
Rainaldi,    Rinaldo,    1887,    Italian 

doctor,  458 
Ramon  y  Cajal,  eminent  authority 

on  the  histology  of   the  brain, 

272 
Ramadier,  J.,  1887,  alienist  at  the 

asylum  at  Vancluse,  1 14 
RampoUa,    Cardinal,    secretary    of 

state  to  Leo  XIII.,  544 
Ramsay,   William,  chemist,   prof., 

London,  21 
Rarey,    1858,    horse  -  breaker  and 

trainer,  490 
Raulin,  J.  M.,  1900,  French  doctor, 

141 
Rauschburg,   Paul,   alienist,  Buda- 

Pesth,  46,  430 
Raymond,  prof.,  physician,  Salp6t- 
'    ri^re,     Paris,     neurologist,     28, 

82 
R^camier,  J.   C.  A.,    1774  -  1856, 

gynaecologist,  prof.,  Paris,  339 
Rechtsamer,  doctor,  St.  Petersburg, 

293 
Reden,  Benno,  402 

Reese,  1888,  American  author,  402 

Regis,  E.,  prof.,  alienist.  University 

of  Bordeaux,  187,  192 
Regia,    Paul    Desjardins,     French 

Orientalist,  195 
Regnard,  Paul,  French  doctor,  17, 

200 
Regnault,     F^Iix,    doctor,     Paris, 

1897,  19,  503 

Regnier,  L.  R.,  1 891,  French  doc- 
tor, 2,  274,  472 

Reichet,  Willy,  magnetopath,  prof, 
in  the  High  School  of  Magnetism, 
Paris,  formerly  in  Berlin,  418 

Reichenbach,  Karl  Friedr.  von, 
1788-1869,  naturalist,  chemist, 
Leipzig,  13,  501,  502 

Reiersen,  20 

Reil,  Johann,  1759-1813,  prof., 
Halle,  physician  and  anatomist, 

493.  501 
Remak,  Ernst,   prof.,   neurologist, 

Beriin,  291,  345 


6o4 


INDEX  OF   NAMEa 


Remak,  Robert»  1815-1865,  prof., 
extraordinary  at  Berlin,  histolo- 
gist  and  neurologist,  founder  of 
galvano-therapeutics,  281 
Remond,  1892,  French  doctor.  115 
Renterghem,  A.  W.  van,  doctor, 
Amsterdam,  20,  38,  51,  306,  309, 

,474 

Kepman,  20 

Repoud,  alienist,  director  of  Mar- 
sens  Lunatic  Asylum,  Canton 
Freiburg,  311 

Reynolds,  Russell,  1828- 1 896,  neur- 
ologist, London,  72 

kiant,  A.,  French  doctor,  hygienist, 

437 
Ribaud,  1847,  doctor,  Poitiers,  15 

Ribot,  Th.,  prof.,  psychologist, 
Paris,  19,  26,  446,  451,  461,  462, 
522 

Ricard,  1841,  magnetizer,  Paris,  12, 

^74 
Richer,    Paul,    neurologist.    Pans, 

pupil    of   Charcot,    17,   32,    39, 

41,  72.  82,  83,   107,    139,   200, 

478 
Riebet,  Charles,  prof,  of  physiology, 
Paris,  v.,  17,  33,  41,  45,  58,  62, 
112,  121,  130,  132, 138,  144,  160, 
184,  197,  200,  266,  445,  515,  544, 

545»  549 
Richter,  formerly  physician   to  the 

hydropathic  establishment,  Son- 
neberg, 24 

Rieger,  prof.,  Würburg,  alienist, 
25,  89,  191,  193,  200,  201,  289 

Rieics,  J.,  1904,  authority  on  Evan- 
gelical Church  history,  pastor, 
Profen,  nr.  Zeitz,  150,  465 

Righi,  Italian  doctor,  508 

Riklin,  125,  337 

Ringier,  J.,  doctor,  specialist  in 
suggestive    therapeutics,   Zürich, 

.   20,  51,  306,  344 

Ritzmann,  E.,  oculist,  ZUrich,  306 

Robertson,  .George  M.,  doctor, 
Edinburgh,  21,  311 

kochas,  A.  de,  1887,  French  colonel, 
administrateur  de  VEcole  poly- 
technique,  33,  478,  496 

Rocquain,  Felix,  French  historian, 
465 


Rodenwaldt,  Ernst,  doctor,  Breslau, 

430 
Rohnert,     W.,     Lutheran     pastor, 

1894,  26,  470 

Rommelare,  1888,  287 

Rosenbach,  Ottomar,  1897,  formerly 
prof,  extraordinary  in  Breslau, 
now  in  Berlin,  18,  48,  57,  233, 
243,   270.   286,    309,    360,   361, 

363.  367,  368,  373.  382,  398, 

461 
Rosenfeld,      1896,      privat-dozenty 

Halle,  443 
Rosenthal,  Moritz,  1833-1889,  prof, 

extraordinary,   Vienna,    neurolo- 
gist, 89,  III 
Rossi,      £.,      1863,     physician-in< 

ordinary  to  Prince  Halim  Pasha, 

Cairo,  i 
Rossolimo,  1889,  doctor,  Moscow, 

20 
Rostan,  I.,  493 

Roth,  Mathias,  d.,  doctor,  homoeo- 
path, London,  348 
Rouby,  1905,  tnJdecin-direcimr  de 

la  Maison  de  Sattle  d'Alger^  469, 

470 
Rousseau,    188 1,    French    alienist, 

Auxerre,  195 
Roux,  Jules,    1 807- 1877,   prof,    of 

surgery,  naval  surgeon,  Toulon, 

403 
Roux-Freissineng,     1887,     lawyer, 

Marseilles,  411 
Rubio,  E.  Bertran,  Spanish  doctor, 

21 
Rühlmann, .  Richard,    1880,   prof., 

tutor  in  the  gymnasium,  Chem- 
nitz, 18 
Ruf,    Frau,    1867,     Reichenbach's 

somnambulist,  502 
Rumpf,  prof.,  physician,  Bonn,  91, 

108 
Rust,  Joh.   Nepomuk,    1775- 1840, 

prof.,  Berlin^  surg^n,  288 
RybakofF,    1903,  doctor,  Moscow, 

20,  308 
Ryvalkin,     J.,     neurologist,     St. 

Petersburg,  116 

Sacresta,  French  doctor,  417 
Sadler,  1856,  doctor,  360 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


60s 


Sänger,  M.,  IQ^^i,  specialist,  laryng- 
ologist,  Magdeburg,  334 

SalamoD,  Ella  v.,  died  in  hypnosis j 
1894,411 

Salus,  Joh.  G.,  1888,  Baden-Baden, 
25,  291 

Salvioli,  Gaetano,  1881,  histologist, 
Berlin,  274 

Samuel,  d.,  pathol(^ist,  Konigs- 
Ijerg,  25,  364 

Sanctis,  Sante  de,  prof,  of  psychi- 
atrics, Rome,  178,  179,  180,  188, 
189,  366,  464 

Sandberg,  Gomer,  1892,  dentist, 
Skofde,  Sweden,  340 

Sander,  Geh,  medizfnalrat,  director 
of  the  lunatic  asylum,  Dalldorf, 
Berlin,  539 

Santanelli,  Ferdinand,  1723,  prof, 
of  medicine,  Naples,  6 

Sante  de  Sanctis,  see  Sanctis 

Sardou,  Victorien,  French  drama- 
tist, 32 

Sarto,  surname  of  Pope  Pius  X., 

544 
Sauvaire,  1887,  99 

SauVet,  186 

Savolshskaja,  1889,  Russian  doctor, 

290 
•Schaefer,     K.     L.,     psychologist, 
privat-dozent^  Berlin,  430 

Schaffer,  Karl,  1895,  alienist  and 
neurologist,  lecturer,  Buda-Pesth, 
19,  66,  80,  84,  85,  97,  208,  267 

■Scharf,  Moritz,  429 

-Scheibler,  prof,  at  the  High  School 
of  Magnetism,  Paris,  magneto- 
path,  498,  519 

Scheibner,  mathematician,  502 

Schelling,  1775-1854,  well-known 
philosopher,  founder  of  the  philo- 
sophy of  nature,  10 

Schibbye,  337 

Schiller,   Friedrich  v.,   1759-1805, 

245 

'  Schillings,  African  traveller,  natural- 
ist, 456 

Schinz,  46 

Schirmer,  prof.,  Greifswald,  oph- 
thamologist,  105 

Schlager,  Ludzwig,  1825- 1885, 
alienist,  prof.,  Vienna,  442 


Schleich,  Ludwig,  prof.,  surgeon, 
Berlin,  272,  347,  348 

Schleisner,  Danish  doctor,  20 

Schmeltz,  1894,  doctor,  Nice,  340 

Schmidkunz,  author,  Charlotten- 
burg,  27 

Schmidt,  Curt,  neurologist,  Dres- 
den, 307 

Schmidt,  427 

Schmitt,  Eugen,  pseudonym  of 
Klaussmann,  author,  Berlin,  187 

Schmitz,  293 

Schneickert,  Hans,  Dr.  jur.,  com- 
missioner for  investigating  crimes, 
Berlin,  430 

Schneider,  J.  H.,  266 

Schnitzler,  Arthur,  doctor,  poet, 
Vienna,  24 

Scholl,  Carl,  15,  16 

Scholz,  alienist,  Bremen,  23,  306 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  1788-1S60, 
philosopher,  Frankfort-on-lhe- 
Main,  13,  160,  192,  520 

Schott,  doctor,  Weinberg,  430 

Schrenck-Notzing,  Albert,  Freiherr 
v.,  doctor,  Munich,  2,  23,  24,  25, 

33,  45»  55i  56,  57,  61,  66,  116, 
120,    190,  246,    247,    309,   330, 

333,    341,  363,  404,  406,    432, 

433,   476,   477,    501,   514,   533, 

534'  549 
Schroder,  magnetopath,  Tilsit,  288 

Schröter,  magnetopath,  Tilsit,  492, 

502 
Schuh,   1804-1865,  surgeon,  prof., 

Vienna,  13 
Schule,  Heinrich,  alienist,  lUenau, 

Baden,  192,  252 
Schultze,     Ernst,     prof.,     alienist, 

Greifswald,  427,  441 
Schultze,      Friedrich,       physician, 

prof.,  Bonn,  24,  349 
Schultze  (Naumburg),  F.  E.  Olto, 

writer  on  aesthetics,  Saaleck,  near 

Kosen,  33,  448,  449 
Schulz,    Richard,    doctor,    Bruns- 
wick, 297 
Schuster,  1889,  doctor,  Aachen,  23, 

296 
Schütz,   1897,  prof,  of  philosophy 

at     the     seminary    for    priests, 

Treves,  27 


6o6 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Schulze,  doctor,  Koseo,  Thuringia, 

23 
Schuyten,  prof.,  Holland,  1903,  474 

Schwabe,  doctor,  expert  in  forensic 

medicine,  404 
Schwartzer,  Otto,    1878,    alienist, 

Buda-Pesth,  142,  420 
Schwarz,  advocate  of  occupational 

therapeutics,  387 
Schwenter,  1636,  199 
Scoresby,    1894,    Arctic    explorer, 

writer  on  nautical  subjects,  14, 

496 
Scripture,     E.    W.,    physiolc^ist, 

Yale,  Ü.S.A,  171 
Secheyron,  doctor,  Paris,  1888,  341 
SeeligmSUer,     1888,    prof,     extra- 
ordinary, Halle,  neurologist,  24, 

318,  474,  529 
S^gard,  Ch.,  18S7,  doctor,  Toulon, 

58,  151 
Seglas,  J.,  alienist,  Paris,  289,  311 
Seguin,    prof.,    neurologist,    New 

York,  529 
Seif,  L.,  neurologist,  Munich,  23, 

336 
Sell,  1887,  Danish  doctor,  20 
Seile,    1789,    philosopher,   doctor, 

Berlin,  9 
Semal,  Fran9ois,   1888,  alienist  at 

the  Mons  Asylum,  Belgium,  191 
Senator,  prof,  extraordinary,  physi- 
cian, Berlin,  18 
Seneca,    b.c.   4-65    a.D.,    Roman 

philosopher,  381 
Seppilli,     Gius.,     1880,     alienist, 

Imola,   near  Bologna,   96,    107, 

274,  508 
Sergent,  Fr.,  33 

Sgrosso,  1886,  Italian  doctor,  91 
Shakespeare,  1 564- 16 16,  385 
Sidgwick,     Henry,     d.,     eminent 
philosopher     and     psychologist, 
Cambridge,  21,  262 
Sidgwick,  Mrs.  H.,  514,  515 
Sidis,    Boris,     psychologist.     New 

York,  22,  28,  62,  132,  250,  459 
Siegfried,  Karl,  prof.,  Jena,  author- 
ity on  the  Old  Testament,  74 
Siemens,  F.,  director  of  the  Provin- 
cial Lunatic  Asylum,  Lauenburg, 
Pomerania,  43O 


Siemerling,  alienist,  prof.,  Kiel, 
207,  200 

Siemers,  J.  F.,  1835,  doctor,  Ham- 
burg, 13 

Sierke,  Eugen,  1874,  author, 
Brunswick,  8,  356 

Sighele,  Italian  social  psycholc^ist 

29,  459 
Silva,  B.,  1835,  Italian  doctor,  86 

Simon,    Max     (fils),     1888,    head 

physician  at  the  lunatic  asylum 

of  Bron  (Rhone),  186 
Simonin,  Amed^e,  1889,  182 
Simpson,  James,   181 1 -1870,  cele- 
brated obstetrician,   Edinburgh, 

150 
Sinani,  474 
Sinnett,  A.  P.,  English  theosophist, 

8.  206 
Sioli,  head  physician  to  the  town 

lunatic     asylum,     Frankfort-on- 

the-Main,  293 
Sjostrom,  Axel,  d.,  doctor,  Oster- 

ode,  23,  32 
Slade,  Henry,  well-known  spiritist 

medium,  483,  502 
Smith,  Percy,  alienist,  London,  311 
Sokal,  451 

Socrates,  470-399  B.c.,  262,  500 
Sollier,   Paul,  alienist,   Paris,   29, 

177 
Solow,  doctor,  New  York,  291,  294 
Sommer,   G.,    1886,    Italian    navy 

surgeon,  503 
Sommer,    Robert,    prof.,    alienist, 

Giessen,  24,  30,  163,  430,  515 
Soubirous,    Bernadette,    d.     1879, 

visionary,  Lourdes,  469 
Soukhanoflf,    Serge,  privcU-dozenty 

Moscow,  alienist,  473 
Sourian,  prof.,  FacuUe  des  Icttres^ 

Lille,  236 
Soury,  Jules,  psychologist,  tutor  at 

the  Sorbonne,  458 
Soupart,  Belgian  senator,  440 
Specht,  German  doctor,  432 
Spehl,  doctor,  prof..  University  of 

Brussels,  23 
Speir,  244 
Spencer,  Herbert,    1820- 1904,  the 

most  eminent  English  philosopher 

of  modern  times,  227,  552 


INDEX   OF   NAMES. 


607 


Sperling,  Arthur,  neurologist,  Bir- 
kenwerder, near  Berlin,  23,  39, 
49,  114,  206,  292,  312,  345,  348 

Speyr,  v.,  alienist,  prof.,  Bonn, 
441 

Spinoza,  1632-1677,  eminent  philo- 
sopher, 451 

Spitta,  H.,  1878,  honorary  prof., 
Tübingen,  psychologist,  42,  178 

Spitzka,  alienist,  New  York,  398 

Stadelmann,  Heinrich,  alienist, 
Dresden,  23,  266,  335 

Starck,  1896,  assbtant  of  Czerny, 
Heidelberg,  337,  340 

Starke,  356 

Stecker,  Auton,  1855- 1888,  Bohem- 
ian, African  explorer,  520 

Stefanowska,  Mich^line,  of  the  In- 
stitut psychologique^  Brussels,  19, 
82,  200,  202 

Stegman,  expert  in  forensic  medi- 
cine, alienist,  Dresden,  23,  308 

Stein,  Oswald  S.,  d.  1900,  doctor, 
Berlin,  23 

Stein,  Franz  Josef,  1873,  university 
prof.,  bishop,  Würzburg,  i 

Steiner,  doctor,  Bonn,  23 

Stembo,  L.,  neurologist,  Wilna,  20, 
68,  306,  312,  335 

Stephan,  B.  H.,  1888,  Dutch  doc- 
tor, 20 

Stern,  L.  William,  privat-dozent^ 
psychologist,  Breslau,  430,  432 

Sternberg,  Maximilian,  doctor, 
Vienna,  316 

Stewart,  Dugald,  1753-1828,  cele- 
brated philosopher,  Edinburgh, 
140,  240 

Steiglitz,  Johann,  1767- 1840,  doc- 
tor, Hanover,  9 

Stigter,  doctor,  psycho-therapeutist, 
Leyden,  20 

Stintzing,  prof,  of  medicine,  Jena, 

25 
Stoll,  Otto,  prof,  of  geography  and 

ethnology  in  the   University  of 

Zurich,  3,  5,  46,  202,  204,  355, 

471 
Stone,  1852,  doctor,  Boston,  16 
Stoos,  jurist,  prof.,  Vienna,  430 
Straaten,  Theodor  van,  doctor,  25, 

225 


Strassmann,  prof,  extraordinary  of 

medical    jurisprudence,     Berlin, 

4x4 
Straticö,    Alberto,     1905,     Italian 

pedagogue,  459 
Strieker,  Solomon,  1 834- 1 898,  prof.j 

Vienna,  pathologist,  63,  515 
Strohl,  apothecary,  Fontaines,  86 
Strubing,   Paul,    1880,    physician, 

prof.,  Griefswald,  113 
Strümpell,  prof.,  Breslau,  physician, 

24,  43»  349 
Stumpf,  Karl,  prof,  of  psychology, 

Berlin,  V.,   157,  202,  455458, 

482,  483,  550 
Sturgiss,  Russell,  doctor,   Boston, 

Mass.,  U.S.A.,  311,  332 
Succi,  the  fasting  man,  398 
Sussenbach,   Christophorus,    172 1, 

doctor,  359 
Sully,  James,  prof.,  University  of 

London,  181 
Sulzer,  H.  J.,  1720- 1779,  writer  on 

esthetics,  Berlin,  6 
Surbled,  French  doctor,  469 
Svampa,  cardinal,  544 
Szäpary,  Count  Franz,  about  1845, 

Hungarian  magnetizer,  14,  17 

Tagnet,  1884,  alienist,  medical 
director  of  the  Asile  de  Lesvel- 
l^e,  nr.  Vannes,  99 

Taine,  Hippolyte,  1828- 1 893,  psy- 
chologist, historian  of  literature, 
236 

Tambuiini,  Aug.,  1881,  alienist, 
Reggio-Emilia,  96,  107,  274,  508 

Tanner,  English  physician,  17 

Tanner,  fasting  man,  398 

Tanzi,  Eugenio,  1888,  alienist, 
Palermo,  73,  308,  508 

Tarchanoff,  Jean  de,  493,  516 

Tarde,  d.,  prof.,  College  de  France, 
social  psychologist,  459 

Tardieu,  Ambroise,  1818-1879, 
authority  on  forensic  medicine, 
Paris,  403,  406 

Tatzel,  d.,  doctor,  Essen,  1894,  23, 

309,  341 

Tauffer,  347 

Taylor,  Edward  Wyllys,  1891,  doc- 
tor, Claremont,  New  Jersey,  363 


6o8 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Tentzel,  Andreas,  5 

Tereg,  lecturer,  Hanover,  89 

Terrien,  doctor,  Des  Essarts,  Ven- 
ded, SI 

Tessie,  106 

Teste,  Alphonse,  1840,  mesmerist, 
doctor,  Paris,  12 

Thaler,    Karl  v.,   author,   Vienna, 
283 

Th^us,  1865,  French  doctor,  403 

Thiem,    Karl,     prof,     of    surgery, 
Cottbus,  288 

Thilorier,  chemist,  1844,  503 

Thoma,  1903,  doctor,  Illenau,  465 

Thomas,    surgeon-in- chief   of   the 

•   naval  station  at  Toulon,  341 

Thomas,  P.  Felix,  1895,  prof,  at  the 
Lycie^  Versailles,  27 

Thomsen,     Robert,    privat-dozent^ 
alienist,  Bonn,  305 

Tillaux,  Paul,  surgeon  at  the  Hotel 
DieUy  Paris,  340 

Timmler,  Julius  Eduard,  1873,  doc- 
tor, Altenburg,  356 

Tissie,    1890,    university    librarian, 
Bordeaux,  27,  107,  181,  189 

Tokarski,  doctor,  Moscow,  20,  28, 
31,308,311,331 

Toll,   Hugo,   doctor,    Minneapolis, 

340 
Tonnini,    1887,    doctor,   Girifalco, 

Calabria,  186 
Tonoli,  21 
Tooker,  William,  4 
Torto,  see  Del  Torto 
Toswel,  doctor,  London,  15 
Toulouse,  French  alienist,  188 
Tourette,  see  Gilles  de  la  Tourette 
Townsend,  1839,  the  Rev.  Chauncy 

Hare,  14 
Traiber,  Josef  M.,  1841,  Hungarian 

doctor,  360 
Trenaunay,    1901,    French  doctor, 

187,  192 
Treviranus,    1776  -  1837,     eminent 

doctor  and  physiologist,  Bremen,  9 
Tromner,   alienist  and  neurologist, 

Hamburg,  25 
Tuke,  Daniel  Hack,  eminent  alienist 

and  psychologist,  London,  21,  22, 

55,  148,  183,  191,  212,  217,  228, 

273»  318,  342,  360,  382 


Ullrich,    Karoline,     1906,      dam 

Vienna,  418 
Ulrici,   H.,    1879,    prof-    of    ph 

sophy,  Halle,  502 
Uslar,  v.,  Landralh,  527 

Vahau,  see  Artzrouny 

Vald^s,  1897,  French  author,  32 

Varges,     A.    W.,     1853,      znedi 
assessor,  Magdeburg,  11,  15,  4 

Varinard,    1892,   French  graphol 
gist,  132 

Varnier,  1887,  doctor,  Paris,  341 

Vaschide,  1899,  psychologist.  Pan 
182 

Vehse,  Karl,  Ed.,  1802- 1 870,  hi 
torian,  Dresden,  9 

Velander,  doctor,  Jonkoping,  20 

Velpeau,  Alfred,  1795- 1867,  emii 
ent  surgeon,  Paris,  16 

Velsen,  Prosper  van,  doctor,  Brui 
sets,  20 

Ventra,  Italian  alienist,  508 

Venturi,     Silvio,     prof.,     alienist 
Nocera  Inferiore,  Salerno,  508 

Verati,  Bologna,  529 

Verdin,  Ch.,  40 

Vergnolle,  Martial,  1906,  462 

Verm'eren,  doctor,  Chicago,  22 

Verneuil,  1888,  Belgian  doctor,  291 

Verworn,  Max,  1888,  prof.,  physio 
logist,  Göttingen,  201,  470 

Vesalius,  Andreas,  15 14- 1564,  doc- 
tor and  founder  of  anatomy,  552 

Vespasian,    reigned    69-79    A.D., 
Roman  emperor,  4 

Viebig,  **  suggest  or,"  441 

Vierkandt,    ethnologist,    psycholo- 
gist,/ri"z;a/-<Ä7z^»/,  Berlin,  471 

Vierordt,  Oswald,  i856-i9oi5,  phy- 
sician, prof.,  Heidelberg,  4 

Vigouroux,  Romain,  neurologist  and 
electro- therapeutist,  Paris,  ^^ 

Villa,  Guido,  privat-dozent  for  phil- 
osophy. University  of  Rome,  445, 
446 

Villamonga,  23 

Vmcent,  Harry  U.,  Oxford,  21,  77 

Viviani,  306 

Virchow,  Rudolph,  prof.,  Berlin, 
great  pathologist,  anthropologist, 
10,  285,  468,  473 


INDEX  OF  NAMES. 


609 


i"r. 


MS" 


;„  \' 


DO-,- 


i'   ? 

'ilk 


.1 


V,' 


Vires,  doctor,  Montpellier,  176 
Vizioli,   Franc,    1885,   neurologist, 

Naples,  195 
Vlavianos,    1899,   doctor,   Athens, 

Vogler,  1852,  Obermedizinalrath, 
Wiesbaden,  339 

Vogt,  Cecile,  lady  doctor,  Berlin, 
90,  225 

Vogt,  Oskar,  neurologist,  authority 
on  the  anatomy  of  the  brain, 
principal  of  the  Neuro-biological 
Institute  at  the  University  of 
Berlin,  24,  26,  30,  38,  39,  45,  56, 
59-61,  66,  72,  90,  107,  124,  125, 
153»  ^77,  225,  231,  277,  278, 
299,  300,  304,  330»  333.  335,  364» 
445448,  449 

Voigt,  Hermann  von,  doctor,  Leip- 
zig! 340,  341 

Voigt,  1845,  demonstrator  of  ana- 
tomy, Vienna,  535 

Voisin,  A.,  d.,  alienist,  Salpetriere, 
Paris,  19,  28,  39,  49,  113,  114, 
308,311,418,474,487 

Voisin,  J.,  alienist,  Salpetriere, 
Paris,  19,  29,  114,473»  529 

Void,  Mourly,  1896,  prof,  of  philo- 
sophy, Christiania,  178 

Volk  mann,  Alfred  Wilhelm,  1826, 
doctor,  13 

Volkmann,  Wilhelm  Fridolin,  Ritter 
von  Volkmar,  1 821- 1877,  prof., 
psychologist,  Prague,  26 

Voltaire,  1694- 1778,  183 

Voragine,  Jacobus  de,  1230- 1298, 
Archbishop  of  Genoa,  historian, 
467 

Wagner,  J.,  1889,  American  doctor, 

493 
Wagner,  Richard,  181 3-1833,  240 

Wagner,  Ritter  von  Jauregg,  prof., 

alienist,  Vienna,  368 
Wallace,  Alfred  Russell,  b.   1822, 

eminent  English  naturalist,  1866, 

482 
Walther,  Hermann,  2 
Wanke,  neurologist,  Friedrichsroda, 

24 
Warda,   neurologist,   Blankenburg, 

327i  336 


Warlomont,  £variste,  oculist,  Brus- 
sels, 468 

Wartalsky,  407 

Warthin,  Alfred  S.,  1894,  prof., 
University  of  Michigan,  141,  240 

Watson,  Thomas,  1792- 1882,  dis- 
tinguished English  physician, 
London,  17 

Weber,  L.,  prof.,  Kiel,  528 

Weber,  L.  W.,  pnva/'dozen/, 
Gottingen,  430 

Weber,  W.,  1 804-1 891,  prof., 
distinguished  physicist,  Leipzig 
and  Göttingen,  502 

Weil,  1893,  doctor,  Berlin,  357 

Weinbaum,  1903,  oculist,  Kiistrin, 
293,  410 

Weinhold,  Adolf  F.,  prof.,  teacher 
of  physics  at  the  State  Institute 
for  Technical  Education,  Chem- 
nitz, 18,  40,  42,  230 

Weir,  see  Mitchell 

Weiss,  D.,  doctor,  Briinn,  25,  120, 

318 

Weiss,  M.,  doctor,  Prague,  417 

Weiss,  418 

Weissleder,  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  stocking-knitter  and 
quack  (moon- doctor),  Berlin,  299 

Welsch,  Hermann,  doctor,  Kis- 
singen, 514 

Welscher,  Dr.,  1844,  Gendringen, 
468 

Weltmann,  "  suggestor,"  410,  440, 
441 

Wendler,  Christian  Adolf,  1818, 
doctor,  Leipzig,  13 

Wernich,  1843-1886,  Med,-rath, 
hygienist,  Berlin,  185 

Wernicke,  Alexander,  prof,  extra- 
ordinary at  the  Technical  High 
School  at  Brunswick,  writer  on 
physics  and  philosophy,  232, 
442,  518 

Westphal ,  Alexander,  prof. ,  alienist, 
Bonn,  337 

Westphal,  Karl  Friedrich  Otto, 
1833- 1890,  prof.,  Berlin,  alienist 
and  neurologist,  207,  507 

Wetterstrand,  doctor,  Stockholm, 
20,  45,  51,  82,  113,  116,  281, 
299»  306-309,  327,  333 

39 


6io 


INDEX  OF   NAMES. 


Wetzler,  1833,  McdieitMlrafk^ 
Augsburg,  520 

Weygand,  Wilhelm,  prtvai-doteuij 
alienist,  neurologist,  Würzburg, 
181 

Whitehead,  Walter,  doctor,  Man- 
chester, 21 

Wiazemsky,   doctor,   Saratoff,   20, 

45.  308 

Wichmann,  Ralf,  alienist  and  neur- 
ologist, Harzburg,  345,  348 

Widmer,  doctor,  la  CoUine, 
Territet,  308 

Wiebe,  1884,  doctor,  Freiburg,  23 

Wiedeburg,  1901,  doctor,  Blanken- 
burg,  390 

Wieland,  1733* 1 833,  German  poet 
and  author,  486,  553 

Wienholt,  Arnold,  1749- 1804, 
doctor,  Bremen,  8,  58,  122,  511 

Wier,  Johann,  1515-1558,  doctor, 
Arnheim,  opponent  of  the  witch 
prosecutions,  392,  460 

Wilde,  Friedr.  Adolf,  1830,  doctor, 
Berlin,  360 

Wilkinson,  contemporary  of  Braid, 
211,  225 

Willis,  Thomas,  203 

Willy,  Charles,  oculist,  Chaux-de- 
Fonds,  Switzerland,  105 

Wilson,  doctor,  London,  203 

Windscheid,  Franz,  prof,  extra- 
ordinary, physician-in-chief  at  the 
Hermannshaus  CHnic  for  the 
treatment  of  nervous  complaints 
caused  by  accidents,  Leipzig,  24 

Winiwarter,  Alexander  v.,  prof., 
Liege,  surgeon,  115 

Winkler  1903,  prof.,  alienist  and 
neurologist,  Amsterdam,  474 

Winkler,  1703- 1770,  prof,  of  phy- 
sics, Leipzig,  529 

Winkler,  Wilhelm,  architect,  Char- 
lottenburg,  505 

Wirth,  J.  A.,  1810-1879,  German 
philosopher  and  clergyman,    13, 

49 
Wissmann,  d.,  African  explorer,  433 

Witkowski,    French    historian    of 

medicine,  32 


Wi2e],  446 

Wolfart,  Karl  Christian,  1778-1832, 

prof.,  doctor,  Berlin,  6»  10,  11, 

124,  501 
Wolff,  Julius,  writing-master  and 

treater  of  writer's  cramp,  375 
Wolff,  Eberhard,  Breslau,  543 
Wolff,  Wilhelm,  1906,  GovernineDt 

geologist,  Berlin,  528 
Wolfram,    Johannes   (pseudonym), 

403 

Wollenberg,  prof.,  alienist,  Tübin- 
gen, 319 

Wolthers,  1814,  Dutch  doctor,  11 

Wood,  Edward  L.,  1890,  surgeon, 
Minneapolis,  U.S.A.,  340 

Worotynski,  Russian  doctor,  137 

Wreschner,  privat-dozeni,  psycholo- 
gist, Zürich,  430 

Wright,  19s 

Wundt,  Wilhelm,  prof.,  philo- 
sopher, psychologist,  Leipzig, 
25,  66,  136,  181,  184,  192,  200, 
205,  225,  226,  235,  237,  248, 
266-268,  276-278,  445 -448, 
485 

Wurm,  Wilhelm,  1857,  doctor, 
Teinach,  13 

Wuttke,  Adolf,  1869,  prof,  of 
theology,  Halle,  6,  354 

Young,  Spurgeon,  412 
Yung,  E.,  prof.,  Geneva,  230 

Zbinden,  Henri,  1902,  privat- 
dozenth  neurologist,  Geneva,  363 

Zell,  Th.  (pseudonym),  animal 
psychologist,  Berlin,  518 

Ziegler,  Konrad,  1891,  teacher, 
Fechenheim -on -the -Main,    27, 

.470 
Ziehen,    Theodor,    prof.,   alienist, 

neurologist,  Berlin,  25,  364 
Ziemssen,     v.,    1 829- 1902,     prof., 

Munich,   physician,   neurologist, 

24,  279,  289,  295 
Ziermann,  J.  C.  L.,  1819,  doctor, 

Hanover,  10 
Zöllner,  1834- 1882,  prof.,  physicist, 

Leipzig,  484,  502 


CORRECTIONS. 


Page  32,  line  19,  before  Epheyre  insert  Maupassant, 
n    130,    }y    19)  after  mamma  insert  '^Kurella  mentions  an  analogous 
phenomenon  observed  in  certain  pathological  states — the  photo- 
graphic similarity  of  certain   recurrent  attacks  in   epileptics   and 
persons  suffering  from  periodic  mania." 

Page  235,  line  3,  for  perceptive  read  perspective. 


284, 
290, 

293» 
294, 
306, 

308, 

309, 
312, 
312, 
312, 
316, 
331, 
350. 
417, 

447» 
462, 

465, 
466, 

466, 

473. 
473» 
474, 
502, 

503» 
505, 


23 


»  »» 


Munster 


>« 


Munter. 


21,  ,,    Finkeiberg  ,,     Finkeinburg. 

22,  ,,    Finkeinberg  read        ,, 

7,  after  auto-suggeslibility  insert  (Hirschlaff). 
9,  for  Forel  read  Jolly. 

17,  ,,    Ortizky  «ai  Orlitzky. 

8,  „   Hirst       „     Hirt. 

4,  ,,   Pewnizki  r^o^  Pewnitzki. 
15  from  bottom, y^r  Fränkel  read  Frenkel. 
12  ,,  ,)         ,1  I,         ,, 

12,  after  peripheral  nerves  insert  (Hilger,  van  der  Briele). 

T^for  Forel  read  Faber. 

I,  ,,    only     n     more  than. 

3  from  bottom, y^r  Eyraud  read  Gouffe. 

Tifor  disassociations  read  dissociations. 

6  from  bottom,  for  Vignolle  read  Vergnolle. 

8  ,,  ,,  stigmatist  ,,    stigmatic  (Rieks). 

3  ,,  ,,  makes  a  speech  r^o^  speaks  a  language. 

2  ,,  ,,  delivering  r^Jdf  speaking. 

10,  for  Henning  read  Hennig. 
17,  ,,  onychography  r^fl^f  onychophagy. 


)  )> 


H^rment  read  Hement. 


25,  ,,  Schreiber   ,,     Scheibner. 
13,  „   Hummel     ,,     Hummel. 
3  from  bottom,  for  Reich  read  Reichel. 


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CO 

> 


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O 
H 


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** Excellently  translated^  beautifully  bounds  and  elegantly  printed" - 
Liverpool  Mercury. 

^*  Notable  for  the  high  standard  of  taste  and  excellent  judgment  thai 
characterise  their  editings  as  well  as  for  the  brilliancy  of  the  liter atun 
thcU  they  contain," — Boston  Gazette,  U.S.A. 


Library  of  Humour. 

Cloth  Elegant^  Large  i2mo,  Price  $1.25  f>er  vol. 

VOLUMES  ALREADY  ISSUED, 

The  Humour  of  France*  Translated,  with  an  Introductio: 
and  Notes,  by  Elizabei  H  Lee.  With  numerous  Illustrations  by  Pai'. 
Fr^nzeny. 

The  Humour  of  Germany*  Translated,  with  an  Introduc 
tion  and  Notes,  by  Hans  Muller-Casenov.  With  numerous  Illi- 
trations  by  C.  E.  Brock. 

The  Humour  of  Italy*  Translated,  with  an  Introduction  an: 
Notes,  by  A.  Werner.  With  50  Illustrations  and  a  Frontispiece  I- 
Arturo  Fieldl 

The   Humour  of  America*     Selected,  with  a  copious  Bi: 

graphical  Index  of  American  Humorists,  by  James  Barr. 

The  Humour  of  Holland*  Translated,  with  an  IntroductioJ 
and  Notes,  by  A.  Werner.  With  numerous  Illustrations  by  Dudlb 
Hardy. 

The  Humour  of  Ireland*     Selected  by  D.  J.  O'DonoghuI 

With  numerous  Illustrations  by  Oliver  Paque. 

The  Humour  of  Spain*     Translated,  with  an   Introductio 

and  Notes,  by  Suseite  M.  Taylor.    With  numerous  Illustrations 
H.  R.  Millar. 

The    Humour    of    Russia*       Translated,    with    Notes, 

E.  L.  Boole,  andean  Introduction  by  Stepniak.      With   50   lllusl 
tions  by  Paul  Frenzkny. 


New  York :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


In  One  Volume.     Crown  8vo,  ClofA,  Richly  Gilt.    Price  1 1.2  5. 

Musidans'  Wit,  Humour,  and 

Anecdote: 

BEING 

ON  DITS  OF   COMPOSERS,    SINGERS,   AND 
INSTRUMENTALISTS  OF  ALL  TIMES- 

By  FREDERICK  J.  CROWEST, 

Author  of  "The  Great  Tone  Poets,"   "The  Story  of  British  Music"; 
Editor  of  "The  Master  Musicians"  Series,  etc.,  etc. 

Profusely  Illustrated  with  Quaint  Drawings  by  J.  P.  Donne. 

WHAT  ENGLISH  REVIEWERS  SAY:— 

"It  is  one  of  those  delightful  medleys  of  anecdote  of  all  times,  seasons, 
and  persons,  in  every  page  of  which  there  is  a  new  specimen  of  humour, 
strange  adventure,  and  quaint  saying." — T.  P.  O'Connor  in  71  P,*5  Weekly, 

"  A  remarkable  collection  of  good  stories  which  must  have  taken  years  of 
perseverance  to  get  together.*' — Morning  Leader, 

"A  book  which  should  prove  acceptable  to  two  large  sections  of  the  public 
— those  who  are  interested  in  musicians  and  those  who  have  an  adequate 
sense  of  the  comic." — Globe, 

THE  USEFUL  RED  SERIES. 

Red  Cloth^  Pocket  Size,  Price  50  Cents, 
NEW  IDEAS  ON  BRIDGE.    By  Archibald  Dunn,  Jun. 

INDIGESTION:    Its    Prevention    and    Cure.      By    F. 

Herbert  Alderson,  M.B. 

ON  CHOOSING  A  PIANO.    By  Algernon  Rose. 

CONSUMPTION :  Its  Nature,  Causes,  Prevention,  and 
Cure.     By  Dr.  Sicard  de  Plauzoles. 

BUSINESS  SUCCESS.    By  G.  G.  Millar. 

PETROLEUM.    By  Sydney  H.  North. 

*  INFANT  FEEDING.     By  a  Physician. 

THE    LUNGS    IN   HEALTH   AND   DISEASE.    By 

Dr.  Paul  Niemeyer. 

HOW  TO  PRESERVE  THE  TEETH.    By  a  Dental 
Surgeon. 

MOTHER  AND  CHILD.     By  L.  M.  Marriott. 


New  York :  Charles  Scribnbr's  Sons. 


T^he  Music  Story  Series. 

A  SERIES  OF  LITERARY-MUSICAL  MONOGRAPHS. 

Edited  by  FREDERICK  J.  CROWEST, 

Author  of  "The  Great  Tone  Poets,"  etc.,  etc. 

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Pictures,  Facsimiles,  etc. 

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THE  STORY  OF  ORATORIO»     By  ANNIE  W.  PATTKR- 
SON,  B.A.,  Mus.  Doc. 

THE  STORY  OF  NOTATION.    By  C,  F.  ABDY  WILLIAMS, 
M.A.,  Mus.  Bac. 

THE     STORY     OF     THE     ORGAN.      By    C.     F.     ABDY 

WILLIAMS,  M.A.,  Author  of  "Bach"  and  "Handel"  («'Master 
Musicians'  Series"). 

THE  STORY  OF  CHAMBER  MUSIC.    By  N.   KILBURN, 

Mus.  Bac.  (Cantab.). 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  VIOLIN*     By  PAUL  STOEVING, 
Professor  of  the  Violin,  Guildhall  School  of  Music,  London. 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  HARP,    By  WILLIAM  H.  G RATTAN 
FLOOD,  Author  of  "  History  of  Irish  Music." 

THE    STORY    OF    ORGAN    MUSIC      By    C.    F.    AB^Y 
WILLIAMS,  M.A.,  Mus.  Bac. 

THE  ST9RY  OF  ENGLISH  MUSIC  (1604-1904):   being   the 
Worshipful  Company  of  Musicians'  Lectures. 

THE  STORY  OF  MINSTRELSY.     Bv  EDMONDSTOUNE 
DUNCAN. 

THE    STORY    OF    MUSICAL    FORM.        By    CLARENCE 

LUCAS. 

LATEST    ADDITIONS. 

THE  STORY  OF  OPERA.     By  E.  MARKHAM   LEE,   Mus. 
Doc.  . 

THE   STORY  OF  THE  CAROL.      By  EDMONDSTOUNE 
DUNCAN. 

New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


The  Makers  of  British  Art. 

A  Series  of  Illustrated  Monographs 

Edited  by 

James     A.    Manson. 

Illustrated  with  Photogravure  Portraits  ;  Half-tone  and  Line  Reproductions 

of  the  Best  Pictures. 

Square  Crown  Svo,  Cloth^  $1.25  net 
LANDSEER,  SIR  EDWIN.     By  the  EDITOR. 

*'This  little  volume  may  rank  as  the  most  complete  account  of  Landseer 
that  the  world  is  likely  to  possess." — Times, 

REYNOLDS,     SIR    JOSHUA.      By    ELSA    D'ESTERRE- 
KEELING. 

**  An  admirable  little  volume  .  .  .  Miss  Keeling  writes  very  justly  and 
sympathetically.  *' — Daily  Telegraph, 

**  Useful  as  a  handy  work  of  reference." — Athenceum. 

TURNER,  J.  W.  M.      By  ROBERT  CHIGNELL,  Author  of 

"The  Life  and  Paintings  of  Vicat  Cole,  R.A." 
**  This  book  is  thoroughly  competent,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  in  the  best 
sense  popular  in  style  and  treatment." — Literary  World, 

ROMNEY,    GEORGE.     By   Sir   HERBERT   MAXWELL, 
Bart.,  F.R.S. 

**  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell'«  bri^htl'^-Trritten  and  accurate  monograph  wi :!  not 
disappoint  -even  exacting  «tnuents,  whilst  its  charming  repicductions  arc  cer- 
tain to  render  it  ar  attractive  gitt-book/' — ^tanaard, 

*'  It  is  a  plea?u  :e  to  read  such  a  biography  as  this,  so  well  considered,  and 
written  with  sucr.  insight  and  literary  skili.^' — Dany  NetK, 

WILKIE,  SIR  DAVID.     By  Professor  BAYNE. 
CONSTABLE,  JOHN.     By  the  EARL  OF  PLYMOUTH. 
RAEBURN,  SIR  HENRY.     By  EDWARD  PINNINGTON. 
QAINSBOROUQH,  THOMAS.     By  A.  E.  FLETCHER. 
HOGARTH,  WILLIAM.     By  Prof.  G.  BALDWIN  BROWN. 
MOORE,  HENRY.     By  FRANK  J.  MACLEAN. 
LEIOHTON,  LORD.     By  EDGCUMBE  STALEY. 
MORLAND,  GEORGE.     By  D.  H.  WILSON,  M.A.,  LL.M. 
WILSON,  RICHARD.     By  BEAUMONT  FLETCHER. 
«  MILLAIS,  SIR  JOHN  EVERETT.     By  J.  EADIE  REID. 

New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


V  Vi 


The  Contemporary  Science  Series. 

^  Edited  by  Havelock  Ellis. 

PQ  i2mo.     Cloth,     Price  %i.^o  per  Volume. 


I'u:  I.  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  SEX.     By  Prof.  Patrick  Geddes 

•5  «  and  J.  A.  THOMSON.     With  90  Illustrations.     Second  Edition. 

W  ^  **  The  authors  have  brought  to  the  task — as  indeed  their  names  guarantee 

1°  D  — a  wealth  of  knowledge,  a  lucid  and  attractive  method  of  treatment,  and  a 

« ,5  rich  vein  of  picturesque  language." — Nature, 

It-  II.  ELECTRICITY   IN   MODERN   LIFE.      By    G.    W.  de 

'%  Q  TUNZELMANN.     With  %Z  Illustrations. 

J^  >*  "A  clearly  written  and  connected  sketch  of  what  is  known  about  dec- 

£  tricity  and  magnetism,  the  more  prominent  modern  applications,  and  the 

.0    ^  principles  on  which  they  are  based." — Saturday  Review, 

II  IIL  THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    ARYANS.      By    Dr.    Isaac 

^  E  Taylor.     Illustrated.     Second  Edition. 

t:  g  "Canon  Taylor  is  probably  the  most  encyclopaedic  all-round  scholar  now 

o  ^  living.     His  new  volume  on  the  Origin  of  the  Aryans  is  a  first-rate  example 

^  *>  of  the  excellent  account  to  which  he  can  turn  his  exceptionally  wide  and 

.  B,  varied  information.  .  .   .  Masterly  and  exhaustive.  '* — Pall  Mall  Gazette, 

d-g  IV.  PHYSIOGNOMY  AND  EXPRESSION.     By  P.    Mantt- 

W  «8  GAZZA.     Illustrated. 

g  4>  "Brings  this  highly  interesting  subject  even  with  the  latest  researches, 

o  ts  ...  Professor  Mantegazza  is  a  writer  full  of  life  and  spirit,  and  the  natura! 

H  Oi  attractiveness  of  his  subject  is  not  destroyed  by  his  scientific  handling  of  it ' 

5«g  — Literary  W^r^/ (Boston). 

^>.  V.  EVOLUTION  AND  DISEASE.     By  J.  B.  Sutton,  F.R.CS. 

«a  With  135  Illustrations. 

Jg  "The  book  is  äs  interesting  as  a  novel,  without  sacrifice  of  accuracy  w 

J  system,  and  is  calculated  to  give  an  appreciation  of  the  fundamentals  of 

^^K  pathology  to  the  lay  reader,  while  forming  a  useful  collection  of  illustrations 

JC  Z  ••  of  disease  for  medical  XQ^tx^nct,"^/ournal  of  Mental  Science, 

li^  VL  THE    VILLAGE    COMMUNITY.      By   G.    L.    Gomme, 

P  0^01  Illustrated. 

g  O  ^  «<  His  book  will  probably  remain  for  some  time  the  best  work  of  referena 

§  ttJttJ  for  facts  bearing  on  those  traces  of  the  village  community  which  have  not 

^  CC  been  effaced  by  conquest,  encroachment,  and  the  heavy  hand  of  Romao 

^^  law." — Scottish  Leader, 

>  VII.  THE    CRIMINAL.     By   Havelock   Ellis.     Illustrated 

<  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 

^  "The  sociologist,   the   philosopher,   the  philanthropist,   the   novelist— 

O  all,  indeed,  for  whom  the  study  of  human  nature  has  any  attraction — will 

'^  find  Mr.  Ellis  full  of  interest  and  suggestiveness." — Academy, 


New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


VIII.  SANITY  AND  INSANITY.     By  Dr.  Charles  Mercier. 
Illustrated. 

"Taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  the  brightest  book  on  the  physical  side  of 
mental  science  published  in  our  time." — Pall  Mall  Gazette^ 

IX.  HYPNOTISM.     By  Dr.  Albert  Moll.     New  and  Enlarged 

Edition. 

"Marks  a  step  of  some  importance  in  the  study  of  some  difficult  physio- 
logical and  psychological   problems  which  have  not  yet  received  much  ^ 
attention  in  the  scientific  world  of  England." — Nature,  ^ 

X.  MANUAL  TRAINING.    By  Dr.  C.  M.  Woodward,  Director         ^r 

of  the  Manual  Training  School,  St  Louis.     Illustrated. 


— Manchester  Guardian, 


J3 


"  There  is  no  greater  authority  on  the  subject  than  Professor  Woodward."        c  ^ 


o   :» 


XL   THE    SCIENCE   OF  FAIRY   TALES.     By  E.   Sidney     wq 
Hartland.  'S  ^ 

"Mr.    Hartland's  book  will  win  the  sympathy  of  all  earnest  students,        Sfg 


rt  < 


both  by  the  knowledge  it  displays,  and  by  a  thorough  love  and  appreciation  —  h 

of  his  subject,  which  is  evident  throughout." — Spectator,  M  ^ 

XII.  PRIMITIVE  FOLK.     By  Elie  Reclus.  1 1 

**An  attractive  and  useful  introduction  to  the  study  of  some  aspects  of       ^ 

ethnography." — Nature,  j2;  W 

XIII.  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MARRIAGE.      By  Professor  ^-s; 
Letourneau.  Ö  ^ 

"Among  the  distinguished  French  students  of  sociology,  Professor  Letour-  ^  |^ 
neau  has  long  stood  in  the  first  rank.     He  approaches  the  great  study  of       ^  r; 

man  free  from  bias  and  shy  of  generalisations.     To  collect,  scrutinise,  and  ea  «E 

appraise  facts  is  his  chief  business.     In  the  volume  before  us  he  shows  these  S  ~ 

qualities  in  an  admirable  degree." — Science,                                               ,  "^S 

XIV.  BACTERIA  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS.      By  Dr.  G.  Gä 
Sims  Woodhead.     Illustrated.     Second  Edition,  ^Z 

"An  excellent  summary  of  the  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  subject."  o 
—Lancet,                                                                                                              j,  5^ 

XV.  EDUCATION  AND  HEREDITY.     By  J.  M.  Guyau.        g' 2^ 


"It  is  at  once  a  treatise  on  sociology,  ethics,  and  pedagogics.  It  isO  qO^ 
doubtful  whether,  among  all  the  ardent  evolutionists  who  have  had  their  say  H  Z  ^ 
on  the  moral  and  the  educational  question,  any  one  has  carried  forward  the  2  ^o 
new  doctrine  so  boldly  to  its  extreme  logical  consequence." — Professor  Q^< 
Sully  m  Mind.  < 

XVI.  THE  MAN  OF  GENIUS.     By  Prof.  Lombroso.     Illus-  ? 
trated.  > 

"  By  far  the  most  comprehensive  and  fascinating  collection  of  facts  and  Q 
generalisations  concerning  genius  which  has  yet  been  brought  together." —  ^ 
jfoumcU  of  Mental  Science,  ^ 

New  York  :  Charles  Scribnbr's  Sons.  ^ 


XVII.  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  FAUNA. 
By  R.  F.  SCHARFF,  B.Sc,  Ph.D.,  F.Z.S.     Illustrated. 

XVIII.  PROPERTY :  ITS  ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT. 
By  Ch.  Letourneau,  General  Secretary  to  the  Anthro- 
pological Society,  Paris,  and  Professor  in  the  School  of  Anthro- 
pology, Paris. 

'*  M.  Letourneau  has  read  a  great  deal,  and  he  seems  to  us  to  have 
selected  and  interpreted  his  facts  with  considerable  judgment  and  learning." 
—  IVestminster  Review, 

XIX.  VOLCANOES,  PAST  AND  PRESENT.  By  Prof. 
Edward  Hull,  LLD.,  F.R.S. 

"  A  very  readable  account  of  the  phenomena  of  volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes. " — Nature, 

XX.  PUBLIC   HEALTH.      By   Dr.   J.    F.   J.    Sykes.      With 

numerous  Illustrations. 

*'Not  by  any  means  a  mere  compilation  or  a  dry  record  of  details  and 
statistics,  but  it  takes  up  essential  points  in  evolution,  environment,  prophy- 
laxis, and  sanitation  bearing  upon  the  preservation  of  public  health." — 
Lancet, 

XXL  MODERN  METEOROLOGY.  An  Account  of  the 
Growth  and  Present  Condition  of  some  Branches 
OF  Meteorological  Science.  By  Frank  Waldo,  Ph.D., 
Member  of  the  German  and  Austrian  Me;:ecrolcgicai  Societies, 
etc.*  late  Junior  Prolessor,  Signal  Service,  U.S.  A.  With  112 
i  Lustrations. 

'*  The  present  voUime  is  the  best  on  the  subject  -.(or  orcneral  use  that  we 
have  seen.*'^ — Daily  lelc^raph  (London). 

XXII.  THE  GERM-PLASM  :  A  THEORY  OF  HEREDITY. 
By  August  Weismann,  Professor  in  the  University  of 
Freiburg-in-Breisgau.     With  24  Illustrations.     $2.50. 

"There  has  been  no  work  published  since  Darwin's  own  books  which 
has  so  thoroughly  handled  the  matter  treated  by  him,  or  has  done  so  much 
to  place  in  order  and  clearness  the  immense  complexity  of  the  factors  of 
heredity,  or,  lastly,  has  brought  to  light  so  many  new  facts  and  considerations 
bearing  on  the  subject." — British  Medical  Journal, 

XXIII.  INDUSTRIES  OF  ANIMALS.     By  E.  F.  Houssay. 

With  numerous  Illustrations. 
"  His  accuracy  is  undoubted,  yet  his  facts  out-marvel  all  romance.     These 
facts  are  here  made  use  of  as  materials  wherewith  to  form  the  mighty  fabric 
of  evolution." — Manchester  Guardian, 

New  York  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


XXIV.  MAN  AND  WOMAN.     By  Havelock  Ellis.     Illus- 
trated.    Fourth  and  Revised  Edition. 

"  Mr.  Havelock  Ellis  belongs,  in  some  measure,  to  the  continental  school 
of  anthropologists ;  but  while  equally  methodical  in  the  collection  of  facts, 
he  is  far  more  cautious  in  the  invention  of  theories,  and  he  has  the  further 
distinction  of  being  not  only  able  to  think,  but  able  to  write.  His  book  is 
a  sane  and  impartial  consideration,  from  a  psychological  and  anthropological 
point  of  view,  of  a  subject  which  is  certainly  of  primary  interest." — 
AiheniFum. 

XXV.  THE   EVOLUTION   OF   MODERN    CAPITALISM. 

By  John  A.  Hobson,  M.A.     (New  and  Revised  Edition.) 

"  Every  page  affords  evidence  of  wide  and  minute  study,  a  weighing  of 
facts  as  conscientious  as  it  is  acute,  a  keen  sense  of  the  importance  of  certain 
points  as  to  which  economists  of  all  schools  have  hitherto  been  confused  and 
careless,  and  an  impartiality  generally  so  great  as  to  give  no  indication  of  his 
[Mr.  Hobson's]  personal  sympathies." — Pall  Mall  Gazelle. 

XXVI.  APPARITIONS  AND  THOUGHT  -  TRANSFER- 
ENCE.   By  Frank  Podmore,  M.A. 

**A  very  sober  and  interesting  little  book.  .  .  .  That  thought-transfer- 
ence is  a  real  thing,  though  not  perhaps  a  very  common  thing,  he  certainly 
shows. " — Specialer, 

XXVII.  AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  COMPARATIVE 
PSYCHOLOGY.  By  Professor  C.  Lloyd  Morgan.  With 
Diagrams. 

"  A  strong  and  complete  exposition  of  Psychology,  as  it  takes  shape  in  a 
mind  previously  informed  with  biological  science.  .  .  .  Well  written,  ex- 
tremely entertaining,  and  intrinsically  valuable." — Saturday  Review, 

XXVIII.  THE  ORIGINS  OF  INVENTION :  A  Study  of 
Industry  among  Primitive  Peoples.  By  Otis  T.  Mason, 
Curator  of  the  Department  of  Ethnology  in  the  United  States 
National  Museum. 

**A  valuable  history  of  the  development  of  the  inventive  faculty." — 
Nature, 

XXIX.  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  BRAIN:  A  Study  of 
THE  Nervous  System  in  relation  to  Education.  By 
Henry  Herbert  Donaldson,  Professor  of  Neurology  in  the 
University  of  Chicago. 

"  We  can  say  with  confidence  that  Professor  Donaldson  has  executed  his 
work  with  much  care,  judgment,  and  discrimination." — The  Lancel, 

XXX.  EVOLUTION  IN  ART:  As  Illustrated  by  the 
Life-Histories  of  Designs.  By  Professor  Alfred  C. 
H ADDON.     With  130  Illustrations. 

"It  is  impossible  to  speak  too  highly  of  this  most  unassuming  and 
invaluable  hooV.,^* —Journal  of  Anthropological  Institute, 

New  York :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


XXXI.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  EMOTIONS.  By 
Th.  Ribot,  Professor  at  the  College  of  France,  Editor  of  the 
Revue  Philosophique, 

"Professor  Ribot's  treatment  is  careful,  modern,  and  adequate."— 
Academy, 

XXXII.  HALLUCINATIONS  AND  ILLUSIONS :  A  Study 
OF  THE  Fallacies  of  Perception.    By  Edmund  Parish, 

**This  remarkable  little  volume." — Daily  News. 

XXXIII.  THE  NEW  PSYCHOLOGY.  By  E.  W.  Scripture, 
Ph.D.  (Leipzig).     With  124  Illustrations. 

XXXIV.  SLEEP :  Its  Physiology,  Pathology,  Hygiene,  and 
Psychology.  By  Marie  de  ManaceTne  (St.  Petersburg). 
Illustrated. 

XXXV.  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  DIGESTION. 
By  A.  LocKHART  Gillespie,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.  Ed.,  F.R.S. 
Ed.     With  a  large  number  of  Illustrations  and  Diagrams. 

**  Dr.  Gillespie's  work  is  one  that  has  been  greatly  needed.  No  com- 
prehensive collation  of  this  kind  exists  in  recent  English  Literature."— 
American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences. 

XXXVI.  DEGENERACY:  Its  Causes,  Signs,  and  Results, 
By  Professor  EuGENE  S.  Talbot,  M.D.,  Chicago.  With 
Illustrations.  * 

* '  The  author  is  bold,  original,  and  suggestive,  and  his  work  is  a  con- 
tribution of  real  and  indeed  great  value,  more  so  on  the  whole  than  anything 
that  has  yet  appeared  in  this  country." — American  Journal  of  Psychology, 

XXXVII.  THE  RACES  OF  MAN:  A  Sketch  of  Ethno- 
graphy AND  Anthropology.  By  J.  Deniker.  With  178 
Illustrations. 

**  Dr.  Deniker  has  achieved  a  success  which  is  well-nigh  phenomenal." 

British  Medical  Journal, 

XXXVIII.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  RELIGION.  An 
Empirical  Study  of  the  Growth  of  Religious  Con- 
sciousness. By  Edwin  Diller  Starbuck  Ph.D.,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Education,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

**  No  one  interested  in  the  study  of  religious  life  and  experience  can 
afford  to  neglect  this  volume." — Morning  Herald, 

XXXIX.  THE  CHILD :  A  Study  in  the  Evolution  of  Man. 
By  Dr.  Alexander  Francis  Chamberlain,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
Lecturer  on  Anthropology  in  Clark  University,  Worcester 
(Mass.).     With  Illustrations. 

''The  work  contains  much  curious  information,  and  should  be  studied  by 
those  who  have  to  do  with  children." — Sheffield  Daily  Telegraph, 


New  York :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


XL.  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RACE.     By  Professor  Sergi. 
With  over  loo  Illustrations. 
"  M.  Sergi  has  given  us  a  lucid  and  complete  exposition  of  his  views  on  a 
subject  of  supreme  interest." — Irish  Times, 

XLI.  THE   STUDY   OF  RELIGION.    By  Morris  Jastrow, 
Jun.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
"This   work  presents  a   careful  survey   of  the  subject,   and  forms  an 
admirable  introduction  to  any  particular  branch  of  it." — Methodist  Times, 

XLII.  HISTORY  OF  GEOLOGY  AND  PALEONTOLOGY 
TO  THE  END  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 
By  Karl  von  Zittel. 

**  It   is  a  very  masterly  treatise,  written  with  a  wide  grasp  of  recent 
discoveries. " — Publishers^  Circular, 

XLIII.  THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS :  A  Study  in  Com- 
parative Education.    By  R.  E.  Hughes,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
B.Sc.  (Lond.). 
"  Mr.  Hughes  gives  a  lucid  account  of  the  exact  position  of  Education  in 
England,    Germany,    France,    and    the    United    States.      The    statistics 
present  a  clear  and  attractive  picture  of  the  manner  in  which  one  of  the 
greatest  questions  now  at  issue  is  being  solved  both  at  home  and  abroad." 
— Standard. 

XLIV.   MORALS:  A  Treatise  on  the  Psycho-Sociological 
Bases  of  Ethics.    By  Professor  G.  L  Duprat.    Trans- 
lated by  W.  J.  Green  STREET,  M.A.,  F.RA.a 
The  present  work  is  representative  of  the  modern   departure  in   the 

treatment  of  the  theory  of  morals.     The  author  brings  a  wide  knowledge 

to  bear  on  his  subject." — Education, 

XLV.    A    STUDY    OF    RECENT    EARTHQUAKES.      By 
Charles  Davison,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.     With  Illustrations. 
"Dr.  Davison  has  done  his  work  well." — Westminster  Gazette, 

XLVL  MODERN  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY.     By  Dr.  C.  A. 
Keane,  D.Sc,  Ph.D.,  F.I.C.    With  Diagrams. 
*'  This  volume  provides  an  instructive  and  suggestive  survey  of  the  great 
range  of  knowledge  covered  by  modern  organic  chemistry." — Scotsman, 

TO-DAY'S  ADDITIONS:— 

THE  CRIMINAL.  By  Havelock  Ellis.  Fourth  Edition, 
Revised  and  Enlarged. 

XLVII.   THE  JEWS :  A  Study  of  Race  and  Environment. 

By  Dr.  MAURICE  FiSHBERG. 
*'  It  shows  abounding  evidence  in  its  pages  that  it  is  intended  to  show, 
immense  industry,  consummate  pains,  vast  literary  and  statistical  resources. 
It  contains,  to  be  sure,  much  information  of  great  value,  and  it  sets  forth 
many  facts  absorbing  in  their  interest  for  any  who  desire  to  study  the 
Jewish  people."— ^<?w/i"Ä  Chronicle, 

New  York :  Charles  Scribnbr's  Sons. 


(( 


IBSEN'S    DRAMAS. 

Edited  by  WILLIAM   ARCHER. 

O  THRKB    PLAYS    TO    THE    VOLUME. 

5  i2mo,  CLOTH,  PRICE  $1.25  PER  VOLUME. 

PQ 

**  1V$  teem  ai  kut  to  be  shewn  men  and  women  as  they  are  ;  and  at  first  ü 

S  is  mere  than  we  can  endure,  •  .  .  All  Ibsen* s  characters  speak  and  act  as  if 

M  they  were  hypnotised,  and  under  their  creator^s  imperious  demand  to  reveal 

^  themselves.     There  never  was  such  a  mirror  held  up  to  nature  before :  it  is 

too  terrible,  ,  ,  .    Yet  we  must  return  to  Ihsen^  with  his  remorseless  surgery ^ 

2  hts  remorseless  electric-light ^  until  we,  too,  have  groivn  strong  and  learned  t§ 

^  fau  the  naked — if  necessary,  the  ßayed  and  bleeding— reality,*^ — Spbakkr 

PQ  (London). 

to  w  Vol.    L      "A    DOLUS    HOUSE,"     "THE    LEAGUE    OF 

^  S  YOUTH,"    and    "THE  PILLARS  OF  SOCIETY."     With 

SZ;  t3  Portrait   of  the  Author,   and    Biographical    Introduction    by 

O  ^  WilliamArcher. 

g  ^       Vol.  IL     *•  GHOSTS,"  "AN  ENEMY  OF  THE  PEOPLE," 
W  g  and  "THE  WILD  DUCK."     With  an  Introductory  Note. 

^  ^        {^OL.  IIL    "LADY  INGER  OF  ÖSTRAT,"  "THE  VIKINGS 
W  Q  AT   HELGELAND,"    "  THE    PRETENDERS.»      With  an 

^  ^  Introductory  Note« 

g  g       Vol.    IV.       "  EMPEROR    AND     GALILEAN."      With    an 
U  <  Introductory  Note  by  William  Archer. 

9  Sj       Vol.  V.     " ROSMERSHOLM,"  "THE  LADY  FROM  THE 
<  cx)  SEA,*»    "  HEDDA    GABLER."      Translated    by    William 

.  Archer.     With  an  Introductory  Note. 

S  Vol.  VL     "PEER    GYNT:     A     DRAMATIC    POEM." 

M  Authorised  Translation  by  William  and  Charles  Archer. 

S  The  sequence  of  the  plays  in  each  volume  is  chronological ;   the  complete 

i^  set  of  volumes  comprising  the  dramas  thus  presents  them  in  chronological 

order. 


CO 


"  The  art  of  prose  translation  does  not  perhaps  enjoy  a  very  high  literary 
CO  status  in  England,  but  we  have  no  hesitation  in  numbering  the  present 

jiH  version  of  Ibsen,  so  far  as  it  has  gone  (Vols.  I.  and  II.),  among  the  very 

(-1  best  achievements,  in  that  kind,  of  our  generation." — Academy, 

]^  "We  have    seldom,   if   ever,   met    with    a    translation    so    absolutely 

idiomatic." — Glasgow  Herald, 

New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


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