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HYPNOTISM 


PUBLISHER'S  ANKOUNCEMENT 


The 
Mental  Functions  of  the  Brain :' 

AN  INVBSnOATION  INTO  THEIR 

LOCALISATION  AND  THEIR  MANIFESTA* 

TION  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE 

BEBNABD  HOLLANDER,  H.D. 

JlhutraUd.    Ikmy  9vo,  dotk  Gilt,  21*.  tut. 

"Hit  book  merito  caraAiI  atteoUoD  u  s  Mrioni 
oonbrlbation  to  ■  Butdect  of  iMotoood  Importanoe  In 
vbteh  IsmmUUr  UUlt  progrwa  hu  hiuierto  been 
madb."—T}u  Standard. 

"  Wni  oartii&ly  lead  to  •  nvfnl  and  reoonaideim- 
tltm  of  phrwiolo^  and  Its  dalnu,'— 7^  Dally  Nm/t. 

*'  W«  cannot  part  with  tbla  book  witbout  expnaa- 
log  OUT  aenaa  of  Ita  great  mine."— lAe  IFintmliwter 

OOMttU. 


Scientific  Phrenology: 

BEING  A  PRACTICAL  MENTAL  SCIENCE 
AND  aiHDE  TO  HUMAN  CHARACTER 


BT 

BERNARD  HOLLANDER.  BLD. 

llluHraUd,     Crown  Sro,  CSoCA,  6<. 

«Tb«  nomber  of  oaaea  quoted  In  tbe  book  is  nn< 
nmaUy  latse,  and  many  of  tbem  are  of  conafderaUe 
Intaraat;  the  laboor  of  unearthing  tbeni  from  tbevaat 
balk  of  medical  Utentnre  moat  bare  been  gnat"— 

"  A  woric  of  more  than  ordinary  Importance,  vain- 
aide  to  all  who  are  intereated  In  tbe  i^iniomena  of 
mind  and  the  problema  of  education." — Ou^Uoak, 

"  We  coDBlder  ooraelres  deeply  Indebted  Indeed  to 
tbe  aatbor  for  the  maaa  of  Inatructlve  erldenoa  wbloh 
he  has  collected  on  this  rery  Important  and  rery  in- 
tereatlng  auldvct"— Jfeifioal  Pnu. 


LONDON :  GRANT  RICHARDS 


HYPNOTISM 


ITS   HISTORY,   PRACTICE 
AND   THEORY 


BT 

J.  MILNE  ^RAMWELL,  M.B.,  CM.  jl^Z 


AXiTBOR  OP  mniBBOin  abticlbi  ok 

TBI  nuCTJCI  AMD  TKKOBT  Or  HTPHOTIBM 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 

LONDON:   GRANT  RICHAKDS 

1903 


Imtrodgctort 


CHAPTER   11. 


HraroRiCAL 


{A)  The  Karly  History  of  Ilypnotisni,  3.  Mestner,  3.  The  AbW  Fori*, 
3.  Brftid,  4.  The  sciontifio  meBmerists  :— John  EUiotsoD,  4  ;  and  Jaiuas 
EsdAile,  14.  Th«  founder  of  bypnotism,  Jftmes  Bnid,  21.  Hii  Neuryp- 
noioffv,  23.  Later  writings,  25.  •Spread  of  his  reputation  abroad,  27. 
Bogliab  studies  on  Braid.  28.  (B)  Later  History  of  Hypuotiam,  29. 
Dr.  A.  A.  Li^leault,  30.  The  so-o&Ued  Nancy  School,  33.  rrogress  of 
hypnotism  abroad,  33.  rrogr«ss  in  England  :— Society  for  Piiychjcal 
BoMaroht  34.  Progress  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  35,  Committee  of  the 
British  Utdical  Association,  36.     History  of  my  own  practice,  37. 


CHAPTER   in 

FHiTHOM   or   IXDUCtKO   AND   TZRinNATtKG    HTPNOSIR 

(A)  General  Methods  of  inducing  Hypnosis:  —  Ideamer'a,  Esdaile'a, 
Braid's,  40;  Li^hoanlt's,  41:  RDmhfim's,  Bcaunis',  Wetterstrand'a. 
43 ;  Ton  Eeden  and  van  Reuterghem's,  CharlcH  Richet'R,  Luys',  Voiiin's 
(frith  the  insane).  43.  (B)  Other  Methods  of  inducing  Hyjinoaia  :— 
Various  sensory  etimuUtions,  44.  17arroties :  Indian  homp,  44. 
Chloroform,  45.  Alcohol,  Chloral,  Morphia,  47.  Natural  Sleep,  47. 
(C)  My  own  Methodi,  48.  Barlii^r  methods,  48.  Later  methods,  CO. 
Direct  combtnatiou  with  cumtivo  suggestions,  51.  (D)  Self-Buggeation 
and  Hy}inoais,  52,  Clrtssification  cf  Methoda  of  Hypnosis,  53.  Methods 
of  terminating  Hypnosis :— {I)  Physical,  53  ;  (2)  I^iychical,  54.  Theo- 
retical explanations  of  the  effects  produced  by  different  Methods  of 
terminatiug  Hypnoaia,  56. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

rAOR 
SUBCEPTIDIUTT  TO    HtpKOSIS  ABD    THB    CaUSES  WHICH    iSrtUENCB  IT  57 

(]}  Averftge  Bnect-pcibility  and  vftrioiu  ststisticB,  57.  My  owq  cuoa : 
(Group  1.)  from  my  own  pr&otice,  58;  {Group  II.)  ewnt  to  mo  by 
colleagues,  58.  (2)  Susceptibility  in  rufaroDci;  to  the  Depth  of  HypnosiB^ 
(19:— NatioDftlity,  61.  Sox,  61.  Age,  62.  Social  PositioQ,  62.  Physic*] 
Condition,  63.  SfnM  Stimulation,  63.  Mental  Condition  : — (a)  General 
IntoUigeace.  63.  {h)  Volition  and  Att«DtioD,  64.  (c)  Faith.  64.  (d) 
8elf-BUgg«fition,  64.  («)  Imitation,  64.  (/)  Behaviour  of  Bpectaton, 
65.  Morbid  Mental  and  Piiysical  Couditionn : — (a)  Mental  excitement 
and  fear,  65.  (6)  InB&nity,  Hysteria,  etc.,  66.  Nervous  Diseases  and 
their  Influence  on  SusDuptibility  to  Hypnosis : — (a)  Atto'ntion  in  Disease, 
67.  {b)  Duration  of  illness,  67.  (0  Morbid  Eelf-suggostion,  68. 
Natural  Somnambulism  and  Hysterical  Slee]),  66.  Natural  Sleep,  66. 
Narcotics,  69.  Operator,  69.  Number  of  attempts,  71.  Conclusion, 
72. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Tbe  Exrt:&iuENtAL  Phenomena  op  Htfxosis        .... 

(I.)  The  Physiological  Phenomenn  of  Hypnosis:  (A)  Changes  In  the 
Voluntary  Muscular  System,  74  :~IScholalia,  74.  Paralysis,  76.  Stages 
of  the  Salp^tri^e  School : — Lethargy,  Catalepay,  Somnambulism,  77. 
Bemarks,  77.  Summary,  SO.  (B)  Ctiangesln  the  iDPoIontiLry  Muscular 
and  Vasomotor  Systems,  61  : — Pulae,  81.  Respiration,  82,  Bleeding, 
62.  Local  Redness  of  Skin.  83.  Blistering,  etc.,  83.  Changes  of 
Temperature,  84.  Remarks,  85.  MenBtrnation,  87.  Action  of  the 
Bowels,  87.  Urine,  87.  Lachrymal  Secretion,  87.  Perspiration,  88. 
Secretion  of  Milk,  88.  (C)  Changes  in  the  Special  Senses,  HuacoUr 
Sense,  Common  Sensations  and  Appetites  ;  (1)  Increased  Action,  89  : — 
Sight,  89.  Henring,  89.  Smell,  90.  Muscular  Sense,  90,  Common 
Cutaneous  Sensibility,  91.  Thermo-eensibility,  92.  Appetites:  Hunger 
and  Thirst,  92.  (2)  Decruaaed,  Arrested,  and  Distorted  Action,  93 : — 
HallucinatiouB  as  classified  by  Li^geois,  93.  Motor  Hallucinations,  93. 
Anrsthcsia  and  Analgesia,  94.  Hunger  and  Thirst,  95.  (11.)  Tbe 
Psychological  Phenomena  of  Hypnosis  :  (A)  Poet-Hypnotic  Suggestions, 
96  :  —  (1)  Persistent  from  Hypnosis,  95.  (2)  Deferred,  9&.  (B)  Rapport 
in  Hypnosis,  96.  (C)  ConsciouBuess  in  Hypnosis  find  its  Relations  to 
Post-Hypnotic  Memory,  97.  (D)  Spontaneity  in  Hypnosis,  9S.  Defini- 
tion of  spontaneity,  98  :— (1)  Processes  independent  of  external  stimnli, 
99.  (2)  Actions  elicited,  but  not  conditioned  in  character  by  external 
stimuli,  99.  (E)  Memory  in  Hypnosis:— Unchanged,  improred,  or  dimin- 
ished, 100.  Persisting  during  hypnosis  ;  incomplete  to  orenta  of  hyp- 
nosis on  awaking,  101.  Persisting  during  hypnosis  ;  lost  as  to  erentAof 
hypnosis  on  a^raking,  101.  Effects  of  hypnotic  training  in  increasing  and 
reviving  hypnotic  memory,  103.  Pust-hypDOtic  Amnesia,  104.  Sub- 
jects unable  in  rivponse  to  suggestion  to  recall  during  bypnoaia  certain 


74 


vTents  of  put  liypnoaes,  106.  ITnccrtainty  wbcthcr  inhibited  nensations 
occurred  to  be  reojembercd,  107.  Ch&Dges  of  pcrsoQality,  and  4ltcnut- 
ing  meiuories,  100.  Owing  to  suggejlion,  tbe  subject  m&j  bave  forgotten 
in  hypnosis  the  oTents  of  waking  life,  or  of  past  bypnos«s,  109.  On-ing 
to  suggestion,  the  subject  may  have  forgotten  on  awakiag  some  or  all 
of  the  evonta  of  waking  life,  109.  Owing  to  suggestioD,  tlie  subject 
may  be  unable  to  recall  in  hypnosis  the  events  of  previous  hypnoses, 
109.  Owing  to  suggestion,  the  subject  may  have  forgotten  on  awaking 
tome  or  all  of  the  events  of  waking  lifo,  110.  Owing  to  suggention,  the 
subjects  may  be  able  to  recall  in  hypnosis  or  in  the  waking  state  the 
sensory  halluclnaUoDs  of  previous  hypnoses,  UO.  The  subject  may 
recall  during  hypnosis  ercnts  of  previous  hypnoses  and  of  waking  life, 
the  latter  better  than  in  the  normal  condition  ;  and  by  suggestion 
retain  thin  memory  on  awaking,  111.  ilemory  in  Relation  to  Post- 
Hypnotic  Suggestions,  111.  Memory  in  "Waking  Somnambulism," 
118.  (F)  Hypnotic  and  Post-Hypnotic  Appreciation  of  Time: — Earlier 
simple  experiments,  114.  Delbosaf's  experiments,  116.  Remarks 
thereon,  118.  My  later  experiments: — Miss  D.,  119.  Her  mental 
condition  during  liypnosis,  122.  Suggestion!)  by  others  put  en  mpport 
with  her,  129.  Analytical  table,  133.  Experiments  with  &liss  0.,  134. 
The  question  of  mal-observation  or  decoption,  135.  Absence  of  ill 
results,  1S6.  (0)  Automatic  Writing  in  Hypno6i8/lS9.  (H)  TolepaUiy, 
Clairvoyance,  etc.,  141.  (I)  Volition  in  Hypnosis — Suggested  Crimes 
—Automatism  :  their  consideration  deferred,  143. 


CHAPTEE   VI. 

[On  thz  Uxnaoeuent  of  Htpnotic  EUpkrimskts 

Braid's  list  of  souroes  of  error,  144,  Other  eouroee  of  error,  144: — (!) 
GoUoaion  of  operator  and  subject,  146.  (2)  Attempts  of  subject  to 
deceive  operator,  etc.,  H6.  Alleged  "spiritualistic"  powers,  146.  (8) 
ITBOonacious  errors  of  the  operator,  the  subject,  or  botli,  148.  Rules  to 
be  observed  for  trustworthy  exiierimentation,  149. 


144 


CHAPTER   VII. 
Thi  DnTKRKST  Staqks  op  HtPsoera 150 

Braid's  classification,  150.  C1assi6cation  of  the  Salpltriire  School,  160. 
Classification  of  the  Nancy  School : — Li^bcault's,  161.  Beraheira*!),  161. 
Forel's,  162.  Goruey's,  152.  Max  Dessoir's,  162.  Remarks,  162.  My 
own  classification  of  three  stages,  166. 

CHAPTER   VIII. 
Xtpkosib  nr  Asimai^ 1&6 


Catalepsy  only  evidence,  156.     Induced  by  physical  means  alone,  166. 
Terwom's  views,  167.     Summary',  167. 


Vlll 


HYPNOTISM 


CHAPTER   IX. 


Hypnotism  in  SaaGEEY 


Eedaile'i  lodian  cases,  108.  Braid's  co&t-a,  161.  Uy  own  cases,  161. 
Report  on  ilontal  coscb  by  Mr.  Arthur  Turner,  162.  Beport  of  Demonstra- 
tion to  the  Profoasion  at  Leoilri  U8!>0),  164.  Other  porsonal  coses,  168. 
Surgical  Cases  from  other  Authors :  — (A)  ConfioemeDta,  169.  (B) 
Surgical  Operations,  172.     Hypnotio  Aoaiathesia — Summary,  174. 


VAU 

1S8 


CHAPTER   X. 


HyPNOTIBK   IK   MSDICIN'E 


177 


Motivei  for  choice  of  caaes,  177.  (A)  Qratidt  BytUrit,  or  Hystoro- 
Epilepsy,  and  Dou-Het^uent  troubles,  178.  (B)  Mono-tyuiptomatio 
Hysteria: — Aphonia,  181,  Singultut,  182.  Muscular  Tromor,  183. 
CatAlopsy,  183.  Muscular  Spasm,  185.  Hysterical  Paralysis,  with 
Muscular  Tremor  and  Spasm,  186.  Various  cases  by  other  practitioners : — 
Hystericnl  Paralysis,  189.  Aphonia,  189,  Singultus,  189.  Blepharo- 
spasm, 189.  Hyfltorical  Tremor  simulating  Paralynis  agitaus,  190. 
Clonic  Torticollis,  190.  Clonic  Muscular  Spasm,  190,  Pantinyoclonus 
multiplex,  191.  (C)  Various  Manifestations  of  Onlinary  Hysteria: — 
Dyspopaia,  Visceral  and  Meuslrual  Troubles,  etc.,  191.  Insomma,  200. 
(D)  Mental  Troubles  of  a  Hysterical  Nature  : — Perversions  of  Sentiment, 
Obsessioos,  IrreaiBtibio  ImpuU(.-<4,  Hallucinations,  Melancholia,  Maniacal 
Exoitcmcnt,  etc.,  203.  NouraHthotiia  with  ObseAsiouK,  etc.,  206. 
Schrenok'Notzing's  tabulated  results  of  228  ncurasthenica,  207.  Addi- 
tional cases,  20S.  Perverted  Sex,  209.  Insanity,  etc.,  210.  Robertaon's 
ozperimonts  with  Hypnotism  at  Morningside  Asylum:— [I.)  Aa 
a  Direct  Therapeutic  Agent,  216.  (U.)  For  Purposes  of  Management, 
217.  Remarks  on  Ilypnotism  in  Insanity,  217.  Voisin's  results  criti- 
daed  by  Forel,  218.  Sjtccial  [loiuts  in  Voisin's  trcatmeut,  220.  Dtp- 
Bonunia  and  Chronic  Aloohotism :  (1.)  General  Result^  221: — [a) 
Recoveries,  221.  {b)  Casos  improved,  221.  Failures,  222.  (11.) 
Histories  of  Iliui.trative  Caaes  ; — Re-coveries,  222.  Cases  improved,  223. 
Failures,  224.  (III.)  Discussion  of  tho  Morbid  Conditions  involved 
and  their  Treatment  by  Hypnotism,  225.  The  Exciting  Causos  of 
Dipaomania,  226.  Difl'tirencas  from  other  forms  of  intemperance,  227. 
Prognosis,  227.  Hypnotic  Treatment,  228.  Morpbinomania  and  other 
Drug  Habits,  220.  Wettentrand's  Cases,  230.  Vicious  and  Degenerate 
Children,  232:— Bt^rillon's  Report  to  Intenutional  Congress  of  Hypno- 
tism, Parifi,  1889,  232.  Illustrativo  Cases,  233.  Enuresis  noctuma,  235. 
Nocturnal  Terrors  ;  'Lies  ;  Nail-biting,  237.  Obsessions,  including  '*  Im- 
perative Ideas":— Involuntary  contractions  of  bladder,  238.  Fear  of 
cancer,  239.  Fear  of  sleep-walking,  240.  Folic  du  dauU  ei  dtlire  du. 
toucher,  241.  Fixed  idea  of  derision,  243.  Agoraphobia  and  morbid 
faara,  243.     Morbid  fears  of  otTendingpopuUrsnperititiona,  244.     Other 


CONTENTS 


\% 


OMM,  243.  Retnark«,  245.  DifltinctioD  between  obsesaioiu  and  true 
Insanity.  247.  Frufesaioiial  obftes^iona,  251.  Ribot's  expUnation,  253. 
Folit  dtt  doute  el  dAirc  du  toucher  inseparable,  261.  Hack  Tuko's 
"antomatio"  designation  inapi>licable,  254.  Obseaaious  often  of 
emotional  origin.  255.  Thoir  relation  to  degeneracy,  2.'''5.  ThiMr  transi- 
tion from  the  normal  state,  256.  Abusive  oxtcnaion  of  idea  of  degeneracy 
by  authors,  256.  Epilepsy  :— My  own  cases,  267.  Other  cues,  258. 
Eemuks,  260.  Chorea.  260,  Stammering,  261.  Sea-sickncsA,  262. 
Skin  DuwAses  : — Pniritos  tuItib  and  eczema.  2G3.  Hyper  hydros  la,  264- 
Eczema  impetigiuoldea,  265.  Eczema,  265.  Hyiwrhydnwia,  266. 
fiemarks,  206. 


CHAPTER   XL 

|0n    the    M^TfAOEUENT    OF   SVBOIOAL   AKD    MeDICAL    CaSEB 

(I.)  Surgical  Cased  ;  (II.)  Medical  Cases,  267.  Treatment  kept  distinct 
Irom  exiwrimeut,  267.  Selocuon  of  cases,  268.  Three  claHses  of 
patients: — (1)  Tho«o  in  irhom  deep  hypnosis  hu  been  induced,  268. 
(2)  Those  slightly  hypnotisMi,  2ii9.  (3]  Those  in  whom  hypnosis  is 
doubtful  or  abMnt,  269.  Cases  whero  physical  and  mental  quiet  ore 
impossible,  270.  Nature  of  ouratire  suggestions  made.  271.  Central 
factor  of  all  hypnotic  treatment  the  development  of  the  patient's  control 
of  his  own  organism,  271. 


867 


CHAPTER   XII. 


Itpkotio  Theobies 


273 


Two  groups  of  phenomena:— [1]  Those  observed  in  subjects  who  ex- 
hibited the  wide&t  range  of  hypnotic  phenomena,  and  who  are  asually 
Unned  "somnambules"  273.  (2)  Therajwutic  results  which  follow 
suggestion,  but  are  not  associated  with  the  usual  phenomena  of  hypnosis, 
274.  Theories  of  the  Later  Mesmerists,  275.  Phenomena  supposed  to 
depend  on  an  etiianittiou  from  the  ojienitor,  275.  Indian  practice  of 
Jar-pKoonk,  277.  Braids  Theories,  278.  His  first  theory  (physical), 
278.  Snmmary  of  earlier  conclusions,  279.  Termination  of  hypnosis 
by  enrrent  of  cold  air,  230.  Subjectiro  explanation  auticijiatvd  by 
Faria  and  Bertrand,  280.  Braid's  distiDction  of  hypnosis  and  reverie. 
291.  Belit'f  followed  by  doubttt  in  phrenology,  2S1.  Change  of 
mothods  and  abandonment  of  6xcd  gazing,  283.  Second  views : 
Hypnotism  a  conditioD  of  mental  concentration  or  nionoideisni,  283. 
ProiM)sed  fresh  terminology,  2S4.  Spootaueous  and  induced  aom- 
nambulism  :  natural  and  hypnotic  sleep,  2S5,  Effects  of  magnot%  etc. 
due  to  subject's  self  •suggestions,  286.  Power  of  suggestion  to  cause 
altarations  in  bodily  functions  :  inoraase<I  lactation  ;  cure  of  hysterical 
paralysis ;  etTects  of  drugs  In  sealed  tubes,  288.  Homoeo{)athy ; 
general  effeots  of  drugs,  280.     Phrenology  ;    Braid  gives  np  belief  in 


cfleot  of  toQcli  OD  the  phrenologic  organs,  2^.  SuggestioD,  passes, 
etc  ;  the  efface  of  jia^^s  modified  by  suggestioD  "  through  the  donblo 
oonsctouH  muttiory,"  2dl.  Alleged  ilRngers,  2£^.  States  analogouii  to 
hypnotism,  293.  Summary  of  Braid's  latest  theories,  294.  Professor 
•I.  Hughes  Betioett's  theories :  I'bysiological,  29i.  Tsychi>&al,  295. 
Modem  Hypnotic  Theories :  Charcot's  Theory,  or  that  of  the  3alj>6tri6ro 
School,  296.  Discussion :  la  hypnosis  a  condition  which  can  only  bo 
induced  in  the  Hysterical!  297.  Are  women  more  susceptible  than 
XQen  T  29S.  Are  children  and  old  people  ioauaceptiblo  T  299.  Can 
hypnosis  be  induced  by  mechanical  means  alone  ?  Are  hypnotic 
phenomena  divided  into  three  distinct  stages?  299,  Is  hypnotism  of 
little  tbera[«utio  value  t  SOO.  Con  various  physical  and  mental 
phenomena  be  excited  by  the  proximity  of  metals,  magneto,  etc.»  300. 
Heidenhain's  Theory:  a  "short>circuitiug  of  nervous  cnironts,"  302. 
Objeotions  thereto,  303.  Theories  of  Vincent  and  Sidis,  304.  Mr. 
Ernest  Hart's  Theory,  305: — Cerebral  anxmia,  305.  The  Theories 
of  the  Naaoy  School,  307.  Their  wide  divergence,  307.  Bemboim's 
views  a  reproduction  of  Bennett's  Psychical  Theory,  307.  Bemheim's 
Tlieories,  308.  Suted,  308.  Summarised,  309.  Discussed,  309.  Ex- 
planation of  Hypnofiis  by  means  of  a  supposed  general  analogy  between 
it  and  the  normal  sleeping  and  waking  states,  309.  Supposed  identity 
of  Hypnosis  and  Ordinary  Sleep,  310.  Supposed  analog}'  between 
Hypnotic  Phenomena  and  the  Automatic,  Involuntary,  and  Unconscious 
Aetct  of  Normal  Life,  SIl.  Alleged  weakened  volition  and  automatism  ; 
suggested  crime,  311.  DeRiiilion  of  automatism,  312.  Suggested 
Crimea  the  very  opjxisite  of  automatiejn,  313.  Are  hypnotic  BUbjecti 
sufficiently  under  the  control  of  the  operator  to  perform  acta  which 
would  be  opposed  by  their  normal  volition  1  8H.  My  own  experience, 
315.  ExplanationK  of  refusals  of  uncongenial  HUggestiona,  given  by  the 
subjects  in  subAeqnent  liypnoses,  319.  Statements  of  lubjects  hypnotiited 
as  to  their  general  consciousness  in  antecedent  hypnoses,  320.  Argu- 
ments in  favour  of  assumed  "  helplcas  obedienoe  "  of  hypnotifiod  subjects 
stated,  323.  Caaes  of  other  operators  analysed,  325.  Summary  on 
suggested  crimes,  830.  "Au  Idea  has  a  tendency  to  generate  ita 
actuality":  rof^ited,  331.  "In  Hypnosis  the  Tendency  to  accept 
Suggestions  is  somewhat  decreased  by  tlie  Action  of  Suggestion  itself: 
this  alone  distinguishes  the  Hypnotic  from  the  Normal  State  "  :  refuted, 
333.  "The  Result  of  Suggestion  in  Hypnosis  is  Analogous  to  the 
Result  of  Suggestion  in  the  Normal  State,"  334.  Statement  of  rcsulta 
of  suggestion :— (A)  In  Hypnosis,  334,  (B)  By  means  of  emotional 
states,  335.  "  Does  Suggestion  explain  Hypnosis  and  its  Phenomena  f* 
337.  My  reasons  for  n  negative  answer,  337.  Braid's  later  Views 
regarding  Saggestion,  etc,  338.  Contrasted  with  the  Nancy  School, 
3S6.  Difference  one  of  theory,  not  practice,  338.  Views  of  Braid  and 
Forel  on  passes,  339.  Attention  in  hypnosis,  339,  Attention  in  the 
induction  of  hypnosis,  340.  Does  concentration  of  attention  cauee 
hypnosis  T  341,  Jiapport  aut}  Attention,  342.  Bemheim's  explanation 
of  hypnotic  amnesia,  344.  IntluencD  of  the  operator  in  inducing  the 
eO'CaUed  automatism,  345.  Instancvti  where  the  operator  has  sought 
to  minimise  bia  own  importance,  346.  Where  he  has  sought  to  teach 
the  sutfject  aelf- hypnotism,  347.  Where  after  very  slight  hypno^s  the 
patient    has    taught    himself   to    evoke    hypnotic    phenomena,    347. 


UoQoideism :  revivod  by  Beniheim,  tho^h  discarded  hj  Bnid,  348. 
Bemlidiiu's  theory  of  coDcentratXon  of  attontion,  348.      Quantity  of 
'  Attention  not  limited,  348.     In  hypnosis  numerous  dlatinfit  ph«nomena 
Oftn  be  evoked  simultaaeouBly,  340.     Hypnosis  rather  a  oonditiou  of 
po2y*4(M»m  than  of  jnono-ideitm,  S50.      Moll's  Theory,  351 : — Dream 
consciousness  ;  halluciuatioim,  iKuitire  and  iiegativB,  351.     OhjectionR, 
352.     Sup[M>se>l  Analogy  between  Hypnosis  and  certain,  and  often  widely 
differing,  Patliological  Conditions  (Article  in  Journal  of  Mental  ScienUt 
ia9S),    354 :— Hysteria.  354.     Stupor.    355.     LiUh.   356.     Benedikt's 
Theory,  etc,  357.    The  Secondary  or  Subliminal  Consciousnosa  Theor>-, 
868.     Views  of  William  James,  358.     F,  W.  H.  Myers'  exposition  of 
the  subliminal  oonaciotuneBS,  3f<S :— The  self  below  the  threshold  of 
ordinary  consciousD««s,  359.     Powers  of   the  "sabliminal   self,"  359. 
Inhibition  of  pain  ;  the  great  dissociative  triumph  of  hypnotism,  360. 
AasociatiTe  triumphs  of  hypnotism,  361.     The  intellectual  or  moral 
achievements  of  hypnotism.  361.     Tlie   possible   source  or  origin  of 
hypnotio  control  over  intimate  organic  processes,   362.      Hysteria,  a 
,  disease  of  the  eubliminal   self,   364.     What   is  a  Twrinal  man  1   366. 
I  Brigham  Young  and  Sir  Isaac  Kewton  contrasted,  366.     Theory  of  the 
[late  Professor  Delhteuf,  367: — Its  reserablauoe  to  that  of  Myers,  367. 
,  Bnggostion  capable  of  modifyiog  organic  changes,  367.      Illustrative 
cases,  367.      Delbceufs  explanation   of  the   action   of  moral   on   tho 
physical,  366.     Origin  of  hypnotic  powers,  369.     Theory  of  Professor 
Beaunis,    S70 :  —  His  description    of   sub-couscious  cerebratioD.  870. 
Carpenter's  Unconsoioua  Cerebration,  370  : — IntoUectoal  activity  some- 
I  times    automatic    and    unoon^ioua,    370.      Examples  : — Spontaneooa 
[xemembrauce  of  a  forgotten  name,  371.     Practical  use  of  "unconaciooa 
twrebration,"  872-     "Talking  tables"  and  "plancbettes,"  372.     Mim 
I  Oobbe  and  music -plajring,  373.     Prelate  and  his  sermons,  S73.     Oliver 
Wendell  Holiucs  and  "  nuconscions  oorubration,"  374.     "Unconscious 
cerebration"  and  invention,  374.     DiHcufision  on  the  "subliminal"  or 
"  eeoondary  consciousness"  theory,  374: — Tlie  Hypnotic  Powers  and 
the  Conditions  more  immediately  a^sooiated  «ith  them,  375.     Voluntary 
and  involuntary  changes  in  the  arrangement  of  ideas,  S75.     Inhibition 
of  aeosoty  impressions  in  hypnosis,  376.     Moral  and  Volitional  Con- 
ditions. 377.     Hysteria,  378.      The   Evidence  fur  the  Bxisteoce  of  a 
Subliminal  Conscious neas,  378.     The  question  of  secondary  p«r*cmalt^iV<, 
878.     Throe  groups  of  facta  which  apparently  show  the  oxistenoe  of  a 
aecondary  cousciouaness,  378 : — (a)  Phenomena  arising  from,  or  more 
less  cjosely  associated  with,  morbid  states,  S79.     Illustrative  caseti, 
B79.     Spontaneous  somnambulism,   386.     [h)    Facta  in   support  of  a 
fMoondary  oonsciousDe^s  drawn  from  normal  waking  or  sleeping  life, 
B87  :— (1)  Hme  eppreciation,  387.     Caaes  of  Dr.   George  Savage  and 
iProfessor  hlarcua  Hartog,  387.     (2)  Tbe  recollection  of  forgotten  factt 
vithout  the  aasociation  of  ideas  connected  with  normal  memory,  388. 
Personal  ezperiencee  :  lecturing,  writing,  389.     Tbe  so-called  inspira- 
tions of  geoius,  390.      Myers'   "subterranean  workshop,"   390.      (c) 
Hypnotic    phenomena   which    apparently   support    the    theory  of   % 
Mooadaty  oonaciousDess,  390  ; — Memory  changes,  390.    Time  apprecia- 
tion ;  William  James'  comments  on,  391.     The  "dressmaking  problem  " 
and  Lta  solution,  391.    Automatic  writing,  391.    Cases  which  apparently 
aflford  evidence  of  the  exidtence  of  two  or  more  sub^jonscious  states, 


301 


HYPNOTISM 


382:— Sarah  L.,  892.  Pierre  Jftnet'B  cases:  Lionie  I.,  11.,  anil  III., 
893.  Dr.  Morton  Prince's  case:  Miss  X,  I.,  11.,  and  IIT.,  394. 
"Crystal  g:azing,"  395.  Goraey's  cases  or  alternating  meuiorieit  in 
hypnosis,  396.  Uvaiarks,  397.  ImporUnoe  of  xnemory  in  relation  to 
Bub -con  scion*  states  : — Views  of  William  James  and  Myers  ;  I.-ocke'8 
"Identity  and  Dircrsity,"  397.  Theoretical  Explanations  of  Time 
Appreciation  in  Hypnosia,  398.  Bemheim's  Theory,  398.  Objections 
to  Bemheim's  theory,  400.  Further  nhjections  by  Beaiinis,  400. 
Beaunis'  Theory,  402.  Paal  Janet's  objections  to  the  theory  of  Beaunis, 
402.  Bcannifi'  Reply,  403.  Discossion  on  Beaunis'  yiews,  403, 
Delboenra  Theory*,  404.  Gurney's  objections  to  the  theories  of  Delboeuf 
and  Beaunis,  404.  Gurnoy's  Theory,  407,  Discassion  on  the  above 
theories,  407.  Multiple  Personalities  in  Relation  to  Time  Appreciation 
and  Calenlation,  413:  — Miss  D.'a  case,  413.  Granting  tliat  separate 
perfwnalitios  exist  in  a  given  individual,  how  did  they  acquire  their 
powem  ?  415.  How  have  these  powers  been  evoked?  415.  Is  it 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  tlio  hypnotic  powers  existed  in  Ktmo  lower 
noudiurnau  ancestral  type  t  415.  If  we  admit  that  hypnotic  powers 
are  derived  from  some  lowly  non-human  type,  is  their  easy  recorery 
probable  T  416.  la  it  likoly  that  the  hyimotic  lowers  should  have  been 
lost  in  development  f  416.  What  is  the  connection  between  hypnotic 
methods  and  the  production  of  hypnotic  phenomena  T  416.  Ticrre 
Janet's  Theory,  417  ; — The  secondary  self  always  asyraptoni  of  hysteria, 

417.  William  James'  reply,  417.     Di«;ussion  on  the  above  theories, 

418.  Xo  personal  theory  to  bring  forward  in  substitution  for  tbem, 
420.  The  second  group  of  hypnotic  phenomena  :  Therapeutic  Rusults, 
when  tbeae  occnr  in  Conditions  nnassooiated  with  clear  and  unmisuke- 
■Ue  Symptoms  of  Hypnosis,  421.  Reasons  for  aoleoting  the  cases 
drawn  from  my  own  practice,  and  cited  in  the  chapters  on  "Hypnotism 
in  Surgery  "  and  "Hypnotism  in  Medicine,"  421.  The  above  cases  now 
divided  into  two  claAses : — (a)  Those  in  which  genuine  hypnosis  was 
induced  ;  {h)  Those  in  which  the  characteristic  phenomena  of  hypnosis 
were  absent,  421.  I.  Surgical  Cases,  421.  II.  Medical  Cases,  422. 
PisoQssion  on  the  conditions  involved  in  Group  (2>),  423, 


CHAPTER  Xin. 


Tbb  So^allbd  Dahoebs  of  Htpkotibm 


435 


So-callod  dangers  and  aQtomatism*  425.  Braid's  views,  425.  ?o«ai> 
hility  of  danger,  425.  Evidence  oK  danger  donbtfol,  424.  Views  of 
Charcot  and  Bcrnhcim,  425.     Uriiish  Medical  Journal  and  dangers, 

426.  MoU'a  views,  426.  Articles  by  X  in  the  Journal  of  Mental 
Science,  427.     Views  of  Forel  and  other  members  of  the  Nancy  School, 

427.  Views  of  Drs.  Percy  Smith,  A.  T.  Myers,  and  Outterson  Wood, 

428.  Personal  views  as  to  hypnotic  dangers,  428.  Hypnotic  dangers 
tvferred  to  by  X,  128 ;— Harm  reported  by  others,  429.     Otgecttons  to 


CONTENTS 


xor 


X*B  views,  4SD.  CMea  of  harm  nportcd  by  X,  430.  Objections  to  his 
rtAt^mento,  430.  Inst&noeB  of  alleged  eril  results  of  hjjinotic  praotico 
generally  notliing  but  cuea  of  delusional  insanity,  431. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


I  SlTinCART   AND   COMCLUUON 

Historical :— Elliotson,  Esdailo,  Braid,  and  Li^beault,  433.  Methods 
of  inducing  Hypnosis,  Susceptibility,  etc.,  434.  The  Experimental 
Phenomena  of  Hypnosis,  436.  Hypnotism  in  Medicine,  435  :— Hypno. 
tina  aimply  a  branch  of  Medicine,  435.  Its  value  in  fnoctiotial  nervoua 
diaorders,  435.  Facts  to  be  considered  in  estimation  of  hypnotic  results, 
496.  The  true  object  of  all  hypnotic  treatment,  436.  The  ao-csUcd 
Dangers  of  Hypnotism,  436  :— Experimental  cases  not  followed  by  bad 
effects,  436.  Luys'  eipcrimout«,  437.  Hypnotic  Theories,  437  :— The 
Salpetriire  School,  437.  Inhibitory  theories,  437.  The  subliminal 
conaciousness  theory,  437.  Its  connection  with  Braid's  latest  theory, 
437.  BeAsons  for  doubting  the  existence  of  two  or  more  distinct 
ptrionaXUit*  in  the  same  indi\idual,  43S.  Dllliculty  of  explaining  the 
hypnotic  state,  480.     The  future  of  hypnotism,  439. 


4S3 


CHAPTER   XV. 


IFBRENCBa 


440 


Freorb :  From  the  Rev^u  <U  I' Hypnotisms,  440.  French  Books  and 
Pamphlets,  447.  German  :  From  the  Z^itachrift  fUr  2l}fpnoli§inus,  450, 
Gennaa  Books  and  Pamphletji,  4&3.  English  References,  454.  List  of 
Badaila's  Works.  4&6.  List  of  Braid's  Works,  460.  List  of  Bcfeniuccs 
to  Braid  or  to  his  Work,  463. 


APPENDIX. 
^Jaiies  Braid 465 

Independent  account  of  the  origin  of  Braid's  researches,  by  the  late  Dr. 
Williamson,  formerly  Proressor  of  Natural  History  at  Owens  College, 
Maoche«t«r,  466. 


(B)  Spibitcausm,  Clairvotasci,  Telipathy         .... 

Spiritualism  and  the  Society  for  Psychical  Roiwaroh,  467.  Dr.  Hodgson 
ami  the  Matiatmaa,  468.  Evil  effects  of  spiritualistic  9Axnees,  468. 
Clairvoyoace :  those  who  belleTo  in  its  oxiitonco  may  bo  divided  into 
two  groups:— {1}  Those  who  are  the  vlcttnu of  s«lf<4eceptioo.  468.     (2) 


467 


xiv  HYPNOTISM 


Cues  whore  the  alleged  olurroyant  power  is  usamed  for  purposes  of 
deoeptios,  499.  lUnstntire  case,  469.  Telepathy  and  the  Society  for 
Psychical  Research,  469.  Telepathy  and  Christian  Science,  469, 
Suggestion  not  excluded  from  telepathic  experiments,  469.  Cuntire 
telepathic  suggestions^  470.     Malign  telepathic  suggestiona,  470. 


INDEX 471 

AUTHORS  AND  AUTHORITIES  REFERRED  TO     .         .         .     475 


CHAPTER    r. 


INTEODDCTORV. 


AiTHOUGU  of  late  years  hundreds  of  books  have  beeu  written  on 
hypnotism,  nearly  all  Imve  been  contributed  by  foreign  workers, 
and  few  have  been  translated.  Apparently  the  latter  do  not 
fulfil  the  requirements  of  English  studente,  as  I  am  frequently 
aaked  for  information  which  tliey  do  not  contain.  I  propose, 
[therefore,  not  only  to  refer  to  my  twelve  yeai-s'  hypnotic 
pniotice  and  research,  but  also  to  give  such  a  general  account  of 
the  subject  as  can  Ix;  brought  withiu  reasonable  compass. 

In  the  chapter  on  history,  mucli  is  purposely  omitted  that  has 
lalready  been  given  by  Moll,  Liegeois,  and  others,  regarding  Mesmer, 
predecessors  and  immediate  followers.  On  the  other  hand, 
have  drawn  particular  attention  to  the  work  of  Elliotson,  Esdaile, 
id  Braid,  as  what  was  done,  especially  by  the  two  foi-mer,  is 
iappareotly  almost  entii'ely  forgotten. 

1  hope  the  description  of  the  different  methods  may  prove 
^  useful  to  those  who  wish  to  begin  hypnotic  work. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  anything  like  a  full  account  of  the 
medical  and  surgical  cases  that  have  been  recorded.  I  have 
therefore  (1)  selected  some  from  my  own  practice,  and  (2)  chosen 
others,  most  of  which  bave  neither  been  previously  translated 
into  English  nor  published  abroad  in  easily  accessible  form — 
;tiie  majority  being  taken  from  foreign  medical  journals,  etc. 

I  bave  found  it  equally  dithcult  to  condense  the  experimental 

[phenomena  of  hypnosis,  and  have  been  compelled  to  give  a  short 

Iftccount  of  most  of   them;    but   post-liypuotic   appreciation   of 

^time,  wliich   apparently  baa  an  important  bearing  on  hypnotic 

tlieory,  is  dealt  with  in  greater  detail. 

The  chapter  on  stages  occupies  little  space.     I  have  given, 

B 


HYPNOTISM 


however,  more  fully  the  causes  which  influence  susceptibility  to 
hypnosis,  as  these  are  of  great  practical  importance. 

I  have  drawn  attention  to  the  importance  of  care  in  the 
management  of  medical  and  particularly  experimental  cases,  as 
it  is  to  want  of  caution  in  the  conduct  of  the  latter  that  we 
owe  most  of  our  fallacies. 

Hypnotic  theories  are  too  numerous  and  complicated  to  he 
described  at  length,  but  the  principal  ones  have  been  outlined 
and  discussed. 

Finally,  I  have  endeavoured  to  show  what  awaits  those  who 
embark  on  hypnotic  practice — to  picture  its  successes  and  failures, 
and  the  dangers,  mainly  theoretical,  which  are  said  to  be  associated 
with  it 


CHAPTKK    II. 


HISTORICAL. 


(A)  THE  EARLY   HISTORY  OF   HYPNOTISBl 


■         ma 


DST  as  chemistry  arose  from  alchemy,  astronomy  from  astrology, 
and  the  therapeutics  oi*  to-tlay  were  formerly  represented  by 
disgusting  compounds,  lar^'ely  drasvu  I'rom  the  living  or  dead 
human  body,  so  Hypnotism  had  its  origin  in  Mesmerism.  Hence, 
nmongst  hypnotic  phenomena  are  to  be  found  those  mesmeric 
ones  which  have  stood  the  test  of  a  rigorous  iiivestigatiou, 
and  are  now  explained  in  a  more  scientiSc  way.  Plienomena, 
-such  as  Mesmer  {b.  1734,  d.  1815)  described,  had  been  observed 
from  an  early  date  in  human  history;  but  after  liis  day  they 
were  usually  called  by  his  name  and  explained  by  his  theory, 
ie.  by  the  action  of  a   mysterious   force  or  fluid,  supposed   to 

roanate  from  the  operator. 

The  phenomena  themselves,  the  methods  supposed  to  evoke 
them,  and  their  tlieoretical  explanation,  will  be  again   referred  tc 

,ore  fuiiy.      For  the  present  it  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that 

le  mesmerists  believed  that  they  excited  the  phenomena  by 
various  physical  means,  such  as  fixed  gazing  and  passes  with  con- 
ftact.     The  subjects  then  passed  either  into  a  condition  resembling 

thar^,  iu  wliich  anitsthesia  and  other  symptoms  of  decreased 
sensibility  occurred,  or  into  what  was  termed  "  lucid  trance,"  char- 
acterised by  hypersesthesia  of  the  special  senses.  The  mysterious 
force  or  fluid  just  referred  to  was  lield  to  explain  everything. 

In  1814,  the  Abbe  Faria  suggested  that  the  phenomena  were 
lubjcetive  iu  origin,  but  his  views  made  little  impression  and 
soon  forgotten.     On  the  other  hand,  the  influence  of  Mesmer 
tinned   to  be   widely   feltt  numerous   observeis  in   different 

3 


countries  prwluced  phenomena  resembling  those  he  bad  shown, 
and  explained  tbem  in  much  the  same  way. 

It  is  only  by  studying  the  work  o!  the  later  mesmerists, 
and  contraatiug  it  with  that  of  Braid,  tlwt  we  are  able  to  under- 
stand how  hypnotism  arose,  shook  itself  free  from  the  fallacies 
and  misconceptions  which  preceded  its  birth,  and  finally  estab- 
lished itself  amoug  the  sciences.  Ignorance  of  what  was  done 
by  the  rival  schools  of  Mesmerism  and  Hypnotisui  probably 
accountcii  in  some  measure,  at  all  events,  for  the  reproduction 
of  mesmeric  errors  at  the  Sulpclriere,  and  for  t!ie  claims  of 
the  Nancy  school  to  be  the  discoverers  of  much  that  had 
already  been  demonstmted  by  Braid. 

John  KUiotson  was  the  leader  of  a  great  mesmeric  move- 
ment wliich  began  in  England  in  1837.  This  I  propose  to 
sketch,  as  well  as  the  antagonism  between  Braid  and  the 
mesmerists,  and  possibly  can  do  so  best  by  presenting  short 
histories  of  Elliotson,  Esdaile,  and  Braid. 


JOHN  ELLIOTSON. 


John  Elliotson,  the  son  of  a  Southwark  chemist,  was  bom 
in  1791.  He  received  a  sound  classical  education,  then  went 
to  Edinburgh  and  graduated  as  M.D.  He  next  visited  the 
most  important  Continental  medical  schools,  and,  on  his  return 
to  England,  continued  his  studies  at  Cambridge  and  St.  Thomas 
and  Guy's  Hospitals. 

In  1817,  he  was  appointed  assistant  physician  to  St. 
Thomas's  Hospital,  and  physician  six  years  later,  but  only 
obtained  the  privilege  of  giving  clinical  lectures  \vith  great 
difficulty.  These  were  at  once  successful,  and  I  can  best 
describe  them  by  giving,  almost  in  liia  own  words,  the  account 
published  by  a  contemporary  writer  in  the  Medical  Times,  vol. 
3d.  1844-45.  They  were  telling  things,  he  said,  full  of 
learning,  acuteness,  careful  discrimination,  philosophic  liberality 
and  daring,  and  often  wonderfully  accurate  decisiveness.  Their 
interest  was  quite  peculiar.  The  cases  were  carefully  selected, 
ach  stage  marked  with  the  greatest  nicety,  and  the  principles, 
whatever  they  were,  on  which  the  patient  was  treated,  recklessly 
bared  to  the  world.  In  addition,  there  was  a  large  dnsh  of 
novelty,  either  in  ^he  treatment  or  in  its  explanation,      Elliot- 


im     I 


[  son's  motto  was  everlastingly  "  Onward  !  **  If  he  did  not  look 
with  hate,  he  did  with  distrust,  ou  all  that  was  old — the  past 
seemed  nothing  to  him,  the  future  boundless.  Beyond  the 
mere  narrative  desci-iptiou  of  disease,  he  thought  that  nothing 
had  been  done  before  his  time — that  the  medical  edifice  had 
yet  to  be  erected,  and  he  was  determined  to  have  his  full  share 
of  the  labour.  Tlie  spirit  of  progress  had  permeated  his  whole 
being.  With  so  much  of  art  unexplored  before  him,  and  so 
little  of  life  for  the  task,  his  genius  strove  to  reach  the  goal  in 
leaps,  and  sought  distinction  in  medicine  like  a  youthful 
Napoleon  in  war.  .  .  .  We  owe  to  hira  the  employment  of 
quinine  in  heroic  doses,  the  recognition  of  the  value  of  iodide 
of  potassium,  the  use  of  prussic  acid  in  vomiting,  iron  in  chorea, 
sulphate  of  copper  in  diarrhopa,  the  employment  of  creosote,  etc. 
The  Laticf.t  also  pointed  out  that  Elliotson  had  shown  how 

I  the  heart  sounds  were  inUuenced  by  posture,  and  had  also 
drawn  attention  to  many  other  hitherto  unnoticed  phenomena 
connected  with  auscultation.  Klliotson,  in  fact,  was  the  earliest 
to  use  the  stethoscope  in  England,  and  began  to  do  so  immedi- 
ately after  the  publication  of  T^ennec's  work.  At  first  he  made 
bis  observations  quietly  in  his  hospital  wards,  but,  as  soon  as 

I  lie  drew  attention  to  them,  he  was  ridiculed  and  abiised.  The 
stethoscope,  as  well  as  the  facts  of  percussion  and  auscultation 
as  described  by  Aveubrugger,  were  condemned  as  fallacies  by 
the  foremost  teachers  of  medicine  in  I^ndon,  while,  even  at  a 
much  lat4^!r  date,  they  were  treated  at  St.  Thomas's  with  indigna- 
tion or  silent  contempt.  At  the  College  of  Physicians  a  senior 
fellow,  in  a  Croonian  Lecture,  denounced  the  folly  of  canning  a 
piece  of  wood  into  a  sick-room.  Another  condemned  the 
stethoscope  as  worse  than  nonsense,  and  said :  *'  Oh !     It's  just 

[the  thing  for  Elliotson  to  rave  about."  While  a  third,  on 
seeing  one  on  ElUotsou's  table,  said :  "  Ah !  Do  you  use  that 
hocus  pocus  ? "  On  Klliotson  replying  that  it  was  highly  im- 
portant, lie  added :  '*  You  will  learn  nothing  by  it,  and,  if  you 
do,  you  cannot  treat  disease  the  better." 

In   1831,  Elliotson  was  appointed  Professor  of  the  Practice 

1  of  Medicine  at  University  College.  His  connection  with  that 
institution  and  the  commencement  of  his  mesmeric  researches 
were  described  in  the  Medical  Times  by  the  writer  already 
referred  to.  and  1  again  quote  the  latter  almost  in  his  own  words. 


Thus,  he  said,  on  the  establishment  of  the  University  of  Loadon, 
or,  as  it  is  now  called,  University  College,  Elliotson  moved 
thei"e,  aa  to  a  leiiipl«  after  his  own  heart,  and  devoted  hira- 
Belf  enthusiastically  to  its  interests.  He  was  all  for  the  College, 
was  its  great  impelling  force,  and  workud  for  it  with  an  alacrity 
and  energy  that  explains  much  of  its  early  progress.  The 
Hospital  may  be  said  to  have  beeu  mainly  his  erection.  Yet 
here,  in  the  home  of  his  labours,  the  scene  of  liis  triumphs,  he 
received  his  greatest  check.  Dupotet's  visit  to  this  country 
attracted  much  attention  to  mesmerism,  and  led  Klliotson  to 
investigate  tlie  subject.  His  experimenla  were  successful,  and, 
believing  that  he  had  fuimdau  opening  into  an  unexplured  science, 
he  pursued  them  with  zcnl  and  daring  entliusiasm.  His  reckless 
independence  made  many  enemies,  and  oflicial  opposition  to 
mesmerism  led  him  to  resign  liis  Hospital  appointments.  Not- 
withstanding this,  Elliotson  adhered  to  mesmerism,  and  sacrificed 
to  it  friends,  position,  and  practice,  but  still  looked  sanguinely 
forward  to  the  hour  when  the  profession  would  say  of  it  as  of 
creosote,  iodide  of  potash,  prussic  acid,  auscultation,  etc. :  "  Useful 
novelties  if  properly  employed." 

This  account  understates  botli  the  amount  of  mesmeric  work 
done  at  University  College  and  the  opposition  it  received.  The 
demonstrations  of  Chenevix,  in  1 829,  lirat  drew  ElUotsou's  attention 
to  the  subject,  but  it  was  oidy  after  seeing  Duputet,  in  18:i7,  that 
ho  commenced  his  own  researches.  In  conjunction  with  his 
clinical  clerk,  Mr.  Wood,  he  regularly  mesmerised  some  of  the 
patients,  and  obtained  import^mt  therapeutic  results.  His  students^ 
as  well  as  those  of  other  hospitals,  soon  became  greatly  interested, 
and  attended  in  such  numbers  that  Elliotson  was  obliged  to 
mesmerise  in  the  theatre,  instead  of  in  tlie  wards.  His  colleagues, 
while  boasting  of  their  refusal  to  witness  his  demonstrations, 
persecuted  and  annoyed  him  in  many  petty  and  disgraceful  ways. 
The  Dean,  lu  advising  liim  to  dt'sist,  urged  that  tlie  interests  of 
the  School  ought  to  be  considered,  rather  than  those  of  science  and 
humanity,  and  that  the  risk  of  the  loss  of  public  favour  was  of 
more  importance  than  tlie  truth  of  the  wonderful  facts  alleged,  or 
of  tlieir  beneiit  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  To  this  KUiotaon 
replied  "that  the  institution  was  established  for  the  discovery 
and  dissemination  of  truth :  all  other  considerations  were 
secondary,   and  we  should  lead   the  public,  not  the  public  us. 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


^ 


The  sole  question  was  whether  the  matter  were  the  truth  or 
not." 

In  1S38,  the  Council  of  l^uiveraity  College  passed  the  following 
resolution :  "  That  the  Hospital  Committee  be  instructed  to  take 
such  steps  as  they  shall  deem  most  advisable  to  prevent  the 
practice  of  mesmerism  or  animal  magnetism  in  future  within  the 
Hospital."  EUiotaon  was  tlierefore  onleretl  to  cease  mesmerising 
his  patients,  and  immediately  resigned  his  appointments,  never 
afterwards  entering  either  Collie  or  Hospital.  He  felt  the  insult 
keenly,  especially  as  he  was  senior  physician,  and  had  done  much 
to  increase  the  reputation  and  prosperity  of  the  School  In 
addition,  the  Hospital  owed  its  origin  to  him,  and  he  had  made 
enemies  amongst  his  colleagues  by  insisting  that  the  Medical 
School  was  inefficient  without  one.  Further,  he  asserted  that 
the  action  of  the  Council  was  unreasonable,  as  the  majority 
of  its  members  had  refused  to  witness  his  experiments  or  even  to 
discuss  the  subject  with  him. 

In  1846,  ElHotson'a  turn  came  to  deliver  the  Harveiaa 
Oration,  but,  as  soon  as  it  was  known  tliat  he  had  accepted  the 
office,  he  was  attacked  in  the  most  savage  manner,  in  order  to 
prevent  his  appearing.  For  example,  the  Lancd  called  him  a 
professional  pariah,  state*!  that  his  oration  would  strike  a  vital 
blow  at  legitimate  medicine,  and  would  be  a  black  infamy  degrad- 
ing the  arms  of  the  College. 

Undeterred  by  this,  Elliotson  made  mesmerism  the  subject  of 
his  address.  Without  referring  to  the  attacks  which  had  been 
made  upon  him,  he  simply  8tate<l  the  result  of  his  researches,  and 
respectfully  inviteil  tlie  CVtUege  to  examine  alleged  facts  of  over- 
whelming interest  and  importance.  He  exhorted  his  hearers  to 
study  mesmerism  calmly  and  dispassionately,  and  reminded  them, 
with  more  truth  than  tact,  that  all  the  greatest  discoveries  in 
medical  science,  and  the  most  important  improvements  in  its 
|>ractice,  had  been  opposed  by  the  profession  in  the  most  violent 
and  unprincipled  manner.  As  examples  of  scientific  discoveries 
which  had  been  received  in  this  way,  he  cited  those  of  the  lacteal 
vessels,  the  thoracic  duct,  the  sexual  system  of  plants,  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blootl,  the  sounds  of  the  chest  and  their  relation  to  the 
diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs  and  their  coverings,  eta  As 
instances  of  improvement  in  practice  which  had  been  treated 
in  like  manner,  he  referred  to  the  employment  of  Peruvian  bark. 


inoculation  and  vaccination  for  small-pox,  the  use  of  mild 
dres-sings,  instead  of  boiling  oil,  in  gun-shot  wounds,  the  ligalure 
of  the  bleeding  vessels  after  oi>eration,  instead  of  the  application 
of  burning  pitch  or  red-hot  irons,  etc.  We  should,  Elliotsonsaid, 
never  forget  these  things,  nor  allow  authority,  conceit,  habit,  or 
the  fear  of  ridicule  to  make  us  hofitile  to  truth.  We  sliould 
always  Imve  before  our  eyes  that  memorable  passage  in  Harvey's 
works :  "  True  philosophers,  compelled  by  the  love  of  truth  and 
wisdom,  never  fancy  themselves  so  wise  and  full  of  sense  as  not 
to  yield  to  truth  from  any  source  and  at  all  times :  nor  are  they 
so  narrow-minded  as  to  believe  any  art  or  science  has  beeu 
handed  down  in  such  a  state  of  perfection  to  us  by  our  predecessors 
that  nothing  remains  for  future  industry."  All  this,  Elliotsou  said, 
should  be  home  in  mind  when  considering  the  alleged  facts  of 
mesmerism.  In  his  opinion  many  of  these  were  indisputable; 
for  ten  years  he  liad  shown  how  mesmerism  could  j>revent  pain 
during  surgical  operation,  produce  sleep  and  ease  in  sickness,  and 
even  cure  many  diseases  wliich  had  been  unrelieved  by  ordinai-y 
methods.  It  was  the  imperative  and  solemn  duty  of  the  profession 
to  carefully  and  dispassionately  examine  the  subject.  He  there- 
fore earnestly  implored  them  to  do  so,  if  they  cared  for  truth, 
their  own  dignity,  and  the  good  of  mankind. 

In  1843,  Elliotson  and  his  sympathisers  started  the  Zoist,  a 
journal  for  the  collection  and  difiiision  of  information  connected 
with  cerebral  physiology  and  mesmeiism.  It  appeared  quarterly, 
from  April,  1843,  until  it  was  discontinued  on  Deceml)er  3l8t, 
1855.  Its  writers  then  claimed  that  its  object  had  been  fulfilled 
— their  views  had  Iteen  made  public  for  thirteen  years.  The  whole 
work  comprises  thirteen  volumes,  averaging  about  500  pages  each. 
Elliotson  was  a  constant  writer  in  the  Zotst,  and  con- 
tributed many  medical  and  surgical  cases  observed  by  himself 
or  others.  These  comprised  amputations  of  the  thigh,  leg,  arm, 
breast,  etc.,  which  hud  been  i>crfonncd  painlessly  during  niej^meric 
trance  in  England  and  Scotland,  as  well  as  on  the  Continent  and 
in  America.  The  most  important  operations,  however,  were  those 
recorded  by  Esdaile  in  India,  and  published  in  the  Zmst  froTU 
time  to  time.  Cure  or  improvement  wils  alleged  to  have  followed 
mesmeric  treatment  in  insanity,  epilepsy,  hystero-epilepsy, 
hysteria,  stammering,  neuralgia,  asthnm,  torticollis,  headache, 
fxinctioual  affections  of  ttie  heart,  rheumatism,  and  other  diseases. 


ElliotsOQ  asserted  that  mesmerism  was  especially  useful  in 

[hysteria  and  other  functional  nervous  disorder.  These  diseases, 
he  said,  were  generally  niisunderstoo<l,  and  treated  in  a  worse 
than    useless   manner    by   blistering,   bleeding,   and    salivation. 

'  Marriage,  with  disastrous  results^  was  sometijues  suggested  aa  a 
remedy  for  hysterical  women,  on  the  suppoHition  tliat  the  disease 
was  essentially  of  a  sexual  chanicter.  It  was  not,  however, 
necessarily  connected  with  the  uterus,  nor  confined  to  the  female 
sex,  but  occurred  frequently  both  iu  boys  and  men.  Mesmerism, 
not  medicine,  was  the  appropriate  treatment  for  hysteria. 

I  In  addition  to  mesmerism,  sanitation,  education,  the  undue 
harshness  of  the  criminal  code,  and  the  iDSuEHcient  attention  paid 
to  the  mental  condition  of  criminals,  were  subjects  whicli  occupied 
promineut  places  iu  the  ZoiM,  and  views  were  expressed  whicli, 
though  lon<^  since  accepted,  were  doubtless  at  that  time  regarded 

[as  extremely  revolutionary. 

In  au  essay  entitled  "  Physical  IVell-beiiiff,  a  Accessary 
Preliminary  to  Mitral  ami  InUUect^uU  Ptotp-ession"  attention  was 
forcibly  drawn  to  the  evils   arising   from  the  overcrowded  and 

I  insanitary  conditions  of  the  houses  of  the  poor. 

Tlie  crying  necessity  for  national  education  was  insisted  upon, 
and  the  injustice  of  a  Government  scheme,  afterwards  given  up, 
was  thus  referred  to :  "  Dissenters  are  to  be  compelled  to  pay  to- 
wai-ds  the  support  of  schools  where  religious  doctrines  are  taught 
of  which  tbey  disapprove,  and  the  schools  are  to  be  under  the 
absolute  control  of  the  clergy.  Not  only  must  they  pay  for 
exclusive  Cliurch  schools  and  send  their  children  to  them,  but 
they  are  themselves  debarred  from  receiving  one  farthing  from 
the  poor-rates  towards  their  own  schoola  .  .  .  Education  is  the 
proper  remedy  for  crime,  and  there  ought  to  be  a  national  system 

[of  education,  apart  from  religious  U'^lief  and  sectarian  iuHuence." 

As  the  result  of  the  infhieuce  of  the  Zoist,  a  Mesmeric  Infirm- 
ary was  opened  in  London,  and  Mesmeric  Institutions  were  formed 
iu   Edinburgh,   Dublin,   and    elsewhere.       At  one   of  these,   in 

l£xeter,  Mr.  Parker,  surgeon,  claimed  to  have  mesmerised  1200 
persons,  and  to  liave  i>erformed  200  painless  surgical  opemtions. 
The  medical  journals  almost  entirely  ignored  the   sui^ical  and 

'  Ibcrapeutic  claims  of  mesmerism,  and  usually  only  referred  to  it 

I  iu  order  to  assail  its  followers  with  Llie  most  violent  abuse.     In 

I  iha  Liijicet  ot  J\i\y  o\st,  1847,  for  example,  the  following  editorial 


statement  appeared :  *'  Of  conrse  the  parties  concerned  in  the 
infamous  publication  (the  ^oist)  are  in  a  state  of  pei-petual 
mortification  at  tlieir  fallen  and  degraded  position,  and  therefore 
they  bite  and  rail ;  the  leper  [fn'c]  must  be  taken  with  his  spots." 

The  subjects  of  t)ie  various  surgical  operations  were  uni- 
versaUy  regarded  either  as  impostors  or  as  persons  insensible 
to  pnin.  In  Nottin^Jihamshire,  in  1842,  Mr.  Ward,  surgeon, 
amputated  a  thigh  during  mesmeric  trance ;  the  patient  laj* 
perfectly  calm  during  the  whole  operation,  and  not  a  nniscle  was 
seen  tn  twitck  The  case,  reported  to  the  Eoyal  Medical  and 
Chirurgical  Society,  was  badly  received ;  and  it  was  even  asserted 
that  the  patient  had  been  trained  not  to  express  pain.  Dr. 
Marshall  Hall  suggested  that  the  man  was  an  impostor,  liecause 
he  had  been  absolutely  quiet  dui'ing  the  opei-ation ;  if  lie  had 
not  been  simulating  insensibility,  he  would  have  had  reflex 
movements  in  the  other  leg.  Dr.  Copland  proposed  that  no 
account  of  such  a  paper  luiving  been  read  before  the  Society 
should  be  entered  in  its  minutes.  He  asserted  that  "  if  the 
history  of  the  man  experiencing  no  agony  during  the  operation 
were  tnie,  the  fact  was  unwortliy  of  their  considenition,  because 
pain  was  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  and  patients  our;ht  to  suffer 
pain  while  their  surgeons  were  operating ;  they  were  all  the 
better  for  it  and  recovered  better."  Eight  years  afterwards,  Dr. 
Marshall  Hall  publicly  stJited  at  a  meeting  of  the  Society  that 
the  patient  had  confessed  that  he  had  suffered  during  the  opera- 
tion. The  doctor  was  promptly  challenged  to  give  his  authority, 
and  replied  that  he  had  received  the  information  from  a  personal 
acquaintance,  who,  in  his  turn,  had  received  it  from  a  third 
party,  but  that  lie  was  not  permitted  to  divulge  their  names,  and 
would  not  give  any  further  information  on  the  subject.  The 
man  wa?  still  living,  and  signed  a  solemn  declamtion  to  the 
effect  thai  the  operation  had  been  absolutely  painless.  Dr.  Ash- 
bnmer  attended  the  next  meeting,  and  asked  permission  to  read 
this  statement  in  opposition  to  Dr.  Marshall  Hall's,  but  the 
Society  would  not  hear  him. 

ElUotson  opposed  and  constantly  attacked  spiritualism,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  shared  the  mesmeric  erroi-s  of  his  day ;  he 
believed  in  clairvoyance,  phrenology,  and  odylic  force,  and  trans- 
lated Burq's  Metallo'Tkerapia. 

Elliotson'fl  fallacies,  especially  ag  to  clairvoyance,  were  eagerly 


I 


seijsed  upon  hy  his  opponents,  and  made  the  subject  of  constant 
and  virulent  attack.  He.  in  his  turn,  assailed  what  he  regarded 
as  medical  errors.  Thus,  in  referiing  to  the  treatment  of  a  case 
of  nervous  exhaustion  hy  blood-letting,  he  said  ammonia  and  not 
the  lancet  was  required.  He  asserted  that  the  indiscriminate 
use  of  bloo«l-Ietting,  and  oLlier  debilitating  measures,  had  caused 
the  deatii  of  thousands  of  human  beiugs,  and  Iiud  left  a  still 
greater  number  enfeebled  for  the  rest  of  their  lives.  Formerly, 
the  surgeries  of  country  practitioners  were  crowded  at  spring  and 
fall  with  healthy  persona  waiting  to  be  bled.  He  had  protested 
against  this  practice  thirty  years  ago»  but  now  medical  men  had 
run  into  the  other  extreme,  and  had  entirely  abandoned  depletion, 
which,  in  properly  selected  cases,  was  a  valuable  remedy. 

As  to  the  administration  of  medicines,  Elliotsoa  said,  our  aim 
should  be  to  benelit  the  patient  with  the  smallest  number  of 
grains  or  drops,  but  the  dose  ought  to  l>e  steadily  increased  until 
the  system  had  felt  its  power.  Some  practitioners  had  actually  a 
fixed  dose  for  each  medicine ;  others  changed  their  prescriptions 
incessantly,  and  the  patient  believed  he  had  tried  everything, 
whereas  time  had  simply  been  wasted.  Thus,  one  of  the  physi- 
cians at  University  College  Hospital  made  a  clean  sweep  at  every 
visit  of  all  the  drugs  he  had  prescribeil  at  the  previous  one.  The 
public  had  no  conception  of  the  absurd  mode  in  which  medicines 
were  administered  ;  for  example,  wlien  iodide  of  potassium  was 
first  intioduced  Sir began  by  opposing  it,  then  prescribed 

lit  in  the  invariable  dose  of  two  grains,  never  giving  more,  even  if 

I  it  produced  no  effect 

EUiotson  also  complained  of  the  rule  played  by  fashion  in 

Imedicina     For  thirty  years,  lie  said,  the  liver  was  the  favourite 

I  organ;  all  diseases  were  referred  to  it,  all  treatment  directed  to 

I  it  Of  late  the  kidneys  had  had  an  equal  run  ;  but  he  was  sick 
of  hearing  about  renal  diseases,  and  twenty  years  previously  had 
steadily  oppt>scd  the  doctrine  that  albumen  in  the  urine  neces- 

|aarily  indicated  structural  disease  of  the  kidneys. 

KUiotson  fooud  children  easy  to  mesmerise,  and  stated  that 
he  could  thus  cure  or  relieve  many  of  their  diseases  ;  at  the  same 
time  he  insisted  upon  the  injur)'  done  to  them  by  the  ordinary 

I  medical  treatment  of  his  time.  His  views  on  the  management 
of  children  were  remarkable,  and  he  drew  a  nvid  picture  of  their 

I  sufferings  from  the  cruelty  of  parents,  medical  men,  and  teachers. 


What  lie  Bflid  about  corporal  puiiisliiueut  might  be  read  with 
profit  hy  those  who  are  still  advocating  its  retention  iu  girls* 
schools.  Cliildren  sutlering  from  nervous  diseases  were  made 
worse,  he  said,  by  being  needlessly  tortured  witli  blisters  and 
other  exttrnal  irritants.  Vet  the  little  creatures  were  far  more 
seoaitive  than  we  were,  and  felt  more  pain  from  an  equal  cause. 
When  he  thought  of  medical  men's  cruelty  to  innocent  little 
children,  he  often  wished  their  complaints  had  been  left  to  nature. 

If  well  treated  and  managed,  children  were  positively  heavenly 
beings,  far  superior  to  their  elders  in  moral  excellence.  They 
were  affectionate,  coulicJln^^  and  disposed  to  truth,  and  yet,  at 
home,  at  school,  and  elsewhere.,  they  were  the  most  persecuted  of 
all  human  beings.  Their  faults  resulted  from  bad  management,  and 
could  be  corrected  by  good  example  and  advice.  Dulnesa  ami 
crossness  were  often  the  I'usult  of  over-fatigue,  and  the  poor  child 
was  punished  when  he  ought  really  to  have  been  sent  tti  be*!. 
Many  little  things  made  its  cross,  but  no  allowance  was  made  for 
the  yoimg.  Convulsions  sometimes  arose  from  over-work,  and 
ten*or  was  no  uncommon  cause  of  nervous  affections.  Such 
maladies  were  often  not  recognised,  and  ]>unished  as  obstinate 
faults.  St.  Vitus'  dance,  loc^l  twitchings  and  the  like  were 
often  supposed  to  be  due  to  bad  habits  or  obstinacy.  Momentary 
fits  of  epilt'ptic  unconsciousness,  little  pui'o.xysms  of  insanity, 
causing  absurdity  or  anger  for  a  few  minutes,  were  frenuently 
mistaken  for  bad  conduct,  and  the  child  punished  accordingly. 

As  far  as  I  can  learn,  Elliotsou,  up  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
continued  to  believe  iu  clairvoyance  and  other  alleged  mesmeric 
phenomena  of  a  similar  nature.  The  foJlowing  statement,  how- 
ever, at  the  conclusion  of  the  last  volume  of  the  Soistt  indicatetl 
that  these  beliefs  were  losing  ground  among  its  writers :  "  E.\- 
amples  of  claii-voyauce  abound  in  all  the  volumes,  but,  though 
this  phenomenon  appears  iiuque-stionable,  we  all  know  that  gross 
imposition  is  hourly  practised  in  regard  to  it,  both  by  professional 
clairvoyants  and  private  individuals  considered  to  be  trustworthy, 
but  influenced  by  vanity  and  wickedness.  The  assertions  of  a 
clairvoyant  are  to  be  believed  iu  scarcely  one  instance  out  of  a 
hundred,  and  only  then  when  thin*  are  free  from  thu  possibility 
of  lucky  guess  or  trickery,  and  the  facts  otherwise  verified.  A 
host  of  clairvoyants  are  impostors." 

One  of  the  contributor:)  to  Uie  Zoist  has  certainly  changed  his 


\fmo 


views  on  the  subject  of  phrenology.  I  refer  to  Herbert  Spencer, 
■who  appears  there  as  the  author  of  the  following  essays  :  '^A 
View  of  the  Fitnctions  of  Tmitaiion  avd  Benevoleiuxl^  "  On  Ou 
ition  of  the  Organ  of  Amafiirn^ss"  "  A  Theory  concerning  the 
Organ  of  Wonder'' ! 

Although  EUiotson  was  finnly  convinceil  of  the  value  of 
mesmerism  as  a  remedial  agent,  he  contented  himself  with 
urging  its  claims  in  the  ZoiM,  He  did  not  consider  it  universally 
applicable,  and  only  su^gestetl  it  in  cases  which  he  thought 
sjwciully  suitable,  and  where,  in  addition,  there  existed  no 
prejudice  conceminj;  it  In  all  other  instances  he  treated  hia 
patients  by  ordinary  methods,  and  still  displayed  the  same  high 
diagnostic  and  tlierapeutic   powers   for   which   he  had   been   so 

I  justly  celebrated.  Despite  this,  he  was  constantly  abused  and 
Rttacke<l  in  the  grossest  manner  possible,  the  term  madman  being 
one  of  the  mildest  tliat  was  applied  to  him.  Of  this  he  com- 
plained at  last  in  strong  and  pathetic  terms.  For  iifteen  years, 
he  said,  he  liad  supported  the  unprovoked  persecution  of  his 
professional  brethren.      He   Imd    bef.'n   ridiculed  and    abused    by 

I'tbem  in  their  daily  conversations  among  themselves  and  their 
patieiits,  and  in  all  the  medical  journals.  Those  who  had 
formerly  called  him  in  consultation  had  now  not  only  ceased  to 

'do  so,  but  were  untiring  in  their  efTorts  to  prevent  his  being 
employed  by  others,  and  thus  his  professional  income  had  been 
reduced  two-thirds.  This,  however,  was  not  his  greatest 
affliction ;  one,  in  whose  judgment  he  had  confided,  had  caused 
him  losses  equal  to  hia  professional  ones,  and,  what  was  worse 
than  all,  those  whom  he  had  loved  from  infancy  had  unexpectedly 
turned  upon  him  without  provocation,  and  conducted  themselves 
in  such  a  way  as  nothing  but  mental  aberration  could  explain. 

In  1829,  EUiotson  delivered  the  Lumley  I..ectures,  his  subject 
being    "  Th^  Recent   Improvemsnt    in  the  Art  of  distinguishing 

.vaTious  Diseasoi  of  th^  Heart.'*      These  he   published  in   IS 30. 

'  He  also  contributed  many  papers  on  different  subjects  to  the 
medical  journals,  translated  Blumenbach's  Physiology,  and,  at  a 
later  date,  brought  out  an  independent  work  on  the  same  subject, 
as  well  as  on  the  Principles  am!  Practice  of  Medicine.  He  was 
Censor  of  the  Koyal  College  of  Physicians,  and  President  of  the 
lloyal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society  of  London. 

EUiotsoUj   who   had  never   married,  died,  after  a   lingering 


illness, on  July  29th,  1868,  in  Davies  Street,  Berkeley  Square,  in 
the  house  of  his  friend,  Dr.  Symes,  a  former  pupil  wlio  Lad 
always  heen  devoted  to  him. 


JAMES  ESDAILE. 

James  Esdaile,  son  of  the  Itev.  Dr.  Esdaile  of  Perth,  was  born 
on  February  6th,  180S.  He  graduated  at  Edinburgh  in  1830, 
and  then  obtained  an  apjwintment  in  the  East  India  Conijxany. 

On  Apri!  4th,  1845,  when  in  charge  of  the  Xative  Hospital  at 
Hooghly,  Esdaile  made  his  first  mesmeric  experiment,  bis  subject 
being  a  Hindoo  convict  with  double  hydrocele.  As  the  usual 
injection  had  produced  severe  pain,  Esdaile  tried  to  mesmerise 
the  patient,  but  did  uot  expect  to  succeed,  as  he  Uiicw  nothing 
about  mesmerism  except  what  he  had  read  of  Klliotson's  doings. 
The  man,  however,  fell  into  a  deep  trance,  and  became  profoundly 
analgesic.  Encouraged  by  this,  and  a  siill  more  striking  success 
with  the  same  patient,  Esdaile  continued  hia  experiments,  and 
soon  reported  seventy-five  mesmeric  operations  to  the  Medical 
Board.  His  letter  was  uot  even  acknowledged.  At  the  end  of 
the  year,  when  his  operations  amounted  to  over  a  hundred,  he 
placed  the  results  before  the  GovemmenL  The  Deputy-Governor 
of  Beugal,  Sir  Herbert  Maddock,  at  once  appointed  a  Committee 
of  Investigation,  maiidy  cumposed  of  medical  men.  Their  rejwrt 
was  an  extremely  favourable  one.  On  a-eceiving  it,  the  Govern- 
ment sent  the  following  oflicial  commuuicalion  to  the  President 
of  the  Committee  : — 

'^Tho  Committee's  report  hai  been  ordered  to  be  pubUshed,  and  the 
Deputy-Goveruor  entirely  concurs  with  the  remark  of  the  President,  in 
Caimeil,  ihul  it  is  sufficieut  fur  lUe  pivsenl  that  it  bliould  be  allowed  to  wurk 
its  own  way  townrds  producing  coitviction  among  the  prafcjision  and  the 
public,  And,  At  this  fttAgo,  any  inure  direct  encouragcmi^nt  on  the  jiai't  of  the 
(JovernmeRt  to  the  i;eneral  introduction  of  mcanicric  practice  would  !» 
premature.  Bat  &o  far  baa  tbe  possibility  of  rendering  the  most  (wrioua 
oi>erations  paiiilesit  to  the  subject  of  them  been,  in  hiit  Honour's  opinion, 
established  by  the  late  cxperimenla  perfurined  under  the  eye  of  the  Com- 
mitt««'  appointed  for  that  purpose,  as  to  render  it  inctunbeut  on  tbe 
Qovernment  to  atford  to  the  meritorious  and  zealoua  officer  by  whom  tbe 
ftubjecl  wa»  first  brought  to  its  notice,  such  assistance  as  may  facilitate  bia 
iuvestigati-inft,  and  enable  him  to  jiixtsecute  his  int«reatiDg  experimeuta  under 
the  moet  Tavourable  and  promising,'  circumstances. 

"  With  this  view  his  Honour  has  determined,  with  the  Ntnctiou  of  the 


Supreme  Qovurnuienl,  to  place  Dr.  Eadaile  for  a  year  in  cliatve  of  a  snuiU 
experimental  liwpital,  in  some  favourable  Hituation  in  Calciitla,  in  order  1.1ml 
he  may»  as  recommemled  by  the  Committee,  extend  his  inveatigatious  to 
the  applicability  of  thi»»  allejjetl  agency  to  all  descriptiuutt  of  caaca,  medical  as 
well  OS  surgical  and  all  ctasaet  of  patieuts,  KurojX'an  us  well  oa  Native. 
Dr.  Eadaile  will  be  directed  to  enconruf^  the  resort  to  his  hospital 
of  all  respectable  persons,  especially  iite<lical  nnd  scientific,  whether  in 
or  out  of  the  service,  who  may  be  deairous  of  eatisfyin;;  themselves  of  the 
nature  and  effect  of  his  experimeut^  and  hi«  Honour  will  numiuate,  from 
among  the  medical  officers  of  the  Presidency,  •*  Visitors,"  wImmc  duty  it 
will  be  to  \iait  the  hospital  from  time  to  time,  inspect  Dr.  Ksdaile's  pro- 
ceedin[;K,  without  exercising  any  interference,  and  occasionally,  or  when 
called  uiH>n,  report  ujiuu  them,  throii>;h  the  Medical  Board,  for  the  in- 
formation of  Uie  Guvernuient.  Ou  IIk-jw  reports  will  maiuly  dc]>end  what 
future  steps  the  Guvcramcni  may  deem  it  expedient  to  take  in  the  matter. — 
I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Oentleuien,  your  nio^t  obeilient  eervauL, 

KuED.  Jak.  Hau.idav, 
Seertitinf  to  the  licrernfHuiU  of  lia^i," 

In  00001x381100  with  this,  a  .small  hospital  in  Calcutta  was 

placed  at  Esdaile's  disposal   by  the  Government  in  November, 

1846,     and     the     following     official     visitors     appointed :     TL 

Tliompson,   M.D. ;   D.   Stewart,   ALU.;  J.  Jackson,   F.RC.S. ;  F. 

Mouatt,  M.IX;  and  11.  O'Shaiighnessy,  F.R.C.S.     Esdaile  waa  as 

successful  here  as  he  had  been  at  llooghly,  the  claas  of  cases 

and  the  character  of  the  operations  being  very  similar.     At  the 

id  of  the  year  (December,  1847),  the  medical  oflicers  reported 

at  complete  insensibility  to  pain  was  obtained  by  mesmerism 

le  most  severe  operations,  and  that  its  influence  in  reilucing 

tic  was  ilecidedly  favourable. 

In  June,  1847,  Ksdaile  ^v^Dte  to  the  Government  of  Iteugal 
as  follows  :— 

^^L  *■  since  his  Honour  the  Deputy-Governor  has  determined  upon  printing 
^^bic  Report  of  the  Me«meiic  Hospital  for  the  last  six  mouths,  I  ho|>c  that  I 
^^Bl^  be  permitted  to  take  ttits  opportunity  to  uiukt.*  a  few  remarks  on  the 
^BworiE.{iig  and  prospects  of  the  ex[>erimental  ho»piLaI  so  liberally  and 
[      benevolently  tfltablisheit  by  the  fiovernmenl. 

"For  some  months  we  were  almost  exclueively  occupied  with  surgery, the 

fame  of  poioless  operations  linvinjj  ecliiMvil  the  less  striking,  but  even  more 

^^^i{)ortiint,  medical  relatione  of  the  subject  ;  but  these  ore  now  becoming  more 

^fnnerully  known   by  the    public,  and  medical    results   have  already  been 

^^sblainod  of  an  important  and  highly  encouraging  description,  and  other 

'       catea  now  in  band  of  the  K^^ve^t  nature,  such  as  ]>alay,  epilepsy,  umdneH, 

other  [Munfnl  nervous  aifectionv,  promise  to  repay  our  lnl>ours  amply. 

lit  thcM  coaaa  are  so  old  and  inveterate  that  it  re<|aire8  long  treatment  to 


make  an  inipression  on  theni,  and  protracted  obecTTotions  before  vre  c&a  be 
sure  of  our  reanlti. 

**  Tht!  surgical  (joaes,  for  reasons  well  known  to  you,  are  almost  all  of  one 
description  (the  removal  of  the  enormoua  tunioura  of  elephantiasis),  but 
fortunately  for  the  demon stmtioa  of  the  anodyne  and  narcotic  power  of 
meftmeriBoi,  the  operations  have  generally  been  tlie  most  severe  and  dangerous 
that  are  required  to  be  performed  on  the  human  body.  A  greater  variety  of 
both  «uigical  and  medical  caaea  ia,  however,  desirable,  and  could  be  easily 
found  in  the  public  hospitals  of  Calcutta.  It  is  in  the  practice  of  large 
hospitals,  with  their  ever-varying  patients  and  iiicideiitH,  that  the  general 
utility  of  mesineritfiii  will  he  best  and  moat  speedily  ttlnstrated.  .  .  , 

".  .  .  In  conclusion,  I  would  beg  leave  to  direct  respectfully  the  attention 
of  the  Uovemment  to  the  statistics  of  tlie  subject^  it  being  a  point  of  much 
interest  to  ascertain  the  ratio  of  mortality  undt-r  the  old  and  the  new  school 
of  surgery.  For  this  piir]>oae  [  have  the  honour  to  append  a  return  of  all 
the  mesmeric  operations  performed  by  me,  now  amounting  to  133,  and  I 
hope  the  tiovernnient  will  think  the  mibject  of  suflicient  importance  to  coll 
for  the  necessary  means  of  comparison  froni  the  diflfurent  hospitals  in  Calcutta." 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  of  trial,  a  petition  was  sent  to  the 
Governor -General,  signed  by  over  300  Native  gentlemen  of 
Calcutta,  praying  for  the  continuance  of  the  Sfesmcric  Hospital, 
on  the  ground  tliat  they  had  studied  the  reports,  personally 
witnessed  many  of  the  operations  and  their  resxilts,  and  had 
satisfied  themselves  of  their  value. 

Despite  the  favourable  report  of  the  official  visitors,  and  the 
petition  already  referred  to,  the  MeBmeric  Hospital  was  closed. 
A  second  one,  however,  entirely  supported  by  voluntary  sub- 
scriptions, mainly  drawn  from  Native  aonrces,  was  opened  on 
September  1st,  1848,  and  Esdaile  placed  in  charge.  This  was 
continued  for  six  monllis,  tlien  closed,  as  the  Deputy-Governor 
appointed  lisdaile  to  the  Siirkea's  Lane  Hospital  and  Disi)ensary, 
for  the  express  purpose  of  combining  mesmerism  with  the 
common  practice  of  medicine. 

Before  Ksdaile  left  India  he  had  i>erformed  thousands  of 
painless  minor  operations  and  about  300  capital  ones. 
Amongst  the  latter  were  nineteen  amputations  and  one  lithotomy, 
but  by  far  the  greatest  number  were  for  the  removal  of  the 
enormous  scrotal  tumours  so  common  in  India.  Detiuls  of  some 
cases  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on  "  Hypnotism  in  Surgery";  but 
his  own  and  more  extended  account  of  his  work,  and  the  flocking 
of  the  Natives  to  be  operated  on  under  the  new  anaesthetic,  form 
one  of  the  most  fascinating  pages  in  the  history  of  medical 
science.     The  removal    of  the  larger  scrotal  tumours  was  con- 


I 


t7 


sidercd  so  dangerous  that  few  aurgeoDs  cared  to  attempt  it.  Dr. 
Goodeve  (Tran^.  Medical  and  Physical  Society  of  CalctUia,  voL 
vii.)  put  the  mortulity  at  50  i>er  cent.  Although  maoy  of 
Ksdaile's  caaes  were  particularly  formidable  ones,  upon  which 
other  surgeons  had  refused  to  operate,  his  mortality  in  161 
consecutive  cases  was  only  5  per  cent.  Furtlier,  none  of  the 
ffttal  cases  died  immediately  after  operation,  all  deaths  subsequently 
resulting  from  fever,  cholera,  or  like  causes. 

Ac  first  Ksdaile  mesmerised  all  the  patients  himself;  but, 
after  doing  so  for  six  weeks,  he  became  extremely  exhausted,  and 
suffered  from  irritability  und  sleeplessness.  He  therefore  in- 
stnicted  his  Native  hospital  assistants  how  to  mesmerise,  and, 
except  on  rare  occasions,  confined  himself  to  the  performance 
of  operations. 

Esdaiie's  mesmeric  work  was  constantly  attacked  in  the 
Indian  medical  joui*naIs.  It  was  asserted  that  the  coolies  of 
Bengal  enjoyed  being  operated  on,  and  that,  knowing  Esdaile's 
hobby,  they  came  from  all  quarters  in  order  to  please  him. 
Esdaiie  was  described  as  an  honest  fool,  who  was  deceived  by 
his  patients — a  set  of  hardened  and  determined  impostors.  In 
reply,  Esdaiie  drew  attention  to  the  following  facts  : — (1)  During 
the  six  years  previous  to  1845,  he  had  only  operated  on  eleven 
cases  of  scrotal  tumour,  but.  since  using  mesmerism,  he  had  had 
more  operations  of  this  kind  in  a  month  than  took  place  in  all 
the  other  Native  hospitals  in  Calcutta  in  a  year.  (2)  During 
operation  the  patients  remainetl  perfectly  quiet,  and  showed 
neither  the  ordinary  nor  the  physiological  signs  of  pain,  i.€.  the 
characteristic  cliangcs  in  pulse  and  pupil  did  not  occur.  (3)  The 
game  patients  showed  signs  of  acute  pain  when  operate<l  on  in  the 
waking  state.  (4)  There  was  no  pain  after  operation,  when  this 
had  taken  place  during  mesmeric  trance,  and  the  patients  on 
awaking  generally  asked  for  food.  In  conclusion,  Esdaiie  pointed 
out  that  his  patients  constantly  sent  him  others,  and  asked 
whether  it  was  more  likely  they  had  told  their  friends  that  they 
had  cheated  him  into  believing  they  wore  asleep,  or  truly  assured 
them  that  they  had  had  their  tumours  removed  during  painless 
trance. 

It  was  asserted  also  that  if  Esdaile's  patients  were  not  all 
impostors,  they  were  certainly  »I*  liysterical.  Esdaiie  replied 
that  he  did  not  see  how  hysteria  could  have  got  into  his  hospitals, 

c 


HYi'NOTiSM 


where  he  had  never  seen  it  before — coolies  and  felons  not  being 
ut  till  uen'0U3  subjects.  If  that  charge  were  true,  fashionable 
surgeons,  who  had  the  disease  and  antidote  ready  to  their  hands, 
should  have  no  diflicully  in  pei-fonninu;  jiainless  operations.  He 
therefore  would  soon  exjx^ct  to  hear  that  "  l-ady  Tautrum  "  had 
had  her  arm  cut  off'  in  a  lit  of  hysterics  without  knowing  it. 

Ksdaile  complained  that  no  account  of  his  painless  uperations 
was  pohlished  in  any  of  the  medical  journals,  and  that  their 
editoiT?  purpfisely  kept  tht*  facts  froui  tlic  itrofussion.  Yet  in  a 
years  report  of  the  Calcutta  Meatncric  Hospital  wei-e  to  be  found 
accounts  of  02  capital  operations,  with  3  deaths,  and  640 
miscellaneous  operations.  As  all  this  had  been  going  on  regularly 
for  four  years,  surely  it  was  worthy  of  mention,  if  only  as  an 
example  of  epidemic  insanity.  What  i-cader  of  Euglish  medical 
journals,  he  askctl,  had  ever  heard  of  the  report  of  the  Mesmeric 
Oonimitlee  and  Hospital,  pul>lisht;d  by  order  of  the  Govermneut^ 
or  of  the  second  Mesmeric  Hospital  in  Calcutta,  which  was  still  in 
full  operation  ? 

Chloroform  was  introduced  into  India  before  I'^dailc  left,  and 
he  attempted  to  show  its  inferiority  to  mesmerism.  Some  of  his 
objections  were  undoubtedly  due  to  his  sti-oug  feeling  in  favour  of 
mesmerism  ;  others  arose  from  the  frequency  of  the  disagreeable 
or  dangerous  results,  which  not  unnaturally  followed  the  use  of 
a  new  and  little- understood  method  of  inducing  amesthesia. 
Esdaile  found  nine  cases  of  death  from  chloroform  reported  in  the 
only  medical  journal  he  happened  to  have  at  hand  at  the  time, 
and  contrasted  this  with  100  capital  operations  jKirformed  by  him 
iu  the  mesmeric  trance.  Of  the  latter  only  two  died  within  the 
month — one  of  cholera  and  one  of  tetanus — and  there  had  been 
neither  pain  during  or  after  oi>emtiou,  nor  disagreeable  local  or 
general  after-effects. 

When  the  American  Congress,  of  1853,  oflered  a  prize  of 
10,000  dollars  to  the  discoverer  of  the  amcsthetic  jKJwers  of  ether, 
described  as  the  earliest  antrsthetic,  Ksdaile  sent  an  indignant 
protest  He  did  not  claim  the  reward,  but  drew  attcntiou  to  the 
well-known  fact  that  painless  mesmeric  surgery  was  daily  per- 
formed in  his  hospitals  years  before  ether  was  heard  of. 

Although  Eadaile's  operations  formed  the  most  striking  i>art 
of  his  work,  many  of  his  medical  cases  are  interesting,  and  some 
of  the  more  remarkable  will  be  cited  in  the  chapter  on  "  Hypnotism 


I 

I 
I 


HISTORICAL 


<9 


Medicine."  He  frequently  obtained  brilliant  i^esults  in  cases  of 
inctional  paralysis,  but  warucd  both  practitioner  and  patient  that 
me  and  perseverance  were  often  iiecessarj',  especially  in  long- 
andiug  cases.  His  explanation  of  the  aeliou  of  ujesmeriam  in 
diseased  conditions  will  be  discussed  when  dealing  with  "Theory." 
Until  he  left  India  in  1851,  Esdaile  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  mesmeric  work.  Not  only  did  this  bring  him  no  pecuniary 
profit,  for  it  involved  no  increase  in  his  official  salary,  but  he  also 
'sacrificed  for  its  sake  all  private  practice  and  other  chances  of 
money-making. 

II  After  leaving  India,  Ksdailc  settled  in  Perth,  but  his  interest 
in  mesmerism  remained  unabated.  On  September  15th,  1851. 
he  wrnie  to  KUiotson  as  follows: — 

"  Bdbre  leaving  Calcutta,  I  liftd  Ihe  satisfaction  of  wtiiug  Dr.  Webb,  Pro- 
of Anatomy,  gazetted  as  my  ffiicccssor  at  the  MesrHoric  HoJipital." 

lis  was  the  same   Dr.   Webb  who  said,  in    his  introductory 
lectiue  at  the  ^ledical  College  of  Calcutta : — 

"  The  practicability,  which  lia«  beeu  dally  demousti*at4Kl  ia  the  Meameric 
lospitid  in  this  cily,  of  performing  the  itiotit  drejtdful  ofierations  of  mir^ery 
rithout  pain  to  the  pitient,  muttt  be  re^nu-dcd  as  the  givatest  medical  triumpti 
■  onr  day.     I  caDtiot  recall  witJiout  iistoniehnieiit  the  extirpation  of  a  cancer- 
i  eye,  while  the  uian  loukeU  at  uie  uufliuchlugly  witli  the  other  oue.      In 
aothcr  case,  the  patient  looked  dreamily  ud  with  half-closed  eyes  the  whole 
UQ  of  the  opcratiou,  eveu  while  I  examiiicd  the  uatun.'  of  the  malignant 
amour  I  had  removed,  and  then,  having  aatisfied   myeelf^  conclnded  the 
eration.'' 

I  was  for  some  time  puzzled  by  the  fact  that  I  could  dis- 
5ver  no  mention  of  Dr.  Webb  in  connection  with  the  Mesmeric 
lospital  after  Esdaile  left  India,  but  the  following  letter  from 
Tebb  to  Elliotaon  supplied  the  information ; — 

**  X  bail  risen,"  wrote  Dr.  Webb,  **  %o  high  in  the  esitimation  of  my  friend 
aile  that  he  TuaAt.  it  a  hif-t  reqttti^t  with  the  Qovernmenl  that  I  shuuld 
Qcceed  to  the  Mesmeric  Hoapital     Should  you  nee  hiiu,  he  will  leani  with 
prite  ilijit  the  charge  which  wa^  promised  him  oiid  givtu  me,  as  I  under- 
Fttood,  wan  supjKtiKMl  never  to  have  l>een  given,  and  conferred  on  eorae  one 
else  who  never  had  a  mesmeric  cuse." 

In  a  letter  to  EUiotson,  on  September  29ih,  1851,  Ksdaile 
3UB  ejcplained  why  he  had  left  India  : — 

'My  reaHuns  for  leaving  India  were  simply  that  1  liated  the  climate,  the 

Dimlry,  and  all  it«  ways  from  the  moiiieiil  I  mt  foot  in  it,  and  hail  lon^ 

lined  to  quit  it  at  the  first  practicable  uiument,  which  1  have  accord- 


ingly  done.  Knowing  that  all  the  vealth  of  India  could  not  bribe  me  i 
remain  a  moment  after  the  expiration  of  mj  period  of  service,  I  was  per- 
fectly indifferent  U>  bein^;  called  an  advertising  quack,  etc,  fur  addressing 
the  public  through  the  newspapers — iheir  only  source  of  information — the 
medical  joumaU  having  combined  to  euppresB  all  evidence  on  the  subject  of 
mesmerism.  I  could  well  afford  to  laugh  at  the  attempts  to  injure  me  and 
niT  practice,  the  truth  being  that  I  did  not  core  a  straw  about  it.  If  I  lived 
a  few  years,  1  knew  that  ray  actions  would  give  tlie  lie  to  the  friendly  com- 
uientotom  on  my  conduct,  who  gave  out  that  I  was  agitating  for  a  place  in 
Calcutta,  in  order  to  drive  a  great  trade  there  like  themselves.  Vou  may 
imagine  their  astonishment  and  delight  at  aeeing  me  give  up,  almost  as  soon 
as  got,  what  to  them  w  tlie  nunmum  bonum  of  good  fortune — a  good  place 
in  Calcutta  with  tho  prospect  of  a  great  practice.  ..." 

On  December  Oth,  1852,  Esdaile  informed  Elliotson  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Far  North  were  as  susceptible  to  mesmerism  as 
those  of  the  Farthest  East.  Dr.  Fraser  Thompson,  surgeon  to  the 
Perth  Infirmary,  became  a  convert,  and  employed  mesmerism  in 
a  variety  of  diseases.  He  successfully  operated  also  on  some 
patients  in  that  institution,  but  his  colleagues  promptly  called  a 
meeting  of  the  directors,  and  stated  that  they  would  resign  if  the 
practice  of  mesmerism  were  permitted  in  the  hospitaL 

In  March,  1852,  Esdaile  published  a  j>auiphlet  on  77ie 
Jntrodiu^tifm  of  Mftrmerism.  a»  an  Amrdkeiic  and  Ciiralive  Agent 
into  the  Ho»piUils  of  India,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  members 
of  tlie  medical  profession.  In  this  )ie  complained  bitterly  of  his 
treatment  by  the  editors  of  different  medical  journals,  and  of  their 
determined  attempt  to  suppress  all  evidence  in  favour  of  mes- 
merism. Professor  J.  Y.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  had  written  to 
Esdaile  to  the  effect  that  he  owed  it  to  himself  and  his  profession 
to  let  his  proceedings  l>e  known  in  England.  In  response  to  tliis, 
Esdaile  sent  an  account  to  an  English  medical  journal  of  161 
scrotal  tumours  removed  during  mesmeric  trance.  The  history 
of  what  followed,  and  Esdaile's  opinion  of  the  treatment  he 
received,  1  shall  give  in  his  own  words  :■ — 

"  My  article  waa  not  published,  and  I  then  sent  a  more  general  paper  con- 
taining a  rAumrf  of  my  surgical  work.  Tliia  was  rejected  for  its  uvpraetxcal 
ekaracUrf  1  have  heanl  that  it  is  given  as  a  reasou  for  not  printing  niy 
paper  that,  though  no  one  now  denies  my  fact*,  these  apply  to  tlie  Natives  of 
India  only.  But,  as  far  an  I  know,  no  medical  jiHirnal  hasi  admitted  tlic 
reality  of  painitu  mesmeric  operations^  even  for  India,  or  inserted  one  of  the 
numerous  Enropcan  casea  reported  from  Lomlon,  Paris,  CJicrbourg,  etc.  .  .  . 
They  will  not  admit,  or  permit  you  even  to  hear  of,  such  indisputable  facts, 
through  fear  of  the  consequences.      But,  supposing  the  Natives  of  India  were 


I 


alone  concerued,  is  it  of  no  inUrest  to  the  surgeon,  tbc  phyiiician,  tbe  physi- 
olof^Bt,  and  the  oatoral  philosopher,  to  know  that  tJie  hundred  and  twenty 
uiilliunfl  of  our  Kaslerii  subjects  (uim  would  HUppuse  tliey  wei'e  luoDkeys)  are 
so  susceptible  to  mejiineric  iiifluence  that  piiinless  surgic&l  operations,  and 
other  medical  benefits  from  iiici-nierism,  arc  their  natural  birtlirightl  You 
have  been  told  all  along  by  your  journala  that  your  medical  brctbi*en 
eugat>ed  in  studying  uieKtueriiini  are  either  fools  or  quacks.  But  how  men 
like  myself,  who  neither  want,  nor  will  accept,  private  practice,  can  be 
reduced  to  the  category  of  quacks  I  do  not  well  see.  If  we  are  fools,  we 
onght  to  be  encouraged  to  write  ourselves  down  ok  such,  aa  tlie  sj^eediest  and 
most  effectual  wuy  of  cxjioaing  un.  I  am  convinced  that  yuu  and  I  are 
agreed  on  one  ])oiiit,  namely,  in  liking  to  be  allowed  to  judge  for  oiirKelres, 
and  that  you  will  not  submit  to  Ik*  iKtij^hvimked  or  led  by  the  nose  by 
persons  we  pay  to  keup  us  well  informed  of  new  facts,  and  the  pi-ogress  u\&*le 
in  our  iirofeiwion  all  over  the  world.  To  preLeud  that  tliere  ia  a  free  tuMital 
prat  in  Great  Bhtain  is  a  mockery  and  a  dvluaioii.  And  the  pmtjf  of  this 
is  that  medical  raen,  who  pleilge  their  unblemished  private  and  professional 
reputation  for  the  truth  of  their  statements,  are  not  ^dlowed  to  be  beard  by 
you  in  your  profesaiuual  organs,  if  what  they  advance  is  contrary  to  the  pr&- 
I  Indices  and  foregone  conclusions  of  the  cditoi's.  ..." 

After  a  time  Ksdaile  found  the  climate  of  Scotland  too  cold, 

,  weakness  of  the  lungs  having  been  hia  reason  for  going  to  ludia 

the  iirst  instance,  and  he  removed  to  Sydenliain,  where  he  died, 

January    10th,    1859,  at    the  uge  of   fifty.       He    had   been 

narried  tliree  times,  but  had  no  childi-en. 

A  list  of  all  Esdailes  published  works  that  1  have  been  able 
trace  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  of  References. 


JAMES   BRAID. 


The   name  of  James   Braid   is   familiar   to  all   students  of 

inotism.  aud  is  rarely  mentioned  by  them  without  due  credit 

ug  given   to  the  important  pari  he  played  in  resctiing  ttiut 

Bcience    from    ignorance    and    superstition.      Begret    is    usually 

however,  that  he  held  many  erroneous  views,  which 

is  claimed  the  researches  of  more  recent  investigatoi-s  have 

Bproved.     The  following,  as  far  as  I  can  gather  from  hypnotic 

rorks,  and  from  conversation  with  those  interested  in  hypnotism, 

fare   the   opinions  almost   universally  held: — (1)  Braid  was  an 

English  surgeon.     (2)  He  believed  in  phrenology.     (3)  He  was 

the  discoverer  or  rediscoverer  of  the  subjective  origin  of  hypnotic 

lienoxneua.     (4)  He  knew  nothing  of  snggeetiou.     In  all  this. 


one  thing  alone  is  correct,  namely,  that  Braid  was  tlie  rediscoverer 
of  the  subjective  nature  of  hypnotic  plienoinentL  Tliis  estimate 
of  Braid  1ms  arisen  from  imperfect  knowledge  of  his  writings. 
Few  seem  to  be  acquainted  with  any  of  liis  works  except 
Neuryjmdogy,  or  with  tlie  fact  that  this  was  only  one  of  the 
first  of  a  long  series  on  the  subject  of  hypnotism,  and  that  later 
his  views  completely  changed. 

James  liraid,  who  was  horn  at  Kylaw  House  in  Fifeshire  about 
1795,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and  qualified  there  as  a 
sui'geon.  After  practising  in  Scotland  for  some  years,  he  removed 
to  Manclicster,  where  he  remained  up  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
and  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  skilful  physician  and  surgeon. 

On  A'nvemhcr  13th,  1841,  Braid,  for  the  first  time,  was 
present  at  a  mesmeric  s^ancf  :  the  operator  was  Lafoiitaine.'  At 
that  time  mesmeric  phenomena  were  generally  lielieved  to  be 
due  cither  to  mysterious  force  or  fluid,  self-deception  or  trickery. 
Braid  held  the  latter  theory,  and  on  the  first  occasion  saw 
nothing  to  cause  him  to  alter  his  Wews.  At  the  next  s^ftiice, 
six  days  later,  ho  noticed  that  one  subject  was  unable  to  open 
his  eyes.  Braid  i-egarded  this  as  a  real  phenomenon,  and  was 
anxious  to  discover  its  physiological  cause ;  and  the  following 
evening,  when  the  case  was  again  operated  on,  he  believed  lie 
had  done  so.  After  making  a  serit's  of  experiments,  chielly  on 
personal  friends  and  relatives,, he  expressed  his  conviction  that 
the  phenomena  lie  had  witnessed  were  purely  subjective,  and 
began  almost  immetUately  to  place  these  views  before  the  public, 
his  first  lecture  being  delivered  on  December  27  th,  1841. 

In  1842,  Braid  offered  a  paper  on  the  subject  of  hypnotism 
to  the  Medical  Section  of  the  British  Association  held  that  year 
in  Manchester.  This  was  refused,  whereupon  he  gave  a  con- 
versazione, at  which  mauy  members  of  tlie  Association  were 
present,  read  his  ]wpei;  and  showed  cases.  His  first  work  on 
mesmerism  was  entitled  Satanic  Affcnry  and  Mcsmensm  revietced, 
in  a  Letter  to  tJie  liev.  II.  AfKeik,  A.M.,  of  Livfi-pool,  in  Hcply 
to  a  Scnuoti  pnachcd  by  him  at  St.  Judt'a  Cfinrck,  Liverpool, 
mt.  Sunday,  April  lOtk,  J 8^3.  M*Neile  had  charged  Braid 
with  "  refusing  to  state  the  laws  of  nature  by  the  uniform  action 
of  which  hypnotic  phenomena  were  produced."     To  this  Braid 

'  A  description  nf  thU  tiawf  vill  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  niy  atifntion 
having  been  directed  tt*  it  too  lute  for  inRerlion  hon. 


I 

I 

I 


plied  that  he  liail  alway.s  explained  the  plienomena  on  physio- 
logical and  paycliological  principles,  but  that  M'Neile  had  refused 
to  attend  liis  lectures  or  to  read  any  account  of  them.  Braid, 
who  at  that  time  believed  in  the  physiciil  origin  of  hypnotic 
phenomena,  referred  M*Neile  to  the  theory  by  which  he  attempted 
to  explain  certain  changes  in  tlie  central  nervous  system,  moi« 
particularly  decreased  functional  activity,  as  the  result  of  the 
exhaustion  of  other  nerve  centres  from  continued  monotonous 
stimulation.  Rut,  lie  saiil,  even  if  his  theories  did  not  explain 
all  the  phenomena,  surely  lie  might  be  allowed   to  employ  the 

P  knowledge  he  had  acquired,  without  being  stigmatised  from  the 
pulpit  as  a  necromancer   who  produced  his  effects  by  *'  Satanic 
11    agency."     If  a  Iinmlred  persons  st-artcd  in  a  steamer,  and  twenty 
^■became  sick,  while  the  remainder  escaped,  would  it  be  fair  to 
^^ charge  the  captain  of  acting  by  Satanic  agency  because  the  whole 
were  not  sick,  and   Iwcause,  aceording  to  JPXeile,  "if  it   be  in 
nature,  it  will  operate  unifarmly  and  not  capriciously  ?  ...   If 
it  operate  capriciously,  then  there  is  some  mischievous  agent  at 

»work ;  and  we  are  not  ignorant  of  the  devices  of  the  devil." 
Would  any  man  but  Mr.  Af^Neile  say  that,  l>ecau8e  the  captain 
gave  the  signal  to  heave  anchor,  to  spread  the  sails,  and  other 
"  talismanic  tokens "  for  steering  the  vessel,  and  beaiuse  only 
part  of  the  passengers  became  sick,  he  was  consequently  affecting 
them  through  Satanic  agency :  or  that  it  wouM  alter  the  matter 
one  wliit  because  medical  men  could  not  assign  the  true  cause 
^Kof  sea-sickness,  or  tell  why  some  should  be  affected  by  it  and 
^KBot  others  ^ 

^P         In    1843,  Braid    published  Keurypnfihvjy^  or    The  HaiiotiaU 
of  Nervous  Sle^^p,  of  which   eight  hundred   copies  were  sold  in 

I  a  few  months.      In  this  work  are  to  be  fonnd  his  earliejsb  theories. 
After  having  established  the  subjective  origin  of  the  phenomena, 
he   pro|M)se<l   that  they  should  be  called  "  hypnotic "  instead  of 
"  mesmeric,"  uiid  invented  the  following  terminology : — 
Xmryfrnolnjij,  the  rationale  or  doctrine  of  nervous  sleep. 
NeuTv-hrpnotitm,  or  nervous  sleep,  a  pcculiAf  condition  of  the  nervoua 
^^  sjrftetii  prtMlucfd  by  nrlinclal  contrivanee. 

^f        Then,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  suppressing  the  prolix  "  neuro," 
he  gave  the  following  terms : — 

HypmliCy  lliu  siatu  or  condition  of  ttervoiia  a]o<^p. 
ffypnodW,  to  Induce  nen'utis  sleep. 


Hypttotwif^  jitit  into  tlic  condition  ol'  nervoiu  sleep. 
Hypnoiiinw^  nt-rvous  Bleeji. 

Dth^pnotxK,  to  restore  fttim  the  bUiIc  of  ne[-vou»  sleep. 
ffy^maluif  one  who  practises  iieuAHlivpnotiBni. 

Braid  placed  his  results  and  methods  before  his  medical 
brethren,  insisttnl  that  they  alnne  ought  to  use  hypnotism,  and 
warned  the  ignorant  against  tnmpenng  with  a  powerful  agency, 
which  might  produce  eitlier  good  or  evil  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  it  was  managed  and  applied.  Hypnotism,  he  said,  waB 
capable  of  curing  many  diseases  for  which  formerly  there  had 
been  no  remedy ;  hut  none  but  a  medical  man  was  competent  to 
employ  it  with  advantage  to  the  patient  or  credit  to  himself. 
Braid  particularly  insisted  that  hypnotism  was  not  a  universal 
remedy,  and  stated  that  whoever  talked  of  such  a  thing  was 
either  a  fool  or  a  knave.  In  reference  to  his  successful  thera- 
peutic results,  Braid  said  that  he  had  always  tried  to  dispel 
tnystery,  and  could  teach  any  intelligent  medical  man  to  do 
what  he  had  done.  In  skilled  hands  there  was  neither  pain, 
discomfort,  nor  danger  associated  witli  liypuotic  treatment. 
Further,  he  was  able  to  influence  a  larger  percentage  of  patients 
by  his  methods  than  the  mesmerists  did  by  theirs,  even  with 
the  supposed  aid  of  mysterious  agencies. 

Braid  stated  that  he  had  taken  every  care  to  avoid  deception 
in  his  experiments,  but,  despite  this,  did  not  expect  his  conclusions 
to  be  at  once  accepted.  He  hoped,  huwever.  that  his  professional 
brethren  would  investigate  the  subjiict  calmly,  with  an  honest 
desire  to  arrive  at  truth,  and,  having  been  sceptical  himself,  he 
could  make  allowance  for  others.  A  superficial  examination  of 
the  phenomena  was  not  enough ;  some  theoretical  knowledge  of 
the  subject  was  also  caseuiial.  For  example,  different  patients 
showed  varyiug  susceptibility,  and  yet  many  observers  expected 
that  all  should  present  uniform  hypnotic  phenomena.  Further, 
the  mental  conditions  might  change  slowly  or  abruptly  according 
to  the  methods  employed,  and,  from  a  like  cause,  widely  varying 
phenomena  might  be  evoked  in  the  same  subject  at  different 
times.  Yet  it  was  not  unusual  for  two  observers  to  be 
simultaneously  demanding  opposite  test  conditions  in  the  same 
subject. 

In  many  instances,  Braid  published  the   written   testimony 
of   others    in  support   of  his    successful  treatment  of  different 


I 


HISTOntCAL 


35 


patients  by  liypiiotisni.  He  explained  that  the  action  of  certain 
medical  men.  who  had  fraudulently  obtained  and  published 
false  statements  in  reference  to  his  practice,  rendered  this 
necessary. 

I  Braid  frequently  refeiTed  to  the  almost  incredible  opposition 
he  had  tu  combat,  botli  at  the  hands  (jf  the  orthodox  medical 
practitioner  and  of  the  mesmerists.  His  explanation  of  this  I 
jivG  in  his  own  woi-da  : — 

"  Throughout  the  whule  uf  my  luquii  ie8  uiy  chief  Jt^ire  ha«  bet'iL  to  arrive 
'^at  what  could  be  rendered  most  practically  useful  for  tlie  relief  and  cure  of 
disease  ;  and  I  be«ilat«  uot  to  say  llmt^  ia  the  liBudi«  of  a  skilful  medical  man, 
who  thorough!}'  uaderatauds  the  peculiiir  modes  whicli  I  hnve  de\i8ed  lor 
varying  the  eirecta  in  a  manner  ajiplicablt  t«3  dilTereut  cases,  hypnotiMii,  liesidea 
1>eiit;i;  the  sjjeediest  metliod  for  inducing  the  condition,  is,  moreover,  capable 
of  achieving  nW  the  f^ood  to  be  attained  by  the  wdinar^  mesmeriring  prattftetj 
ftod  mvch  more.  .  .  .  Of  course  there  is  one  point  which  renders  hypnotism 
leM  on  object  of  approbation  with  a  certain  claas  of  society,  viz.  that  I  lay  no 
claim  for  it  to  [iroduce  the  ijioitcUous  or  truiiRccndental  phenomena  ;  nor  do 
I  believe  timt  the  phenomena  manifested  have  any  relation  to  a  magnetic 
temperament,  or  sumc  peculiar  or  occult  power,  pusacsacd  in  an  c^ctra- 
ordinary  de;;ree  by  the  operator.  These  are  all  cir-eumatancea  which  apiwal 
powerfully  to  the  feelings  of  all  lovers  of  tlie  uiiirvelloua,  and  tlierefore  tell 
in  favonr  of  mesmerism  ;  and,  moreover,  seeing  that,  for  conducting  the 
hypnotic  processes  with  any  degree  of  ceitajnty  and  succcsa,  I  contend  that, 
in  many  cases,  kriowWilge  of  imutoniy,  jiliyaiology,  pathology,  and  themiwutice 
are  all  reiiuittite,  it  is  obvious  that  such  ret^uiromenU  muitt  be  leiM^  calculated 
I  to  secure  the  upproltation  oT  non-prfifissional  mesineriets  and  amateurs,  whose 
Imaguetic  creed  taught  them  to  believe  that  the  mere  poissesHion  by  them  uf 
the  magnetic  lemperaineat^ — of  a  surcharge  by  nature,  within  their  own 
bodies,  of  a  magnetic  n\iiil  or  o<lyIe — was  quite  siitticicnt  to  enable  them  lo 
U  any  cate  as  efficiently  as  the  most  skilful  medical  man  in  the  universe, 
nply  by  walking  up  to  the  patient  with  the  mil  and  the  (food  intenlioit  of 
doing  him  service,  or  by  adding  thereti),  ixcasionally,  the  eflicacy  uf  mesmeric 
touches,  pasKM,  or  manipulations,  .  .  .  Lilfc  the  originators  of  all  n>*w 
view^  however,  hypnotism  has  Mihjt.'cted  ine  to  much  contention  ;  for  the 
aceptics,  from  not  perceiving  the  difference  between  my  method  and  that  of 
ibe  mesmeristA,  and  the  limited  extent  of  my  own  pretensions,  were  e<|ually 
boatile  to  hypnotism  as  they  liad  b^^en  to  mesmerism  ;  and  thv  uicsmerisla, 
biuking  their  cruft  was  in  danger — that  tlieir  mystical  idol  was  threatened 
be  »hurn  of  some  of  it>  glory  by  the  wlvenl  of  a  new  rival — buckled  on 
beir  armour,  and  soon  j>rove<l  that  llie  wlium  mamericum  «-ii8  as  inveterate 
I  the  odium  theoUxfitu/n." 


Neuvifpnolotjy  was  followed  by  a  long  S(^rie3  of  publications 
^e  subject  of  liypnotism,  and  a  list  of  all  IJraid'a  writings  that  I 
been  able  tu  trace  will  be  givun  in  the  chapter  <»f  Kefereuces. 


26 


HYPNOTISM 


Braid's  later  theories,  it  is  to  be  i)nrticiilar]y  noteil,  differeil  widely 
from  his  earlier  ones;  but  these  will  U;  disciiRsed  when  dealing 
with  that  subject, 

lu  18.'J2,  iu  the  preliace  to  the  third  edition  of  Mugic,  WifcJt- 
craft,  etr.^  Braid  stHteil  that  he  now  gave  liia  view  of  all 
important  hypnotic  and  mesmeric  theories,  and  hoped  by  this 
mean*t  to  make  up  in  some  measure  for  the  delay  in  the  publica- 
tion of  another  edition  of  his  work  on  Hypnoti-sm,  which  had  long 
been  out  of  print  and  was  frequently  called  for. 

"Tlmt  call^"  he  said,  "  I  hope  shortly  to  be  able  to  reppotid  to,  with  each 
fiilnewt  (if  (letaJI  as  the  iiuporUnce  of  tlie  subject  merits — more  piirticularly 
u-ith  re},*finl  to  its  practical  application  for  ibo  relief  and  cure  of  mine  fonns 
of  tli»eft!»e,  of  whicli  numerous  interesting  examples  will  be  adducwi." 

At  the  conclusion  of  The  Fht/siolofii/  of  Fascination,  etc.,  he 
said : — 

"  It  is  my  intention  ahorlly  to  publish  a  volume  entitJpil  Ptycho-PKynologif' 
emhrariwj  Hy]moiism^  ^fonf>idei*m,  ami  Mestneriimi.  This  work  will  comprise,  in 
a  connccto*!  and  comlen^ed  fornt,  the  rcuidts  of  the  whole  of  my  researchci  in 
this  department  of  science,  and  it  will,  moreover,  be  illustrated  by  cases  in 
which  iiypnotisin  lias  Ikhmi  proval  jtariiculnrly  eirieacioua  in  the  relief  and 
cure  of  "liwase,  with  Pi'Ccial  directiona  bow  to  rppilote  the  procesaes  so  as  to 
adapt  them  to  ilifl'erent  caees  and  circHmstancca." 

Shortly  before  his  death,  Uraid  contemplated  publishing  a 
second  edition  of  Nnin/pno!ot/t/  in  France :  this  was  never  done, 
nor  did  the  two  proposed  wf»rks  nl>ove  referred  to  ever  see  the 
light, 

Tn  the  chapter  of  References  I  shall  yivc  a  list  of  all  Braid's 
works  and  articles  which  I  have  been  able  to  trace.  These  have 
long  been  out  of  print,  and  of  the  former  only  Nos.  2,  3, 
4,  G,  and  7  are  to  he  found  in  the  Library  of  the  British 
Museum.  1  possess  Nob.  I,  2,  o,  G,  and  8,  as  well  as  most  of 
his  articles  and  two  long  MR.  letters  addressed  to  "  M.  High- 
field,  Esq.,  Surgeon,"  dated  respectively  28th  October,  and  16th 
Xoveuiber,  1842.*  These  letters,  which  j^ve  an  interesting  r/sum^ 
of  Braid's  views  on  the  subjective  nature  of  hypnotic  phenomena, 
contain  a  description  of  the  hypenesthesia  of  the  special  senses, 
and  of  some  successt'vd  medical  cases,  together  with  the  denial  of 

*  The  numbara  just  qnot«d  correspond  with  those  glren  in  the  list  of  Braid's 
worlcs  ami  articles  in  the  chapter  of  References. 


the  tUlegeil  clangers  of  hypnotism  and  of  the  supposed  automatism 

I  of  the  subject.     Braid  published  an  account  of  many  interesting 

medical  and  surgical  cases  treated  by  hypnotism.     A  few  of  the 

more  important  of  tliese  will  he  referred  to  in  the  chapters  dealing 

I  with  medical  and  surgical  cases. 

In  18r»9,  Dr.  Azam  of  Bordeaux  became  acquainted  with 
Braid's  liypnotic;  work,  and  commenced  to  investi;;;ate  the  subject 
for  himselK  An  account  of  his  experiments,  with  much  reference 
to  Braid,  appeared  in  the  Arckiirs  de  M^deeine.  in  IS  GO.  About 
tlie  same  time  Broca,  who  had  obtained  marvellous  results  with 
Braid's  methods,  rend  a  paper  on  Hypnotism  before  the  Acaddraie 
[  (3?M  St^iencfs,  which  attracted  much  attention,  and  Velpeau  pre- 
sented a  copy  of  Nevr}/imoloif}i  to  tlie  same  Society.  A  committee, 
composed  of  members  of  the  four  sections  of  the  InstiivU,  was 
then  furmed  to  report  on  the  subject.  On  hearing  of  this,  Braid 
wrote  to  the  Acadt'niie  to  say  how  much  pleasure  Azam's  brilliant 
results,  and  the  action  of  the  Society,  bad  given  him. 

From  that  date,  the  subject  of  hypnotism  was  never  lost 
sight  of  in  Fnince ;  but  it  was  not  until  forty  years  alter  its 
original  publication  that  Neurypiwlngy  was  translated  by  Dr.  Jules 
Simon,  who  stated  that  Braid's  researches  procured  for  him 
numerous  enemies ;  but  that,  despite  this,  he  pursued  them  witli  the 
precision  of  genius,  and  was  able  to  add  artiticial  somnambulism 
to  the  pathology  of  the  nervous  system — a  phenomenon  which  the 
investigations  of  the  greater  uuml^er  of  modem  ueuro-patliologiats 
have  confirmed. 

Bmid's  first  translator  was  W.  Preyor,  Professor  of  Physiology 
lat  the  University  of  Jena,  who,  in  1831,  published  The  Discovery 
^of  Hypnotism.     This  was  a  condensation  of  Na'typnology,  together 
[Vith  the  translation  of  the  pamphlet  sent  by  Braid  to  Azam  in 
18  GO,  wliirli  had  passed  into  the  [mssession  of  Dr.  Beard  of  New 
York,  who  lent  it  to  Preyer.     The  same  pamphlet  is  also  trans- 
lated  into  French,  and  forms  an  appendix  to  Itr.  Jules  Simon's 
\Jfrt(rj/p)u>logie,   which    appeared    in    1 883.       In    1 882,    Preyer 
published  Bypnoiism,  which  consisted  of  a  translatioTi  of  most  of 
iBraid's  other  works. 

In  1  R90,  Preyer  brought  out  another  work  on  the  subject  of 
iypnotisra.     This  contained  a  translation  of  a  MS.  of  Braid's, 
entitled    On  thr  DiM'tivctiir  Conditions  of  Nattiral  and   Nervous 
7etp,  which  now  for  the  first  time  saw  the  light.     In  reference 


to  this,  Preyer  stated  that  Braid  left  his  MSS.  to  his  daughter, 
and  that  she,  on  her  death,  bequeathed  them  to  her  brother,  Dr. 
James  Braid,  juu.,  who  died  ou  November  22nd,  1882.  Tveyer 
visited  him  at  Bvirgess  Hill,  Sussex,  in  August  1881,  and  received 
the  M.S.  from  him. 

In  addition  to  the  iufonuatiou  drawn  from  Preyer's  hooks, 
T  am  personally  indebted  to  him  for  the  gift  of  various  ]>amphlets 
by  liraiil,  with  some  of  wliich  1  was  previously  unacquainted. 

I  published  a  short  account  of  Braid's  work,  with  a  list  of 
his  writings,  in  Brain,  part  Ixxlii,,  Spring  189G.  This  was 
followed  by  other  articles  with  more  complete  bibliogiaphies  in 
the  ProMedings  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Ptseanh,  part  xxx., 
June,  1896,  and  in  the  Revne  de  VHi/pjwlismc,  vol.  xi.  pp.  27, 
60,  87,  and  129.  The  last  article  attmcted  the  attention  of 
Professor  Bernheim,  who  wrote  a  reply  to  it  (Heme  dc 
VHypnotismt,  vol.  xL  p.  137),  in  which  he  attempted  to  show 
that  Braid  was  uuacquaiuted  witit  suggestion.  This  article  1 
answered  {lUvue  dc  rB^jpnotisme^  vol.  xi  p.  353),  giving  quottttioos 
from  Braid's  published  works,  whicli  clearly  showed  that  he 
not  only  employed  suggestion  as  iuLelUgently  as  the  members  of 
the  Nancy  school  now  do,  but  also  that  his  conception  of  its 
nature  was  clearer  tlian  theirs. 

In  1899,  an  important  work  on  James  Braid  was  published 
in  EuglautL  This  is  entitled  Neu-njpnology,  or  The  Rationalt  of 
Nervous  Sleep  considered  in  Pdaiion  to  Aninial  Magnetis7n,  and 
illustrated  hy  numerous  Cases  of  its  siu:ecssful  Application  in  the 
Relief  or  Cure  of  Disease,  hy  Janus  Bmid,  M.B.C.S.,  C.M.W.S., 
etc.  A  ncm  edition,  edited,  loUh  an  introduction,  biographical  and 
hihlioyraphical,  emhodyiny  the  autltors  later  views  arid  further 
evidence  on  the  subject^  hy  Arthur  Edioard  Watte.  (London, 
George  liedway,  1899.) 

The  alxjve  work  t:omi)ri8es  (1)  a  biographical  introduction, 
which  gives  a  short  account  of  Braid's  life  and  a  more  extended 
one  of  his  writings  ;  (2)  a  reproduction  of  the  original  edition 
of  Neiirypnoloyy,  which  forms  the  greater  bulk  of  the  volume ; 
(3)  an  appendix  of  editorial  notes,  chieHy  drawn  from  Braid's 
later  works;  and  (4)  a  bibliography  of  Braid's  writings. 

Although  Ncunjpnology  is  historically  interesting,  it  must 
not  he  forgotten  that  it  was  written  almost  immediately  after 
Braid  commenced  his  hypnotic  work,  and  that  later  his  views 


^mderwent   a    complete    change.       The    French    translation    of 

\  ^^eurypnolo^    is   more    valuable    tlian    Mr.   Waite's,  as   in    an 

appendix  of  36   pages   it   reproduces  Braid's  last  MS.,    which 

gives  a  summary  of  his  more  matured  theories. 

I         The    bibliography,    to    which    Mr.    Waite    attaches    great 

import (11  ice.  only  imperfectly   reproduces   those  just  referre<l   to, 

which    1   iiiyself  published    at  earlier  dates.     Apparently,   too, 

Mr.     Woite    himself   believes    in    animal    magnetism,    metallo- 

therupeutics,  phrenology,  and  clairvoyance,  but  when  he  attributes 

'  to  fJniid  u  belief  in  these  thinj,'s,  he  shows  that  he  has  absolutely 

failed  to  grasp  the  spirit  and  significance  of  his  teaching. 

Braid  died  suddenly  on    March    25th,  I860,  according   to 
isome  accounts  from  apoplexy,   according   to   others   from   heart 
[disease;  he  left  a  widow,  son,  and  daughter.     He  maintained  his 
active   interest   in   liypnotism    up  to  the  end ;  and   three   days 
^^  before  his  death  sent  his  last  MS.  to  Dr.  Azam,  with  the  foUow- 
^■iug  inscription:  "Presented  to  M.  Azam,  as  a  mark  of  esteem 
^^and  regard,  by  James  Braid,  Surgeon,  Manchester,  March  22ad, 
^  1860."     Sympathetic  notices  of  Braid's  death  appeared  in  the 
^P  local  papers  and  difterent  medical   journals,  all  of  which  bore 
^^  warm   testimony   to    his    professional    skill    and    high    personal 
^  character.     The  Lancet  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that,  though 
^phe  was  best  known  in  the  medical  world   by  his   theory   and 
^^  practice  of  hypnotism,  he  had  also  obtained  wonderfully  success- 
fid  results  in  opemtious  in  cases  of  club  foot  and  other  deform- 
ities,   which    brought    him    patients    from   every   part   of    the 
kingdom.      Up   to   1841,  he   had   operated    on    262    cases    of 
talipeB,     700     cases    of    strabismus,    and    2  3    cases    of    spinal 
curvature. 

^"       Although   the  justness  of  Braid's  views  as  to  the  subjective 

origin    of   mesmeric   phenomena    was   generally    admitted,   and 

^^despite  the  attention  drawn  to  his  theories  and  practical  work 

^"by  such  well-known  men  of  science  as  Professors  Carpenter  and 

John    Hughes    Bennett,   the  piuctice  of  hypnotism   apparently 


<B)   LATER  HISTORY   OF  HYPNOTISM. 


ceased  iu  Eugland  after  Braid's  death.  At  the  pi-eseut  day, 
iiowevcr,  hypnotism  has  fuuud  a  place  iu  the  umdical  pracUcu  of 
every  country  in  Europe,  the  pioneer  to  whom  this  result  Ib 
uiaiuly  due  beinj,'  Lit-'beault,  of  Nancy. 


DR  A.  A.  LIEBEAULT. 


Liobeault  was  born  in  1825,  and  commenced  to  study 
medicine  in  1844,  He  read  a  boot  on  auimul  mugiietistn,  in 
1848,  which  impressed  liim  greatly,  and  a  few  days  hiLer  he 
BUCcessfuUy  mesmerised  several  persons.  He  received  his 
M.D.  in  1850,  and  shortly  allenvai'dB  started  country  practice. 

He  worked  hard,  and  wa.s  often  in  the  saddle  making'  his 
rounds  at  2  A-M.  In  1860»  he  began  to  study  mesmerism 
seriously,  just  at  the  time  that  Velpeau  communicatetl  Azam's 
experiments  to  the  Academic  (h  Moiecine.  In  order  to  find 
subjects  Liebeault  took  advantage  of  the  parsimonious  character 
of  the  French  i^fiasaiit.  His  patients  had  absolute  contidence  in 
hitn,  but  they  had  been  accustomed  to  be  treated  iu  the  ordinary 
manner.  He  therefore  said  to  them  :  "  If  you  wish  me  to  treat 
you  with  drugs.  I  will  do  so,  but  you  will  have  to  pay  me  as 
formerly.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you  will  allow  me  to  hypnotise 
you,  I  will  do  it  for  nothing."  He  soon  had  so  many  patients 
that  he  was  unable  to  find  time  for  necessary  ropose  or  study. 
Iu  lSG4,he  settled  at  Nancy,  lived  t^uietly  on  the  interest  of  his 
capital,  and  practised  hypnotism  gratuitously  among  the  poor. 

For  two  years  he  worked  hard  at  his  book,  Ihi  somvitU  el 
des  HaU  anal^ucs,  coitsid^is  surtout  an  paint  de  inu  de  taction 
de  la  morale  sur  U  pkysuiiu,  but  of  this  one  copy  alone  was  sold. 
His  colleagties  regarded  liim  as  a  madman ;  the  poor  as  their 
Providence,  calling  him  "the  good  father  Liebeault."  His 
cliniquc  was  crowded  with  patients ;  he  cured  many  who  bad 
vainly  sought  help  elsewhere,  and  few  left  him  without  having 
received  benefit.  In  1882,  he  cured  an  obstinate  case  of 
sciatica,  of  six  years*  duration,  which  Bernheim  had  treated  in 
vain  for  six  months.  In  consequence  of  this,  Bernheim  came  to 
see  him  and  his  work.  This  was  n  great  event  in  the  life  of  the 
humble  doctor.  At  firet  Bernheim  was  sceptical  and  incredulous, 
but  soon  this  changed  into  admiration.     He  multiplied  his  visits, 


I 


LATER  HISTORY  OF  f/YPA'OT/SSf 


St 


and  became  a  zealous  ]m{)il  and  true  friend  of  litSbcault.      In 

1884,  Berulieim   publialied   the   tirst   part  of  his   book,  Ik  la 

^Suff(/fsCion,   which    he   completed,  iu   Juue    1886,  by  a  second 

jiftrt,    entitled    Ixt    Thirapcntiquc    Svggestive.     From    that    date 

Hdi^beanlt's  name  became  known   througliout  all  tlie  world.      The 

^Krst   editiou   of  his  book  was  quickly  bought  np,  aud   ductora 

^Mocked  from  all  countries  to  study  the  new  therapeutic  method. 

^B        In  the  summer  of   1889,  I   spent  a   fortnight  nt   Nancy  in 

^^order  to  see  Lit'beault's  liypnatic  work.     His  cliiiiqiie,  invariably 

througed,  was  held  in  two  rooms  situated  iu  a  comer  of  his 

garden.     The  interior  of  these  presented  nothing  likely  to  attract 

attention ;  and,  indeed,  any  one  coming  with  preconceived  ideas 

of  the  wonders  of  hypnotism  would  bo  greatly  disappointed.      For, 

^bputtiiig  aside  the  methods  of  treatment  and  some  slight  difl'ei*ence3 

^'probably    due    to    race-characteristics,    one    could    easily   have 

imagined   oneself   in  the  out-patient    department   of  u  general 

hospitul.      The   patients    perhaps   cliattcd    more    freely    umongst 

themselves,  and  questioned  the  doctor  in  a  more  familiar  way 

tliau  one  is  accustomed  to  see  in  England.     They  were  taken  in 

^kum,  and  the  clinical  case-book  referred  to.     Hypnosis  was  tlien 

^■rapidly   induced  in  the  manner  which  will   be  described  under 

**  Methods,"  suggestions  given  and  notes  taken,  the  doctor  main- 

^ftjtaining  the  while  a  running  commentary  for  my  benefit. 

^^        Nearly   all    the    j^Mitieuts    I    saw    were    easily    and    rapidly 

hyptmtised,   but  Liebeault   informed   me   that  the  nervous  and 

^kkysterical  were  his  most  refractory  subjects. 

^1       As  1  was  a  stranger,  an  exception  was  made  in  my  favour, 

^Pknd    I    was    shown    a    few    liypnotic    experiments;    but    cure 

filone  seemed  the  sole  object  of  his   work.      The  quiet,  ordinary, 

^^veryduy    tone    of   the    whole   performance    formed    a    marked 

^Beoutrast  to  the  picture  drawn  by  Biuet  and  Fere  of  the  morbid 

^■bccitement  aliown  at  the  SalpOtriere.     The  patients  told  to  go 

^^lo  sleep  apparently    fell   at  once   into    a  quiet    slunil>er,   then 

received  tlieir  doso  of  curative  suggestions,   and   when   told   to 

nwake.  either  walked  quietly  away  or  sat  for  a  little  to  chat 

with  their  friends:  the  whole  process  rarely  lasting  longer  than 

ten    minuti^s.       The    negation    of    all    morbid    symptoms    was 

suggested ;  also  the  maintenance  of  tlic  conditions  u(X)n  which 

enerol  health  dei)ends.  i.e.  sleep,  digestion,  etc     I  noticed  that 

some  instances  curative  suggestions  appeared  to  be  i»erfcctly 


successful,  even  when  the  state  produced  was  only  that  of 
somnolence  The  cases  varied  widely,  but  most  of  them  were 
either  cured  or  relieved.  No  drugs  were  given  ;  and  Liebeault 
took  especial  pains  to  explain  to  his  patients  that  he  neither 
exei^cised  nor  possessed  any  mysterious  power,  and  that  all  he 
did  was  simple  and  capable  of  scientific  explanation. 

Two  little  incidents,  illustrating  the  absence  of  all  fear  in 
connection  with  Liebeault  and  hypnotism,  interested  me  greatly. 

A  little  girl,  about  five  5'ears  old,  dressed  shabbily,  but 
evidently  in  her  beat,  with  a  crown  of  ])aper  laurel-leaves  on  her 
head,  and  carrying  a  little  book  in  ber  hand,  toddled  into  the 
sanctum,  fearlessly  inli;rrupted  tlic  doctor  in  the  midst  of  his  work 
by  pulling  liis  coat,  and  said :  "  You  promised  me  a  penny  if  I  got 
a  prize."  This,  accompanied  by  kindly  words,  was  smilingly  given, 
incitement  to  work  having  been  evoked  in  a  pleasing,  if  not  scientific 
way.  Two  little  girls,  about  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  no  doubt 
brought  in  the  firat  instance  by  friends,  walked  in  and  sat  down 
on  a  sofa  behind  the  doctor.  He,  stopping  for  a  moment  in  his  work 
made  a  pass  in  the  direction  of  one  of  them,  and  said  :  "Sleep, 
my  little  kitten,"  repeated  the  same  for  the  other,  and  in  an 
instant  they  were  both  asleep.  He  rapidly  gave  them  their 
dose  of  suggestion  and  then  evidently  forgot  all  about  them.  In 
about  twenty  minutes  one  awoke  and,  wisliiug  to  go,  essayed  by 
shaking  and  pulling,  to  awaken  her  companion  —  her  amused 
expression  of  face,  when  she  failed  to  do  so,  being  very  comic. 
In  about  five  minutes  more  the  second  one  awoke,  and,  hand  in 
hand,  they  trotted  laugliingly  away. 

Braid  anliciputed  many  of  the  most  important  observations 
of  the  school  of  Nancy ;  but  wo  ought  not,  on  that  account,  to 
undervalue  the  services  of  that  school,  and  more  especially  those 
of  its  founder — Li<5beault.  Braid's  researches  were  undoubtedly 
the  exciting  cause  of  the  hypnotic  revival  in  France;  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  little  or  nothing  was  known  of  any  of  his  works 
except  Nmrifpnology,  and  his  last  MS.,  which  contained  some  of 
his  later  views,  was  not  published  in  that  country  until 
1883.  Liel>eault  independently  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  were  purely  subjective  in  their 
origin,  and  to  him  we  owe  the  development  of  modern 
hypnotism. 

Another  point  in  reference  to  their  careers  is  worthy  of  note. 


I 

I 
I 


I     be 


Braid's  views  ab  once  brought  him  fame.  His  books  sold 
rapidly,  the  demand  for  them  exceeding  his  power  of  supply. 
The  medical  journala  were  open  to  him,  to  an  extent  whicli 
may  well  excite  euvy  iii  those  interested  iu  the  subject  at  the 
present  day.  Lii^beault's  book,  on  the  contrary,  reniaiued 
unsold ;  his  statements  only  found  sceptics,  his  methods  of 
treatment  were  rejected  without  exaniiuatiou,  and  he  was 
laughed  at  aud  despised  by  all.  From  the  day  he  settled  in 
jN^ancy,  in  1864,  until  Bernheim — some  twenty  years  later — was 

e  means  of  bringing  him  into  notice,  LiL-beauU  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  the  poor,  and  refused  to  accept  a  fee,  lest  he  should 
be    regarded   as   attempting    to    make   money    by    mjrecognised 

ethods.  Even  in  his  later  days  fortune  never  came  to  him, 
nor  did  lie  seek  it.  And  Iiis  services — services  which  he  him- 
self, with  true  mo<iesty,  described  as  the  contribution  of  a  single 
brick  to  the  edifice  many  were  trying  to  buikl^-only  began  to  be 
appreciated  when  old  age  compelled  Iiim  to  retire  from  active 
work.  Though  his  researches  have  been  recognised,  it  is  certain 
that  they  have  not  been  estimated  at  their  true  value,  and  that 
members  of  a  younger  generation  have  reaped  the  reward  which 
hia  devotion  of  a  lifetime  failed  to  obtain. 

I  Tlie  term  "  School  of  Nancy  "  has  been  applied  to  Licbeault  and 
his  colleagues ;  but,  as  Professor  Heaunis  points  out,  they  do  not 
claim  to  have  originated  a  school,  and,  though  tliey  agree  on 
in  points,  diiTer  widely  on  othei-s. 

Other  Continental  Workers. — In  1878,  while  Licbeault's 
work  was  pntciie4dly  ignored,  Charles  J'ichet  asserted  that  the 
phenomena  of  hypnotism  were  genuine.    In  the  same  year.  Charcot 

rew  public  attention  to  tlie  subject,  and  he  and  his  followers 

rmed  what  has  been  called  the  SalpetriL-re  School.  Charcot's 
rches  attracted  attention  in  this  country,  but  his  observations 
were  not  confirmed ;  and  the  interest  in  hypnotism  for  which  he 
was  responsible  practically  died  away,  or,  if  his  experimeuta  were 
quoted,  it  was  only  in  order  to  discredit  hypnotism. 

In  Germany,  about  1880,  Heidenhain  and  others  interested 
themselves  in  hj'pnotism,  but  the  influence  of  their  work  was  not 
lasting. 

In  1882,  Beruheim,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  had  become  a 
convert  of  Licbeault,  commenced  to  hypnotise  all  the  hospital 
patients   who  came  under   his   care.       His  work  was  carefully 

D 


^kertu 


watched — from  the  physiological  side — by  Professor  Beauuis — 
from  the  legal  cue — by  Professor  Li^-geois.  In  the  first  four  years 
about  5000  cases  wore  recortled,  hypnosis  being  obtained  in  75 
per  cent.  A  few  years  later  the  number  had  increased  to  10,000, 
and  the  percentage  of  successes  to  85.  Of  the  medical  men,  who 
now  came  to  Xaucy  from  all  countries,  moat,  if  not  all,  were 
convinced  of  the  genuine  iiutui-e  of  hypnotism,  and  many  com- 
menced to  study  and  prnctise  it  on  their  own  account  The 
liistory  of  the  growth  and  development  of  this  movement  is  so 
fully  given  in  the  last  English  edition  of  Moll's  Hypnotism,  that 
it  IB  unnecessary  to  describe  it  in  detail.  In  most  European 
countries  hypnotism  now  plays  an  important  part,  while  many 
of  those  who  practise  it  are  well  knuwu  by  their  contributions  to 
other  departments  of  medicine.  Hypnotism  has  also  found  its 
way  into  imiversity  class-rooms,  and  has  occupied  a  prominent 
place  at  numerous  medical  congresses,  more  particularly  the 
International  Congresses  of  Experimental  Psycliology. 

It  possesses  also  a  ricli  literature.  Max  Dessoir,  in  his 
Bibliography  of  Modern  Hypnotism,  publislied  in  1888.  and 
augmented  by  an  Appendix  in  1890,  cites  1182  works  by  774 
autliors,  and  since  then  the  number  has  largely  increased.  Several 
journals,  notably  tlie  Hcvuf.  tie  V HypnotiAine  and  the  Zeitschrift 
fur  HypiwtismuSt  occupy  themselves  almost  exclusively  with  the 
subject,  while  others,  such  as  the  Annates  de  PsychiatHe,  contain 
fix»m  time  to  time  important  contributions  t^  its  psychological  aide. 

England. — To  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research  we  owe  the 
first  attempt,  since  Braid's  time,  to  subject  hypnotism  to  rigorous  and 
far-reaching  scientitic  investigation.  Tliis  Society  was  established 
in  1882,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  those  obscure  phenomena 
which  alone,  amongst  all  other  natural  plienomena,  had  remained 
uninvestigated  by  modern  science.  It  is  expressly  slated  that 
membership  of  the  Society  does  not  imply  the  acceptance  of  any 
particular  explanation  of  the  phenomena  investigated,  nor  any 
belief  as  to  the  operation  in  the  physiuU  world  of  forces  other 
than  those  recognised  by  physical  science. 

The  President  of  the  Society  is  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S,,  while 
his  predecessors  were  Sir  William  Crookes,  F.Ii.S.,  Henry  Sidg- 
wick,  Balfour  Stewart,  F.RS.,  William  James,  and  the  Eight 
Hon.  A.  J,  Balfour,  F.ltS.  Amongst  past  and  present  Vice- 
Presidents  and  members  of  the  Couucil  were  to  be  found  :  Heury 


I 


I 


i 


LATER  HISTORY  OF  HYPNOTISM 


35 


Sidgwick,   Oliver  J.  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  A.   Macalister,  M.D.,  F.R,&, 

William  James,  F.  W.  H.  Myers,  J.  J.  Thomson,  F.R.S.,  W.  F. 

Barrett.  F.RS.E.,  the  lUght  Hon.  A.  J.  Balfour,  F.IIS.,  the  Right 

^Hon.  G.  W.  Balfour,  Lord  liayleigh,  F.R.S.,  Walter  Leaf,  Litt.D., 

'  Qd  J.  Venn,  B.Sc,  F.R.S. 

In  the  list  of  members  appear  Professors  Ramsey,  Beaunis, 
^Bemheim,  Bowditch,  Stanley  Hall,  Th.  lUbot,  Lit5geois,  Lombroso, 
Varies   Richet,  Bra.   Max    Dessoir,    Fer^  Liubeault,    Sclirenck- 
Totzing,  Tierre  Janet,  Wetterstrand,  and  many  other  well-known 
^^names. 

^h  At  an  early  date  in  the  existence  of  the  Society,  a  Committee 
was  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  investi;^atiny;  hypuoLism ;  the 
subjects  for  experiment  bein^  almost  invariably  healthy  men. 
The  lieports  of  the  Committee  were  published  from  time  to  time 
ia  the  pTocudintj&  of  the  Society,  besides  valuable  articles  by  the 
late  Edmund  Guruey  and  Frederic  Myers.  The  views  of  the 
funiier  were  markedly  in  advance  of  those  held  at  that  time, 
while  Myers'  attempts  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  by 
the  intelligent  and  voluntary  action  of  a  socoudary  or  subliminal 
consciousness,  still  remains  the  most  important  of  recent  continbu- 

iuns  to  the  theoretical  side  of  the  subject. 
The    CO  uiin  en  cement  of   the   pre.yeut   revival  of  hypnotism 
I    England,   from    its   medical    side,   was   apparently    due    to 
T,  Lloyd   Tuckey,  who  happened   to  be  in    the   neighbourhood 
■  Xaucy  in  August,  1888,  and  visited  Licbtault  out  of  curiosity, 
!e  then  went  lo  Amsterdam  and  Paris  to  see  the  cliniques  there, 
and  on  his  return  commenced  to  employ  hypnotism  amongst  his 
own  jKitieuts.     His  most  important  work  is  PsycJio-Thtrapeaiies^ 
DW  in  itfi  third  edition. 

Dr,  Kingsbury,  of  Blackpool,  was  one  of  Dv.  Tuckey's  earliest 
&llowera,    and,  in    1891,  published    The    Praclkc    of  Hypnotic 
qfjeniion. 

Scotland. — Tu    1890,  Dr.    Felkin   published  Bijpnotimi,    or 

itj/t'ho-Theraj)€vii(\t,  while  Dr.  (Jeurge  Robertaou,  Superintendent, 

Murthly  Asylum.  l*erth,  lias  written  several  articles  on  the  subject, 

be  most   important   being  "  Tht   the  of  Hypnotism  among  the 

ijir,"  Journal  of  Mental  Science,  1892. 

Ireland. — In  1891,  Sir  Francis  Cruise  publislied  a  jmrnphlet 

ititled    Hypjwiism,  in   which    he    drew    the   attention   of   the 

fessioD  to  the  value  of  the  work  being  done  at  Nancy.     Since 


then  be  has  successfully  used  hy|)Uotism  in  the  treatment  of 
dipsoumnia,  kleptomania,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  various  functional 
nervous  disorders.  Nothing  else  has  apparently  been  published 
in  Ireland  on  the  subject ;  but  Sir  Francis  claims  to  have  made 
several  converts,  wlio  employ  hypnotism  in  their  practice. 

The  list  just  given  by  no  means  exhausts  the  names  of  those 
who  practise  hypnotism,  but  simply  refers  to  some  of  the  earlier 
workers  wlio  drew  attention  to  the  subject  by  their  writiuga. 

In  1891,  the  British  Medical  Association  appointed  Sir 
William  Broadbeut,  Sir  William  Guirdner,  Drs.  Clouston, 
Drummond,  Kingsbury,  Needham,  GouoUy  Norman,  Suckling, 
Hack  Take,  Outterson  Wood,  and  Yellowlees  to  act  as  a  Committee 
"  to  investigate  the  nature  of  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism,  its 
value  as  a  therapeutic  agent,  and  the  propriety  of  using  it."  At 
the  Annual  Meeting,  in  1892,  the  Couunittee  presented  the 
following  report,  which,  it  is  to  be  noted,  was  unanimous : — 

**Tl»e  Comuiitt4ie,  having  compleUd  such  invosligalion  of  hypnotism  aa 
time  permitted,  have  to  repnitt  that  tliey  have  satisfied  themselves  of  the 
geuuineueM  uf  tlie  hypnotic  state.  No  plieuonieua  which  have  come  nnder 
their  obBerratioii,  however,  lend  wupport  to  tlie  theory  of  'animal 
magnetism.' 

"TeAt  experimeDte  which  have  been  carried  out  by  memben  of  the  Com- 
mittee have  «hown  that  this  condition  is  attended  by  mental  and  physical 
phenomena,  and  that  these  differ  widely  in  different  ca^es. 

*•  Among  the  mental  phenomemi  are  altered  couaciousncsa,  temporary 
limitation  of  will-power,  increased  receptivity  of  suggestion  from  without, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  producing;  passing  delusions,  illusions,  and 
baliucinations,  an  exalted  condition  of  tltc  attention,  and  post-hypnotic 
suggestions. 

"  Among  the  ]ihysical  phenomena  are  vascular  changes  (such  as  flashing 
of  the  face  and  altered  pulse  rate),  deepening  of  the  respirations,  increaMd 
rr>?riuency  of  deglutition,  slight  muscular  tremors,  inability  to  control  suggested 
movcmeuts,  aliened  muscular  sense,  amcsthesia,  modified  power  of  niiisculur 
contraction,  catalepsy,  and  rigidity,  often  intense.  It  muat,  however,  he 
understo<Ml  tliat  all  these  mental  and  physical  phenomena  arc  rarely  present 
in  any  one  case.  The  Committee  take  tJiis  opportunity  uf  pointing  out  that 
the  term  hy^jnotieni  is  somewhat  misleading,  inasmuch  as  sleep,  as  ordinarily 
understood,  is  not  necessarily  present' 

"Tlie  Committee  are  of  opinion  that  as  a  therapeutic  agent  hypnotism  is 
frequently  elfective  in  relieving  pain,  procuring  i?le«p,  and  alleviating  many 
functional  ailments.  As  to  its  [lermnnent  elUcscy  in  the  treatment  of  ilnmkeu- 
neas,  the  evidence  berore  the  Cutnmittec  is  encouraging,  but  not  conclusive. 

'*  Dangers  in  the  use  of  hypnotism  may  arise  from  wont  of  knowledge, 
cnrelesHiess,  or  intentional  abuser  or  from  the  too  continuous  repetition  of  sug- 
gestions in  unsnitable  caaes. 


I 


i 


I 


"  The  Committ«e  are  of  opinion  thai  when  ased  for  tlicrapeutic  purpoiwa 
eiupluyuiunt  sboulJ  be  confined  to  ipialifictl  medical  men,  and  that  under 
circum8t«oce«  shcutld  female  patients  be  hypnotised,  except  in  the  presence 
&  relative  or  a  jtei^on  of  their  own  sex. 
"In  concluaiou,  the  Comniiltee  dt-sire  to  express  their  strong  disappro* 
bation  of  public  exhibitions  of  hvpnotic  phenomena,  and  hope  that  eomo 
legal  restriction  will  be  placed  upon  them. 

F.  Nkkduam,  CfMimuKi, 
T.  Odttehsos  Wood,  Hon.  Sec" 


If 


This  report  was  referred  back  for  further  consideration.  In 
1893,  it  was  again  presented,  with  the  addition  of  an  important 
appendix,  consiuting  "  of  some  documentai-y  evidence  upon  which 
the  report  was  based."     This  comprised — 

**  1.  Details  of  a  series  of  valuable  investigations  carried  out  by  Mr.  J.  N. 
Lani^ley,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  (Lecturer  on  Physiology  in  Cambridge  Univei-aity),  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Wingfielil,  B.A.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Ross  of  Man- 
chester, Mr.  Longley  joined  the  Committee,  and  placed  tliese  details  at  its 
ispo«al. 

"  2.  A  report  by  Dr.  G.  M.  Robertson,  who,  acting  as  Dr.  Clouston's  repre- 
atative,  visited  Paris  and  Nancy  for  the  special  purpose  of  investigating  and 
t«porting  upon  the  methods  employed  at  these  two  schools. 

"  3.   A  report  by  Dr.  Yellowlces,  approved  by  Professor  Gairdner, 

*'  4.  Reports  by  Drs.  Robertson,  Fleming,  Kingsbury,  Draper,  and  Hack 
Take. 

•      "  4a.  A  r^nne  of  cases  treated  by  Dr.  T.  Outterson  Wood. 
"  Dr.  Hack  Tuke,  in  prcaenting  the  report,  said  be  hoped  Ihe  adoption  of 
the  report  would,  among  other  things,  give  a  stimulus  to  the  movement  for 

tutting  a  stop  to  public  exhibitions  of  bypnoti.sm." 
A  Dr.  Brown  moved  that  the  report  Bliould  lie  on  the  table. 
The  amendment  was  seconded. 
It  was  suggested  that  the  amendment  should  be  altered  so 
B  to  read  that  the  report  be  received  only,  and  the  Conunittee 
tbauked  for  their  services. 
^^      The  resolution  to  receive  the  report  was  carriefl. 

^f      My  first  introduction  to  the  subject  was  indirectly  due  to 
James  Esdaile.     As  we  have  seen,  after  leaving  India  he  lived 
some  time  in  my  native  town,  Perth,  and  many  of  his  ex- 
eriments  were  seen  and  afterwards  reproduced  hy  my  father. 


HISTORY  OF  MY   OWN   PRACTICE. 


tlie  Ifite  Dr.  .T.  P.  Bramwoll.  These  experimentg,  which  aa  a  boy 
1  witnessed  from  tirae  to  time,  deeply  impressed  me ;  and  1  eageily 
devoured  such  books  un  the  subject  as  my  father  possessed, 
notably  Dr.  Gregory's  Animal  Maynctism  and  a  translation  of 
liciciicnbach's  work. 

When  a  student  at  Edinburgh,  my  attention  was  again  drawn 
to  hypnotism  by  Professor  John  Hu^ht*s  liennett.  A  r^sujruf  of 
Braid's  work  and  thouries  formed  a  regular  part  of  his  course  of 
physiology,  and  he  confidently  asserted  that  one  day  hypnotism 
would  revolutionise  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine. 

Soon  after  leaving  Edinburgh  I  became  busily  engaged  in 
general  practice,  and  hypnotism  was  almost  forgotten  until  I 
leanieil  thtit  it  had  been  revived  in  the  wards  of  the  SalpStri^re. 
Uf  the  motliods  and  theories  in  vogue  there  1  knew  nothing,  but 
detenniuetl,  if  opportunity  occurred,  to  go  to  Paris  to  study  them. 
Before  this  chance  arrived,  however,  a  case  occurred  in  my  own 
practice  in  which  hypnotic  treatment  was  apparently  indicated.* 
Although  T  told  my  patient  how  little  I  knew  of  the  subject,  I 
had  no  difticulty  in  hypnotLsiug  him.  My  success  encouraged 
me  to  persevere — at  first  cautiously  amongst  i>ersoual  friends. 
and  then  more  and  more  boldly  amougst  my  patients  in  general. 

On  March  28th,  1890,  I  gave  a  demonstration  of  hypnotic 
amtsthesia  to  a  large  gathering  of  medical  men  at  Iveeds.  lliis 
was  reported  in  the  British  Medical  Journal  and  the  Lancet^  and. 
in  couseciueuce,  so  many  patients  were  sent  to  me  from  different 
parts  of  the  country  that  I  decided  to  abaudou  geueral  practice, 
and  to  devote  myself  to  hypnotic  work. 

As  I  was  well  aware  of  the  fate  that  had  awaited  earlier 
pioneers  in  the  same  movement,  I  naturally  expected  to  meet 
with  opposition  and  misrepreaentation.  These  have  been  en- 
countered, it  is  tnie;  but  the  friendly  help  and  encouragement 
received  have  been  immeaaurably  greater.  I  have  also  had  many 
opportunities  of  placing  my  views  before  my  professional  hrethren, 
both  by  writing  and  speaking,  opportunities  all  the  more  valued 
because  almost  always  unsolicited.  My  interest  in  hypnotism  has 
brought  me  in  contact  with  niauy  medical  men  in  other  countries, 
and  I  owe  a  debt  of  giiititude  for  the  kindness  and  courtesy 
invariably  shown  mc  by  those  whose  cliniqucs  I  have  visited 
in  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  Sweden.  Holland,  and  Switzerland. 
1  Cm!  No.  80,  pp.  238-9.  '•  Pp.  164*7. 


I 


la  the  histor)'  of  hypnotism,  eapeciaUy  in  reference  to  ita  de- 
velopment from  mesmerism,  there  are  several  facta  which  ought 
"never  to  be  forgotten.     Klliotson  and  Esdaile,  however  mistaken 
their  theories,  were  fur  in  advance  of  their  fellows.     Amid 
inch    that   was    false,    they    had    discovered    genuine    pheno- 
lena,  and  investigjibed  them  in  a  scientific  sprnt,  and  success- 
illy  employed  their  knowledge   for  the  relief  of  puin   and   the 
cure    of   disease.       Further,   we    shall   see,   when   dealing   with 
theories,  that  their  fallacies  and  mistakes  were  reproduced  in  an 
exaggerated  form  by  Charcot  and  his  disciples.     Braid  did  not 
destroy  mesmerism  root  and  branch,  and  substitute  hypnotism  aa 
something  totally  distinct  in  its  pliwe.     He  might  rather  be  said 
hove  taken   over  the   business   of  his  pi'edecessora,  to  have 
ritten  off  as  valueless  much  of  what  they  regarded  as  asseta, 
"and  to  have  reconstructed  a  company  on  new  lines.     His  views, 
as    already    mentioned,    underwent    constant    change    and 
levelopmcnt ;  and    I   hope   to  show,  when  discus-sing   hypnotic 
"theories,  that  he  ended    by   holding  opinions  which  are  far  in 
ivance  of  those  generally  accepted  at  the  present  day. 


CHAPTER   in. 


METHODS    OF    INDUCING    AND    TERMINATING    UYI'NOSIS. 


(A)  GENERAL  METHODS  OF  INDUCING   HYPNOSIS. 

Hypnotic  methods  differ  widely,  and,  before  discussing  my  owu, 
1  propose  to  give  short  accounts  of  some  of  the  more  important, 
beginning  with  tliat  of  Mesmer. 

Mesmer's  Method.  —  Mesmer  put  his  hands  upon  the 
shouJiiers  of  the  subject,  then  brought  them  down  the  arms  to 
the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  and,  after  holding  the  thumbs  a 
moment,  repeated  this  process  two  or  three  times.  He  also 
toucljcd  the  seat  of  pain  witli  his  fingera,  or  with  the  palm  of  his 
hand,  following  the  direction  of  the  nerves  as  much  as  possible. 
Mesmer  employed  a  species  of  actual  handling  or  passes  with 
c^>ulact ;  on  the  other  hand,  many  later  operators  made  passes 
without  contact,  and  erroneously  believed  that  the  two  methods 
were  identical. 

Esdaile's  Method. — Before  beginning  to  mesmerise  a  patient, 
Esdaile  put  him  to  bed  in  a  darkened  room,  directed  him  to  close 
his  eyes,  and  to  try  to  go  to  sleep.  ^  The  operator  then  made 
passes  without  contact  over  the  entire  body,  and  from  time  to 
time  breathed  gently  upon  the  head  and  eyes.  This  process  was 
continued  for  an  hour,  and  at  the  end  of  it  many  of  the  patients 
were  sufficiently  influenced  to  undei-go  painless  operations. 

Braid's  Method.— The  following  was  the  methwl  employed 
by  Uraid  at  the  commencement  of  his  hypnotic  pmctice : — He 
took  a  bright  object,  generally  his  lancet-case,  and  held  it  in  his 

'  The  word  "i]e«p"  inaat  not  ba  Ulien  as  Implyiog  Ih&t  the  h3rpaotie  condition 
is  identical  with  natural  slMp.  Tho  auppoaed  oonnvoUon  betwevn  them  will  b« 
disouaacd  later. 

40 


INDUCING  AND  TERMINATSNG  HYPNOSIS 


41 


¥ 


left  hand  about  a  foot  from  the  patient's  eyes,  and  at  such  a 
distauce  above  the  forehead  lliat  it  wjuld  uot  be  seeu  without 
straining.  The  patient  was  told  to  look  steadily  at  tlie  object 
and  to  think  of  iiotliing  else.  Tlie  operator  then  extended  and 
separated  the  fore  and  middle  lingers  of  the  right  hand,  and 
carried  them  frum  ttie  object  towards  the  patient's  eyes.  The 
lids  generally  closed  involuntarily ;  if  this  did  not  happen  the 
process  was  repeated.  The  patient  was  told  that  he  was  to  allow 
his  eyelids  to  close  when  the  fingers  were  again  carried  towards 
them,  but  tlxat  tlie  eyeballs  were  to  be  kept  fixed  in  the  same 
position,  and  the  attention  concentrated  on  tlie  idea  of  the  object. 
This  rarely  failed.  The  eyelids  closed ;  and,  if  the  limhs  were 
elevated,  they  generally  remained  in  the  position  in  whicli  they 
were  placed.  If  this  did  not  hapi:)en,  Braid  quietly  told  the 
patient  to  keep  his  limbs  fixed,  when  they  speedily  becaniu  rigid. 
After  a  time  Ikaid  found  that  fixed  gazing  was  fre<|uently 
followed  by  pain  and  slight  conjunctivitis.  Thereupon  he 
changed  his  methods.  The  prolonged  gazing  was  abandoned,  and 
the  patient  was  instructed  to  close  Ids  eyes  at  an  early  stage  of 
the  proceedings.  Hypnosis  was  induced  as  easily  as  l>efore,  iind 
the  unplwisaut  symptoms  disappeared.  Provided  tlie  ho<ly  and 
mind  were  at  I'est,  he  found  he  could  hypnotise  as  readily  in  the 
dark  as  in  tlie  light.  He  succeeded,  moreover,  with  the  blind : 
these  facts  induced  him  to  abandon  his  physical  theory,  and  to 
conclude  that  the  influence  was  e.verted  through  the  mind,  and 
not  through  the  optic  nerves.  It  was  worthy  of  remark,  he  said, 
tliat  repeated  hypnoses  increased  susceptibility.  This  arose  from 
habit,  association  of  ideas,  and  imagination.      In  such  cases,  if  tlie 

IjiAtienls  Itolieved  something  was  being  done  which  ought  to 
produce  hypnosis,  the  state  appeared.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
tnost  expert  hypnotist  in  the  world  would  exert  his  induence  in 
vaiu,  if  the  patient  did  not  know  what  was  expected  of  him,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  voluntarily  conform  to  the  demands  of  the 
Operator,  At  a  later  date.  Braid  emphatically  asserted  that  {lirtci 
9erbal  suggeJition  affortled  the  best  method,  both  for  inducing 
hypnosis  and  for  evoking  its  phenomena.  Physical  methods  he 
regarded  simply  as  indirect  suggestions,  their  influence  depending 
upon  the  mental  states  they  excited. 

Li6b€ault'3  Method. — Tlie  following  is  Liebeault's  method,  as 
witnessed  it  at  Nancy: — The  jMitient  was  first  i)Uced  in  an 


W- 


arm-chair,  then  told  to  think  of  notlunij  and  to  look  steadily  at 
the  operator.  This  fixation  of  the  gaze  was  not  maintained  long 
enough  to  produce  any  fatigue  of  the  eyea,  and  appeared  to  be 
simply  au  Hrtifice  for  arresting  the  attention.  If  the  eyes  did  not 
close  spontaneougly,  Liobeault  requested  the  patient  to  sliiit  them, 
and  tiien  proceeded  to  make  the  following  suggestions,  or  others 
resembling  them  : — "  Your  eyelids  are  getting  heavy,  your  limbs 
feel  numb,  you  are  becomiug  more  and  more  drowsy,"  etc.  This 
was  continued  for  a  minute  or  two;  then  Lic^beault  placed  his 
hand  upon  the  patient's  lx)dy,  and  suggested  the  sensation  of 
local  warmth. 

Bemheim'a  Method  —  Dernheim  first  makes  explanatory 
suggestions  to  remove  the  patient's  fears,  and  then  says: — "Look 
at  me  and  think  of  nothing  but  sleep;  your  eyelids  begin  to  feel 
heavy,  your  eyes  ore  tired ;  they  begin  to  blink,  they  are  getting 
moist,  yon  cannot  see  distinctly.  They  are  closed."  Some 
patients,  he  finds,  close  their  eyes  and  fall  asleep  almost  im- 
mediately; with  others  he  is  compelled  to  repeat  the  process.  If 
the  patients  show  no  signs  of  sleep  or  drowsiness,  he  assures  them 
that  sleep  is  not  essential  and  that  the  hypnotic  influence  may  be 
exerted  without  it. 

Beannis' Method. — Professor  Beaunis  says: — "The  method 
most  freijuently  used,  and  which  we  might  will  'classical,'  is  fixed 
gazing.  I  say  to  the  patient :  '  Tvook  at  me  very  steadily,'  and  at 
the  end  of  a  little  time  his  eyelids  close  and  he  sleeps.  After  the 
subjiict  has  been  hypnotised  several  times  any  method  will  re- 
induce  the  condition." 

Wetterstrand's  Method — In  August,  1894.  T  visited  Dr. 
Wettei-strand,  of  .Stockhohn,  and  attended  iiis  clinique  for  about  a 
fortnight.  He  hypnotised  his  patients  in  three  rooms  com- 
municating with  each  other;  these  were  darkened,  and  great 
silence  wils  obsen*ed.  The  patients  who  had  previously  been 
hynotised  were  first  put  to  sleep,  and  while  they  rested  qmetly 
tlie  fresh  cases  were  dealt  with.  In  addition  to  making  verbal 
suggestions,  Wetterstrand  employed  passes  more  largely  than  is 
usually  done  by  members  of  the  Nancy  school ;  these  were  made 
over  the  eyes,  face,  and  arms,  and  always  with  contact.  Some- 
times he  would  touch  the  forehead  with  one  hand,  while  with  the 
other  he  pressed  heavily  over  the  region  of  the  heart.  Before 
commencing   the  passes,  he  generally  requested  the  patient    to 


INDVCiNG  AND  TERMINATING  HYPNOSIS 


43 


look  at  Ills  eyes,  but  this  was  never  continued  long.     The  patients 
rested  quietly  for  about  an  hour,  wliile  Wetteretrand  passed  from 
one   to   t]ie  otlier   whispering  suggestions   audible  only   to   the 
^.person  addressed. 

B        Van    Eeden   and  van  Benterghem's  Method. — Dra.  van 

Eeden    and    van    Kentei-gheni,  nf   Amsterdam,  whose   clinique  I 

visited  in  1S93.  also  hirgely  employ  this  quiet,  prolonged  resting 

in  a  darkened  room,  cnmbined  with  softly  whispered  suggestions. 

Method  of  Charles   Richet. — Professor  Clmrles  Richet,  of 

^^  Paris,  says: — '*  I  place  my  i>atient  in  an  arm-chair  in  front  of  me, 

^■in  each  of  my  hands  I  take  one  nf  his  thumbs,  and  squeeze  them 

'      somewhat    strongly   and   with   fairly    uniform   pressure.       After 

continuing  this  for  three  or  four  minutes,  I  generally  find  that 

nervous  patients  experience  a  sensation  of  heaviness  in  the  arms, 

elbows    and    wrists.       I    then    make    passes    with    outstretched 

» hands ;  thuso  consist  nf  unifoim  movements  from  above  down> 
wards  in  front  of  the  eyes,  as  if  I  desired  to  close  them.  At 
first  I  thought  it  necessary  to  make  the  jmtient  look  fixedly  at 
some  object,  but  it  now  apjiears  to  me  that  this  was  a  useless 
complication.  Steady  gazing  has  perhaps  some  influence,  but  it 
is  not  indispensable. " 

Lnys*  Method.— The  late  Dr.  Luya,  of  Paris,  frequently 
Bucceedwl  in  inducing  hypnosis  by  making  his  patients  look  at  a 
revolving  mirror.  Tin's  wa.s  a  mollification  of  the  lure  employed 
by  bird-catchers,  in  which  looking-glass  replaced  tlie  little 
brilliant  points  sprinkled  over  the  moveable  arms.  A  description 
of  an  improved  instrument  of  this  kind  is  given  under  "  My  own 
^Methods." 

^1  Voisin's  Method  with  the  Insane. — In  certain  cases  of 
^insanity,  the  late  Dr.  Auguste  Voisin,  of  Paris,  attempted  to 
induce  hypnosis  by  force.  The  paiient,  either  held  by  assistants 
or  placed  in  a  strait-Jacket,  hud  his  eyes  kept  open,  and  was 
compelled  to  look  iit  the  light  of  a  niagnesian  lamp  or  at  A'oisin's 
fingers.  If  necessaiy,  the  process  was  continued  for  tliree  hours ; 
suggestions  meanwhile  being  made.  The  patients,  who  at  first 
iHUftlly  struggled,  raved  and  stuit  in  the  operator's  face,  eventually 
ecamo  exhausted  jmd.  in  successful  cases,  passed  into  a  condition 
deep  bleep. 


(B)   OTHER   METHODS   OF   INDUCING  HYPNOSIS. 

Sensory  Stimulation. — ^Stiiideii  stiaiuUtion  of  the  visual 
centres  will  soiiieiinies,  it  is  said,  produce  hypnosis;  as,  for 
example,  in  the  case  of  the  patients  at  the  Salpetriere,  alleged  to 
be  hypnotised  by  a  flash  of  the  Drummoud  light.  Both  sudden 
and  niouotouous  stimulation  of  the  seusc  of  hearing,  such  as  the 
loud  noise  of  a  gong,  the  ticking  of  a  watch  and  soft  music,  have 
been  used  for  the  induction  of  hypnosis.  According  to  some 
authorities,  galvanism,  especially  when  applied  to  the  head,  some- 
times produces  hypnosis  or  a  condition  resembling  it.  Of  this  I 
have  seen  one  example :  a  male  patient — treated  by  Dr.  de 
Wutteville  at  the  West  End  Hospital — appai'ently  became  hyj>- 
notised  when  a  weak  constant  current  was  applied  to  his  head, 
and  I  found  him  as  responsive  to  suggestion  as  the  typical 
hypnutic  somnamhule. 

Professor  Pitres,  of  Bordeaux,  states  that  hypnosis  can  be 
induced  by  pressure  on  certain  parts  of  the  body,  which  he  terms 
Z07ies  hypiwgine^ ;  the  sensitive  parts  vary  in  ditiei"ent  subjects, 
and  in  some  instances  are  said  to  occur  on  one  side  of  the  body 
alone.  Some  of  AIoIVs  patients  maintain  that  they  only  become 
hypnotised  when  he  touches  their  foreheads.  Chambard,  Laborde, 
Purkiuje,  Spitta,  Biiumler,  and  Euleuberg  stated  that  they  had 
succeeded  in  inducing  hypnosis  by  gentle  monotonous  stimulation 
of  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Stimulation  of  the  muscular  sense  is  also  said  to  induce 
hypnosis  or  allied  states,  and  of  this  numerous  examples  are 
claimed  to  be  fouiid  in  the  various  dances  practised  by  certaitt 
Eastern  fanatics  and  savage  tribes. 

Narcotics. — Ai  tlie  p^ent  day  narcotic  drugs  are  frequently 
used  to  assist  the  induction  of  hypnosis,  and  in  ancient  times 
they  are  stated  to  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  pro- 
duction of  ecstatic  conditions,  more  or  less  closely  resembling  the 
hypnotic.  Tlje  drugs  usually  employed  now  are  Cannabis  Indica 
and  chloroform,  but  many  others,  a  list  of  which  is  given  in  the 
chapter  on  Susceptibility,  have  been  use^l  for  the  same  purpose. 
Although  Ksdaile  and  other  writers  refer  to  the  use  of  Cannabis 
Indica  in  the  induction  of  hypnosis,  the  earliest  recorded  instance 
of  its  use,  with   which   I  am  acquainted,  is  the  one  quoted  by 


INDUCING  AND  TERMINATING  HYPNOSIS 


45 


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> 


Braid  from  Pereiru's  Materia  Medica.  The  operator  was  Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy,  of  Calcutta,  autl  the  alleged  induction  of  hypnosis 
was  an  accidental  one.  The  following  is  the  account  referred 
to : — "  At  2  P.M.  a  grain  of  t!ie  resin  of  hemp  was  given  to  a 
rheumatic  patient.  At  4  ?JL  he  was  very  talkative,  sang,  called 
loudly  for  an  extra  supply  of  food  and  declared  Iiiniself  in 
perfect  health.  At  6  VM.  he  was  asleep.  At  8  p.m.  he  was 
found  insensible,  but  breathing  with  perfect  regularity,  the  pulse 
and  akin  natural,  and  the  pupils  freely  contractile  on  the  uppnjach 
of  light.  Happening  by  chance  to  lift  up  his  arm — the  professional 
reader  will  judge  of  my  astonishment,"  observed  Dr.  O.,  "  when  I 
found  tliat  it  remained  in  the  posture  in  which  I  Imd  jilaced  it. 
The  patient  had  become  cataleptic.  We  mised  biiu  to  a  sitting 
posture,  and  placed  his  arms  and  lega  in  every  imaginable  attitude. 
A  waxen  tigure  could  not  have  been  more  pliant^  He  coutinue<l 
in  this  state  till  1  a.m.,  when  consciousness  and  voluntary  motion 
quickly  returned."  A  similar  experiment  was  made  with  another 
patient^  with  like  results. 

According  to  Dr.  von  Schrenck-Notzing,  of  Munich,  Cannabis 
Indica  markedly  facilitates  the  induction  of  hypnosis ;  if  the 
toxic  condition  is  not  too  pronounced,  suggestions  given  as  in 
hypnosis  are  carried  out ;  the  resulting  hallucinations  being  more 
distinct  and  brilliant  than  the  spontaneous  ones.  The  following 
is  an  illustrative  case : — 

The  subject,  aged  22,  was  healthy,  and  had  never  been 
previously  hypnotised.  At  6  P.M.  he  was  given  about  a  grain 
and  a  half  of  the  extract  of  Cannabis  Indica.  At  7  P.M.  he 
was  excited,  felt  intoxicated  and  his  face  was  Hushed.  Pulse 
104.  At  8  P.M.  he  felt  overpowered  with  fatigue,  was  compelled 
to  lie  down  and  could  not  keep  his  eyes  open.  Schrcuck-Notzing 
then  placctl  his  hand  upon  the  patient's  forehead,  and  successfully 
eoggested  cataleptic  rigidity  of  the  arm,  analgesia  of  one  arm  and 
hypertesthesia  of  the  other,  hallucinations  of  sight,  hearing  and 
tuste,  cliange  of  personality ;  and  also  a  post-narcotic  suggestion 
which  was  carried  out  the  following  day. 

Chloroform- — Amongst  those  who  have  successfully  used 
chloroform  in  the  induction  of  lij'pnosis,  Rifat  and  Herrero  de- 
serve especial  mention.  The  latter,  who  is  Professor  of  Clinical 
Medicine  at  Yalladolid,  gave  an  extremely  interesting  account 
of    his   experiments   at   the    First    International     Congress    of 


Hypnotism  (Paris,  1889).  He  Belecte<i  six  subjects,  whom  he 
Iiad  failed  to  lj}'pnotise  by  ordinary  methods,  and,  in  their  case, 
was  able  to  confirm  the  statement  of  Dr.  Rifat,  of  Salonica,  that 
the  nQrcotisni  of  chloroform,  at  the  end  of  the  period  of  nervous 
excitement,  and  in  the  :uoments  which  precede  the  stage  of 
delirium,  is  a  condition  quite  as  auggeatible  as  that  of  hypnotic 
BomnambuUsm.  With  four  of  these  subjects,  either  from 
individual  peculiarities  or  from  too  rapid  administratiou  of  the 
chlororomi,  the  period  of  susceptibility  waa  so  short  that  it 
hardly  aflbrded  time  for  making  suggestions. 

The  experiment  waa  repeated  the  following  day  witli  two 
Bubjects,  a  couple  of  days  latur  with  the  others;  and  precautions 
were  taken  with  tlie  object  of  prolonging  the  period  of  suggest- 
ibility. After  four  or  five  inhalations  of  chloroform  one  patient 
passed  into  a  suggestible  condition  resembling  somnambuliBm, 
and,  at  the  suggesliori  of  Hen*ero,  remained  in  this  state  for  two 
hours  after  the  inlialer  liad  been  removed.  Tlie  three  otliers 
required  half  the  time,  and  less  than  half  the  chloroform,  to 
nirive  at  the  same  condition  they  had  readied  in  the  former 
experiments.  One  of  them  was  told,  while  in  this  condition  of 
pseudo-chloi-oformic  somnambulism,  that  in  the  future  half  a 
minute's  looking  at  Herrero's  eyes  would  be  suflicient  to  produce 
this  state ;  the  suggestion  was  successful  Under  similar 
circumstances,  the  others  were  told  to  oppose  less  and  less 
resistance  to  the  action  of  the  narcotic.  Five  days  later,  the 
one  who  had  responded  most  slowly  to  this  suggestion  went  to 
sleep  almost  immediately,  when  the  inhaler,  either  dry  or 
moistened  with  a  little  alcohol,  was  applied  to  his  nostrils. 
Four  subjects,  who  had  resisted  hypnosis,  were  thus  easily  con- 
verted into  excellent  soinuunibides  by  suggestions  made  during 
chloroform  narcosis ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  necessity  for 
giving  chloroform  was  removed  by  suggestion. 

According  to  Herrero,  this  pi-oved  thai  chloroform  could 
overcome  unconscious  resistance  to  hypnosis,  but  did  not  show 
that  it  could  remove  the  conscious  resistance  opposed  by  the  will. 
Shortly  after  making  these  experiments,  however,  he  had  amongst 
Ins  iMitients  a  lady  suRering  from  mania.  Her  doctor  in  Madrid 
had  previously  trisd  to  hypnotise  her  every  day  for  a  month 
without  success,  and  she  now  looked  upon  hypnotism  as  a 
Satanic  art  and  firmly  refused  to  have  anytliing  to  do  with  it. 


I 
I 


Herrero  considei-ed  Cbis  a  good  test  case  aud,  without  meution- 
[ig  u  word  about  hypuotism,  succeeded  iu  persuadin*^  lier  to 
'take  chloroforuj.  In  less  than  five  minutes,  filleeu  grammes 
produced  the  suggestible  period  of  aiiaaithetic  sleep ;  therapeutic 
suggestions  were  then  given,  and  also  othera  for  the  purpose  of 
obaugiug  the  cliloi-ufurm  narcosis  iutu  li^'pnosis.  The  next  day 
three  grammes  were  sutliciuut  to  produce  the  su^estible  penod ; 
the  following  daj-  it  appeared  when  only  the  dry  inhaler  was 
used.  On  the  fourth  day  she  went  to  sleep  by  lookiuj*  at 
Herrero's  lingers  and,  during  the  two  months  she  renjained  under 
treatment,  Jiypnosis  wiis  always  induced  in  this  way,  and  gener- 
ally instantaneously.  Herrero  suys  tliat  since  then  he  has  often 
changed  chloroform  nai"Cosis  into  hypnosis,  and  has  only  failed 
Dn  oue  occasion,  when  he  was  compelled  to  abandun  the  attempt 
[»wing  to  the  oppositiou  of  the  patient's  relatives.  In  conclusion, 
ie  expresses  his  conviction  that,  by  means  of  chloroform  and 
suggestion  during  the  proper  period  of  narcosis,  one  can  always 
succeed  in  ijiduciug  hypnotic  somnambulism,  despite  any  resist- 
ance opposed  consciously  or  unconsciously  by  the  patient. 

Alcohol- — Schrenck-J^otzing  sometimes  employs  alcohol  for 
the  induction  of  hypnosis,  and,  in  addition,  claims  to  have  changed 
intoxication  into  hypnosis. 

»i  Chloral,  Morphia. — Beruheim  finds  repeated  doses  of  chloral 
or  injections  uf  mor[ihiii  useful,  when  the  ordinary  methods  of 
inducing  hypnosis  have  failed. 

Sometimes,  when  only  slight  hypnosis  can  be  obtained  by  the 
sual  means,  narcutic  drugs  huve  proved  useful  iu  deepening  the 
>uditiun.  Sclirenck-Kotziug  relates  a  case  in  which  he  induced 
slight  hypnosis  with  ditiiculty,  but  failed  to  obtain  any  response 
to  curative  suggestions ;  similar  suggestions  given  during  deep 
sleep  resultiug  from  chloi-al  were  successful. 

Natural  Sleep. — Many  authorities  claim  to  have  changed 
satural  into  hypnotic  sleep.  According  to  Wetterstrand,  it  is 
|>fteu  very  easy  to  put  oneself  en  rapport  with  sleeping  persons, 
8j)ecially  with  children.  The  following  is  his  method  :^One 
iiaud  is  laid  carefully  and  lightly  on  the  sleeper's  forehead,  tlie 
iy  is  gently  stroked  with  the  other,  and,  in  a  subdued  voice, 
36  patient  is  told  to  go  on  sleeping.  When  questioned  he 
gplie-s,  anil  rapport  is  established.  If  his  arm  is  raised  it  is 
piien  found  to  be  cataleptic,  or  may  be  made  so  by  suggestion. 


vvb»; 


Oiw«r 


1MB 


<C)   MY  OWV  IfRBCXIfi. 

These  hftre  ruied  widdj.  At  fint  I  ■»!  njMiA  to  indiaee 
hypowia  ma»ljr  fax  mwhiBJfl  lUiaB:  ■&  tint  tiaM  I  was 
SgMBBtdf  viittt  kid  bemnittBo  od  ttw  Mfejeet  b^  Ti^h— |t 
and  other  iDembea  of  tlie  X«dc7  scImmI,  and  had  doc  obauicd 
the  netbodt  of  other  openfiosm. 

Alter  MetiDg  the  pataeoi  io  a  coodbrtaUe  ch&ir.  I  anu^ed 
a  email  moveable  mirror  above  hie  ejee,  azid  pboed  a  lamp  in 
euch  a  way  ae  to  throw  a  brif^t  li^t  npoo  it  The  r*tiftifte 
were  tolil  to  look  fixedly  at  the  mirror  as  loi^  as  they  ooold  keep 
their  eye*  open.  In  aome  iastauces  the  eyes  doaed  rapidly  and 
hypnonis  (juickly  appeared;  in  others,  even  after  half  an  hour's 
fpuiog,  tiiere  was  no  apparent  result  When  this  was  the  case, 
I  rerjueated  them  to  shot  their  eyes,  and  made  passes  vrithont 
fjitiUuit  over  tlin  (tuu*  and  upper  {jart  of  the  body,  at  the  same 
Ciinti  Hildin^  a  low  suggestions.  113'pnofiis  was  induced  in  every 
iaatafie«i  lait  eoHMtiniei  much  penseverance  was  necessary,  and  in 
brio  ease  euoc««i  was  only  ol>taintfd  at  the  sixty-eighth  attempt 
At  thiit  time  the  pstiiiutM  were  all  drawn  from  my  own  practice* 
and  thu  induction  of  hypiiiwis,  which  at  first  had  often  been 
tediouit  uiid  iJinicult,  tuton  became  easier  with  increased  experience. 
Maohanioul   nltls   wore  gmdufdly  discarded:  the  patients  simph 


INDUCING  AND  TERMINATING  HYPNOSIS 


49 


(an 


28t 

Vbrou 


looked   at  my  eyes  for  a  few  geconds,  while  I  made  energetic 

suggestions.     I   now  held  a  cliniqne   three  times  a  week,  and 

sometimes  hypnotised  from  thirty  to  sixty  patients  in  an  evening. 

1 1  passed  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other,  saying  to  each  in  turn : 

'  Look  at  my  eyes  '     Your  eyelids  are  getting  heavy,  you  cannot 

keep  them  open,  they  are  closing  now,  they  are  fast!"      As  the 

^eyelids  closed,  which  they  almost  invariably  did  at  once,  I  made 

energetic  pass  in  the  direction  of  the  patient's  face  and  said ; 

Sleep  : "      With  two  exceptions,  success  was  obtained  in  every 

jCase,  and  in  nine  out  of  ten  in  the  time  necessary  to  utter  the 

rords  just  quoted.     The  patients  were  still  nearly  all  drawn  from 

my  own  practice,  but,  unlike  my  earlier  cases,  few  suffered  from 

severe  illness  and  many  were  hypnotised  for  operative  purposes 

only. 

Shortly  after  the  hypnotic  demonstration  at  T^eds,  on  March 
^  28th,  1890,*  I  commenced  to  receive  a  ilifferent  class  of  patients, 
of  whom  were  strangers  to  me.  Most  of  them  suffered  from 
Burasthenia,  hysteria,  or  other  forms  of  functional  nervous 
3uble  ;  but  in  addition  there  were  many  cases  of  dipsomania  and 
some  of  genuine  insanity.  In  all.  the  illness  was  of  long  duration 
and  other  methods  of  treatment  had  been  employed  without 
l)enefit.  To  my  surprise  and  disappointment,  a  small  percentage 
alone  were  hypnotised  by  the  method  so  successfully  employetl 
amongst  my  own  patients.  At  first  the  fresh  cases  were  treated 
along  with  othei-s  already  hypnotised ;  but  this,  instead  of  aiding 
me  as  formerly,  seemed  to  increase  my  difficulties,  as  the  new 
patients  found  others  sleepinj^  around  them  a  disturbing  element. 
^Each  patient  was  then  taken  singly,  and  fixed  gazing  at  a  mirror 
a  darkened  room  again  resorted  to.  In  addition,  I  frequently 
"made  them  look  at  my  eyes  while  I  made  verbal  suggestions.  I 
procured  one  of  Luys'  revolving  mirrors,  but  found  it  worse 
^aiL  useless.  The  instrument  was  driven  by  clockwork,  but 
^uld  not  be  stopped  until  it  ran  down,  and  there  was  no  method 
^of  regulating  its  speed.  It  made  a  loud  and  disagreeable  noise, 
^bhich  from  time  to  time  became  more  marked  and  irregidar,  and 
^Kiesistibly  sugge-sted  an  infernal  machine  on  the  point  of  explod- 
^■Dgt  X  had  another  constructed  without  the  faults  which  char- 
actoriaed  that  of  Luys.  This  too  was  driven  by  clockwork,  but 
lid  be  arrested  at  any  time  and  its  speed  regulated,  while  the 

1  Pp.  1M.7. 
E 


^«ko 

^an 


sound  was  uuiforra  and  soothing.  With  this  mirror  1  succeeded 
in  easy  cases,  such  as  could  have  been  liypiiotised  by  any  other 
method,  but  it  was  no  help  in  difficult  ones.  By  one  or  another 
of  these  methods  I  hypnotised  about  7  5  per  cent  of  my  patients, 
but  in  many  instances  only  after  repeated  trials.  After  a  time 
mechanical  means  were  again  almost  entirely  abandoned ;  and  I 
relied  more  and  more  on  verbal  suggestion  and  careful  study  of 
the  patient's  mental  condition. 

The  following  is  now  my  usual  method : — I  rarely  attempt 
to  induce  hypnosis  the  first  time  I  see  a  patient,  but  confine  my- 
self to  making  his  acquaintance,  hearing  his  own  account  of  his 
case,  and  ascertaining  his  mental  attitude  witli  regard  to  hypnotism. 
I  usually  find,  from  the  failure  of  otlier  methods  of  treatment, 
that  the  patient  is  more  or  less  sceptical  as  to  the  cliance  of  his 
being  benefited.  In  most  cases  also  he  has  either  read  misleading 
sensational  articles  on  hypnotism,  or  liis  friends  hav<i  painted  its 
dangers  in  striking  coloui*s,  I  endeavour  to  remove  erroneous 
ideas,  and  refuse  to  attempt  to  induce  hypnosis  until  the  patient 
is  satisfied  of  tlie  safety  and  desirability  of  the  experiment.  I 
never  tell  a  patient  that  I  am  certain  of  being  able  to  hypnotise 
him.  but  always  explain  how  much  depends  upon  his  own  mental 
condition  and  power  of  carrying  out  my  directions.  I  then  say  : 
"  Presently  I  shall  ask  you  to  look  at  my  eyes  for  a  few  seconds, 
when  probably  your  eyelids  will  hecouie  heavy  and  you  will  feel 
impeUcd  to  close  theuL  Should  this  not  happen,  I  shall  ask  you 
to  shut  them,  and  to  keep  them  closed  until  I  tell  you  to  open 
them.  I  shall  then  make  certain  jmssea  and  suggestions,  but  I 
do  not  wish  you  to  pay  much  attention  to  what  I  am  saying  or 
doing,  and  above  all  you  are  not  to  attempt  to  analyse  your 
sensations.  Your  best  plan  will  be  to  create  some  monotonous 
drowsy  mental  picture  and  to  fix  your  attention  upon  that.  You 
must  not  expect  to  go  to  sleep.  A  certain  number  of  hypnotised 
persons  pass  into  a  condition  more  or  less  closely  resembling 
sleep ;  few  do  so  at  the  first  sitting,  however,  and  you  must  only 
expect  to  feel  drowsy  and  heavy."  After  these  explanations,  and 
having  darkened  the  room  and  instructed  any  spectators  to  remain 
quiet,  I  place  my  patient  in  a  comfortable  chair  and  request  him 
to  look  at  my  eyes,  at  the  same  time  bringing  my  face  slightly 
above  and  about  ten  inches  from  his.  The  patient's  eyes  some- 
times close  almost  immediately.     Shoidd  they  not  do  so,  I  continue 


I 


I 
I 


INDUCING  AND  TERMINATING  HYPNOSIS 


5« 


■the 


to  look  steadily  at  him  aud  make  suggestious.  Tlieae  are  twofold ; 
e  patient's  attention  is  directed  to  the  sensations  he  probably  is 
experiencing,  and  others,  which  I  wish  him  to  feel,  are  suggested. 
Thus:  "Your  eyes  are  heavy,  the  lids  are  beginning  to  quiver, 
the  eyes  are  filling  with  water.  You  begin  to  feel  drowsy,  your 
limbs  are  becoming  heavy,  you  are  finding  it  more  and  more 
difficult  to  keep  your  eyes  open,  etc"  Sometimes  this  produces 
the  desired  result ;  the  eyes  close  and  the  first  stage  of  hypnosis 
is  induced.  If  this  does  not  take  place,  I  direct  the  patient  to 
close  liis  eyes,  and  make  passes  over  the  liead  and  face,  either 
with  or  without  contact,  i-epeating  meanwhile  appropriate  verbal 
suggeBiions.  Tiiis  is  continued  for  half  an  hour.  No  stereotyped 
method  is  employed,  however,  the  process  being  varied  with 
different  patients,  or  with  the  same  patient  at  different  times,  to 
suit  the  particular  needs  of  special  cases.  To  ensure  success,  it 
is  necessary  to  understand  the  mental  condition  uf  the  patient,  to 
guiu  bis  intelligent  co-operation,  aud  to  create  a  clear  picture  of 
hypnosis  togetlier  with  the  expectation  of  its  ap|>e{inLnce. 

In  a  few  instances  I  have  attempted  to  change  natural  sleep 
into  hypnosis,  but  so  far  without  success.  1  have  occasionally 
employed  galvanism,  and  have  also  given  chloroform,  chloral, 
bromide  and  various  other  drugs,  but  generally  with  negative 
results. 

T  have  hypnotised  several  patients  who  were  completely  deaf: 
some  of  these  were  unacquainted  with  tlie  deaf  and  dumb  alphabet, 
and  writing  was  the  only  means  of  communication.  The  neces- 
sary explanations  and  instructions  were  given  beforehand  in  this 
way,  as  alsu  tlie  suggestious  which  were  to  be  fultiUed  during  and 
after  hy]>nosis. 

For  tliu  first  few  years  of  my  hypnotic  practice,  I  never  made 

■curative  suggestious  until  hypnosis  had  been  induced.  I  changed 
my  methods,  however,  after  having  observed  in  Continental 
biniques  that  suggestions  were  frequently  responded  to  in  cases 
bf  slight,  or  even  doubtful,  hypnosis.  Now,  in  addition  to 
attempting  to  induce  hypnosis  in  the  manner  just  described,  I 
combine  this  with  curative  suggestions.  Thus,  from  the  very 
firat  treatment  the  patient  is  subjected  to  two  distinct  proceisses, 
^■he  object  of  the  one  being  to  induce  hypnosis,  that  of  the  other 
^To  cure  or  relieve  disease ;  and  frequently  the  latter  is  successful 
befora  the  patient  can  be  described  as  genuinely  hypnotised. 


I 


52 


HYPNOTISM 


(D)   SKLFHYPNOSIS   AND   SELF-SUGGESTION. 

Putting  aside  the  question  of  self-hypnosia  amongst  fakirs  and 
other  religious  fanatics,  I  am  not  acquainted  with  many  instances 
in  which  the  priuiar}*  hypnosis  has  been  induced  by  the  subject 
liiniself.  Timid,  however,  staled  that  he  hypnotised  himself  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  and  successfully  suggested  tlie  disappear- 
ance of  rlieumatic  pain.  Professor  Forel,  of  Zurich,  and  Dr. 
Coate  de  Lagrave  have  also  succeetied  in  hypnotising  tliemselves, 
and  the  latter  can  influence  himself  in  many  ways  by  suggestion  ; 
thus,  he  states  he  is  able  to  get  rid  of  pain,  fatigue,  mental 
depression,  etc. 

Shortly   after   commencing    hypnotic    work,    1    found   that 
patients,  who  had  been  deeply  hypnotiaeJ,  could  be  instructed 
to  reiuduce    the    condition    at    will.     Here,    suggestions  during 
hypnosis  were  not  necessary  for  the  production  of  its  phenomena ; 
they    were   equally  efficacious    when    made    beforehaiid    in   the 
waking  state.     The  subject  was  able  to  suggest  to  himself  when 
liypnosis  should  appear  and  terminate,  and  also  the  phenomena 
which  he  wished   to  obtain   during  »nd   after  it.      Tliis   training 
was    at    firet    a    limited  cue ;  the   patients,   for   example,   were   _ 
instructed  how  to  get  sleep  at  night  or  relief  from  pain.     They  I 
did  not,  howt-'Ver,  always   confine   themselves   to  my  suggestions, 
but  originated  others  and  widely  varying  ones,  regarding  their  _ 
health,  comfoit,  or  work.     In  several  instances  they  made  use  of  ■ 
self-hypnosis  for  operative  purposes,  and  astonished  their  dentists 
by  remaining  insensible  to  the  pain  of  having  their  teeth  extracted, 
lu  some  instances  this  power  has  been  retained  for  over  twelve 
years. 

I  have  also  observed  the  phenomena  of  self-hypnosis  in 
healthy  persons  who  had  been  hypnotised  for  experimental 
purposes.  Here,  the  subjects,  when  awake,  could  sugge-st  to 
themselves  that  muscular  rigidity,  local  and  general  analgesia, 
hallucinations,  etc,  should  appear  during  hypnosis  ;  and  then 
hypnotise  themselves  at  will,  when  the  phenomena  duly  appeared. 
During  self- hypnosis  the  subjects  were  either  tn  rapport  with 
every  one  or  only  with  certain  individuals,  according  to  the 
suggestions  they  had  made  to  themselves  beforehand. 

Even  in  slight  hypnosis  self-suggestion  is   not  without  i 


fluence,  although  its  results  are  neither  so  striking  nor  so  far- 
reachiu<T  aa  in  the  case  of  somnambules. 


^o 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  METHODS  OF  INDUCING  HYPNOSIS. 

The  metho<1s  by  which  liypnosis  is  induced  have  been  classed 
([follows: — (1)  Physical  Methods;  (2)  Psychical  Methods;  (3) 
boBe  of  the  Majrnetisers. 

The  modern  liypnotiser,  however,  whatever  his  theories  may 
be,  borrows  his  actual  technique  from  Meamer  and  Li^beault  with 
equal  impartiality,  and  titus  renders  chissiflcation  well  nigh 
impossible.  Thus,  the  members  of  the  Nancy  school,  wliile 
asserting  that  everything  is  due  to  suggostion,  do  not  hesitate 
to  use  physical  means.  The  passes  with  contact  employed  by 
Mesmer  are  almost  exactly  reproduced  by  Wutterstrand.  Fixed 
gazing  generally  precedes  or  accomywnies  suggestion,  and,  wiien 
these  fail,  Bernheim  does  not  scruple  to  have  recourse  to 
narcotics. 

j  As  to  physical  methods,  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether 
these  have  ever  succeeded  when  mental  influences  have  been 
carefully  excluded,  and  the  subjects  have  been  absolutely  ignorant 
of  the  nature  of  the  experiment  No  one  was  ever  hypnotised 
by  looking  at  u  lark -mirror,  until  Luys  borrowed  tlmt  lure  from 
the  bird-catchers  and  invested  it  with  hypnotic  powers.  On  the 
other  hand,  any  physical  method  will  succeed  with  a  susceptible 
mibject  who  knows  what  is  expected  of  him. 


METHODS  OF  TERMINATING  HYPNOSIS 


H  The  hypnotic  state  tends  to  terminate  spontaneously.  In 
V  slight  hypnosis  this  usually  happens  as  soon  as  the  operator  leaves 
the  patient ;  in  more  profound  stages  it  may  not  occur  until  after 
the  lapse  of  several  hours.  The  methods  of  artificially  terminat- 
ing the  condition  may  be  divided  as  follows: — (1)  Physical,  by 
I  means  of  various  sensorial  stimuli ;  (2)  Psychical,  by  direct  or 
indirect  sugi^e.^'tion. 
(1)  Physical, — Ksdaile's  method  of  terminating  the  mesmeric 
etate  consisted  in  blowing  sharply  on  the  patient's  eyes,  rubbing 
the  eyelids  and  eyebrows,  or  spriuking  cold  water  on  the  face. 


Sometimes  these  methods  failed,  and  then  the  patient  was  allowed 
to  sleep  quietly  until  the  condition  terminated  naturally. 

On  one  or  two  occasions  patients  undergoing  surgical  operations 
came  out  of  the  trance  before  the  operation  was  completed ; 
Esdaile's  investigations  led  him  to  believe  this  was  due  to  the 
actioa  of  cold.  In  hot  weather  the  patients  were  operated  on 
almost  naked,  and  it  waa  observed  that  those  who  were  com- 
pletely anicsthetic  when  tested  in  the  mesmerising  room,  where 
they  were  covered  up  in  bed»  became  more  or  less  conscious  when 
placed  in  the  operating  room,  and  the  blankets  removed.  Patients 
in  tlie  mesmeric  trance,  who  were  insensible  to  the  loudest  noises, 
the  cutting  of  inflame<l  parts,  the  application  of  nitric  acid  to  raw 
surfaces,  and  other  painful  surgical  operations,  became  fully 
conscious  when  their  naked  bodies  were  exposed  for  a  few  minutes 
to  the  cold  air.  Subsefjuently  tliis  mistake  was  avoided,  and  no 
further  cases  occurred  in  which  the  trance  tenninated  before  the 
close  of  the  operation. 

At  the  commencement  of  his  hypnotic  practice.  Braid  used  to 
awaken  his  patients  by  directing  a  current  of  cold  air  upon  their 
faces,  but  he  afterwards  abandoned  this  in  favour  of  suggestion. 

According  to  Pitres,  pressure  upon  certain  parts  of  the  body, 
called  by  him  zones  kypno-fr^natnces,  will  terminate  the  hypnotic 
condition.  The  forcible  opening  of  the  eyes  has  also  been  used 
as  a  method  of  awakening. 

(2)  Psychical- — The  members  of  the  Nancy  school  suggest 
during  hypnosis  that  the  subject  shall  awake  ^  at  a  given  signal, 
as,  for  example,  when  the  operator  utters  the  word  "  Awake,"  or 
connta  "  One,  two,  three."  The  nature  of  the  signal  itself  is  of 
little  or  no  importance,  the  essential  point  being  that  the  subject 
shall  understand  its  import. 

The  method  just  described  is  the  one  I  usually  adopt,  and  T 
have  rarely  experienced  the  slightest  difficulty  in  awaking  my 
patients.  In  a  few  instances,  where  deep  hypnosis  had  been 
obtained  at  the  first  attempt,  the  patients  did  not  awake  instantan- 
eously in  response  to  suggestion,  and  afterwards  remained  some- 
what drowsy  and  heavy.  Wlien  this  occurred,  I  at  once  re- 
hypnotised  the  patient  and  repeated  the  suggestion  that  he  should 

'  The  word  "Awake"  U  aimplj- used  for  conTenience  und  must  not  be  Uken 
tm  implying  th«t  tho  hypnotic  condition  is  odq  of  ileep.  Tlio  iuppos«d  connection 
betw«f>Q  hypnotis  ind  sleep  will  be  discDSMd  Utor. 


1 


I 


INDUCING  AND  TERMINATING  HYPNOSIS 


5S 


imuiediately  respond  to  my  sigual,  uiul  tliat  on  awaking  no 
trace  of  drowsiness  should  remain.  A  very  little  training  of  this 
kind  produced  tlio  dosiretl  result. 

Theoretical  Explanations  of  the  Effects  produced  by  differ- 
ent Methods  of  terminating  Hypnosis. — According  to  Moll,  the 
awaking  from  hypnosis,  like  tlmt  from  natural  sleep,  occurs  in 
two  ways;  (1)  from  mental  causes  and  (2)  from  sense-stimu- 
lation. In  the  opinion  of  Forel,  however,  and  oertain  other 
members  of  the  Nancy  school,  the  stimulation  of  the  special 
senses  only  nwakeus  the  patients  when  it  acts  as  an  indirect 
suggestion,  the  physical  stimulus  being  simply  the  signal  for 
awaking. 

Ur.  Crocq,  of  Bnissels,  on  the  other  hand,  draws  attention  to 
the  fact  that  Bernheim  and  Beaunis  say  that  the  subject  can 
generally  be  awakened  by  verbal  suggestion,  but,  if  this  is  not 
sufiicient,  that  it  can  then  be  effected  by  blowing  two  or  three  times 

IiUpon  the  eyes.  The  blowing,  he  says,  according  to  tliese  authors, 
then  becomes  a  stronger  suggestion  than  a  verbal  command.  It 
appears  to  Dr.  Crocq  a  contradiction  to  attribute  tlie  immediate 
iftwaking  of  the  subject  by  blowing  upon  the  eyes  to  suggestion, 
when  one  h«s  just  failed  to  arouse  him  by  repeated  verlwil  com- 
manda  One  cannot  in  justice  raise  the  objection  that  blowing 
upon  the  eyes  is  an  unconscious  suggestion,  seeing  that  this  has 
succeeded  where  direct  suggestion  has  just  foiled.  Again,  when  a 
subject,  who  knows  nothing  of  liypnotisui  nor  of  what  you  wish 
him  to  do,  is  put  to  sleep  for  the  tirst  time,  blowing  upon  his 
eyes  will  awake  him  without  anything  to  this  effect  having  been 
suggested  to  him.  IMowing,  therefore,  appears  to  possess  a 
particular  property  which  provokes  awakening. 

While  Braid  believed  that  the  mental  effect,  resulting  from 
the  indirect  pliysical  action  of  meclianical  means,  could  be  checked 
or  reversed  by  .stronger  and  more  direct  verbal  suggestion,  be 
still  held,  and  I  think  justly  so,  that  physical  impressions 
were  capable  of  producing  both  physical  and  mental  results.  Forel, 
on  the  contrary,  denies  the  physical  inHuence  of  mechanical 
processes,  on  the  ground  that  suggestion  is  capable  of  altering 
Uieir  supposed  action.  Tie  says :  "  Blowing  on  the  face  no  longer 
awakens  my  subjects,  because  I  have  suggested  that  this  would 
remove  pain  instead  of  arousing  them."  From  this  he  concludes 
thftt  tlie  act  of  blowing  produces  no  result,  and  considers  this  a 


powerful  argument  against  the  .Somatic  school.  WouM  it  not  bo 
equally  logical  to  contend  that  the  prick  of  a  pin  produced  no 
physical  effect,  because  the  subject,  rendered  insensible  to  pain  by 
suggestion,  had  been  taught  to  regard  the  pin-prick  as  a  signal  to 
evoke  some  oilier  ctmdition  ?  Forel  ignores  too  completely  the 
artificial  chai-acter  of  the  hypnotic  state.  Doubtless  hypnotic 
subjects  can  be  trained  to  inhibit  tiertain  seusiitions,  and  to  regard 
otlters  as  the  signals  for  the  manifestation  of  various  ]jhenomeua; 
but  we  are  not  justiHed  in  concluding  from  this  that  all  the 
ordinary  physical  impressions  spontaneously  cease  to  be  appreci- 
ated in  hypnosis.  Further,  in  slight  hypnosis  and  in  untrained 
Bubjects,  the  action  of  physical  inipresaions  can  be  readily  observed, 
and  a  loud  noise,  or  the  prick  of  a  ])in,  will  speedily  terminate 
the  condition.  Finally,  Eedaile's  patients  referred  to  above 
had  clearly  not  been  taught  that  cold  was  to  arouse  them  in  the 
midst  of  an  operation. 


CT;(  **r^-*^ 


CHAPTER    IV. 

SOBCKPTIBILITY    TO    FIYPNOSIS    AND   THE    CAUSES   WHICH 
INVLUENCE   IT. 


'(1)  Average  Susceptibility. — In  April,  1892,  Sclirenck-NotziQg 
published  the  result  of  bis  First  luternational  Statistics  of 
Susceptibility  to  hypnosis.     Fifteen  observers  in  different  countries 

|fumis!ied  returns  wliich  showed,  without  reference  to  sex,  age 
fit  health,  that  they  had  tiied  to  hypnotise  8705  persons,  with 
3519  failures:  i.e.  only  6  per  cent  were  uuiu6uenced. 
1  Van  I-^den  and  van  Kentergheni,  from  May  5th,  1887,  to 
vune  30th»  1893,  attempted  to  hypnotise  1089  persons,  and 
only  failed  with  58,  or  5*33  per  cent 

Liebeault  informed  me  that  he  had  no  complete  record  of 
the  thousands  of  cases  he  had  treated  during  his  hypnotic 
practice  of  over  thirty  years,  but  that,  from  1887  to  1890,  he 
had  tried  to  hypnotise  1756  cases,  his  failures  only  amounting 
to  a  fraction  over  3  per  cent. 

From  1882  to  1886,  Beniheim  attempted  to  hypnotise  5000 
of  his  hospital  patients,  and  succeeded  with  75  per  cent  A  few 
years  later  the  number  had  risen  to  10,000,  and  the  successes  to 
over  80  per  cent 

Bff'Hllon,  out  of  250  cases  in  children,  hypnotised  80  per  cent 
ut  the  first  or  second  attempt. 

Tip  to  March,  1890,  Wetterati-and's  cases  amounted  to  3209, 

and   of   these   only   105,   or   37   per   cent,   were   uninfluenced. 

Amongst  the  failures  75  had  only  been  tried  once  or  at  most  twice. 

By  the  end  of  January,  1893,  the  nunilter  of  his  hypnotic  patients 

^Jiad  reached  6500,  while  the  percentage  of  failures  had  decreased. 

^B      In  the  6r&t  year  of  his  hypnotic  practice,  Forel  endeavoured 

^Bo   hypnotise   205   patients,  many  of  whom  were   insane.     Ue 

^m sr ^  -  ■    


succeeded  in  171  cases  and  failed  in  ',)4;  but  in  the  Inst  105 
the  failures  fell  to  1 1  per  cent.  In  1  898,  he  inforniecl  me  that  he 
had  tried  to  hypnotise  about  1000  persons  and  had  3«ccee<ied 
with  over  95  per  cent. 

Amongst  my  etirlier  patients  the  average  susceptibility  varied 
from  100  per  cent  in  one  group  to  78  per  cent  in  another.  These 
groups  illustrato  the  fact  that  susceptibility  to  hypnosis  is  influenced 
by  many  widely  differing  causes,  and  that,  unless  these  are  carefully 
noted,  general  statistics  on  the  subject  are  apt  to  be  misleading. 
The  first  group  comprised  patients  drawn  from  my  own  general 
practice  at  Goole ;  the  second,  strangers  who  had  come  to  me 
&om  a  distance. 

Group  L  —  Many  of  tlie  patients  in  this  group  were 
hypnotised  in  the  hurried  rounds  of  a  large  general  practice : 
unless  the  case  was  of  special  interest  no  notes  were  taken,  and 
I  have  no  complete  record  of  the  numliers  treated,  which  roughly 
speaking  amounted  to  about  500.  The  following  table,  however, 
gives  the  first  100  consecutive  cases  which  were  treated  at  my 
own  house,  the  results  iu  every  instance  being  recorded  at  the 
time: — 

Table  A, 

Total  Number,  100  ;  Male,  27  ;  Female,  73.  

(Jreatest  Age,  76  years;    Lowest   Age,  4  years;  Aveiage  Age,  23*49' 
years. 

lUiiitt*. 

Refractory,  0  ;  Slight  Hypnosie,  12  ;  Deep  Hypnosis,  40  ;  Som- 
nambulism, 48. 

Hypnotised  at  First  Attempt,  92  ;  Aftor  Repeated  Trials,  8. 

Average  Number  of  Trials  in  these  Eight  Cases,  4. 

Average  Number  of  Sittings  in  the  100  Cases,  including  Attempts  at 
Hypnosis,  10. 

This  table.  I  think,  fairly  represents  the  results  obtained  in 
the  500  caaea  refeiTcd  to.  It  is  to  be  noted,  liowever,  that 
although  no  failures  are  recorded  in  the  100  examples  juat  cited. 
I  was  unable  to  hypnotise  2  out  of  the  total  500  treated. 

Group  n. — The  followint;  table  gives  the  first  100  con- 
secutive cases  in  which  the  patients  were  not  drawn  from  my 
own  practice.  In  every  instance  the  results  were  recorded  at 
the  time : — 


I 


I 


SUSCEPTIBIUTY  TO  HYPNOSIS 


59 


^ 
¥ 


TahU  B. 

Total  Number,  100;  Male,  42  :  Female,  68. 

greatest  Age,  70  ytan  ;  Lowest  ^Vgc,  9  yeore  :  Average  Age,  34  ^ean. 

Rvfraetory,  S2  ;  Slight  Hypnoiia,  36  ;  Deep  Hypnoaif,  13  ;  Soni- 
nombuliani,  20. 

Hypnotised  at  First  Attempt,  51  ;  After  ReptAteU  Trial«s  S6. 

Average  Number  of  Trials  in  theae  26  cases,  16. 
I        Average  Namber  of  Sitlings  in  the  100  cases,  including  Attempts  nC 
Hypnosis,  35'9, 

Remarks. — These  two  tables  form  a  marked  contrast  Table 
A  contains  no  refractory  subjects,  while  in  Table  B  these 
amount  to  23.  In  A  also  a  larger  proportion  passed  into  the 
deeper  stages,  and  this  diflTerence  is  further  accentuated  by  the 
fact  that  the  average  number  of  sittings  in  B  greatly  exceeded 
that  in  A.  Further,  it  is  probable  that  the  number  of  somnam- 
bules  in  A  could  easily  have  been  increased.  In  many  instances 
no  direct  attempt  was  made  to  produce  somnambulism  :  t.c.  amnesia 
on  awaking  was  not  suggested.  At  a  later  date,  I  found  that 
several  members  of  this  group  could  be  rendered  somnambulic  at 
a  single  sitting,  although  they  had  not  previously  passed  into  that 
stage  and  had  not  been  hypnotised  for  many  months.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  while  in  A  92  were  hypnotised  at  the  first  attempt, 
ID  B  the  number  only  amounted  to  51.  Again,  the  number  of 
trials  required  to  induce  hypnosis,  when  this  did  not  appear  at  the 
first  attempt,  ouly  averaged  8  in  A,  whereas  it  reached  15  in  B. 
Amongst  the  refractory  patients  in  B  the  numl}er  of  unsuccessful 
attempts  varied  from  3  to  loG,  the  average  being  38'20. 

The  means  employed  for  inducing  hj-pnosis  is  described  in 
the  chapter  upon  "  Methods."  It  is  important  to  note  that  in  B 
these  were  usually  numerous,  varied  and  prolonge<3,  while  in  A, 
on  the  contrary,  they  were  generally  short  and  simple. 

These  tables  will  be  again  referred  to  in  discussing  the 
different  causes  which  influence  susceptibility. 

(2)  Sosceptibility  in  reference  to  the  Depth  of  Hypnosis. 
No  uniform  classification  of  hj'pnotic  stages  exists,  and  thus  it 
ditticult  to  compare  the  various  statistics  on  the  sxibject      I 
ill,  however,  quote  some   of   them    here,  at   the   same    time 
ferriug  the  reader  to  the  chapter  on  "  Stages  "  *  for  fuller  in- 
formation as  regards  classification. 

>  Pp.  150-165. 


6o 


HYPNOTISM 


Tlie  following  results  were  obtained  in  the  8705  International 
cases  recorded  by  Sclirenck-Notzing  : — 


Refractory    .     519,  or    6  percent. 
Somnolence  .  2557,  or  SO       „ 


Hypotaxia        .  4316,  or  40  per  cent. 
Somnambulism,  1313,  or  15       „ 


In  1089  cases  treated  by  van  Eeden  and  van  Rentergheni, 
of  whom  529,  or  -IS^?  per  cent,  were  men,  and  560,  or  51*42 
per  cent,  women,  we  find  the  following  results : — 

Be&actory    .    58,  or  5-33  per cenL     Deep  Sleep     .  445,  or  4087  per  cent. 
Slight  Sleep .  466,  or  40*87      „  Somnambuiisui  1  £0,  or  1 1  '61 

Li^beault  gives  the  result  of  755  cases,  thus  :— 


I 


Hen. 

WoniAn. 

TotJd. 

Propoition  |Mtr  cent. 

Men. 

WOOIHL 

Somnambulism    .     . 
Very  profouud  Sleep 
Profound  Sleep  .     . 
Light  Sleep    .     .     . 
Somnolence  .     .     . 
Uninfluenced      .     . 

Total    .     . 

54 
SI 
108 
62 
SI 
31 

91 
34 
163 
99 
50 
31 

145 

55 

271 

151 

71 

62 

18-8 
7  3 

37-6 

18-1 
7*3 

10-8 

19-4 

7-2 
34-8 
211 
10-6 

6*6 

S87 

468 

755 

I 


The  above  table  is  restated  by  Beauuis  in  order  to  show  the 
influence  of  age  upon  the  diflerent  stages :- —  ■ 


.ACL 

Soranam- 

Vwy  Deep 
aiMp. 

Dmd 

Rlitcht 

Souuiol- 

XoCla. 

buUmn. 

mHpu 

aiMp. 

enee. 

fliwDecd. 

Up  to  7    . 

26  5 

4-3 

13-0 

58*1 

4'3 

0 

7-14 

56-3 

7-6 

23-0 

13-8 

0 

0 

14-Sl 

2:1-2 

5-7 

44*8 

5-7 

8-0 

10*3 

21-28       . 

13-2 

5-1 

36*7 

18-3 

17-8 

9-1 

28-35 

22-6 

6-9 

34-5 

17-8 

130 

5-8 

35-42 

,      10-5 

11-7 

35-2 

28-2 

5-8 

8-2 

42-49 

21-6 

4-7 

29-S 

22-6 

9-4 

is-a 

49-56 

,       7-3 

14-7 

35*2 

27-9 

lo-a 

4*4 

56-63       . 

'       7-2 

8-6 

37 -Q 

18-8 

13-0 

14-4 

03  and  over 

U-8 

8-4 

39-9 

20-3 

6-7 

13-fi 

SUSCEPTIBILITY  TO  HYPNOSIS 


6l 


I^uuiiis  draws  atteulion  to  the  fact  that  this  table  Bhuws 
clearly  that  somnambulism  ia  reached  more  frequently  in 
children  than  in  adults. 

The  statistics  of  Dr.  Jlingier,  of  Zurich,  give  similar  results ; 
between  the  ages  of  7  and  14  his  somnambules  amounted  to 
52*94  per  cent,  and  from  14  to  21  years  to  42ol  per  cent. 

These  figures  are  in  marked  contrast  to  those  of  the  genernl 
statistics  which  disrc^rd  age.  Thus,  of  the  8705  cases  recorded 
by  Schrenck-Xotzing,  and  of  the  1089  given  by  van  Eeden  and 
van  Kentergheni,  nearly  the  same  proportion,  t>.  15  aud  1161  per 
cent,  became  somnambulea.  The  percentage  of  somnambules  in 
Lic'beault's  755  cases  was  188  in  men  and  1Q*4  in  women,  while 
Braid  found  that  only  10  per  cent  of  his  patients  became 
somnambules. 

In  my  groups,  aa  we  have  seen,  the  number  of  somnambules 
was  remarkably  high,  reaching  48  per  ceut  in  Table  A  and  29 
per  cent  in  Table  B.  Further,  in  A  deep  hypnosis  was 
obtained  in  48  per  cent,  slight  hypnosis  in   12  per  cent,  while 

■none  were  refractory. 
I  (3)  Nationality. — Kace,  apparently,  has  no  influence  upon 
Biisceptibility.  Liebeault's  extraordinary  success  led  to  the  assump- 
tion that  the  French  were  peculiarly  susceptible,  but  the  statistics 
ofWetterstraud,  of  Stockholm,  compare  favourably  with  the  results 
obtained  at  Nancy,  while  Dr.  (Jrossmann,  of  Berlin,  asserts  that 
he  hypnotises  9."i  j)er  cent  of  his  patients,  and  lays  stress  on  the 
fact  that  most  of  them  are  hard-headed  North  Germans.  Dr. 
^^lorier  told  me  that  he  found  Colonial  patients  in  South  Australia 
^^^  susceptible  as  those  of  European  origin.  Estlaile  asserted  that 
there  was  no  difference  in  susceptibility  between  the  Scotch  and 
the  Natives  of  India,  and  hypnotic  aufli'Sthesia  was  induced  as 
readily  in  I'eith  Infirmary  as  in  the  Government  hospitals  in 
Calcutta.  Most  of  my  patients  were  Knglish,  aud  their  snscepti- 
rility,  as  far  as  Table  A  is  concerned  at  all  events,  has  not  been 
exceeded  elsewhere. 

(4)  Sex. — Sex   has  little  or  no  influence  on  susceptibility. 

Vetterstrand  finds  both  sexes  equally  easy  to  influence,  while  in 

i^ii^beault's  statistics  the  difTereuce  iu  favour  of  women  amounts 

only   1  per  cent      Dr.  Hugh  WiugfieM,  when  Demonstrator 

Physiology  at  Cambridge,  hypnotised  152  undergraduates,  and 

failed  in   about   20    per  cent  of  the  total   number  tried. 


63 


HYPNOTISM 


As  there  was  never  more  thaa  one  attempt  made  with  the  same 
Bubject,  this  undoubtedly  underrates  the  susceptibility.     Esdaile'e 
patients,  with  very  few  exceptions,  were  maltss,  and  Li^beault  and 
others  have  remarked   upon   the  ease  with  which  soldiers   and   ■ 
sailors  can  be  hypnotised.  f 

My  own  observations  agree  with  these.     lu  Table  A  all  the 
males  were  hypnotised,  the  only  refractory  cases  in  the  entire    ■ 
group  of  about  500  being  two  females,  both  hysterical.  I 

(5)  Age. — Accordiug  to  most  authorities,  children  are  more 
easily  hypnotised  than  adults.  Wetterstrand  found  that  all 
children  from  3  or  4  to  15  years  of  age  could  be  influenced 
without  exception :  his  youngest  successful  patient  being  2^ 
years  old.  IJiirillon,  out  of  250  cases  in  children,  hypnotised 
80  per  cent  at  the  tirst  attempt  Li<5beault  also  found  them 
peculiarly  susceptible,  and  one  of  his  statistical  tables  records 
100  per  cent  of  successes  up  to  the  age  of  14.  In  adult  life,  _ 
age,  apparently,  makes  little  di£fereuce;  in  the  same  table  we  find  I 
that  from  the  ages  of  14  to  21  the  failures  were  about  10  per 
cent,  and  from  63  years  and  upwards  about  13  per  cent  The 
following  figures  illustrate  the  influence  of  age  upon  susceptibility 
in  744  of  Lidbeault's  patients : — 


Up  to  7  years  of 

ftge 

. 

Total  2a 

No  failures. 

a 

From     7  to  14  y 

ears 

of 

age 

It 

65. 

n 

% 

„     14  to  ai 

>t 

»f 

87. 

Failurea 

9,  or  10-3 

per  cent 

„     21  to  28 

)i 

i> 

98. 

»> 

9,  or    9-1 

»» 

„     28  to  35 

n 

II 

84. 

»» 

5,  or    B'9 

i> 

„     35  to  42 

»i 

»» 

85. 

i» 

7,  or    8-2 

II 

„     42  to  49 

t» 

n 

106. 

» 

13,  or  )2'2 

%i 

„     49  to  50 

»» 

(1 

68. 

i> 

3,  or    4-4 

» 

„     66  to  63 

ti 

i» 

69. 

It 

10,  or  14'4 

11 

„     63  and  upwoiv 

6 

. 

>t 

59. 

)» 

8,  or  13-5 

11 

Generally  spealiing,  I  have  found  children  more  susceptible 
than  adults>  my  youngest  successftd.  case  being  3  years  of  age. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  have  met  with  failures  within  the  ages  that 
Liebeault  and  AVetterstrand  found  invariably  susceptible. 

(6)  Social  Position.  —  Drs.  Dbllken  (Marburg)  and  Carl 
Gerster  (Munich)  state  that  a  marked  difference  exists  between 
the  lower  and  higher  classes,  the  latter  being  more  easily  hyp- 
notised. Bernheim  claims  to  have  succeeded  with  many  lutients 
belonging  to  the  ujtper  classes,  while  Wingfield,  as  we  have  seen, 
hypnotised   152  undergraduates  at  the  first  attempt.     Forel,  on 


SUSCEPTIBIUTV  TO  //VPNOS/S 


6J 


ke  other  band,  draws  atteutiou  to  the  fact  that  the  bulk  of 
Lic-beault's  patients  belonged  to  the  working  classes,  and  states 
that  unprcjndioed,  uneducated  people  are  as  a  rule  easily 
hypnotised. 
^p  As  far  as  my  observations  go,  the  induction  of  hyuosis  is  not 
^^nfluenced  by  the  social  position  of  the  patient.  It  is  true  that 
snsceptibibty  was  less  marked  in  Table  B  than  in  Table  A, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  majority  of  eases  in  the  former  were 
of  a  higher  rank  than  in  the  latter.  On  the  other  hand,  causes 
which  undoubtedly  intiuence  susceptibility  adversely  were  more 
marked  in  B,  and^  when  these  were  absent,  social  position  bad 
jipparently  no  effect. 

(7)  Physical  Condition. — According  to  Moll,  Li<^beault,  and 
others,  good  general  health  favours  the  induction  of  hypnosis. 
Many  of  my  most  successful  cases  were  strong  healthy  males, 
who   were    easily    hypnotised    for   operative    and    experimental 

^■purposes.      As  already  seen.  imder«^raduates,  soldiers  and  sailors 
^^enei-ally  proved  pootl  subjects. 

(8)  Sense -Stimulation. — Fixed  gazing,  the  sudden  Hashing  of 
a  bright  light,  revolving  mirrors,  monotonous  sound-s,  the  application 
of  hot  plates  to  the  head,  galvanism,  and  monotonous  stimulation  of 
the  cutaneous  nerves  by  means  of  passes,  have  all  been  employed 
in  the  induction  of  hypnosis.  What  part  these  methods  play  in 
increasing  susceptibility ;  how  much  is  due  to  dii-ect  physical, 
bow  much  to  indirect  mental,  inHuence,  it  is  difiicult  to  determine. 
In  Tabic  A,  where  with  few  exceptions  hypuosis  was  easily 
induced,  they  were  liardly  employed  at  all,  while  in  Table  B, 
especially  in   the   refractory   cases,  they  were  used   to  a  much 

^kreater  extent 

^K^    (9)  Mental  Oondition.  —  (a)  General  IiUdligcncc — Gerster 
^Hnfees  that  fdols  are  the  luast  susceptible  to  hypnosis,  whereas  the 
^^BKtelligent  man  with  the  well-balanced  brain  is  more  or  less  easily 
^"influenced.     Moll,  also,  finds  the  dull  and  stupid  difficult     Dr. 
vou  Ktufft-Ebing,  of  Yieuna,  and  Beruheim  hold  similar  views : 
the   fonner  states  that  intelligent  subjects  can   be  readily  hyp- 
notised,   and   the   latter  claims  to  have   succeeded  with  many 
highly  educated  persons ;  while  Forel  asserts  that  every  mentally 
healthy  man  is  naturally  hypnotisable.   With  these  opinions  I  agree; 
f(ir  I  have  found  the  stupid  and  unimaginative  more  dithcult  to 
infiuence  than  those  possessing  fair  intelligence. 


(b)  VMion  and  Attention. — It  is  Bometimes  stated  that 
feebleness  of  will  facilitates  the  induction  of  hypnosis,  but  tliis 
Moll  declares  to  be  erroneous.  The  subjects  must  be  able  to 
arrest  their  thoughts  and  direct  them  into  a  particular  channel — 
an  indication  of  strength,  not  weakness  of  will.  This  opinion  is 
shared  by  Kraftl-Kbing;  while  Forel  conBiiiere  that  subjects  who 
cannot  remain  mentally  passive,  and  who  analyse  their  own 
sensations,  are  difficult  to  influence.  Braid  considered  that  there 
was  a  direct  relation  between  tlie  power  of  concentrating  the 
attention  and  susceptibility.  Fixed  gazing  alone  would  not  excite 
liypnosis ;  the  attention  must  be  concentrated  on  some  non- 
excicing  object  or  idea — this  was  the  primary  and  imperative 
condition.  Amongst  my  own  patients,  I  have  usually  observed 
that  strength  of  will,  and  power  of  concentrating  the  attention, 
favoured  the  induction  of  liypnosis,  while  their  absence  had  an 
opposite  eilect. 

(c)  Faith. — Faith  alone  has  apparently  little  effect  on  sus- 
ceptibility. I  have  failed  with  subjects  who  firmly  believed  I 
could  hypnotise  them,  and  that  they  were  specially  susceptible. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  have  succeeded  with  many  who  were  con- 
vinced that  tliey  could  not  be  iiiHuenced.  Licgoois  says  it  is  not 
necessary  for  the  subject  to  have  faith,  as  the  magnetisers  used 
to  assert,  but  he  must  loyally  observe  the  prescribed  conditions, 
Forel  states  that  people  who  laugh  and  say  that  tiiey  cannot  be 
hypnotised  are  often  easily  influenced :  those  who  a  moment  or 
two  before  had  regarded  hypnotised  persons  as  impostors,  and  the 
operator  as  a  dupe,  were  ofttMi  quickly  hypnotised  before  they 
realised  what  was  taking  place. 

{d)  Self-Suffffe.it ion. — A  determination  to  resist  the  operator 
renders  the  induction  of  hypnosis  impossible.  Here  the  failure 
is  due  to  conscious  self-suggestion.  Some  of  my  unsuccessful  cases 
of  dipsomania,  who  only  agreed  to  be  treated  under  the  pressure 
of  their  relatives,  afterwanls  confessed  that  they  had  resisted 
every  attempt  to  induce  hypnosia.  The  involuutary  self- 
suggestion  of  the  patient  is  a  still  more  common  obstacle ;  but  to 
this  I  will  refer  when  dealing  with  niorbid  states. 

(c)  Imitation. — Many  operators  attach  much  importance  to 
the  influence  of  imitation  upon  susceptibility,  and  for  this 
reason  attempt  to  hypnotise  fresh  patients  in  the  presence  of 
others  who  are  put  to  sleep  before  them.     Licbeault  invariably 


I 

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SVSCEPTIBiUTY  TO  HYPNOSIS 


65 


liypnotised  his  poorer  patients  in  the  presence  of  each  other, 
and  refractory  subjects  amongBt  hia  private  ones  were  always 
broiiglit  to  his  clinique  iu  the  hope  that  they  might  be  influenced 
through  imitation.  Van  Eeden  and  van  Renterghem  usually 
h^'pnotise  more  than  one  patient  at  a  time  in  the  same  room. 
Bernheim  h)rpnoti3es  liis  hospital  patients  iu  the  wards,  and  tlius 
the  otliera  see  what  he  is  doing,  yorel  says  it  is  advantageous 
hypnotise  another  person  in  the  presence  of  the  patient,  and 

'attributes  much  of  Wetterstrand's  success  to  the  fact  that  he 
jenerally  treats  a  number  of  patients  simultaneously. 

AVith  the^  opinions  I  do  not  entirely  agree.    In  Tabic  A  sus- 

*ceptibiliiy  was  probably  increased  by  imitation,  but  the  patients 
in  Table  B  found  tliat  the  presence  of  others  embarrassed 
them  and  distracted  their  attention.  I  now  almost  invariably 
treat  each  patient  separately.  Before  beginning,  however,  I 
occasionally  hypnotise  an  old  patient  in  the  new  one's  presence ; 
and  possibly  this  sometimes  facilitates  matters  by  removing  fear, 

IVid  creating  a  %'ivid  picture  of  the  desired  condition. 
(/)  BehavimiT  of  SjHdators.  —  As  MoU  has  stated,  it  is 
jixtremely  important  that  spectators  should  maintain  silence  and 
BipeciaUy  refrain  from  exprnssing  doubt  or  mistrust  in  any  way, 
OS  the  least  word  or  gesture  may  thwart  the  attempt  to  induce 
hypnosis.  For  example,  I  was  once  asked  to  hypnotise  a  patient 
suflering  from  grave  and  long-standing  nervous  disease.  His 
medical  man,  in  introducing  me,  assured  him  that  I  had  the  power 
of  compelling  him  to  do  whatever  1  liked,  even  to  making  him  sign 
a  cheque  for  £20,000  in  my  favour.  Needless  to  say,  I  failed 
to  induce  Itypnosis.  The  thinl  attempt  was  more  promising  ;  but 
at  its  conchision  the  same  medical  man  remarked  to  the  patient 
aat  he  was  evidently  one  of  those  persons  whom  it  was  impossible 
hypnotise ! 
(10)  Morbid  Mental  and  Physical  Conditions. — («)  Menial 
cUeinfJit  ami  F»nr, — Fear,  with  its  attendant  mental  excite- 
Bent,  usually  prevents  the  induction  of  hypnosis.  In  England 
the  present  day  nearly  every  one  has  read,  and  been  more 
Br  leas  inHueucwl  by,  various  unfounded  new8i>aper  stories 
r^arding  the  dangers  of  liy[)noti8m.  The  public  genendly  has 
acoepted  the  misleading  statement  that  hypnosis  is  characterised 
by  unconsciousness  and  suspended  volition ;  and  while  patients 
are  under  the  intluence  of  these  ideas  it  is  diUicuIt  or  impossible 


I 


Ui  hypnotise  them.  In  such  cases  no  attempt  to  induce  hypnosis 
should  be  made  at  the  first  iuterview.  The  true  nature  of  the 
hypnotic  state  should  be  explained,  and  the  patient's  fears 
removed.  Above  everything  he  should  be  made  to  understand 
that  his  volition  will  not  be  intei-fered  with.  Forel>  too,  holds 
that  mental  excitement  is  unfavourable  to  the  production  of 
hyj>nosis,  and  fear  renders  it  impossible.  Thus,  he  says,  the  first 
attempt  to  induce  hypnosis  fi-etjuently  fails  because  the  patients 
imagine  tliat  extraordinary  things  are  going  to  huppen  to  tliem. 

(6)  Insaniij/,  Hysteria^  dc. — According  to  Beruheim,  it  is  a 
mistake  to  think  that  the  nervous,  weak-brained,  or  hysterical 
are  easy  to  influence ;  on  tlie  contrary  it  is  ofteu  difiicult  or  M 
impossible  to  hypnotise  those  suffering  from  mental  disorders.  ™ 
Moll  states  that  the  hysterical  are  particularly  difficult  to 
hypnotise.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  spirit  of  contradiction 
which  exists  in  such  patients,  and  the  opposing  self-suggestions 
that  result  from  it.  If  we  take,  he  says,  a  pathological  coudition 
of  the  organism  as  necessary  for  hypnosis,  we  shall  be  obliged  to 
conclude  that  nearly  every  one  is  not  quite  right  iu  the  head- 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  mentally 
unsound,  particularly  idiots,  even  if  not  wholly  insusceptible,  are 
still  very  much  more  difficult  to  hypnotise  than  the  healthy,  _ 
Wetterstrand  states  that  one  of  the  best  somnambules  he  ever  | 
saw  was  remarkable  for  good  health  and  freedom  from  uervoua- 
ness.  Fui'ther,  he  invariably  found  that  the  most  diiiicult  to 
influence  were  the  liysterical,  restless,  and  egotistical,  wlio  were 
nnable  to  concentrate  their  thoughts  and  attention. 

Gerster  says  the  daily  press  echoes  the  statement  that  it  is 
only  the  "  credulous  "  and  feeble-minded  who  can  be  hypnotised  ; 
the  opposite,  however,  is  correct  According  to  Forel.  all 
exi)erienced  operators  agree  that  the  insane  are  undoubtedly  the 
most  difficult  to  hypnotise.  With  patience  and  perseverance 
some  of  tiie  milder  forms  of  mental  disorder  may  be  influenced ; 
but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  hypnotise  those  who  are  suffering 
from  grave  insanity.  Here,  owing  to  the  continuous  cerebral 
irritation,  and  t!ie  fact  that  the  attention  is  fixed  exclusively 
upon  diseased  ideas,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  suggestion  to  find 
an  entrance  into  the  brain.  As  we  have  seen,  Esdaile's  patients 
were  regarded  as  hysterical,  but  he  pointed  out  that  hysteria 
was  unknown  in  liis  hospitals.     Braid  found  patients  with  very 


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SUSCEPTlBILiTY  TO  HYPNOSIS 


«7 


brains  difhcult  lo  influence,  and  entirely  failed  with  idiots, 
spite  mncli  perseverance. 
My  personal  obsen'ations  accord  with  these  views.      Nearly 
my  dithcult  and  refractory  cases  suffered  from  some  form  of 
nervous  disease ;  and  I  have,  as  a  general  nde,  found  that  the 
Ldifficulty  in  inducing  hypnosis  bore  a  direct  proportion  to  the 
Fgravity  and    duration  of  the  mental  disturbance.       The  tables 
already  referred  to  illustrate  this.     Id  A,  2  cases  were  experi- 
mental and  22  were  hypuotiseil  for  minor  o])enition3 :   botti  the 
former  and  most  of  the  latter  were  in  good  liealth,  while  the 
ajority  of  the  remainder  neither  suffered  from  grave  disease, 
aor  had  been  ill  long. 

In  Table  B,  there   were   12  experimental   and  2    operative 
all  in  good  healtii.      Tlie  remainder  suffered  from  grave  and 
Tong-standing   disease,    such    as    insanity,    dipsomania,    hysteria, 
^neurasthenia,  and  the  like. 

^fe       Aa  the  existence  of  nervous  diseases  apparently  lessens  the 
^ftnsceptibility  to  hypnosis,  I  now  propose  to  consider  the  diflerent 
^nxiuditiuns  assticiated  with   tliese  affections  which  apparently  funn 
obetacles  to  success. 

(a)  Aitttd'wn. — I   have   hitherto   failed   to  hypnotise   idiots, 

K apparently  becau.se  they  jK)8sess  little  spontaneous  and  no  volun- 
%rf  attention.  Tlie  condition  of  the  attention  in  hysteria, 
leurasthenia,  and  certain  types  of  insanity  forma  a  serious,  but  not 
nsuperable,  obstacle  to  the  production  of  hypnosis.  It  is  necessary, 
first,  that  the  |>atieut  should  attend  to  and  understand  the 
operator's  description  of  the  phenomena  of  restfulness,  drowsiness, 
iethai^,  etc,  which  it  is  desired  to  evoke,  and,  secondly,  that  he 
should  be  able  to  fix  hia  attention  on  some  inanimate  object  or 
monotonous  Iraiu  of  thotii^ht.  In  the  cases  just  referred  to  this 
result  is  particularly  ditlicult  to  obtaiu.  The  patient's  attention 
is  concentrated  upon  his  own  diseased  condition,  and  he  is  con- 
fitantly  watcliing,  aualysiuj;;,  and  exaggerating  his  symptoms.    Some- 

ICimes,  as  in  hysterical  melauclioUa  and  certain  forms  of  obsession, 
Die  patient  is  a  prey  to  a  continued  flow  of  unhappy  thon|>ht, 
■rbich  he  is  inca|«ble  of  airesting.  At  others,  the  physical  cou- 
btioD  renders  hypnosis  difficult,  since  the  various  forms  of 
hysterical  tremor  and  spasm  absorb  the  attention,  and  make 
mental  quietude  impossible.     Pain  is  also  an  obstacle. 

{i)  Duralio^ti  of  Ulneu. — Prolonged  illness  is  undoubtedly  un- 


favourable  to  the  production  of  hypnosis.  Here  the  morbid 
symptoms  have  become  ingrained,  as  it  were,  while  the  failure  of 
all  previous  treatment  has  rendered  tlie  patients  hopeless.  fl 

(c)  Self- Suggestion. — Tlie  conditions  just  referred  to  give 
rise  to  various  forms  of  self-sugyestion  antagonistic  to  the 
operator.  Thus,  the  failure  of  other  forms  of  treatment  excites 
the  self-suggestion  that  hypnotism  will  also  prove  unsuccess- 
ful. The  patients,  wlm  are  constantly  analyainj;  their  own 
Bensations,  are  also  self-suggestionists  who  arc  only  interested  in 
themselves.  One  of  my  patients,  for  example,  who  had  suffered  from 
hysterical  neurasthenia  for  twelve  years,  finally  regarded  all  her 
symptoms  as  the  result  of  medical  treatment.  Tims,  pain  in  thefl 
head  was  due  to  galvanism,  in  another  part  of  the  l)ody  to 
massage — in  fact  a  number  of  localised  painful  regions  were 
labelled  with  tlie  names  of  the  medical  men  who  had  attended 
her.  Hypnotism  was  not  more  fortunate.  Not  only  did  fixed 
gazing  speetlily  produce  headache  nnd  nausea,  but  pnsses  made 
behind  the  patient's  hack  at  a  distance  of  20  feet — though  with 
her  knowledge — frequently  excited  actual  vomiting,  h 

(11)  Natural   Somnambulism  and  Hysterical   Sleep. — 1| 
have  had  no  opportunity  of  attempting  to  induce  primary  hypnosis 
during  cither  of  the  above-mentioned  states.     Beaunis  and  other 
authorities,  however,  consider  that  susceptibility  to  hypnosis  ia 
increased    during    natural    somnambulism.      Gerater    found    that 
children   who,   without   being    actual    somnambules,   talked   and 
answered   questions   in    their  sleep,  could    be   easily  hypnotised. 
Schrenck-Notzing  states  that  hysterical  attacks  of  sleep  favour  the  I 
induction  of  hypnosis,  and  that  the  one  condition  can  be  chauged  " 
into  the  other. 

(12)  Natural  Sleep. — Renunis,  Moll.  Wetterstrand,  Schrenck- 
Notzing,  Cischeidlcn,  Baillif,  Berger,  Bernheim,  Forel,  Gerster,  and 
other  obsen'ers,  assert  that  natural  sleep  increases  the  suscepti- 
bility to  hypnosis,  and  cite  many  instances  in  which  the  one  has 
been  changed  into  the  other.  A  like  opinion  was  expressed  at  an 
earlier  date  by  Bertrand.  1  have,  however,  been  unable  to  con- 
finn  these  observations.  In  several  instances  I  have  attempted  t 
change  natuml  sleep  into  hypnosis  by  the  method  described  by 
"Wetterstrand,  but  always  without  success.  The  cases,  however, 
were  all  difllcult  ones  in  which  many  unsuccessful  attempts  had 
previously  been  made. 


I- 

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i^c 


(IJ)  Narcotics. — Various  narcotic  drugs  have  boon  employed 
from  very  early  times  aa  a  meaus  uf  increasing  susceptibility  to 
hypnosis.  Esdaile  and  Braid  cited  opium,  hemp,  aconite, 
liyoscyamus,  laurel  leaves,  wine,  ether  aud  cliloroform  amongst 
the  substances  which  were  supposed  to  have  this  effect,  l^embeim 
finds  that  susceptibility  is  incretised  by  repeated  doses  of  chloral 
and  injections  of  mori)liia  Claude  Penouuet  states  that  chloro- 
form, belladonna,  etlier,  stmiaoiiium  aud  hyoscyamua  favour  the 
production  of  hypnosis,  According  to  Schrenck-Notzing,  the 
general  influence  exercised  upon  the  nervous  system  by  narcotics 
markedly  increiises  susceptibility.  He,  like  Braid,  considers 
Cannabis  Indica  the  best  drug  for  this  purpose,  hut  lie  has  also 
found  chloroform,  morpliia,  sulplional,  bromide  of  potassium, 
paraldehyd  aud  alcohol  useful,  liifat  8tat€S  that  susceptibility  is 
so  enormously  increased  by  the  action  of  narcotic  remedies  that, 
by  their  means,  hypnosis  ought  to  be  obtained  in  almost  every 
instance.     Some  authorities,   particularly   Herrero,  attAch   much 

[iportance  to  the  influence  of  chloroform.  Wetterstrand  does 
not  always  succeed  in  inducing  hypnosis  by  the  aid  of  chloroform  ; 
but   in    several  instances,   when   other    methods  had  failed,    it 

i&bled  him  to  obtain  profound  somnambulism.  Korel  has 
only  tried  on  two  occasions  to  change  chloroform  narcosis  into 
hypnosis ;    both   attempts  failed,  but   the   cases  were  extremely 

ifficult  ones. 

I    have    employed    chloroform    in   three    instances    without 

ccess.     In  the  first  case,  a  lady  about  40  years  of  age,  suffering 
im   hysterical  neurasthenia,  chloroform   was    administered   on 

veral   occasions ;    suggestions  being  given   until  deep  narcosifl 

lis  obtained,  and  also  while  this  was  passing  off.      In  the  second 
case,  a  girl  aged  12,  suffering  from  moral  insanity,  chloroform  was 
o  administered.     In  the  third  case,  a  patient  in  the  National 

ospital  fur  Nervous  Diseases,  several  attempts  were  made  to 
induce  hy]>nosis  under  tlie  influence  of  chlorot'orni ;  but  these 
invariably  failed  :  later,  when  the  patient  came  to  my  own 
bouse,  T  succeeded  in  hyi^iotising  her  by  ordinary  methods.  I 
have  occasionally  given  chloral,  bromide  and  Cannabis  Indica,  but 

iihoui  any  definite  increase  of  susceptibility.     These  negative 
lults,  however,  all  occurred  in  extremely  difficult  cases. 
(14)  Operator. — While  the  subjective  nature  of  hypnolac 

Lenomena  is  accepted,  most  authorities  still  attach  importance 


to  the  personal  intluence  of  the  operator.  Bernheira  asserts  that 
every  hospital  physiciau ought  to  be  able  to  hypnotise  80  percent 
of  his  patients:  and  that,  if  he  cannot  do  this,  his  failure  results 
from  lack  of  experience  or  of  other  qimlities  necessar}*  for  success. 
Forel  agrees  with  this  opinion,  with  the  limitation,  however, 
that  the  insane  be  excluded  from  the  statistics.  M 

According  to  Moll,  it  is  absoltttely  indispensable  that  the  " 
operator  should   possess   practical  experience  of  the  methods   of 
inducing  hypnosis,  and  at  the  same  time  be  acquainted  with  the  fl 
varj-ing  mental  conditions  of  mankind.      It  is  only,  he  says,  by 
experience  and  power  of  observation  that  one  is  enabled  to  choose 
tlie  method  the  most  likely  to  succeed.     Easy  subjects  can  be 
hypnotised    by    any   one,  hut  the   difficult   by   the    experienced  h 
operator  alone.     The  influence   of    one   person  over  another   is  | 
dependent  on  the  individuality  of  both.     Thus  A,  for  example, 
can  be   hypnotised    by   B,   while  he   remains  refractory  to   the 
efforts  of  C.     On  the  other  hand,  D  can  be  hypnotised  by  C,  but 
not  by  B.      Aloll  cnmpares  this  influence    to   that   which    exists 
between  teacher  and  pupil,  and  to  other  natural  relationships. 
The  successful  operator,  he  says,  must  be  calm,  tactful,  and  patient. 
It  is  thus  much  easier  to  write  prescriptions  than  to  spend  hours 
daily  in  the  attempted  induction  of  hypnosis. 

In  KraflVEbing's  opinion,  the  application  of  suggestion  ib  a 
complicated  psychological  process  and  not  mere  talking.  Schrenck- 
Notzing  considers  that  while  the  technique  can  be  learnt  by 
study  and  practice,  the  physician  who  is  a  good  psychologist  will 
always  be  the  most  successful  in  influencing  his  patients.  The 
individuality  of  the  operator  is  of  greater  importance  than 
mechanical  and  artificial  methods. 

Forel  siiys  the  operator  must  be  enthusiastic*  patient,  con- 
fident, and  fertile  of  resource  in  varying  his  methods.  The 
greatest  obstacle  to  success  is  lack  of  interest  and  of  personal 
initiative;  and  those  who  try  to  hypnotise  meclmuically  by  a 
given  plan  frequently  fail.  The  operator  must  be  free  from 
distrust  and  nervousness,  and  not  easily  depressed  or  fatigued : 
it  is  essential  that  he  should  understand,  and  know  how  to  manage, 
the  mental  condition  of  bis  patieuta.  He  nmst  be  able  to  obtain 
their  consent  to  the  attempted  induction  of  hypnosis  ;  tactfully 
remove  their  fears  by  explaining  that  nothing  unnatural 
mystical   is   going   to   take    place ;    keep    ihem   from    beco: 


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SUSCEPTIBILITY  TO  HYPNOSIS 


7t 


raeotally  excited  or  nervous ;  and  remove  the  idea  that  sleep  is 
necessary  for  the  success  of  the  experiment. 
^L        Verbal  suggestion  is  the  method  now  mainly  relied  on  for 
^the  induction  of  hypnosis ;  and  both  the  character  of  the  sug- 
gestions, and  the  ninnner  in  which  they  are  conveyed  undoubtedly 
influence    susceptibility.       The   skilful    operator  arouses  in   the 
patient's  miud  the  image  or  piclure  of  the  hypnotic  state,  and  at 
the  same  time  evokes   the  expectation  of  its   appearance.     He 
directs  the  patient's  mind  to  the  sensations  he  is  actually  ex- 
periencing, and  utilises  these  as  the  starting-point  from  which 
he  suggests  others  which  lie  wishes  him  to  feel. 
^L        In  ForeVs  opinion,  something  more  is  wanted  in  the  operator 
^■thau  patience  ami  persevenmce.     He  must  be  able  to  inspire  his 
patients  with  the  same  qualities ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  an  easy 
matter  to  persuade  a  patient  to  undergo  a  hundred  or  more  unsuc* 
cessful  attempts  to  induce  hypnosis.     Forel  also  draws  attention  to 
the  fact  that  at  Nancy,  where  a  number  of  patients  are  hypnotised 
in  one  room,  the  operator  makes  his  suggestions  in  a  loud  voice 
and  thus  they  are  heard  by  every  one.     Wetterstrand,  on  the 
contrary,  whispers  his  suggestions  softly  to  each  patient  in  turn, 
BAnd  this,  Forel  thinks,  increases  susceptibility. 
"       (15)  Number   of  Attempts. — Lloyd   Tuckey  says:    "My 
practice  is  to  make  three  or  four  attempts  to  hypnotise  and,  if 
no  effect  is  produced,  I  feel  that  the  subject  is  not  susceptible 
I  have  occasionally,  in  special  cases,  made  five  or  six  attempts, 
but  so  far  I  have  almost  invariably  found  that  if  no  effect  is 
produced  al  the  tliird  sitting  it  is  useless  to  moke  further  efforts, 
^^  least  for  some  time  to  come."     Very  different  views  are  held 
^pby  other  observers.     According  to  Forel.  much  time  and  perse- 
verance is  often  necessary  in  obstinate  cases,  and  with   these  the 
atterapta  should  bo  repeated  fiequently  and  with  short  intervals 
between  them. 

^MoU  holds  that  the  repetition  of  the  process  is  an  important 
;tor    in    the    induction    of    hypnosis;    the    clmnce    iucreasiiig 
ormously  with  the  frequency  of  the  sittings.     He  has,  he  says, 
sometimes  made  forty  or  more  attempts  without  result  and  then, 
^^y  further  repetitions,  finally  succeeded  in   many  of  the  cases. 
^P^etterstrand  rarely  induces  hypnosis  at  the  first  attempt,  and, 
olthough  he  usually  does  so  at  the  thini  or  fourth,  has  sometimes 
jiiud  us  many  as  seventy  sittings  necessary.     In  one  case  Dr. 


Oflkar  Vogt,  of  Berlin,  only  succeeded  In  obtaining  stnnnauibulism 
after  500.  and  in  auotlier  after  700  sittings.  In  many  of  my 
cases  which  yielded  the  best  therapeutic  results,  hypnosis  was 
only  obtained  after  repeated  failures.  In  extreme  instances  the 
number  of  these  amounted  to  over  100. 

Conclusion. — As  a  general  rule  I  have  found  the  nervous, 
ill-balanced  and  hysterical  the  most  difficult  to  influence ;  and 
healthy  people,  who  possessed  the  power  of  cancentrnting  their 
attention,  the  easiest.  Exceptions  have  oecun'ed,  however,  and 
I  have  sometimes,  though  rarely,  succeeded  at  the  first  attempt 
in  inducing  deep  hypnosis,  and  even  somnambulism,  in  patients 
suffering  from  hysteria;  and  this  despite  the  presence  of  pain, 
muscular  tremor  or  spasm. 

Deyond  lliis,  however,  and  the  effect  uf  the  other  causes  just 
referred  to,  the  varying  susceptibihty  to  hypnosis  is  sUU  difficult  M 
to  explain,  l-'or  example,  I  have  seen  nothing  elsewhere  which  ™ 
e'lualled  the  susce[>til»ilily  of  my  own  patients  at  Goole.  Further, 
although  my  therapeutic  results  of  late  years  have  not  fallen  H 
below  those  obtained  in  the  second  group  of  patients  treated  at  " 
Goole — those  not  drawn  from  my  own  practice — the  api)arent 
susceptibility  to  hypnosis  has  been  much  leas. 

It  is  dirticult  to  estimate  correctly  tlie  conditions  responsible 
for  these  varying  results,  and  I  cannot  believe  tlmt  there  was  any 
inherent  peculiarity  in  the  inhabitants  of  Goole,  wliicli  rendered 
them  specially  susceptible  to  hypnosis.  The  following  facts, 
however,  are  worthy  of  note  : — 

(1)  Before  beginning  hj'pnotic  work,  I  had  already  been 
sixteen  years  in  general  practice  at  Goole,  and  had  gained  my 
patients*  confideuce. 

(2)  At  that  time  liypnotism  had  not  been  discussed  in  news* 
paper  and  magazine  articles,  aud  no  dread  as  to  its  results  had 
been  excited. 

(3)  As  already  stated,  moat  of  my  earlier  patients  were  I»yp- 
notised  either  for  operative  purposes,  or  for  the  relief  of  illness, 
which  was  neither  grave  nor  of  long  standing. 

The  dlRerence  in  susceptibility,  between  the  first  and  second 
groups  referred  to  above,  may  be  explained  by  tlie  fact  that  the 
conditions  which  characteiiaed  the  former  were  absent  from  the 
latter.  Thus,  those  of  the  second  group  were  all  strangers  to 
me,  and  nearly  all  sutlered  from  grave  and  long-standing  disease. 


I 


SUSCEFTrBJUTY  TO  NYPNOSIS 


71 


The  patients  I  have  treated  of  late  years,  however,  are  of 
ictly  the  same  type  as  those  of  the  second  group.  Notwith- 
standing this,  my  percentage  of  cases  of  profound  hypnosis  has 
fallen  to  the  average  given  by  Schrenck-Notziug's  statistics.  I 
can  only  account  for  this  by  the  alteration  in  method  already 
referred  to.  Formerly,  curative  suggestions  were  not  given  until 
hypnosis  was  induced;  now  they  are  employed  from  the  very 
beginning,  and  I  frequently  find  that  recovery  takes  place  before 
the  patients  show  any  symptom  of  undoubted  hypnosis.  My 
first  aim  is  no  longer  the  hypnotic  state,  but  direct  hypnotic 
cure. 

Whether  all  the  patients,  who  recover  under  this  form  of 
treatment,  have  been  really  hypnotised  is  a  question  which  will 
ie  discussed  later.  If  hypnosis,  as  Hernheim  says,  is  nothiug 
l)iit  suggestion,  then,  in  that  sense,  they  have  been  hypnotised. 
)n  the  other  hand,  if  we  accept  Braid's  conception  of  hypnosis, 
HQ  must  answer  the  (question  in  the  negative. 


CHAPTEK   V. 

THK    EXPERIMKNTAL    PHENOMENA    OF    HYPNOSIS. 

Hypxotic  phenomena  were  foi*raerly  supposed  to  owe  their  origin 
to  purely  j)hyaical  stimuli.  Ah  we  have  aeeu,  metals  aud  magueta, 
when  applied  to  the  subject's  skin,  or  even  held  at  some  distance 
from  his  body,  were  alleged  to  produce  extraordinary  and  varying 
results.  These  statements,  now  generally  regarded  as  entirely 
fallacious,  will  be  again  refeiTed  to  in  discussing  hypnotic  theories- 

On  the  other  hand,  phenomena  such  as  those  about  to  be 
described  are  now  held  to  be  due  to  s^g^estion.  TIic  importance, 
however,  of  the  part  played  by  suggestion  is  varyingly  estimated 
by  different  authorities ;  some  assert  that  it  explains  the  pheno- 
mena, others  liold  that  it  is  simply  the  artifice  used  to  excite 
them.  This  point,  an  important  one  in  reference  to  hypnotic 
theory,  will  also  be  discussed  later. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  phenomena  about  to  be 
described  arise  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  placed ;  the 
arrangement  is  a  purely  artificial  one  a<lopted  for  convenience' 
sake.  Later,  attempts  at  classification  will  be  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  "  The  Different  Stages  of  Hypnosis."  Meanwhile,  it  fl 
should  be  understood  tliat  all  the  phenomena  cited  cannot  be 
elicited  in  every  subject.  In  slight  hypnosis  the  phenomena  are 
neither  so  varied  nor  so  striking  as  those  occiuriiig  in  deeper  stages ; 
but  most,  if  not  all,  tend  lo  show  a  conti'ol  of  the  organism 
in  excess  of  that  exerted  by  volition  acting  iu  the  normal  state. 


(I.)  THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS. 

(A)  Changes  in  the  Voluntary  Muscular  System. 

The  first  muscular  change  observed  in  hypnosis  is  usually  a 
sudden  or  gradual  closing  of  the  eyes.     The  appearance  of  the  lids 

74 


K: 


au 

t: 


varies;  sometimes  they  are  closed  more  lightly  than  natural  by 
muscular  spasm,  at  otbera  they  are  uot  quite  shut,  aiid  a  portion  of 
the  eyeball  remains  visible.  When  closed,  the  eyelids  either  remain 
motionless,  or  quiver  as  long  as  the  hypnosis  lasts.  In  some 
instances,  just  before  or  immediately  after  the  closure  of  the  lids, 

e  eyeballs  roll  upwards — usually,  however,  quickly  returuing  to 
the  nrvrmal  position.  Occasionally  the  eyeballs  turn  inwards  as 
well  as  upwards ;  in  one  case  I  observed  both  were  turned  to  the 
left^  In  many  cases  of  deep  hypnosis,  however,  the  eyes  remain 
open,  not  only  in  the  state  itself,  but  also  while  it  is  being  in- 
duced ;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  niost,  if  uot  nil,  of  these  changes 

ally  depend  ujwn  the  methods  employed  by  the  oi)erator. 

In  a  certain  proportion  of  hypnotic  subjects  the  limbs  can  be 

nt  at  the  joints  like  soft  wax,  and  maintain  any  position  in 
which  they  are  placeil ;  this  condition  is  termed  fleribilitas  cerea. 

According  to  Piernheira,  catalepsy  can  be  induced  in  all  subjects 
who  have  passed  the  first  stage.  The  amount  of  mu.scular 
contraction  varies  widely,  sometimes  being  barely  sufhcieut  to 
maintain  an  upraised  limb  in  position,  at  others  passing  into  a 
tonic  contracture  of  nearly  all  the  voluntary  muscles.  Moll 
asserts  that  a  cataleptic  posture  was  maintained  for  seventeen 
hours  in  one  instance,  and  also  cites  a  case  of  Berger's,  where  a 
young  girl,  although  continually  watched,  was  said  to  remain  in 
this  condition  seven  hours  without  perceptible  change.  At  the 
same  time,  Moll  admits  that  dynamonietric  investigations  do  not 
give  very  definite  results ;  he  thinks  they  show  a  slight  decrease 
of  muscular  power  in  hypnosis.  Binet  and  YM  state  that  a 
cataleptic  subject  cannot  remain  in  a  constrained  position  for 
more  than  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  that  a  similar  feat  might 
be  performed  by  a  strong  man.  Notwithstanding  this,  they  think 
j|he  following  important  differences  exist  between  suggested  and 

hintary  muscular  contraction.  An  arm  made  rigid  by  sugges- 
tion drops  slowly  and  gently,  and  records  a  perfectly  straight 
tracing  on  Marey's  apparatus ;  the  respiratory  tracing  being  also 
normal.  In  similar  experiments  in  the  waking  state,  the  hand 
and  arm  soon  tremble,  and  the  breathing  becomes  hurried  and 
lar. 
Carpenter  stated  that  a  marked  increase  of  wnscular  power 
frequently  inducetl  by  suggestion.     One  of  Braid's  subjects, 

lO  was  80  muscularly  feeble  that  for  years  he  had  been  unable 


I 


to  lift  a  weight  of  twenty  pounds,  took  n  qunrtcr  of  a  liiindred- 
weiglit  upon  his  little  tiugcr  and  swung  it  round  his  head  with 
the  utmost  ease.  Ou  another  occasion,  he  raised  half  a  hundred- 
weight as  high  as  his  knee  on  the  lust  joint  of  his  foreSnger. 

Continued  m/yvemmis,  sometimes  of  a  complicated  nature,  may 
bo  induced  in  hypnosis  and  maintained  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
period. 

Various  changes  of  ptrsoiiality  can  be  suggested  during 
hypnosis,  when  the  control  of  the  muscular  movements,  necessary 
for  representing  the  different  ])arts,  is  frequently  apjiarently  greater 
than  that  possessed  by  the  subjects  in  their  normal  state. 

Echolalia. — According  to  Berger,  hypnotised  subjects  are 
capable  of  repeating  everything  like  phonoj.Taphs.  The  most 
interesting  instance  of  this  phenomenon  is  cited  by  Braid.  One 
of  his  subjects,  a  young  work-girl,  who  did  not  know  the  grammar 
of  her  own  language  and  was  entirely  ignorant  of  music,  correctly 
accompanied  Jenny  Lind  in  8e\eral  songs  in  dift'ereut  languages, 
and  also  in  a  long  and  diflficult  chromatic  exemise  which  was 
Bpecially  improvised  in  order  to  test  her. 

Many  obseners  have  noticed  au  absence  of  mutevJar  tcdiurti. 
Thus,  when  uncomfortable  jfositious  are  suggested  or  assumed 
during  hypnosis,  the  fatigue  and  pain  which  usually  follow 
excessive  muscular  exertion  are  apparently  absent. 

Paralysis. — ^Tlie  diffei-ent  voluntary  muscles  may  be  paralysed 
singly  or  in  groups.  In  some  cases  the  paralysis  is  apparently 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  muscles  necessary  for  the  performance  of 
any  given  movement  do  not  cxintract ;  in  other  instances  the 
necessary  muscles  act,  but  are  overpowered  by  the  violent  con- 
traction of  the  antagonistic  ones. 

According  to  Urs.  Paul  Richer  and  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  of 
l*iiris,  hyi)notic  paralyses  are  characterised  by  the  following  features 
which  tlistiuguish  tliem  from  those  of  an  organic  nature,  viz. 
complete  laxity  of  tlie  limbs,  exaggeration  of  tendon  reHexes,  spinal  ■ 
trepidation,  loss  of  mu.scular  sense,  exaggeration  and  modilicatioa 
of  the  muscular  contractions  provoked  by  the  galvanic  current,  and 
vasomotor  troubles.  These  oliservations  have  not  been  conHmted  ■ 
by  the  Nancy  school.  Moll,  for  example,  after  repeated  experi- 
ments, found  no  difference  between  the  electric  excitability  of 
the  nerves  and  iimscles  in  the  hypnotic  and  the  normal  states. 

Most  of  the  muscular  phenomena  just  referred  to  are  suppoeed 


I 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA   OF  HYPNOSIS     77 


to  have  been  excited  by  direet  verbal  suggestion,  wliile,  as  regards 
the  remainder,  the  exclusion  of  suggestion  is  not  proved.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Salpetriurci  school,  however,  certain  abnormalities 
apiH.'ur  in  the  voluntary  muscles  during  the  respective  stages  of 
hypnosis,  which  are  not  of  psychical  origin,  and  arise  independently 
of  suggestion  in  response  to  physical  stimuli.     These  are : — 

(1)  Lethargfy. — The  limbs  are  relaxed  and  fall  by  their  own 
weight ;  the  tendon  reflex  is  increased.  There  is  neuro-muscular 
hyperexcitability.  i.e.  the  muscles  tend  to  contract  under  the 
intiuence  of  mechanical  stimuli,  whether  applied  to  tendon, 
or  nerves  of  supply,  or  the  muscles  themselves.  Excitation  of 
the  antagonistic  muscles  causes  the  contracted  ones  to  relax. 

(2)  Catalepsy. — Every  position  given  to  the  limbs  is  main- 
tained for  some  time ;  there  is  neither  tendon  reSex  nor  increase 
of  muscular  irritability. 

(3)  Somnambulism. — Gentle  stimulation  of  the  skin  causes 
rigid  contraction  of  the  underlying  muscles,  which  does  not  cease 
when  the  antagonistic  ones  are  excited,  but  disappears  when  the 
original  stimulation  is  repeated.  Further,  the  muscles  do  not 
contract  if  subjected  to  the  same  stimuli  which  excite  them 
when  the  subject  is  in  the  Icthurgic  condition. 

The  phenomena  just  described  are  now  generally  regarded  as 
artificial  in  their  origin,  but  this  point  will  be  discussed  under 
Theory." 

Remarks.  —  All    the    new    reflexes    described    by    Charcot, 

loidenhain,    and  others   are  apparently  due  to  suggestion  and 

training;   and,  as  Moll  has  pointed  out,  the  supposed  alteration 

^iii  the  ordinary  teudou  retlexes  is  open  to  doubt.     Thus,  there  is 

in  increase  in  the  patellar  reflex  when  the  muscles  are  completely 

'relaxeil  by  suggestion,  and  a  decrease  when  they  arc  rigid. 

kAccordiug    to    Moll,    the    continued    and     other    forms    of 
Quscular  contractions  observed   in   hypnosis  take  place  cither 
rithout  or  against  the  will  of  the  subject     In  the  former  case 
hey  are  executed  easily  and  steadily ;    in  the  latter,  they  are 
characterised  by  strong   muscular   contractions   and  trembling, 
^Kiiidicating  iuefTectual  resistance  to  the  will  of  the  operator,  and 
^Plhoreby  showing  an  increased  depth  of  hypnosis.    The  phenomena 
Moll  describes  do  not,  1  think,  warrant  liis  conclusions  as  to  the 
state  of  the  subject's  volition.     This  will  be  discussed  more  fully 
@r :  meanwhile,  I  may  point  out  that  the  operator  may  have 


VT 


unconsciously  suggested  an  unsuccessful  resistance  to  the  execu- 
tion of  the  movement. 

In  order  to  induce  the  muscular  movements,  the  subject,  saje 
Moll,  must  thoroughly  understand  what  the  ojjerator  wisbea. 
"While  Moll  ndmits  that  the  cumraou  and  most  natural  way  of 
eHecting  this  is  by  telling  the  subject  what  he  should  do,  i.e.  the 
method  of  *'  verbal  suggestion,"  he,  at  the  same  time,  states  that 
verbal  suggestion  is  made  more  effectual  by  means  of  the  oj.ierator's 
gestures.  Furblier,  he  asserts  that  certain  muscular  phenomena, 
such  as  catalepsy',  cannot  always  he  excited  by  mere  verbal 
suggestion,  and  then  mesmeric  passes  are  necessary  in  order  to 
produce  them.  Tliese  views  cannot  be  accepted  unquestioned. 
Braid  long  ago  pointed  out  that  tlie  passes  and  gestures  of  the 
operator,  together  witli  the  placing  of  the  hypnotised  subject  iu 
ditfereut  attitudes,  constituted  only  a  clumsy  and  indirect  method 
of  arousing  in  his  mind  the  Idea  of  certain  muscular  movements ; 
whereas  the  very  same  idea  and  cousequeut  movements  were 
more  easily  excited  by  direct  verbal  suggestion. 

It  is  true  that  the  hypnotised  subject's  powers  of  perception 
ai*e  frequently  increased,  thus  enabling  him  to  interpret  indii-ect 
BugLj:estious  which  might  be  meaningless  to  him  when  awake. 
Furtlier,  his  power  of  hearing,  comprehending,  and  responding  to 
direct  verbal  suggestion  is  also  greater  than  in  the  normal  state. 
All  these  gestures,  passes  and  other  indirect  suggestions,  appear 
to  me  very  much  in  the  light  of  "baby  language"  or  comic 
jmntomime.  If  we  wiah  to  induce  a  noruml  individual  to  escape 
from  danger,  as,  for  example,  the  presence  of  a  lion,  we  tell  him 
that  one  is  near,  and  that  he  ought  to  get  out  of  the  way  as 
quickly  as  possible.  We  should  not  dream  of  attempting  to 
inlluence  liim  by  going  down  on  all  fours  and  roaring ;  and  I  see 
no  reason  for  conveying  suggestions  to  hypnotised  subjects  in 
similar  ridiculous  ways.  Moll  himself  admits  that  mesmeric 
passes  are  only  responded  to  when  the  individual  knows  wliat 
they  are  intcuded  to  effect  He  also  states  that  while  centrifugal 
passes  excite  contractions  nnd  centrii>etal  ones  dissipate  them, 
such  action  is  apparently  due  tn  unintentional  suggestion,  as  he 
has  often  found  their  effects  reversed.  Surely  the  recognition  of 
this  fact  should  have  prevented  Moll  from  attributing  a  greater 
power  to  passes  than  to  verbal  suggestion. 

Although  Moll  asserts  that  the  voluntary  muscles  are  entirely 


A, 


under  the  influence  of  external  suggestion  during  bypnosis>  he 
also  describes  conditions  in  which  suggestion  is  stated  to  have 
little  or  no  effect.  He  divides  hypnotised  subjects  into  two 
groups  according  to  their  condition:  (1)  Active;  this  state  on 
superQcial  observation  might  be  mistaken  for  the  waking  one. 
{2)  Passive;  characterised  by  muscular  relaxation.  In  both 
there  is,  he  says,  resistance  to  suggestion.  Thus,  in  No.  1, 
when  a  continued  movement  has  been  suggested.  Moll  finds  it 
impossible,  iti  some  instances,  to  at  once  counteract  the  first 
suggestion  by  a  second — the  movement  being  continued  despite 
the  operator's  command.  In  No.  2,  in  spite  of  all  suggestions, 
the  subjects  let  their  arms  drop  after  they  have  been  raised,  and 
<lo  not  respond  to  questions.  Moll  asserts — the  italics  are  liia 
own — that :  "  Otu  of  these  two  functional  abnorvialilm  of  the 
tnuscUs  exists  in  all  ht/j^jwiic  states,"  ie.  a  movement  which  has 
been  excited  by  suggestion  cannot  always  be  terminated  in  the 
fiame  way,  or  a  suggested  movement  may  remain  unfulfilled. 
fXone  of  Moll's  tliree  contradictory  propositions  can  be  accepted 
'without  examination.  Thus,  (a)  the  voluntary  muscles  are  not 
licntirely  under  the  influence  of  suggestion  during  hypnosis,  A 
^subject,  who  will  execute  movements  which  are  indilferent  or 
agreeable  to  him,  will  invariably  refuse  to  perform  those  which 
are  repugnant  to  his  moral  sense,  (b)  I  have  always  found 
that  suggested  contractures  and  continued  movements  ceased  at 
cuiumaud,  unless  the  order  was  given  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
niiflinterp!*eted  by  the  subject,  or  he  had  been  previously  trained 
by  the  methods  of  the  stage  performer,  (c)  Again,  I  have  only 
found  instances  of  extreme  muscular  relaxation,  and  refusal  to 
respond  to  suggestions,  amongst  those  who  had  been  trained  by 
passes,  gestures  and  other  similar  methods.  The  eflccts  of  this 
training,  however,  could  always  easily  be  removed  by  suggestion, 
whereupon  the  subjects  would  now  promptly  answer  questions 
»ud  execute  movements.  Braid  demonstrated  how  the  slightest 
change  in  the  operator's  voice  might  vary  or  reverse  the  result  of 
ills  commands.  Thus  the  suggestion,  tliat  a  subject  should  try  to 
Btop  a  continued  movement,  might  be  made  in  such  a  way  that 
•10  varying  emphasis  on  the  word  try  might  convey  three  different 
ieas  to  his  mind,  viz.:  (1)  that  he  was  to  continue  the  move- 
jent;  (2)  that  he  was  to  continue,  but  apparently  attempt  to 
itop  it;  (3)  that  the  movement  should  cease.     In  reference  to 


coniinuetl  movements  and  imiscular  contractures  which  cannot  at 
once  be  dissipated  by  suggestion.  Moll  states  decidedly  that  these 
phenomena  must  be  distinguished  from  '*  suggestion."  Suggestion 
produces  a  particular  muscular  action,  but  does  not  explain  its 
long  duration.  It  cannot  be  supposed,  he  says,  that  an  idea 
which  I  implant  in  the  subject  should  have  more  effect  than  the 
idea  he  himself  originates,  and,  thus,  if  there  arc  phenomena 
which  are  characteristic  of  hypnosis,  their  existence  proves  that 
the  external  and  the  self-suggested  idea  affects  the  functions 
differently ;  or  else  that  the  muscles  in  hypnosis  are  influenced 
by  something  besides  suggestion,  i.e.  the  tendency  to  contracture. 

Thus,  according  to  Moll:  (1)  Hypnosis  is  characterised  by 
a  tendency  to  muscular  contracture.  (2)  Suggestion  does  not 
explain  the  duration  of  the  contractures.  (3)  It  is  uurea3onaV>le 
to  suppose  that  differences  exist  between  the  oj>erator's  suggestion 
and  the  self-suggestions  of  the  subject.  All  these  statements  arc 
open  to  question  :  ( 1 )  Neither  muscular  contraction  nor  relaxation 
characterises  hypnosis;  each  in  turn  may  be  excited,  but  neither 
arises  spontaneously.  (2)  Suggestion,  strictly  speaking,  is  only 
the  method  used  to  excite  hypnotic  phenomena,  and  does  not 
explain  sny  of  them;  but,  in  the  sense  in  which  Moll  uses  it,  it 
does  explain  the  long-continued  contraction.  The  uontraction 
continues  because  the  subject  has  accepted  the  idea  that  it  should 
do  so :  it  ceases  when  his  muscles  l)ecome  exhausted,  or  when  hia 
brain  receives  the  fresh  idea  that  it  should  stop.  The  power  of 
maintaining  tlie  contracture  beyond  the  limits  of  normal  strength 
is,  of  course,  another  matter,  and  one  which  suggestion  does  not 
explain.  (3)  The  waking  self-suggestions  of  the  subject  often 
differ  widely  in  their  results  from  those  of  the  operator  given  in 
hypnosis.  This  does  not  show  a  difference  in  the  suggestions 
themselves,  but  in  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  made. 

Voluntary  Muscles.  Summary, — As  far  as  my  personal 
observations  go,  there  are  few,  if  any,  changes  in  the  voluntary 
muscles  which  are  absolutely  characteristic  of  hypuosis ;  and  none 
wliich  arise  independently  of  direct  or  indirect  suggestion.  The 
most  noticeable  phenomenon  is  the  long  maintenance  of  an  nncom- 
fortable  posture,  associated  with  extreme  muscular  rigidity,  and 
the  subsequent  absence  of  fatigue.  As  most,  if  not  all,  of  the 
muscular  feats  of  hypnosis  could  be  reproduced  by  trained 
uuhypnotised  persons,  the  phenomena  are  only  worthy  of  note 


I 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS     8t 


^when  it  can  be  clei 
subject's  waking  powers. 


proved  that  they  aie  beyoud  the  hypnotic 


(B) 


Changes  in  the  Involuntary  Muscular  and 
Vasomotor  Systezns. 


^^1106. — The  induction  of  hypnosis  ia  sometimes  accompanied 
n  acceleration  of  the  pulse.  This,  although  regarded  as  a 
_  _  icteristic  plieuomenon  by  some  authorities,  appears  to  be  due 
to  emotional  causes  alone ;  for,  although  it  frequently  appears  the 
first  time  hypnosis  is  induced,  it  rarely  occurs  afterwards.  During 
deep  hypnosis,  when  the  subject  is  allowed  to  rest  undisturbed  by 
suggestions  of  any  kind,  the  pulse  sometimes  falls  spontaneously. 
I  have  seen  many  instances  in  which  tlie  frequency  of  the 
pulse  was  altered  by  suggestion.  In  some  cases  it  was  only 
necessary  to  state  quietly  that  the  pulse  should  beat  faster  or 
slower ;  in  others  the  suggestion  was  not  successful  unless  it  was 
associated  with  an  emotional  one.  Thus,  u>  quicken  the  pulse, 
the  subject  was  told  that  be  was  hurrying  to  catch  a  train ;  to 
produce  slowing,  something  depressing  wus  described. 

The  following  case  is  an  example  of  ttie  former  class,  i.e.  that 
in  which  the  alterations  were  produced  by  simple  suggestion.  I 
hypnotised  the  subject,  Mrs.  A.,  aged  40,  and  the  results  of  the 
suggestious  were  recorded  by  Dr.  Alcock,  of  Goole,  who  reported 
OS  follows :  "  Dudgeon's  sphygmograph  was  employed,  but  all 
possible  precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  the  eri-ora  which  are 
sometimes  associated  with  its  use.  Thus,  the  position  of  the 
instrument,  and  the  adjustment  of  the  tension  apparatus,  were 
not  altered  in  any  way  from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of  the 
experiments,  and  all  the  tracings  were  taken  at  one  sitting,  rapidly 
one  after  the  other.  Without  suggestion  in  the  waking  state,  the 
pulse  was  80  and  the  tracing  normal ;  the  aortic  and  dicrotic 
^notches  were  well  marked,  and  both  occurred  during  and  on  the 
^■own-stroke.  The  subject  was  then  hypnotised  and  increased 
rapidity  suggested,  when  the  pulse  rose  to  100.  The  tracings 
showed  a  decrease  in  the  aortic  notch,  almost  to  the  verge  of 
extinction ;  while  the  dicrotic  notch  became  more  prominent,  and 
appearetl  rather  as  a  separate  wave  on  its  own  account,  than  aa  a 

I  of  tliti  down-stroke.     In  other  words,  the  down-stroke  more 
i_ 


82 


HYPNOTISM 


nearly  reached  the  base-line  before  the  dicrotic  wave  coinraenced. 
These  tracings  apparently  showed  that  decreased  tension  was 
associated  with  increased  speed.  Slowing  of  the  pulse  was  then 
sviggested,  when  it  fell  to  60,  and  tracings  the  revex*se  of  those 
just  refenv-d  to  were  now  recoitled.  The  aortic  notcli  occurred 
almost  immediately  after  tlie  up-stroke  was  finished,  and  the 
following  wave  appeared  as  a  rounded  hnmp,  approaching  the 
initial  up-stroke  in  height.  The  dicrotic  notch  began  early  in  the 
dowu-stroke  and  the  dicrotic  wave  was  well  marked.  These 
tracings  apparently  showed  that  decreased  speed  was  associated 
with  increased  tension.  The  subject  was  then  t^jld  that  her  pulse 
should  beat  at  its  normal  rate,  when  it  again  rose  to  80.  There 
was  now  no  {liQcreuce  between  the  tracing,  and  that  taken  before 
h)'pnosi8  had  been  induced  or  suggestions  given.  The  respiration 
remained  unchanged  througliout  the  experiments."  In  another 
case,  where  Professor  Waller  was  the  recorder,  I  easily  obtained 
au  altemtion  of  20  per  cent  in  the  pulse  rate  by  suggestion. 

Moll,  Beaunia,  and  mauy  others  record  similar  alterations  in 
the  rapidity  and  tension  of  the  pulse.  Beuuuis  believes  that 
these  changes  are  brought  about  by  suggestion  acting  directly 
upon  the  inhibitory  centres  of  the  heart  Moll,  on  the  other 
hand,  thinks  we  should  hesitate  before  accepting  this  conclusion. 
The  action  of  the  heart  is  influenced  hnili  by  respiration  and  by 
ideas  which  af]'ect  the  emotions,  and  thus  the  phenomena  aK 
probably  au  indirect  result  of  suggestion.  As  we  have  seen,  in 
some  cases  the  phenomena  in  question  could  not  be  induced  unless 
respiratory  changes  and  emotional  states  had  previously  been 
excited^  and  to  these  doubtless  Moll's  objections  fipply.  Where 
neither  respiratory  changes  nor  emotional  states  were  evoked, 
Beaunis*  explanation  appears  more  probable. 

Respiration. — With  the  exception  that  respiration  sometimes 
remains  unchanged  in  hypnosis  during  violent  muscular  exertion, 
there  is  little  of  note  to  record.  It  is  true  that  the  respiration 
can  be  accelerated,  slowed  or  temporarily  arrested,  by  suggestion, 
but  similar  phenomena  can  be  indviced  voluntarily  in  the  waking 
Btate. 

Bleeding. — Bourni,  Burot,  Mabille,  Jules  A^'oisin,  Artigalas, 
Eemond.  Hulst  and  others  report  cases  in  which  bleeding  from 
the  skin  has  been  induced  by  suggestioa  In  some  instances  the 
subjects  were  carefully  watched  during  the  whole  of  the  experi- 


I 


1 

i 

I 


wen 


ments,  and  precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  fraud.  In  others 
this  was  evidently  not  the  case;  and,  in  addition,  the  operators 
rubhe<l  the  skin  with  a  blunt  instrument. 

Dr.  Uulst  (America)  asserts  th.'it  he  caused  a  subject's  nose 
to  bleed  by  suggestion ;  but,  as  she  suffered  from  frequent  epistaxea, 
the  possibility  (tf  coincidence  is  not  exchided. 

Local  Redness  of  the  SkizL — Forcl  records  aeveral  cases  in 
which  he  produced  local  redness  of  the  skin  by  su^estion.  In 
one  instance  this  appeared  at  the  end  uf  five  minutes ;  the  subject 
being  carefully  watched  all  the  time  by  Forel  and  other  medical 
men. 

Beaunis  reports  similar  cases,  and  asserts  that  all  precautions 
were  taken  to  eliuuiiate  mal-observation  or  fraud. 

Schrcnck-Xotziug  cites  an  interesting  experiment  which  he, 

Dr.  Rybalkiu,  of  St  Peternhurg,  made  upon  Caraille,  liebeault's 
ibrated  soiunambule.  Tliey  suggested  to  her  in  the  waking 
state  that  the  skin  below  her  ear  was  red  and  inflamed,  and  that 
she  had  evidently  been  bitten  by  an  insect.  In  about  three 
minutes  there  appeared  a  patch  of  erythema  with  a  distinct  rim. 

Blistering,  etc, — At  Nancy,  in  1886, — in  the  presence  of 
LioboHult,  Beinlieim,  Lit^geois,  Dumout  and  Beaunis — Focachou 
hypnotised  a  subject,  strapped  a  piece  of  gummed  i>aper  upon 
the  bfick  of  her  left  shoulder  and  suggested  that  this  should 
produce  a  blister.  On  the  following  day  several  blisters  appeared, 
which  suppurated  freely. 

I  Forel  records  similar  experiments  with  one  of  his  nurses. 
The  blister  suppurated  for  eight  daya«  and  seven  weeks  later  the 
place  was  still  discoloured. 

On  February  2Ist,  1890,  Kybalkin  hypnotised  a  boy,  aged 
16.  suggested  that  he  should  touch  an  unlighted  stove  with  his 
arm,  and  that  a  blister  should  form  at  the  seat  of  contact  The 
arm  was  then  bandaged,  and  the  subject  put  to  bed  and  watched. 
Three  liours  later  there  was  considerable  swelling,  accompanied 
by  redness;  next  morning  two  large  and  many  small  blisters  had 
formed. 

Krafft-Ebing  has  published  a  case,  that  of  lima  S.,  in  which 
he  and  Dr.  Jeudrtissik,  of  Buda-Festh,  assert  that  they  produced 
blisters  and  marks  like  burns  by  suggestion.  When  an  object 
was  pressed  upon  the  subject's  skin  and  suggestions  of  heat  made, 
>  blister  or  eschar  like  that  of  a  burn  appeared^  the  exact  size  and 


form  of  the  object  used.  If,  however,  the  object  was  pressed 
upon  the  left  side  of  the  body,  the  mark  appeared  iu  a  reversed 
position  oil  a  corresponding  part  of  the  right  side,  and  tliere  only. 
The  subject  was  hysterical  and  suffered  from  right  hemiansesthesia. 

Hulst  states  that  with  cue  of  his  subjects,  a  girl  aged  22,  he 
succeeded  ou  three  occasions  iu  producing  local  inflammation  of 
the  skin,  with  the  formation  of  superficial  sores. 

I  have  never  been  able  to  produce  a  blister  by  suggestion. 
In  several  instances,  however,  I  have  seen  local  redness  of  the 
skin  appear,  under  circumstances  which  apparently  exclude<l  fraud 
or  mal-observation. 

Cases  are  also  recorded  in  which  suggestion  is  stated  to  have 
prevented  hlistaHiuj  under  circuinatances  where  this  would  other- 
wise have  oceiuTed.  Thus,  similar  blisters  were  placed  ou  each 
forearm  of  Focachou's  subject,  and  it  was  suggested  that  the  one 
ou  the  left  should  produce  uo  eflect.  Next  day  the  right  arm 
alone  was  blistered. 

Dclbceuf  made  the  following  experiment  with  his  subject  J. 
After  obtainiug  her  consent  in  the  waking  state,  he  hypnotised 
her,  extended  her  arms  on  a  table,  and  suggested  that  the  right 
should  be  insensible  to  pain.  Each  arm  was  then  burnt  with  a 
red-hot  bar  of  iron,  8  millimetres  in  diameter,  the  extent  and 
duration  of  its  application  being  identical  in  both.  There  was 
pain  iu  the  left  arm  alone.  The  burns  were  bandaged  and  J. 
sent  to  bed.  During  the  nigiit  the  pain  iu  the  left  arm  continued, 
aud  next  morning  there  was  a  wound  on  it  3  centimetres  iu 
diameter,  with  an  outer  circle  of  inflamed  bli3tei*s ;  ou  the  right 
there  was  only  a  defined  escbai',  the  exact  size  of  the  iron  and 
witliout  inflammation  or  I'cdness.  The  day  following  the  left 
arm  was  still  more  painful  and  inflamed.  Analgesia  was  then 
successfully  suggested,  when  the  wound  soon  dried  and  the  in- 
flammation disappeared. 

Changes  of  Temperature. — -In  the  case  of  Ilrna  S.,  Kraffl- 
Ebing  and  Jeudrdsaik  claim  not  only  to  have  changed  her 
temperature,  but  even  to  have  produced  the  exact  degree 
suggested. 

Dr.  Dumontpallicr,  of  Paris,  recorded  a  case  iu  which  he 
obtained  a  local  increase  of  temperature  of  3"  centigrade.  Dr. 
Lehmana,  of  Copenhagen,  also  claims  to  have  obtained  an  increase 
of  temperature  by  suggestion,  while  Di-s.  Mar^s  and  Hellich,  of 


I 

I 
I 


I 


ha 
■teni 

or 
tr 
n: 
21 

f 


^ 


Prague,  state  that  tlicy  have  reduced  the  temperature  from  37° 
to  34*5\  In  the  latter  two  cases  the  respective  BUggestions 
heat  and  cold  were  made. 
Dr.  Levillaiii,  of  Paris,  records  a  case  where  Charcot  is  said 
to  have  produced  tlie  (edime  Ucu  dr^  hyst^riqitcs  by  suggestion. 
The  subject  was  told  that  her  hand  would  swell,  become  blue 
and  turn  cold.  Tlie  hand  increased  to  nearly  double  its  former 
volume  and  presented  all  the  appearance  of  "blue  tedema";  its 
temperature  fell  3°  C.  lower  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  Sug- 
gestion quickly  caused  the  symptoms  to  disapj^ear. 

I  have  never  succeeded  in  clianging  the  temperature  in 
hypnosis.  On  one  occasion  I  suggested  to  an  extremely  good 
somnambule  that  the  skin  of  his  arm  should  become  burning  hot. 
The  subject  at  once  complained  of  pain  and  heat,  but,  although 
the  suggestions  were  energetically  continued  for  about  half  an 
hour,  there  was  no  increase  of  temperature ;  suggeatious  of  cold 
were  equally  unsuccessful  in  lowering  it.  The  observations  were 
made  by  Professor  Waller,  and  the  instniment  employed  was 
infinitely  more  sensitive  than  the  ordinary  clinical  thermometer. 

Remarks. — Tl>e  evidence  as  to  the  production  of  blistering 
and  changes  of  temperature  by  suggestion  is  by  no  means  con- 
clusive. In  none  of  the  cases  which  have  come  under  my  notice 
have  sufficient  precautious  been  taken  to  eliminate  the  possibility 
f  fraud  or  uial- observation.  Thus,  in  Focachou's  cases,  the 
bject  was  alone  ajid  unwatched  the  whole  niyht  Krafft-Kbing 
ipears  to  have  taken  the  temperature  in  the  axilla  with  an 
ordinary  clinical  thermometer.  This  method  is  obviously  un- 
trustworthy, as  hysterical  subjects  have  frequently  succeeded  in 
raisiny  the  temperature  by  rubbing  the  thermometer.  On  March 
26th,  1895,  I  received  the  following  reply  from  Dr.  Hulat,  in 
Terence  to  the  precautions  that  had  been  taken  in  his  case : 
The  experiments  I  made  were  not  well  controlled  and  fraud  can- 
ot  be  positively  excluded.  I  want  to  confess,  however,  that  I  have 
had  some  doubts  with  regard  to  the  blistering  experiments  with 
my  subject — not  so  much  because  I  doubt  her  honesty,  but  because 
the  burning  sensation  which  she  experienced  may  have  induced 
er  to  rub  or  scratch  unconsciously  ;  yet  I  never  saw  her  do  so." 
In  the  Zcxtachrift  fiir  Hi/pnofisiuus,  vol.  iv..  1896,  Schrenck- 
Xot/ing  gives  the  following  account  of  experiments  made  with 
Eva   S.       The   subject   was   apparently   hysterical,   and   showed 


increaseii  vasomotor  exoitubility  in  the  wakiiig  state ;  slight 
pressure  on  the  skin  almost  immediately  produced  redness. 
During  hyimosifl,  Drs.  Flach  and  Offner  produced  erythema  of 
tlie  akin  by  gently  rubbing  it  with  a  cold  key,  which  they  told 
the  subject  was  red-hot.  Parish,  the  author  of  Illusions  and 
Salliteinati&ix^,  then  joined  the  experimenters  and  apparently 
induced  blistering  by  simple  verbal  suggestion.  The  experiment, 
repeated  under  more  strinj;ent  conditions,  was  again  successful. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Schreuck-Notzing,  the  subject  was  brought 
to  Munich,  and,  in  the  presence  of  Parish,  Eudinger,  Clausner, 
Moritz,  Lowenfeld,  Mueller,  Hoffmeyr,  Schrcnck-Notzing,  Kopp» 
Minde,  Billinger,  Hirsciiberger,  and  Albrecht,  a  fresh  attempt  was 
made  to  produce  blistering.  At  6.45  p.m.  the  subject  was  undressed 
and  put  to  bed,  and  the  left  hand  and  arm  bandaged.  A  portion 
of  skin  on  the  back  of  the  right  forearm,  between  the  wrist  and 
the  elbow,  was  selected  for  the  experiment.  The  right  arm  was 
then  enclosed  in  a  wooden  box,  with  an  opening  in  the  top 
through  which  the  portion  of  skin  selected  could  be  seen.  With 
this  exception,  tlie  entire  arm,  hand  and  box  were  enveloped  in 
a  complicated  series  of  bandages,  with  which  sheets  of  paper  had 
been  incorporated.  The  subject  was  then  hypnotised  and  the 
blister  suggested.  She  was  continually  watched  until  6.15  P.M. 
of  the  following  day.  At  times  the  subject  appeared  to  fall  into 
a  natural  sleep ;  at  otliers  she  was  awake  and  restless,  and  com- 
plahicil  of  itcliing  and  burning.  At  the  termination  of  the 
experiment,  the  bandages  on  both  arms  were  found  to  be  so  far 
loosenetl  that  the  subject  could  move  her  fingers.  Perforations, 
resembling  pin-pricks,  were  observed  both  in  the  layers  of  paper 
and  the  bandages,  but  none  of  these  were  foimd  at  the  place 
selected  for  blistering,  which  was  protected  by  the  wooden  box. 
Schrenck-Notzing  found  a  hairpin  near  the  l)ed,  and  the  subject 
had  been  seen  to  lay  her  right  arm  over  her  head  upon  the 
pillow,  and  also  to  move  both  anus  a  good  deal.  The  experiment 
was  repeated  under  still  more  stringent  conditions;  the  arm  was  en- 
veloped iu  a  plaster  of  Paris  bandage  and  the  subject  closely  watched 
for  twenty-four  hours.     The  results  were  entirely  negative. 

Schrenck-Notzing  justly  calls  attention  to  the  amount  of 
freedom  allowed  to  subjects  in  these  and  other  similar  experi- 
ments which  are  now  regarded  as  classical.  Thus,  Focachon's 
subject,    who   was   alone    all    night,    might    have    mechanically 


I 

I 

I 

t 
i 


I 


irritated  her  skin  in  the  first  experiment,  and  in  the  second  held 
the  blister  away  from  it  and  so  prevented  its  actiuu. 
K        Menstruation. — Forel  sUites  that  lie  has  succeeded  in  exciting 
™  or  arresting  nieustiniation  by  suggestion.     He  has  also  caused  it 
to  appear  at  a  given  moment  by  post-hypnotic  sujigestiou,  and 
regulated  its  duration  aud  intensity.     Most  of  these  experiments 
were  made  upon  his  female  asylum  attendants,  who  were  subjected 
to  careful  examination. 
K         I  have  rarely  attempted  to  alter  the  normal  menstrual  function 
■  by  suggestion,  but  have  frequently  done  so  when  irregularities 
existed.     Exaniplos  of  these  from  my  own  practice,  and  those  of 
others,  are  to  be  found  under  "  Menstrual  Disorders." 

Action  of  the  Bowels- — Many  instances  are  recorded  in 
which  action  of  the  bowels  has  been  excited  or  arrested  by 
suggestion.  Braid  claims  to  have  made  the  first  observation  of 
this  kind.  A  girl,  aged  14,  suftering  from  constipatio!!,  was  told 
by  Braid  during  hypnosis  that  her  bowels  would  act  in  five 
minutes.  He  awoke  her  and  the  suggestion  was  carried  out  at 
the  time  indicated.  She  was  again  hypnotised,  and  the  experiment 
successfully  repeated.  At  a  later  date.  Braid  staled  that  he  had 
made  many  similar  suggestions  in  other  instances,  ami  with 
_  unvarying  success. 

H  According  to  MoU,  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  bowels  can 
Hgenerally  l>e  easily  excited  by  suggestion  ;  and  in  some  instances 
'the  effect  of  aperients  can  be  checked  in  the  same  way.  These 
statements  are  confirmcl  by  the  oljservations  of  Beaunis,  Forel, 
BJCrafil'Ebing  and  many  others. 

™  Urine. — Wett«rstrand  asserts  that  with  one  of  his  patients, 
suggestion  not  only  removed  difficulty  in  micturition,  but  also 
largely  auj^mented  tlie  amount  of  urine  secreted.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  the  cases  cite<l  as  showing  suggestive  altera- 
tions in  the  secretion  of  uritie  are  neither  numerous  nor  conclusive. 
All  that  is  provetl  in  most  instances  is  that  the  patient  emptied 
^the  bladder  in  response  to  suggestion. 

^  Lachrjrmal  Secretion. — Most  observers  record  cases  in  which 
the  lachrymal  secretion  has  been  excited  in  hypnosis.  This  is 
usually  done  either  by  snggeaiing  emotional  states,  or  a  sensory 
delusion  such  as  a  pungent  smell.  Beaunis  asserts  that  he  has 
excited  the  lachrA'mal  secretion  of  one  eye  by  suggestion,  while 
.the  other  remained  normal. 


nnfiilltoa — TW  Golj  iMlMnni  I  knov-  of  in  which 
pfmiiiiriMi  hM  heem  altcsed  I7  wt^gat&aa  viQ  be  cited  under 

ol  Idk. — Serenl  emaa  «e  reeonled  in  whieh  the 
o^  milk  hm  been  inevened  or  arrested  b^  soggeedon. 
One  of  Che  eailieit  it  cited  hf  Eidaile;  His  oater-in-Uv,  vhen 
weemrrg  a  child,  mflered  frooi  the  aecanalatMB  of  mUk  in  her 
buMtn,  which  readied  them  pninfol  end  swollen.  Esdnile 
hypnodaed  her  end  in  half  an  hour  she  was  free  from  pain.  Next 
morning  the  breasts  were  soft  and  oomfortabie,  and  there  was  no 
further  secretion  of  milk. 

An  experiment,  the  reverse  of  this,  is  related  bj  Bnud-  He 
h/pnotiBed  a  patient  who  was  naning,  and  soggested  an  in- 
creased secretion  of  milk  in  one  breadt.  On  awaking  ehe  bad  no 
^collection  of  what  had  been  done,  bat  complained  of  a  feeling  of 
tightness  and  tension  in  the  breast.  Her  hnsbend  then  told  her 
that  Hraid  had  been  tcying  to  increase  the  secretion  of  milk.  She 
was  sceptical  as  to  the  result,  as  her  child  was  fourteen  months 
old  and  the  milk  Iiad  almost  disappeared.  Her  breast,  however, 
almost  immediately  became  distended  with  milk,  and  a  few  da^'s 
later  she  complained  that  her  figure  was  deformed  in  consequence. 
Braid  again  hypnotised  her  and  successfully  repeated  the  experi- 
ment with  the  other  breast  The  y^atient  suckled  her  child  for 
six  months  longer,  the  supply  of  milk  being  more  abundant  than 
it  had  been  at  any  time  since  her  confinement. 

The  following'  case  is  reported  by  Grossmann: — B.,  aged  20, 
pnmipam,  suckled  her  child  for  a  fortnight  and  then  ceased  to  do 
so,  as  she  had  to  leave  home.  Three  weeks  later  she  returned 
and  wished  to  again  nurse  the  child,  but  the  secretion  of  milk  had 
ceased  absolutely  in  ihe  right  breast  and  almost  entirely  in  the 
left  The  patient  was  hypnotised,  and  the  sensations  associated 
with  the  flow  of  milk  suggested.  In  three  minutes,  the  veins  of 
tlie  left  breast  became  enormously  congested  and  milk  began  to 
flow  from  it.  At  Hrst,  repeated  pressure  failed  to  produce  a  single 
drop  from  the  right  breast,  but  when  the  suggestions  were  repeated 
milk  was  secreted  freely.  Some  hours  later  the  breasts  were  still 
full,  though  the  patient  had  not  attempted  to  suckle  the  child. 

Grossmann,  evidently  unaware  of  Esdaile  and  Braid's  cases, 
cdtes  this  as  the  first  instance  in  which  alteration  in  milk-secretion 
had  been  caused  by  suggestion. 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS     89 

Dr.  Hassenstein,  of  East  Prussia,  reports  a  case  in  which  the 
:^retion  of  milk  entirely  ceased  owing  to  emotional  causes,  and 
ras  rapidly  restored  by  suggestion. 


(O  Changes  in  the  Special  Senses,  Muscular  Sense, 
Common  Sensations  and  Appetites. 

(1)  Increased  Action. 

Sight — I  have  seen  the  range  of  vision,  both  distant  and 

near,  increased  by  suggestion  in  subjects  whose  sight  was  normal. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  improvement  was  due  to  the  disappearance 

of  a  spasm  of  the  accommodation,  and  an  interesting  example  of  this 

class  is  cited  under  "Medical  Cases.'*  * 

^b       One  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  increased  vision  is 

^■described   by   Dr.  Bergson   (France).      The  subject  read   letters 

reflected  in  the  operator's  eye,  the  image  of  which  was  only  ^JIq 

of  an  inch  high. 

^m        Hearing. — In  deep  hypnosis,  I  have  invariably  found  that  the 

^Blearing  could  be  rendered  more  acute  by  suggestion;  the  range, 

^Bis  tested  with  the  stop-watch,  being  frequently  double  that  of  the 

^'tiormal  state.     Similar  observations  are  recorded  by  others  ;   and 

Beauuis.  in  addition,  succeeded  in  accelerating  the  time  of  reaction 

Hfeo  auditory  sensations. 

^^  In  tlie  Ztitsrhri/t  fiir  ffi/pnotistnvs,  for  1896,  Pr.  Inheltler, 
formerly  assistant  physiciau  to  Professor  Forel,  published  ten 
■ye&n'  experiments  with  male  and  female  warders  in  the  night 

P watching  of  suicidal  and  homicidal  lunatics.  The  warders  were 
pypuotiseii,  trained  to  sleep  by  the  bedside  of  dangerous  patients, 
and  to  awake  the  instant  the  latter  attempted  to  get  out  of  bed. 
Sounds  wliich  had  no  reference  to  the  warder's  duties  were  inhibited 
by  suggestion,  wliile  those  which  it  was  important  they  sliould 
hear  were  rendered  more  acute. 

In  addition  to  their  ordinary  routine  of  hard  work,  these 
warders  sometimes  performed  night  duty  for  six  months  at  a 
stretch,  without  being  unduly  fatigued.  The  results,  as  far  as 
the  patients  were  concerned,  were  also  uniformly  successful  and  no 
accident  of  any  kind  occurred.  When  I  visited  Forel,  in  1892, 
he  successfully  repeated  this  experiment  for  my  benefit. 

'  Pp.  nui. 


I 


Smell. — The  experiments  of  Bmid  and  otiier  observers  show- 
that  hyperiTi-^thesia  of  the  sense  of  smell  can  frequently  be  induced 
by  suggestion.  One  of  Braid's  subjects,  when  blindfolded  ia  sH 
room  full  of  people,  could  identify  any  person  known  to  him  by 
the  sense  of  smell  alone.  If  allowed  to  smell  a  glove,  he  could 
afterwards  recognise  its  owner,  but  his  power  of  performing  these- 
feats  di.^appeftred  when  hi3  nostrils  were  plugged. 

Muscular  Sense. — The  following  experiments  were  made  with 
Mrs.  A.,  and  recortled  by  Dr.  Alcock.  Four  pill-boxea,  new  and 
identical  in  appearance,  were  selected,  and  a  2 -drachm  weight 
placed  in  each.  To  three,  however,  other  weights  were  added, 
giving  an  ascending  series  of  20  grains  at  a  time.  The  boxes. 
lettered  underneath  S,  I,  N,  G,  respectively,  were  nearly  the  same 
weight,  viz.  S,  38  gi'ains  ;  1,  36  grains  ;  N,  35  grains  ;  (t,  37  grains. 
The  weights  in  the  first  experiment  were,  therefore:  S,  2  drachms 
38  grains ;  I,  2  drachms  56  grains  ;  N,  3  drachma  15  grains  ;  G,  3 
drachma  37  grains.  At  first  the  subject  was  tested  iu  the  waking 
state,  when  it  was  found  that  she  was  unable  to  discriminate 
between  S  and  G,  a  diflerence  of  1  drachm  2  grains.  She  was 
then  hypnotised,  hyperoesthesia  of  the  muscular  sense  suggested, 
and  the  following  precautions  taken.  On  each  occasion  thft^ 
boxes  were  first  mixed ;  then  one  was  selected  at  random  and 
the  distinguialiing  letter  only  noted  after  the  experiment.  The 
subject  was  blindfolded ;  her  arms  were  extended  and  the  palma 
of  the  hands  turned  upwards.  A  box  was  placed  on  each  hand, 
and  she  was  asked  to  say  "  Right "  or  "  Left,"  accordingly  as  she 
considered  which  hand  supported  the  heavier  box.  She  was  ncverB 
told  whether  she  had  made  a  correct  estimate  or  not,  and  never 
saw,  either  before,  during  or  after  the  experiments,  the  contents  or 
lettering  of  the  boxes.  Until  the  conclusion  of  the  experiments, 
I  knew  nothinsj  of  the  boxes  selected  or  their  contents. 


EXPERIMENT  No.  I. 


S  and  N  ; 

differing  in 

weigliV 

gniiiis 

37. 

Reault- 

-Correct. 

I    „    0; 

» 

TI 

41. 

tt 

S    „      I; 

» 

tl 

18. 

It 

N  ,.    G; 

ti 

It 

SS. 

Wrong. 

S    „     I; 

tt 

H 

IB. 

Correct 

S    „     I; 

(t 

tl 

18. 

tl 

N  »    G: 

M 

>l 

22. 

n 

S    „    G; 

tt 

n 

59. 

Tl 

I   M   >•; 

tl 

♦I 

10. 

n 

EXPERIMENT  No.   II. 

This  was  identical  with  the  first,  with  the  exception  that  the 
Ided  weights  gave  an  ascending  series  of  10  grniiia  at  a  time. 
tie  weights  of  the  boxes,  therefore,  were  as  follows :  S,  2 
drachms  38  grains;  I,  2  drachms  46  grains;  N,  2  dmcbms  55 
grains ;  G,  3  drachms  7  grains.  Increased  sensibility  was  then 
suggested,  with  the  following  result : — 


S  ud  G; 

differing  in 

freight 

grains 

29. 

Rcault- 

—Correct 

S     „    N; 

»» 

»» 

17. 

i» 

»t 

s    H    I; 

It 

»t 

8. 

» 

n 

I    „    N; 

It 

>t 

9. 

M 

Wrong. 

I     „    X: 

t» 

It 

9. 

n 

Correct. 

S    „     I; 

n 

») 

8. 

ti 

Wrong. 

S    „     I: 

It 

*» 

B. 

n 

Correct 

S    „     I: 

n 

}i 

8. 

)» 

w 

N     ..     G; 

n 

„ 

12. 

1* 

tl 

N    „    O; 

n 

»t 

12. 

»t 

» 

In  a  third  experhuent,  the  weights  ascended  by  5  grains  at  a 
time,  and  next-door  neighbours  in  tlie  series  were  tried.  In  that 
instance,  exactly  the  same  numbers  of  failures  and  successes  were 
recorded. 

Miss  M.,  one  of  my  subjects,  who  could  only  play  a  few  dance 
tunes  upon  the  piano  with  her  music  before  her  and  in  the  absence 
of  strangers,  wben  bypnotised,  blindfolded  and  tleprived  of  her 
music,  played  the  same  tunes  much  moi-e  brilliantly  before  a  room 
full  of  people. 

Braid  recorded  cases  of  hypnotised  subjects  who  were  able  to 
write  neatly,  crossing  the  t's  and  dotting  the  i's,  even  when  most 
effectual  precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  their  seeing  what  they 
were  doing.  They  could  go  back  a  line,  strike  out  a  false  letter 
and  write  the  correct  one  in  its  projxjir  place.  One  subject  could 
accurately  correct  the  mistakes  in  a  whole  page,  but,  if  the  relative 
poflitiouB  of  the  i>aper  and  table  were  changed,  all  the  alterations 
would  be  wrong,  as  they  were  placeil  according  to  the  original 
position  of  the  paper. 

Braid  believed  that  the  phenomenon  of  ecftolalia,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made,  was  due  in  great  measure  to 
improvement  in  the  muscular  sense. 

Common  Cutaneous  Sensibility. — The  following  experiments 


were  made  with  Mrs.  A.,  and  the  results  again  recorded  by  Dr. 
Alcock,  The  ordinary  method,  with  a  pair  of  blunt-pointed 
compasses,  was  employed,  and  the  parts  selected  were  the  hands 
placed  behind  the  subject's  back,  and  the  region  over  the  eyebrow. 
Precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  the  subject  seeing  what  was 
done,  or  being  influenced  by  unconscious  suggestion  on  the  part  of 
the  operator.  Thus  she  was  never  asked :  "  Do  you  feel  one  or 
two  points  ?  '*  but  was  told  beforehand  to  say  "  One  "  or  "  Two/'  as 
she  imagined  herself  to  be  touched  by  one  or  two  points.  I 
hypnotised  the  subject  and  made  suggestions  of  increased 
cutaneous  sensibility ;  but,  as  I  sat  with  my  back  towards  her,  I 
saw  nothing  of  the  experiments,  and  only  learnt  the  results 
afterwai-ds.  The  following  were  the  distances  required  in  order 
that  the  points  could  be  appreciated  as  distinct  : — 

Right  palmar  hypotlienar  eminence.      Before  auggestion.     Half  an  inch. 

„  ,,  „  After  „  Quarterof  an  inch. 

Back  of  left  hand  along  length  of  tirst  fiiiger.    Before  suggestion.    Seventeeu 

lines. 

„  „  „  „  After  MiggeRtioD.     Nine  Itnee. 

Just  over  left  eyebrow  anil  parallel  to  it.     Before  ea^esiion.    One  inch. 

,,  ,f  ,,  After  „  Half  an  inch. 

Berger  also  records  similar  experiments,  which  were  repeated 
and  confirmed  by  Moll. 

Thermo- sensibility. — The  following  experiments  were  made 
with  Mrs.  A.,  nntl  the  results  again  recorded  by  Dr.  Alcock. 
Two  test-tubes  were  nearly  filled  with  tepid  water,  and  a  few 
drops  of  cold  added  to  one  of  them.  Mrs.  A.  then  took  a  tube 
in  each  hand  and  was  told  to  guess  which  was  the  warmer. 
The  experiment  was  repeat^ad  and  varied  in  several  ways,  when  it 
was  found  that  she  could  discriminate  l»etween  minute  differences 
of  temperature,  which  we  ourselves  could  not  detect,  and  wluch 
she  could  not  appreciate  in  the  normal  BLaLw. 

Rraid  and  later  observers  also  cite  cases  of  increased  sensitive- 
ness to  changes  in  pressure  and  temperature.  According  to  the 
former,  some  subjects  recognised  objects  placed  half  an  inch  from 
their  skin  ;  others  walked  about  in  absolute  darkness  without 
striking  against  anything,  because  they  recognised  the  position  of 
objects  by  alterations  in  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  in  the 
temperature. 

Appetites,  Hunger  and   TMrat. — I   have  observed  many 


I 


(2)  Decreased,  Aiia£2jt£d  and  Distortkd  Action. 


Instances  in  which  suggestion  induced  hunger  in  patients  suffering 
tram  a  morbid  loss  of  appetite.  I  have  also  seen  healthy  subjects, 
who  had  just  partaken  of  a  hearty  meal,  again  make  an  equally 

[od  one  when  hunger  was  suggested  to  them. 
The  activity   of   the   special   senses   may  Ixj   decreased    by 
ggestion,  or  their   action   may   be   entirely  arrested,  and  the 
subject  rendered  inseusible  to  visual,  auditory  and  other  sense- 
impressions. 

Sensory  delusions,  hallucinations  as  well  as  illusions^  can  also 
be  evoked  in  the  same  way. 

RLiegeois  classifies  hallucinations  as  follows : — 
(1)  Positive- — The   subject   sees   hallucinatory  objects,  and 
tfUK  act  in  the  same  way  as  if  they  were  real  in  preventing  the 
view  of  other  objects. 

(2)  Negative. — An  object  disappears  in  response  to  sugges- 
tion and  then  apparently  ceases  to  hide  other  objects. 

(3)  Retroactive. — Here  it  is  suggested  to  the  subject  that  he 
has  heanl  or  seen  imaginary  things ;  on  awakii>g  he  remembers 

^■hem  and  believes  in  their  reality. 

(4)  Deferred-  —  The  appearance  of  the  hallucination  is 
delayed  by  siigj:^estion  and  appears  at  the  date  fixed.  This 
form  will  be  dealt  with  more  particularly  under  post-hypnotic 
suggestions. 

(o)  Hallaclnations  of  Memory. — These  will  be  discussed 
^brhen  dealing  with  t!ie  general  question  of  memory  in  hypnosis. 
I  (C)  Changes  of  Personality. — Here  the  subjects  assume  the 

r61e  suggested,  and  speak  and  act  in  accordance  with  their  con- 
ception of  the  part.  This  Liijgeois  considers  to  be  a  veritable 
hallucination. 

Motor  Hallncinations. — While  the  subject  is  at  rest,  if  he  is 
told  that  he  is  making  certain  movements,  the  physical  phenomena 
usually  associated  with  them  appear.  According  to  Beaunis, 
this  is  a  true  hallucination ;  an  act  which  is  not  {lerformed  is 
believed  by  the  subject  to  be  executed,  because  the  idea  of  it  is 
3iised  in  the  ideomotor  centres. 
Moll  asserts  that  visual  hallucinations  are  more  easily  evoked 


94 


HYPNOTISM 


when  the  subject's  eyes  are  closed,  as  the  act  of  opening  them 
apt  to   terminate  the   h}'pno3iB.     Illusions,  in   his  opinion,  are 
more  reailily  suggested  than  lialluciuations. 

My  experience  does  not  accord  with  Moll's.  1  have  never 
found  any  difficulty  in  inducing  sensorial  hallucinations  in  deeply 
hypnotised  subjects,  no  matter  whether  their  eyes  were  open  or 
shut. 

There  is  an  important  point  in  reference  to  certain  negative 
hallucinations,  viz.,  that  the  object  must  first  be  seen  in  order 
iwi  to  be  recognised.  One  can,  for  example,  place  a  minute  mark 
on  one  of  twelve  otherwise  exactly  similar  pieces  of  paper,  and 
suggest  to  the  sulyect  that  lie  shall  not  see  the  marked  ona 
Here,  before  the  negative  liiUlucination  can  take  plac«,  the 
subject  must  first  select  the  pai'ticular  paper  by  recognising  the 
mark. 

When  a  negative  hallucination  is  suggested,  the  subject 
frequently  adds  a  positive  one  on  his  own  account.  Thus,  if  aa 
object  is  obliterated  by  suggestion,  and  a  second  one  moved  behind 
the  first,  he  apparently  still  sees  the  second.  The  memory  of 
the  latter  has  been  tiausformed  into  a  visual  hallucination. 

Binet  and  Furv  believe  that  a  suggested  visual  hallucination 
produces  the  same  optical  phenomena  as  a  real  image.  A  prism, 
they  say,  doubles  it,  and  complementary  colours  give  their 
natural  resultant.  Benihoim  points  out,  and  my  experiments 
agree  with  his,  that  this  only  occurs  in  trained  subjects  who 
know  what  they  are  expected  to  see. 

Anaesthesia  and  Analgesia- — According  to  Moll,  complete 
aualgesia  is  extremely  rare  in  hypnosis,  although  authors,  copying 
from  one  another,  assert  that  it  is  common.  There  is  an  immense 
difference,  he  says,  between  pricking  the  subject  with  a  needle 
and  using  the  faradic  brush.  The  pain  caused  by  the  use  of  the 
latter  is  so  great,  especially  wheu  cunsiderable  electric  force  is 
used,  that  very  few  hypnotised  [lersons  can  bear  it 

I  have  generally  been  able  to  induce  profound  antesthesia  or 
analgesia  when  the  stage  of  somnambulism  has  been  reached,  and, 
unlike  Moll,  have  found  such  subjects  completely  insensible  to 
powerful  applications  of  the  faradic  brush.  To  one.  acutely 
sensitive  to  pain  in  the  normal  state,  analgesia  alone  was  suggested, 
when  she  watched  and  discussed  the  application  of  the  brush, 
and  described  the   tactile   sensations  associated  with   it     Pain 


I 
I 
I 

I 
I 

I 
I 


J" 


tirely  mhibited.  In  such  cases,  the  corneal  and  con- 
junctival Tetlex  is  either  absent  or  can  be  abolished  by  suggestion. 
'he  nose  and  throat  also  can  be  rendered  insensible,  and  subjected 
careful  examination  without  pain  or  discomfort  to  the  subject. 
Some  interesting  experiments  of  this  kind  were  made  for  me  by 
Dr.  Grcville  Macdonald.  Given  deep  hypnosis,  analgesia  and 
aesthesia  are  equally  easy  to  induce,  and  can  be  evoked  simul- 
eously  and  separately  in  the  same  subject.  One  arm,  for 
example,  may  be  made  amesthetic  and  the  other  analgesic,  and  the 
latter  condition  even  associated  with  a  hyperesthesia  of  tactile 
sensations.  Further  examples  of  anesthesia  and  analgesia  are 
given  under  "  Surgical  Cases." 

Hanger  and  Thirst. — Debove,  Fillassier,  and  othei-s  record 
experimental  cases  in  which  the  desire  for  food  and  drink  was 
removed  by  suggestion ;  the  subjects  abstaining  from  both  for  a 
considerable  period,  without  the  inconvenience  which  they  would 
have  otherwise  experienced. 


(II.)  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS. 
(A)  Post-Hypnotic  Suggestions. 

Under  ordinai'y  circumstances,  the  instant  hypnosis  is 
pterminated  all  the  phenomena  which  have  characterised  it 
imediately  disappear.  In  response  to  suggestion,  however,  one 
more  of  these  phenomena  may  manifest  themselves  in  the 
ject's  waking  life.  This  is  brought  about  in  two  ways.  (I) 
the  operator  suggests  that  one  or  more  of  the  pbenomena 
shall  persist  after  waking.  For  example,  the  analgesia  success- 
-fully  suggested  in  all  my  operative  cases  was  continued  by  this 
after  hypnosis  was  terminated.  The  same  thing  can  be 
done  in  experimental  cases,  and  muscular  contractures,  alterations 
in  the  special  senses,  or  hallucinations  thus  continued  from  the 
hypnotic  to  the  waking  state, 
^^  (2)  The  most  interesting  class  of  post-hypnotic  suggestions, 
^Biowever,  are  those  io  which  tlie  appearance  of  the  phenomena 
^febas  been  delayed  until  sume  more  or  less  remote  time  after  the 
■  termination  of  hypnosis.  The  production  of  sleep  at  night,  the 
Eveution  of  the  return  of  periodic  pain,  the  excitation  of  the 


^|f  ully  SI 
^^>«ans 


action  of  tho  bowels,  or  of  the  metistruul  ilow,  are  examples  of 
this  from  the  therapeutic  side ;  while  post-hypnotic  appreciation 
of  time,  automatic  writing,  delayed  hallucinations,  etc.,  ore 
examples  from  the  experimental  side.  The  mental  condition  of 
the  subject  during  tlie  fultihuent  of  post-hypnotic  suggestions 
wUl  be  referred  to  in  discussing  memory,  and  agaia  dealt  with 
under  "  Theory." 


(B)  Rapport  in  Hypnosis. 


Tn  deep  hypnosb,  particularly  in  the  somnambulistic  state 
the  phenomenon  called  rapjjort  generally  appears.  Tlie  subject, 
responds  to  the  operator  alone;  and,  while  the  latter's  slightest 
gesture  or  softest  whisper  is  instantly  obeyed,  he  remains  inert 
though  others  may  stimulate  him  by  speaking  loudly  or  acting 
roughly.     The  foUowing  case  illustrates  this  : — 

I  hypnotised  (J.,  a  soldier  in  good  health,  in  the  presence  of 
Mr.  Ernest  Hart,  Drs.  Hack  Tuke,  Outtersou  Wood,  Wingfield 
and  others.  Mr.  Hart  said  that  be  could  wake  C.  and  asserted 
that  this  was  the  easiest  tiling  in  the  world  to  do.  He  shook  C. 
and  told  him  to  wake  up,  but  with  no  result.  He  then  asked  me 
to  leave  the  room,  alleging  that  my  presence  prevented  his  success. 
I  did  so  and  closed  the  door  after  me,  but  remained  close  to  it.  I 
heard  Mr.  Hart  say  :  *'  Wako  up.  Dr.  BramwcU  has  gone  home  ; 
we  are  all  goiug  away  and  the  room  will  be  locked  up  for  the 
night."  Mr.  Hart  and  the  others  then  left  the  room,  walking 
very  loudly,  and  joined  me  in  the  passage.  Mr.  Hart  then 
suddenly  slipped  back  into  the  room  and  shut  us  out.  Five 
minutes  after,  he  admitted  that  he  could  not  walicn  C.  We 
returned  to  the  room  and  I  whispered  to  C\  :  "  Wake  up."  He 
at  once  did  so. 

Ne-xt  day,  during  hypnosis,  I  asked  C.  wliat  Mr.  Hart  had 
done  to  liirn  while  they  were  alone  in  the  room.  He  said  Mr. 
Hart  had  forcibly  lifted  his  eyelids  and  rubbed  his  eyeballs  with 
his  fingers,  A  week  later  the  experiment  was  repeated,  when 
Mr.  Hart  and  others  employed  every  means  they  could  tliink  of 
to  arouse  C.  lliese  attempts  failed,  but  he  again  awoke  the 
instant  I  requested  him  to  do  so. 

I  could  easily  cite  many  other  instances  of  a  similar  nature 


I 


which  have  beea  observed  by  myself  and  others.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  do  so,  however,  its  1  propose  to  show,  in  discussing 
this  question  in  the  chapter  on  "  Theory,"  that  the  phenomenon 
is  a  purely  artificial  one,  the  result  of  training  by  the  operator,  or 
of  self-BUggestiou  on  the  part  of  the  subject. 


(C)  Oonsciousness  in  Hypnosis. 


Only  10  per  cent  of  Braid's  subjects  passed  into  a  condition 

^Tesembling  sleep,  followed  by  amnesia  on  waking.  The  lost 
memory  could  generally  be  restored  by  suggestion  in  subsequent 
hypnoses  ;  but,  in  ii  few  iuHtances,  Hraid  was  unable  to  tlms  recall 
the  events  of  hypnotic  life,  and  thought  that  when  this  happened 
the  subjects  had  passed  into  a  deeper  and  more  unconscious  stage, 

(Which  he  termed  hypnotic  coiua. 

f  According  to  thu  8alpC-lri6rc  school,  the  stage  of  lethargy  is 
characterised  by  loss  of  consciousness. 

Bernheim's  observations  and  statements  as  to  hypnotic 
consciousness  are  somewhat  contradictory.  Thus,  he  asserts  that 
the  profoundest  somnambules  show  consciousness  when  stimulated 
by  questions,  and  afterwaids  can  recall  what  has  passed.  From 
this  he  concludes  that  couseiousuess  always  persists  during  every 
phase  of  hypnosis.  He  describes,  however,  other  somnambules 
who  are  supposed  to  have  lost  consciousness.  These,  he  says, 
tail  into  a  profound  and  heavy  sleep,  and  are  incapable  of 
remembering  anything  on  awaking  —  even  if  tormented  by 
questions  during  hypnosis,  they  remain  inert. 

Remarks. — Generally  speaking,  the  hypnotic  condition — 
whether  slight  or  deep — is  a  conscious  one.  This  is  obviously 
true  as  regards  the  lighter  stages,  where  the  subject  not  only 
realiBes  all  that  is  taking  place  around  him,  but  can  also  recall  it 
when  the  hypnotic  state  is  terminated.  In  piofouud  soumambulism 
also  the  subjects  can  usually  recall  in  subsequent  hypnoses  all 
that  has  passed  in  previous  ones  ;  sometimes,  however,  they  may 
undergo  operations  and  perform  acts  of  which  they  are  unconscious. 
Thus,  (a)  in  surgical  cases,  where  auu^sthesia  has  been  successfully 
suggested,  the  patients  are  unable  to  recall  anything  about  the 
operations,  either  when  uwako  or  in  subsequent  hypnoses.     If 

i^aiialgesia  alone   is   suggested,  they  can   revive  tactile,  but    not 

H 


painful  seniiations.  Tlie  tad  that  this  unconsciousness  of  paia 
is  real  and  not  a  negative  hallucination,  is  proved  by  the  absence 
of  shock,  the  persistence  of  analgesia  after  awaking,  and  the 
unusual  rapidity  of  the  healing  process. 

(h)  Tender  certain  circumstances  the  events  of  profound 
hypnosis  cannot  be  recalled  by  suggestion.  If  the  subject  ia  ■ 
told  to  sleep  deeply,  and  to  be  unconscious  of  everything  until 
awakened  by  the  operaUjr,  two  widely  differing  conditions  may  lie 
observed  :  (1)  Despite  the  commands  of  the  operator,  the  subject 
at  once  manifests  consciousness  if  any  experiment,  of  which  he 
disapproves,  is  attempted.  (2)  If,  however,  he  ia  neither  questioned 
nor  touched,  he  generally  tiikes  no  notice  of  anything  said  or  done 
around  him.  On  awaking,  he  frequently  has  no  recollection  of 
what  has  passed,  and  suggestion  in  hypnosis  sometimes  fails  to 
revive  the  lost  memory. 

(c)  The  hypnotic  subject  can  be  trained  to  perform  automatic 
acts.  If  some  simple  movement  is  suggested,  of  which  volition 
does  not  disapprove,  it  may  after  a  time  become  automatic,  i.e. 
after  having  been  frequently  voluntarily  and  conscioxisly  performed. 
it  may  be  executed  unconsciously  as  a  genuine  automatic  act  in 
response  to  the  habitual  stimulus  which  has  excited  it^  The 
memory  of  this  act — one  which  has  apparently  not  aroused 
consciousness — cannot  be  evoked  in  subsequent  hj'pnoses. 


(D)  Spontaneity  in  Hypnosis. 

Mull  believes  that  he  has  observed  spontaneous  mental  and 
physical  action  even  in  the  deepest  forms  of  hypnosis.  At  the 
same  time,  he  admits  that  he  is  unable  tu  prove  that  these 
apparently  spontaneous  acts  did  not  result  from  some  external 
stimuli,  which  might  have  been  so  slight  as  to  escape  observation. 
He  states  that  he  has  been  struck  by  the  absence  of  indei*endeut 
currents  of  thouglit  in  deeply  hypnotised  subjects. 

The  first  difficulty  met  with  in  attempting  to  discuss  "  spon- 
taneous **  action  is  the  ambiguity  attached  to  the  word  itself. 
According  to  Moll,  in  order  that  an  act  or  thought  should  be 
spontaneous  it  must  arise  independently  of  external  stimulL 
From  that  point  of  view,  an  effect  may  occur  without  a  cause  or 
a  phenomenon  without  a  generator.     It  is  more  logical,  however, 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS      99 


to  admit  that  previous  sensations  have  been  registered  and  that 
volition  is  a  resultant  of  post,  as  well  as  of  present,  sensations. 

for  practical  purposes,  in  discussing  spontaneity  we  may 
<!ivide  the  mental  ami  physical  phenomena  into  two  groups:  (1) 
Wliere  the  phenomena  are  not  due  to  tlie  suggestions  of  the 
operator,  or  to  impressions  received  from  the  outer  world  during 
hypnosis.  (2)  \Vliere  the  phenomena  have  been  excited  by  stimuli 
received  during  hypnosis,  but  where  their  character  has  not  been 
definitely  determined  by  these  stimuli,  ic  where  the  response  to 
the  given  sensations  lias  been,  as  it  were,  chosen  by  the  subject. 

Group  1. — Of  this  class  a  typical  example  will  be  given  in 
discussing  automatism,  i.e.  the  dressmaking  problem  solved  by  D. 
When  I  hypnotised  her  I  knew  nothing  about  her  difficulties. 
The  8olatiou  of  the  problem  came  into  her  mind  while  she  was 
resting  quietly  in  a  condition  of  profound  hypnosis  with  her  eyes 
shut — at  a  time  when  no  suggestions  of  any  kind,  either  direct 
_or  indirect,  were  being  made  to  her.* 

Other  somnambules  also  stated,  when  questioned  in  subsequent 
fiypnoses,  that  they  occasionally,  although  rarely,  thought  of  the 
events  of  their  waking  life  when  hypnotised,  and  arranged  plans 
br  the  future.  More  extended  investigations,  carried  out  on  the 
'same  lines,  would  probably  show  that  somnambules  possess  more 
independent  mental  activity  than  tht-y  are  generally  credited  with. 
It  must  be  remembered,  moreover,  that  the  suggestions  of  the 
operator  t-end  to  curtail  the  mental  activity  of  the  subject  Thus, 
in  Uie  "  deep  "  stage,  they  are  usually  told  to  sleep  and  to  think  of 
nothing,  while  in  the  **  alert  '*  stage  they  are  generally  occupied  in 
carrying  out  more  or  less  complicated  suggestions. 

All  the  xjhenomena  of  self-hj'pnosi.s  already  referred  to — and 
further  discussed  under  "  Theory  " — fall  under  Group  1.  For,  al- 
though we  can  identify  the  stinmli  which  excited  them,  these  arose 
before  hypnosis  took  place  and  originated  with  the  subject  himself. 

Group  2. — Examples  of  this  group  are  very  numerous.  Thus, 
,  suggested  to  E.  during  hypnosis  that  he  should  o|)en  his  eyes 

act  as  if  he  were  awake.  He  was  to  go  into  another  room, 
where  he  would  find  Dr.  F.  and  entertain  Inm  until  I  joined  them. 
AVhen  I  entered  the  room.  F.  told  me  that  E.  had  given  him  an 
interesting  account  of  the  hypnotic  operations  at  Leeds,  and  of  a 

[ore  and  demonstration   I  had  given  at  York.     E.  had  been 
1  P.  320. 


^ev( 


befoi 


present  ou  both  occaaioos  aud  was  oue  of  the  patients  o])erated 
on.  Wlien  I  told  Jb'.  that  E.  was  in  the  hypnotic  state  he  would 
not  believe  it.  I  awoke  £. ;  he  Itad  no  recollection  of  what  he 
had  said  or  how  he  had  got  into  the  room.  He  was  rehypnotised 
and  questioned,  when  he  rectiUed  mj  instructions  aud  how  he  had 
carried  them  out.  I  asked  him  why  he  had  chosen  hypnotism  as 
the  topic  of  conversation.  He  replied  that  he  was  sure  Dr.  F. 
bad  come  to  hud  out  about  it,  and  so  he  chose  that  subject  as  he 
thought  it  would  interest  bim. 

Miss  D.'s  description — which  will  be  given  in  tlie  chapter  on 
"Theory" — of  being  tlootored  by  her  mother  is  another  example 
of  this  kind.^ 

Under  this  group  also  fall  all  the  eases  in  which  subjects 
have  resisted  disagreeable  suggestions.  Here  the  response  to  the 
external  stimuli  was  opposite  or  diffei-eut  to  that  desired  by  the 
operator,  and  in  this  sense  was  spontaneous  on  the  part  of  the 
subject  This  form  of  "  negative  spontaneity  "  shows  itself  both 
in  action  and  thought ;  the  subjects  not  only  oppose  physical 
resistance  to  the  suggestions,  but,  if  questioned,  give  their  reasons 
for  doing  so. 


I 

i 
I 


(E)  Memory  in  Hypnosis. 

Memory  in  relation  to  hypnotic  states  varies  widely  aud  Is 
influenced  by  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis,  the  personality  of  the 
subject  and  the  suggestions  of  the  operator. 

Memory  in  hypnosis  may  be : — 

(L)  Jlncliaiiged. — In  tliis  group,  the  subjects  when  hypnotised 
can  recall  the  events  of  normal  life,  aud  on  awaking  remember  all 
that  has  passed  during  hypnosis. 

In  some  iustance8,however, where  the  memory  is  apparently  un- 
changed, closer  examination  shows  tliat  it  has  either  been  increased 
or  diminished.     Of  this  the  two  following  cases  are  examples : — 

(a)  I  had  frequently  hypnotised  Miss  G.,  and  could  influence 
not  only  her  voluntary  muscles  but  also  her  special  senses.  On 
awaking  she  could  always  recall  what  had  passed,  despite 
suggestions  to  the  contrary.  At  a  later  date,  I  found  I  could 
induce  analgesia.  Touching  the  cornea,  passing  needles  into  the 
fleeh,  and  probing  the  nose  and  vocal  chords  were  unaccompanied 

»  r.  321. 


I 

ex 

■til 

a 

8 

a 

I: 

Bio 


I  I 


by  pain  or  disagreeable  sensations.  On  awaking,  despite  mggested 
amne^ui,  the  subject  could  recall  all  the  tactile  sensations 
associated  with  these  operations,  but  was  unable,  even  in  response 
■to  suggestion,  to  revive  any  memory  of  pain. 

(b)  Certain  changes  in  the  voluntary  muscles  and  the  special 
eenaes  could  be  induced  in  Mrs.  H.,  all  of  which  she  remembered 
on  awaking.  Analgesia,  however,  could  not  be  induced.  Though 
her  memory  was  apparently  unchanged,  experiment  revealed  the 
existence  of  a  sub-conscious  one,  superior  to  the  normal.  I 
•uggested,  daring  hypnosis,  that  she  ehonld  fall  asleep  the  first 
time  Mr.  K.  coiled  and  shook  hands  with  her.  On  awaking,  she 
membered  what  had  been  said.  A  week  or  two  pas3e<l  with- 
out her  seeing  him,  then  one  day  Mr.  IC  met  her  at  my  hoiu^ 
and  shook  hands  with  her.  She  did  not  fall  asleep.  Both  the 
subject  and  I  had  forgotten  the  exact  terms  of  the  suggestion, 
and  believed  it  had  been  a  failure.  Some  time  afterwards,  liow- 
ever,  Mr.  K.  called  at  the  subject's  own  house,  when  she  fell 
ftsleep  the  moment  he  shook  hands  with  her.  She  was  not 
thinking  of  the  suggestion  at  the  time. 

(II.)  Tiu  suhjeeis  can  rernll  during  lujpnosU  the  ev/mis  of  waking 
lift  and  th.ose  of  previous  hyptto&es—  unth  a  clearness  corresponding 
to  tlieir  pmctrs  of  Tiieniorg  in  the  normal  state-^bnt,  on  axoaking, 
t)it  iiicidentt  of  hypnosis  are  more  or  less  forgotten. 

In  this  group  the  subjects  usually  assert  that  they  are  able 
remember  all  that  has  passed  during  hypnosis.  Questioning, 
owever,  reveals  the  fact  that  their  memory  is  not  nearly  so 
perfect  as  they  believe  it  to  be.  Further,  what  they  do  recall 
soon  fades,  thus  resembling  ordinary  dreams,  which,  although 
vj-vid  on  awaking,  are  often  quickly  forgotten. 

(III.)  The  subjects  can  recall  during  hypnosis  the  events  of 
pftwoMs  hypnoses,  as  xcell  as  those  of  normal  life^  and  on  awoMng 
rememibrr  Utile  or  nothing  of  what  lias  oerurred. 

Tlio  hypnotic  memory  just  referred  to  surpasses  the  normal 
t>ne :  the  improvement  shows  itself  (a)  in  an  increased  power  of 
recalling  impressions  received  during  hypnosis,  and  (b)  in  reviving 
the  lost  impressions  of  normal  life. 

The  following  are  examples  of  group  (a): — 

(1)  During  hypnosi.s.  I  read  some  verses  twice  to  Miss  S. 
which  were  new  to  her,  and  suggested  that  she  should  recall  them 
on   awaking.     The   experiment  was    successful,  despite   the  fact 


that  her  normal  memory  was  so  bad  that  it  was  almost  impossible 
for  her  to  learn  anything  by  rote. 

(2)  Miss  D.,  as  we  shall  see,  was  able  to  recall  in  subsequent 
hypnoses  compliwited  series  of  figures,  which  had  been  read  to 
her  once  or  at  most  tw^ice  in  hypnosis — a  feat  quite  l>eyond  the 
powers  of  her  noi-mal  memory.* 

The  following  are  examples  of  group  (b) : — 

(1)  As  already  stated,  Miss  II.,  an  imperfectly  educated  girl, 
could  play  a  few  tunes  upon  tlie  piano,  but  only  with  her  music 
before  her.  When  hypnotised  and  blindfolded  she  played  them 
much  more  brilliantly.  As  she  would  never  play  before  strangers 
when  awake,  and  did  so  wlien  hypnotised,  this  showed  not  only  an 
improvement  in  memory,  but  the  absence  of  various  inhibitions 
due  to  nervousness  and  shyness. 

The  improvement  of  memory  as  to  remote  events  is  still 
more  interesting ;  and  this  I  have  frequently  demonstrated  in  the 
following  manner: — (2)  Certain  subjects  were  first  questioneil  in 
the  nonual  state  as  to  the  earliest  events  they  could  remember, 
when  it  was  generally  found  they  could  recall  uotliing  which  had 
happened  before  the  age  of  five  or  six.  They  were  then  hypnotised 
and,  starting  from  the  first  event  in  their  lives  they  could  recall, 
it  was  suggested  that  they  sliould  revive  the  memory  of  earlier 
and  earlier  incidents.  Some  of  the  subjects  related  what  they 
stated  had  happened  at  the  age  of  two,  and  one  described  a 
children's  party  given  on  the  lirst  auniveraary  of  her  birthday, 

(3)  Sometimes  I  suggested  a  modified  change  of  personality. 
i.ft  that  the  subject  had  become  a  child  again  and  was  learning 
to  write.  By  this  means  samples  of  handwriting  were  obtained, 
beginning  with  the  first  pothooks  and  altering  in  character  as 
increased  age  was  suggested  :  these  tbe  subject  was  unable  to  produce 
in  the  normal  state.  On  awaking,  the  subjects  remembered 
nothing  they  had  told  me.  When  I,  in  my  turn,  related  the 
incidents,  some  recognised  them  and  wondered  how  1  knew  what 
they  themselves  had  long  forgotten;  others  recalled  nothing. 

As  far  as  the  facts  themselves  are  concerned,  older  relatives 
confirmed  the  statements  made  by  the  subjects.  This,  however, 
does  not  exclude  possible  error.  The  subject,  who  thought  she 
recnlle<l  the  firet  anniversary  of  her  Inrthday,  may  only  liave 
remembered  an  account  she  had  heard  at  a  later  date,  but,  as  no 

»  Pp.  U»-139. 


I 

I 
I 
I 


'recollection  of  this  was  to  be  found  in  the  normal  consciousness 
its  revival  wonld  indicate  an  improvement,  although  not  so  far- 

KBaching  a  one,  in  memory. 
lu  Dr.  Morton  Prince's  case,  referred  to  under  "  Theory,"  *  the 
ubject  was  able  to  recall  during  hypnosis  events  of  wiuch  the 
normal   consciousness    possessed   uo    Ivnowledge — notably   those 

^that  had  occurred  duiing  the  delirium  of  fever. 

^P  The  increase  in  hypnotic  memory  is  closely  related  to  the 
depth  of  tlie  hypnosis,  and  reaches  its  fullest  development  in 
somnambulism,  which  is  characterised  by  po6t-h}'pnotic  unmesia. 
Moll,  Kratrt-Ebing  and  many  others  also  cite  cases  of  improve- 
ment in  hypnotic  memor)',  which  more  or  less  closely  resemble 

^»tbe  examples  just  given. 

^P  The  recollection  during  hypnosis  of  the  events  of  waking  life, 
and  of  those  of  pi*e\ious  hypnoses,  rarely  occurs  spontaneously  in 
the  untrained  subject.  The  questions  of  the  operator,  however, 
readily  evoke  these  memories,  and  his  indirect  suggestions  produce 
the  same  result.  Thus,  when  a  disagreeable  suggestion  is  given, 
the  subject  is  able  to  recall,  despite  the  wishes  of  the  operator, 
the  feelings,  sentiments  or  prejudices  of  his  waking  life,  and,  acting 
in  accordance  witli  these,  rejects  the  suggestion.  The  subject,  on 
the  other  hand,  who  has  been  frequently  hypnotised  and  taught 
to  revive  lost  memories  by  suggestion,  soon  comes  to  do  so 
spontaneously.  When  hj'pnosis  is  induced,  especially  its  "  alert  " 
■tage,  the  subject  takes  up  his  hypnotic  life  at  the  point  at  which 
he  left  it  when  last  hypnotised ;  and  the  memories  of  past 
hypnoses  and  of  waking  life  are  at  once  restored,  or  at  all  events 
reappear,  just  as  ordinary  memories  would,  with  every  association 
of  ideaa  that  is  brought  about  by  his  surroundings.  Subjects  in 
the  "  deep  "  stage,  who  arc  apparently  unconscious  of  whatever  is 
passing  around  them  which  does  not  directly  concern  them, 
frequently  pass  into  the  "  alert "  stage  when  anything  is  said  or 
done  which  does  interest  them.  Their  memory  then  revives ;  and, 
as  in  the  case  of  Miss  I).  ah*eady  referred  to,  they  spontaneously 
join  in  the  conversation. 

K      Cases  are  said  to  have  occurred  in  which  the  forgotten  dreams 
f  normal  sleep  have  been  spontaneously  recalled  in  hypnoeis ; 
but  this  I  have  l>een  unable  to  confirm. 

It  has  been  attempted  during  hypnosis  to  revive  the  memory 


of  what  ha&  occurred  during  Uie  administration  of  an  anaesthetic, 
such  as  ether  or  nitrous  oxide  gnB,  but  the  experiments  of  thi* 
kind  with  which  I  am  personally  acquainted  were  failures. 
Further,  I  have  never  succeeded  during  hypnosis  in  recalling  the 
events  of  normal  sleep.  Witli  one  subject,  whose  hypnotic 
memory  of  the  events  of  waking  life  was  exceptionally  good,  T 
carried  out  the  following  experiment : — He  was  in  the  habit  of 
falling  asleep  every  Sunday  afternoon  in  his  arm-chair;  and  on 
these  occasions  he  was  read  to  aloud,  the  sentences  being  repeated 
«gain  and  again.  I  aft-erwards  hypnotised  him  and  suggested 
that  he  should  recall  what  had  been  I'ead.  The  experiment, 
though  frequently  repeated,  was  invarialjly  unsuccessful. 

As  far  as  luy  experience  goes,  the  loss  of  memory  associated 
with  non  -  hypnotic  double  personality  cannot  be  restored  by 
suggestion.  1  have,  however,  only  experimented  with  one  case. 
The  subject,  like  I'Vlida  X.,'  passed  spontaneously  into  a  second 
state  of  consciousness,  and  could  recall  nothing  in  the  nonnal 
state  of  what  she  had  said  or  done  during  the  attacks.  During 
liypnosis  there  was  a  marked  improvemeui  in  memory  as  regards 
the  events  of  waking  life,  but  suggestion  failed  lo  revive  anything 
which  had  happened  in  tiie  attacks. 

Post-Hypnotic  Amnesia. — All  hypnotic  stages,  except  the 
slightest,  are  characterised  by  a  decrease  of  memory  on  awaking, 
which  usually  corresponds  to  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis.  Some- 
times the  subject  recalls  and  retains  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
incidents  of  his  hypnotic  life ;  at  others  he  remembers  everything 
on  waking,  but  forgets  it  all  a  few  minutes  after;  finally,  he  may 
have  absolutely  no  recollection  of  auytlung  he  has  said  or  done 
during  hypnosis.  This  stage,  cliaracterised  by  complete  amnesia 
on  waking,  is  termed  *'  somnambulism,"  and  in  it  the  pkenonttna 
of  (ItrprHt  hypnosu  can  be  a^cital  hf/  sitff(/(stion,  i.e.  one  can 
obtain  alterations  in  the  special  senses  as  well  as  in  the  muscular 
system.  This  amnesia  after  liypnosis,  liowever,  is  sometimes 
reached  in  slight  stages,  when  alterations  in  the  voluntary 
muscles  can  alone  be  induced ;  in  other  instances  it  is  absent  in 
the  deeper  ones,  characterised  by  alterations  in  the  special  senses. 
One  subject,  for  example,  may  he  unable  on  awaking  to  recall 
that  the  muscles  of  his  arm  had  been  rendered  rigid,  while  another 
may  distinctly  remember  a  sensory  halhicination. 

»  Pp.  386-6. 


■t 


According  to  Bernheim,  subjects  who  cannot  remembor  the 
events  of  hypnosis  on  awaking  are  sometimes  also  unable  to 
recall  what  immediately  preceded  hypnosis.  Although  this 
phenomenon  can  be  produced  by  suggestion,  I  have  never  seen  it 
arise  sjwntaneously. 

I  The  two  most  important  points  as  to  post-hypnotic  amnesia 
'are  (1)  the  circnmstances  under  which  tlie  condition  arises,  and 
(2)  thoee  associated  with  the  restoi-atiou  of  the  lost  memoi-ies. 

(1)  It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  post- hypnotic  amnesia 
ver  appears  without  either  direct  or  indirect  suggestion.     The 

majority  of  those,  who  have  passed  into  the  stage  in  which  their 
[.>ecial  senses  can  be  inSuenced  by  suggestion,  remember  on 
aw*aking  nothing  of  what  has  taken  place.  Here,  although  the 
operator  may  have  made  no  direct  suggestion  of  amnesia,  indirect 
suggestion  is  not  excluded.  With  nearly  every  one,  the  idea  of 
hypnosis  represenl«  a  kind  of  sleep  with  subsequent  forgetfulnesa ; 
and  this  iw  so  ingrained  that  the  majority  of  those  in  whom 
hypnosis  short  of  somnambulism  has  been  induced,  assert  that 
they  have  not  been  hj^notised,  because  they  have  not  been  asleep. 
Ttiis  point  of  view  often  remains  unshaken,  despite  the  explana- 
lons  of  the  operator.  Further,  in  those  who  have  been  deeply 
ypnotised  without  subsequent  amnesia,  this  phenomenon  can 
generally  he  excited  by  a  single  direct  suggestion  of  the  operator, 

(2)  In  cases  of  complete  post-hypnotic  amnesia,  I  have  never 
en  the  lost  memories  spontaneously  revived  in  the  waking  state, 

nor  restored  by  association  of  ideas — even  when  this  liius  been  of  the 
moflt  direct  kind  and  the  subject  has  been  informed  of  the  events 
of  hyymoais.  My  observations  have  led  me  to  accept  Beaunie' 
conclusion  that  the  lost  memories  of  hypnosis  possess  this  dis- 
inctive  and  essential  characteristic :  that  they  cannot  be  revived 
chance  association  of  ideas,  and  therefore  are  fundamentally 
ifferent  from  those  of  the  waking  state. 

Bernheim,  Moll,  Heidenhain  and  othera  hold  different  views, 
ccording  to  these  authorities,  the  lost  memories  of  hypnosis  can 
restored  in  the  following  ways: — (A)  By  direct  association  of 
ideas ;  eg.  the  subject  is  told  something  of  what  has  happened  and 
lis  the  rest.     (B)  By  chance  association  of  ideas  acting  just 
they  would  do  in   normal   life.      (C)   By  the  operator's  touch, 
niheini  says :   "  I  lay  my  hand  on  the  subject's  forehead  to 
incentrate  his  attention  ;  he  thinks  deeply  for  an  instant,  with- 


out  falling  lusleep,  and  all  Ihe  latent  memories  arise  with  great 
precision."  (D)  By  tlie  operator  simply  asserting  to  the  subject 
in  the  waking  state  that  ho  is  to  remember.  (E)  By  means  of 
the  dreams  of  normal  sleep. 

The  restoration  of  the  lost  memories  of  hypnosis  during 
normal  sleep  is  a  phenomenon  I  have  never  observed ;  and,  as 
far  as  [  am  aware,  the  only  instances  on  record  are  two  cited  by 
Bernlieim.  Before  accepting  the  spontaneous  revival  of  lost 
hypnotic  memories,  one  must  be  sure  of  two  things :  («)  that  in 
the  cases  cited  the  post-hypnotic  amnesia  was  complete,  and  (6) 
that  no  new  hypnosis  was  induced. 

(a)  In  cases  short  of  somnambulism,  where  the  subject 
remembered  some  of  the  events  of  liypuosis  on  awaking,  and  then 
more  or  less  tiuickly  foi*gob  tbeiii,  it  in  possible  that  the  lost 
memories  may  have  been  restored  by  the  association  of  ideas,  and 
also  that  similar  memories  might  be  revived  in  normal  di-earas. 
Such  instances  are  widely  dift'erent,  however,  from  those  in  which 
the  subject  lias  forgotten  all  the  events  of  hypnosis  on  awaking : 
these,  I  believe,  are  quite  uuad'ected  by  association  of  ideas  or 
dreams. 

(b)  Fifty  yeai-s  ago,  Uraid  di-ew  attention  to  the  fact  that  lost 
memories  were  revived  whiin  the  operator  placed  his  hand  ou  the 
subject's  body,  and  thus  heli>ed  him  to  concentrate  his  attention. 
Braid  recognised,  however,  that  the  condition  induced  was  a  fresh 
hypnosis ;  but  this,  the  all-importnnt  point,  Bernheim  apparently 
fails  to  grasp.  All  trained  somnambules  can  recall  the  events  of 
hypnosis  in  response  to  the  simple  statement  of  the  operator, 
"  Now  you  remember."  The  phrase  "  Now  you  remember"  equals 
in  value  the  word  "  Sleep,"  or  any  other  signal  for  inducing 
hypnosis.  In  response  to  it,  the  subject  pusses  into  the  hypnotic 
Btate  and  relates  the  events  of  past  hypnoses.  Wlien  his  story 
is  finished,  and  his  attention  directed  into  some  other  channel, 
the  normal  state  reappears  and  he  forgets  all  he  has  just  said. 

(IV.) — 77m:  suhjtct  may  he  ututhU,  even  in  respoiise  to  suggestion, 
to  recall  during  ki/piiosis  certain  events  of  past  hypnoses. 

Attention  has  already  been  drawn  to  the  fact  that  the  subject 
can  revive  the  past  impressions  of  hypnosis,  liettcr  than  his 
ordinary  self  can  recall  similar  ones  of  waking  life.  This  state- 
ment, liowever,  only  applies  to  the  hypnotic  events  of  which  tlie 
subject  has  been  conscious.      Impressions  may  be  received  which 


I 


I 
I 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS    107 


1 
1 
I 

^Tn  b( 


Blot 


do  nub  reach  hypnotic  consciousuess ;  these  eaunot  be  recalled  in 
aubaequent  hypuoses.     They  are  of  two  kinds  :  — 

(1)  Those  received  during  profound  hypnotic  conditions.  As 
already  stated,  when  a  soninambule  is  told  to  sleep  deeply  and  to 
hear  nothing  except  the  operator's  voice,  and  that  only  when 
addxeaeed  to  bim,  he  may  or  may  not  be  able  to  recall  in 
subsequent  h^'pnoses  what  has  taken  place.  If  anything  is  aaid 
which  concerns  him,  he  may  apparently  remain  unconscious,  or,  like 

D.,  pass  into  the  "  alert "  stage  and  join  in  the  conversation. 
n  both  cases  he  is  able  to  recall  what  has  taken  place.  Further, 
he  will  successfully  resist  any  experiments  wliich  are  disagreeable 
to  him ;  and  he  knows  in  8ul>seq«ent  hypnoses  what  they  were  and 
why  he  opposed  them.  On  the  other  hand,  if  nothing  is  said  or 
done  which  in  any  way  interests  the  subject,  he  usually  remains  un- 
conscious, and  can  generally  n:call  nothing  in  subsequent  hypnoses. 

(2)  Further,  the  subject  may  be  unable  to  recall,  during  sub- 
sequent hypnoses,  specially  selected  sensations  inhibited  during 
*'alert"as  well  as  "deep"  stages.  The  familiar  example  is  the  inhibi- 
tion of  pain  for  operative  purposes.  AniL-sthesia  may  be  suggested, 
when  tlic  patient  can  revive  neither  painful  nor  tactile  sensations  ; 
or  analgesia  alone  may  be  induced,  when  the  patient  can  recall 
the  steps  of  the  operation,  but  has  no  memory  of  pain.  That  this 
inliibition  of  pain  is  a  real,  not  an  apparent  one,  i.s  proved  by 
the  following  facts : — (1)  Not  only  do  the  patients  remain  passive 
during  operation,  but  the  physioloj^ical  signs  of  pain  are  absent, 
i.f..  there  is  neither  dilatation  of  pupil,  nor  increase  of  pulse. 
1(2)  There  is  no  corneal  reflex.  (3)  Powerful  applications  of  the 
farudic   bnish    elicit  no    signs   of   pain.     (4)   Shock   is   absent. 

(5)  Pain  on  awaking  can  be  prevented  by  post-liypnotic  suggestion. 

(6)  The  healing  process  is  abnormally  mpid. 
Again,  certain  sounds  may  be  inhibited,  which  subsequently  can- 

lOt  be  recalled.  For  example,  Ford's  warders,  as  we  have  already 
tn,*  who  slept  by  the  bedside  of  homicidal  lunatics,  heard  nothing 
noless  the  patients  attempted  to  get  out  of  bed.  All  other  sounds 
failed  to  disturb  them  and  could  not  hti  recalled,  while  the  absence 
of  fatigue  in  this  form  of  night- watching  also  demonstrated  the 
genuine  nature  of  the  inhibition. 

Braid  recognised  three  main  conditions  of  post-hypnotic 
memory : — ( 1  >  The  subjects  afterwards  remembered  the  events  of 


hypnosis.  (2)  They  forgot  on  awaking  the  events  of  hypnosis, 
but  reciilled  them  in  subsequent  hypnoses.  (3)  After  the  deeper 
stage,  which  he  called  "  hypnotic  coma,"  memory  was  lost  and 
not  revived  iu  subsequent  hypnoses.  ^ 

According  to  Bemlieim,  tlie  hypnotic  condition  in  all  its  V 
stages  is  a  conscioos  one  ;  and,  when  amnesia  follows  on  awaking, 
the  lost  memories  can  be  revived  in  various  ways,  including  that 
of  simple  affirmation  by  the  operator.  The  subject  can  tlien 
recall  everything  tliat  has  been  said  and  done  by  himself  and  ■ 
otliers ;  nothing  is  forgotten.  Kemheim  states  that  the  hypnotic 
coma  of  Braid  does  not  exist  Subjects,  he  says,  who  remain 
inert  during  hypnosis,  and  are  without  apparent  memory  on 
awaking,  are  really  (XinsciouB  all  t!ie  time.  In  support  of  this, 
he  asserts  two  things: — (1)  The  operator,  by  stimulating  the 
subject  by  iiuestions,  etc,  can  always  elicit  signs  of  consciousness 
during  hypnosis  ;  he  can  always  make  the  subject  come  out  of 
his  torpor.  (2)  On  awaking,  the  subject  can  be  made  to  recoimt 
all  that  has  passed.  These  statements  are  only  partially  correct. 
It  is  true,  no  matter  how  profound  the  hypnosis,  that  the  operator 
can  at  once  arouse  the  subject's  attention  and  keep  it  alert.  If 
he  does  so,  the  deep  stage  which  I  have  described  does  not  appear. 
On  the  other  hand,  such  a  stage  can  be  induced  and  may  be 
maintained  under  the  conditions  I  liave  described,  i.e.  in  the 
absence  of  sensations  interesting  or  disagreeable  to  the  subject. 
In  such  cases,  as  the  subjects  can  recall  nothing  when  questioned 
in  subsequent  hypnoses,  the  conclusion  that  this  particular  stage 
was  not  a  conscious  one  appears  reasonable.  This  view  is  further 
strengthened  by  the  fact  that  particular  sensations,  notably  pain, 
can  be  entirely  inhibited  and  never  exist  for  consciousness  at  all. 

While  Bemheim  asserts  that  consciousness  is  never  lost  and 
that  memory  can  always  be  revived,  he  formerly  described  (Stt^ffes- 
live  The}'apt\Uics,  p.  8)  a  condition  which  I  have  never  observed, 
and  of  which  he  now  denies  the  existence  {H^viu  de  t H^pnotiatntj 
vol.  xii.  p.  143).  Speaking  of  somnambules,  he  says  :  "  Others,  on 
the  contrary,  fall  into  a  deep,  heavy  sleep  and  remember  absolutely 
nothing  on  waking.  While  they  are  asleep  they  can  be  questioned 
in  vain — tormented  with  questions :  yet  they  remain  inert." 

TTnder  certain  circumstances,  subjects  are  sai<l  to  be  unable 
to  recall  during  hypnoeis  events  which  happened  at  an  earlier 
period  in  the  same  hypnosis. 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS    109 


Of  this  class  two  groups  of  cases  are  cited  : — {a)  Cliaugee  of 
eraonality.  According  to  Moll,  and  some  other  authorities, 
when  changes  of  personality  are  suggested  during  hypnosis  these 
are  asBOciated  \vith  loss  of  memory,  Lc.  a  subject  i\A  Kupoleon 
does  not  remember  what  he  did  as  Frederick  the  Great.  This 
partial  amnesia  is  an  artificial  one  accidentally  created  by 
suggestion,  and  in  subsequent  hypnoses  the  subject  can  recall 
_what  he  said  and  did  when  playiug  both  roles, 

(6)  Alternating  memories  without  change  of  personality. 
rnniey  described  two  stages  of  hypnosis,  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  entirely  difierent  memories.  In  stage  A  the  subject 
knew  nothing  of  stage  B,  and  in  B  nothing  of  A.^  I  have  never 
seen  these  stages  arise  spontaneously  ;  but  have  artificially  created 
them  by  suggestion,  and  found  that  the  subjects  could  recall  in 
subsequent  hypnoses  all  that  had  been  said  and  done  in  both  stages. 
(V.)  Oioiiit/  to  swjge&iion,  t)u  subject  may  have  forgotten  in 
hypnosis  Che  events  of  unikiiuj  life. 
^k  As  already  stated,  there  is  a  tendency  to  recall  in  hypnosis 
^^he  events  of  waking  life.  This  develops  with  time  and  training, 
until  at  length  the  subject  possesses  even  a  richer  store  of  the 
memories  of  waking  life  than  he  does  in  the  normal  state. 
Suggestion  may  partly  or  entirely  suspend  or  destroy  this  memory, 
and  so  create  an  artificial  amnesia.  Hence,  the  subject  may  in 
hypnosis  recall  nothing  of  waking  life,  or  only  certain  selected 
incidents  which  have  not  been  excluded  by  suggestion.  The  lost 
memories  can  be  restored  by  suggestion ;  and  thus  the  condition 
differs  from  the  so-called  amnesia  we  have  just  discussed  in  the 
last  section.  There,  the  subject  could  not  recall  what  he  liad 
never  experienced ;  here,  in  response  to  suggestion,  he  forgets 
what  he  formerly  knew,  and  later  again  recalls  it  by  the  same 
means. 

(VI.)  Omntf  to  suggestion,  the  subject  may  he  unable  to  recall  in 
hypnosis  the  events  of  previous  hypnoses. 

Here  the  changes  in  memory  correspond  to  those  just 
I  described  under  section  V.  The  memories  of  previous  hypnoses, 
^krhich  would  have  arisen  either  spontaneously  or  in  response  to 
Hvuggestion,  are  prevented  from  doin^  so,  either  in  whole  or  in 
^^part,  by  the  suggestions  of  the  operator.      This  amnesia  can  be  at 

once  abolished  by  further  suggestion. 
^L  <  Pp.  395-7. 


Accordinjr  as  arranged  by  tlie  operator,  the  two  forms  of 
amnesia  just  described  may  either  occur  separately,  or  may  be 
combined  in  the  same  subject.  In  the  latter  case  the  subject 
will  be  unable  to  recall  in  hypnosis  the  events  of  waking  life, 
and  those  of  previous  hypnoses. 

(Vn.)  Owning  to  su^jgestwn,  the  subject  -niay  Juive  forgotten  on 
awaking  some  or  all  the  events  of  waking  life. 

This  amnesia  may  occur  in  various  ways : — 

(a)  It  may  apparently  be  complete.  The  subject  is  then 
unable  to  recall  anything  connected  with  Jiis  waking  life,  and  may 
even  have  lost  the  sense  of  his  own  identity.  All  memoiy  of 
previous  hypnoses  ia  also  forgotten. 

(6)  The  amnesia  may  be  limited  by  suggestion.  Here  the 
subject  cannot  remember  selected  events  and  ideas  of  his  past 
life.  For  example,  he  may  be  unable  to  recall  certain  words  or 
letters ;  or  may  remember  them,  and  yet  be  unable  to  utter  them 
or  write  them  down.  This  power  of  suggesting  post-hypnotic 
anintfsiu  ia  sometimes  of  therapeutic  as  well  as  of  experimental 
value.  For  instance,  one  of  my  patients,  a  nervous  girl,  was  much 
frightened  by  seeing  a  friend  in  an  epileptic  tit  and  was  unable 
to  dismiss  the  scene  from  her  niiud.  This  was  blotted  out  by 
suggestion  and  although  several  years  have  passed  since  then,  its 
memory  has  never  arisen  either  in  the  uonual  state  or  in  hypnosis, 

(c)  Tlie  amnesia  just  described  may  be  modified  by  the  poat- 
h^'^utotic  suggestion  that  the  memories  of  hypnosis  alone  be 
continued  into  the  waking  state.  The  subject  then  forgets  in 
waking  life  the  events  of  his  past  nonnal  life,  and  remembers  those 
of  his  past  hypnotic  life  which  he  would  otherwise  have  forgotten. 

(VIII.)  Omng  to  stiggesti^m,  the  subject  in  the  nonnal  stale  may 
he  unable  to  recall  certain  selected  events  in  waking  life,  which  took 
place  after  hypnosis  terminated. 

Of  this  chiss  Forel's  warders  again  afford  an  example.  He 
found  that  some  of  them  were  greatly  distressed  by  the  purposeless 
noises  of  the  insane,  and  suggested,  during  hypnosis,  that  they 
should  only  hear  those  sounds  in  the  waking  stat«  which  were 
necessary  for  the  performance  of  their  duties.  All  others  were 
inhibited  and  never  existed  for  the  waking  consciousness;  and 
thus  suggestion  in  subsequent  hypnosis  failed  to  revive  them. 

(IX.)  Owing  to  mggestion^  the  subjects  may  recall  in  hypnosis, 
or  in  the  waJcing  slate,  the  sensory  hallucinations  of  earlier  hypnosis. 


For    example,    the    subject    may  remember    in    hypnosis   a 
hallucinatory  dog  which   he  behevea  he  has  seen   in   a   former 
hypnosis  and,  as  the  result  of  suggestion,  tliis  memory  may  be 
Tolonged  into  waking  life. 

(X.)    The  subject    may  recall  during  hypnosis   the  events  of 
evious  hypnoses  aiul  those  of  waking  life,  ike  lattei-  to  a  greater 
txient  than  fte  could  tlo  in  the  normal  condition  ;  and  by  suggestion 
this  Memory  may  be  retained  on  awalcing. 

I  Here  amnesia  has  Ijeen  prevented  by  suggestion,  and  there  is 
now  no  break  in  the  memory  of  the  hypnotised  subject  It 
is  true  he  cannot  recall  inliibited  sensations  which  have  never 
existed  for  consciouBness,  such  as  tliose  described  under  No.  IV. 
Apart  from  tliis,  the  only  alteration  is  one  of  improvement.  In 
the  waking  state  the  subject  now  remembers  past  events  which 
he  was  unable  voluntarily  to  recollect,  but  the  memory  of  wliich 
has  been  revived  in  hypnosis.  He  also  recalls  the  impressions 
he  received  during  hypnosis — impressions  which  he  would  not 
have  been  able  to  revive  so  vividly  had  they  been  made  in  the 
waking  state.  He  remembers,  for  instance,  the  piece  of  poetry 
which  has  been  read  to  him  twice  during  liypuosia,  and  which  he 
would  have  required  to  liave  heard  read  many  times  in  the  normal 
state,  in  order  to  retain  an  equally  clear  recollection  of  it. 


I 


(XI.)  Memory  in  JUlation  to  Post-JTypnotir  Suggestions. 


According  to  most  authorities,  post-h}'pnotic  suggestions, 
even  when  executed  some  time  after  awaking,  are  not  carried 
out  in  the  normal  condition ;  there  is,  in  effect,  a  new  hypnosis 
or  a  state  closely  resembling  it.  In  support  of  this,  they  rely 
mainly  on  the  alterations  which  take  place  in  memory;  as 
a  rule  post  -  hypnotic  acts  are  forgotten  immediately  after 
fulfilment. 

According  to  Moll,  the  conditions  under  which  post-hypnotic 
acts  are  carried  out  vary  widely.  He  summarises  them  as 
follows: — (1)  A  state  in  wliicli  a  new  hypnosis,  characterised  by 
suggestibility,  appears  during  the  execution  of  the  act,  with  loss 
of  memory  afterwards  and  no  spontaneous  awaking.  (2)  A  state 
in  which  no  symptoms  of  a  fresh  hypnosis  are  discoverable, 
though  the  act  is  carried  out.     (3)  A  state  with  or  without 


fresh  BU8ceptil»iIity  to  guggestion,  with  complete  forgetfuliiesa  of 
the  act  and  spoutaoeous  awaking.  (4)  A  state  of  susceptibility 
to  suggestion  with  subseijueut  loss  of  memory. 

At  first  I  believed  limt  all  post-hypnotic  acta  were  forgotten 
immediately  alter  fullilmeut,  Later»  I  noticed  many  exceptions  to 
this  rule,  but  these — with  the  exception  of  those  occurring  in  so- 
called  "  waking  souinambulism  " — have  been  cuufiued  to  one  class, 
viz,  that  where  tlie  removal  of  morbid  symptoms  lias  been  success- 
fully suggested.  Thus,  if  I  successfully  suggest  to  a  patient,  who  is 
fluflering  from  insomnia,  to  sleep  eight  hours  the  following  night, 
he  remembers  that  he  has  done  so.  The  same  thiug  happens 
when  constipation  or  ameuorrhiea  is  cured  by  suggestion  ;  and 
yet  the  same  patients  may  be  unable  to  recall  experimental  post- 
hypnotic suggestions,  such  as  rigidity  of  the  muscles.  "VVhy 
they  ahoidd  remember  the  former  and  forget  the  latter  ia  a 
question  by  no  means  easy  to  answer.  The  explanation  may 
possibly  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  suggested  sleep,  for 
example,  is  not  so  much  the  direct  outcome  of  the  suggestion 
as  of  the  removal  of  the  morbid  conditions  on  which  the  insomnia 
depended. 

The  different  phenomena  described  by  Moll  as  associateil  with 
post-I»ypnotic  states  are  largely  the  result  of  training.  The 
following  experiment  illustrates  this.  I  suggested  to  O.  that  ten 
mituites  after  awaking  she  should  commence  to  rotate  lier  hands. 
1  awoke  0.,  who  then  carried  on  a  conversation  with  me  and 
another  person  who  was  present.  At  the  end  of  ten  minutes  she 
carried  out  the  suggestion.  I  asked  her  why  she  moved  her 
hands.  She  repUed :  "  I  fancy  you  Lold  me  to  when  I  was  asleep." 
"  Do  you  remember  my  having  done  so  ? "  "  No.**  "  Can  you 
recall  anything  which  happened  when  you  were  hypnotised  ? " 
"  No."  A  fresh  experimental  suggestion  of  a  simple  and  un- 
objectionable nature  was  made,  but  was  not  carried  out.  I  then 
said  to  0  :  "  Stop  moving  youi-  hands."  She  did  so.  I  talked 
about  something  else  for  a  moment  or  two  and  then  asked  her 
why  she  had  moved  her  hands.  She  denied  having  done  so  and 
was  unable  to  recall  anything  about  it.  She  remembered,  however, 
everything  else  that  had  taken  place  while  the  experiment  was 
being  carried  ouL  I  rchypuotised  O.  and  gave  her  the  same 
post-hypnotie  suggestion  and  then  aroused  her.  While  she 
executed  it,  I  succeeded,  by  varying  my  suggestions  and  making 


I 


lihem  more  forcible,  in  getting  her  to  accept  fresh  suggestions  and 
to  recall  the  memories  of  the  previous  h}'puosis. 


^ 


(XII.)  Mcnioi'y  in  "  Jf^aJHng  Somnambulisni.*' 

The  tenu  '*  waking  somnambulism  "  is  applied  by  Beaunis 
to  a  condition  in  which  a  subject,  who  has  been  previously 
deeply  hypnotised,  will  accept  suggestions  similar  to  hypnotic  ones, 
ithout  having  ou  that  occasion  been  subjected  to  ajiy  hypnotic 
process,  or  having  {Missed  through  any  state  resembling  sleep  or 
trance.  The  following  is  a  typical  example : — I  say  to  N,, 
who  has  not  been  recently  hypnotised,  but  who  is  a  somnambule : 
"  I  am  going  to  prick  your  arm  with  a  needle  and  you  will  feel 
no  pain."  I  pass  the  needle  deeply  into  his  flesh,  while  he  looks 
on  smilingly.  1  ask  :  '*  Doesn't  this  hurt  you  ?  "  "  Xo."  "  Do 
yon  know  what  I  am  doing  ? "  "  Yes."  Except  for  the 
suggested  analgesia  N.'s  condition  apparently  in  no  way  differa 
m  the  normal.  His  eyes  are  open  and  his  movements  natural 
e  not  only  talks  to  me,  but  to  others  around  him,  and  answers 
questions  and  reasons  just  as  he  would  do  when  awake.  I  now 
abandon  the  experiment  and  turn  his  attention  in  another 
direction.  A  moment  or  two  afterwai\ls  I  ask  him :  "  Are  you 
sure  it  did  not  Imrt  you  when  I  pricked  your  arm  ? "  He 
iplies :  "  What  do  you  mean  ?  You  never  pricked  my  arm." 
'.e  has  entirely  forgotten  the  incident,  liiiiuiuis  con8idei*s  this 
condition  a  hypnotic  one  for  two  reasons:  (1)  the  subject  will 
receive  other  suggestions  of  n  hypnotic  nature;  (2)  the  sugges- 
tions are  forgotten  immediately  after  fulHlmeni.  With  the  first 
proposition  I  entirely  agree,  for  I  have  observed  that  all 
subjectfl,  in  whom  deep  hypnosis  has  previously  been  induced, 
will  subsequently  exhibit  the  same  i*ange  of  phenomena  in 
response  to  auggcstiou  iu  the  apparently  waking  state.  The 
ndition  termed  "  waking  somnambulism "  is  undoubtedly  a 
pnotic  one,  but  there  are  some  slight  pomts  of  dilfereuce 
tween  it  and  the  usual  form  of  hypnosis  induced  in  the  same 
bjects  by  ordinar}'  methods.  In  ordinary  somnambulism  all 
e  events  of  hypnosis  are  forgotten  on  awaking,  and  can  only 
be  recalled  in  fresh  hypnoses.  In  the  cases  of  waking  somnom- 
lism  which  I  have  obsen'ed,  sometimes  the  suggestions  were 

I 


forgotten  almost  immediately,  at  others  they  were  remembered 
for  a  longer  period,  and  in  some  cases  were  recalled  after  the 
lapse  of  weeks.     The  subject  of  one  of  these  experiments  was 
questioned  in  hypnosia  as  to  her  memor}'  of  suggestions  carried 
out  in  a  state  of  waking  somnambulism.     She  replied :  "  Some- 
times I  forgot  them  quickly,  sometimes  remembered  them  for  an  ■ 
hour  or  two,  never  longer."     When  I  reminded  her  that  she  had 
recalled   one   at   the  end   of  a  month,  she   replied :  "  Oh   yes ! 
You  made  the  suggestion  just  before  I  left  your  room,  and  I 
talked  it  over  with  my  mother  on  my  way  home."     Here  the  ■ 
recollection    of    the   event    was    complicated    by    the   subject's  f 
verbal  description  of  it,  and  possibly  by  her  mother's  comments. 

With  another  subject,  I  noticed  a  difference  between  the 
mental  attitude  as  to  hallucinations  suggested  in  hypnosis  and 
those  created  in  waking  Boninambulism.  On  several  occasions 
she  saw  a  cat  in  response  to  suggestion.  She  was  always 
delighted  with  the  imaginary  animal,  believed  it  to  be  a  real 
one,  and  showed  great  pleasure  in  playing  with  it.  At  a  later 
date,  in  the  apparently  waking  state,  I  successfully  suggested 
a  similar  luJlucination.  She  said :  "  T  see  that  cat,  but  it  is 
not  real.  T  know  it  is  only  an  imaginary'  one  you  have  made 
me  see," 

The  occasional  persistence  of  the  memory  of  post-hypnotic 
acts,  and  the  recognition  of  the  artificial  nature  of  a  hallucination, 
are  the  only  differences  I  have  discovered  between  waking 
somnambulism  and  the  "  alert "  stage  of  oi-dinary  somnambulism. 
Both  conditions  are  hypnotic  ones;  and  the  slight  apparent 
differences  between  them  are  probably  due  to  unconscious  train- 
ing by  the  operator,  or  to  the  self-su^eations  of  the  subject. 


I 


(F)  Hypnotic  and  Post-Hypnotic  Appreciation  of  Time- 
As  already  stated,  T  commenced  to  employ  hypnotism  as  a 
therapeutic  agent  in  1889.  and  in  less  than  two  years  treated 
over  500  patients;  of  these  48  percent  became  somnambules, 
ie.  were  unable,  when  hj^tnosis  was  terminated,  to  recall  the 
events  of  hypnotic  life.  Having  observed  that  the  curative  effect 
of  suggestion  was  increased  by  prolonged  hj'pnosis,  I  frequently 
suggested  to  my  patients  that  they  were  to  remain  in  that  state 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS    115 


I 


util  a  given  hour — usually  that  of  their  next  meal — and  then 
left  tliein.  Althouijli  mrely  present  at  the  conclusion  of  tlie 
experiment,  I  obtained  ample  and  trustworthy  evidence  that 
hypnosis  invariably  terminated  at,  or  within  a  few  minutes  of,  the 
hour  indicated,  and  tlius  accidentally  disuoverod  that  deep  hypnosis 
was  associated  with  an  increased  appreciation  of  time.  These 
observations — the  by-product  of  therapeutic  work — led  to  care- 
ful experiment  with  somuambulea,  the  majority  of  whom  were 
males  and  all  in  good  heidth.  The  following  were  the  usual 
suggestions  given :  (I)  A  simple  act  was  suggested  during 
hypnosis,  whicii  was  to  be  carried  out  at  a  given  time  before  that 
state  tenuiuated.  (2)  The  subject  was  told  during  hypnosis 
that  this  state  was  to  cease  at  a  specified  future  hour.  (3)  The 
performance  of  some  simple  act  at  a  given  hour  after  the  termina- 
tion of  hypnosis  was  suggested.  (4)  Awaking  from  natural 
sleep  at  a  given  hour  was  suggested  during  hypnosis.  (5)  The 
subject  was  told  iu  the  waking  state  that  he  was  to  pass  into 
the  h3'pnotic  condition  at  a  given  hour,  remain  hypuotim^d  for 
a  specified  time,  and  perform  certain  simple  acts  at  stated 
intervals ;  then  pass  again  into  the  normal  state  and  remain  in 
it  for  a  specified  time,  and  again  pass  into  the  hypnotic  con- 
dition. These  experiments,  continued  from  18S9  to  1902,  have 
been  frequently  i-epeated  before  competent  observers.  The 
majority  of  the  suggestions  were  executed  at  the  moment 
indicated,  while  in  the  remainder  the  error  in  time  appreciation 
rarely  exceeded  live  minutes.  In  many  insUmcea,  except  tliose 
referred  to  in  group  No.  4,  the  subjects  were  carefully  watched 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  experiment. 

Similar  phenomena  have  been  observed  by  nearly  all  who 
have  done  practical  hypnotic  work ;  and  I  have  seen  experiments, 
resembling  those  just  cited,  reproduced  in  various  foreign  cliniques. 
Two,  formerly  regarded  as  the  most  remarkable  of  their  kind, 
were  made  by  Beaunis  and  Li^'geois.  In  one  of  these  a 
visual  hallucination  appeared  after  a  siiggested  interval  of  172 
days,  and  in  the  other  after  365.  The  late  Professor  DelbuMif, 
however,  pointed  out,  in  reference  to  all  sucli  experiments,  tlint 
even  in  the  longest  a  fixed  date  had  been  impressed  upon  the 
subject's  mind.  Thus.  Bcauuis'  subject  was  told  that  the  I72ud 
day  was  New  Year's  Day,  and  IJegeois'  was  impressed  by  the 
fact  that  the  suggestion  was  to  be  executed  in  a  year  from  the 


HYPNOTISM 


time  it  was  given.  The  exi>erimeuts,  therefore,  did  not  involve 
the  carryiug  out  of  a  suggestion  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  days, 
which  tlie  subjects  were  supposed  to  count  as  they  passed,  but 
simply  on  the  arrival  of  a  fixed  and  easily  recognised  date.  Tliis 
objection  applies  with  grv4it  force  to  my  earlier  cases.  In  everj' 
instance  a  specified  hour  was  suggested ;  and,  in  order  that  the 
subjects  might  be  conveniently  watched,  tlic  time  involved 
rarely  exceeded  a  few  hours.  This  point  will  be  again  referred 
to  in  treating  of  the  theoretical  explanation  of  the  appreciation 
of  time.  Meanwhile,  I  wish  to  draw  attention  to  the  experiments 
made  by  Delhojuf,  with  tlie  object  of  eliminating  an  easily 
recognised  tixed  date  from  the  suggestions. 

Delboeof's  Experiments. — The^e  (xcupied  a  week,  from 
Saturday.  October  2 ,  to  Saturday,  October  9 ,  1 88 6.  His 
snbject^s  were  his  two  maid-servants,  J.  and  M.,  slaters,  aged 
respectively  20  and  23.  All  the  experiments  were  of  a  similar 
character ;  from  time  to  time  during  hypnosis  the  subjects  were 
told  that  tliey  were  to  do  something  at  the  expiration  of  a  certain 
number  of  minutes,  an  interval  of  waking  life  always  intervening 
between  the  suggestion  and  its  fuUUnieut : — 

£jy.J  1. — SaL,  Oct.  2,  1886;  subjticl  J.;  time  6  a-M.  Su^.  :  At  Uie 
expimtioa  of  350  ul  J.  waa  to  ask  Delbfciif  if  she  should  barne&s  tlie  donkey. 
Deibceufa  wifu  woa  ill  and  went  out  in  an  invalid  carriagi*  (Iniwn  by  a 
donkey,  but  J.  bad  nothing  to  do  with  it ;  thus  her  ijiteittion  would  be 
unusual.  Rt*. :  The  impulse  to  ask  the  question  came  into  J. 'a  mind  al  tlie 
time  it  was  due,  but  she  successfully  resisted  it 

Jixp.  S — Subject  ai. ;  time  8  a^u.  i'uy.  -•  At  the  expiration  of  350  m. 
H.  was  to  Ofik  Madame  Di^lb^euf  if  aIic  would  like  to  go  out  Under  the 
circumstances  the  (|ttestton  would  be  an  unutiual  one.  JRe*. :  At  l.fiO,  the 
hour  indicated,  M.  was  itnp«Ued  to  ask  tlie  q^ue.^tion,  but  ra  she  happened  to 
be  in  the  villugo  on  an  errand,  was  unable  to  do  so.  She  returned  at  2.30 
and  carried  out  the  nuggc^tion. 

Exp,  3. — Mon.  ;  subject  J.;  time  9.15  jlU.  Sug.:  la  900  m.,  u,  at 
12.15  A-M.,  J.  was  to  go  into  the  bedroom  of  one  of  Delbcouf's  children  and 
pull  his  car.     R^*.:  Suggestion  wjis  curried  out  95  ni.  too  sood. 

Exp.  4. — Subject  M.;  time  9.35  A.if.  Sug,:  M.  was  to  kiss  itlle.  H. 
Delbauf  at  the  expiration  of  700  ui.  Re*.:  Tweuty-five  m.  before  the 
euggeslion  fell  due  M.  looked  for  Mile.  H.  Delbceuf  in  order  to  kiss  lier,  but 
could  not  find  her. 

Sxp.  5. — Subject  M.;  time  10.4  p.m.  Sug.:  In  900  m.  M.  was  to  kiss 
Mile.  C.  Delboeuf.  Ret. :  At  the  time  indicated,  w.  1.4  on  Tue^laj- 
aftemoon,    M.   was  havinfj   her   lunch   with   the  other  scrvanta   when   she 


I 
I 


'  Expw  a Kxperimcut.    Sug.  =  Suggestion.     Res.  =Result  d.  ^diTs.     h.^^houra. 
ID.  =  minutes. 


suddenly  got  up  from  the  table,  sought  anil  fouud  Mile.  C.  Delbccnf  and 
carried  out  Lhe  augguaiton. 

Exp.  6. — Tiie«.  ;  subject  J.;  time  6.3i>  A.M.  Siuj. :  At  tlie  expiration  of 
1600  m.  J.  wa»  to  pull  the  cook's  noae.  Hai.  :  Suggeation  cAirietl  out  60  tn. 
too  aoon. 

Exp.  7. — Subjet:t  M. ;  time  6.45  a.m.  Siiij. :  At  llie  expiration  of  1160 
m,  (We<L,  1.55  a.m.)  ahe  w^fl  to  go  into  tlie  cook's  bedroom  and  pull  her  by 
tbft  eAf.  The  cook  was  told  what  was  likely  to  happen.  Re*. :  At  the  exact 
hour  the  aiihject  had  a  ntrong  ittipulse  to  carry  out  the  fitiggetttion,  but 
reflated  this  until  4.ir>  a.m.,  \v}ien  ii>he  gave  in  and  went  to  tlic  cook's  room. 
The  cook  laughed,  whereupon  M.  suid  :  "  If  you  luugh  I  shall  pull  your  car." 

Exp.  8 — Wed.  ;  subject  J.  ;  time  9.65  A.M.  Sug.  :  At  the  expiration  of 
1300  in.  (Th.,  7.35  a.m.)  J.  waj<  to  aak  Madame  Delbu-uf  if  she  would  like 
lo  have  her  hair  dregsc<i.     Res. :  Suggestion  carried  out  69  ni.  too  soon. 

Exp,  9. — Subject  M.  ;  lime  6.65  a.m.  Sug.  :  At  the  expiration  of 
IftOO  tiL  (Til.,  7.65  A.M.)  M.  was  1*3  ask  Madanie  Delbtuuf  if  she  required 
anything.     Res. :  Suggestion  carried  out  with  absolute  accuracy. 

Exp.  10. — Friday  ;  subject  M.  ;  time  U.30  a-M.  iSufj.:  M.  waa  to  feel 
sleepy  at  10  r.M.  :  go  to  bed  nnd  sleep  pi-ofoundty.     Res. ;  Correct. 

J?xp.ll. — Subject  J.;  time  9.15  a.m.  .Suf].:  At  11  VM.  J.  waa  to  go  into 
M.'i  room,  and  give  her  a  complicated  suggestion  to  be  carried  out  at  5.30 
next  morning.  Res.:  J.  went  i»  hbd  at  10  p.m.  in  her  own  room  and 
quickly  fell  asleep.  At  10.60  p.m.  (10  m.  too  early)  she  wont  to  her 
sister  as  suggested,  but  couM  not  al'terwardti  recall  what  she  had  said  or  done. 

Exp.  12.— Subject  M.  Sug.  ■  M.  to  execute  the  orders  jurit  referred  to  at 
S.30  A.M.  R£f.:  She  did  nothing,  however,  beyond  carrying  out  the  fir^t  part 
of  the  flUggeetioD,  i.r.  tliat  i^he  should  go  to  bed  and  sleep  profoundly,  and 
was  unable  to  remember  whether  her  sister  had  said  anything  to  her  or  not. 

Exp.  13. — Sat.  ;  subject  J.  ;  time  0.30  a.m.  Smj.  :  At  the  expiration  of 
3300  m.,  J.  was  to  aak  Delbocuf  if  she  ehould  carry  a  small  ladder  to  the 
pejir  tree.  R^:  :  The  impulse  tu  ask  the  question  arot^e  00  m,  too  late,  but 
J.  ilid  not  gire  way  to  it. 

Exp.  14. — .Subject  M.  ;  time  10  a.m.  Sug.:  Similar  to  ihe  last,  to  be 
«xeciitetl  after  a  like  intenal,  ifu. ;  Identical  with  t)ie  above,  but  90  m. 
too  soon. 


Summary. — There  were  in  all  fourteen  experiments.  The 
su;:gestious,  to  be  carried  out  after  the  lapse  of  350,  700,  900, 
1500,  1600.  1150,  1300  and  ;?300  minutes  reapecLively,  were 
made  at  varying  hours  of  the  day  an<l  night,  while  some  fell  due 
at  night  after  the  lapse  of  several  days- 

Resolts.^ — Three  of  the  suggestions  were  fulfilled  at  the 
moment  they  fell  due ;  four  were  carried  nut,  hut  not  at  the 
vxnct  time.  In  three  an  impulse  to  carry  out  the  sugg;estiou 
aro.se  at  the  rij^ht  moment.  In  one  of  these,  the  subject  success- 
fully resisted  the  suggestion,  in  another,  she  was  accidentally 
prevented  from  executing  it,  wliile  in  the  ihinl,  slie  struggled 


against  it  for  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes,  and  then  carried  it 
out.  In  thx'ee,  the  impulse  to  carry  out  the  suggestion  arose,  but 
not  at  the  correct  time.  In  one  of  these  cases,  accidental  circum- 
stances alone  prevented  the  anggestion  from  being  carried  out, 
but,  in  the  two  others,  the  subject  successfully  resisted  it.  One 
alone.  No.  12,  failed  completely,  but  this  may  have  been  due  to 
the  fact  that  No.  11  wns  not  fullilled  in  its  entiret}*,  ie.  it  is 
uncertain  whether  J.  gave  the  requisite  orders  to  M.  As,  however, 
the  essential  fact  in  the  experiments  was  not  the  actual  carrying 
out  of  trivial  and  sometimes  absurd  suggestions,  but  the  subject's 
recognition  of  tiie  terminal  Lime,  the  cases  in  wliieh  an  impulse 
arose  at  the  correct  nioment  must  be  classed  amongst  the  successes. 
The  number  of  these  is  thus  raised  to  six,  while  of  the  eight 
remaining  expuriments  seven  were  partiaUy  successful.  Of  the 
latter,  four  were  carried  out  and  an  impulse  to  execute  the  sugges- 
tion arose  in  the  otlicr  tliree,  but  in  none  was  the  time  accurate  ; 
the  error  varied  from  a  tenth  to  a  thirty-seventh  of  the  interval. 

Remarks. — J.  and  M.  were  strong,  healthy  peasant  girls,  who 
had  freqvieutly  been  hypnotised  and  were  both  good  somnambules. 
At  au  earlier  date,  .1.  waA  the  subject  of  the  two  symmetrical 
bums  already  referred  to  * ;  later  she  married  and  her  tirst  child 
waa  born  painlessly  during  hypnotic  trance." 

J.  and  M.  were  very  imperfectly  educated,  and  could  with 
difliculty  tell  the  time  by  the  clock.  It  was  impossible  for  them 
to  at  once  reduce  such  a  lai'ge  iiuni1>er  of  minutes  as  400  into 
hours,  and  they  were  obliged  to  proceed  by  successive  additions, 
thus :  —  1  hour  =  GO  minutes ;  1  hour  and  1  hour  makes 
60  +  60  =  120;  120+another  hour  makes  180,  and  so  on. 
Before  reaching  360  they  had  often  made  misLakes,  and.  no 
matter  what  method  they  adopted,  were  absolutely  incapable  of 
reducing  such  mmibers  as  1600  and  1150  minutes  into  hours, 
further,  supposing  they  recalled  the  suggestion  on  the  termination 
of  hypnosis  and  noted  wlmt  o'clock  it  was — which  they  neither 
did  nor  could  do — tliey  would  still,  for  example,  have  to  determine 
by  mental  calculation  the  hour  which  conesponded  to  6.45  p.m.. 
increased  by  1150  minutes,  a  feat  entirely  beyond  their  powers. 

Later,  in  order  to  discover  whether  J.'s  hypnotic  arithmetical 
powers  exceeded  her  nornml  ones,  Delba*uf  put  the  following 
problems  to  her  during  hypnosis: — (1)  "Turn  350  minutes  into 

»  P.  81.  «  P.   171. 


I 


I 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS    119 


¥ 


hours."  Answer:  "  Six  hours.  No, five  and  a  half  hours."  (2) 
*•  Turn  1200  minutes  into  hours."  Answer :  "  Fifteen  hours.  No, 
twelve  and  a  half  hours."  (3)  "Turn  150  minutes  into  hours." 
Answer;  "Two  and  a  half  hours."  (4)  "Turn  240  minutes  into 
hours."  Answer:  "Two  hours."  (5)  "Turn  300  minutes  into 
hours."  Answer,  after  five  secoudfi'  calculation:  "Four  and  a 
half  hours."  Then,  after  a  further  calculation  :  "  Five  and  a  half 
hours."  Finally:  "Five  and  three-quarter  hours."  Delboeuf 
asked  J.  to  explain  the  last  calculation  to  him.  She  replied  : 
"  This  makes  five  and  a  half  hours  plus  3  times  10,  which  makes 
five  and  a  half  hours  exactly."  Delba*uf  tried  to  help  J.  as 
follows:  "How  much  is  60  +  60?"  Answer:  "120  minutes." 
"120  +  60?"  Answer:  "180  minutes."  "180  +  60?"  An- 
swer, after  a  long  hesitation:  "240  minutes."  "240  +  60?" 
Answer:  "290  minutes."  J.  had  spent  ten  minutes  over 
attempting  to  solve  the  last  problem  and  showed  great  signs  of 
fatigue.  Belbceuf  did  not  consider  it  necessary  to  push  the 
question  further.  Tt  is  to  be  noted  that  M.  was  a  somewhat 
better  arithmetician  than  J.,  and  that,  in  the  experimeuts 
referred  to,  her  results  were  more  accurate  than  J.  s. 

Further  Time  Experiments.— The  following  were  inspired 
by  Delbaut's,  and  the  results  were  so  remarkable  that  1  feel 
justified  in  giving  as  many  details  as  possible,  in  order  to  present 
a  fairly  complete  picture  of  the  subject  of  tlie  experiments,  and 
of  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  carried  out. 

Miss  I).,  aged  19,  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  de  Watteville  for 
hypnotic  treatment,  on  Sept.  2,  1895,  and  her  medical  history  lb 
fully  given  on  page  183. 

Hypnosis  was  induced  at  the  first  attempt ;  and  at  the  seventh 
sitting  Mi.ss  1).  reached  the  stage  of  somnambulism,  ix,  she  was 
unable  in  the  normal  state  to  recall  the  events  of  hypnotic  life. 
From  that  date  she  could  at  once  be  made  analgesic  or  anieathetic 
by  suggestion :  touching  the  cornea  or  tickling  the  back  of  the 
throat  with  a  feather  produced  no  refiex,  and  the  passing  of  a 
needle  deeply  into  the  flesh  was  unattended  by  pain. 

I  During  treatment  suggestions  had  been  made  fixing  the  hour 
at  which  Miss  D.  was  to  fall  asleep  at  night,  and  the  moment  at 
which  she  was  to  awake  in  the  morning.  As  these  were  remark- 
ably successful,  it  occun-ed  to  me  that  she  might  prove  a  good 
aabject  for  experiments  similar  to  thoee  of  Delb<Buf.     Miss  D. 


I 


was  an  intelligent  girl  who  had  received  an  ordinary  Board-school 
education,  and  her  arithmetical  powers  were  in  keeping  with  this ; 
she  could  do  ordinary  sums  in  multiplication  and  siihtraction 
with  the  aid  of  a  pencil  and  paper;  but  failed,  unless  they  were 
extremely  simple,  to  solve  them  mentally.  Notwithstanding  this, 
she  asserte(.l  that  she  had  been  the  best  in  her  class  at  mental 
arithmetic  She  {xjssessed  no  particular  aptitude  for  appreciating 
the  passage  of  time.  The  following  experiments  were  made  after 
her  recovery,  and  with  the  consent  of  her  parents : — 

Exp.  \. — Nov.  6, 1895  ;  time  4  p.m.  Suggestion  giving; during lypnoeis  : 
At  th«  expiration  of  6  h.  and  20  in.  Miw  D.  was  to  niiLku  a  cross  on  a  piece 
of  jtaper^  and  write  down  the  time  she  believed  it  to  be  witliout  Ux>king  at 
clock  or  watch. 

Jies2dt.-^T\\e  suggestion  was  carried  out  the  minute  it  fell  due. 

Remarks.— (-)n  tliis  occasion  I  did  not  say  anything  to  Miss 
D.  about  the  experiment,  either  before  or  after  hypnosis;  and, 
being  a  somnambule,  she  rctaiaed  in  her  waking  consciousness  no 
recollection  of  the  suggestiou,  1  told  her  mother  its  nature,  but 
not  the  time  at  which  it  should  be  fultilled.  At  9.15  the  same 
evening  her  mother  noticed  that  Miss  D.  was  restless  and  asked 
her  what  was  the  matter.  She  replied  :  "  I  feel  1  must  do  some- 
thing, but  cannot  tell  what"  At  9.20  I'.M.  she  rapidly  made  a 
cross  with  a  pencil,  and  wrote  "  20  minutes  past  9  "  on  a  piece 
of  paper,  at  the  same  time  saying :  "  It's  all  silliness."  There 
was  no  clock  in  the  room ;  but  her  mother  went  into  the  next 
room  where  there  was  one,  and  found  that  the  time  was  9.20. 
When  I  again  saw  Miss  D.,  I  explained  the  nature  of  the  experi- 
xnents  I  proposed  making,  and  instructed  her  to  carry  a  pencil 
and  paper  during  the  day,  and  to  put  them  by  her  bedside  at 
night.  I  did  not  di^scribe  the  experiments  as  jmytliing  extra- 
ordinary, but  simply  told  her  that  hypnotised  subjects  were  often 
able  to  appreciate  time,  and  that  I  wished  to  see  whether  she 
could  do  so.  No  pectiniary  or  other  i-eward  was  promised  or 
given.  I  told  her  I  should  make  these  suggestions  from  time  to 
time,  but  not  on  each  occasion  she  visited  me.  1  neither  told 
her  in  the  waking  condition  that  suggestions  had  been  made,  nor 
inh)rmed  her  rektives  wheu  I  made  theiu,  nor  what  they  were. 
They  knew  that  suggealioua  of  this  nature  were  given  frequently, 
but  only  became  acquainted  with  them  by  seeing  Miss  D.  carry 
them  out,  or  by  hearing  from  her  that  she  had  done  so.     Before 


I 
I 
I 
I 

I 


■^making  the  suggestious,  I  wioie  them  tlowu  iu  xuy  case-book  aud, 

when  Miss  D.  again  visiteU  me,  I  copied  into  it  what  she  had 

written  on  the  difterent  pieces  of  paper.      In  many  instances,  1  did 

rnot  calculate  when  the  suggestions  fell  due,  and  in  othera  the 

[calculations  I  made  at  the  time  were  proved  to  be  en'oneous,  the 

Ita  of  the  experiments  in  these  cases  being  only  determined 

vrlien  the  series  was  completed. 

The    experinienis    which    I'oUowed    were    all    of    the    same 

character,  i.e,  during  hypnosis  Miss  D.  was  told  that,  at  the  ex- 

^H  piration  of  a  certain  number  of  minutes,  she  was  to  make  a  cross 

^■aud  write  down  tlie  liour  she  believed  it  to  be  without  confiultiug 

^Bthe  clock,  an  interval  of  waking  life  always  intervening  l)etwoen 

^■the    suggestion   and    its   fulfilment.      The    simple  and   uniform 

character  of  my  experiments  was  due  to  the  consideration  that 

Delbceuf's  subjects  resisted   suggestions   tliat  were  distasteful  to 

ihem.     The  idea  of  making  a  cross  on  a  piece  of  paper  excited 

110  opposition  in  Miss  D.'s  mind  ;  while  the  fact  that  she  recorded 

in  writing  the  time  at  which  the  suggestion  was  fulfilled,  especially 

when   this   was  witnessed    by  others,  put   me  in   posseasiou   of 

evidence  of  a  certain  value.      The  arithmetical  problems  involved 

in  the  first  one  or  two  of  the  following  experiments  were  com- 

»paratively  simple.  In  No.  3,  for  example,  as  Miss  D.  could  easily 
tell  when  24  hours  fell  due,  the  suggestion  practically  resolved 
Itself  into  one  to  be  fulfilled  in  100  minutes.  Soon,  however,  the 
experiments  became  complicated  and  involved  much  more  difficult 
problems  in  arithmetic. 

I£xp.  S.—NoT.  28,  1895  ;  2  pjl     Suij. :  To  be  fulfilled  in  320  in.» 
Jit  sulf.  — -  Correct. 
Remarks. — The   suggestion    was  carried   out    at    7.20    I'.M. 
when   the   subject  wn8  in  a   fiiend's   house.      ^She  had  no  watcli 
with  her  aud  the  clock  in  the  room  was  wrong. 

^Elp.  3. — Dec  4  ;  3.16  P.«.     i>u^. :   In  24  li.  And  100  to. 
: 

'  In  this  uid  all  the  following  flxiwrimeuU,  MUs  D.  was  lo  make  the  crou 
referred  to,  and  write  down  tlie  time  corrraiKitidiiif;  to  tht  turmiual  minute  of  the 
in  iBTolred  in  thR  mif^estiuQ. 


UntuK. — Correct. 

Remarks. — When  in  a  friend's  house  the  following  afternoon 
lie  carried  out  the  suggestion  at  4.55.  She  then  asked  the  time. 
ler  friend  looked  at  her  watch  and  told  her,  whereupon  she 


ri>marked :    "  Your   watch   is   3   minutes   fast."      This  was   the 


Svp.  4-— Dec  12  ;  3.20  P.M.     &ug.:  In  24  h.  1440  m. 

Result. — 3.20  P.M.,  Sat,  Dec  14  :  Correct. 
Ery.  5.— Wetl..  Dec  18;  3.45  p.m.     Surf.:  In  24  h.  2880  ra. 

liesuU. — 3.45  p.m.,  Sat..  Dec.  21  :  Correct 
Exp.  6.— Tuea,  Dec  24  ;  2.50  P.M.     Sug. :  la  30  Ij.  50  m. 

Eesult.—9Ao  pm.,  Wed.,  Dec  25 :  Correct 

Exp.  7. — TueB.,  Dec  24  ;  3.10  p.m.     Sug. :  In  7200  m. 
Jiesult. — 3.10  P.M.,  Sun.,  Dec.  29:  Correct 
Remarks. — ^AVhen  No.  V  was  fulfilled  Miss  D.  was  teaching  a 
Sunday-school  class,  when  she  suddenly  felt  an  impulse  to  make 
a  cross  and  mark  the  time.     It  was  only  after  doing  so  that  she 
looked  at  the  clock,  which  was  behind  her. 

Exp.  8. — Tinrfi.,  Dec  31  ;  3.45  p.m.     Huf/..-  lu  4335  m. 

MesiUt. — i  P.M.,  Fri.,  JatL  3,  1896  :  Correct 
Exp.  9. — Dec.  31,  1895;  4  p.m.     Sug.:  In  11,525  m. 

liesult. — ^11.5  A.M.,  Wed.,  Jan.  8  :  Wrong. 

Remarks. — The  result  ought  to  have  been  4.5  P.M.,  Jan.  8. 
I  reliypuolised  Miss  D.  on  that  day,  and  asked  her  to  recall  the 
au^estion  I  had  made  on  Dec.  31.  She  said  it  was  to  be  executed 
in  11,225  m, ;  it  is  possible  that  I  had  made  a  mistake,  but  not 
at  all  likely,  as  I  read  the  suggestion  to  her  with  the  figures 
before  my  eyes.  The  supposed  suggestion  of  11,225  m.  had 
been  carried  out  correctly. 

T  now  attempted  to  find  out  during  hypnosis  the  subject's 
mental  condition  in  I'eference  to  these  su;;f;e8tions.  In  reply  to 
my  questions  she  informed  me: — (1)  That  when  the  suggestions 
were  made  in  hypnosis  she  did  not  calcidate  when  they  fell  due. 
(2)  That  she  did  not  calculate  them  at  any  time  afterwards 
during  hypnosis.  (3)  That  she  had  no  recollection  of  them  when 
hypnosis  terminated.  (4)  Tluit  no  menior}-  of  them  ever  after- 
wards arose  in  the  waking  state.  (5)  That  shortly  before  their 
fulfilment  she  always  experienced  a  motor  impulse,  ue.  her  ^ 
fingers  moved  as  if  to  grasp  a  pencil  and  to  perform  the  act  of  ■ 
writing,  (6)  That  this  impulse  was  immediately  fiillowed  by  the 
idea  of  making  a  cross  and  writing  certain  figures.     (7)  That  she 


never  looked  at  clock  or  watch  until  after  she  had  made  her 
record. 

Experimenttj  Wcd^  Jaa  8,  1896.— No.  10:  4.5  pjt  Sug.:  In  4,417 
m.  Na  II  :  4.5  p.M.  Stuj..-  In  11,470  iii.  No.  12:  4.30  P.«.  S«fif. :  lu 
10,070  ra. 

I  As  Mis6  J),  had  stated  in  h3rpno3ia  that  she  made  no  calcula- 
tions, in  order  to  vary  the  experiments,  I  asked  her,  as  soon  as  I 
made  the  suggestions  and  before  tcniiinatiu^  the  hypnosis,  to 
i  calculate  when  they  would  fall  due  and  tell  me  the  result  She 
replied  as  follows:  >Jo.  10,  in  3  d.  37  m.,  or  23  m.  to  5  next 
Saturday  afternoon.  No.  11,  in  187  h.  50  m.,  or  7  d.  0  h.  50  ni. 
Kext  Wednesday  morning  at  5  m.  to  12.  No.  12,  in  1067  li. 
40  m.,  or  6  d.  23  h.  and  40  ni.,  4.20  P.M.  next  Wednesday. 

Miss  D.'s  calculation  in  No.  10  was  1  h.  5  m.  too  eai-ly, 
the  interval  (which  was  1  h.  too  short)  having*  apparently  been 
calculated  from  4  o'clock,  instead  of  4.5  p.m.  In  No.  11  her 
calculation  was  1  d.  3  h.  20  nu  too  early.  Here  (1)  11,270 
was  taken  instead  of  1 1,470,  and  hence  the  interval  was 
calculated  to  be  187  h.  50  lu.,  equalling  7  d.  19  h.  50  in.  (2) 
7  d.  9  h.  50  m.  was  given  instead  of  7  d.  19  h.  50  m.  The 
time  falling  due  was  then  calculat<;d  with  this  interval  (7.  19.  50), 
but  (3)  a  mistake  of  1  d.  was  made. 

In  No.  12  her  result  was  correct,  hut  did  not  correspond 
with  her  calculation.  10,070  m.  equals  167  h.  50  m.,  not 
1067  h.  40  m.  Here  (1)  a  cypher  was  wrongly  inserted  and 
(2)  40  m.  miscalculated  for  50.  The  latter  error  waa  repeated 
when  6  d.  23  h.  40  m.  waa  given  instead  of  6  d.  23  h.  50  m. 

Hesulis. — No.  10,  Sat.,  Jan.  11,  5.42  p.m.:  Correct.  No.  11, 
Thars.,  .Tan.  16,  3.15  p.m.:  Correct.  No.  12.  Wed.,  Jan.  15. 
4.20  p.m.:  Correct. 

Remarks. — As  the  subject  had  wrongly  calculated  during 
h}'pnosis  the  time  the  .^uggestifins  fell  due.  I  concluded  that  she 
had  thus  Hxod  tltese  dates  in  her  own  mind,  and  would  carry  out 
the  experiments  in  accordance  with  them.  My  astonishment 
was  great  when  they  were  executed  correctly.  I  rohypnotised 
Miss  D.  and  said  to  her:  "You  did  not  carry  out  these  sugges- 
tions at  the  hour.i  you  told  nit*  they  would  fall  due.  Why  was 
I  this  ?  "  She  replied  :  "  What  I  told  you  wua  all  wrong."  "  How 
do  you  know  the  other  results  are  right  ?  "  "I  can't  tell  you ;  1 
only  feel  that  tliey  are."     Further  questioning  elicited  no  memory 


^ 


of  the  processes  by  which  the  original  mistakes  had  been  corrected. 
Miss  D,  assured  me  that  she  bad  never  thought  of  the  suggestions 
Irom  the  time  they  were  made ;  she  simply  fulfilled  them  in  re- 
sponse to  un  impulse  to  write  down  tlie  iigures,  and,  while  doing 
so,  neither  recaUed  her  calculations  nor  even  the  suggestions 
themselves. 

When  No.  1 2  was  fulfilled,  Miss  D.  had  been  hypnotised  in 
my  room  for  au  liour,  and  had  liad  no  opportunity  of  consulting 
the  clock.  Kxactly  at  4.20,  without  waking  or  opening  her  eyea, 
she  said  she  had  to  make  a  cross  and  put  down  the  time — this 
was  preceded  by  the  movement  of  the  fingers  already  described. 
From  that  date  I  arranged  that  some  of  the  experiments  should 
fall  due  when  Miss  D.  visited  me,  but  not,  it  is  important  to  note, 
every  time  she  came.  They  were  fulfilled  either  in  the  normal 
waking  state  or  in  hypnosis,  and  Hiss  D.  recorded  them  herself 
in  my  case-book.  I  then  at  once  compared  her  figures  with  the 
actual  ti:ne  and  entered  the  result,  tliis  being  nearly  always 
witnessed  and  signed  by  others.  From  that  date  several  sugges- 
tions were  made  at  each  sitting.  In  some  cases,  the  actual  time 
at  wliich  the  suggestions  were  made  was  given  as  the  starting- 
point  of  all  the  experiments ;  in  others,  varying  and  what  we 
may  t«rm  "  imaginary "  ones  were  chosen :  i.e.  the  subject  was 
told  the  actual  time,  but  ordered  to  carry  out  the  experiment 
from,  say,  2.15  p.m.  of  the  previous  day. 

Experimenti^  Wed.,  Jjin.  16,  4.45  p.u. — Xo.  13,  from  4.45  P.u.  Svg.  : 
In  4453  m.  Na  14,  from  2  p.m.  Sug.  .•  In  10,470  m.  No.  15,  &om  3 
p.w.     »SX7. :  In  10,060  m. 

At  the  time  the  suggestions  were  made  the  subject  was  again 
aaked  in  hypnosis  to  calculate  when  they  would  fall  due  and 
replied  rapidly:  "No.  13,  in  722  h.  and  33  m.,  or  11.15  P.M. 
next  Wednesday."  "No.  14,  iu  197  h.  and  30  m.,  or  4.5  P.M. 
next  Wednesday."  "No  15,  in  8  d.  5  h.  and  30  ra.,  or  4.25  p.m. 
next  Wednesday." 

In  No.  13,  Miss  D.'s  calculation  was  4  d.  4  h.  17  m.  too 
late.  4453  m.  equals  74  h.  13  m.,  not  722  h.  33  m.  Terhaps 
4453  was  mistaken  for  43,353.  equalling  722  h.  33  m.  The 
time  of  falling  due  had  been  calculated  from  the  interval  of 
Na  14. 

In  No.  14>  her  calculation  was  4  h.  25  m.  too  early.     10,470 


I 
I 
I 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS    125 


HL  equals  174  li.  30  m.,  not  197  \\.  30  m.  The  time  of  falling 
due  was  alno  wrong.  There  is  no  explanation  for  eitlier  of  these 
independent  errors. 

In  No.   in,  lior  calculation  was   1  h.  45  ui.  too  late.     The 

wrongly  calculated  interval,  8  d.  5  h.  30  m.,  corresponded  to  the 

■wrongly  calculated   197  Ii.  30  ni.  of  No.  14;  this  interval  Iiad 

apparently  remained  in  the  mind.     The  time  of  fulling  due  had 

been  calculated  with  4.45  as  initinl  time,  ns  in  No.  13,  instead 

t  of  3.0. 

i^cjTKVfc.— No.  13,  Sat.,  Jan.  18,  6.58  P.M.  CoiTect  No.  14, 
Wed.,  Jan.  22,  8.30  KM.  Correct.  No.  15,  Wed.,  Jan.  22, 
2.40  P.M.     Correct. 

Remarks. — Again  the  subject's  miscalculation  did  not  aflect 
the  accuracy  of  her  results,  aud  questioning  in  hypnosi.s  again 
failed  to  revive  any  memory  of  the  processes  by  which  these  had 
been  reached. 

Expenmeta$^  Wed.,  Jaa   22,   4.5   p.m. — No.    16.  Sug. :    la    20,180   ni. 
|Na  17.  Hug.:  In  20,160  in.     No.  18.  Sug.:  In  20,140  m. 

Miss  U.'s  calculations  in   hypnosis: — "No.    16,  in   336  U. 

20  m.,  or  13  d.  20  m.     Tues,,  Feb.  4,  at  4.25   P.M."     "No.   17, 

Tues.,  Feb.  4,  at  4.5  p.m."     "No.  18.  Tues..  Feb.  4,  at  3.45  p.m." 

In  each  instance  these  calculations  were   1  d.  too  early,  but  in 

I  No.  16,  20.180  m.  was  correctly  given  as  336  h.  20  m. 

Besults. — No.  16,  Feb.  5,  4.25  p.m.  Correct.  No.  17.  Feb. 
5,  4.5  P.M.     Correct.     No.  18,  Feb.  5,  3.45  p.m.     Correct. 

Remarks. — On  Wed.,  Feb.  5,  I  hj'pnotised  Afisa  D.  at  3  P.M. 

Ac  3.45,  without  passing  from  the  hypnotic  state,  she  made  a 

I  cross   and  wrote   down   the  correct  time.     I  aroused  her  at  4 

o'clock,  aud  she  carried  out  the  remaining  experimenta  correctly 

at  4.5  and  4.25. 

KxperivMnU^  Wed.,  Feb.  5,  4  p.m. — No.  19.  Sug.:  In   10,000  m.     No, 

20.  Sutf. :  In  10,080  ni.  No.  21.  Sng. :  In  10,090  la.  No.  22.  Svg.:  In 
840  m.      No.  23.  Sug, :  In  900  ni. 

Misa  D.'s  calculations  in  hypnosis : — "  No.  1 9,  Wed.,  Feb. 
12,  3.30  P.M."  "  No.  20.  Wed.,  Feb.  12,  4  p.m."  *'  No.  21.  Wed.. 
Feb.  12,  4.10  p.m."  "No.  22,  Thur..  Feb.  6,  6  a.m.'"  "No.  23. 
Thur.,  Feb.  6,  7  a.m." 

The  above,  made  almost  immediately,  were  correct  in  every 
instance. 


HYPNOTISM 


HestUts. — No.  19,  Wed.,  Feb.  12,  3.30  p.iL  Con-ect.  No. 
20,  WeA,  Feb.  12,  4  p.m.  Correct.  No.  21.  Wed..  Feb.  12. 
4.10  P.M.  CorrecL  No.  22,  Thur.,  Feb.  6,  6  a.m.  Correct. 
No.  2?,,  TUur.,  Feb.  6,  7  A.M.     Correct. 

Remarks. — Wlien  Miss  iJ.'s  mother  went  to  her  bedroom  on 
ihe  morning  of  the  6th,  she  found  her  asleep  and  two  pieces  of 
paper  on  a  table  by  lier  bedside.  On  each  was  a  rough  cross ; 
on  one  the  figure  6,  on  the  other  7,  both  very  badly  writteu. 
Miss  D.  said  she  had  not  awakened  during  the  night 

The  other  suggestions  were  carried  out  during  hypnosis  in 
my  room,  the  time  being  marked  by  Miss  D.  in  my  notebook 
and  witnessed  by  others. 

The  tivti  suggestions  were  given  rapidly  one  aPter  the  other. 
These,  and  similar  complicated  ones,  were  never  read  to  the 
subject  more  than  twice,  and  sometimes  only  once. 

I  rehypuotised  Miss  1).,  and  questioned  her  about  the  sug- 
gestions whiiih  had  been  carried  out  during  the  night,  presumably 
in  natural  sleep.  She  told  me  she  remembered  nothing  about 
them ;  and  afterwards,  when  suggestions  were  again  carried  out 
in  natui-al  sleep,  her  memory  was  equally  at  fault. 

Experimetiti,  Wed^  Feb.  12.— No  24,  3.30  P.1I.  Sug.:  In  2220  m. 
Nt).  2B,  3.30  P.M.  Siuj.:  Tii  2285  in.  No.  26,  3  P.u.  Swj. :  In  10,115  in. 
Ko.  27,  3  P.M.     iitig.:  In  10,150  ni.     No.  28,  4  p.m.     Sug.:  In  20,190  m. 

Mies  D.'s  calculations  in  hypnosis: — "No.  24,  in  18  h.  and 
40  m.,  or  10.10  to-morrow  morning."  "No.  25,  to-morrow 
morning  at  11.15."  "No.  26,  next  Wednesday  at  25  m.  to 
4  P.M."  "No.  27,  next  Wednesday  at  5.30  P.M."  "No.  28.  a 
fortnight  and  half  an  hour." 

The  answers  to  Nos.  26,  27,  28,  were  given  immediately. 
In  No.  24,  Miss  D.'s  calculation  was  18  h.  and  20  m.  too  early, 
but  would  have  been  correct  if  the  interval  suggested  had  been 
1120,  instead  of  2220  m.  In  No.  25,  her  calculation  was 
18  h.  20  m.  too  early,  but  would  have  been  correct  had  the 
suggested  interval  been  1185,  instead  of  2285  m.  lu  No.  26, 
her  calculation  was  correct.  In  No.  27,  her  calculation  was 
1  h.  20  m.  too  late.  Here  the  interval  seems  to  have  been 
taken  as  7  d.  150  m.,  instead  of  10,150  rii.  In  No.  28,  her 
calculation  was  correct  as  far  as  it  went,  but  the  exact  time  of 
fuldlment  was  not  given. 


^ 


At  the  time  I  made  the  suggestions  I  also  calculated  when 
they  would  fall  due,  thus: — Xo.  24,  Feb.  14.  5  a.m.  Wroug; 
b&lf  an  hour  too  late.  Xo.  25,  Feb.  14.  6.5  a.m.  Wrong;  half 
au  hour  too  late.  No.  26,  FeK  19,  S.So  P.M.  Kight.  No.  27, 
Feb.  19,  4.10  p.m.  Righu  No.  28,  Feb.  26.  4.25  P.M.  Wroug  ; 
5  m.  too  soon. 

Arsw^fe.— No.  24.  Fri..   Feb.   14,   4.30   a.m.     Correct.     No. 

25.  Frl,  Feb.  14.  5.35  A.M.  Con-ectw  No,  26.  Wed.,  Feb.  19. 
3.35  P.!iL  Correct  No  27.  Wed..  Feb.  19,  4.10  KM.  CoiTect. 
No.  28,  Wed.,  Feb,  26,  4.30  p.m.     Correct 

Remarks. — Nas.  24  and  25  were  fulfilled  during  sleep.  On 
the  14th,  Miss  1).,  on  awaking,  found  papers  by  her  bedside  with 
4.30  and  5.35  written  on  them.  On  the  19th,  she  was  hypno- 
tised in  my  room  at  3  P.M.,  and  carried  out  Nos.  26  and  27  while 
in  hypnosis.  On  both  occasions  she  wrote  the  time  in  my  note- 
book, and  this  was  witnessed.  I  asked  her  during  hypnosis  if 
she  remembered  my  last  suggestion  (No.  28),  made  the  previous 
week.  She  said  she  did,  and  repeated  it  correctly ;  but  stated 
she  had  never  thought  of  it  since,  and  did  not  know  when  it 
would  fall  due,  or  the  number  of  minutes  that  had  elapsed  since 
'it  was  given.  She  had  apparently  forgotten  that,  when  the 
suggestion  was  given,  she  had  calculated  when  it  would  fall  due. 
Ko.  28  was  executed  correctly  during  hj^mosis  on  Feb.  26. 

fxperiTMHtSy  Wed.»   Feb.   19. — No.   29,  3.30  pm.      Sug. :  In  720  ni. 
0.  30,  3.30  P.M.     Sug.:  In  780  m.     No.  31,  3.30  p.m.      Sitg.:  In  2160  m. 
No.  32,  3  P.M.     Sitg.:  In  10,136  m.     No.  33,  3  pji.     Svg. :  In  SO.SIO  ni. 

Hiss  D.'s  calculations  in  hypnosis: — These,  with  the  exception 
fof  No.  32,  were  all  correct,  and   her  replies  were  almost  instan- 
taneous.    No.  32  was  said  to  be  due  at  2.5  P.M.  on  Wed.,  Feb. 

26.  Tliis  was  1  h.  50  m.  too  early,  and  represented  an  interval 
I  of  7  d.  less  55  m.,  instead  of  7  d.  plus  55  m. 

7?«i4/is.— No.  29.  Thur,  Feb.  20.  3.30  A.M.  Correct  No. 
30,  Thur.,  Feb.  20.  4.30  a.m.  Correct  No.  31,  Fri..  Feb.  21. 
3.30  A.M.  Correct  No.  32,  Wed..  Feb.  26,  3.55  p.m.  Correct 
No.  33,  Wed.,  Mar.  4,  3.50  P.M.,  was  written  down  at  3.48.  The 
calculation,  herefore,  was  correct,  but  the  Lime  appreciation  2  m. 
too  early. 

Remarks. — On  awaking  at  7  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the 
20th,  Miss  D.  found  a  piece  of  paper  with  3.30  marked  on  it. 


izS 


HYPNOTISM 


and  aaoUier  vub  4.30.  On  tfae  morning  of  the  2l8t,  afae  fiMmd 
ft  piece  of  paper  with  3.30  maiiced  on  tt  She  had  no  reooUee- 
tion  o(  waking  dsiifig  the  ni^t.  and,  as  osoal,  qnestkniiiig  in 
bTpoods  fiuled  to  revire  mar  memonr  of  what  she  had  done.  Ibe 
other  aoggertionf  were  falfiUed  in  my  room  and  witncawd 
others. 


fa 


ExprrimmU,  Wed.,  Feb.  26,  3.30  p.ai.— Ko.  34.  Si^. :  In  3140  m. 
Kou  35.  Si^. ;  In  3590  m.  Nol  36.  Sy^:  In  5030  m.  Kol  37.  Smff.:  Im 
I0«1X5  m.     Na  30w  ^:  In  10,100  m.     >*a  39.  S*»g.:  In  30,180  m. 

jeeau^— Ha  34,  Kri.,  Feb.  28,  3.10  AM.  Correo.  Ka 
35,  Sat.  Feb,  29,  3.20  jlm.  Correct  No.  36,  Sun.,  Mar.  1, 
3.20  A.M.  Correct  No.  37.  due  Wed^  Mar.  4.  at  4.15  PJC., 
wa«  not  recorded.  Xo.  38.  WeA,  Mar.  4,  3,50  p.sl,  was  written 
down  at  3.48.  Calculation  therefore  correct,  but  time  apprecia- 
tion 2  zn.  too  early.  No.  39,  Wed.,  Mar.  11,  3.50  PJt,  waa 
written  down  at  3.51^.  Calculation,  therefore,  correct,  huh 
tfane  appreciation  1^  m.  too  late. 

Eemarks. — Tlieae  suggestions  were  only  read  to  Miss  D. 
once ;  Bht*  wa^^  then  asked  to  repeat  them,  and  did  so  correctly, 
with  the  exception  of  No.  37.  She  was  told  not  to  make  any 
cnlcMiIationa.  Nos.  34.  35  and  36  were  executed  during  sleep, 
and  lliu  papers,  ae  usual,  were  found  at  Miss  D.'s  bedside  in  the 
moruing.  It  is  to  be  noted  tliat  3.50,  March  4.  the  terminal 
time  of  Ko.  38,  was  also  the  time  at  which  another  suggestion. 
made  a  fortnight  before,  fell  due,  and  which  has  already  been 
recorded  in  its  proper  place.  Miss  J).  !(tatc<l  nt  3.48  that  she 
bad  to  make  two  crosses  and  to  put  down  3.50  twice.  No. 
37,  due  at  4.15  p.m.,  Wedneaday,  March  4.  I  have  no  record  ot 
I  am  not  certain  whether  Ibis  is  my  fault  or  Miss  D.'s ;  I  was 
hypnotising  anotlier  patient  when  tlie  suggestions  were  fulfilled, 
and  I  might  well  have  omitted  to  enter  this  one;  on  the  other 
hand,  Miss  I),  might  have  failed  to  carry  it  out  Tliree 
•uggestions  fell  due  very  quickly,  and  one  of  them,  as  we  have 
seen,  belonged  to  another  series.  When  suggestions  were  made  to 
fall  due  in  a  fortnight,  and  I  saw  the  subject  in  the  week  l»6tween, 
1  sometimes  questioned  her  in  hypnosis  as  to  the  unfulfilled 
ones :  she  always  assured  me  that  she  had  never  thought  of 
tliem,  did  not  know  how  much  of  the  time  had  elapsed,  nor  when 
they  fell  due. 


I 


I 


I 


» 


.fixpmnwnia,    Wed,    Mar.  4,    3.45  p.M.^Na40.  Sug.:  In  10,080  oi. 

Na    41.     Sug.-  In    10,055   m.     No.  42.  tiuff. .-  In   10,040   m.     No.   43. 

Bug.:   In    750   m.     No.    44.    Siig.  :  In   S160    m.      No.    45.    Sug.:   In 
2195  m. 

JUtults, — No.  40,  Wed,  Mar.  11,  3.45  P.M.,  was  written  down 
at  3.44.  Calculation  correct ;  time  appreciation  1  m.  too  soon. 
No.  41,  Wed.,  Mar.  11,  3.20  r.M.,  was  written  down  at  3.22. 
Calculation  correct ;  time  appreciation  2  m.  too  late.  No.  42. 
Wed.,  Mar.  11,  3.5  p.m.  Correct  No.  43,  Thur.  Mar.  5,  4.15 
A.M.,  during  sleep.  Correct.  No.  44,  Fri.,  Mar.  6.  3.45  a.m., 
during  sleep.  Coirect.  No.  45,  Frl,  Mar.  6,  4.20  A.M.,  during 
sleep.     Correct. 

Bemarks- — Wlien  these  suggestions  were  given  Miss  D.  was 
not  asked  lo  calculate  when  they  would  fall  due.  Mr.  Bark- 
wortb,  a  member  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  liesearch,  and  Dr. 
Barclay,  of  South  Canterbur)',  "SX.,  were  present  when  Nos.  40, 
41  and  42  were  fultillcd. 

At  this  sitting,  March  11,  fresh  suggestions  were  made  imder 
the  following  conditions.  Mr.  Baikworth  and  Dr.  Barclay  were 
both  put  en  rapport  with  Miss  D.,  and  it  was  agreed  that  they 
should  each  make  two  time  suggestions,  arranged  so  as  to  fall 
dtio  ab  the  next  sitting,  when  they  promised  to  be  present 
These  were  given  when  I  was  out  of  the  room,  and  I  was  not 
told  wliat  they  were  until  after  their  fulfilment  The  suggestions 
were  as  follows  : — 

BxperinunU,  Wed.,  Mar.  11,  4  p.m.— No.  46.  Sug.:  In  21,400  no. 
Na  47.  ^u^. ;  la  31,4S0  lu.  No.  48.  Swj. :  In  21,438  m.  No.  49. 
Bmg.:  In  Sl,434  m. 


^M  JUmdU—ifo.  46.  Thur..  Mar.  26,  12.40  p.m.,  was  written 
^H<4own  at  12.38.  Calculation  correct;  time  appreciation  2  m.  too 
^Bfiarly.  No.  47,  Thur.,  Mar.  26, 1  p.m.,  was  written  down  at  1 2.59. 
^^  Calculation  correct ;  time  appreciation  1  m.  too  early.  No.  48, 
I  Thur.  Mar.  26,  1.8  P.M.  Correct  No.  49,  Thur.,  Mar.  26, 
H'l.l4  P.M.     Correct 

^^  Remarks. — Miss  D,  was  hypnotised  at  12.30  p.m.  on 
Thursday,  March  26.  and  carried  out  the  suggestions  while  in 
that  condition.  Mr.  Barkworth  and  Dr.  Barclay  were  both 
present  and  checked  the  records.  None  of  us,  however,  had 
any  idea  whether  the  experiments  were  carried  out  correctly  or 


not,  as  Mr.  Rarkworth  and  Dr.  Barclay  hud  mislaid  their  notes, 
and  were  unable  to  recall  the  suggestions  they  had  given. 
Mis3  D.  was  roused  from  the  hypnotic  state,  and,  as  usual, 
rememl)ere<l  notliiug  of  the  suggestions.  She  was  then  re- 
hypuotised,  asked  to  recall  them,  and  replied  as  follows :  "  They 
were  made  at  4  p.m.  last  Wednesday  week,  and  were  to  be 
ftilfilled  in  21,400,  21.420,  21,428  and  21,434  minutes. 
Mr.  Barkworth  and  Dr.  Barclay  gave  two  suggestions  each." 
Miss  D.  staled  that  she  had  made  no  calculation  at  the  time 
and  had  not  thought  of  the  suggestions  afterwards.  On  April 
22,  Dr.  Barclay  sent  me  the  lost  memorandum  of  his  two 
suggestions,  viz.  21,428  and  21,434  minutes  from  4  P.M.  on 
the  day  already  mentioned.  On  April  27,  Mr.  Barkworth  wrote 
to  tell  mo  that  he  also  had  found  his  lost  memorandum  and 
that  the  suggestions  wei-e  21,400,  21.420,  21,428  and  21.434 
minutes,  the  first  two  having  been  made  by  himself,  the  two 
latter  by  Dr.  Barclay.     This  agreed  with  Miss  D.'s  account. 

A  fresh  series  of  suggestions  was  made  on  April  8,  some  to 
fall  due  during  the  night,  others  the  following  week  in  my 
presence.  The  subject  lost  her  papers  recording  the  former,  and 
I  was  too  busy  to  enter  the  latter.  These  ai-e  the  only  experi- 
ments in  the  whole  scries  which  are  not  recorded,  and  they  are 
omitted  for  the  above  reasons.  Later  Miss  J),  found  the  records 
of  the  suggestions,  which  Iiad  been  carried  out  during  natural 
sleep.     They  were  correct. 

BxperimenU,  Thup.,  May  7,  3  VM. — No.  60.  Sxuj. .  In  865t>  m.  No. 
61.  Sug.:  in  8660  m.     No.  52.  ^u^. :  In  8700  m. 

I  still  further  complimteil  these  by  suggesting  as  follows :  "  No.  50  Sa 
to  be  fitltiltcd  in  the  waking  state.  Five  minutes  before  No.  &l  falls  due 
you  arc  to  pass  into  the  hypnotic  condition.  No.  Si  is  to  be  fulHlled  dur- 
ing b^'pnofiia,  but  live  minutes  afterwards  you  arc  to  pass  into  the  mmtial 
waking  state,  and  continue  in  that  until  after  the  execution  of  Ka  5S. 
Kight  minutes  after  No.  52  is  carried  out  hypnosis  will  again  appear." 

TZmk/^a— No.  50.  (a)  Suggestion  fulfiUed,  Wed.,  May  13, 
3.10.  Correct  (6)  Hypnosis  appeared  at  3.31  p.m.  This 
ouglit  to  have  been  3.35  p.m.,  and  was  therefore  4  minutes  too 
early. 

No.  51,  Wed.,  May  13,  3.40  P.M.  {a)  Suggestion  fulfilled 
during  hypnosis.  Correct  (J)  Miss  D.  passed  spontaneously 
into  the  normal  state  at  3.45.     Correct 


I 
I 


I 
I 

I 
I 
I 


^ 
^ 


No.  52,  4  P.M.     (a)  Suggestion  fulfilled  in  the  waking  state. 
[Correct,     (b)  Hyjjnosis  appeared  exactly  ut  4.8.     Correct. 

Remarks. — On  May  13,  Misa  D.  came  into  my  consulting- 
fxoom  at  3.5  p.m.,  and  almost  immediately  fainted.  She  had 
recently  met  with  a  severe  accident  and  was  in  acute  aullering. 
Immediately  on  regaining  consciousness,  she  said  she  had  to 
I  make  a  cross  at  ',i.  1 0  and  did  so  in  my  case-book :  others  were 
present  in  the  room  when  all  the  suggestions  were  fulHUed,  with 
the  exception  of  the  first. 

Expenmentii^  Wed.,  May  13,  4.30  P.M. — Tlie  auggt-stioiiJi  were  given 
in  thu  following  general  terms  ;  **  You  are  to  repeat  all  the  ezpcritnenU 
made  last  Thursday,  but  to-day  you  arc  to  start  ^m  3.6&  instead  of  3 
p.H.,  and  to  each  ni^gestioQ  you  ore  ti>  add  1440  niiuutea."  The  original 
suggeationa  were  not  cited,  nor  any  other  informatiou  given.  The  experi- 
Dienta,  Uierefore,  were  as  fullowa  : — 

No.  53,  Wed.,  May  13,  4.30  p.w.  Sti^. :  In  8660  rain,  from  3  P.M., 
plus  1440  m.,  minus  5  m.  from  atflrting  point.  No.  64,  Wed.,  May  13, 
4.30  v.u.  &'tM/. ;  In  86S0  ui.  from  3  r.u.,  plus  1440  m.,  minus  5  in. 
from  Btarting-imint      No,  65,  Wed.,  May  13,  4.30  p.M.     Hwj.:  In  8700  m. 

I  plus  1440  m.,  minus  5  m.  from  starting-point. 
RfguUA — No.  53,  Wed.,  May  20,  3.5  pjkr.     fulfilled  in  the 
waking  state.     Correct.     Hypnosis  appeared  at  3.30.     Correct. 
No.  .54,  Wed.,  May  20,  3,3.^  p.m.      In  hypnosis.     Correct 
Miss  D.  passed  spontaneously  into  the  normal  state  at  3.40. 
Correct. 
According    to    the    original    suggestions.    Miss    D.    was    to 
remain  in   the   normal   state   until    the    fulfilment  of  the   next 
experiment,  but,  as  she  had  a  severe  headache,  I  hypnotised  her, 
made  cui-ative  suggestions,  and  told  Ijer  hyjjnosis  wotdd  terminate 
one  minute   before  the  next  experiment  fell  due.     She  passed 
into   the    normal   waking  state  at   3.49,    6   minutes    too  soon. 
I       No.   55.  Wed.,  May  20,  3.55   p.m.,  was  written  down  at  3.50. 

» Calculation,  therefore,  correct,  but  time  appreciation  5  minutea 
too  early. 
I  rehj'pnotised  Miss  D.  immediately  the  above  experiment 
was  fulfilled.  At  4.3  P.M.,  while  sliH  in  the  Iiypnotic  state,  she 
said  it  was  3  minutes  past  4,  and  that  I  had  suggested  hypnosis 
^Hvould  appear  at  that  hour.  This  was  correct. 
^V  Remarks. — It  is  to  be  noted  that  hypnosis  appeared  at  3.30 
r  P.M.,  the  exact  time  suggested.  This  is  particularly  interesting, 
^KU  the  experiment,  correctly  executed  at  3.30  on  May  20,  was 


the  erroneously  carried  out  experiment  of  May  I'S,  complicated 
by  five  minutes  having  been  deducted  from  its  starting-point, 
and  1440  added  to  its  interval. 

No.  55  was  the  last  experiment  of  the  series.  A  few  others, 
similar  in  character,  were  made  in  October,  1896.  These  were 
successful,  but  presented  no  fresh  features,  and  as  Miss  D.  bad  to 
cease  her  visits,  owing  to  her  approaching  marriage,  further 
experiment  was  im^tossible. 

Summary.^Fifty-five  experiments  are  cited ;  of  these  one, 
apparently,  was  either  not  carried  out  by  Miss  D.,  or  unrecorded  by 
me,  while  in  another  (N"o.  9)  she  mistook  the  original  suggestion, 
but  fulfilled  it  correctly  in  accoixlance  with  what  she  thought  it 
hud  been.  Forty-five  were  completely  succossful,  i.e.  not  only 
did  Miss  D.  write  down  the  con-ecL  terminal  time,  but  this  was 
done,  also,  at  the  moment  the  experiment  fell  due.  Eight  (Nos. 
33,  38.  39,  40,  41,  46,  47,  55)  were  partially  successful.  In 
these  the  terminal  time  was  correctly  recorded  in  everj*  instance, 
but  there  were  minute  differences,  never  exceeding  five  minutes. 
between  the  subject's  correct  estimate  of  when  the  suggestion 
fell  due,  and  the  moment  at  which  she  carried  it  out.  The 
proportion  which  these  errors  Iiear  to  their  respective  intervals 
varies  between  1  to  2028  and  1  to  21,420.  The  following 
table  gives  an  analysis  of  the  conditions  under  wliicli  the  experi- 
ments were  carried  out  and  their  results ; — 


Similar  experiments,  more  or  less  successful,  were  made  with 
other  somnambules,  but  in  none  werc  the  results  so  striking  as 
with  Miss  D.  In  those  about  to  be  cited  the  subject  was  Miss 
O.,  aged  20,  au  intelligent,  well-educated  gii*l.  who  had  received 
some  scientific  training.  Her  arithmetical  powers  were  superior 
Vy  Miss  D/s,  but  she  possessed  no  particular  aptitude  for  appre- 
ciating the  passage  of  time.  She  was  a  somnarahule,  could  he 
rendered  aniesthetic  and  analgesic  by  suggestion,  and  had  lw?en 
the  subject  of  several  painless  minor  surgical  operations.  Her 
health,  from  the  commencement  of  the  experiments  up  to  the 
last  report  (January  190.*i)  has  been  good. 

The  first  experiments  consisted  in  determining  by  suggestion 
the  time  of  waking  from  normal  sleep.  The  hours  selected  varied 
widely;  but  the  results  were  almost  uniformly  successful,  and  the 
greatest  error  recorded  did  not  exceed  five  minutes.  Others 
similar  to  Miss  D.'s  followed,  thus : — 

Exp.  I,  Not.  25,  189ft,  3.55  I'.m.  fiug.  :  In  24  h.  and  50  m.  Rat.: 
Correct  Rcmarkt ;  In  reply  to  questioning  in  hypnoaiB,  Mi.-«i  0.  stated  that 
when  the  suggestion  waa  given  she  calculated  when  it  would  fall  due  and 
determined  lo  carry  it  out  at  that  hour.  FIxik  2,  Nov.  27,  1.20  p.m.  .S'hj. : 
In  1445  m.  lits. :  10  m.  too  ejirly.  Exp.  3,  Dec  6.3  P.M.  iyxig. :  Id 
1-140  ra.  /;«..•  Correct  Exp  4,  Dec  9,  3.15  p.m.  Sxig. :  In  2880  ni. 
Rm.:  Correct  Erp.  5,  Dec  12,  3.30  p.m.  .S«y. :  In  1540  m.  liea.:  7  m. 
too  late.  Exp.  6,  Due  16,  3.30  p.m.  Hug.:  In  1620  ni.  R«s.t  13  m.  too 
l&ie.  E3:!p.  7,  Dec  20,  3  VM.  Sng.:  In  1380  ni.  Jiw. :  Correct  Ex}k  8, 
Dec  31,  3.15  PJl  Sug.:  lu  24  h.  1200  ra.  Res.:  Correct  Esp.  9,  Jan. 
2,  1896,  3.10  P.M.  Sug.:  In  24  h.  1430  m.  Miaa  O.V  calculation,  made  in 
bypnoets,  was  40  m.  too  early.  JUm.  :  5  m.  too  Inte.  Exp.  10,  Jan,  6,  3.15 
P.M.  Su(i.:  In  24  h.  100  oi.  Miss  O.'s  calculation  in  hypnosis  was  correct. 
Ris.:  8  m.  too  late.  Erp.  II,  Jan.  27,  3.10  p.m.  Sug.:  In  24  h.  160  m. 
Miaa  O.'a  calculation  in  hypnosis  was  correct  Ra.:  10  m.  too  soon,  ffacj?. 
12,  Mar.  37,  3.10  P.M.  Sug.:  In  24  h.  240  m.  Miss  O.'s  calcwUtion  io 
hypnosis  was  correct     Res.:  Correct. 

Time  experiments  more  or  less  closely  reaemhling  those  cited 
were  repeated  occasionally  with  Miss  O.  up  to  August,  1900,  and 
with  practically  identical  results. 

Before  considering  theoretical  explanations  of  hypnotic  and 
post-hypnotic  appreciation  of  time,  I  propose  to  discuss  (A)  the 
possihilities  of  mal- observation  or  deception,  and  (B)  to  draw 
attention  to  certain  other  points  which  appear  worthy  of  notice. 


I 


I 


(A)  The  Question  of  Mal-obseiivation  or  Deckition. 


m 


r 


"•J 


(1)  The  subjects  of  all  my  time  experiuieuts  were  either 
former  patients  or  personal  friends.  None  of  them  were  trained 
hypnotic  siibjects,  and   in   no   single   instance  wa3   a  pecuniary 

ward  proraiaed  or  given.  All  this,  however,  does  not  in  itself 
exclude  the  posaibility  of  mal-observation  or  deception,  and  1 
would  rather  base  my  arguments  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  results  on  ijost-hypnotic  amnesia,  and  the  fact  that  some  of 

e  problems  involved  were  beyond  the  subjects'  waking  powers. 

(2)  While,  however,  all  obsen'ers  recognise  post-hypnotic 
amnesia,  it  must  still  be  admitted  that  loss  of  memory  might  be 
assumed  for  purposes  of  deception.  Fortunately,  there  are  other 
iiypnotic  phenomena  impossible  of  imitation  ;  amongst  these  may 

cited :  (a)  the  absence  of  certain  organic  changes  following 
injury  (Delboeufa  case  of  two  symmetrical  burns),  and  (b)  the 
absence  of  physiological  signs  of  pain  during  severe  and  prolonged 
eration.  The  latter  fact  was  clearly  demonstrated  in  the 
operations  on  my  patients  at  Goole  and  Leeds  {Jow'ttal  of  Denial 
Science,  March  30,  1890,^  and  Laticet,  April  o,  1890).«  Several 
of  these  patients  were  afterwards  the  subjects  of  my  time  experi- 
ments, and  all  who  were  employed  for  this  purpose,  including 
Miss  D.  and  Miss  0.,  could  be  easily  rendered  aniesthetic  or 
analgesic  by  suggestion. 

(3)  Post-hypnotic  amnesia  alone,  even  when  it  is  undoubtedly 
nuine,  does  not  exclude  possible  error,  as  the  subject   might 

ive  information  from  the  operator  or  spectators.  It  is, 
however,  difficult  to  say  how  this  could  have  happened  in  Miss 
D.'s  case.  Thus,  twenty-seven  experiments  were  fulfilled  in  my 
absence,  and  no  information  regarding  these — excluding  of  course 
the  suggestions  made  to  Miss  I),  during  hypnosis — was  given  to 

^any  one  until  some  time  after  the  whole  series  was  completed.  I 
lid  not  calculate  when  any  of  these  twenty-seven  suggestions 
would   fall   diie,  and  did   not  know,  until  after  their  fulfilment, 

^^whether  they  had  been  carried  out  correctly  or  not.     Twenty- 

9ven  further  ex{reriments  wore  fulfilled  in  my  presence;  these, 

with   one   exception,  were  also  witnessed   by  others.      In  four  of 

Ejuggestions  were  made  by  Mr.  Barkworth  and  Dr.  Barclay ; 
did  not  know  what  they  were  until  afterwards.     These 
»  Pp.  i«a-3.  *  Pp.  lM-7. 


anal 

Kcnr 
^pecei 


wo 


two  operators,  however,  could  not  assist  the  subject,  as  they  had 
lost  the  memoranda  of  their  suggestions  and  were  unable  to  recall 
the  Hgures.  In  the  remaining  twenty-three,  none  of  the  spectators 
knew  what  the  suggestions  were.  Indeed,  in  most  instances  they 
did  not  know  that  any  experiments  were  being  carried  on  until 
they  saw  them  executed  and  were  asked  to  witness  the  fignres, 
their  ignorance  being  purposely  arranged. 

(4)  In  the  twenty-three  cases  just  cited,  before  giving  the 
suggestions  I  calculated  when  they  would  fall  due.  Could  Miss 
1).  have  learnt  anything  about  this  tlirough  telepathy  or  muscle- 
reading?  Uuring  tlie  last  twelve  years,  I  have  searched  for 
evidence  of  telepathy,  and  also  taken  part  in  the  experiments  of 
other  observers;  the  results,  however,  have  invariably  been 
negative.  If,  for  argument's  sake,  we  conceded  tlie  possibility  of 
telepathy,  recognising  also  that  somnambiile-s  possess  hyperaathesia 
of  the  special  senses,  it  would  still  be  difficult  to  see  what  in- 
formation Miss  D.  could  have  obtained  from  me.  In  the  majority 
of  the  experiments  I  did  not  work  out  when  the  experiments 
would  fall  due;  and,  even  when  I  did,  many  of  ray  calculations 
were  only  approximately  correct,  although  I  was  not  aware  of 
this  until  after  all  the  experiments  were  completed.  Moreover. 
I  have  an  unusunlly  bad  memory  for  figxires,  and  never,  either 
before  or  during  the  execution  of  the  suggestions,  recalled  my 
calculations  as  to  the  time  at  which  they  were  supposed  to  fall 
due.  Further,  when  the  experiments  were  carried  out,  I  was 
nearly  always  busily  engaged  with  other  patients,  and  so  placed 
that  Miss  D.  could  not  see  my  face. 

(5)  Again,  even  supposing  post-hypnotic  amnesia  had  not 
existed  in  Miss  D.'s  case,  the  retention  in  tlie  waking  state  of 
the  memories  of  hypnotic  life  would  not  in  itself  explain  her 
feats  in  calculation  and  time  appreciation.  Miss  D.'s  memory, 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  power  of  appreciating  time,  in  no 
way  exceeded  that  of  other  imperfectly  educated  girls  in  her 
station  of  life.  Her  normal  memory  was  incapable  of  i-etaiuing 
complicated  series  of  figures,  and  she  was  unable  to  make  even 
much  simpler  mental  calculations  than  those  involved.  After 
the  suggestions  were  made,  she  remained  in  the  hvpnctic  state 
for  an  hour  or  more  and  could  not  consult  the  clock.  During 
this  period,  it  was  absolutely  impossible  for  her  to  record  the 
suggestion  in  any  way  other  than  mentally. 


I 


THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PHENOMENA  OF  HYPNOSIS    137 


(B)  Other  Points  of  Interest. 

(1)  Five  mintitea  before   the   first  experiment  was  fuIiiUed, 
tiss  D.  l>ecarae  restless  and  felt  she  must  do  something.     This 

preliminary  state  of  restlessness  was  absent  in  all  the  subsequent 
aes.  In  them,  when  the  time  for  carrying  out  the  suggestions 
'  arrived.  Miss  D.  had  a  sudden  twitching  of  the  fingers  of  her 
riglit  hand,  immediately  followed  by  the  idea  of  writing  down 
certain  figures.  The  abruptness  of  this  invasion  of  the  normal 
consciousness,  by  a  message  from  the  sublimiual  one,  was 
particularly  noticeable  when  Miss  D.  was  actively  engaged  in 
^■conversation  at  the  time. 

(2)  On  the  twenty-four  occasions  Miss  D.  was  asked  to 
calculate  when  the  suggestions  fell  due,  she  was  wrong  in  the 

^pfirst  nine  instances,  but  in  the  remaining  fifteen  right  in  eleven 
and  wrong  in  four.  As  the  experiments  advanced,  not  only  tlie 
frequency,  but  also  the  extent,  of  Miss  D.'s  errors  in  calctilation 

(decreased^  and  the  answers  were  given  much  more  rapidly. 
Sometimes  the  correct  replies  were  aluiost  instantaneous,  and  in 
Ihese  instances  no  conscious  calculatiun  couht  be  traced.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  Miss  D.'s  mistaken  calculations  had  no  efi'ect  on 
1      the  correctness  of  her  results. 

(3)  Memory. — Once  only  did  Miss  1).  spontaneously  recall 
in  hypnosis  that  a  time  suggestion — yet  unfulfilled — had  been 
given.  Tliis  was  Kxperiment  No.  3,  where  the  suggestion  was  an 
easily  remembered  one,  viz.  24  hours  and  100  minutes.  On 
other  occasions,  when  Miss  D.  was  questioned  in  hypnosis  as  to 
the  unfulfilled  suggestions,  she  invariably  i'ecalle<l  tlie  fact  that 
thefle  had   Xweu  made,  hut  rarely  remembered   their  exact  terms. 

Hfihc  always  asserted  that  she  bad  never  thought  of  them,  did  not 
know  liow  much  time  had  elapsed  since  they  had  Ijeen  given,  nor 
when  they  were  due.      Tliis  was  so  even  in  cases  where  she  had 
9rrectly  calculated  the  terminal  time.     At  first  Miss  D.  forgot 
ill  about  the  suggestions  immediately  after  they  were  fulfUled : 
[le  did  not  know  she  liad  made  a  cross  or  written  down  the 
ires,  and  could  not  recall  wliat  they  meant     Tliis  condition  of 
^memory  was  identical  with  what  is  almost  universally  associated 
^  with  post-hypnotic  acts.      Later,  for   convenience'  sake,  it  was 
Bted  to  Miss  I),  during  hypnosis  that  she  should  remember 
iving  executed  the  experiments.     She  then  knew  in  the  waking 


state  that  she  lind  made  a  cross,  and  written  down  certain  figures, 
bvit  recalled  nothing  of  the  original  suggestion  of  whicli  these  acts 
were  the  fulfilment.  When  Miss  D.  was  questioned  in  hypnosis, 
after  ike  ej:(ciUioii  of  the  su^ftjcstions,  her  memory,  on  certain 
points,  wiLS  very  clear.  She  could  recall  in  every  detail  the 
terms  of  all  experiments  that  had  recently  been  carried  out,  i,e. 
she  remembered  the  hours  at  which  they  had  been  made,  the 
number  of  minutes  suggested,  her  own  calculations,  if  any,  and 
the  moment  and  circumstances  under  which  the  suggestions  hod 
been  fulfilled.  Putting  aside  the  calculations  she  made  at  the 
time  in  response  to  suggestion,  she  was  unable  to  recall  having 
made  any  others,  or  to  give  any  information  as  to  the  methods 
by  means  of  which  she  had  correctly  fulfilled  the  experiments. 
When  a  second  series  of  suggestions  was  given,  before  the  first 
had  been  fulfilled,  after  all  had  been  carried  out,  she  could  recall 
both  series  and  place  each  member  of  them  in  its  proper  order. 
This  memory,  however,  was  not  persistent,  A  fortnight  after  the 
experiments  had  been  executed,  although  Miss  D.  still  remembered 
in  hypnosis  that  tlicy  bad  taken  place,  she  was  unable  to  recall 
the  details.  When  experiments  were  fulfilled  in  normal  sleep 
she  remembered  their  terms  in  hypnosis,  and  when  they  had  been 
given,  but  not  when  they  had  been  executed. 

(4)  The  experiments  had  no  prejudicial  effect  on  Miss  D.'s 
health.  On  the  contrary,  this  steadily  impi-oved.  She  is  now  a 
strong,  healthy,  well -developed  woman,  the  mother  of  two  children, 
and  lias  had  no  return  of  her  nervous  symptoms. 

In  no  single  instance  did  any  bad  effect,  even  of  the  most 
triWal  description,  follow  these  or  other  hypnotic  experiments. 

(5)  Tlie  results  of  the  experiments  were  only  estimated  after 
the  series  was  completed,  when  a  friend,  Mr.  Bartnmi,  B.Sc,,  kindly 
checked  them  for  me.  He  discovered  that  some  of  my  calculations 
made  at  the  time  had  been  erroneous.  I  am  also  indebted  to  him 
for  a  critical  examination  of  the  calculations  the  patient  was  asked 
to  make  when  the  suggestions  were  given. 

(G)  With  the  following  exception,  the  phenomena  observed 
in  the  cases  of  Miss  D.  and  Miss  0.  differed  little  When  a 
simple  suj^gestion  was  given,  Miss  0.  sometimes  spontaneously 
calculated  when  it  would  fall  due.  Miss  D.,  on  the  other  hand, 
never  made  any  spontaneous  calculations  at  all.  Apparently 
Miss  O.  did  not  spontaneously  calculate  the  more  complicated 


I 
I 
I 


arithmetical  problems.  When  she  did  so,  in  response  to  sngges* 
tiou,  her  results  were  in\*ariably  correct ;  but,  despite  this,  the 
experiments  were  not  always  fulfilled  ab  their  appropriate  tima 
Miss  I).,  on  the  contrary,  was  often  wrong  in  her  calculations, 
while  the  suggestions  themselves  were  carried  out  with  phenomenal 
accuracy. 

(7)  In  some  later  experiments  Miss  0.  apparently  made  no 
spontaneous  calculations,  despite  the  fact  that  the  arithmetical 
problems  involved  wei-e  extremely  simple.  For  example,  I 
su^ested  that  she  should  shake  hands  with  me  forty  minutes 
after  I  aroused  her  from  hypnosis.  At  the  moment  iudicated,  in 
the  midst  of  an  animated  conversation,  she  suddenly  asked  me  to 
shake  hands  with  her.  In  reply  to  my  questions,  she  said  she 
had  felt  impelled  to  do  tliis,  but  could  not  tell  why.  A  few 
miimtes  later  she  had  entirely  forgotten  the  incident.  I  re- 
hypnotised  her ;  she  then  recalled  the  suggestion  and  the  impulse 
she  had  experienced,  but  could  not  remember  having  made  any 
^kalculation  or  having  in  any  way  marked  the  passage  of  time. 

B      M 
^Bnvolv< 


(0)  Aatomatic  Writing  in  Hypnosis. 


Moet  of  the  time  appreciation  experiments  just  referred  to 
volved  a  certHin  amount  of  "  automatic  writing."     In  the  experi- 
inents  about  to  be  citt>d  aulonmtic  writing  was  the  main  feature  ; 
and  its  occurrence,  while  the  normal  consciousness  was  otherwise 
actively  cugaged,  the  chief  point  of  interest. 
,  In  choosing  a  subject  for  this  form  of  experiment  two  things 

^Ue  easeutial,  viz.  (1)  he  must  be  a  sonuiambule,  i.^.  retain  no 
memory  on  awaking  of  what  has  passed  in  the  hypuotic  state, 
and  (2)  hypnosis  must  be  capable  of  being  induced  and  terminated 
instantaneously.  Thus,  when  hypnosis  is  terminated  immediately 
after  the  suggestion  has  bc^u  given,  it  follows  that  the  problem 
;iaust  be  solved  by  the  secondary  cousciousness,  while  the  subject 
in  the  waking  state,  and  his  normal  consciousuess  purposely 
itiveiy  engaged. 

I  have  often  made  the  following  and  similar  experiments.     I 

ik  a  subject  white  awake  to  write  down  a  few  verses :  these  I 

.ke  charge  of  and  do  not  show  him  again.      I  then  make  him 

aloud  from  some  book  previously  uuknowu   to  liim :    this 


being  chosen  in  order  to  engage  hia  entire  attention.  "While 
reading,  I  hypnotise  him  suddenly,  place  pencil  and  paper  near 
his  right  hand  and  suggest :  "  On  waking  you  will  go  on  reading 
wliere  you  left  off,  and  at  the  same  time  write  down  how  often 
"  b  '*  (or  any  other  letter  selected)  occurs  in  the  verses  you 
gave  me;  Wake  up."  He  awakes,  resumes  reading,  and  at  the 
same  time  writes  down  the  answer  to  the  problem  suggested. 
Tliis,  aknost  invariably  correct,  is  often  done  so  rapidly  that  I 
have  not  had  time  to  count  the  letters,  even  with  the  verses 
before  me.  I  now  tell  the  subject  to  stop  reading,  and  ask  him 
what  he  has  written.  He  replies :  "  Nothing, "  and  when  I  show 
him  the  paper,  is  astonished  and  declares  he  does  not  know  what 
it  means.  I  then  rehypnotist*  liini,  whereupon  the  lost  memory 
retums,  and  he  not  only  recalls  the  suggestion,  but  also  the  fact 
that  he  has  carried  it  out 

Thus,  the  primary  waking  consciousness  retains  no  recollection 
of  the  hypnotic  suggestions.  It  does  not  know  that  the  secondary 
consciousness,  after  the  hypnotic  state  has  been  terminated,  first 
solves  the  problems  and  then  directs  the  motor  acts  which  record 
the  solutions.     It  is  also  unconscious  of  the  motor  acts  themselves. 

Clnrney  made  many  interesting  experiments,  with  healthy, 
n  on -hysterical  men,  which  illustrate  the  severance  of  the  normal 
or  primary,  from  the  latent  or  secondary,  consciousnesa  Of  these 
the  following  are  examples : — 

(1)  The  first  were  simple  oases  which  involved  memory,  but 
not  independent  thought  Thus.  Gumey  showed  P.,  one  of  his 
subjects,  a  planchette  and  made  him  write  his  name  with  it 
P.  was  then  hypnotised,  told  that  it  had  been  as  dark  as  night  in 
London  on  tlie  previous  day,  and  that  he  would  record  this  fact 
in  writing.  On  awaking  he  remembered  nothing.  His  hand  was 
then  placed  on  the  planchette — a  large  screen  being  held  in  front 
of  his  face,  so  that  it  was  ini|x)5sible  for  him  to  see  the  paper  or 
the  instrument — ^and  in  less  than  a  minute  he  wrote :  "  It  was  a 
dark  day  in  London  yesterday." 

(2)  In  the  next  experiments  statements  were  impressed  on 
tlie  subjects,  but  notliiug  was  said  as  to  subsequently  recording 
them.     After  waking,  however,  the  writing  was  execnted  as  before. 

(3)  Gurney  made  more  complicated  experiments  with  another 
subject  Dunns  hypnosis,  questions  were  asked  about  his  past  life, 
or  arithmetical  problems  were  suggested.    He  was  then  awakened 


I 

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I 
I 

I 
I 


H^h' 


immediately,  before  he  !iad  time  to  think  of  a  reply,  and,  to 
engross  his  attention,  told  to  count  backwards  from  a  hundred ; 
meanwhile  the  planchette  wrote  the  correct  answers  to  the 
different  questions. 

(4)  Further  experimenta  involved  the  reckoning  of  time, 
ese,  however,  were  not  confined  to  the  execution  of  an  order 
at  a  given  moment,  hut  involved,  in  addition,  other  calculations 
.^uade  in  the  waking  state  «/  a  suddmft/  schrkd  movieiU,  regarding 
^hich  notliing  had  l>eeu  previously  said  to  the  subject.  For 
Instance,  during  hypnosis  he  was  told  that  he  had  to  do  something 
at  a  given  date,  and  also  that,  before  this  time  arrived,  he  would 
be  required  to  write  down  the  number  of  minutes  that  had  passed 
since  tlie  suggestion  was  given,  as  well  as  tlie  number  that  had 
still  to  elapse  before  its  fulfilment.  In  the  interval,  when  his 
hand  waa  placed  upon  the  planchette  he  generally  wrote  the 
answers  to  the  problems.  The  results,  allowing  for  the  time 
occupied  iu  writing,  were  remarkably  accurate. 

The  mental  states  involved  in  these  various  ex[>eriment8  will 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  "  Theory." 


(H)  Telepathy,  Olairvoyance,  etc. 


Many  of  the  mesmerists,  including  Elliotaon  and  Esdaile, 
believed  in  the  existence  of  telepathy,  clairvoyance,  and  other 
so-called  "higher"  or  "occult"  pheuomcuu.  In  telepathy,  thought 
was  supposed  to  be  conveyed  directly  from  the  brain  of  one  person 
to  that  of  another,  without  the  intervention  of  any  of  the  usual 
media  of  transmission ;  in  clairvoyance,  the  subject  was  supposed 
to  see,  as  in  a  mirror  or  picture,  events  which  were  taking  place 
Iftt  a  distance.  Braid,  as  we  shall  see  in  discussing  Ids  theories, 
tiowed  that  the  belief  in  telepathy  and  clairvoyance  was  the 
Bult  of  mal -observation  and  self-deception.  Within  recent 
les,  however,  there  has  been  u  revival  in  the  belief  as  to  the 
IftxistencG  of  telepathy  and  clairvoyance,  particularly  the  former. 
To  confine  ourselves  for  the  moment  to  telepathy,  we  find  its 
Bteuce  asserted  by  two  classes  of  observers : — 
(1)  A  small  group — mainly  comprised  of  men  who  had 
nguished  themselves  in  one  or  more  branches  of  science — who 


142 


HYPNQTISXr 


claimed  to  have  investigated  the  alleged  phenomena  by  scientific 
methods.  Amongst  these  may  be  cited  tiie  late  Professor  Henry 
Sidgwick,  Frederick  Myers,  Edmund  Gurney  and  Dr.  A.  T.  Myers. 
Although  their  experiments  were  carefully  conducted,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  all  possible  sources  of  error  were  excluded ;  and  I  am 
unable  to  accept  them  as  couclusive. 

(2)  The  second  group — who  l)oldly  assert  that  telepathy  is 
an  accepted  scientific  fact,  a  phenomenon  which  any  expert  can 
produce  at  will — belong  to  a  totally  different  class.  Thus, 
Hudson,  in  his  book,  The  Law  of  Psychic  PhencTiuna,  talks  of 
telepathy  as  u  recognised  commonplace,  and  duscribus  it  as  tlie 
basis  of  the  most  snecessful  branch  of  Christian  Science,  namely 
"  the  Absence  Treatment."  Here  the  physician  sits  dreamily  in 
his  consulting-room  at  home,  and  sends  mental  curative  suggestions 
to  his  ditiereut  patients.  Or,  better  still,  he  just  thinks  of  them 
a  moment  before  going  to  sleep  at  night;  and  then  his  "subconscious 
mind "  works  on  their  "  subconscious  minds "  while  all  of  them 
are  sleeping.  The  patients  are  not  aware  of  receiving  any  im- 
pression from  the  operator,  but  that  is  easily  explained — their 
normal  consciousness  dws  not  know  what  is  happening  to  their 
"  subconscious  mind."  Kor  tliese  extraorcliuary  statements  Mr. 
Hudson  has  no  evidence  of  value  to  offer;  but,  despite  this,  the 
merits  of  the  absence  ti-eatment  must  be  obvious  to  the  hard-worked 
general  practitioner. 

After  many  years'  hypnotic  work,  and  frequent  opportunities 
of  investigating  the  experiments  of  others.  I  have  seen  nothing, 
absolutely  nothing,  which  might  be  fairly  considered  as  affording 
even  the  slightest  evidence  for  the  existence  of  telepathy,  or  any 
of  the  so-called  "  occult  "  phenomena. 

For  several  years  a  Committee  of  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  of  which  I  was  a  menkber.  devoted  itself  mainly  to 
telepathic  experiments.  Our  methods  were  simple  and  effective, 
and  yet  placed  uo  unnecessary  barrier  in  the  way  of  the  appearance 
of  the  phenomenon.  The  subject,  generally  hypnotised,  was  placed 
iu  an  armchair,  and  told  that  the  operator  would  select  different 
cards  from  a  pack  and  that  he,  the  subject,  was  to  try  to  guess 
the  cards  in  turn.  The  operator,  who  was  so  placed  that  the 
subject  could  not  see  what  he  was  doing,  drew  the  cards  from 
the  pack  at  random,  told  the  subject  that  he  had  selected  one, 
that  he  was  looking  hard  at  it,  and  that  he,  the  subject,  would 


I 

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i 


or  know  what  it  was.  Meanwhile  the  ojierator  etared  fixedly 
at  the  card  for  several  iniDutes,  and  coucentrated  his  attention 
entirely  ou  it.  In  these  experiments,  as  well  as  in  a  long  series 
of  private  ones,  tlie  percentage  of  correct  guesses  fell  below  the 
number  which   ought  to  have  been  reached  according  to  the  laws 

if  chance.     Despite  all  this,  it  would  be  unphilosophic  to  deny 
e  possibility  of  telepathy  ;  and  I  am  quite  ready  to  be  convinced 

if  its  existence,  if  any  one  can  divine  even  as  few  as  six  out  of 
every  dozen  cards  selected  by  the  operator  under  circumstancee 
aimilar  to  those  described. 

[  In  all  the  cases  of  alleged  clair\'oyance  that  I  have  seen,  the 
operator — either  consciously  or  unconsciously — so  aided  the 
subject  by  suggestions  as  to  render  the  experiments  absolutely 
valueless.  In  some  instances,  of  which  an  example  will  be  cited 
later,  the  so-called  clairvoyant  not  ouly  pretends  to  see  what  is 
passing  at  the  time,  at  some  more  or  leas  distant  place^  but  also 
claims  to  be  able  to  foretell  what  will  happen  in  the  future. 


k 


(I)  Volition  in  Hypnosis — Suggested  Crimes — Automatism. 

The  question,  whether  the  hypnotised  subject  is  an  automaton 
or  still  retains  the  power  of  exei-ciaing  his  volition,  is  the  most 
important  one  with  which  we  have  to  deal.  In  this  chapter  I 
ought  to  cite  the  cases  which  illustrate  the  mental  condition  in 
hypnosis,  but,  as  these  are  conflicting^  some  apparently  showing 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  automatism,  others  of  an  opposite 
state,  I  shall  defer  doing  so  until  discussing  hypnotic  Theories, 
when,  for  convenience'  sake,  the  phenomena  and  their  varying 
;planatioDS  will  be  dealt  with  together. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


ON    TKE    MAKAGEMENT    OF    HYPNOTIC    EXFKKIHENTS. 


Braid  successfully  demonstmted  that  nmny  of  the  alle;;'ed  pheno- 
muim  of  mcameriam  owed  their  origin  to  defective  methods  of 
observation.  He  drew  out  a  list  of  the  more  important  sources 
of  error  winch,  he  said,  ought  always  to  be  kept  in  mind  by  the 
openitor.  These,  which  I  now  give,  should  be  placed  in  a 
prominent  position  iu  every  hypnotic  laboratory : — 

(1)  Tlie  hypeni'sthesia  of  the  organs  of  special  sense,  which 
enabled  impressions  to  be  perceived  through  the  ordinary  media 
that  would  have  passed  unrecognised  in  the  waking  condition. 

(2)  The  docility  and  sjTnpathy  of  the  subjects,  which  tended 
to  make  them  imitate  the  actious  of  others. 

(3)  The  extraordinary  revival  of  memory  by  which  they 
could  recall  things  long  forgotten  in  the  waking  state. 

(4)  The  remarkable  effect  of  contact  in  arousing  memory,  i.«, 
by  acting  as  the  signal  for  the  production  of  a  fresh  hypnosis. 

(5)  The  condition  of  double  consciousness  or  double  person- 
ality. 

(6)  The  vivid  state  of  the  imagination  in  hypnosis,  which 
instantly  invested  every  suggested  idea,  or  remembrance  of  past 
impressions,  with  the  attributes  of  present  realities. 

(7)  Deductions  rapidly  drawn  by  the  subject  from  uninten- 
tional suggestions  given  by  the  operator. 

(8)  The  tendency  of  the  human  mind,  in  tiiose  with  a  great 
love  of  the  marvellous,  erroneously  to  interpret  the  subject's 
replies  iu  accordance  with  their  own  desires. 

Bmid  considered  that  belief  in  thought  transference  arose 
from  failure  to  guard  against  the  sources  of  error  similar  to  those 
just  described,  and  stated  that  he  had  never  met  with  any  case 

144 


I 


MANAGEMENT  OF  HYPNOTiC  EXPERIMENTS         145 

where  the  subjects  could  correctly  interpret  \\\%  unexpressed 
desires,  without  some  seuaible  indiuiiioii  of  them.  Braid  was 
also  absolutely  incredulous  as  to  the  existence  of  clairvoyance ; 
and,  although  he  made  numerous  experiments,  not  only  upon  liis 
own  subjects,  but  also  upon  many  of  the  renowned  clairvoyants 
of  the  day,  he  never  found  anything  but  hypnotic  exaggeration 
of  natural  powers.  In  reference  to  the  alleged  intuitive  powers 
of  mesmeric  subjects  he  held  that,  whereas  with  animaU  instinct 
was  usually  right,  with  somnambulea  it  was  generally  wrong.  It 
was  true  that  certain  patients  could  successfidly  predict  their 
own  hysterical  attacks,  but  here  tlie  prophecy  produced  its  own 
fulfilment  by  self-suggestion. 

The  following  may  also  be  noted  as  possible  sources  of  error 
in  hypnotic  experiment : — 

(1)  Operator  ami  subjtrt  mayhoth  voluntarily  try  to  deceive  the 
spectator.  For  example,  the  stage  performer  frequently  asserts 
that  lie  can  produce  telepathic  phenomena  at  will.  The  following 
are  examples  of  the  way  in  which  this  is  done : — 

(a)  The  operator  leaves  the  room  ;  his  accomplice  then  arranges 
^a  number  of  cards  face  upwards  upon  the  table,  asks  the  specta- 
tors to  select  one,  without  altering  their  position,  and  to  tell  him 
which  is  chosen.  The  operator  is  then  recalled  :  he  asks  the 
spectators  to  think  of  the  card  selected,  and  «[uickly  tells  them 
which  it  was.  The  accomplice  has  indicated  it  by  toncliing  that 
part  of  his  own  face,  which  represents  the  card,  according  to  the 
private  code  existing  between  liim  and  the  operator. 

(6)  Sometimes   the   spectators  are   requested   to  choose  any 

l&umber  they  like.     The  operator  enters,  puts  his  hands  on  the 

of  each  spectator  in  turn,  and  asks  him  to  think  of  the 

cted  number.     When  he  comes  to  his  accomplice,  the  latter 

licates  the  number  by  moving  his  jaws. 

(c)  The  trick  may  be  made  more  striking  by  means  of  on 
nborate  code.  The  subject  is  blindfolded,  and  placed  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  platform  from  the  operator.  The  latter  asks 
)e  spectators  to  hand  him  coins,  watches,  and  the  like.  While 
holds  these  in  bis  hands,  the  accomplice  correctly  cites  the 
&tes  upon  them,  etc.  The  necessary  information  is  conveyed  by 
ins  of  a  sort  of  patter :  thus,  each  time  the  operator  receives 
object  he  explains  to  the  audience  the  impossibility  of  decep- 
ion,  etc.     This  gives  the  necessary  information:  certain  words 

L 


146 


HYPNOTISM 


or  letters,  according  to  previous  arrangement,  indicating  certain 
figures,  etc. 

In  instances  similar  to  the  above,  although  tlie  operator 
generally  pretends  that  the  subject's  occult  powers  are  due  to 
hypnotism,  it  is  often  obvious  that  the  latter  has  never  been 
hypnotised  at  all.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  only  the  operator 
who  is  couaciously  acting  a  fraud,  and  the  subject  may  be  a 
somnambule  who  shows  real,  but  erroneously  interpreted,  post- 
hypnotic phenomena.  Thus,  the  operator  may  suggest  to  the 
subject  during  hypnosis  that  he  is  to  perform  certain  acta  in  the 
waking  state  at  a  given  date,  and  then  skilfully  induce  the 
spectators — who  are  ignorant  of  the  post-hypnotic  suggestions — 
to  believe  that  they  have  had  a  voice  in  the  time  fixed  for  the 
appearance  of  the  phenomena  to  be  evoked. 

(2)  Tht  operaJ(/f  may  he  honest,  whiU  the  suhjccts  may  try  to 
df^ceive  him.  The  latter  are  of  two  classes  :  (a)  Those  who  deceive 
for  gain :  paid  subjects  whose  interest  it  is  that  the  desired 
phenomena  should  appear,  {h)  Hysterical  subjects,  who  wish  to 
attract  attention,  aud  whose  vanity  is  flattered  if  the  experiments 
succeed.  A  dishonest  subject,  acquainted  with  the  phenomena 
of  hypnosis,  can  undoubtedly  simulate  many  of  them  more  or  less 
exactly.  He  may  even,  by  training,  acquire  a  certain  amount 
of  the  hyperjesthesia  of  the  special  senses  that  chaiacterisea  deep 
hypnosis,  and  use  this  in  the  production  of  the  alleged  telepathic 
phenomena,  etc  In  the  case  of  hysterical  subjects  it  is  ditticult 
to  determine  how  much  is  conscious  fraud,  how  much  unconscious 
self-deceptioD.  In  some  instances,  the  phenomena  are  alleged  to 
owe  their  origin  to  a  spirit  who  "  controls  "  the  subject,  and  uses 
him  for  convejing  a  message  from  the  other  world. 

The  following  case  came  under  my  own  observation : — 
Mrs. has  convinced  many  people,  some  of  them  of  scien- 
tific eminence,  tliat  she  is  a  medium  of  oommunication  l>etween 
this  and  the  unseen  world.  She  is  not  a  paid  subject :  beyond 
this  I  have  nothing  to  say,  one  way  or  the  other,  either  as 
to  her  good  faith  or  the  condition  of  her  nervous  system,  but 
will  simply  relate  what  occurred.     At  the  request  of  a  friend, 

who  believed  in  Mrs.  's  powers,  T  accompanied  him  to  her 

house.     At   first   we   sat    and   talked,   w^aiting  for  the   moment 

when  Mrs. should  be  "  controlled  "  by  the  spirit — that  of  a 

dead  child.     In  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  Mrs. partially 


I 
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I 


closed  her  eyes,  and  I  was  informed  she  had  passed  iuto  a  condi- 
tion of  hypnotic  trance.  A  few  minutes  later  she  commenced  to 
talk  in  a  baby-voice,  and  carried  on  a  conversation  with  my 
friend.  This  was  of  no  particular  interest.  She  then  asked 
whether  1  had  a  letter  in  my  pockeL  I  gave  her  one  ;  when  she 
at  once  proceeded  to  give  me  alleged  spirit  information,  both  as  to 
the  letter  and  its  writer.  She  said  :  "  ITie  letter  has  come  a  long, 
long  way.  It  has  come  from  over  the  sea.  It  lias  had  difficulty  iu 
finding  yoiL  The  person  who  wrote  it  is  living  in  a  strange  land ; 
high,  high  up  in  a  house  with  many  steps.  There  are  crowds  of 
people  down  Ixilow  walking  loudly;  they  have  clogs  ou.  The  person 
who  wrote  the  letter  is  a  woman.  She  is  worrying  about  money,  but 
she  need  not ;  she  is  quite  rich.  She  thinks  she  is  ill,  but  she 
isn't ;  tliere  is  nothing  the  matter  with  her.  She  wants  a  good 
shaking ;  it  would  do  her  good  if  you  threw  her  out  of  the  window," 

Some  ot  this  information  was  correct,  but  could  have  been 
equally  well  given  by  any  one  with  ordinary  intelligence.  The 
medium's  eyes  were  partially  open :  the  envelope  bore  a  foreign 
stam]),  and,  owing  to  my  absence  from  town,  had  l>een  readdressed. 
Further,  the  character  of  the  handwriting  was  obviously  feminine. 
It  was,  therefore,  easy  to  guess  that  tlie  letter  had  come  irom  a 
foreign  country — consequently  from  over  the  sea — and  that  it 
was  from  a  woman.  The  remaining  statements,  however,  did  not 
give  me  a  high  opinion  of  spirit  intelligence.  Thus,  the  writer  of 
the  letter  had  a  sutlicicut  and  assured  income,  but  was  neither 
wealthy  nor  troubleil  about  money.  She  was  not  an  imaginary 
invalid :  on  the  contrary,  she  had  had  her  breast  amputated  for 
cancer,  and  also  several  of  her  fingers  and  toes  on  accormt  of 
R^naud's  disease.^  This  latter  malady  was  still  progressing  and 
caused  her  severe  suflering.  which  she  bore  with  great  patience. 
She  wrote  from  Mustapha  Superitir,  where  the  Arabs  do  not  go 
about  in  clogs;  and,  on  account  of  her  lameness,  had  certainly 
Dot  chosen  her  i-ooms  ou  the  top  of  a  tower. 

My  experiences  as  to  other  alleged  casen  of  spiritualistic 
phenomena,  whether  occurring  in  mediiuuistic.  hysterical,  or 
alleged  hypnotic  trance,  have  left  me  equally  unconvinced  of 
the  truth  of  spiritualism.  On  the  other  hand,  they  have  pro- 
duced strong  conviction  as  to  several  other  tilings ;  Imt  what 
these  are  I  may  leave  my  readers  to  divine. 
1  Cue  Ko.  5,  pp.  181-S. 


(3)  The  accuracy  of  the  experimenls  vmy  bf  destroyed  by  un- 
itUenlianat  errors  on  the  part  of  the  operator,  Die  subject^  or  boifi. 
These  form  by  far  the  most  frequent  sources  of  fallacy.  Thus, 
the  aaauiiiptiou  by  the  mesmerists,  and  by  the  hypnotists  of  the 
Salpctriere  school,  that  the  subjects  wei-e  unconscious  during  the 
lethargic  stage,  was  the  source  of  widespread  error.  All  the 
phenomena  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  action  of  metals,  magnets, 
drugs  in  sealed  tubes,  etc.,  were  really  due  to  the  verbal  sug- 
gestions of  the  operator.  The  "  control "  experiments  by  which 
Bmid  demonstrated  this  source  of  fallacy  am  worthy  of  note. 
He  showed  («)  how  the  phenomena,  supposed  to  be  due  to  a 
magnet,  for  example,  appeared  in  the  presence  of  an  imitation 
one,  wliicli  the  subject  believed  to  be  real,  {b)  Again,  the  pheno- 
mena did  not  appear  in  the  presence  of  a  real  magnet,  when  the 
subject  did  not  know  it  was  near,  (c)  Finally,  the  phenomena 
could  be  evoked  by  verbal  suggestion,  without  the  presence  of 
magnets,  either  real  or  imitatiori. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  commonest  sources  of  error  is  the 
hyperifcsthesia  of  the  organs  of  special  sense,  which  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  deep  hypnosis.  Nor  is  blie  hj-penvsthesia  confined 
to  the  hypnotised  subject  alone,  for  I  have  seen  professional 
thought-readers,  who  by  watching  the  faces  of  the  spectators 
were  able  to  divine  their  thoughts.  Even  if  the  bulk  of  the 
audience  controlled  the  expression  of  their  emotion,  one  amongst 
them,  more  enthusiaatic  or  less  well-balanced  than  his  companions, 
was  apt  to  give  the  necessary  information.  Tims,  the  Hypnotic 
Conmiittee  of  the  Society  for  Psycliical  Research  found  that  a 
thought-reader  could  successfiiUy  exercise  her  art  in  the  presence 
of  a  certain  group  of  the  members.  She  failed  entia*ely,  however, 
when  Dr.  A.,  who  may  be  described  as  a  believer  in  the  occult, 
was  eliminated.  Wtien  each  memlier  of  the  group,  with  the 
exception  of  Dr.  A.,  was  experimented  on  individually  the  results 
were  also  negative :  when,  however,  I)r.  A-  was  taken  alone  the 
experiments  wei>3  again  successful.  On  another  occasion.  Dr.  B., 
a  foreign  savant,  who  had  recorded  numerous  successful  tele- 
pathic experiments,  was  present.  In  his  case  the  indications 
given,  by  voice  and  gesture,  were  so  obvious  as  to  be  absurd ; 
but,  notwithstanding  this,  he  undoubtedly  believed  he  was  care- 
fully conducting  a  scientific  experiment 

Although   many  errors   may  arise   in   hypnotic   experiment. 


I 

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^ 


they    can    be    usually    avoided    by   care  and    experience.     The 
following  rules  should  be  adopted,  viz. : — 

(1)  Xever  experiment  with  paid  subjects. 

(2)  If  possible,  choose  healthy  men :  they  will  not  suffer 
from  a  hysterical  desire  to  appear  intf^resting. 

(3)  Whenever  it  can  be  done,  the  operator  should  select 
subjects  whom  he  knows  and  can  trust. 

(4)  The  hypnotised  subject,  no  matter  in  what  stage,  should 
be  regarded  not  only  as  aioakc,  but  also  as  possibly  possessiug 
increased  activity  of  the  special  senses. 

(5)  All  physiological  experiments  ought  to  be  conducted  in 
a  laborator}',  and  tested  with  instruments  of  precision.  The 
operator  should  coufine  himself  to  exciting  the  phenomena,  which 
should  invariably  be  recorded  by  au  independent  observer, 

(6)  Psychological  experiments  cannot  be  conducted  in  the 
same  way  as  physiological  ones.  Amnesia,  for  example,  can 
neither  be  weighed  in  a  balance  uor  precipitated  in  a  test-tube. 
Experiments  of  this  kind  Hhould  therefore  not  only  be  numerous, 
but  be  made  on  many  different  subjects,  with  every  precaution 
taken  to  ensure  their  trustworthiness.  Further,  the  results 
should  be  checked  by  independent  observers,  and  everything 
done  to  prevent  error  arising  through  the  operator's  unconscious 
self-deception. 


CHAPTER    Vir. 


THE   DIFFERENT    STAGES    OF    HVrNOSIS. 


As  we  have  seeu,  many  and  widely  varying  phenomena  occur  in 
hypnosis,  and  frequent  attempts  have  been  made  to  group  these 
in  such  a  way  as  to  divide  the  condition  itself  into  different  stages. 
Thus,  Braid  employed  the  term  "  Hypnotism  "  to  denote,  not  a 
single  state,  but  a  large  number  of  widely  varying  stages  or  con- 
ditions.    These  he  divided  into  three  main  groups : — 

(1)  Slight  Hjrpnosis. — The  subjects  became  more  or  less 
lethargic,  but  were  conscious  of  what  took  place  and  suffered  no 
subsequent  loss  of  memory.  This  group  comprised  90  per  cent 
of  those  who  responded  to  curative  suggestions. 

(2)  Deep  Hypnosis. — The  subjects  on  awaking  were  unable 
to  recall  the  events  of  hypnosis,  but,  on  being  rehypnotised,  the 
lost  lueniory  could  be  revived.  This  condition  Braid  termed 
"  double  consciousness." 

This  latter  condition  ho  further  subdivided  into  two  others : — 
(a)   Alert,    characterised    by    hypenesthesia    of   the    special 
senses  and  increased  power  of  co-ordinate  muscular  movements. 
(6)  Deep,  distinguislied  by  general  loss  of  sensibility. 

(3)  Hypnotic  Coma. — The  deepest  stage  of  all.  Here,  not 
only  were  the  events  of  hypnosis  forgotten  on  awaking,  but  the 
lost  memory  could  not  be  re\'ived  in  subsequent  liypnoses.* 

Braid  believed  also  in  t!ie  existence  of  numerous  intenuediate 
stages,  which  passed  into  one  another  by  insensible  gradations. 
In  all  of  them,  however,  the  training  which  the  subject  received 
from  the  opemtor  played  an  important  part. 

Many  otlier  attempts  at  classification  have  beeu  made. 

Thus,  in  the  opinion  of  the  -Solpfitritre  school,  the  hypnotic 
condition    is    divided    into    three    clearly    defined    stages,    viz, 

'  At  a.  later  dute.  Braid  belicvBtl  that  the  lost  momory  could   be  reriTed  in 
subsequeut  hypuoMs. 

ISO 


Lethargy,  Catalepsy,  and  Somnambulism.  Thc3<;,  they  say,  usually 
occur  in  fixed  order  and  are  induced,  as  well  as  the  phenomena 
wliich  characterise  them,  by  definite  phj'sical  stimuli. 

(1)  Lethargy,  usually  obtained  by  causing  the  subject  to  look 
steadily  at  an  object  placed  at  a  sliort  distance  above  the  eyes,  is 
characterised  by  what  Charcot  termed  ''  neuro-muscnlar  hyper- 
excitability,"  i.e.  the  muscles  contract  either  singly  or  in  groups, 
when  a  mechanical  stimulus  is  applied  to  the  muscles  themselves, 
to  their  tendons,  or  to  the  nerves  which  supply  them.  This 
stage  is  changed  into  others  by  the  action  of  certain  physical 
stimuli     Thus : — 

(2)  Catalepsy  is  evoked  by  raising  the  subject's  eyelids  and  is 
marked  by  muscular  rigidity  ;  the  limbs  maintaining,  for  an  abnor- 
mally lengthened  jicriod,  any  position  in  which  they  are  placed. 

(3)  Somnambulism  is  produced  by  pressing  or  rubbing  the 
top  of  the  head,  and  is  distinguished  by  purely  "  automatic 
phenomena  "  originating  solely  from  the  commands  of  the  operator. 

The  classification  of  the  Nancy  school  is  by  no  means  uniform. 
Thus,  Liebeault  gives  six  stages  : — 

(1)  Drowsiness. 

(2)  Drowsiness:  suggestive  catalepsy  poaaiUe* 

(3)  Light  Sleep:  automatic  movements  poamble. 

(4)  Deep  Sleep:  here  the  subject  ceases  to  be  in  relation  with 
the  outer  world ;  he  hears  what  the  operator  says,  but  not  what 
is  saifl  by  others  around  liim. 

(5)  Light  Somuambulism  :  memory  on  awaking  indistinct  and 
hazy. 

(6)  Deep  Somnambulism  :  entire  loss  of  memory  on  awaking. 
All  the  phenomena  of  post-hypnotic  suggestion  possible. 

Bernheim  divides  hypnosis  into  nine  degrees : — 

(1)  Drowsiness :  the  subject  is  able  to  open  liis  eyes,  but  does 
not  exhibit  catalepsy,  anaesthesia,  hallucinations,  or  sleep  properly 
&o  called.  He  is.  however,  to  a  certain  extent  angsjestible ;  and 
distinct  therapeutic  effects  may  be  obtained. 

(2)  This  stage  resembles  the  first,  with  the  exception  that  the 
subject  is  unable  to  open  his  eyes. 

(3)  Here,  whether  the  eyes  are  open  or  shut,  and  the  subject 
drowsy  or  wakeful,  catalepsy  can  be  suggested :  the  position, 
however,  can  be  changed  by  an  effort  of  tlie  subject's  will. 

(4)  In  this  stage  automatic  movements  may  frequently  be 


152 


HYPNOTISM 


induced,  but  the  subject  is  unable  voluntarily  to  terminate  suggested 
catalepsy. 

(5)  In  addition  to  the  phenomena  manifested  iu  the  previous 
stagCj  coatractures  cau  now  be  induced  by  suggestion  and  various 
muscular  movements  inhibited. 

(6)  The  subject  now  exhibits  a  more  or  less  automatic 
obedience :  he  is  inert  and  passive  if  left  to  himself,  but  rises, 
stands,  or  walks  at  command. 

(7)  This  sta^e  is  characterised  by  loss  of  memory  on  awaking, 
but  hallucinations  cannot  be  suggested. 

(8)  Here»  in  addition  to  loss  of  memor)',  hallucinations  can  be 
induced  during  hypnosis,  but  post-hypnotic  hallucinations  cannot 
be  evoked. 

(9)  In  this  stage,  in  aiUlition  to  the  phenomena  already 
enumerated,  post-hypnotic  hallucinations  are  possible. 

Porel  gives  three  stages : — 

(1)  Drowsiness:  the  subject  can  resist  suggestions  with  an 
effortw 

(2)  Hypotaxy  (Fascination)  :  here,  voluntary  muscular  move- 
ments cau  be  inhibited  and  the  subject  is  unable  to  open  his  eyes. 

(3)  SoranaiiibulisTn  :  tliis  is  characterised  by  loss  of  memory 
on  awaking,  i.e.  the  subject  lias  forgotten  the  events  of  hypnosis. 

Delbceuf  divided  hypnotic  phenomena  as  follows  : — 

(1)  The  stage  in  which  pain  is  felt. 

(2)  The  one  in  which  analgesia  can  be  pi*oduced. 
Edmund  Uurney  gave  two  stages,  closely  resembling  those  of 

Braid  already  referred  to,  viz.:  (1)  -Vlert ;   (2)  Deep. 

Max  Dessoir  di\*ides  hypnotic  phenomena  into  the  following 
two  lai'ge  groups,  which  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
extent  of  the  fimctional  disturbances: — 

(1)  Iu  this  class  the  voluntjirj'  nmscles  alone  are  affected. 

(2)  Here,  iu  addition,  changes  in  the  special  senses  occur. 
Remarks. — The    artificial    cliaracter    of   ihe    stages    is    the 

point  most  worthy  of  notice  in  all  these  attempts  at  classifica- 
tion. According  to  Braid,  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  only 
appeared  after  certain  changes  had  l^een  evoked  in  the  central 
nervous  system.  They  did  not  even  then  arise  ^pontaneoutily, 
however,  but  owed  their  origin  either  to  self-auggestions  or  to 
the  traioing  of  the  subject  by  the  operator.  These  facts  have 
been  largely  ignored  by  later  writers.     The  Nancy  school,  while 


THE  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  HYPNOSIS 


'53 


pointing  out  the  artificial  nature  of  the  stages  of  the  Sal- 
pStnere,  fail  to  recognise  that  their  own  classification  not  only 
possesses  Bimilar  disadvantages,  but  is  also  still  more  complicated. 
Thus^  iu  tlie  cose  of  such  phenomena  as  clc^ure  of  the  eyes  and 
rigidity  of  the  limbs,  Max  Dessoir  has  drawn  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  closing  of  the  eyes  in  hypnosis  is  a  pure  accident — 
the  result  of  a  method  winch  has  become  more  or  less  stereo- 
typed— and  states  that  hypnosis  is  frequently  induced  while 
the  eyes  remain  opcu.  This  criticism  is  a  just  one,  for  the 
suggestion  that  the  eyelids  should  close  is  usually  the  very  first 
that  is  made  in  practice.  Further,  once  the  eyes  have  been 
closed  by  suggestion,  rigidity  of  the  limbs  does  not  follow  as  a 
natural  sequence,  but  requires  to  be  suggested  in  its  turn. 
Thus,  if  during  hypnosis  I  lift  the  arm  of  an  untrained  subject, 
it  will  fall  directly  I  release  it  If  I  suggest,  however,  that  the 
limb  shall  i*emaiu  in  the  position  in  which  I  have  placed  it, 
the  pheuomenon  generally  appears.  I  can  only  recall  one  instance 
in  which  muscular  changes  took  place  in  an  untrained  subject 
without  direct  suggestion.  Deep  hypnosis  was  obtained  at  the 
first  attempt  and  the  condition  known  as  fltxihilita^  ccrea  appeared. 
This  subject,  however,  had  seen  others  hypnotised  in  whom 
muscular  changes  had  been  induced ;  and  probably,  in  her  case, 
the  flfiHbjliUia  ctrea  was  the  result  of  self-suggestion. 

Further,  the  phenomena  that  characterise  the  lethargic 
stage  or  appear  on  its  termination  are  suggested,  cither  by  the 
operator  or  by  the  subjects  themselves.  The  latter  almost  invari- 
ably believe  that  hypnosis  is  identical  with  sleep :  this  to  them 
means  forgetfulueas  on  awaking,  i.e.  post-hypnotic  amnesia.  This 
self-suggestion  is  so  ingrained  that  explanation  is  usually  power- 
less to  remove  it ;  and,  unless  amnesia  has  been  induced,  the 
subject  almrist  invariably  asserts  that  he  has  not  been  hypno- 
tised. In  many  of  my  eai-lier  cases,  it  is  true,  analgesia  and 
hypnosis  appeared  simultaneously,  although  I  had  given  no  sug- 
gestion to  that  effect.  Indirect  suggestion,  however,  had  certainly 
not  been  excluded,  as  the  fact  that  many  painless  hypnotic  opera- 
tions had  been  performed  on  my  patients  was  well  known. 

Moll,  from  the  objections  he  raises  to  the  classification  of 
Forel,  Lidbeuult  and  Bemheim,  evidently  believes  that  certain 
hypnotic  phenomena  arise  spontaneously.  He  complains  that 
the  writers  referred  to  contrast  the  particular  group  of  hypnotic 


154 


HYPNOTISM 


states  followed  by  amnesia  with  others  in  which  no  loss  of 
memory  occurs ;  whereas  it  would  be  better  to  base  classification 
on  the  phenomena  that  appeared  during  hypnosis,  rather  than  on 
the  forgetfulness  which  follows  it  Memory  after  hypnosis,  he 
says,  is  influenced  by  many  factors,  including  suggeation,  which 
have  nothing  to  do  \vith  tlie  depth  of  the  hypnosis.  The  same 
objection,  however,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  applied  with  equal 
justice  to  all  the  phenomena  which  are  usually  selected  as 
chamcteristic  of  the  different  stages.  In  nearly  every  instance 
the  presence  of  direct  or  indirect  suggestion  can  be  easily  demon- 
strated, while  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  single  case  in  which 
it  is  possible  to  prove  that  suggestions  liave  been  entirely 
excluded.  Another  point  to  which  I  propose  referring  more 
fully  is  the  question  of  volition.  Bemheim's  stages  are  largely 
based  upun  the  so-called  "  automatism  "  of  the  subject,  and  his 
allied  inability  to  resist  suggestions ;  but,  as  I  hope  to  show. 
neither  of  these  phenomena  characterises  hypnosis. 

With  so  much  evidence  in  favour  of  the  artificial  character 
both  of  hypnotic  phenomena  and  of  their  sequence,  I  do  not 
consider  that  one  is  justified  in  speaking  of  various  phenomena  as 
"  occurring  in,"  and  being  "  characteristic  of "  certain  stages.  It 
wouhl  be  more  correct  to  state  that  one  can  induce  different 
phenomena  whicli  vary  according  to  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis, 
the  personality  of  the  subject,  and  his  hypnotic  training. 

While  admitting  the  artificial  origin  of  hypnotic  phenomena, 
we  may  still  witli  advantage  attempt  to  classify  them.  Among 
the  various  groupings  of  hj'pnotic  stages,  which  we  have  just 
been  considering,  Max  Dessoir'a  appears  to  be  the  best,  and 
forms  a  distinct  advance  upon  the  numerous  and  misleading 
subdivisions  of  I'crnheim.  Exception  might  be  taken  to  it, 
however,  on  the  ground  that  on  the  one  hand  it  takes  no  account  of 
certain  slight  but  important  hypnotic  states,  and  on  the  other  omits 
all  reference  to  Somnambidism,  i.e.  that  hypnotic  condition  which 
is  followed  by  amnesin.  Under  the  first  class,  I  include  those 
cases  in  wliich  patients  are  iuHueuced  by  curative  suggestions  at 
a  stage  when  alterations  neither  in  the  voluntary  movements  nor 
in  the  special  senses  can  be  induced.  Now,  although  in  some 
instances  curative  suggestions  are  not  responded  to  until  deep 
hypnosis  is  reached,  in  others  this  response  forms  the  first  and 
only    evidence    of    its    exiateuce.       Further,    the    therapeutic 


THE  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  HYPNOSIS 


155 


phenomena  are  the  only  ones  to  which  thu  ordinary  medical 
man  attaches  much  importance ;  and  to  liim  a  classificatiun, 
which  includes,  as  "  hypnotic,"  cases  where  there  is  sliglit  dinicuUy 
in  opening  the  eyes,  and  excludes  othei-a  where  grave  and  long- 
standing disease  has  almost  immediately  vanished  under  the 
influence  of  suggestion,  must  appear  faidty. 

As  regards  somnambulism,  the  remarkable  changes  of 
memory  which  take  place  in  this  stage  surely  render  it  worthy 
of  special  mention.  The  fact  that  some  of  Wctterstrand's 
patients  remained  for  months  in  a  condition  resembling  sleep, 
and  others  passed  lengthened  periods  in  apparently  active  mental 
life,  without  the  waking  consciousness  retaining  any  recollectiou 
of  either  of  these  conditions,  is  surely  as  striking  a  phenomenon 
as  the  alterations  \\\  the  voluntary  muscles,  chosen  by  Max 
Dessoir  as  characteristic  of  one  of  his  two  great  groups. 

Again,  many  medical  men  are  careful  to  avoid  all  mei'ely 
experimental  suggestions  when  employing  h3'pnotism  for  curative 
purposes.  This  adds  another  difficulty  to  classification.  In  such 
instances,  the  patients  voluntarily  close  their  eyes  and  rest  quietly 
while  curative  suggestions  are  made.  As  the  muscidar  and 
sensorial  conditions  are  not  tested  in  any  way,  the  only  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  hypnosis  is  to  be  found  in  the  response  to  the 
curative  8ug<:;estions,  and  the  amnesia  which  sometimes,  though 
not  always,  follows  awaking.  These  patients,  therefore,  do  not 
fall  tmdcr  Max  Dessoir's  classification,  as  neither  amnesia  nor 
response  to  curative  suggestions  is  include<.l  in  his  two  groups. 
In  some  such  coses,  amongst  my  own  patients,  deep  hypnosis  had 
undoubtedly  been  induced,  as  it  was  readily  evoked  at  a  later 
date  in  response  to  a  single  suggestion.  Putting  these  cases  on  one 
side,  and  confining  ourselves  to  experimental  phenomena  alone,  the 
most  convenient  classification  is  possibly  Max  Dessoir's,  with  the 
addition  of  the  stage  of  somnambulism.     Thus  : — 

(1)  Slight  Hypnosis :  changes  in  the  voluntary  muscles  can 
be  induced. 

(2)  Deep  Hypnosis :  here,  in  addition,  changes  in  the  special 
senses  can  be  evoked. 

(3)  Somnambulism:  in  this  condition,  while  a  large  variety 
of  hypnotic  reactions  (many  of  them  characteristic  of  the  "alert " 
stage)  can  be  evoked,  tlie  waking  consciousness  is  unable  spontane- 
ously to  revive  what  has  occurred. 


CHAPTER    VriT. 


HYPNOSIS   nf    ANIMALS. 


Manv  observers,  from  Schwenter  and  Kircher  onwarUs,  have 
stated  that  they  have  succeeded  in  hypnotising  guinea-pigs, 
rabbits,  frogs,  birds,  crayfish  and  otlier  animals.  The  principal 
argument  in  favour  of  this  is  drawn  from  the  fact  that  some  of 
these  animals,  after  certain  physical  stimuli  hod  been  applied  to 
them,  presented  the  plieuomenon  of  catalepsy.  Is  this  catalepsy 
invariably  a  genuine  one  ?  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  in  many 
instances  it  is  a  conscious  simulation  of  death,  adopted  by  the 
animals  from  the  instinctive  knowledge  of  the  fact  tliat  certain 
birds  and  beasts  of  prey,  except  under  pressure  of  extreme  hunger, 
will  not  attack  what  is  dead.  If,  for  example,  yon  turn  a  beetle 
on  its  back  it  will  remain  motionless  and  apparently  cataleptic, 
with  its  legs  sticking  rigidly  in  the  air.  The  moment  you  go 
away,  however,  it  scrambles  to  its  feet  and  resiimes  its  journey. 
Here  death,  or  catalepsy,  was  only  shammed,  and  doubtless  the 
insect  was  keenly  watching  your  every  movement  and  anxiously 
waiting  for  your  departure. 

Giuuting,  however,  that  the  catalepsy  is  a  genuine  one,  im- 
portant differences  exist  between  it  and  hypnosis  in  general, 
thus: 

(1)  Physical  means  alone  will  not  induce  hypnosis  in  the 
human  subject:  he  must  also  know  what  is  expected  of  him. 
We  have  no  evidence,  however,  that  a  crayfish  becomes  cataleptic 
from  a  clear  idea  that  the  operator  has  suggested  that  condition. 
On  the  contrary,  it  can  be  induced  in  vertebrate  animals  deprived 
of  tlieir  cerebral  hemispheres,  and  solely  by  the  maintenance  of  the 
body  in  an  abnormal  position  by  means  of  an  external  force. 

(2)  The  phenomenon  is  explained  in  varying,  and  even  oppo- 
site, ways  by  different  observers.     Thus,  Heubel  and  Wundt  con- 

156 


I 


aider  the  so-called  hypnosis  of  animals  a  true  sleep,  resultiug 
from  the  cessation  of  external  stimuli.  Vreyer,  ou  the  other  hand, 
believed  the  condition  to  be  one  of  paralysis  from  fright,  or 
catalepsy  produced  by  sudden  peripheral  stimulus. 

(3)  Catalepsy  is  only  one,  and  a  camparatively  unimportant, 
phenomenon  of  hypnosis.  One  of  the  main  characteristics  of 
the  hypnotic  state  is  the  rapidity  with  which  one  phenomenon 
can  be  changed  into  ita  opposite :  we  have,  however,  no  like 
condition  in  the  so-called  hypnosis  of  animals. 

The  most  valuable  observations  on  the  subject  are  those  of 
Verworu  on  Vertebrates.  According  to  him,  there  exists  in  the 
so-called  hypnosis  of  animals  a  special  form  of  activity  in  the 
muscles,  which  is  invariably  associated  with  a  peculiar  condition 
of  inactivity  of  the  cerebral  cortex.  A  pei-sistent  tonic  contraction 
of  the  muscles  exists,  and  is  determined  by  excitation  of  the  nervous 
elements  of  the  mid-brain.  During  the  immobile  state,  sensation, 
peripheral  and  central,  is  unaltered  ;  and  the  animal  appears  to  be 
conscious  of  sensations  produced  by  external  impressions.  Further, 
if  these  are  sufficiently  intense  to  evoke  an  efficient  discharge  from 
the  cerebral  cortex,  the  condition  of  immobility  and  muscular 
contracture  terminates.  Reflex  muscular  excitability  is  not 
lowered :  it  only  appears  to  be  so  because  the  muscles,  owing  to 
contracture,  are  incapable  of  responding  properly  to  the  central 
nervous  discharge.  There  is  no  inhibition  of  the  lower  neuro- 
muscular mechanisms  :  on  the  contrary,  the  lower  centres  are 
released  fxom  cerebral  control  and  discharge  a  continuous  stream 
of  nervous  impulses.  Finally,  the  cessation  of  the  discharge  of 
impulses  from  the  cerebml  cortex  is  complete.  Tliis  was  obviously 
80  when  the  cerebral  hemispheres  had  been  previously  removed. 
In  the  intact  animal,  Verworn  believes  that  the  sudden  cessation 
of  cerebral  discharge  is  the  result  of  an  inhibition,  due  to  the 
activity  of  other  parts  of  the  nervous  system  or  to  special  condi- 
tions of  the  centres  them.selves.  The  more  one  appreciates  the 
complexity  of  the  hypnotic  state — the  fact  that  it  is  essentially 
distinguished  by  an  increased  power  of  controlling  the  organism, 
without  diminished  consciousness  or  volition — the  more  one  must 
recognise  that  it  Bnds  no  analogy  in  an  animal  deprived  of  its 
cerebral  hemispheres,  and  discharging  a  continuous  stream  of 
nervous  motor  impulses  from  its  lower  centres. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


HYPXOTISM    IN    SURGKRV. 


Ik  EUiotson's  time,  as  we  have  seen,  mesmerism  was  frequently 
employed  as  an  amesthelic  in  surgical  operations,  and  a  full 
account  of  many  of  these  is  to  be  found  in  The  Zoisi.  In  his 
day,  too,  the  announcement  of  a  birth  in  the  daily  papers  was 
sometimes  also  followed  by  the  statement :  "  painlessly  during 
mesmeric  trance." 

Esdaile's  Surgical  Cases. 

The  most  remarlcable  senes  of  painless  mesmeric  operations, 
however,  were  those  performed  by  Ksdaile  in  India.  Records  of 
these  are  to  be  found  in  the  Cxovernment  reports,  in  Esdaile's 
published  works,  and  in  the  pages  of  The  Zoist.  They  comprised, 
as  already  stated,  nearly  300  capital  operations,  and  many 
thousand  minor  ones. 

The  following  is  Esdaile's  own  description  of  two  typical 
cases: — 

No.  1.  "  S.,  t^ed  27,  came  to  the  Native  Hospital  with  an 
immense  scrotal  tumour  as  heavy  as  his  whole  body.  He  was 
mesmerised  for  the  tirst  time  on  October  10th,  1846,  then  on 
the  11th  and  13  th,  on  which  latter  day  he  was  ready  for  opera- 
tion. The  operation  was  performed  on  the  14th.  The  tumour 
was  tied  up  lu  a  sheet  to  which  a  rope  was  attached,  and  passed 
through  a  pulley  in  the  rafter.  The  colis  was  dissected  out,  and 
the  mattress  then  hauled  down  to  the  end  of  the  bed ;  his  legs 
were  held  asunder,  and  the  pulley  put  in  motion  to  support  the 
mass  and  develop  its  neck.  It  was  transhxed  with  the  longest 
two-edged  knife,  which  was  found  to  be  too  short,  as  I  had  to  dig 
the  halt  in  the  mass  to  make  the  point  appear  below  it,  and  it 
was  removed  by  two  semicircular  incisions  right  and  left  The 
flow  of  venous  blood  was  prodigious,  but  soon  moilerated  under 

158 


HYPNOTISM  IN  SURGERY 


159 


pressure  of  the  baud ;  the  vessels  beiug  picked  up  as  fast  as 
possible.  The  tumour,  after  lialf  ati  hour,  weighed  10^  pounds, 
and  was  as  heavy  as  the  man's  body.  During  the  whole  operation, 
I  was  not  sensible  of  a  quiver  of  liis  Hesh.  The  patient  made 
a  good  recovery." 

No.  2.  "Two  years  before,  the  patient,  a  peasant,  aged  40, 
began  to  suffer  from  a  tumour  in  the  antrum  maxillare ;  the 
tumuur  had  pushed  up  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  filled  up  the  nose, 
passed  iuto  the  throat,  and  caused  an  enlargement  of  the  glands 
of  the  neck."  An  assistant  having  failed  to  mesmerise  thia  man 
in  a  fortnight,  Esdaile  took  him  in  hand  himself,  and  thus 
describes  the  result:  "In  half  an  hour  he  was  eatoleptic,  and  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  later  I  performed  one  of  the  most  severe  and 
protracted  operations  in  surgery ;  the  man  was  totally  unconscious. 
I  put  a  long  knife  in  at  the  corner  of  his  mouth,  and  brought  the 
point  out  over  the  cheek-bone,  dividing  the  parts  between ;  from 
this  I  pushed  it  through  the  akin  at  the  inner  comer  of  the  eye, 
and  dissected  the  cheek-bone  to  the  nose.  The  pressure  of  the 
tumour  had  caused  absorption  of  the  anterior  wall  of  the  antrum, 
and  on  pressing  my  tingers  between  it  and  the  bone  it  buret,  aud 
a  shocking  gush  of  blood  and  matter  followed.  The  tumour 
extended  as  far  as  my  fingers  could  reach  under  the  orbit  aud 
the  clieek-bone,  and  passed  into  the  gullet — ha\'ing  destroyed  the 
bones  and  partition  of  the  nose.  No  one  touched  the  man,  and 
I  turned  his  head  in  any  position  I  desu^d,  witliout  resistance, 
and  there  it  remained  until  I  wished  to  move  it  again ;  when  the 
blood  accunmlated,  I  bent  his  heiul  forward,  and  it  ran  from  his 
mouth  as  if  from  a  spout.  The  man  never  moved,  nor  showed 
any  signs  of  life,  except  an  occasional  inrlistinct  moan ;  but  when 
I  threw  back  hia  head,  and  passed  my  tingei-s  into  his  tliroat  to 
detach  the  mass  in  tliat  direction,  the  stream  of  blood  was  directed 
into  his  windpipe,  and  some  instinctive  effort  became  necessary 
for  existence;  he  therefore  coughed,  and  leaned  forward  to  get 
rid  of  the  blood,  and  I  suppose  that  he  then  awoke.  Tlie  opera- 
tion wus  finished,  aud  he  was  laid  on  the  floor  to  have  his  face 
sewed  up,  and  while  this  was  being  done,  ho  for  the  first  time 
opened  his  eyes." 

The  patient  afterwards  informed  Esdaile  that  be  did  not  know 
be  had  coughed,  aud  was  ({uite  unconscious  up  to  the  termination 
of  the  operation.     The  dressings  were  removed  three  days  after- 


i6o 


HYPNOTISM 


wards,  when  it  was  found  that  the  wounda  in  the  face  had  healed 
by  fii-st  intention.     The  recovery  was  satisfactory. 

The  following  cases  of  amputation  of  the  leg  were  reported  by 
"  Vigitora  "  to  the  Hospital : — 

No.  3.  "  The  patient  was  sinking :  she  had  been  attacked 
with  fever,  and  Dr.  Esdaile,  though  he  was  not  satisfied  that  she 
had  been  meanierised  aufhciently,  determined  to  operate  at  once, 
as  further  delay  endangered  her  life.  The  leg  was  taken  oft'  a 
little  below  the  knee.  .  .  .  Tlxe  thigh  and  knee  from  which  the 
leg  had  been  taken  were  perfectly  motionless,  and  the  only 
evidence  of  life  was  her  respiratioiL  She  was  not  held  or  lied 
down  in  any  way,  and,  during  the  whole  operation,  not  the  least 
movement  or  change  in  lier  limbs,  body,  or  countcniiucc  took 
place.  Dr.  Esdaile  leil  her  to  awake  naturally,  which  she  did 
in  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  She  then  told  us  that  she  had 
had  a  goad  and  undi.sturbed  sleep,  without  di*eams  or  pain,  and 
that  she  was  ready  Lo  have  her  leg  amputated.  Upon  receiving 
ocxilar  demonstration  that  the  operation  had  been  performed  her 
countenance  expressed  surpriise  and  pleasure,  and,  as  if  doubtful 
of  the  fact,  we  observed  her  pass  her  hand  over  the  stump, 
apparently  to  test  the  i*eality  of  what  she  saw.  Shortly  after- 
wards we  quitted  the  hospital,  leaving  her  composedly  waving  a 
punkah  over  her  face." 

No.  4.  "  The  patient  had  not  been  previously  mesmerised, 
and  Dr.  Esdailc  was  doubtful  wht^ther  this  could  be  done  deeply 
enough  for  operative  purposes.  He  instructed  a  Native  assistant 
to  coiumeuce  the  process,  and  the  patient  quickly  passed  into  a 
state  of  deep  coma.  Esdaile  then  amputated  the  leg  six  Laches 
above  the  knee ;  not  a  muscle  moved,  the  pulse  was  steady  and 
regular,  there  was  no  perspiration  on  the  forehead,  no  paleness 
of  the  countenance ;  in  fact  the  patient  was  as  motionless  as  a 
corpse.  Shortly  after  the  operation  he  awoke  in  the  most  natural 
manner,  stretching  out  his  arms,  yawning  and  rubbing  his  eyes. 
He  said,  in  reply  to  questions,  that  he  had  had  a  good  sleep  and 
felt  all  the  better  for  it.  He  was  intensely  surprised  when  told 
that  the  operation  was  over ;  and  showed  his  gratitude  in  the 
usual  Native  manner,  by  placing  his  hands  on  his  breast  and 
muttering  blessings  on  the  doctor." 

From  amongst  many  other  interesting  cases  the  following  are 
cited: — A  case   of  compound  fracture  of  the   leg,  in  which  a 


^ 


I 


portion  of  bone  was  sawn  off,  and  the  fracture  set  during  mes- 
uieric  trance.  Several  cases  of  strangulated  hernia,  which  had 
resisted  all  attempts  at  reduction :  during  mesmeric  sleep,  there 
was  complete  relaxation  of  the  abdominal  muscles ;  and  in  every 
instance  the  hernia  was  easily  reduced.  Esdaile  also  recorded 
cases  of  stricture  of  thts  urethra,  with  retention  of  urine,  success- 
fully treated  by  the  induction  of  mesmeric  trance  ;  and  also  a  case 
of  labour  which  took  place  painlessly  during  the  same  condition. 


Braid's  Surgical  Cases. 
Braid's  surgical  operations  were  neither  numerous  nor  varied, 
and  consisted  nininly  of  dental  extractions,  opening  of  abscesses, 
and  the  like.     He  claimed,  however,  to  have  cured  several  cases 

jof  spinal  curvature  by  suggestion,  and  asserted  that  the  use  of 
mechanical  appliances,  except  in  cases  of  caries  of  the  vertebrse, 
was  worse  than  useless.  The  following  is  an  illustrative  case : — 
No.  5.  The  patient,  a  girl  aged  16,  suffering  from  spinal 
curvature,  had  been  treated  by  various  specialists  for  six  years. 
At  first  she  was  kept  in  bed  for  sixteen  mouths,  uud  treated  by 

I  extension,  couuter-extension,  and  various  g^'mnastic  exercises. 
Afterwards  she  wore  a  complicated  mechanical  apparatus  for  four 
years,  growing  meanwhile  steadily  worse.  Braid  easily  hypnotised 
her  at  the  tii-st  attempt,  removed  all  mechanical  apparatus,  and 
rendered  the   morbidly   weak   muscles  cataleptic    by   suggestion. 

[After  a  week  of  this  treatment,  there  was  a  marked  increase  of 

f  muscular  strength ;  and  the  patient  could  walk  for  half  an  hour 

without  the  support  of  stays  or  other  mechanical  apparatus.     She 

made  a  good  recovery,  as  did  also  her  younger  sister,  who  had 

been    under  treatment  for  the  same   complaint  for    three  years 

^■before  Braid  hypnotised  her. 

^K  Persokal  Casks. 

^M  Shortly  after  commencing  hypnotic  work  I  found  I  could 
^■Aometimes  induce  anivsthesia  by  suggestion,  and  from  that  time 
^■occasionally  [Hsrformed  surgical  operations  during  hypnosis.     In 

most   of  the  following  illustrative  cases,  however,  I  hypnotised 

while  others  operated  : — 

No.  6.     Miss  ,  aged   20,  was  operated  on  for  double 

strabismus  by  Mr.  Bendelack  Hewetaon,  of  Leeds,  November  4th, 

1889;  hypnotic  suggestion  being  the  only  antesthetic  employed. 
le  obeyed  all  his  commands ;    kept  her  eyes  in  the  required 


1 62 


HYPNOTISM 


position,  or  turned  them  so  as  to  put  the  muscular  fibres  ou  the 
stretch.  Ana'Sthesia  was  perfect ;  when  awakened  she  would  not 
believe  that  the  operation  had  been  performed,  until  shown  her 
eyes  in  a  looking-glass.     There  was  no  subsequent  pain. 

On  December  ii6th,  1889,  she  fractuied  her  nose;  hypnotic 
an-iestheaia  was  induced^  and  the  hones  moulded  into  position. 

These  operations  wem  followed  by  others,  and  early  in  March, 
1890,  the  late  Mr.  Arthur  Turner,  of  Leeds,  came  to  Goole  to 
test  my  methods.  Tlie  following  account  of  his  observations 
appeared  in  tlie  JounwX  of  tht,  BritisJi  Denial  Association  for 
March  loth,  1890:— 

"  Being  a  firm  believer  in  the  advantages  of  the  use  of  nitrous 
oxide  over  other  methods  of  producing  narcosis  for  the  require- 
ments of  our  specialty,  I  was  by  no  means  ready  to  believe  that 
there  e.xisted  any  other  means  of  iuducing  total  iuseusibility  to 
pain  comparable,  as  regards  safety  and  efficiency,  with  our  justly 
valued  aua«thetic  Within  the  last  few  days,  however,  I  have 
been  surprised  to  find  that  hypnotism  properly  applied  is  of  the 
greatest  value,  not  only  in  rendering  a  patient  iusensible,  but 
also  in  preventing  after-suffering.  1  do  not  here  i^ropose  to  enter 
into  any  lengthy  detail,  but  merely  desire  to  state  some  of  the 
facta  observed  by  me.  1  was  recently  invited  by  Dr.  Bramwell, 
of  Goole,  to  see  some  of  his  patients  whom  he  was  treating 
hypnotically,  and  to  test  the  value  of  hypnotism  in  relieving  or 
preventing  ]iain  during  the  removal  of  teeth. 

*'  I  had  a  lai^ge  choice  of  patients,  and  selected  those  which  1 
considered  would  aflbrd  a  severe  trial  of  this  method.  One  upi)er 
molar,  which  another  dentist  had  on  three  occasions  failed  to 
remove,  I  extracted  without  difficulty,  and  with  no  signs  of  i>ain 
from  the  patient.  She  then,  without  awakening,  rinsed  her  mouth, 
and  I  extracted  the  fellow -tooth  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
hypnosis  was  induced  and  removed  almost  instantaneously.  She 
stated  emphatically  that  she  had  no  recollection  of  the  operation 
being  performed,  that  she  had  felt  no  pain,  and  there  was  no 
residting  tenderness  of  the  gums. 

'*  Another  case,  that  of  a  young  girl  suftering  from  valvulai- 
disease,  a  weak  anaemic  subject,  whom  one  would  e.xpt^ct  to  find 
'  deepen '  considerably  under  nitrous  oxide,  and  remain  in  a  state 
of  collapse  for  a  whole  day  after  ether,  was  quickly  and  quietly 
rendered  uucouscious.     I  then  extracted  two  left  lower  molars. 


I 
I 


which  were  decayed  down  to  a  level  with  the  alveolus,  with  jmlps 
exposed  ;  also  two  right  lower  molar  stumps,  and  a  lower  bicuspid: 
all  difficult  teeth.  There  were  slight  muscular  twitchings.  such 
as  one  often  finds  under  an  auiestbetic,  but  there  was  no  complaint 
of  pain  after  the  operation,  and  the  patient  was  quickly  restored 
to  her  normal  condition.  I  extracted  in  all  about  forty  teeth, 
tried  my  best  to  discover  defects,  and  questioned  the  patients 
myself,  bnt  the  resiilts  were  most  satisfactory.  Three  typical 
cases  are  here  appended  : — 

"  Miss  A.,  age  15.  Teeth  extracted  :  right  upper  molar,  left 
upper  molar,  caries  ;  left  lower  molar,  abscess ;  temporary  canine, 
jpersisttnt, 

-        "Remarks. — No  conjunctival  reflex,  dilated  pupils,  no  pain. 
I       "Mrs.  B.,  age  36.      Teeth  extracted:  upper  molar  right,  first 
and  second  lower  molars  right,  left  lower  wisdom,  and  right  lower 
jJbicuspid — stump  forceps  used  in  each  case. 

"  Remarks. — Conjunctival  reflex  absent,  no  sign  of  pain. 
"  Miss  C,  age  24.    This  patient  was  sent  to  me  from  another 
with  a  note  from  Dr.  Bramwell,  stating  that  he  would  not 
l^iltt^present  during  the  operation,  and  enclosing   a   written   and 
signed  order  for  her  to  sleepy  and  submit  herself  to  my  control. 
^Upou  presenting  this  the  patient  at  once  fell  asleep. 
^P       "  1   extracted  two  upper   bicuspid   stumps,  quite  buried  by 
congested  gums  and  very  tender  to  the  touch.      I  then  awakened 
_,the  patient,  and  found  that  she  was  quite  free  from  pain. 
^P       "  This  is   important  as  showing  that  patients  may  be  sent 
from  a  distance,  without  necessitating  the  personal  attendance  of 
^the  hypnotiser. 

^P  *'  A  great  advantage  of  hypnosis  over  narcosis  is  that  no  gag 
is  required  in  the  former,  as  the  patient  is  entirely  under  the 
control  of  the  operator,  opening  the  mouth  at  command  or  altering 
position  as  suggested. 

"  1  hope  to  get  Dr.  Bramwell  to  give  a  demonstration  to  a 
meeting  of  the  Society,  when  those  interested  will  be  able  to 
judge  for  themselvea.  W.  AuTHUU  Turner,  LD.S.  Eng." 

Leeds. 


I. 


The  demonstration  referred  to  was  given  at  Leeds  shortly 
terwords,  a  report  of  it  being  sent  without  my  knowledge  to 
both  the  Britisfi  Medical  Journal  and  the  Lancet ;  the  following 
account  appeared  in  the  latter : — 


"  Denwiist ration  of  ffyptioCism  as  an  AruKSthttic  during  the 
Perf&nfixance  of  DetUal  atid  Surgical  Operations, 

"  A  correspondent,  on  whom  we  can  rely,  kindly  furoiahes  us 
with  the  foUo>ving  remarkable  report : — 

"A  nimiher  of  the  leading  medical  men  and  dentists  of  Leeds 
and  dislricL  were  brought  together  ou  March  28  th,  through  the 
kind  invitation  issued  by  Messrs.  Carter  Bmthers  and  Turner, 
dented  surgeons,  of  Park  .Sriuaro,  Leeds,  to  witness  a  series  of 
surgical  and  dental  operations  performed  in  their  rooms  by  Dr. 
Milne  Bramwell,  of  Goole,  Yorkshire.  Great  interest  was  evinced 
in  the  meeting.  .  .  .  Upwards  of  sixty  medical  men  and  dental 
surgeons  accepted  the  iiiviLation.  Amongst  the  gentlemen  present 
were  the  following: — Mr.  Thomas  Scattcrgood,  Prof.  Wardrop 
Griffith,  Mr.  Pridgin  Teale,  Prof.  Eddison,  Dr.  Jacob,  Dr.  Churton, 
Mr.  Mayo  Itobson,  Mr.  H.  Beudelack  Hewetson,  Mr.  Henderson 
Nicol,  Mr.  Mo^vnihauL,  Mr.  Littlewood.  Mr.  Henry  Gott,  Mr. 
Churton,  Mr.  Kdniund  Koljinson,  Mr.  William  Hail,  Dr.  Braith- 
waite,  Mr.  Wood,  Dr.  Light,  Dr.  Trevellyau,  Dr.  Caddy,  Prof. 
M'Gill,  Dr.  Turner  (Menston  Asylum),  Dr.  Hartley,  Dr.  Hellier, 
Mr.  W.  H.  Bi*owu,  Dr.  Bruce  (Goole),  Mr.  Denuison,  Mr.  Edward 
Ward,  Mr.  H.  Ilobson,  Mr.  ICing,  Mr.  Glaisby,  Mr.  Sherbum,  and 
Mr.  Wayles.  A  letter  expressing  regret  at  bis  inability  to  be 
present  was  read  from  Dr.  Clifibrd  Altbutt,  in  wbich  he  reminded 
the  meeting  that  he  remembered  the  time — tliirty-five  years  ago 
— wben  Listen  performed  several  serious  operations,  using  hypno- 
tism as  the  auaestbetic,  at  the  hands  of  a  scientific  lay  friend  in 
Lincolnshire.  Mr.  Jessop  was  also  prevented  at  the  last  moment 
from  being  present.  The  object  of  the  meeting  was  to  show  the 
power  of  hypnotism  to  produce  absolute  aniesthcsiu  in  very  painful 
and  severe  operations. 

"The  first  case  brought  into  the  room  was  a  woman  of  25. 
She  was  hypnotised  at  a  word  by  Dr.  Bramwell,  aud  told  she 
was  to  submit  to  three  teeth  being  extracted  witltout  pain  at  the 
hands  of  Mr.  T.  Carter,  aud  further  that  she  was  to  do  anything 
that  Mr.  Carter  asked  her — such  as  to  open  her  mouth,  spit  out, 
aud  the  like.  This  was  perfectly  successful.  There  was  no 
expression  of  paiu  in  the  face,  no  cry,  and  when  told  to  awake 
she  said  she  had  not  the  least  pain  in  the  gums,  nor  had  she  felt 
the  operation.     Dr.  Bramwell  then  rehypnotised  her,  and  ordered 


I 


[her  to  leave  the  room  and  go  upsUirs  to  the  waiting-room.     This 
she  did  as  a  complete  somnambulist. 

*'  Tlie  next  case  was  that  of  a  servant  girl,  aged  19»  on  whom, 
under  tlie  hypnotic  induenee  induced  by  T)r.  Bramwell,  a  large 
lacrymal  abscess  extending  into  tlie  cheek  had  a  fortnight 
previously  been  ojiened,  and  scraped  freely,  without  knowledge  or 
pftiu.  Furthermore,  the  dressing  had  been  daily  performed,  and 
the  cavity  freely  syringed  out  under  hypnotic  aniestliesia.  To 
the  '  healing  suggestions,'  daily  given  to  the  patient.  Dr.  Bramwell 
in  a  great  measure  attributes  the  very  rapid  healing,  which  took 
place  in  ten  days — a  remarkably  short  space  of  time  in  a  girl 
allected  by  inherited  syphilis,  and  in  a  by  no  meaiuj  good  state 
of  liealth.  Slie  was  put  to  sleep  by  the  following  letter  from 
l*r.  Bramwell  addressed  to  Mr.  Tiimer,  the  operating  dentist  in 

I  the  case : — 

"  BCRLINOTON  CRESCE^er,  GOOLB,  YORKS. 

"  Deab  Mr.  Turner — I  send  you   a  patient  with  enclosed 

I  order.     When  you  give  it  to  her,  she  will  fall  asleep  at  once  and 
obey  your  commands.  J.  MiLNE  Biiamwkll. 


* 


•*  Go  10  sleep  by  order  of  Dr.  Bramwell,  and  obey  Mr.  Turner's 
commands.  J.  Milne  BitAinvTLL. 


"  Tliis  experiment  answered  perfectly.  Sleep  was  induced 
at  once  by  reading  the  note,  aiul  was  so  profound  that  at  the  cud 
of  a  lengthy  operation,  in  wliich  sixteen  stumps  were  removed, 
she  awoke  smiling,  and  insisted  that  she  bad  felt  no  pain ;  and, 
what  was  remarkable,  there  was  no  pain  in  her  mouth.  She  was 
found  after  some  time,  when  unobservt-tl,  reading  the  Graphic  in 
the  waiting-room  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  During  the  whole 
time  she  did  everything  wliicli  Mr.  Turner  suggested,  but  it  was 
observed  that  there  was  a  dimimshed  flow  of  saliva,  and  that  the 
corneal  reilexes  were  absent:  the  breatliing  was  more  noisy  than 
ordinary  and  the  pulse  slower.  Dr.  Bramwell  took  occasion  to 
explain  that  the  next  case,  a  boy  of  8,  was  a  severe  test,  and 
would  not  probably  succeed ;  partly  because  the  patient  was  so 
young,  and  chiefly  because  he  had  not  attempted  to  produce 
hypnotic  ana'sthesia  earlier  than  two  days  before.  He  also 
explained  that  patients  require  training  in  this  form  of  aniesthesia ; 
the  time  of  training  or  preparation  var3ring  with  each  individual 


However,  he  waa  ao  far  hypnotised  tliat  he  ullowed  Mr.  Muyo 
Robsoa  to  operate  on  the  great  toe,  removing  a  bony  growth  and 
part  of  the  first  phalanx,  with  no  more  than  a  few  cries  towards 
the  close  of  the  operation ;  aud  with  the  result  that  when 
questioned  afterwards  lie  appeared  to  know  very  little  of  what 
had  been  done.  It  was  necessary  in  his  case  for  Dr.  Bramwell 
to  repeat  the  hypnotic  suggestions.  Dr.  Bramwell  remarked  that 
he  wished  to  show  a  case  that  was  less  Likely  to  be  perfectly 
successful  than  the  others,  so  as  to  enable  those  present  to  see 
the  difficult  as  well  as  the  apparently  straightforward  cases. 

"The  next  case  was  a  girl  of  15,  highly  sensitive,  requiring 
the  removal  of  enlarged  tonsils.  At  the  request  of  Dr.  Bramwell, 
Mr.  Bendelack  Hewetson  was  enabled,  whilst  the  patient  was  in 
the  hypnotic  stat*,  to  extract  each  tonsil  with  ease,  the  girl,  by 
suggestion  of  the  hypnotiser,  obeying  each  request  of  the  operator, 
though  in  a  state  of  perfect  antesthesia.  In  the  same  way,  Mr. 
Hewetson  removed  a  cyst,  of  the  size  of  a  horse-bean,  from  the 
side  of  the  nose  of  a  young  woman  who  was  perfectly  ana-sthetic, 
and  breathinj^  deeply ;  and  who,  on  coming  round  by  order, 
protested  '  that  the  opeiiition  hatl  not  been  commenced.' 

"Mr.  Turner  then  extracted  two  large  molar  teeth  from  a 
man  with  equal  success  ;  after  which  Dr,  Bramwell  explained 
how  this  patient  had  been  completely  cured  of  dninkenness  by 
hypnotic  suggestion.  To  prove  this  to  those  present,  and  to  show 
the  intere-gting  psychological  results,  the  man  waa  hypnotiseiL 
and  in  that  state  he  was  sho^vn  a  glass  of  water,  which  he  was 
told  hy  Dr.  Bramwell  was  '  bad  beer.'  He  waa  then  told  to 
awake,  and  the  glass  of  water  was  offered  him  by  Dr.  Bi*amwell. 
He  put  it  to  his  lips,  and  at  once  spat  out  the  '  offensive  liquid.' 
Other  interesting  phenomena  were  illustrated  and  explained  by 
means  of  this  patient,  who  was  a  hale,  strong  working-man. 

"  Mr.  Tom  Carter  next  extracted  a  very  difficult  impacted 
stump  from  a  railway  navvy,  as  successfully  as  in  the  previous 
case.  Dr.  Bramwell  described  how  this  man  liad  hoen  completely 
cured  of  very  oKstinate  facial  neuralgia  by  h}-pnotism.  The 
malatly  had  been  produced  by  working  in  a  wet  railway  cutting, 
and  had  previously  defied  all  medical  treatment.  After  the  third 
hypnotic  treatment — some  weeks  previously — the  neuralgia  had 
entirely  disappeared,  and  had  not  returned.  The  man  had  also 
obtained  refreshing  hypnotic  sleep  at  night,  being  put  to  sleep 


$ 


hy  a  written  order  from  Dr.  Brainwell,  and  on  one  occasion  by  a 
telegram,  both  methods  succeeding  perfectly. 

"  At  the  conclusion  of  this  most  interesting  and  successful 
series  of  hypnotic  experiments,  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Dr.  Bi-amwell, 
for  his  kindness  in  giving  the  demonstration,  was  proposed  by 
Mr.  Scattergood,  Dean  of  the  Yorkshire  College,  and  seconded  by 
Mr.  Pridgin  Teale,  F.K.S.,  who  remarked  'that  the  experiments 
were  deeply  interesting,  and  had  been  marvellously  successful.' 
The  latter  also  said  '  he  felt  sure  that  the  time  had  now  come 
when  we  should  have  to  recognise  hypnotism  as  a  necessary  part 
of  our  study.'     The  vote  was  carried  by  loud  acclamations. 

"  Messrs.  Carter  Hrothers  and  Turner  were  cordially  thanked 
for  the  great  scientific  treat,  which  they  had  so  kindly  prepared 
for  the  many  to  whom  hypnotism  had  been  first  introduced  that 
day,  and  for  the  further  opportunity,  aiforded  to  the  few  who  had 
seen  Dr.  Bramwell's  work  previously,  of  studying  its  application 
aft  an  aniL-sthetic.  ilr.  Henry  Carter  replied  for  the  firm,  and 
the  meeting  closed ;  the  patients  looking  as  little  like  patients  as 
persons  wcU  could,  giving  neither  by  their  manners  nor  expression 
the  slightest  suggestion  (e.xccpt  whim  extt^mal  dressings  were 
visible)  that  they  had  suffered,  or  were  suffering  from,  extensive 
surgical  interference." — 7'he  Lancet,  April  r»th,  1390,  [Mige  77 1. 

The  above  account,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  details^  is 
correct.  The  removal  of  the  exostosis  was  rendered  a  more 
severe  operation,  by  a  preliminary  evulsion  of  the  great  too  nail, 
and,  although  the  patient  showed  slight  signs  of  pain,  he  was 
afterwards  unable  to  recall  what  had  happened.  The  after- 
condition  of  the  patients  was  remarkable ;  and  the  unpleasant 
symptoms  which  sometimes  follow  the  use  of  ann^sthetics  were 
absent.  They  all  made  a  hearty  meal ;  and  then  returned  to  Goole, 
a  journey  of  over  an  hour  by  train.  The  nurse  in  charge  told 
me  she  might  have  been  conducting  a  i>arty  lifune  from  a  fair, 
BS  they  passed  the  time  in  laughing  and  singing.  With  the 
exception  of  the  boy  whose  toe  had  been  operated  on,  and  who 
was  unable  to  put  on  his  Ixxit,  none  of  them  kept  the  house ; 
while  in  every  case  the  healing  process  was  remarkably  rapid, 
and  unaccompanied  by  pain. 

From  that  date  1  employed  hypnotic  anawthesia  in  a 
number  of  minor  operations ;  but^  with  the  exception  of  the 
two  following,  few  are  worthy  of  special  note. 


No.  7.  Mr.  ■^- — — ,  aged  40,  was  niii  over  by  a  loaded  railway 
waggon,  and  suBtained  severe  comminuted  fractures  of  the  right 
clavicle,  scapula,  bnmenis,  radius  and  ulna.  The  elbow  joint  was 
opened,  and  gangrene  of  the  lower  arm  followed.  The  patient 
ultimately  recovered ;  but  all  the  joints  of  the  right  arm, 
shoulder,  elbow,  wrist,  and  fingers,  were  ankylosed.  On  several 
occasions  he  was  put  under  clilorofonn,  and  the  adhesions 
broken  down  ;  this  was  always  followed  by  swelling,  inflamma- 
tion and  return  of  the  immobility.  Later,  he  would  neither  take 
an  anaesthetic,  nor  allow  any  attempt  at  passive  movement  to 
be  made  without  one.  He  was  easily  hypnotised  at  the  first 
attempt  and  analgesia  induced.  For  some  weeks  this  was 
repeated  frequently,  and  on  each  occasion  the  adhesious  were 
broken  down,  and  the  mobility  of  the  joints  increased.  He 
ultimately  returned  to  his  employment,  with  a  strong  and  use- 
ful, though  somewhat  deformed  arm.  This  case  was  seen  by 
Mr.  Mayo  Itobson,  both  before  and  after  hypnotic  treatment. 

No.  8.  Mrs. ;  aged  41,  a  weak  nervous  woman,  abnor- 
mally sensitive  U)  pain,  bad  her  teeth  extracted  painlessly  in 
what  was  apparently  the  waking  state  —  the  only  amesthetic 
being  suggestion.  This  was  regarded  as  an  experiment  which 
might  possibly  fail,  and  tlie  patient  made  me  promise  to  put 
her  to  sleep  if  she  ha^l  pain.  The  operation  was  j)erfonued 
on  July  2l8t,  1892,  at  Mr.  Hendelack  Hewetson's,  Leeds,  in 
the  presence  of  a  number  of  medical  men,  including  Mr.  H. 
Littlewood,  F.II.C.S.  The  following  account  was  given  by  Mr. 
Henderson  Nicol,  L.D.8.  Eng.,  the  numbers  quoted  showing  the 
teeth  extracted,  according  to  Dr.  Thompson's  Approved  Reayrd 
Plate  :— 

"  No8.  21.  22,  24,  25  and  26  were  removed  without  any 
interval,  and  entirely  without  pain,  or  any  symptom  of  feeling, 
on  the  part  of  the  patient.  After  an  interval  of  a  few  minutes 
for  rinsing  out  her  mouth,  Xos.  21  and  1  were  removed  with- 
out interval,  and  with  some  alight  indication  of  pain  in  the  case 
of  No.  1,  but  none  in  the  case  of  No.  27,  which,  in  common  with 
Nos.  21  and  22,  was  very  firmly  attached  to  the  jaw.  After  a 
further  interval  of  a  few  seconds,  No.  1 6  was  removed  ;  it  waa 
much  broken  down,  and  there  were  symptoms  of  some  pain. 
All  the  teeth  were  much  diseased,  aud  the  extractions  under 
ordinary    conditions    would     have    caused    acute    pain.  ...   I 


^heen 


think,  coDsidering  the  circumstances  under  which  the  operation 

was  done,  it  waa  a  remarkable  success,  and  I  am  pleased  to  have 

it" 

Mcjnarks. — The  patient  was  not  prepared  ia  any  way  for  the 

operation,  and  the  analgesia  was  not  post- hypnotic,  i.e.  it  was  not 

suggested  to  her  dm-ing  a  previous  hypnosis  that  pain  should  be 

absent  on    this  particular  occasion.     Without  the  employment 

of  any   mechanical   methods,  or   verbal    suggestion  of  hypnosis, 

•he  was   simply   told   in   the   waking   state  that   the   operation 

should  be  painless.     She  lost  much  blood  and  felt  faint,  but  this 

Boon   passed    off,  and    she  gave    the  following    accoimt    of   her 

sensations : — She  had  a  little  pain  when  No.  1  was  extracted,  but 

this  was  nothing  to  what  she  had   fell  when   she  had  had   teeth 

drawn  preWously,  and  not  sufficient  to  make  lier  remind  me  of 

ly  promise  to  hypnotise  her.     She  had  the  fixed  idea  that  this 

tooth  would  hun  her;  a  previous  attempt  to  extract  it  having 

failed.     She  described   the  vai'ious  steps  of  ilie  opemtion,  and 

asserted  that  all  the  extractions,  except  No.  1,  were  absolutely 

painless.     Tlie  analgesia  was  still  further  tested  by  a  powerful 

application  of  tlie  faradic  brusli. 

^k        A  few  days  later,  under  the  same  conditions,  I  extracted  her 

Hbemaining  four  teeth,   and,  despite  the  fact  tliat   Uiey   were  all 

^■Brmly  attaclied  to  the  jaw,  this  was  accomplislied   without  pain. 

^pE^either  operation  was  followed  by  pain,  and  the  gums  healed 

rapidly ;  when  the  casts  of  the  moutli  were  taken  all  unpleasant 

sensations  were  prevented  by  suggestion.     It  is  to  be  noted  that, 

H|ii  the  above  case,  analgesia  alone  was  suggested,  and  that  this 

appeared  unaccompanied  by  annesthesia.* 


i 


Surgical  Cases  from  other  Authors. 
(A)  Confinements  during  Hypnosis. 

To.  9  (Dr.  Kingsbury,  of  Blackpool).  V.  S.,  aged  1 4  years 
id  7  months,  was  hypnotised  twelve  times  before  confinement, 
nd  deep  ansesthesia  induced.  Dr.  Kingsbury*  was  called  at 
.30  P.M. ;  the  os  was  slightly  dilated,  and  the  pains  occurred 
^tfATf  15  or  20  minutes.  The  pitient  was  hypnotised,  told 
have  no  pain,  and  to  bear  down  when  the  ut«rine  contractionB 

*  The  medical  liistory  ofthi*  cue  is  given  Uter     (No.  20,  pp.  191-4.) 


occurred.  At  1 1  P.M.,  she  was  delivered  of  a  child  weighing 
8J  lbs.  The  placenta  followed  in  ten  minutes;  she  still  remained 
asleep  and,  when  awakened,  felt  well,  and  remembered  nothing 
of  what  had  happened. 

No.  10  (von  Schrenck-Notzing).  B..  aged  25,  primipara. 
Strong,  healthy  and  well-nourished.  First  hj'pnotised,  November 
lYth,  1891  ;  this  was  repeated  six  times  up  to  the  26th.  At 
2.45  A.M.,  on  the  29  th,  she  was  hypnotised  during  labour.  Not- 
withstanding that  the  uterine  contractions  were  strong  and  very 
painful,  she  fell  asleep  in  two  or  three  minutes  and  her  cries 
ceased,  fiupture  of  the  membranes  took  place  at  3.5  A.M.,  and 
the  labour  continued  rapidly  till  3.30  a.m.,  when  the  head  reached 
the  vulva.  At  3.58  a.m.,  tlie  pains  became  very  weak  and  no 
further  progress  was  made.  It  was  now  suggested  to  the  patient 
to  bear  down  more  forcibly ;  the  pains  at  once  became  longer, 
and  so  strong  that  a  rupture  of  the  perineum  was  feared.  Tliese 
suggestions  were  then  discontinued.  At  4.3  2  A.M.  the  head  was 
bom,  and  at  the  next  pain  the  body  followed.  At  4.15  a.m.  the 
placenta  was  ejected.  Tlie  patient  was  awakened  by  suggestion 
at  4.20  A.M. ;  she  opened  her  eyes,  gradually  became  conscious, 
and  looked  about  her  in  a  surprised  manner.  She  declared  that 
she  had  felt  no  pain  from  the  moment  she  was  first  hypnotised. 
There  was  no  rupture  of  the  periueum.  The  os  was  fully  dilated 
at  3  A.M.,  and  the  entire  labour,  including  passage  of  the  placenta, 
completed  at  4.15  a.m. 

No.  11  (Wetterstrand).  Kegiua  A.,  aged  25;  married,  four 
children.  Previous  confinements — ^foUuwed  by  severe  after-pains 
— lasted  from  10  to  12  liours.  The  patient  was  hypnotised 
several  times  before  this — her  fifth — confinement.  Wetterstrand 
was  called  on  October  19th,  1887,  at  2.45  p.m.:  pains  slight; 
06  admitted  three  fingers.  Hypnosis  with  deep  anaesthesia  was 
induced.  At  3.15  p.m.  the  pains  became  stronger,  and  at 
4.30  P.M.  the  child  was  born.  Afterwards  the  patient  could 
recall  nothing :  there  were  no  after-pains  and  the  recovery 
was  rapid. 

The  same  patient  was  again  confined  on  April  8th,  1889. 
She  was  hypnotised  at  the  commencement  of  the  labour,  and 
remained  in  a  condition  of  8omnamb\ilism  until  after  its  comple- 
tion. Again,  awaking  was  lollowed  by  amnesia.  The  labour 
lasted  two  hours :  there  were  no  after-pains. 


I 
I 


I 


No.  12  (Dr  Pritzl,  of  Vienna).  Mrs.  S.,  aged  36,  primipara. 
Admitted  into  hospital,  September  10th,  1885,  and  easily  hypno- 
tised. On  October  3  let,  8  P.M.,  the  os  aduutted  three  fingers 
and  the  pains  were  severe.  Hypiioai.s  was  then  reiuduced :  the 
birth  took  place  at  11.15  P.M.,  and  the  placenta  was  expelled 
five  minutes  afterwards.  Tlie  patient,  awakened  an  hour  later, 
was  much  surprised  to  find  the  confinement  over ;  she  declared 
she  had  slept  soundly  from  the  moment  she  had  been  hypnotised. 

No.  13  (Dr.  Mesnet,  of  the  Hotel  Dieu,  Paris).  Alice  I)., 
aged  22,  primipara.  Hypnotised  previously  to  confinement  At 
midnight,  on  Alarch  31st,  1887,  the  os  was  the  size  of  a  two- 
franc  piece,  and  the  pains  violent.  Hypnosis  was  then  reindnced, 
and  she  ceased  to  suffer.  The  birth  took  place  at  4.4o  a. a.,  and 
the  patient  was  not  awakened  until  lier  linen  had  been  changed, 
and  the  infant  dressed.     She  was  unable  to  recall  anytliing. 

No.  14   (Dr.    Fraipont,     Lecturer    on    Gymecolog)'     at     the 

University  of  I-iege,  BelgiumX     Mrs.  ,  aged  29,  primipara.* 

At  5  P.M.  the  OS  was  the  size  of  a  Hve-franc  piece,  and  the  pains 
regular  and  severe.  Hypnosis  was  induced  by  Profeseor  I>elbceuf 
and  her  sufferings  ceased.  At  8.45  A.M.  Dr.  Fraipont  had  to 
leave,  and  Delboeuf  ceased  to  hypnotise  her.  Dr.  Fraipont 
returned  at  1 0.45  A.M.,  and  hypnrais  was  again  induced.  The 
child  was  boru  at  1  P.M.,  and  was  above  the  average  weight. 
Although  the  patient  appeared  to  suffer  during  Dr.  Fraipont's 
absence,  she  was  unable  on  awaking  to  recall  anything  that 
had  occurred.     Good  recovery. 

No.  15  (Dr.  Fanton,  Marseilles).  L.,  aged  19,  primipara. 
Hypnosis  was  first  induced  on  December  19th,  1889,  and  som- 
nambulism with  an;t*sthesia  obtained  on  January  4th,  1890. 
On  February  8th,  10th,  15th,  and  18th,  Dr.  Fanton  induced  uterine 
contractions  by  suggestion.  On  February  29th,  at  G  p.m.,  labour 
commenced ;  and  at  1 0  P.M.  the  uterine  contractions  were  strong 
and  painful.  The  patient  was  then  rehypuotised,  and  the  su^es- 
tion  given  that  the  labour  should  be  arreste<l  from  11  P.M.  till 
midnight  The  suggestion  was  successful  and  the  uterine  con- 
tractions entirely  ceased.  At  midnight  they  recommenced 
strongly  and  regularly,  but  were  unattendetl  by  paitL  At  1.30 
A.M,  they  were  again  arrested  by  suggestion  for  two  hours.     From 

Thla  pationt  bod  bnn  the  snbjsct  of  MTtnd  of  Profeuor  Dtlbrcuri  expertiMDta. 
8m  pp.  84,  lU.  117,  118  «Dd  119. 


172 


HYPNOTISM 


3.30  A.M.  till  11  A.M.,  the  labour  proj^TCssetl  naturally,  but  witu- 
out  pain.  At  11  A.M.  the  os  was  fully  dilated,  and  the  labour 
was  again  arrested  by  suggestion  for  three  hours.  Shortly  after 
the  expiratiou  of  this  period  tht^  labour  was  completed  painlessly. 
On  being  iiwakened,  the  patient  did  not  know  she  had  been 
confined,  and  could  recall  nothing  of  what  liad  passed.  She 
made  a  good  rexjovery.  The  experiment  took  place  in  hospital, 
and  Pi-ofessors  Alazail  and  l.ojan,  and  Di-s.  Audifl'rent,  Jourdan, 
Rubino,  Pourritre,  Fournad  and  Lieutard  were  present. 

No.  16.  Dr.  Dolirovolsky  (Switzerland)  reports  eight  cases 
of  confiuement  during  hypnosis,  four  of  which  were  primipawe. 
Three  were  hypnotised  for  the  first  time  during  lalxiur ;  one 
once  before  labour ;  one  twice ;  one  three  times ;  one  four  times ; 
and  one  six  times.     The  following  is  the  most  remarkable  case  : — 

No,  17,  M.  L.,  aged  24,  primipara,  was  hypnotised  three 
times  before  confinement,  the  last  occasion  being  on  November 
1 3th.  During  each  sitting  ^  it  was  suggested  to  her  that  her 
labour  should  be  painless.  In  the  evening  of  November  22nd, 
she  felt  uncomfortable  and  lay  down  for  some  hours.  About 
\\  A.M,  she  found  that  she  was  wet,  and  got  up  and  changed  the 
Unen  on  her  bed.  After  this  she  could  not  sleep,  and  had  from 
time  to  time  a  feeling  of  pressure  in  the  body,  but  this  liardly 
gave  her  any  appreciable  pain.  At  7  a.m.  she  said  to  the  patient 
in  the  next  bed :  "  Fetch  the  nurse ;  I  feel  that  something  has 
passed  from  nie."  When  the  nurse  arrived  the  child  was  born. 
In  this  instance,  a  practically  painless  confinement  was  the  result 
of  post-hypnotic  analgesia  suggested  nine  days  earlier. 

The  anfcsthesia,however,doe8  not  seem  to  have  lieen  complete  in 
all  Dr.  Dobrovolsky's  cases.  One  patient  remembered  her  last  three 
pains,  while  another  was  conscious  of  the  application  of  forceps ; 
but  in  all  the  suffering  was  undoubtedly  diminished,  and  the 
results  are  especially  remarkable  considering  how  seldom  hypnosis 
had  l>een  induced  before  labour. 


{B)  Oilwr  Operation. 


I 
I 

I 

I 


I 
I 


No.    18    (Dr.   Tillaux,  Surgeon   to  tlie   Hotel   Dieu,  Paris). 
The  patient,  a  young  woman,  suflered  from  cystocele,  and  the 


r*ie\       ™ 


'  The  word  "  sittiDg  "  u  used  for  ooDvaownea'  S4k6  in  ill  insUztcw  where  (ittiepts 
h&ve  noeived  hjj>uotic  treatment  with  suggwtion. 


I 


operation  of  colporrhaphy  was  performed.  She  was  hypnotised 
in  bed  by  the  House  Sur>^eon,  M.  Tt^moin,  aud  passed  into  the 
stage  of  somnambulism.  In  obedience  to  suggestion,  she  then 
walked  to  the  theatre  and  lay  down  upon  the  table.  The  opera- 
tion lasted  half  an  hour ;  she  showed  no  symptoms  of  pain,  and 
chatted  continuously  with  the  House  Surgeon.  Slie  was  carried 
back  to  bed  wlule  still  asleep,  and.  on  l>eiug  aroused,  wn3 
immensely  surprifjed  to  Hnd  that  the  operation  was  over. 

Na  19  (Dr.  liourdon,  Mom).  Mrs.  I).,  aged  34,  uterine 
fibroid.  The  tumour,  which  was  about  the  size  of  the  fist  and 
sessile,  was  removed  through  the  v^ina  by  means  of  Grafe's 
serre-nomd ;  the  operation  was  tedious,  but  tlie  patient  ex- 
perienced no  pain. 

No.  20  (Dr.  Schmeltz,  Nice).  M.,  aged  20.  Enormous 
sarcomatous  tumour  of  the  breast  Hypnosis  was  induced  on 
several  occasions  before  the  operation,  which  was  performed  in 
the  presence  of  a  number  of  medical  men.  The  tumour  was 
removed,  the  axilla  thoroughly  explored,  hve  drainage  tubes 
introduced,  and  the  enormous  wound  closed  with  thirty-two  wire 
sutures.  The  operation  lasted  about  an  hour.  Dr.  Schmeltz 
operated  slowly,  and  quite  at  his  ease.  The  patient  was  very 
merry,  chatting  brightly,  aud  laughing  heartily  from  time  to 
time.  She  placed  herself  in  different  jrasitions  as  requested, 
without  the  aid  of  an  assistant,  etc.  She  suEfered  pain  neither 
during  nor  after  tlie  operation,  and  slept  well  the  following  night. 
Recovery  was  rapid,  and  the  wound  was  only  dressed  once  after 
the  operation ;  the  drainage  tubes  were  removed  on  the  third 
day,  and  the  stitches  on  the  fifteenth  day,  when  union  was 
complete.  The  tunjour  weighed  over  4  ll>a.,  and  microscopical 
examination  confirmed  the  diagnosia 

No.  21  (Schmeltz).  Mile.  B.,  aged  18.  Kctropion  of  the 
left  lower  eyelid  since  the  age  of  10  mouths.  She  had  been 
twice  operated  on  in  IS89,  but  the  condition  had  become  worse. 
She  consulted  Dr.  Schmeltz  in  November,  1890,  aud  told  him 
she  had  suffered  so  much  from  the  after-effects  of  tlie  anfesthetic 
that  she  would  never  take  one  agaii».  Hypnosis  was  easily 
induced  at  the  first  attempt.  On  November  28th,  1890,  in  the 
presence  of  several  medical  men.  Dr.  Schmeltz  successfully 
performed  "  Adams'  operation " ;  tliia  was  neither  attended  nor 
followed  by  pain. 


Xo.  22  (Dr.  Edward  Wood,  America).     Mr. ,  aged   17. 

Necrosis  of  the  upper  third  of  the  hmuenis.  llie  patient  was 
hypnotised  on  the  three  days  preceding  the  operation,  whicli  was 
performed  in  hospital  on  September  9th,  1889.  An  incision 
was  made  down  to  the  bone,  the  diseased  portion  removed, 
drainage  tubes  iiiserted,  etc.  The  operation  was  a  tedious  one, 
and,  at  its  conclusion,  it  was  suggested  that  the  patient  should 
continue  to  sleep  for  two  hours.  He  did  not  awake  until  the 
time  indicated,  and  then  asked  for  food.     No  pain.     Good  recovery. 

No.  23  (Dr.  Grossmann,  Berlin).  Eight  cases  of  fractures 
and  dislocations  rejwrted  in  the  Zeitschrifi  fur  nypiwiismvs, 
March,  1894.  In  every  instance,  hypnosis  appears  to  have  been 
induced  for  tlie  first  time  on  the  day  of  the  operation,  which 
was  rendei*ed  painless  by  suggestion. 

Numerous  other  operations  during  hypnotic  aueesthesia  have 
recently  been  reported.  Amongst  these  the  following  may  be 
mentioned; — Sandberg(Sweden), Dental  operations;  l''orel(Swit2er- 
laud),  Cataract ;  Diaz  (Cuba),  Dental  operations ;  van  Eeden'aud 
van  Kenterghem  (Holland),  Dental  opemtions. 


Hypnotic  AnjESTHESU.     Summary. 

The  chief  objection  to  hypnotic  aniesthesia  is  the  difficulty 
and  uncertainty  of  the  induction  of  the  necessary  degree  of 
hypnosis.  Although  recent  statistics  show  that  about  94  per 
cent  of  mankind  can  be  hypnotised,  with  a  considerable  pro- 
portion many  preliminary  attempts  are  necessary,  and  generally 
hypnosis  never  becomes  deep  enough  for  operative  purposes. 
Suggestive  an:t'sthesia  can  only  be  induced,  apparently,  in  about 
10  per  cent  of  those  hypnotised.  Under  these  circumstances, 
unless  grave  reasons  existed  for  the  non-employment  of  other 
anitsthetics,  it  would  be  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  hypnotise  a 
patient  for  operative  purposes  alone.  Apart  fi-ora  this,  hypnosis 
possesses  many  advantages  as  on  anaesthetic     Thus  : — 

(1)  Once  deep  hj-pnosis,  with  nna?8the3ia,  has  been  obtained, 
it  can  be  immediately  reinduced  at  any  time. 

(2)  No  repetition  of  any  hypnotic  process  is  necessary ;  the 
verbal  order  to  go  to  sleep  is  suQicient. 

(3)  The  hypnotiser's  presence  is  not  essential.     The  patient 


I 


Q  be  pnt  en  rapport  with  the  operator  by  written  order,  or  by 
other  means  previously  suggested  during  liypuosis. 

(4)  No  abstinence  Iroiu  food  or  other  preparation  is  necessary. 

(5)  Nervous  apprehension  can  be  removed  by  suggestion, 

(6)  Hypnoeifi  is  pleasaut,  and  absolutely  devoid  of  danger. 

(7)  It  can  be  maintained  indefinitely,  and  terminated 
immediately  at  will. 

(8)  Tlie  patient  can  be  placed  in  any  position  without  risk — 
a  not  unimportant  point  in  operations  on  the  mouth  and  throat — 
and  will  alter  tliat  position  at  the  command  of  the  operator, 
(lags  and  other  retentive  apparatus  are  unneceasary. 

(9)  Analgesia  alone  cnn  be  suggested,  and  the  patient  left 
sensitive  to  other  impressions — an  advantage  in  throat  operations. 

(10)  In  labour  cases,  the  influence  of  the  voluntary  muscles 
can  be  increased  or  diminished  by  suggestion. 

(11)  There  is  no  tendency  to  sickness  during  or  after 
operation — a  distinct  gain  in  abdominal  cases. 

(12)  Pain  after  operation,  or  during  subsequent  dressings,  can 
be  entirely  prevented. 

(1 3)  The  rapidity  of  the  healing  process,  possibly  as  the  result 
of  the  abstiiice  of  pain,  is  t'requeiitly  verj'  marked. 

While  Schreuck-Notziug  and  other  obser\'ers  state  that 
hypnotic  suggestion  can  render  labour  painless,  and  facilitate 
its  course  by  regulating  the  position  of  the  body  and  limbs,  and 
increasing  or  diminishing  the  uterine  contractions  through  the 
action  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  Dr.  Fanton  claims  other  and 
more  startling  advantages.  According  to  him,  suggestion  acts 
directly  upon  the  uterus  iteelf :  the  operator  c-au  thus  cause  its 
contractions  to  appear  or  disappear  at  will ;  and,  in  complicated 
cases,  this  may  save  the  life  of  both  mother  and  child.  Further, 
uterine  inertia  may  be  successfully  combated  without  the  use  of 
ergot,  and  the  forceps  frequently  rendered  uimecessary.  The 
after-contraction  of  the  uterus  can  be  excited  by  suggestion,  and 
post-partmn  haemorrhage  prevented.  In  cases  of  adherent 
placenta,  turning,  etc.,  the  uterus  can  be  relaxed  by  suggestion, 
and  the  necessary  operations  greatly  facilitated.  Finally,  Dr. 
Fanton  claims  to  have  successfully  excited  premature  labour  by 
BUggestion,  and  considers  it  criminal  to  have  recourse  to  other 
means,  such  as  dilatation  of  the  cervix,  perforation  of  the 
membranes,  etc,  without   having   first   attempted   tliis  method. 


176 


HVPNOTlSAf 


Although  Dr.  Fanton  fouuda  his  statements  ou  numerous  cases 
and  experiments,  many  of  them  observed  by  other  medical  men, 
the  results  he  claims  are  so  startling  that  few  arc  likely  to  accept 
them  without  further  evidence.  One  must  admit,  however,  that 
the  involuntary  contractions  of  the  uterus  are  sometimes  arrested 
by  emotional  states.  An  assistant,  sent  to  a  patient  who 
expected  to  see  his  principal,  often  finds  that  the  labour,  which 
was  progressing  rapidly  before  his  arrival,  ceases  the  moment  he 
enters  the  room. 

It  is  possible  that  improvement  in  the  method  of  inducing 
hypnosis  may  arise ;  but,  until  then,  its  usefulness  in  surgery 
will  ever  remain  extremely  restricted.  Hypnotic  anaesthesia, 
however,  must  always  be  of  keen  interest  to  both  physiologist 
and  psychologist.  As  will  be  pointed  out  later,  it  is  a  thing 
apart,  and  by  no  means  an  ordinary  narcotic — not  a  fresh  example 
of  the  methods  for  preventing  pain  by  checking  all  conscious 
cerebration. 


CHAPTER    X. 


HYPNOTISM    Hi    MEDICINE. 


To  the  physician,  the  chief  interest  of  hypnotism  depends  upon 
its  value  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  To  illustrate  this,  I  now 
propose  to  cite  cases  in  which  it  has  been  employed  for  that 
purpose  by  myself  and  others. 

Amongst  the  former  are  to  be  found  a  few  drawn  from  my 
general  practice  at  Goole,  All  of  these  cases,  however,  were 
seen  by  other  medical  men,  generally  before,  during,  and  after 
hypnotic  treatment;  and  most  of  them  were  shown  at  the 
meetings  of  one  or  more  medical  societies.  The  remainder — 
almost  without  exception  sent  to  rae  by  other  medical  men — 
have  been  treated  since  I  came  to  London  a  little  over  ten 
years  aj^o. 

In  most  instances,  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  enable  one 
to  judge  of  the  permanency  of  the  i-esults.  In  all  the  after- 
history  of  the  case  has  been  ti*uced,  and  iu  many  the  last  reports 
have  been  of  quite  recent  date.  Most  of  the  cases  drawn  from 
other  sources  have  neither  been  previously  translated  into 
English,  nor  pubhshed  abroad  in  readily  accessible  form — the 
majority  being  taken  from  foreign  medical  journals,  etc.  Many 
of  them  are  reported  by  well-known  Continental  medical  men ; 
and,  again,  iu  most  instances,  the  after-histories  of  the  patients 
have  been  carefully  traced  and  recorded.  Tliis  selection  has 
been  made  in  order  to  put  fresh  material  before  my  readers,  as 
accounts  of  many  cases,  treated  by  Bemheim,  Wetterstraud,  and 
others,  have  already  been  publisVied  in  English  translations. 
In  each  iu&tance,  the  source  from  which  the  case  is  drawn  will 
Ise  given  in  the  chapter  of  "  Keferences." 

I  do  not  propose  to  cite  examples  of  all  the  different  forms 
of  disease  iu  which  hypnotism  has  been  employed.     The  accouut 


only  claims  to  bo  an  illustrative  one  :  the  majority  of  the  diseases 
selected,  therefore,  are  those  in  which  hypnotism  lias  been  ntoat 
frequently  used  as  a  curative  agent.  In  some  instances  this  rule 
hafi  been  depiirted  from,  either  because  the  employment  of  hypno- 
tism in  such  other  diseases  has  excited  interest  or  controversy,  or 
because  the  cases  themselves  present  points  of  special  interest 

In  the  chapter  of  "  References  "  many  cases  will  be  referred 
to  other  than  those  about  to  be  cited.  Some  of  these  are 
additional  examples  of  the  various  cases  I  propose  to  quote;  the 
remainder  illustrate  the  use  of  hypnotism  in  diseases  other  than 
those  about  to  be  reviewed.  Succes-sful  cases  have  been  chosen 
purposely,  and  little  i*eference  made  to  those  in  w^hich  hypnotic 
treatment  failed.  In  my  concluding  cliapter,  however,  I  shall 
again  return  to  this  point,  and  discuss — as  far  as  the  very 
imperfect  data  permit — the  value  of  hypnotic  treatment  as  com- 
pared with  other  methods. 

For  the  present,  in  order  to  prevent  misconception,  it  ought 
to  be  clearly  understood  tliat  those  who  employ  hypnotism  re- 
gard it  only  as  an  additional  weapon  by  which  disease  may  be 
combated.  They  use  it  just  as  they  would  any  other  new 
remedy,  or  fresh  form  of  treatment  that  advancing  science  has 
brought  within  their  reach.  If  it  sometimes  succeeds  where 
other  methods  have  failed,  the  opposite  is  equally  true.  Even 
in  the  former  case  this  implies  no  slur  on  "'  Medicine,"  regarded 
in  its  widest  sense  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  the  therapeutic  value  of 
hypnotism  he  proved.  Medicine,  as  a  whole,  is  so  much  the  richer. 

Hypnotism  has  undoubtedly  given  its  best  results  in  the 
treatment  of  functional  nervous  disorders.  Amongst  these  the 
various  forms  of  hysteria  deserve  the  first  place,  and  may  be 
grouped  as  follows  : — 

(1)  Hysteria. 

(A)  Grande  Hyst6rie,  or  Hystero-EpUepsy,  and.  the  conditions 
which  sometinus  persist  after  the  convulsive  attacJcs  have 
disappeared,  e.g.  paralyses,  contractures^  spasms^  anttsthesia:, 
amauroses,  etc. 

The  following  example  is  from  my  own  practice  : — 
No.  1.  Miss ,   aged    19.  June,    1900.      A   tall,  well- 
developed   Italian  girl,  educated  and  highly  intelligent     Mother 
suffered   from   hysteria.      The   patient   had   her   first   hysterical 


I 


be 

1 


I 


I 


attack  io  November,  1894,  after  overworkiug  for  an  examination. 
This  was  pi-eceded  by  headaches  and  boisterous  lauyliter :  then 
muscular  twitchings,  at  first  confined  to  the  shoulders,  appeared. 
Soon  these  movements  became  more  violent  and  generalised,  and 
alternated  with  various  musculax-  coutractures :  the  latter  some- 
times affected  the  jaws,  and  the  teeth  became  firmly  clenched. 
This  condition  lasted  till  May,  1895,  then  disappeared  after  a 
short  hypnotic  treatmeut. 

In  July,  1896,  clonic  spasms  reappeared  during  sleep.  In 
September,  1896,  she  came  to  England  to  teueli  in  a  High  School ; 
and  shortly  afterwards  began  to  liave  spasms  in  the  daytime.  At 
first  these  aU'ected  tlio  left  side  only,  then  practically  all  the 
voluntary  muscles.     From  the  latter  date,  until  December,  1899, 

the  patient  was  hypuotise^i  by  Dr. at  irregular  intervals. 

At  first  the  attacks  ceased  after  one  or  two  sittings,  but  the 
longest  remission  was  only  eleven  weeks,  and  they  frequently 
returned  at  the  end  of  a  few  days.  By  degrees  the  treatment 
lost  its  intluence :  the  spasms  became  more  violent  and  severe,  a 
contracture  of  the  left  leg  appeai-ed,  and  the  patient  coidd  only 
limp  a  few  steps.  She  suftcred  much  from  headache,  was 
extremely  emotional,  often  depressed,  had  morbid  ideas  and 
frequent  attacks  of  hysterical  laughter  and  weeping. 

In  December,  1899,  hypnotic  treatment  was  discontinued, 
and  the  patient  consulted  a  well-known  neurologist  At  first  she 
was  placed  in  a  medical  man's  house ;  but,  as  her  condition  grew 
worse,  she  was  removed  in  two  montlis,  and  admitted  us  a  con- 
tributing patient  to  the  National  Hospital,  Queen's  Square,  Blooms- 
bur)'.  There  she  was  treated  by  isolation,  rest  in  bed,  and  hot 
baths.  Blisters  were  also  applied  in  order  to  render  the  move- 
ments painful  Later,  large  doses  of  hyoscine,  chloral,  bromide, 
etc.,  were  given,  and  tlie  patient  kept  in  a  ntore  or  less  narcotised 
condition  for  weeks.  Despite  this,  the  twitchings,  convulsions, 
and  contracture  of  the  leg  increased  in  severity,  and  she  was  dis- 
charged on  June  18th,  1900,  much  worse  than  when  she  entered. 

She  was  then  brought  to  me  by  Dr.  Sainabury,  and  I  began 
hypnotic  treatment  the  following  day.  At  that  time,  except 
during  sleep,  the  patient  had  constant  jerking  movements  of  the 
left  side,  involving  the  face,  arm,  leg  and  trunk,  while  the  head 
was  drawn  violently  to  the  left.  She  had  also  frequent  attacks — 
sometimes  ten  or  twelve  a  day — of  the  true  Salp^tri^re  type  of 


gra-ixde  hysi^^k.  After  violeut  generalised  couvulsions  lasting 
several  minutes,  tlie  head  was  drawn  backwards  towards  the 
heels  {arc  de  cercle),  and  the  face  became  cyauosed ;  then,  after 
much  abdominal  gurgling,  the  spasm  relaxed,  the  attack  ceased, 
and  the  unilateral  muscular  movements  recommenced.  She 
never  lost  consciousness,  and  the  seizures  were  not  followed  hy 
amnesia  ;  there  were  no  signs  of  organic  disease. 

For  the  firat  fortnight,  every  time  I  tried  to  hypnotise  the 
patient  she  had  a  convulsive  attack,  but,  despite  this,  I  made 
suggestions  in  the  usual  way.  She  then  gradually  became  quieter, 
and  a  week  later  the  morbid  sjTiiptoms  disappeared.  The  treat- 
ment, however,  was  continued  until  July  31st ;  bnt  neither  during 
that  time  nor  aftei-wards  were  any  drugs  given. 

On  September  20th,  1900,  she  returned  to  work,  and  from 
then  up  to  the  last  report  (May,  190:i)  there  had  been  no 
relapse.  She  has  gained  in  weight,  is  strong,  and  plays  hockey 
and  other  outdoor  games.  She  has  become  pi-ogressively  less 
and  less  emotional ;  has  lost  the  morbid  ideas  that  used  to  haunt 
her,  and  ccuised  to  worry  over  trifles.  Since  July,  1900,  there 
has  been  no  treatment,  hypnotic  or  other. 

In  several  other  somewhat  similar  cases  equally  good  restdts 
were  obtained.  In  one  of  these,  the  patient  had  frequent  attacks 
of  generalised  convulsions,  invariably  followed  by  amnesia.  She 
also  suffered  from  storms  of  neuralgic  pain  :  these  occurred  several 
times  a  day,  and  were  absolutely  sudden  in  their  appearance  and 
termination. 

In  another  case  the  patient  had  attacks  of  convulsions,  followed 
by  generalised  catalepsy.  During  the  latter  condition,  which 
frequently  lasted  for  several  hours,  the  patient  was  apparently 
imconscious,  and  insensible  to  external  stimuli  In  both  cases 
recover)'  followed  hypnotic  treatment,  and  there  was  no  relapse. 

Successful  cases  were  reported  by  the  older  writers,  amongst 
the  most  interesting  being  one  of  Klliotson's : — The  patient  had 
suffered  from  convulsive  attacks  of  hystero  -  epilepsy  for  nine 
years,  and  also  during  the  same  period  from  a  contracture  of  one 
leg.  She  had  passed  twenty-two  months  in  different  hospitals 
without  improvement,  hut  recovered  quickly  under  Elliotsou's 
care,  and  had  not  relapsed  three  years  later. 

Tlie  following  are  more  recent  examples  :— 

No.  2  (Krafll-Ebing).  Miss  ,  aged  13,  had  always  been 

nervous,  excitable,  and  bad-tempered.     From  the  age  of  six  she 


I 
I 

I 
I 

I 


HYPNOTISM  IN  aMEDICINE 


i8i 


BJU 


had  had  hysterical  symptoms,  including  nocturnal  terrors,  sleep- 
walking,  etc.      In   July,   1890,  she  had  an  attack  of   hystero- 
ipilepsy,  which  lasted  three  hours :  then  fourteen  days'  delirium, 
followed  by  amnesia.     From  that  date  the   ordinary   hysterical 
symptoms  became  worse ;  the  convulsive  attacks  soon  averaged 
two  a  day,  and  consisted  of  generalised  convulsions,  arc  de  eerde, 
nds  monvements,  etc.,  followed  by  delirium.    Hypnotic  treatment 
as  begun  about  the  middle  of  October,  1890,  and  in  a  month 
the  patient  was  well.    Two  years  later  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

No.  3  (Wetterstrand).  Mrs. ,  aged  3t),  had  suffered   for 

eight  years  from  attacks  of  hysterical  convulsions,  associated  with 
dysmenorrhoea,  menorrhagia,  hicmatemesis,  and  hemi-an»esthesia. 
No  organic  disease  had  been  detected.  The  patient  improved 
under  ordinary  hypnotic  treatment,  and  recovered  completely 
titer  ten  days'  "  prolonged  sleep." 

No.  4  (Dr.  Tatzel,  of  Essen  on  the  Ruhr,  Germany' ).  Mrs. , 


32.  March  24th,  1894,  was  confined  in  duly,  1892,  and  six 
eeks  later  began  to  suGTer  from  hysterical  convulsions.  Her 
previous  health  had  been  good.  The  attacks  always  began  with 
a  loud  scitiam,  followed  by  muscular  twitchiiigs  and  convulsions  : 
^ktm  awaking  the  patient  remembered  nothing,  but  felt  ill  and 
depressed  all  the  folhiwing  day.  She  had  lost  flesh,  suffered  from 
constipjition,  want  of  appetite,  and  palpitation ;  she  had  also 
become  sullen,  indolent,  parsimonious,  and  careless  in  dress  and 
appearance.  Complete  recovery  followed  hypnotic  treatment 
Eiiually  successful  cases  are  reported  by  Bernheim,  Krafift- 
bing,  Stembo  and  many  other  Continental  observers.  Berillon, 
who  for  three  years  watched  Dnmontpalliers  cjises  of  grande 
hysUnc  at  the  Pitie  Hospital,  stated  that  most  of  the  patients 
recovered  completely  and  were  then  in  good  health  —  some 
married  and  mothers  of  families,  others  occupying  responsible 
business  positions. 

{B)  Monosymptomatic  Hysteria  ;  MtniapUgia,  MiUism,  Aphonia, 
Hi^ougk,  Blepharospasm,  Discromalopsia,  etc 

The  following  cases  are  from  my  own  practice : — 

No.  ^.Aphovia. — Miss .aged  55,  June,  1899, had  suffered 

luring  childhood  from  "  broken  chilblains,"     In  1888,  she  showed 

'  Now  of  Uuoich. 


I 


until istak able  symptoms  of  Pa'naud's  disftase :  the  third  finger  of 
the  rijjht  hand  beuime  conti"acled  aud  gangrenous,  mul  had  to  l>e 
amputated.  Later  all  the  6nger8  and  toes  became  more  or  less 
contracted,  reudering  further  amputations  necessarj' — the  last, 
that  of  the  left  great  toe,  Iiaving  taken  place  a  few  weeks  before 
she  consulted  me  in  1809. 

The  patient  had  lost  her  voice  early  in  1807;  but  physical 
examination  revealed  notliing  abnormal,  aud  galvanic  and  other 
treatment  had  produced  no  result. 

She  was  then  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Stepheu  Paget,  on  account 
of  her  aphonia,  aud  first  hypnotised  on  -hme  22nd,  1399:  a 
fortnight  later  the  voice  commenced  to  improve,  aud  was  uomml  fl 
by  the  end  of  July,  when  treatment  Wiis  discontinued.  In  Jauuary 
1903,  she  reported  that  there  hud  been  no  reUpse,  de^ipitu  the  fact 
that  she  had  been  very  ill  from  her  other  ner\'ous  trouble.  fl 

No.  6.  SiiiffuHm. — Mrs. .aged  49,  April  1895.     Father  ™ 

died  insane.  Ttie  patient  had  BuHered  for  many  yeare  from 
dyspepsia,  constipation,  depression,  neurasthenic  fears,  etc.  Uuring 
the  last  six  years  there  had  lieen  frequent  attacks  of  spinal 
neuralgia,  and  she  had  rarely  slept  without  narcotics.  Severe 
menorrliagia  from  1890  to  1894,  when  the  catamenia  ceased. 
In  1892,  she  was  found  to  have  a  large  uterine  fibroid.  In 
August,  1892,  violent  attacks  of  hiccough  commenced,  and  soon 
only  ceased  during  sleep.  There  were  also  frequent  exacerbations 
of  a  convulsive  character,  which  sometimes  lasted  for  hours  and 
left  the  patient  exhausted. 

After  prolonged  treatment  by  dniggiiig,  galvanism,  etc.,  the 
patient  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  de  Watteville.  I  first  tried  to 
hypnotise  her  in  April,  1895,  but  only  succeeded  in  the  following 
December  after  eighty-five  failures ;  my  efforts  till  then  being 
frustrated  by  the  constant  attacks  of  hiccough  which  distracttKl 
her  attention.  There  was  progi-essivc  improvement  from  the 
latter  date  :  at  first  the  attacks  only  ceased  while  the  patient  was 
being  hypnotised ;  tlien  they  stopped  when  she  came  into  the 
consulting-room.  Later  the  same  thing  happened  when  she  came 
into  the  waiting-i-oc»m ;  then  preparing  to  visit  me  would  be  the 
signal  for  the  hiccough  to  cease.  The  attacks  entirely  disappeared 
a  mouth  after  the  first  induction  of  hypnosis,  and  treatment  was 
abandoned.  Up  to  the  last  report  (1902)  there  had  been  no 
relapse. 


I 


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No.  7.  Mnscnlar  Tremor, — Miss .  aged   19,  September, 

1895.  Good  family  historj-.  The  patient  hacl  suffered  firoiu 
obstinate  constipation  since  infancy,  and  menstruation,  which 
began  at  11  years  of  age,  had  alwaj'S  been  painful  With  these 
exceptions  her  health  had  been  good  up  to  fifteen  months  previously, 
and  she  had  had  no  hysterical  symptoms  of  any  kind.  Then, 
after  over-exertion  and  mental  strain,  violent  muscular  tremor  of 
the  right  arm  and  hand  commenced.  This  only  ceased  during 
sleep,  and  soon  spread  to  the  right  leg,  and  then  to  the  left  arm 
and  leg.  Walking  was  difficult  and  painful,  and  latterly  she  could 
hardly  cro&s  a  room :  she  also  complained  of  constant  diflused 
headache.  From  the  beginning  of  her  illness,  if  she  looked  at  a 
bright  object — especially  anything  blue — everything  appeared  of 
that  colour.  This  impression  persi3te<i  for  about  an  hour,  while 
its  disappearance  was  always  sudden  and  accompanied  by  a  feeling 
of  faintness.  After  electricity,  massage,  careful  drugging,  and 
chauge  of  air  luid  been  tried — all  with  negative  results — the 
patient  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  de  Watteville. 

Hypnosis  was  induced  at  the  first  attempt  on  September  2nd, 

1895,  and  followed  by  inmiediate  improvement ;  in  a  month  the 
patient  was  well  and  retume«l  to  work.  Three  mouths  later  there 
ha<l  been  no  relapse ;  the  bowels  were  regular,  and  menstruation 
painless.  On  several  occasions,  she  had  ridden  over  fifty  miles  a 
day  on  a  hea\')'  tricycle  without  undue  fatigue,  and  had  gained 
over  a  atone  in  weight.  She  married  shortly  afterwards,  and,  at 
the  date  of  the  last  report  (1901),  was  a  strong,  healthy,  well- 
developed  woman  and  the  mother  of  two  children.  There  had 
been  no  relapee. 

No.   8.   Catalepsy. — Mias  ,  aged   28,  dressmaker,   was 

admitted  to  the  National  Hospital,  Queen's  Square,  August  5th, 
1896  (Dr.  Gowers'  Wards),  and  1  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Stewart, 
House  Physician,  for  the  following  notes : — 

"  For  the  last  ten  years  the  patient  had  suQered  from  sickness 
after  food,  and  pain  in  the  abdomen.  Used  to  sjut  up  blood  in 
small  quantities,  but  no  congh,  wasting,  or  ni;^ht  sweats.  Said  she 
had  coffee-ground  vomit  followed  by  tarry  motions.     Since  January, 

1896,  she  had  also  had  pain  in  back  and  attacks  of  stiffness. 
"On  admission. — A   well -nourished,  but   pale,  anaemic  girl. 

Intelligent  No  motor  or  sensory  paralysis.  No  ana^thesia. 
Organic  reflexes   normal  —  plantars  present,  erector  spin*  in- 


creased.  Jaw,  biceps,  and  wrist  jerks  present.  No  aukle  clonus. 
Cranial  nerA'ea  normal.  Some  ovarian  and  epif^astric  tender- 
ness. Chest  normal.  Visual  fields,  pupils,  and  discs  normal. 
Has  had  attacks  of  rigidity ;  several  a  day,  sometimes  lasting 
twelve  hours.  These  come  on  suddenly,  painlessly,  and  without 
warning.  Spasm  first  affects  legs  and  feet.  Legs  become  stiff, 
knees  extended ;  ankles  extended  and  toes  stiflly  Hexed.  Spasm 
is  most  marked  in  extensor  and  adductor  nmscles  of  leg;  but  all 
muscles  are  rigid  Pulling  on  one  foot  pulls  the  other  over  too, 
as  if  glued  to  iU  When  trunk  becomes  rigid,  the  whole  body  is 
like  a  bar  of  iron  and  can  be  lifted  up  by  one  foot.  Abdominal 
muscles  hard,  respiration  shallow  and  back  muscles  rigid.  When 
the  arms  are  affected,  they  are  stiffly  extended  parallel  to  the 
body;  the  fingers  Hexed  at  metacarpo-,phalangeaI  joints,  but 
extended  at  others  ;  the  thumbs  adducted  and  wrists  stiflly  Hexed. 
Face  sometimes  stiff,  jaws  firmly  clenched  and  unable  to  be 
separated :  speech  impossible ;  no  risus  siirclonicus ;  expression 
impassive.     Eyes  not  affected.     Neck  stiff  and  extended. 

"November  23rd,  1896.  Numerous  observations  have  shuwn 
that  there  are  two  hyaterogenetic  spots — (1)  Interscapular  region 
of  spine:  (2)  Lumbar  spine  : — pressure  on  these  induces  an  attack. 
Attacks  can  be  relieved  by  application  of  faradic  brush  to  external 
malleoli  in  turn ;  fii-st  one  leg  and  then  the  other  becoming 
relaxed.  The  duration  of  the  attack  varies  from  a  few  minutes 
to  several  houra;  afterwards  the  patient  perspires  a  good  deal 
about  the  hands  and  feet,  and  feels  tired.  After  a  severe  attack, 
when  the  face  has  been  involved,  she  usually  vomits  also. 

"December  8th,  1896.  Patient  has  had  several  attacks  of 
ur^jont  vomiting,  apparently  causeless,  with  severe  pain,  necessi- 
tating recUil  feeding  by  peptonised  enemata. 

"January  liOth,  1897.  Patient  has  been  getting  steadily 
worse  ;  attacks  have  increased  in  frequency  and  severity ;  she  is 
rigid  nearly  all  day  and  occasiouidly  wakes  up  rigid  during  the 
night 

"  Yesterday  I  (Dr.  Stewart)  induced  stiffness  of  legs  experi- 
mentally by  rubbing  lumbar  region,  and  stifliiess  of  shoulders  and 
arms  by  rubbing  interscapular  rej^don.  Patieut  lay  with  trunk, 
legs,  and  tliighs  rigidly  extended ;  toes  pointx^d  aud  arms  parallel 
to  body.  She  could  be  lifted  by  head  and  heels  like  a  log ;  the 
face  was  rigid;  and  she  could  neither  speak,  smile,  protude  her 


¥ 


ugue,  nor  move  her  facial  muscles.  The  eyes,  however,  could 
moved  freely  in  all  directions,  and  the  eyelids  could  be  opened 
d  closed.  Temperature  before,  during,  and  after  this  attack 
waa  98*2.  Rigidity  of  arms,  neck,  and  face  passed  off  when  hands 
were  rubbed,  but  that  of  the  trunk  and  lower  extremities  required 
application  of  furadic  brush  to  external  malleoli  one  after  the  other. 

"On    January   26th,  Dr.   Bramwell    saw    the    patient    and 
immenced  hypnotic  treatment" 

On  March  4th,  Dr.  St«wart,  in  forwarding  me  the  above 
notes,  congratulated  me  on  the  result,  wliich  he  said  had  been 
very  satisfactory. 

[  Renuirks, — I  saw  the  patient  on  sixteen  occasions  from 
Januar}'  26th  to  March  4th,  1897.  At  first  I  visited  her  at 
the  liospitnl :  slie  was  suspicious  and  evidently  dreaded  some 
disagreeable  experiment,  and  I  failed  to  influence  her,  despite  the 
fact  that  on  several  occasions  suggestions  were  made  during 
chloroform  uarcoais.  Later  she  was  brought  r^ularly  to  my 
louse,  where  I  showed  her  others  who  had  been  hypnotised,  and 
thus  gained  lier  confidence.  From  that  time  she  improved 
ntpidly,  and  before  the  treatment  ceased  the  attacks  Iiad  dis- 
appeared.    Her  recovery  was  confirmed  by  a  later  report 

No.   9.    Mvscvlar  ^paanu — Miss   ,  aged   26,  July   3rd, 

1900,  although  always  nervous  and  never  very  strong,  had  fair 
health  up  to  1897,  when,  after  a  severe  mental  shock,  she  began 
to  have  muscular  spasms  in  the  arms.  These  soon  spread  to  the 
legs,  and  a  few  weeks  later  practically  all  tlie  voluntary  muscles 
the  body  became  affected — the  movements  hai-dly  ceasing  a 
moment  while  the  patient  was  awake.  The  attacks  were  very 
irregular  in  character :  at  one  moment  the  flexors  and  extensors 
of  the  arm  were  afTected,  when  the  patient  struck  out  with 
startling  rapidity — hitting  those  near  her,  or  any  inanimate 
object  that  happened  to  be  within  range  of  the  blow.  A 
moment  afterwards  the  legs  would  be  similarly  affected ;  the 
head  violently  jerked,  or  the  muscles  of  the  face  convulsively 
twitched  Slie  was  cut  and  bruised  from  her  involuntary 
iolence,  complained  greatly  of  headache,  and  was  anu'iiiic  and 
'eeble.  She  c^uld  not  walk  without  assistance,  and  was  unable 
to  dress  or  feed  herself.  Attacks  of  muscular  spasm  frequently 
urred  during  sleep,  and  invariably  awoke  her. 

The   patient  was  sent    to   me    by    Dr.    l^old    Williams,    of 


Llandudno,  on  July  l-^rd,  1900.  Hypnosis  was  induced  at  l 
first  attempt  and  slie  l^;j;an  to  improve ;  but  a  week  later, 
although  the  hypnosis  had  become  profound,  the  attacks  still 
continued.  For  a  few  minutes  she  would  rest  quietly  as  if  asleep, 
and  then  convulsive  movements  ajipenred  :  if  slight  they  did  not 
arouse  her,  but  if  severe,  she  came  out  of  the  hypnotic  state  with 
a  start  and  looked  confused.  When  this  happened  1  rehypnotised 
her,  repeating;  the  process  until  she  had  had  at  least  half  au 
hour's  continuous  rest.  At  the  end  of  three  weeks  the  attacks 
ceased,  and  treatment  was  abandoned.  She  walked  and  slept 
well,  had  no  ditliculty  in  dressing  or  feeding  herself,  and  her 
general  health  had  greatly  improved.  Up  to  the  last  report 
(April,  1903)  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

Na  10.  Mr. ,  aged  39,  May.   1902,  had  done  twelve 

years'  service  in  the  Koyal  Navy.  Ko  bad  marks ;  nil  entries 
"very  good."  Good  service  medal  In  June,  189.'1,  he  was 
Ship's  Corporal  on  H.M.S.  Victoria  under  Aduural  Tryou» 
when  she  was  rammed  and  sunk  by  the  Camperdown, 

When  tlie  ship  was  sinking  it  was  his  duty  to  go  below  and 
release  the  prisoners.  Tliis  he  did,  then  went  down  to  the 
battery-deck  to  see  if  the  ports  were  closed.  While  there  the 
ship  sank  and  carried  him  with  her. 

He  thinks  the  subsequent  explosion  blew  him  to  the  surface. 
He  was  picked  up  unconscious  by  cue  of  the  boats,  and  taken 
on  board  H.M.S.  Nile.  After  prolonged  artificial  respiration, 
he  bad  au  attack  of  noisy  delirium,  followed  by  seventeen 
hours'  further  unconsciousness.  Immediately  afterwards  violent 
generalised  muscular  tremor  appcnicil.  This  was  constant,  except 
daring  sleep,  and  was  aggravated  it*  any  one  approached  him.  He 
could  do  nothing  for  himself,  and  had  to  be  fed  through  a  bent 
tube,  which  extended  from  the  back  of  his  head  to  liis  mouth. 
The  attendant,  who  had  to  stand  behind  so  as  not  to  be  seen, 
poured  liquid  nourishment  into  one  end  of  the  tube,  whUe  the 
patient,  with  much  ditticulty.  took  it  from  the  other  end. 

Three  days  later  he  entered  Malta  Hospital,  where  lie  stayed 
a  month.  He  was  then  sent  to  the  Naval  Hospital  at  Haalar, 
where  he  remained  until  October  3rd,  1 893.  when  he  was  invali<led 
and  sent  home.  During  the  lirat  year  after  his  accident  he  was 
stated  to  have  had  four  "  epileptic  fits,"  but  from  the  description  I 
have   been   able   to  obtain,  it  seems   probable   that   these  were 


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att&cktf  of  catalepsy.  Marked  muscular  tremor  continued  for  i\ 
year,  then  gradually  became  less  violent  and  Hnally  almost  ceased. 
The  most  striking  and  persistent  feature  in  the  cnse  was  difficulty 
in  walking.  This  showed  itself  from  the  beginning :  at  first  the 
patient  could  walk  a  step  or  two  alone,  but  if  any  one  came  near 
him,  he  fell  suddenly  on  his  back.  After  leaving  hospital  this 
symptom  became  more  pronounceil,  and  he  only  left  his  bed  to 
be   helped   into   a   chair.     He  could  stand,  however,  and  move 

f  about  a  little,  by  holding  the  chair  and  pushing  it  in  front  of 
him.  Aftor  being  kept  on  as  invalided,  from  year  to  year  for  four 
years,  he  was  tinnlly  pensioned  off  as  incurable. 

On  May  8th,  1902,  he  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Koome  of 
Southsea.  The  patient  told  me  that  he  had  never  known  what 
sickness  was  until  his  accident.  He  now  complained  of  notliing 
but  his  inability  to  walk :  his  general  health  was  excellent, 
and  he  never  felt  ill  or  depressed.  He  was  powerfully  built  and 
strong  in  the  arms,  but  the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities  were 
markedly  wasted  and  flabby,  and  the  pulse  weak.  Beflexes  much 
ex^gerated ;  the  sli^^htest  touch  over  the  palella  j^roduced  a 
violent  convulsive  kick.  Further,  any  muscular  stimulus,  particu- 
Uriy  if  unexpected,  produced  an  immediate  response.  For 
example,  if  his  foot  touched  an  inequality  in  the  bedclothes,  he 
would  Imj  almost  thrown  out  of  bed  by  the  violence  of  the 
muscular  start 

His  walking  was  still  limited  to  moving  a  little  about  his 
room,  with  tlie  aid  ot  a  chair.  Anything  beyond  this  was 
followed  by  a  fall.  At  first  the  exciting  cause  was  mainly 
etnotional :  he  fell  if  any  one  came  near  him.  Later,  he  fell  if 
he  attempted  to  walk  with  the  assistance  of  another  person :  if 
he  encountered  the  slightest  inequality  in  the  ground  he  tumbled, 
and  dragged  his  companion  with  him.  This  did  not  occur 
because  his  legs  failed  him ;  his  fall  seemed  always  due  to  a 
distorted  or  exaggerated  retlex.  The  slightest  unexpected  stimulus 
to  the  soles  of  the  feet  was  followed  by  a  convulsive  response, 
when  he  fell  rigidly  and  violently  on  the  back  of  his  head. 
Beyond  this  I  could  discover  nothing  abnormal.  There  was  no 
paralysis,  no  loss  of  consciousness,  and  no  alterations  in  sensation 
other  than  those  just  described. 

I  began  hypnotic  treatment  on  May  Sth.  and  continued  it 

^five   times   a   week    until   July    24th,   1902,  when  the  patient 


iS8 


NYPNOTISAf 


returned  to  Portsmouth.  Hypnosis,  in  the  sense  in  which  I 
understand  it,  was  never  induced.  Apparently  nothing  was  done 
beyond  making  "  curative  suggestions,"  while  the  patient  rested 
quietly  in  an  arm-chair :  he  never  even  became  drowsy.  Despite 
tliis,  the  result  was  striking.  In  a  week  he  could  cross  his  room ; 
and,  after  the  first  month,  he  spent  liours  at  a  time  walking  about 
the  streets  and  parks.  He  even  went  into  crowds  without  fear  or 
tremor,  and  saw  the  various  military  reviews,  etc.,  which  were 
held  at  that  time. 

After  returning  home  he  wrote  to  complain  that  he  felt 
nervous  and  depressed ;  he  also  stated  that  he  had  fallen  while 
walking.  On  February  2nd,  1903,  he  returned  for  four  days' 
further  treatment.  He  told  me  that  his  ner^'ousne8s  had  passed 
off.  and  that  he  had  several  times  walked  oa  much  as  fourteen 
uiilea  in  one  day.  He  had  tumbled  down  on  four  occasions :  the 
character  of  these  accidents,  however,  differed  from  the  earlier 
ones.  Now,  instead  of  falling  rigidly  Utckwards,  his  legs  gave 
way  and  he  slipped  down — somewhat  in  a  sitting  fashion.  There 
had  been  no  return  of  muscular  tremor,  but  there  was  still  a 
certain  amount  of  timidity  and  difficulty  in  walking.  This, 
however,  was  confine<l  almost  solely  to  mounting  steps,  and  such- 
like obstacles.  On  February  5th,  I  took  the  patient  to  see  Dr. 
de  AVatteville,  who  thought  that,  from  the  absence  of  emotional 
symptoms,  one  might  almost  call  the  case  one  of  iMisettlar 
hysteria.  As  the  patellar  reflex  was  now  distinctly  below  •normal. 
and  the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities  still  flabby,  he  suggesteti 
giving  glycerophosphates,  with  5 -drop  doses  of  liqour  strychninse. 
This  was  done  and  the  patient  returned  home.  Ljiter  reports 
satisfactory. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that,  although  the  patient  responded 
to  suggestion  in  this  instance,  ordinary  medical  treatment  associ- 
ated with  self-suggestion  had  entirely  failed.  He  had  had  the 
fixed  idea  that  a  certain  medical  man  could  cure  him,  and,  as 
suon  as  he  left  hospital,  had  placed  himself  under  Ids  care ;  but 
despite  his  faith,  he  had  received  no  benefit.  From  that  date 
he  had  been  ahnust  contijiuously  under  treatment,  and  had  con- 
sulted in  all  nineteen  difTereut  medical  men. 

Many  other  successful  oases,  including  all  the  various  forms 
of  hysteria  comprised  in  this  section,  have  been  rejxjrted  by 
Continental  observers.     Of  tliese  the  fuUowing  are  examples : — 


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HYPNOTISM  IN  MEDICINE 


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Fct 


No.  11    (Dr.   A.  Gros,  France).    Hysterical  I'aralysu. — Miss 

— ,  aged  30,  had  always  been  eniotional,  but  hysterical 
feymptoms  only  commenced  at  the  age  of  16.  At  18,  convulsive 
attacks  appeared ;  these  soon  became  frequent  and  severe,  and 
were  associated  with  boulimia  and  persistent  spinal  neuralgia. 
In  October,  1894.  the  patient  suddenly  fell  while  walking  and 
had  to  be  carried  home.  Despite  baths,  electricity,  and  careful 
drugging,  the  paralysis  and  otlier  hysterical  symptoms  were  still 
unrelieved  in  September,  1897.  The  patient  was  then  hypnotised 
and  recovered  in  a  week.     Xo  relapse. 

No.  12  (B^rillon).    Hystctncal   Paralysis. — Miss  ,  aged 

40,  May,  1890,  had  an  attack  of  hysterical  convulsions  at  the 
age  of  31  ;  this  was  followed  by  jiai-alysis  of  the  lower  extremities, 
and  she  had  been  confined  to  her  hed  ever  since — a  period  of 
nine  years.     Itecovered  after  a  short  hypnotic  treatment. 

No.    13    ( B^rillon).    Apha  nia,  tU. — Miss    ,    aged    2  2 . 

Previous  health  good ;  no  family  history  of  hysteria.  In  July, 
1886,  after  having  spoken  louder  than  usual  when  teaching,  her 
voice  became  hoarse,  then  disappeared ;  a  few  days  later  the 
aphonia  passed  into  mutism.  Physical  examination  gave  negative 
results,  and  there  was  no  improvement  from  galvanism  of  the 
chords  and  other  treatment.  She  recovered  after  the  fii-st 
hypnotic  sitting,  but  relapsed  five  months  later.  The  voice 
returned,  however,  after  a  single  rehypnotisation ;  and  two  years 
later  there  had  been  no  further  relapse. 

No.   14  (Dr.  Burot,  of  Rochefort).    Singultus. — Mrs.  , 

'tiged  58,  September,  1888,  hod  suffered  for  many  years  from 
mif^iue,  and  hysterical  weeping  accompanied  by  muscular  tremor. 
In  April,  1888,  she  had  her  tirst  attack  of  hiccough,  followed  a 
fortnight  later  by  another  at  the  same  horn*.  Soon  the  attacks 
became  continuous,  were  accompanied  by  retching  and  vomiting, 
and  only  ceased  during  sleep.  Kecovcred  after  two  hypnotic 
sittings :  nine  months  later  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

No.    15   (B^Jrillon).   BlcpJiarospasm. — Miss    ,  aged   20, 

rch,  1889.  Family  histor>'  of  phthisis  and  hysteria.  In 
cbruaiy,  1888,  after  mental  shock,  incessant  convulsive  twitching 
of  the  left  eyelid  appeared,  followed  three  days  later  by  complete 
blepharospasm :  this  had  remained  unrelieved  ever  since,  despite 
constant  and  varied  treatment.  The  spasm  disappeared  after  the 
t  hypnotic  sitting,  and  a  year  later  there  had  been  no  relapse. 


Na  16  (Dr.  Lemoine,  of  Lille).  Hysterical  Tremor  simulatiiig 

Paralysis  agitaiis. — Mr.  — ■,  aged  57,  began  to  have  muacultir 

tremor  of  the  right  arm  after  a  mental  shock  at  the  age  of  30.  This 
soon  spread  to  the  right  leg,  and  later  tlie  left  aide  was  also 
iiCfecttd ;  the  tremor  continued  during  repose  and  was  increased 
by  every  attempt  at  voluntary  movement.  He  also  suffered  from 
frequent  headaches,  and  had  anipsthetic  patches  on  the  right  arm. 
After  six  days'  hypnotic  treatment,  the  tremor,  whicli  had  lasted 
twenty-one  years,  entirely  disappeared.     No  relapse. 

No.   17   (Tatzel).   Clonic   Torticollis. — Mr.   ,   aged   44, 

May,  1894,  government  official,  had  good  liwUth  up  to  1890, 
when  he  commenced  to  have  pain  in  the  right  side  of  the  neck. 
This  was  soon  followed  by  constant  clonic  spasm  of  the  muscles 
of  the  right  side  of  the  face  and  neck.  The  head  was  constantly 
drawn  backwards,  with  such  force  that  the  resulting  friction 
against  the  collar  had  rubbed  off  much  of  his  liair.  He  was  un- 
able to  dress  or  undress  himself:  breathing  was  difficult  and 
eating  painful.  As  he  did  not  improve,  he  went  into  the  hospital 
at  Bonn  in  May,  1891,  and  remained  till  Septemlmr,  when  he 
was  discharged  as  inciirable.  From  that  time,  he  passed  through 
the  hands  of  several  medical  men  and  many  quacks,  trj'ing, 
amongst  other  things,  the  Kneipp  cure.  After  having  spent  all 
bis  money  in  this  way,  he  had  to  be  supported  by  the  parish  ; 
and  when  Tatzel  first  saw  him  (May,  1894)  he  was  a  broken- 
hearted, despondent  man,  who  only  ventured  out  after  dark,  and 
then  tried  to  control  the  muscular  spasms  by  holding  the  handle 
of  his  walking-stick  between  his  teeth.  Result:  after  several 
months*  hypnotic  treatment  the  spasms  entirely  ceased,  and  the 
patient  had  gatneil  fifty  pounds  in  weight.     No  relapse. 

No.    18   (van   Kenterghem).    Clonic  Muscular  Spasm^ — Mr. 

,   aged    42,   October,    1396.     Family    histoi-y    good.     The 

patient  was  supposed  to  have  had  meningitis  in  1S75,  and  suffered 
during  convalescence  from  clonic  spaj?ras  of  the  neck.  These 
soon  ceased,  however,  and  he  continued  in  good  health  until 
November,  1895,  when  some  of  Ids  cervical  glands  became 
inflamed.  He  recovered  from  this,  but  in  February,  1896,  began 
to  have  constant  and  violent  spasms  of  the  muscles  of  the  right 
side  of  the  neck.  Careful  drugging,  massage,  the  continued  and 
faradic  current,  and  prolonged  rest  in  bed  produced  no  improve- 
ment.    He  entered  the  Burgerziekenhuis  Hospital  on  May  28th, 


I 
I 

I 


I 


I 


» 


1896,  wliere  lioi  douches,  baths,  massnge,  etc.,  were  employed 
without  improvements  On  June  24th,  the  accessory  nerve  of 
Willis  was  stretched,  and  the  opemtioii  repeated  on  July  1st,  but 
■without  result.  On  August  11th,  the  liead  was  fixed  in  a 
mechanical  apparatus  aud  the  patient  discharged.  On  October 
4th,  when  the  spasms  were  as  violent  as  ever,  hypnotic  treatment 
was  commenced :  this  was  continued  for  Hvc  months  and  resulted 
iu  complete  recovery.     No  relapse. 

No.  19  (Dr.  Schoh  of  Bremen).  Panvmyoclonus  multiplex. — 

iliss  .aged   19,  healthy  aud  well  developed:  no  previoxw 

symptoms  of  hysteria.  Suddenly,  after  a  shock,  she  felt  intensely 
cold  and  all  her  limbs  trembled.  Tlie  same  evening  the  first 
paramyoclonic  attack  appeared :  there  were  short  rhythmic 
quiverings  of  the  muscles  of  both  upper  arms  and  shoulders — 
about  120  to  the  minute,  also  rhythmic  spasms  of  the  muscles  of 
the  eyelid. 

In  another  case,  also  reported  by  Dr.  Scholz,  there  were 
clonic  spasms  of  the  muscles  of  the  head,  neck,  trunk,  and 
_«xtremitie6.  resembling  violent  shivering  fits. 

Both  patients  rapidly  recovered  under  hypnotic  treatment, 
and  six  years  later  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

Dr.  Stadelmann  (Germany)  records  two  cases  of  severe 
generalised  muscular  spasm,  both  of  which  recovered  after  one 
hypnotic  sitting.  No  relapse.  Dr.  Curt  Schmidt,  of  Dresden, 
reported  a  case  of  supposed  ulcer  of  the  stomach,  with  sickness, 
loss  of  appetite,  abdominal  {>uin,  hysterical  twitching,  ncuralgiu, 
etc,  which  yielded  at  onc«  to  hypnotic  suggestion.  Dr.  Stembo, 
of  Wilna,  published  a  case  of  frequent  att^icks  of  sleep,  which 
occurred  several  times  a  day  and  sometimes  lasted  for  hours;  the 
patient  quickly  recovered  under  hypnotic  treatment  Successful 
cases  of  this  form  of  hysteria  are  also  reported  by  Bemheim, 
DumontpaUier  aud  many  others. 


{C)   The  variotts  Manifestations  of  ordinary  HyUeria — Dyspepsia^ 
Visceral  and  Mensirital  Trojthles,  etc. 

The  following  cases  are  from  my  own  practice : — 

No.  20.  Mre. .  aged  41,  March  20th.  1892.  had  always 

'  been  more  or  less  delicate.     Obstinate  constipation  since  infancy  ; 

'  this  had  been  worse  during  the  last  twelve  years,  the  minimum 


192 


HYPNOTISM 


interval  between  successive  actions  of  the  bowels  being  a  week. 
Chronic  dyspepsia,  auiemia,  and  emaciation.  Severe  dysmenorrha^a 
since  commencement  of  menstruation.  Married  twenty  years  :  no 
children,  sexual  desire  absent,  marked  dyspareunia.  Frequent 
attacks  of  depression  since  1882:  for  two  years  the  condition 
hod  practically  been  one  of  melancholia — she  liad  shunned  all 
society,  neglected  her  domestic  duties,  and  frequently  slnib  herself 
alone  in  her  bedroom  for  hours,  and  spent  the  time  in  crying. 
Insomnia  since  1889.  Sick-headache  since  childhood:  for  the 
last  twelve  years  these  attacks  had  been  more  frequent  and  severe, 
and  latterly  had  avei*aged  one  a  day — invariably  followed  by 
vomiting.  A.s  long  as  she  could  remember,  she  had  been  short' 
sighted ;  and  reading  and  working,  especially  by  artificial  light, 
soon  produced  headache. 

On  December  9th,  1889,  I  sent  her  to  see  the  late  Mr. 
Bendelack  Hewetson  (Ophthalmic  Sui^eon  to  the  Leeds  Infirmary), 
who  afterwards  supplied  me  with  tlie  following  notes  :  "  Mra.  -^^— 
complained  of  distressing  and  almost  constant  headaches,  with 
frequent  uerve-atorms  of  migraine.  She  had  persistent  pain  over 
the  eyes  and  at  the  back  of  ihe  head,  extending  down  the  neck ; 
the  roots  of  the  hair  were  tender.  She  read  '  Snellen's  '  ^j{  with 
the  right  eye  and  ^Jj  with  the  left  unaided,  but  required  a  —  g*^ 
to  enable  her  to  read  ^g  with  either  eye.  Ophthalmoscopic 
examination  showed  that  she  was  hypermetropic,  and  that  this 
condition  was  over -corrected  by  ciliary  spasm,  rendering  her 
virtually  myopic  and  necessitating  a  minus  glass." 

Mr,  Hewetaon  prescribed  atropine  for  a  month,  and  after- 
wards a  +  ^  glass  for  reading.  The  headaches  ceased  while  the 
atropine  was  used,  but  the  patient  said  the  glasses  hurt  her  and 
wovild  not  persevere  with  them,  and  the  headaches  soon  returned 
with  increased  violenca 

She  suffered  greatly  from  her  teeth,  of  which  she  bad  but 
twelve  left,  all  decayed.  She  was  anxious  to  have  them  extracted, 
but  was  afmid  to  face  a  dentist,  and  asked  me  to  have  the 
operation  {>erfornied  during  hypnotic  anscsthesia.  I  explained 
that  patients  suffering  from  hysteria  rarely  became  hypnotised 
deeply  enough  for  operative  purposes,  and  tried  to  persuade  her 
to  take  an  ordinary  anuesthetic.  As  she  refused  to  do  thiSi  I 
consented  to  the  experiment.  To  my  surprise,  before  I  had 
finished  my  usual  preliminary  explanations,  profound  hypnosis 


I 
I 

I 


^ 


I  Of 


appeared.  I  then  suggested  that  she  should  sleep  well,  be  free 
from  headache  and  depression ;  that  her  appetite  and  digestion 
shoiUd  he  good,  the  bowels  regular,  etc.,  etc.  I  also  successfully 
suggested  local  and  general  amvsthesia.  The  curative  suggestions 
were  quickly  responded  to:  she  slept  well,  her  headaches  dis- 
appeared, the  bowels  acted  regularly.  Menstruation  and  connection 
became  painless,  digestion  and  appetite  improved,  and  she  rapidly 
gained  in  weight  and  strength. 

The  tootliache  entirely  disappeared;  and,  owing  to  this  and 
other  reasons,  she  defen-ed  the  operation  for  some  time.  Mean- 
while, I  discovered  that  I  could  produce  profound  amusthesia  by 
suggestion  in  the  apparently  normal  waking  state.  On 
occasions,  the  patient  recognised  and  talked  with  those 
around  her,  and  afterwards  remembered  everything  that  had 
happened,  except  the  sensations  which  bad  been  specially  inhibited. 
The  teeth  were  ultimately  extracted  in  this  apparently  waking 
state,  and  the  account  of  the  operation  has  been  already  given 
(pp  168-9). 

Afterwards  Mr.  Bendelack  Hewetson  saw  the  patient  several 
times,  and  gave  me  the  following  notes : — 

"  Dr.  Bramwell  brought  Mrs.  to  .see  me  in  July.  1892. 

She  stated  that  she  had  had  no  headache  since  being  hypnotised 
on  March  20th,  1892.  She  was  a  new  creature  mentally  and 
physically — bright,  healthy-looking  and  well  nourished  ;  lonnerly 
she  had  been  a  burden  to  herself  and  her  friends.  On  examina- 
lon,  I  found  her  vision  in  every  way  as  defective  as  on  the  first 
occasion  I  had  seen  her.  Dr.  Hrarawell  then  suggested  to  her. 
in  what  was  apparently  the  normal  waking  state,  that  she  should 
be  able  to  read  the  bottom  line  of  'Snellen's'  unaided  by  glasses. 
This  she  did  successfully,  and  immediately  afterwards  repeated 
the  feat  on  a  chauge4l  series  of  test  types.  Obviously  Dr.  Brani- 
well  could  induce  his  patient  to  relax  her  accommodation,  and 
to  produce  the  same  improvement  of  vision  as  had  resulted  from 
a  minus  glass  Dr.  Ikamwell  then  suggested  that  tlie  increased 
range  of  vision  should  be  maintained,  and  that  the  patient  should 
continue  to  be  able  to  read  '  Snellen's '  Jg  unaided. 

"1  saw  her  again  on  October  26th,  1892,  when  she  stated 
tliat  she  had  remained  entirely  free  from  headache,  and  that  the 
increased  range  of  vision  had  been  maintained.  I  found  that 
r.  Bramwell,  by  suggestion  in  the  apparently  normal  waking 

0 


state,  could  enable  th(3  patieut  to  reproduce  the  ciliary  spaam 
and  the  original  condition  of  vision,  and  again  to  relax  the 
accommodation  niul  gain  the  increased  visual  range." 

On  June  yOtb,  1893,  Mr.  Hewetson  wrote  me  as  follows: — 

"  As  I  am  much  interested  iu  Mrs. 'a  case,  1  asked  her  to 

visit  me  in  ordtir  that  I  miglit  make  a  further  examination.  She 
came  to-day  looking  bright  and  well  nourished.  She  told  nie 
that  she  felt  well  in  every  way,  and  bad  bad  no  return  of  her  ■ 
headaches  or  other  nervous  sjTnptoms.  There  was  no  evidence 
of  ciliaiy  spasm,  although  she  had  been  using  her  eyes  very  much 
of  late  for  reading  and  hue  work.  She  never  wore  glasses,  and 
could  read  '  Snellen's '  jJJ  easily  with  either  eye." 

No.  21.  Miss ,  aged  3o,  April,  1893,  was  amemic  and 

emaciated,  and  had  suffered  all  her  life  from  insomnia :  since  an 
attack  of  influenza  in  1890,  she  had  only  averaged  three  hours' 
sleep  per  night.  Menstruation  commenced  at  13  years  of  age, 
and  had  always  been  painful  and  excessive.  Obstinate  constipa- 
tion since  1889.  During  the  last  three  years  she  had  had 
several  attacks  of  eczema  and  herpes,  the  latter  followed  by 
intercostal  neuralgia,  which  still  persisted :  she  also  suffered  from 
muscular  rheumatism,  was  nervoias,  irritable,  and  intolerant  of 
all  forms  of  noise. 

She  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Roe,  of  Peuryn,  on  April  15th, 
1R93.  Deep  hypnosis  was  easily  induced  at  the  first  attempt, 
and  it  was  suggested  that  she  should  sleep  all  night.  Two  days 
later,  she  told  me  that  the  nigbt  after  she  saw  me  she  bad  slept 
from  the  moment  she  had  put  her  head  upon  the  pillow  till  called 
the  following  morning,  a  thing  she  liad  never  done  before.  The 
next  night  was  equally  good.  I  rehypnotised  her,  and  suggested 
the  disappearance  (if  all  morbid  symptoms ;  but,  as  she  was 
obliged  to  leave  U>udon  next  day,  I  did  not  see  her  again  until 
March  5tb,  1894.  She  looked  well,  was  bright  and  cheerful, 
and  had  gained  over  a  stone  iti  weight.  Slie  was  entirely  free 
from  dysmenorrhtra,  con.stipation,  rheumatism  and  insomnia.  Up 
to  the  last  report  (1903)  there  had  been  no  relapee. 

No.  22.  Miss .  aged  20.  April  6th.  1894,  had  always 

slept  badly.  The  insomnia  varied,  but  according  to  her  mother's 
account,  she  had  not  had  a  good  night's  sleep  since  birtlu  At 
the  age  of  8,  pains  in  the  back,  particularly  in  the  lumbar  region, 
began ;  these  soon  became  couetant,  aud  were  aggravated  by  the 


^ 


slightest  exertion.  Since  1883,  there  had  Leen  frequent  attacks 
of  lieatiache ;  pain  usually  frontal,  sometimes  occipital — rarely 
followed  by  sickness.  Myopia  corrected  by  glasses.  Periods — 
always  painful  and  excessive — lasted  eight  or  nine  days,  and 
necesaitated  rest  in  bed.  Latterly  all  the  symptoms  had  been 
irorse;  she  was  never  free  from  pain,  always  felt  fatigued  and 
depi*essed,  while  even  a  short  walk  was  followeil  by  acute  suffering. 
She  had  had  prolonged  medical  treatment  without  benefit.  No 
organic  lesion  of  any  kind  had  been  discovered :  with  the  exception 
of  a  tendency  to  conical  cervix,  the  uterus  and  ovaries  were 
normal. 

She  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Boulting,  of  Hampscead,  on  April 
9th,  1894,  and  hj^nosis  was  easily  induced  at  the  first  attempt. 
This  was  repeated  sixteen  timerf  up  to  June  26th  ;  then  abandoned, 
OS  all  the  morbid  symptoms — menorrhagia  excepted — had  dis- 
appeared. 

Miss again  consulted  me  early  in  1896.     She  now  slept 

well,  was  free  from  headache  and  spinal  pain,  and  capable  of 
more  than  the  average  ansount  of  exertion.  The  periods  were 
painless ;  but,  as  the  nienorrhagia  still  persisted,  she  was 
hypnotised  twice  a  week  lor  three  months.  Result  nil  I  then 
decided  to  keep  her  in  the  hypnotic  state  during  a  period.  On 
Jime  1st,  1896^  she  entered  a  nursing  home,  where  she  was 
hypnotised  and  put  in  charge  of  a  nurse,  who  was  placed  m 
rapport  with  her.  Hypnosis  was  maintained  until  the  evening  of 
June  3nl,  when  she  was  aroused,  as  the  period  had  not  b^[un.  It 
did  so,  however,  during  the  night  of  tlie  7th.  She  was  rehypnotised 
on  the  morning  of  the  8th,  and  kept  in  the  hypnotic  trance  until 
the  12  th,  when  the  period  terminated  some  days  earlier  than 
lual.  Before  hypnosis  the  temperature  was  98*8^  During 
hypnosis  the  morning  and  evening  temperatui^  was  almost 
invariably  98'^ ;  on  two  occasions  the  evening  temperature  rose 
to  98'2^.  Before  hypnosis  the  pulse  was  80 ;  during  hypnosis 
it  varied  from  60  to  ti.^.  The  patient  was  fed  by  the  nurse  at 
stated  intervals  without  being  aroused,  and  the  action  of  the 
bowels  and  bladder  regulated  by  suggestion.  Since  then  the 
periods  have  been  normal  in  duration  and  amount;  and,  instead 
of  keeping  her  bed,  the  patient  has  been  able  to  cycle,  &c  No 
relapse  up  to  last  report  (1903). 

No.  23.  Miss .  aged  28,  July  1896.     Father  markedly 


neurotic;  two  brotliei-s  and  a  sister  had  uervous  breakdowjis, 
and  oue  brother,  aged  3S,  had  been  paralysed  for  seven  years. 
The  patient  had  good  health  up  to  September  12th,  1891,  when 
severe  pain  in  the  right  hip  and  leg  suddenly  appeared.  This 
lasted  two  years,  then  ceased,  only  to  reappear  ahuost  immediately 
in  the  left  le;L,^  During  the  first  two  years  of  iier  illness  she 
never  walked  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile ;  then  even  this  was 
abandoned,  and  she  took  to  a  bath-chair.  She  became  emaciated, 
suffered  from  insomnia,  constipation  and  headache,  lost  all  interest 
in  life,  and  would  not  even  read  a  novel. 

Treatment. — Rest  on  her  back  in  bed  for  two  months.  Weir 
Mitchell,  careful  drugging,  mas-sage,  electricity,  Imths  at  r)roitwich 
and  Bath.  Then,  under  the  advice  of  a  well-known  neurologist, 
Paqueliu's  cautery  to  leg;  70  applications  daily  from  July,  1895, 
to  May,  1896,  about  20,000  in  all.  Meanwhile,  she  grew 
steadily  worse,  and  was  finally  pronounced  incurable. 

Tlie  patient  then  consulted  Dr.  Kayniond  C'rawfurd,  who 
brought  her  to  me  on  July  18th,  1896.  I  at  once  began 
hypnotic  treatment,  and  repeated  it  daily  until  July  3l3t.  She 
slept  well  the  night  following  the  first  sitting,  and  two  days 
later  her  pains  had  disappeared,  and  she  walked  without  difficulty. 
At  the  end  of  a  week  she  exchanged  her  bath-chair  for  a  bicycle, 
and,  although  she  had  never  formerly  mounted  the  latter,  soon 
became  a  good  rider.  On  July  31st,  she  started  on  a  cycling 
tour,  and  on  her  return  home  at  once  commenced  to  lead  an 
extremely  active  life.  At  the  last  report,  December,  1902,  she 
was  in  good  health,  and  had  been  free  from  pain  ever  since  the 
treatment. 

No.  24.  Mrs.  ,  aged  25.  Februarj*,  1894,  bad  always 

been  nervous  and  emotional ;  when  a  child,  any  excitement 
caused  vomiting.  Attacks  of  migraine  since  the  age  of  8 : 
latterly  these  had  been  very  frequent,  and  accompanied  by 
feelings  of  giddiness  and  confusion,  ('atamenia  appeared  at  15  ; 
slight  dysmenorrhoea.  Married  at  10  :  the  succeeding  period,  an 
exceedingly  painful  one,  was  followed  by  pregnancy.  After  the 
periods  recommenced  they  were  regulai',  but  invariably  preceded 
by  much  uneasiness,  and  accompanied  by  attacks  of  severe 
spasmodic  pain  in  the  lower  part  of  the  body  and  back.  This 
lasted  from  oue  to  three  days;  aud  the  patient,  who  kept  ber 
bed,  was  unable  to  lie  down  during  the  paroxysms,  and  had  to 


I 


I 


I 


lUll 

■pa 


get  on  her  Imnds  and  knees,  maintaijimg  this  position  almost 
continuously  for  the  first  twenty-loxir  hours.  There  was  constant 
nausea  with  occasional  vomiting.  Dischai^e  scant)'.  Uterus 
retroflexed  ;  slight  leucorrluea  Depression  ;  frequent  attacks  of 
hysterical  weeping.     Dyspareunia ;  no  sexual  desire. 

After  drugging,  pessaries,  and  other  local  treatment  had 
been  tried  without  result,  the  patient  was  sent  to  me  by  Mrs. 
i)ickinEon  Berry,  M.D.,  in  February,  1894, 

Hypnosis  was  induced  twenty-nine  times   up  to  May  5th, 

1894,  when  the  morbid  symptoms  had  disappeared.     In  April, 

1895,  the  patient  reported  that  the  periods  were  free  from  pain, 
lasted  three  days,  instead  of  five  as  formerly,  and  that  the  dis- 
charge was  more  abundant.  The  interval  was  now  four  weeks 
instead  of  three.  Marital  relations  noruiaL  About  a  year  later, 
the  patient  wrote  to  say  that  she  had  again  become  pregnant,  and 
that  the  periods  had  been  nonnal  up  to  then. 

No.  25.  Miss ,  aged  1  9,  November,  1  889,  was  markedly 

ansmic  and  had  suffered  from  attacks  of  frontal  headache  since 
tl»e  Hge  of  7  :  these  averaged  two  a  week  and  were  invariably 
followed  by  vomiting.  Menstruation,  always  painful,  commenced 
at  13.  Karly  in  1887,  the  periods  began  to  be  scanty,  with 
prolonged  but  irregular  inten'aU,  and  ceased  in  May,  1888. 
After  a  short  hypnotic  treatment  in  Xovembej-,  1889,  somnam- 
;bulism  with  amestbesia  was  induced.  The  patient  was  the 
subject  of  the  two  painlefis  operations  reported,  pp.  161-2.  In 
February,  1889,  her  health  was  i*einarkably  good,  witli  the 
exception  that  the  amenorrhtea  still  persisted.  I  rehypnotised 
her  and  .suggested  that,  on  Marcli  1  .Tth,  1 889,  she  should 
experience  all  the  symptoms  which  had  formerly  preceded 
menstruation — pnin  in  the  back  and  thighs,  sensation  of  weight 
and  dragging  in  the  abdomen,  etc. — that  these  should  last  two 
hours,  the  catamenia  then  appear  and  all  pain  cease.  During 
e  six  weeks  which  preceded  the  date  fixed,  I  hypnotised  the 
tient  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and  repeated  the  above 
suggestions.  On  the  morning  of  March  18th,  the  symptoniB 
indicated  appeared,  continued  for  two  hours,  and  were  followed 
by  menstnmtion,  which  lasted  five  days.  During  tlie  next  fort- 
iiight,  I  hypnotised  her  on  three  occasions,  and  suggested  that 
menstruation  should  appear  on  April  7th,  and,  on  this  and 
tubsequent  occasions,  be  free  from  pain.     After  this,  menstruation 


was  normal  for  over  two  years;  the  patient  then  married  and 
became  pregnant.  She  had  no  return  of  lieadache,  and  her 
general  health  remained  good.  Case  shown  at  medical  meetings 
in  LoudoD,  Leeds,  and  elsewhere. 

No.  2fi.  Mrs.  ,    aged  34,  December,    1901.     Ner\'0U8 

tempenunent.  Amenorrhcea  since  the  birth  of  her  youngest 
child  two  years  previously.  She  was  only  able  to  suckle  the 
child  two  days,  owing  to  the  scanty  secretion  of  milk.  Lutur,  the 
secretion  increased,  but  was  never  enough  for  nursing  purposes ; 
it  persisted,  however,  despite  both  external  and  internal  treatment. 
In  September,  1901,  she  had  had  an  attack  of  intiammation  of 
the  breast  with  threatened  abscess;  this  was  followed  by  two 
other  attacks  at  montlJy  iutervala. 

The  patient  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Swan,  of  Devouport 
Street,  W., on  December  Slst,  1901,  and  was  hypnotised  on  fifteen 
occasions  from  that  date  until  March  6th,  1902.  The  secretion 
of  milk  ceased,  and  there  was  no  return  of  the  mammarj'  inflamma- 
tion. Menstniutiou  appeared  on  January  2l8t,  1902,  and  wa« 
regular  irom  then  until  pregnancy  occurred  some  months  later. 

Braid  found  hypnotic  treatment  valuable  in  menstrual  dis- 
orders, and  his  results  have  been  coufinned  by  recent  observers, 
thus : — 

No.  27  (Bernheim).     Mrs.   ,  aged    35.     Menstruation 

normal,  with  an  interval  of  twenty-one  days,  up  to  her  first 
pregnancy.  Afterwards  she  suffered  from  meuorrhagia  and 
dysmenorrhcea :  at  first  the  interval  between  the  periods  was 
fifteen  days,  but  for  the  last  two  years  it  ba<l  varied  from  eleven 
to  thirteen.  During  hypnosis,  Bernheim  suggested  a  progressive 
retardation  of  the  i^riod — a  definite  time  being  fixed  for  its 
appearance,  Lc.  after  26,  27,  28  and  29  days — these  suggestions 
were  successful;  an  inteiTal  of  29  days  was  established,  the 
dysmenorrhoea  relieved,  and  the  period  reduced  from  six  days 
to  three. 

No.  28  (Voisiu).  Miss suffered  from  araenorrhoea,  with 

hysterical  symptoms  and  abdominal  neuralgia,  which  had  resisted 
ordinary  treatment  On  October  16th,  1886,  it  was  suggested 
during  hypnosis  that  menstruation  would  appear  on  the  evening 
of  the  20th.  This  was  successful:  the  patient  was  rehypnotised 
on  the  21st,  and  told  that  the  discharge  would  continue  until 
the  evening  of  the    23rd.     This   was   also   responded   to.     Ou 


I 


I 

I 


^ 


November   9lh,  it  was  successfully  suggested   that  the   menses 
would  appear  at  the  end  of  four  weeks  and  last  two  days. 

In    two    other   cases  of  anienorrhoea   cited  by  Voisin,  the 
catamenin  appeared  in  each   instauce  in  response   to    a   single 

^^  hypnotic  suggestion. 

^M        The  following  table  gives  the  results  in  some  of  the  casea 

^■treated  by  Dr.  Tyko  Bmnnbcrg,  of  Upsala : — 

I     ] 


AmeDorrhcoa  .  .  .  . 
Menorrhagia  .  .  .  . 
Menorrhagia  and  Dysmvnorrba'ii 
Dyamcnorrha'a 

Total 


26 


X4 


N 
^ 


N 


One  of  the  patients,  a  girl  over  20  years  of  age,  had  never 
menstruated :  the  catamenia  appeared  after  tlie  second  hypnosis. 
Several  of  the  successful  cases  of  dysraenorrhrra  were  severe 
and  of  long  standing,  the  periods  }>eing  much  lengthened  and  tlie 
intervals  shortened. 

Gascurd  reported  two  cases  of  menorrhugia  in  which  recovery 
almost  immediately  followed  suggestion,  while  Berillon,  Burot 
and  Df'cle  claimed  to  have  succeeded  in  many  cases  similar  to 
Bernheini's  just  cited. 

Successful  cases  of  amenorrham,  dysnienorrhcea  and  nienor- 
rhagia  are  also  recorded  by  Drs.  Delius,  Wetterstrand,  Voisin, 
Berillon,  Gascard,  Journ^,  Marandon  de  ilonthyel,  Burot,  D6cle. 
Many  of  the  cases  had  long  resisted  other  methods  of  treatment, 
while  their  recovery  was  confirmetl  by  later  reports. 

At  the  First  International  Congress  of  Hypnotism,  Paris, 
1889,  Dr.  Briand,  Physician  to  the  Asylum  of  Villejuif,  showed 
a  hypnotised  stibject  to  whom  it  had  been  suggested  (1)  that 
menstruation  should  commence  the  following  morning  at  six 
o'clock,  and  (2)  that  a  blister  should  appear  on  her  right  arm 
where  a  piece  of  cigarette -jwiper  had  been  applied.  The  Hi-st 
■uggestion  was  successful,  but  to  the  latter  there  was  no  i-espouse. 
he  further  suggestion  that  the  catamenia  sliould  cease  was  at 
race  fulfilled. 

Br.  Bugney  reported  a  case  of  menorrhagia,  associated  with 
tterine  Hbroid,  which  was  snccessfnlly  treated  by  suggestion : 
[the  menorrhagia  disappeared  and  the  tumour  diminished. 


aoo 


HYPNOTISM 


Some  of  the  patients  above  referred  to  were  undoubtedly 
hysterical,  but  in  others  the  only  symptom  of  nervous  disorder 
was  the  menstrual  disturbance.  The  fact  that  this  was  un- 
associated  with  discoverable  organic  cause  is  the  excuse  for 
hiiving  included  all  the  cases  under  "Hysteria." 

Insomnia. — Insomnia  is  frequently  present  in  hysteria  and 
neurasthenia,  and  sometimes,  as  in  the  following  cases  from  my 
own  practice,  forms  the  chief  symptom  of  ner\'0U8  trouble. 

No.  29.  Master  — — ,  aged  16,  April  24lh,  1890,  had  not 
had  a  good  night's  sleep  since  birth.  There  had  been  no  break 
in  the  insomnia,  but  it  had  varied  in  intensity,  and  liad  been 
worse  since  January,  1890.  While  in  bed  the  patient  recalled 
all  the  events  of  the  day ;  he  did  not  feel  excited,  ill,  or  tired, 
but  his  brain  remained  abnormally  active  imd  he  lay  awake  till 
4  or  5  A.M.,  when  he  would  jxjrhaps  get  two  or  three  hours'  sleep. 
Physical  fatigue  did  not  influence  the  insomnia,  nor  had  it  been 
relieved  by  various  forms  of  medical  treatment  and  prolonged 
travel  His  education  had  been  almost  entirely  aural,  but  one 
term  at  school  had  been  tried  with  disastrous  results :  he  became 
absolutely  sleepless  and  prostrate. 

He  was  hypuotised  at  the  first  attempt  on  April  24th,  1890, 
and  slept  well  the  following  night  Hypnosis  was  repeated 
about  forty  time«  during  the  next  two  months,  after  which  he 
started  active  mental  and  physical  work.  Since  then  there  lias 
heen  no  relapse;  and,  in  1900,  L)r.  Oliver,  of  Harrogate,  who 
had  originally  sent  the  {mtient  to  me,  reported  that  he  was  then 
leading  a  useful,  active,  and  successful  life. 

No.  30.  Mr.  ,  aged  60,  May  1900,  had  always  been  a 

light  sleeper,  but  this  had  never  been  a  serious  trouble  to  him. 
His  health  had  been  good  up  to  1895,  when  he  gave  up  business, 
after  having  worked  hard  from  boyhood.  Immediately  afterwards 
insomnia  appeared ;  this  grew  worse,  despite  medical  treatment 
and  much  exercise  in  the  open  air.  For  a  time  narcotics  helped 
him,  but  afterwards  they  lost  their  eftect.  although  changed  fre- 
quently. From  1896,  he  hud  never  bad  three  consecutive  good 
nights,  and  often  passed  many  with  an  average  of  two  hours'  sleep. 
His  dread  of  insonmia  became  an  obsession ;  he  feared  going  to 
bed,  and  would  not  I'etire  to  rest  unless  some  one  shared  bis  room. 

The  patient  was  sent  to  rae  by  Dr.  Herbert  Tilley,  whom 
he  had  consulted  for  aural  trouble.     At  first  he  was  absolutely 


I 
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HYPNOTISM  IN  MEDICINE 


20I 


¥ 
N 


incredulous  as  to  the  possibility  of  his  being  helped  by  hyjinotic 
treatment,  and  often  interrupted  the  process  to  explain  this. 
After  a  few  sittings,  however,  although  he  did  not  become  drowsy 
or  even  restful,  the  suggestions  took  effect  ami  he  began  to 
sleep  better.  In  a  month  he  was  well,  and  had  abandoned  all 
drugs.     Up  to  the  last  re^wrt  (1901)  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

The  following  case  presents  many  points  of  interest.  The 
patient,  wlio  descril>es  his  own  condition,  is  a  trained  observer, 
well  known  by  his  contributions  to  more  than  one  department 
of  natural  science.  He  was  originally  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Boulting, 
of  Hampstead.  The  results  obtained  by  the  patient's  sell- 
suggestion  are  wortliy  of  note,  particularly  considering  the  slight 
amount  of  hypnosis  which  hud  been  induced.' 

No.  31.  "  A  professional  man,  aged  51  ;  subject  to  migraine, 
heavy  smoker,  very  abstemious  from  alcohol. 

"  Having  suffered  from  sleeplessness  and  other  uervoua 
symptoms,  1  sought  Ur.  Hramwell's  aid  at  Easter,  1900. 

"  I  had  tried  various  systems  of  counting  myself  to  sleep, 
and  each  in  turn,  as  it  became  more  familiar  and  easy,  had  lost 
its  effect.  Dr.  Braiuwell  asked  me  to  sit  down  and  compose 
myself  to  sleep  in  my  usual  way,  and  to  pay  as  little  attention 
as  possible  to  him.  His  pnxiedure  was  tlmt  which  1  understand 
he  nsually  adopts ;  and  during  the  sittings  I  tried  to  get  drowsy 
by  using  my  most  recent  method  of  counting  (synchronous  with 
respiration).  I  had  tliree  sittings,  and  during  the  second  alone 
was  I  at  all  somnolfut,  and  that  very  little.  The  following  lias 
been  the  I'esult  of  the  treatment : — 

"  ( 1 )  My  sleeplessness  has  been  completely  removed,  and  my 
sleep  has  been  more  continuous  and  more  restful  than  before. 
I  have  even  .slept  when  new  business  cares  of  a  most  acute  kind 
presented  thcmisclves  suddenly  a  quarter  of  an  hour  Iwforc  bedtime^ 

"(2)  Further,    I    have    been    able    to    influence    myself   in 

various  ways   by  suggestion,  which  I  employ  in   the  following 

manner.      I  count,  as  1  formerly  did,  wlicn  trying  to  get  to  sleep, 

and  alternate  this  with  self-suggestions.     What  I  aim  at  is  to 

rodace  a  stage  in  which  1  am  sleepy  enough  to  be  suggestible, 

yet  sufficiently  awake  to  make  suggestions  to  myself. 

"  The  methotl  is  least  etficacious  when  I  go  to  bed  sleepy, 
then  find  it  difficult  to  county  sometimes  even  im]HiBsible,  a 
*  It  U  Co  be  noted  too  dut  I  did  not  tMch  Uie  pttient  to  lijpnotise  hiaiMlf. 


202 


HYPNOTISM 


drowsy  state  interveniag.     A  vigurous  effort,  however,  to  wake 
up  completely  and  count  afresh  is  usually  successful. 

"  (3)  I  have  been  able  to  induce  analgesia  and  sleep  during 
toothache,  whether  the  latter  arose  from  periostitis  or  from 
inflamed  pulp :  in  these  cases  tlie  pain  goes  a  few  moments  htfore 
sleep.  I  suggest  that  *I  shall  sleep  well  and  without  pain.' 
Sometimes  the  pain  comes  on  again  and  wakes  me,  but  a  few 
more  suggestions  will  induce  fresh  analgesia  and  sleep.  Similarly, 
being  subject  to  sea-sickness,  I  send  myself  to  sleep  on  embarka- 
tion witliout  mucli  difficulty,  and  sleep,  usually  very  lightly^ 
quite  free  from  qualms :  on  awaking,  even  in  rough  water,  I  feel 
no  tendency  to  sickness.  I  have  had  two  failures  to  send  myself 
to  sleep  on  the  boat  by  suggestion  out  of  some  twenty  ptissages : 
the  oue  was  due  lo  Hies  which  kept  alighting  on  my  face ;  the 
other  instance  was  when  I  was  convalescent  from  intluenza,  and 
I  attribute  it  to  the  lack  of  power  of  myself  as  operator. 

"(4)  Post-hypnotic  suggestion  has  on  the  wliole  failed.  I 
think  that  I  have  sometimes  succeeded  in  relieving  constipation : 
I  know  that  I  have  sometimes  been  unable  to  do  so.  I  have 
failed  by  suggestions  going  on  every  night  for  three  weeks  to 
escape  sea-aickness  without  going  to  sleep.  I  have  not  succeeded 
in  curing  migraine.  T  have;,  however,  stopped  or  prevented  the 
simple  congestive  Iieiulnche  of  corj-za.  I  have  been  also  much  less 
irritable  during  niigraine-fitfl,  etc. 

"  I  attribute  my  difficulty  of  poat-hypnotic  suggestion  to  the 
fact  that  here  the  oi>emlor  is  the  subject,  and  that  the  former  is 
least  efUcieut  at  the  time  when  the  latter  should  be  moflt 
impressionable. 

"  I  am  usuully  able  next  morning  to  remember  at  what  stage 
of  my  *  count '  I  lost  consciousness.  This  is  generally  almost 
sudden.  However,  the  approach  of  sleep  is  usually  preceded  by 
hallucinatious  or  i<tiotic  (luestiona  which  I  uU  but  hear,'  or  by 
twitchings,  or  by  a  combination  of  these.  A  moment  of  intense 
wakefulness  now  comes  on,  in  which  I  knoxo  from  recollection  of 
past  experience  that  I  shall  sleep  very  soon,  improbable  as  it 
ftd^  Much  more  rare  is  the  drowsy  condition  referred  to  above, 
which  recalls  the  state  of  insomnic  people,  who  '  have  heard  the 
clock  strike  every  liour  in  the  night,*  but  not  heard  a  child 
wailing  for  half  an  hour  in  an  adjoining  room." 

'  "  Hy  thought  U  mostlj  verbftl,  Auditire :  I  am  a  poor  risiuliit." 


I 


I 


[D)  Menial  Titnibles  of  a  ffysien^al  Nature.  Perversiojis  of  Scnti- 
maU,  Obsemons,  Irresistiblt  Impulses,  HaUuciiiations,  Melan- 
cholia, Maniacal  BjccitemerU,  eU. 


The  following  eases  ai-e  from  uiy  own  practice ; 


No.  32.  Jlrs. 


,age<l  30.  April  26th,  189 


;.     Father,  and 
Tlie  patient  liad 


«$evt?ral  brothers  and  sisters,  mark(.*(ily  nervous, 
^kalway^s  been  nervous  ;  had  bitten  her  nails  since  CArly  childhood 
^■and  never  slept  well.  After  her  first  coufiuenieut,  in  1891,  she 
^■became  afraid  of  driving,  and  got  into  a  panic  during  thunder- 
^btorms :  on  one  occasion  this  was  followed  by  a  short  attack  of 

aphonia. 
■  Her  secoud  confinement  took  place  on  January  12th,  1897. 

^KAlmost  immediately  atlerwards  she  became  profoundly  melan- 
cholic, suflcred  from  iiisoiniiiu,  constipation,  indigestion,  and  loss 
of  appetite,  aniountiug  to  ahsohite  disgust  for  food.  She  refused 
to  see  her  child ;  and  her  home  became  wholly  tUstastcful  to  her. 
Careful  medical  treatment  and  change  of  scene  were  without 
result.  She  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  iJoulting,  of  Hampstead,  on 
April  26th,  1897.  In  addition  to  the  nymptonis  just  described, 
she  was  haunted  by  the  idea  of  suicide,  and  could  think  of  nothing 
else.  She  was  extremely  agitated,  could  not  sit  still  or  keep  her 
attention  fixed,  and  hail  frequent  attacks  of  uncontrollable  weeping. 
After  n  few  weeks'  hypnotic  treatment  she  conmienced  to 
improve,  and  before  the  end  of  July  had  recovered  and  returned 
home.  N'ot  only  did  her  morbid  ideas  and  suicidal  impulses 
disappear,  but  she  also  lost  many  uf  the  nervous  syniptoms  which 
had  existed  before  her  illness.  There  has  been  no  relapse  up  to 
the  present  date  (1903). 

No.  33.  Mrs.  ,  aged  46,  June  22iid,  1900.     Father  and 

an  uncle  on  the  mother's  side  committed  suicide.  Patient  had 
always  l>een  nervous,  emotional,  and  a  bod  sleeper.  Since  1897. 
after  xn6uenza,  the  insomnia  had  been  nmcli  worse,  and  she 
rarely  got  more  than  three  hours'  sleep  at  night.  She  suffered 
^■constantly  from  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  neck,  with  a  feeling 
that  she  must  fall  forward.  She  was  ven,*  depressed,  had  fits 
of  \mcontrollable  weeping,  and  had  lost  interest  in  life.  Tliere 
kvere  also  strong  suicidal  impulses,  and  the  fixed  idea  that  she 
rould  commit  suicide  like  her  father  and  uncle.     She  was  sent 


to   me  by  Dr.  Seton,  ol'  Kensiugton,  and  completely  recovered 
after  a  month's  hypnotic  treatment :  there  had  been  no  relaf 
up  to  the  last  report  (November,  1902). 

No.  34.  Mr.  ,  aged  o7.  May,   1899.      Father  insai^ 

and  under  restraint.  Twelve  montlia  previously,  the  patient 
began  to  suffer  from  constant  pain  at  tlie  back  of  the  head  and 
neck,  which  was  followed  by  marked  decrease  in  his  powers  of 
att-ention  and  work.  He  then  became  profoundly  depressed, 
lost  all  affection  for  his  wife  and  children,  and  had  the  fixed  idea 
that  he  would  become  insane.  Drugs,  lengthy  holidays  with 
plenty  of  exercise  in  tfie  open  air,  and  finally  treatment  in  an 
asylum,  were  tried  without  benefit.  Complete  recovery,  however, 
took  place  after  six  weeks'  hypnotic  treatment.  On  December 
18th,  1902,  the  patient  wrote  to  say  that  he  was  in  good  health, 
and  that  there  had  been  no  return  of  any  of  his  morbid  symptoms, 
despite  the  fact  that  he  had  had  much  family  trouble.  He  had 
recently  lost  both  parents,  and  one  sister  had  become  insane.  In 
January',  1903,  Dr.  Wonnacott,  of  Wandsworth,  who  had  originally 
sent  the  case  to  me,  wrote  confirming  this  i-eport. 

No.  35.  Miss  ,  aged  :i8,  November,   1900.       Mother 

suffered  from  religious  melancholia,  and  died  in  an  asylum. 
Maternal  uncle  weak-minded.  One  of  the  patient's  cousins 
committed  suicide,  sevcml  are  insane,  and  one  suffers  from 
obsessions.  One  sister  has  delusions,  another  obsessions.  The 
patient  had  good  health  up  to  puberty,  then  l>ecame  quiet  and 
depressed.  In  1892,  she  had  an  attack  of  acute  melancholia, 
whicli  lasted  several  months ;  since  then  she  has  always  been 
depressed  and  peculiar.  Tn  1895,  after  a  shock,  she  liad  a  second 
attack  of  acute  melancholia,  and  a  further  one  iu  July,  1900, 
following  a  similar  cause.  Wlien  I  first  saw  her,  in  November, 
1900,  she  hardly  ever  spoke,  waa  profoundly  depressed,  had 
morbid  religious  ideas,  imd  was  untidy  and  extremely  eccentric. 
She  was  never  permitted  to  go  out  alone,  as  she  was  quite  incap- 
able of  taking  care  of  herself,  or  of  avoiding  the  tratiia  After  the 
first  sitting,  on  Noveinl>er  2nd,  1900,  she  commenced  to  talk 
brightly,  and  told  me  next  day  of  the  various  religious  fears 
which  had  been  tormenting  her,  but  which  had  now  entirely 
vauished.  Hypnosis  was  repeated  on  four  subsequent  occasions 
up  to  November  14th,  when  all  morbid  symptoms  liad  dis- 
appeared.    A  few  days  later,  she  wtis  well  enough  to  go  alone  to 


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San  Francisco  to  uurse  a  sister  during  lier  confinement.  In 
November,  1902,  Dr.  Ozanne,  of  Harrogate,  who  hatl  sent  the 
case  to  me.  reported  that  the  patient  was  in  goo<t  health  and 
leading  a  useful  life.     Tliere  had  been  no  relapse. 

No.  30.  Miss  .  aged  22,  April  ;iOtli,   1901.      Father 

very  unstable  mentally.  One  of  the  patient's  brothers  was  insane, 
and  a  sister  sufl'ered  from  chorea.  Six  months  previously  tlie 
patient  became  depressed,  and  was  toi'mented  with  religious 
doubts  and  fears :  she  believed  she  had  committed  the  unpardon- 
able sin,  and  felt  she  ought  to  punish  herself  in  consequence. 
She  gave  up  all  pleasures,  and  liuolly  refused  to  see  her  friends  or 

f  write  to  them.  There  were  strong  suicidal  impulses.  Medical 
treatment,  including  residence  in  nursing  homes  and  isolation 
from  frieuds,  had  been  without  result. 

I  The  patient  was  brought  to  me  by  Dr.  Shuldham,  of  Hamp- 
stead,  and  hj-pnotiscd  on  twenty  occasions  from  April  30th  to 
July  23rd,  1901.     She  rapidly  improved,  aud  was  well  before 

\  the  treatment  terminated.  At  the  last  report.  May  1  otli, 
1903,  she  waa  still  in  good  health,  both  mentjUly  aud  pliysically. 


No.  37.  Mrs. 


aged  56.  had  n  bad  family  history:  her 


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mother,  sister,  and  two  bn^thers  having  suffered  from  insanity. 
The  patient  had  her  tirst  attack  of  melancholiu  fifteen  years 
previously ;  tins  was  followed  by  others,  both  prolonged  and 
severe.  Hypnotic  treatment  was  begim  on  February  12th,  1902, 
at  the  request  of  Dr.  Saiosbiiry.  At  that  time  the  patient  had 
kept  her  bed  for  several  months:  she  was  profoundly  depressed, 
bad  froqucnt  attacks  of  hyst^^ricul  weeping,  suicidal  impulses,  etc. 
Her  physical  health  was  good,  but  she  asserted  that  she  could  not 
leave  her  bed.  as  her  mind  was  gone,  aud  she  did  not  know  what 
to  do,  or  even  what  clothes  to  put  on.  She  felt  that  nothing  in 
life  could  ever  interest  her  again.  At  the  end  of  four  months  she 
was  well,  and  at  the  lost  report  (February,  1903)  there  had  been 
no  relapse.  She  was  leading  an  active,  happy  life,  without  tlio 
slightest  trace  of  any  nervous  trouble. 

Another  somewhat  simitar  case,  seut,  about  the  same  time, 
Dr.  HanisoQ,  of  East  Grinstead,  was  equally  successful ;  and 
ly  of  a  like  nature  might  be  cited  from  my  own  practice  and 
those  of  others.  The  two  following  cases  are  examples  from  the 
latter  source : — 

i^o.  38  (Voisin).  Mrs.  ,  aged   30.  June.  1888.  sufifercd 


from  muscular  movements  resembliug  chorea:  these  started  in 
1870,  iim\  had  continued  ever  since.  In  18S1,  she  becajiie 
depressed  and  had  suicidal  impulses.  Shortly  afterwards  marked 
hysterical  attacks  appeared:  these  were  characterised  by  pains  in 
the  head,  sensations  of  choking,  liypeitestltetic  and  auasthetic 
points,  amnesia,  etc.  Later  she  became  profoundly  melancholic : 
suffered  from  severe  insomnia,  hnd  constant  suicidal  ideas,  and 
twice  tried  to  end  her  life.  For  eighteen  years  she  had  taken 
iron,  valerian,  bromides,  and  other  drugs :  liydropathic  treatment, 
the  actual  cautery,  etc.,  had  also  been  tried,  but  without  result. 
Hypnosis  was  easily  induced  at  tlie  Hrst  attempt,  and  after  three 
sittings  all  morbid  symptoms  disappeared.  The  recovery  waa 
confirmed  by  later  reports. 

No.  39  (Voisin),  Miss .a^ed  24,  March,  1887.   Maternal 

grandfather  nervous,  impressionable,  and  addicted  to  alcohol. 
Fatlier  was  highly  nervous,  and  died  of  consumption  at  39. 
Mother  living,  aged  45  ;  also  very  nervous.  The  patient  had 
good  health  up  to  1885,  when  she  became  depressed,  had  attacks 
of  uncontroUftble  weeping,  and  was  obliged  to  abandon  work. 
Sbe  was  tonncnted  with  erotic  thoughts,  and  dreaded  becoming  a 
prostitute :  she  had  also  the  fixed  idea  that  she  would  become 
insane,  and  felt  that  she  ought  to  commit  suicide  in  order  to 
prevent  this  dishonour  to  lier  family.  She  was  hypnotised  five 
times  dmiug  March,  1887;  all  morbid  ideas  disappeared,  she 
gained  in  liealth  and  strength,  resumed  work,  and  passed  a 
scholastic  examination.     Kecovery  confirmed  by  later  reports. 


I 

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(2)  Neurasthenia. 

The  following  examples  are  from  my  own  practice : — 

No.  40.  Mr.  ,  aged  32,  May,  1895,  although  nervous 

and  highly  strung,  had  been  physically  strong  and  athletic  up  to 
1887,  when  he  broke  down,  apparently  from  overwork  and 
under-feeding.  His  appetite  became  cai>ricioufi,  and  he  suffered 
from  constipation,  dyB]>epsia,  nervous  trembling,  and  persistent 
feelings  of  lassitude  and  weariness.  T!»e  sUghtest  physical  exer- 
tion, such  as  walking  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  produce<l  feelings  of 
collapse  and  utter  exhaustion.  He  was  constantly  depressed, 
and   wished    to   end    his    life — according   to   his   own   account, 


^ 


nofchug  but  want  of  pluck  prevented  his  commlttiDg  suicide. 
He  gave  up  amoking,  dieted  himself  strictly,  trie<l  change  of  air, 
sea  voyages,  aitd  prolonged  medical  and  hydropathic  treatment 
without  benefit. 

He  was  first  hypnotised  in  May,  1895:  this  was  repeated 
almost  daily  for  sL\  weeks,  when  his  morbid  symptoms  had  dis- 
ap])eared,  and  he  liad  gaiaed  eight  pounds  in  weight  and  enjoyed 
exercise.  In  September,  1900,  he  stated  that  he  had  practically 
perfect  health  ;  that  lie  frequently  bicycled  over  a  hundred  miles 
a  day  without  undue  fatigue ;  sometimes  danced  the  greater  part 
of  the  night,  and  was  fresh  for  his  office  next  morning.  There 
had  been  no  return  of  any  of  the  symptoms  which  had  formerly 
troubled  him.  In  December,  1902,  Dr.  Erie  rritchard,  of 
Hampstead,  who  had  sent  the  case  to  me,  informed  me  that  tlie 
patient  was  still  in  good  health,  although  he  had  been  living  in 
the  tropics  for  some  considerable  time. 

No.  41.  Major ,  aged  45,  April,  1900,  had  good  health 

up  to  1890,  when  bo  began  to  suffer  from  insomnia^  constipation, 
irritability,  depression  and  morbid  terrors.  He  constantly  felt 
he  was  about  to  die,  or  that  something  dreadful  was  going  to 
happen  to  him.  Despite  treatment,  the  symptoms  perfiisted,  and 
the  patient  left  India  and  returned  to  England  in  1898,  with  tbe 
intention  of  retiring  from  the  Army.  While  at  home  his  healih 
improved,  and  he  went  bock  to  India  in  1899.  Shortly  after- 
wards, all  the  old  symptoms  returned  with  increasing  violence : 
he  never  slept  without  narcotics  and,  despite  them,  frequently 
awoke  during  the  night  in  abject  terror,  with  a  feeling  of 
impending  death.  He  dreaded  going  about  alone,  and  felt  that 
he  would  die  before  completing  the  shortest  journey.  The  most 
trivial  accident,  such  as  a  j^uncture  of  his  bicycle  tyre,  plunged 
him  into  in-itability  and  despair :  he  believed  he  was  under  a 
curse,  etc.  He  habitually  took  too  much  alcohol,  not  because  he 
had  nny  cmviug  for  .stimulants,  but  because  they  steadied  him 
and  relieved  hia  neurasthenic  fears.  He  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr. 
Roe,  LM.S.,  for  hypnotic  treatment.  This  was  begun  in  April, 
1900,  and  continued  for  six  weeks:  before  the  end  of  that  time 
the  patient  was  wolL  He  then  returned  to  duty  in  India :  later 
reports  confirmed  his  recovery. 

In  1893-94,  Schrenck-Notzing  published  an  account  of  228 
neuraslhcuica  treated  by  himself,  Briigelmann,  Bt^rilloD*  Bourdon, 


Voisiiij    Burckliardt,    Furel,    Kingier,    Ritzmaim,    Boumi,    Burot. 
Stadelmann,  von  Corval,  Micbael,  Drozdoivski,  von  Kozuchoivaki, 
Neilson,  Tuckey,  Bernheim,  van   Renterghem,  and  WetteratraDd,  | 
The  following  were  the  results : — 

I,  HypNonc. 

In  70  cases — cq^u&Uing  31*8  per  cent — slight  hyiinoeU  waa  induoed. 
In   134    cases — eqaalling   609   per  cent — either   deep   bypnosw,   or' 
soninoaibulUuit  was  obtained. 

In  16  cases — equaUing  7*3  per  cent — there  was  no  hypnoaU.* 

II.  Thebapkl-tic. 

72  cases — equalling  Zl-S  per  cent — recovered. 

84  cases — equalling  36*8  per  cent — were  much  improved. 

72  cases — eiiuatlini;  3 1  "6  per  cent — showed  no  improvement 

Tlie  following  are  examples  taken  fi-om  the  cases  just  referreil 
to:— 

No.  42  (Berillon).  Major ,  aged  40,  had  been  healthy 

and  athletic  up  to  two  years  previously ;  then,  following  anxious 
sedentary  work,  lie  became  emaciated  and  aoEemic,  and  suffered  ■ 
from  headaches  and  genemlised  muscular  pain.  He  almost 
entirely  lost  the  power  of  walking ;  complained  of  indigestion^ 
insomnia,  frequent  attacks  of  giddiness,  palpitation,  and  pseudo- 
angina.  He  became  profoundly  depressed,  and  bad  suicidal 
impulses,  together  with  the  fixed  idea  that  he  would  never  be 
able  to  work  again.  Dilatation  of  the  stomach  was  diagnosed, 
and  for  two  years  he  was  treated  for  that  and  other  symptoms 
without  beuetit.  He  was  hypnotised  regularly  for  three  weeks : 
then  recovered  and  returned  to  duty.     No  relapse. 

No.  4.J  (Bourdon).  Mile.  ,  aged  23.  after  an  accident  at 

15,  suffered  from  sickness,  headache,  constipation,  vertigo,  spinal 
neuralgia,  muscular  weakness,  insomnia,  nocturnal  terrors,  etc 
Treatment :  Druggiiig,  electricity,  washing  out  of  stomach,  etc. 
Result  nil.     Hypuotiaed :  recovered.     No  relapse. 

No.  44  (Briigelmann).   Mr. ,  aged  44,  clergyman,   had 

long  suffered  from  spasmodic  attacks  of  asthma,  which  gradually 

became   so   frequent   and   severe   that    he   had   to  abandon   his 

profession  ;  finally  he  could  neither  walk  nor  talk.     He  also  had 

various   other   nervous   symptoms   of   a   neurasthenic   character. 

Treatment :  Drugging,  electricity,  inhalations,  local  applications 

'  In  thi£  group  8,  out  of  the  total  of  228  cases,  are  omitted.    In  6  the  stage  is  not 
given,  and  2  were  treated  in  th«  waking  condition. 


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to  throat  aud  nose,  etc.  Result  nlL  After  twenty  hypnolic 
sittings  the  patient  recovered  and  resumed  work. 

Bdiillou  has  reported  good  resxilts  in  many  cases  of  neur- 
ithenia :  some  of  these  were  associated  with  profound  melancholia, 
others  with  fixed  ideas  and  sexual  aberrations. 

Successful  cases  are  also  reported  by  Bingswangcr,  Hirt, 
Valentin,  Tatzel,  Augwste  Voisin,  Deiius,  Mavroukakis,  Wetter- 
strand,  Forel,  van  Eeden  aud  van  Iteutergheia  The  two  last 
authorities  have  reported  99  cases,  of  which  35  were  improved 
and  21  cured. 

The  following  have  also  written  in  favour  of  the  hypnotic 
treatment  of  neurasthenia  : — Arndt,  Beard,  Lehr,  Bouveret,  Hoist, 
Loewenfeid,  Koch,  Laufenauer,  Kosentlial,  Gerhardt,  Romberg, 
Jolly,  Maack,  Mueller. 

I  In  Schrenck-Notzing's  opinion,  impotence  of  psychical  origin  is 
sometimes  the  only  symptom  of  neurasthenia;  out  of  18  cases 
which  he  reported,  10  were  cured  by  suggestion. 

I  have  seen  several  cases  which  tend  to  confirm  this  view. 
In  the  foUowuig  one,  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Raymond  Crawfurd,  if 
the  patient  suffered  from  neurasthenia,  impotence  was  the  only 
symptom  of  that  disorder. 

Xo.  45.   Mr. ,  aged  35,  healthy  and  athletic     Continent 

before  marriage.  No  masturbation.  The  patient  had  been 
married  over  three  years;  he  was  completely  impotent,  and  this 

,  condition  had  not  been  improved  by  medical  treatment. 

I  Hypnotic  treatment  was  begun  on  November  2dth,  1898, 
and  continued  for  a  month.  Despite  the  fact  that  deep  hypnosis 
was  not  induced,  curative  suggestions  were  responded  to.  From 
Cliristmas,  1898,  his  sexual  life  has  been  that  of  a  vigorous. 
noi'nifLl  man.     There  has  been  no  relapse,  and   he  is  now  the 

,  lather  of  a  healthy  child. 

I  According  to  Schrenck-Notzing,  onanism,  sexual  hypewestbesia, 
para'Sthesia,  aud  perverted  sexual  instincts  are  frequently  associated 
with  ueurastheuia.  He  asserts  tliat  the  grossest  sexual  aberra- 
tions, even  when  they  have  become  deeply  rooted  and  have 
changed  the  entire  personality,  are  frequently  cured  by  sugges- 
tion :  and  that  this  forms  one  of  its  most  important  therapeutic 
applications.  For  an  account  of  these  disorders  and  their 
successful  treatment  by  suggestion,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 

.writings  of  Krafft-Ebing  and   Schrenck-Notzing.      Both    these 

p 


authorities  have  uot  only  been  successful  in  cases  of  satyriasis 
and  nymphouiunia,  but  have  also  had  good  results  in  "sexual 
inversion."  ■ 

I  have  seen  little  of  the  grosser  forms  of  sexual  disorder,  V 
either  because  these  conditions  are  rare  in  this  country,  or 
because  those  who  suft'er  from  them  do  not  seek  medical  aid. 
The  results,  however,  have  been  encouraging.  In  one  case  of 
"  sexual  inversion "  in  an  adult  male,  all  morbid  habits  were  ■ 
abandoned  after  hypnotic  treatment ;  and  the  patient  is  now 
leading  a  uormal  life.  Another  similar  case,  sent  to  me  by  Dr. 
van  Kentei-ghem,  of  Amsterdam,  also  did  well.  fl 

Several  aiaes  of  nympliomaniu  were  also  successful.  In  one 
of  these,  an  unmarried  woman,  Vioth  ovaries  were  removed  at  her 
own  urgent  request  This,  however,  was  only  done  after  con-  ■ 
Bultation  with  Dr,  Savage,  in  order  to  ascertain  that  her  mental 
conditiou  entitled  her  to  be  listened  to.  Tlie  operation,  apparently, 
had  no  effect  upon  the  disease;  but  this  yielded  to  hypnotic 
treatment.  Tlie  patient  is  now  leading  a  useful  and  respectable 
life. 


(3)  Insanity. 

PersoTUil  JtcsnlU, — I  have  only  attempted  to  employ  hj'pr 
suggestion  in  eight  cases  of  undoubted  insanity.     lu  five  1  failed 
to   induce    hj^nosis,    wliile    three    were   more    or    less    deeply  fl 
hypnotised,  with  the  following  results : — 

In  the  first  case,  although  suggestion  produced  sleep  and 
relieved  the  pain  of  an  organic  malady,  it  left  unaffected  the 
delusions  of  persecution  from  which  the  patient  bad  long 
suffered. 

In  the  second,  the  treatment  quieted  excitement  and  produced 
sleep  :  while  the  third  was  as  follows : — 

No.    46.     Mrs.    ,     aged     35.       Nervous    family    and 

personal  history.  On  June  7th,  1898,  the  patient's  husband 
informed  me  tliat  she  had  made  a  determined  attempt  at  suicide, 
during  an  attack  of  acute  mania.  She  had  iheu  been  ccrtitied, 
and  sent  to  the  Priory,  Roehampton,  on  June  3rd.  There  she  ■ 
was  violent,  slept  badly,  never  spoke,  refused  all  nourishment, 
and  had  to  be  fed  arlificioUy.     Her  husband  was  anxious  that  I 


I 


should  hypnotise  her.  and  had  ohtained  the  consent  of  Brs.  Savage 
II       and  Chambers  to  the  experiment. 

^^        I  visited  the  patient  ou  June  8th,  apparently  succeeded  in 
^^  inducing  eliglit  hypnosis,  and  suggested  that  she  should  take  her 

food  naturally,  sleep  well,  cease  to  be  violent,  etc     Ki'om  that 

Pdate  she  never  requii*ed  artificial  feeding,  and  soon  began  to  be 
quieter  and  to  sleep  better.  One  day,  by  a  ruse.  I  succeeded  in 
making  her  speak^  and  from  that  time  she  talked  more  and  more 
freely.  Hypnotic  treatment  was  continued  till  the  end  of  July, 
when  she  was  practically  convalescent.  When  last  I  heard  of  her, 
in  1901,  there  had  been  no  relapse.  How  far  the  hypnotic 
treatment  aided  the  patient's  recovery  it  is  dilhcult  to  say.  The 
fact  that  she  commenced  to  take  food  inmiediately  after  the  first 
induction  of  hypnosis  may  have  been  a  mere  coincidence ;  and  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  she  was  also  receiving  careful  medical 
^m  treatment. 

B         R^iaarhs. — Although  I  have  cited  few  pei*sonal  examples  of  the 

use  of  hypnotism  in  insanity,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  I  have  related, 

under  other  headings,  several  cases  in  which  the  patients  showed 

,       more  or  less  marked  evidence  of  insanity.    Thus,  amongst  the  cases 

^ft'of  obsession  will  be  found  several  in  which  the  fixed  ideas  had 

^^  become  true  insane  delusions,  which  influenced  the  patient's  whole 

life  and  conduct.       Some  of  these   patients  also   suffered  from 

hallucinations,  and  liad  been  certified ;   while  others  liad   been 

•  voluntary  boarders  in  asylums. 
Amongst  the  cases  of  "  hysterical  "  melancholia  are  to  be  found 
several  as  grave  as  those  usually  cited  as  "  insane "  by  other 
authorities.  Some  of  these  had  long  suffered  from  attacks  of 
profound  melancholy ;  a  large  proportion  liad  suicidal  impulses, 
while  several  had  made  more  or  less  determined  attempts  at 
suicide.  In  more  than  one  successful  case  the  patient  had  been 
certified  before  treatment  was  commenced. 
^^  In  some  of  the  cases  of  moral  insanity,  the  condition  was 
^^  considered  sufficiently  grave  to  neaisaitatc  restraint,  both  for  the 
sake  of  the  patients  themselves,  and  in  order  to  prevent  them  from 
corrupting  others :  restraint,  indeed,  was  only  delayed  until  the 
result  of  hypnotic  treatment  could  be  ascertained. 

Although  Klliotson  claimed  to  have  obtained  good  results  in 
insanity,  Esdaile's  was  the  first  systematic  work  in  that  field 
■with  which  1  am  acquainted.     He  employed  mesmerism  in  the 


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Calcutta  Asylum  for  six  months,  but  admitted  that  the  general 
resultjj  were  disappointing.  In  excuse  ho  slated  tliat  the  majority 
of  the  patients  suffered  from  grave  and  apparently  hopeless 
insanity,  and  that  little  or  nothing  was  known  of  their  history : 
most  of  them  had  beeu  brought  in  by  the  police,  who  had  found 
them  wandering  alone  and  deserted.  Despite  this,  Eedaile 
claimed  to  have  obtained  good  results  in  several  instances :  few- 
details,  however,  ai-e  given.  One  patient  who  suffered  from 
frequent  attacks  of  epilepsy,  invariably  followed  by  eight  or  ten  U 
days  of  acute  mania,  was  stated  to  have  recovered.  Another,  who  " 
had  cut  his  throat  during  an  attack  of  mania,  had  the  necessary 
surgical  operation  performed  during  mesmeric  antesthesia.  fl 

Later,  Esdaile   stated   that   Dr.   Keen,  of   Berbampore.  had  " 
employed  mesmerism  for  several  years  in  his  large  asylum,  where 
he  claimed  to  have  obtained  excellent  therapeutic  results,  and  also 
to  have  found  it  of  great  use  iri  maintaining  quiet  and  discipline. 

Braid  also  recorded  the  successful  treatment  of  several  cases 
of  delusional  insanity,  which  in  most  instances  were  complicated 
by  hallucinations.  Many  cases  are  also  reported  by  more  recent 
observers : — 

No.  47  (Voisin).  Miss .aged  22.   1880,  was  the  first 

insane  patient  treated  by  Voisin.  For  seven  mouths  she  had 
had  sub-acute  mania,  with  hallucinations ;  also  frequent  inter- 
current attacks  of  acute  mania,  vrith  homicidal  impulses.  It  was 
during  one  of  the  latter,  when  extremely  violent  and  confined  in 
a  strait -jacket,  that  Voisin  first  tried  to  liypnotise  her.  He 
Bucceeded  with  diiliculty  at  the  end  of  three  hours,  and  the 
patient  fell  into  a  profound  sleep  which  lasted  three  hours  and  a 
half.  At  first,  the  treatment  appeared  to  have  no  effect  upon  the 
recurrence  of  the  acute  maniacal  conditions,  and  Voisin  frequently 
found  her  violent  and  furious.  On  each  occasion,  however,  he 
cut  short  the  attack ;  and  it  was,  he  said,  astonishing  to  see  her 
fall  into  a  profound  and  calm  sleep,  when  a  moment  before  she 
had  been  yelling,  gesticulating  and  striking  her  attendants.  He 
then  commenced  to  prolong  her  aleep  by  suggestion,  and  kept  her 
in  the  hypnotic  state  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  a  day.  Notwith- 
standing this,  aa  soon  as  she  awoke  her  language  and  conduct 
were  deplorable  She  was  then  told  during  hypnosis  to  be 
obedient  and  well  -  behaved ;  these  suggestions  were  quickly 
responded  to :  she  became  well  conducted,  careful  of  her  person, 


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and  employed  herself  in  sewing,  &c.  Finally,  she  recovered 
completely,  and  became  a  nurse  in  one  of  the  Paris  hospitals, 
where  her  conduct  has  been  irreproachable. 

No.  48  (Voisin).    Miss  ,   aged    25,  November,  1884. 

Grandmother  epileptic  Five  years  previously,  the  patient  began 
to  Buffer  from  mania,  with  auditory  and  visual  hallucinations. 
Wlien  Voisin  first  saw  her  she  bad  frequent  acute  atticks  of 
furious  delirium,  lasting  from  eight  to  fourteen  days,  during  which 
she  refused  to  eat  or  drink,  spat  at  her  attendants  and  tried 
to  bite  them.  Voisin  succeeded  in  hypnotising  her  in  one  of  the 
attacks,  by  holding  her  eyes  forcibly  open  for  three  hours,  and 
compelling  her  to  look  fixedly  at  a  magnesium  lamp.  He  then 
suceessfully  suggested  that  she  should  sleep  twenty-three  hours 
and  a  half,  during  which  she  took  the  food  and  drink  she  had 
refused  in  the  waking  state.  At  first,  she  was  only  allowed  to 
remain  awake  three  hours  and  a  half  per  week,  but  as  she 
improvetl  the  duration  of  the  hypnotic  sleep  was  diminished. 
After  four  months'  treatment,  all  morbid  symptoms  disappeared, 
and  Hhe  became  polite,  sociable,  and  amiable.  Fifteen  months 
later  there  had  been  no  relapse,  and  she  obtained  the  poet  of 
«'ardrol>e  maid  at  the  Salpetri^re. 

No.  49  (A'^oisiu).  Miss ,  aged  40,  entered  Voisiu's  wards 

on  Jime  24th,  1886.  She  was  profoundly  melancholic  and 
almost  completely  mute;  when  she  spoke,  which  was  at  rare 
intervals,  she  stated  that  she  was  accused  of  murder,  and  that  the 
police  bad  come  to  an-eat  her.  During  the  day  she  rarely  moved; 
but  she  was  restless  at  night,  and,  as  she  was  continually  trying 
to  strangle  herself  (her  neck  was  surrounded  by  an  ecchymosed 
circle  evidently  produced  by  a  cord),  she  was  put  in  a  strait- 
jacket.  She  had  refused  to  eat  for  a  fortnight,  and  there  was 
incontinence  of  urine  and  f«cea. 

On  June  29th,  the  condition  was  unchanged.  She  was  then 
hypnotised,  told  to  sleep  all  night,  to  drink  the  milk  given  her, 
etc  Tliese  suggestions  were  successful ;  she  commenced  to 
improve  from  that  date,  and  at  the  end  of  a  montli  her  recovery 
was  complete. 

No.  50  (Voisin).  Miss  ,  agetl   20,  had  entered  Voisin's 

wards  a  year  previously ;  she  was  extremely  violent,  rolle^l  on 
the  ground,  tore  her  clothes,  would  not  work,  and  used  filthy 
language.       During    menstruation,    these    symptoms    were    so 


aggravated  that  she  was  kept  ia  a  strait- jacket.  Voisiu  succeeded 
in  hypnotising  her  at  the  beginning  of  a  mcnstmal  period,  and 
made  her  sleep  for  a  week :  this  was  repeated  on  four  subsequent 
occasions  with  Biniilar  results.  Not  only  did  the  patient  sleep 
quietly  during  the  whole  of  each  period,  hut  she  gradually  became 
calmer  and  more  rational  in  the  intervals,  and  then  recovered 
completely. 

In  1889,  Voisin  reported,  amongst  others,  the  following  cases 
of  which  he  had  traced  the  after-history:- — (1)  Melancholia  Tfitli 
hallucinations,  treated  in  1885.  (2)  Melancholia  with  hallucina- 
tions, suicidal  ideas,  and  attempted  suicide,  treated  in  1885. 
(3)  Acute  mania  with  convulsive  attacks,  treated  1886.  (4) 
Melanchoh'a  with  refusal  of  food,  treated  in  1884.  (5)  Sub- 
acute mania,  treated  1835.  (G)  Sub-acute  mania,  treated  1888. 
(7)  Acute  mania,  treated  1885,  (8)  Melancholia,  treated  1888. 
(9)  Melancholia,  treated  1888.  Cases  (8)  and  (9)  relapsed  after 
attacks  of  epilepsy;  the  remaining  seven  continued  well. 
Numerous  other  insane  cases,  many  of  them  equally  interesting 
and  sticcessfnl,  were  reported  by  Voiain  from  time  to  time. 

No.  51  (Dr.  Br^maud,  of  Brest),  Mrs.  - — -= — ,  aged  25,  had  good 
health  until  after  her  third  confinement,  when  she  became  melan- 
cholic, and  developed  an  intense  aversion  for  her  husband  and 
children.  This  was  associated  with  morbid  religious  ideas;  she 
believed  that  virgins  alone  could  enter  heaven,  and  that  she  was 
damned  eternally  on  account  of  her  marriage  and  pregnancies.  She 
thought  she  could  only  save  her  soul  by  penance,  and  tried  to 
starve  herself  to  death.  She  refusetl  aU  food,  Buftere<l  continuously 
from  insomnia,  and  rapidly  became  very  feeble  and  emaciated. 
She  was  hj'pnotised  at  the  first  attempt,  and  took  food  during 
the  hypnotic  state.  The  disappearance  of  all  morbid  fears  was 
suggested ;  on  waking  these  had  vanished,  and  she  asked  for  her 
children.  Hypnosis  was  repeated  the  next  day,  after  which  her 
recovery  was  complete;  two  years  later  there  had  been  no 
relapse. 

No.  52  (Velander,  Sweden).  Miss  .aged  36.  had  good 

health  up  to  25,  when  she  suddenly  commenced  to  be  troubled 
about  her  soul.  From  that  date  she  became  markedly  melancholic, 
and  more  and  more  silent;  by  tlie  end  of  twelve  months  she  was 
absolutely  mute,  and  remained  ao  for  ten  years.  Then  hypnotic 
treatment  was  commenced :  at  the  first  sitting,  after  repeated 


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suggestioDs.  she  spoke  a  few  words  iDdistinctly ;  a  fortnight  later 
she  was  welL 

Na  53  (Lidbeault).  Mrs.  .  aged  36,  May.  1892.     Her 

father  worried  about  trifles,  and,  after  losing  acme  money,  became 
melancholic  and  threatened  to  commit  suicide :  four  months  later 
he  drowned  himself  The  patient's  first  husband  was  accidentally 
drowned  twelve  months  after  marriage,  and  her  second  husband 
died  suddenly  when  she  had  been  married  three  years.  From 
that  date,  early  in  1891,  she  became  profoundly  melancholic. 
avoided  }ier  friends,  slept  kidly,  nej*lected  her  work  and  person ; 
and  had  the  fixed  idea  that  she  would  commit  suicide  by  drowning. 
She  was  hj^notised  52  times  from  May  to  (luly,  1892,  when  all 
Tuorbid  ideas  entirely  disappeared.  In  1394,  Liebeault  told  me 
that  she  was  still  well,  both  mentally  and  physically. 

No.   54   (Buret).   Mrs.    ^  aged  29.     Father  died  from 

congestion  of  the  bruin ;  on  the  mother's  side  an  aunt  and  cousin 
were  insane,  and  another  aunt  was  hysterical.  At  the  age  of 
20,  a  year  after  her  marriage,  the  patient  bad  miliary  fever.  Up 
to  that  time,  she  had  excellent  health  both  mentally  and  physi- 
cally, but  after  her  illness  she  became  emotional  and  irritable. 
Three  years  later,  after  mental  shock,  she  began  to  sleep  badly, 
and  suffered  from  nightmares  and  nocturnal  terrors.  She  com- 
plained of  pains,  flushings,  dizziness,  difticulty  in  breathing  and 
walking,  cough,  palpitation,  obstinate  constipation,  etc  She 
dreaded  death,  and  became  profoundly  depressed.  Two  years 
later  slie  began  to  heai'  noises  and  voices,  and  had  the  delusion 
that  certain  persons  had  combined  to  kill  her  and  her  family,  etc. 
She  became  so  excited  and  violent  that  she  was  placed  in  La 
Fond  Asylum.  At  first  the  excitement  continued,  she  suffered 
from  insomnia,  was  dirty  in  her  habits  and  refused  food  :  gradually 
she  became  calmer,  and  Hnally  passed  into  a  semi-idiotic  condition. 
At  the  end  of  four  months  she  was  sent  home,  when  she  again 
became  violent  and  difficult  to  manage ;  she  sometimes  escaped 
and  tried  to  drown  herself,  and  always  complained  that  she  was 
pursued  by  voices. 

The  patient  then  had  six  weeks'  hypnotic  treatment ;  this 
was  followed  by  vary  marked  improvement,  which  was  still 
maintained  six  months  lat«r,  when  she  was  again  brought  to  Dr. 
Burot,  and  had  renewe<l  treatment  for  six  weeks.  From  that 
date  all  morbid  symptoms  entirely  disappeared ;  she  had  neither 


ai6 


HYPNOTISM 


delu&iona  iior  Imllucinationa,  becam»  onc€  more  bright  and  cheerful, 
and  resumed  her  former  active  and  orderly  habits.     She  slept   ^ 
well,   the    constipation    disappeared,  and    her   periods,   formerly  fl 
irregular  and  scanty,  now  became  normal.     Later  reports  confirmed 
the  recovery. 

Successful  cases  ore  also  reported  by  other  Continental 
authorities ;  amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  Ri^poud  (the 
Cantonal  Asylum  of  Marsens,  Fribourg),  who  claims  to  have 
obtained  results  sinular  to  Voisin'B,  with  insane  patients  who 
were  not  hysterical ;  Bnickhardt  (Pr^fargier  Asylum),  casea  of 
delusional  insanity  and  acute  puerperal  mania ;  de  Jong,  and 
Rubinovitch,  cases  of  melancholia,  etc. 

Until  recently  few  attempts  have  been  made  in  this  country 
to  hypnotise  the  insane. 

In  1890,  Drs.  Percy  Smith  and  A,  T.  Myers  published  an 
account  of  the  hypnotic  treatment  of  21  insane  patients  in 
Bethtera  Hospital.  Improvement  followed  in  six  inetancea, 
but  the  results  appear  to  have  been  due  more  to  increased 
personal  attention  than  to  hypnotic  influence. 

In  1893,  similar  experiments  were  conducted  at  Momingside 
Asylum  by  Dr.  George  Robertson.  He  did  not  succeed  in  curing  ■ 
any  case  of  genuine  insanity,  but  hypnotism  enabled  him  to 
control  the  worst  case  of  suicidid  and  homicidal  mania  that  had 
been  in  Morningside  for  ten  years.  He  also  reported  that  a 
patient  suflering  from  hypochondriacal  melancholia  recovered 
after  six  weeks'  hypnotic  treatment 

The  following  is  his  sumtuary  of  the  uses  of  hypnotism  among 
the  insane  : — 


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(/.)  As  a  Direct  7%erapeutic  Agent. 

(a)  Hj'pnotism  sometimes  succeeds  in  intractable  cases  of 
insomnia  where  narcotics  have  failed,  and  thus  ought  to  be  of 
great  service  when  the  brain  nutrition  is  bad,  and  depressing 
drugs  specially  undesirable. 

(h)  Where  the  brain  is  highly  unstable,  it  may  be  of  direct 
therapeutic  value  as  a  sedative,  and  thus  prevent  an  outburst  of 
excitement  from  passing  into  mania. 

(c)  It  is  useful  in  dispelling  fleeting  delusional  states,  and 
minor  psychoses. 


» 


(//.)  For  Purposes  of  Managenunt. 

(a)  Hypnotism  may  be  used  to  overcome  the  morbid  re- 
siBtAnce  of  patients  to  the  administration  of  food,  medicine,  etc. 

(6)  It  may  be  employed  in  cases  of  excitement  and  \iolence, 
instead  of  mechanical,  chemical,  or  physical  means  of  restraint 

In  1897,  Dr.  Woods,  Hoxton  House  Asylum,  reported  the 
following  coses  treated  by  hypnotism : — 

10  cases  of  melancholia  (in  8  there  were  delusions).     Result: 

(6  recovered,  3  improved,  and  1  uninflueDced. 
1  case  of  puerperal  mania.     Ilecovered. 
3  cases  of  mtuiia.      1  recovered,  2  improved. 
1  case  of  dementiiL     Kfsxdt  nil. 
The  following  is  an  example : — 
No.  55  (Woods).  Melancholia. — Miss ,  ayed  16,  admitted 
December  20th,  189:;.     The  patient  was  in  great  distress,  cried 
continually,  and  had  delusions.     She  fancied  that  she  was  lost, 
wished  to  die,  was  fidl  of  self-aocusatioua  of  wiclcedness,  slept 
badly,  and  refused  food. 

She   had   ordinary  asylum    treatment    without   improvement 
until  the  second  week  in  January,  1894,  when  she  was  hypnotised 
tliree  times,  and  curative  suggestions  were  made.     Distinct  im- 
^provemcut  followed. 

Third  week. — Hypnotised  twice  and  continued  to  improve. 
Fourth  week. — Hypnotised  twice.     She  now  had  good  nights, 
took  her  food  well,  was  stronger,  and  had  not  cried  for  some  days. 
From  that  time  she  was  not  again  liypnotised,  but  continued 
to  improve,  and  by  April  3nl  had  recovered. 

Rtnuttks. — Voisin's  claim  to  have  been  the  first  to  employ 
hypnotism  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane  is  untenable,  and 
was  obviously  made  in  iguorance  of  the  work  of  lisdaile  and 
others.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  the  observations  of  Dr. 
George  Robertson,  as  to  the  advantages  of  hypnotism  in  procuring 
quiet  and  maintaining  asylum  discipline,  had  been  forestalled  by 
Dr.  Keen  more  than  forty  years  previously. 

While  moat  modern  writers  are  agreed  that  minor  psychoses 
can  be  dispelled  by  hypnotic  treatment,  few,  save  Voisin,  have 
claimed  to  have  cured  true  insanity  by  this  means.  Although  no 
one  denied  the  genuineness  of  Voisin's  results — his  patients  were 


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mostly  treated  iii  asylums,  and  open  to  the  observation  of  his 
colleagues — the  accuracy  of  his  diagnosis  was  disputed  by  Forel. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  latter.  Voisin'a  so-called  insane  patient» 
simply  suffered  from  hysteria ;  aud  this,  together  with  analogoua 
mental  troubles  of  n  fugitive  character,  could  undoubtedly  be  cut 
short  by  hypnotism.  Forel  admitted  that  he  had  been  able  to 
induce  sleep  in  the  insane  by  suggestion,  and  to  obtain  a  tem- 
porary cessation  of  hallucinations.  In  a  case  of  dementia  (with 
inactivity,  vicious  tendencies,  and  intercurrent  subnmniacal  attacks) 
he  succeeded  in  making  the  patient  work,  improved  his  mental 
condition,  and  arrested  the  maniacal  attacks,  which  had  not 
returned  three  years  later.  On  the  other  hand,  he  had  never 
cured  genuine  insanity  by  suggestion ;  and,  even  when  he  had 
succeeded  in  obtaining  hypnosis,  had  entirely  failed  to  produce 
any  permanent  influence  upon  the  morbid  mental  condition.  In 
true  melancholia,  he  had  only  been  able  to  induce  sleep  and 
hasten  convalescence.  The  brain,  lie  said,  was  the  instrument  we 
employed  in  suggestion ;  and,  if  the  instrument  itself  were  spoilt. 
we  were  no  longer  able  to  make  use  of  it,  or  only  to  a  very  small 
extent,  as  a  means  of  reacting  upon  itself,  aud  iulluencing  its 
functions  in  general. 

In  reply,  Voisin  admitted  that  hypnotism  could  do  nothing  in 
somatic  mental  affections,  such  as  general  paralysis,  apoplectic 
affections,  cerebral  softeuing,  etc. ;  but,on  the  other  hand,  he  claimed 
to  have  cured  many  cases  of  genuine  insanity  by  its  means — for 
example,  delusional  insanity,  in  which  the  patients  had  the  fixed 
belief  that  they  were  persecuted,  aud  had  marked  suicidal  impulses: 
also  cases  of  true  melancholia,  as  well  as  acute  and  sub-acute 
mania,  etc.  Further,  he  liad  also  succeeded  with  other  mental 
maladies,  more  or  less  closely  connected  with  insanity,  such  as  fl 
hysteria,  epilepsy,  and  conditions  of  mania,  etc.,  associated  with 
them ;  also  with  morpliinomania,  dipsomania,  moral  insanity  and 
perversity,  as  well  as  the  various  foims  of  obsession.  fl 

Finally,  even  if  his  patients  had  suffered  from  hysterical— 
not  true — insanity,  their  recovery  still  marked  a  therapeutic 
advance  of  no  little  importance.  Asylums,  he  said,  contained  a 
largo  number  of  the  hysterically  insane,  who  were  violent  and 
dangerous,  and  who  inspired  both  disgust  and  pity  Ijy  their 
tendency  to  drink  and  steal,  their  lies,  dirtiness,  and  obscene 
and  unnatural  acts.     Many  of  these,  who  had  long  been  asylum 


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inmates,  were  now — thanks  to  hypnotism — leading  active  and 
useful  lives. 

B^poad  and  others  claim  to  have  obtained  results  similar  to 
Voiflin'fi  ;  but,  despite  tlieir  support,  the  question  whether  insanitj' 
in  its  graver  forms  can  be  cured  by  hypnotism  is  still  under 
discussion.  One  must  not  forget,  however,  in  endeavouring  to 
estimate  the  value  of  this  form  of  treatment,  that  the  experiment 
practically  dates  from  Voisin's  Hrst  case  in  1880,  and  that  com- 
paratively few  attempts  Iiave  been  made  by  others  to  give  the 
method  a  fair  trial.  This  is  [lartially  explained  by  the  amount 
of  time  and  trouble  the  process  fi-equeutly  requires.  At  first  Voisin 
only  succeeded  with  10  [)er  cent  of  his  insane  patients,  and  this 
often  only  after  prolonged  and  repeated  sittings.  Later,  his  per- 
centage rose,  and  the  time  required  was  less ;  but  the  process  was 
still  usually  difficult  and  tedious.  Dr.  George  Robertson,  it  is 
true,  states  that  between  a  third  and  a  half  of  suitable  cases  may 
be  hypnotised,  and  considers  one  attempt  of  fifteen  minutes 
sufTieicnL  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  statement,  confirmed  by 
DO  other  modem  obser\'er,  is  unaccompanied  by  a  complete  list  of 
oases  treated.  Tlie  value  of  the  Beihlem  exiwriments  is  much 
lessened  by  the  fact  that  in  no  instance  did  tlic  number  of  attempts 
exceed  nine,  while  in  six  cases  only  one  was  made. 

Mauy  of  those  who  stated  that  they  were  unable  to  personally 
confirm  Voisiu's  results,  admitted  that  their  experience  had  been 
extremely  limited — some,  for  example,  had  only  tried  hypnotism 
in  one  or  two  cases  of  true  insanity. 

My  own  experiments,  in  coses  of  undoubted  insanity,  have 
been  too  few  to  be  of  value.  I  have,  however,  as  already  jiointed 
out,  had  good  results  in  many  cases  of  melancholia,  sucli  as  have 
been  classed  as  insane  in  some  other  statistics. 

On  the  one  hand,  then,  we  have  negative  or  imperfect  residts 
cited  by  authorities  who,  as  u  rule,  have  only  attempted  to 
hypnotise  a  limited  number  of  insane  cases,  and  generally 
speaking  not  under  the  conditions  Voisin  found  essential  to 
success.  Thus,  (1)  Frequently  sufticient  time  was  not  given  to 
the  attempted  induction  of  hypnoaia.  (2)  Tlie  experiment  was 
not  repeated  often  enough.  (3)  After  hypnosis  was  obtained, 
Voisin's  methods — prolonged  sleep,  etc. — were  rarely  employe<l. 

On  the  otlier  hand,  we  have  the  strong  positive  evidence  of 
Voiain'a  successful  cases.     These  number  several  hundreds,  and 


p 


represent  eighteen  years'  work ;  while  the  afler-liistory  of  maiiy 
of  them  was  carefully  traced,  when  it  was  found  that  the  recover^' 
had  been  maintained. 

The  question,  as  raised  by  Forel.  is  really  little  more  than 
one  of  diagnosis  as  to  the  conditions — organic  or  functional — 
associated  with  [  the  mental  disturbances.  To  the  ordinary 
individual,  patients  who  have  been  asylum  inmates  for  years, 
who  are  filthy  in  language  person  and  conduct,  who  refuse  food, 
attack  their  friends  and  attendants,  and  suffer  from  delusions  and 
hallucinations,  are  insane  enough  for  all  practical  purposes.  The 
treatment  which  in  Voisin's  liands  cured  such  patients,  and 
enabled  them  to  return  to  work,  is  surely  worthy  of  further 
investigation  and  experiment  Apart  from  this,  it  must  also  be 
admitted  tliat  ii  certain  proportion  of  the  insane  are  cured  or 
recover;  and  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a  method  of 
treatment  which — without  drugs — can  sometimes  procure  sleep, 
remove  excitement  and  other  morbid  mental  conditions,  may  prove 
a  valuable  remedial  agent. 

Further,  at  a  later  date.  Forel  himself  rejwrted  successful 
cases.  In  one  instance  the  putient,  who  Irelieved  himself  to  be 
controlled  by  a  spirit,  which  entirely  regulated  his  life  and  forced 
him  to  do  the  most  absurd  things,  was  easily  hypnotised  by  Forel: 
thr,  hallucinations  disappeared  after  the  first  sitting.  Another 
patient,  who  suffered  from  paranoia  with  delusions  of  persecution, 
also  recovered  after  hypnotic  treatment.     No  relapse. 

In  conclusion,  the  following  i)oints  as  to  Voisin's  methods 
deserve  notice : — 

( 1 )  His  first  attempt  to  induce  hypnosis  was  sometimes 
continued  for  three  houre,  and  the  process  repeated  daily  for 
weeks. 

(2)  He  did  not  give  varimi  curative  suggestions  to  begin  with, 
but  frequently  repeated  one  as  to  the  relief  of  some  prominent 
symptom,  and  then  left  the  patient  in  the  liypuotic  trance  for  an 
hour  or  two. 

(3)  AVhen  patienta  did  not  respond  readily  to  suggestion, 
Voisin  kept  them  continuously  in  the  hypnotic  state — often  for 
several  weeks  at  a  time.  He  found  this  a  therapeutic  method  of 
great  value ;  it  was  also  of  much  use  in  preventing  regularly 
recurring  attacks  of  mania,  especially  those  associated  with  the 
menstrual  period. 


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(4)  Voisin  neither  experimented  with  his  patients  nor  suggested 
delusions,  hallucinations,  nor  any  act  or  thought  that  could  be 
hurtful.  He  invariably  suggested  obedience  and  usefulness,  good 
thoughts  and  actions,  and  the  desire  to  be  helpful,  amiable,  etc. 


(4)  Dipsomania  and  Chronic  Alcoholism. 


I 

^m  Since  I  came  to  Loudou,  about  teu  years  ago,  I  have  treated 
^H  76  cases  of  dipsomauia  and  chronic  alcoholism  by  means  of 
^■hypnotic  suggestion.  I  propose  (I.)  to  draw  attention  to  the 
^^ general  results;  (II.)  to  cite  illustrative  cases;  (III.)  to  discuss 

kaome  points  iji  reference  to  the  morbid  conditions  involved,  and 
to  this  particular  method  of  treating  them. 


(I.)  CiKNKitAL  Results. 


1 
] 

1 


(a)  Recovei'ies. — 28  cases  recovered  :  by  this  I  mean  that  the 
patients  ceased  drinking  during  treatmeut ;  and  that,  so  far  as  I 

(have  been  able  to  learn,  they  have  remained  total  abstainers  up 
to  the  prc-ient  date,  or  to  that  of  the  last  report  received.  Although 
the  earliest  of  these  cases  has  now  paased  ten  years  without 
relapse,  I  will  not  describe  the  patient  as  "  cured,"  for  it  is 
possible  thot  the  disease  may  return  :  one  of  my  patients  relapsed 
after  eight  years'  total  abstinence. 

Of  the  above  28  cases,  17  were  males  and  11  females.     The 

'average  age  was  40.     Average  number  of  h}'pnotic  treatments,  30. 

I  Average  length  of  time  since  recovery,  3  years. 
All  the  patients  in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  two  other  groups, 
belonged  to  the  educated  classes, 
(ft)  Cases  improved. — These  numbered  36 — 26  males  and 
10  females.  Average  age,  39.  Average  number  of  hypnotic 
treatments,  32.  Avei-age  length  of  time  since  treatment,  3t^  years. 
The  results  obtained  in  this  class  varied  widely.  Tlie  best 
case  abstained  for  eight  yeara,  then  relapsed,  but  has  now — after 
further  treatment — again  abstained  for  eighteen  months.  In  a 
^  conaideiiible  proportion  of  the  remainder  the  improvement  has 
^pibeen  marked  and  valuable.  Several  of  the  patients,  who  formerly 
^^le<l  lives  of  drunkenness,  are  now  engaged  in  useful  work  and 
only  drink  at  rare  intervals. 


(c)  Failures. — These  numbered  12 — 10  moles  and  2  fomalee. 
Average  age,  43.     Average  uuiuber  of  hypnotic  treatments,  20. 

In  the  majority  of  the  above  cases  it  was  impossible  to  get 
the  patients  to  cease  drinking  during  treatment,  wliich,  in  6  out 
of  12,  waa  very  short.  In  more  than  one  instance,  however, 
although  the  treatment  was  prolonged,  and  carried  out  under 
favourable  circumstances,  no  beuetit  was  obtained. 

As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  leani,  all  the  cases  of  failure 
that  passed  through  my  hands  arc  now  dead  or  still  remain  un- 
cured.  Several  of  them  left  me  to  go  into  retreats ;  but  few,  if 
any,  derived  lasting  benefit  thei*e. 


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(II.)  Illustrativk  Casss. 

(a)  Recoveries. 

No.  56.  Dr. ,  aged  32,  February',   1893,  began  taking 

stimulants  at  college,  and  took  them  regularly  afterwards,  although 
rarely  in  excess  till  1888.  At  that  date,  he  had  been  in  practice 
for  two  years  and  waa  doing  well,  then  had  frequent  drinking- 
bouts.  Despite  continued  and  careful  supervision,  he  drank 
rectified  spirits  in  secret,  sometimes  several  gallons  a  month. 
His  health  suffered  greatly,  he  was  often  on  the  verge  of  delirium 
tremens,  and  on  one  occasion  was  supposed  to  have  had  slight 
cerebi*a!  hiemorrhage.  He  complained  of  palpitation  and  angina 
pectoris,  and  asserted  that  it  was  the  pain  of  the  latter  which 
made  him  drink.  As  his  bouts  of  drunkenness  became  more 
frequent  and  severe,  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  work  and  to 
return  home.  There  he  became  steadier,  and  his  parents  pur>  H 
chased  another  practice  for  him.  At  first  he  did  well,  but  soon 
began  drinking  again  and  often  took  narcotics.  I  was  told  that, 
unless  I  could  cure  him,  he  would  have  to  give  up  work  and  be 
kept  by  his  parents. 

He  was  hypnotised  44  times  from  February  2l8t  to  April 
18th,  1893  :  he  then  returned  to  his  practice  at  a  distance  from 
town,  and  I  have  not  seen  him  since.  Shortly  after  beginning 
treatment  he  entirely  abandoned  stimulants  and  narcotics,  and 
soon  lost  all  craving  for  them.  He  rapidly  improved  in  health 
and  weight,  and  ceased  to  complain  of  palpitation  or  angina. 
After  passing  twelve  mouths  without  relapse,  he  married-     On 


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February  27th,  1894,  his  mother  wrote  as  I'oUows: — "The 
treatiueijt.  has  beeu  completely  succeasfuL  My  sou  is  perfectly 
woll,  and  quit*  like  his  old  self — sound  in  mind  and  body,  and 
without  the  slightest  wish  or  need  to  take  drugs  or  stimulants  in 
any   form   whatever.      His  practice   increases   steadily.      Could 

anything  be  more  satisfactoiy  ? "     About  the  same  date  Dr. 

wrote  to  say  that  he  had  never  felt  better  in  liis  Ufe,  and  had  no 
desire  for  stimulants.  From  then  up  to  the  present  time  (1903) 
I  have  heard  occasionally  from  my  patient  or  his  wife.  AU  the 
reports  are  of  the  same  character:  he  is  strong,  well,  happy, 
prosperous,  and  a  total  abstainer, 

Na  57.  Mt. ,  aged  ^5,  with  a  family  history  of  alcohol- 
ism, had  taken  stimulants  in  excess  since  the  age  of  18.  Marked 
dipsomania  during  the  last  four  years.  Two  attacks  of  delirium 
tremens.  The  patient  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Walker,  of  St. 
John's  Wood;  hypnotic  treatment  was  begun  in  December,  1896, 
and  continued  for  about  two  months.  The  patient  abstained 
from  alcohol  from  the  beginning  of  treatment  until  his  death 
from  accident  tliree  years  later. 

No.  58.  Mr. ,  aged  37,  December,  1898,  had  a  family 

history  of  alcoholism.  With  the  exception  of  six  months,  which 
he  spent  in  a  doctor's  lioiise,  the  patient  had  drunk  to  excess 
for  many  years.  He  was  not  easily  affected  by  stimulants,  and 
rarely  got  into  a  state  of  obvious  intoxication :  he  soaked,  was 
sodden,  dull,  stupid,  and  listless.  He  had  enough  money  to 
live  on,  and  was  without  occupation,  hobbies,  or  friends.  After 
ordinary  medical  treatment  had  been  abandoned,  his  relatives 
persuaded  him  to  place  himself  under  my  care.  Hypnotic 
treatment  was  begun  in  December,  1898:  shortly  afterwards 
all  craving  disappeared,  and  the  patient  1>ecame  an  abstainer. 
Up  to  the  present  date — February,  1903- — there  has  been 
no  relapse,  and  be  leads  a  healthier,  more  interested,  and 
active  life. 

No.  59.  Mra ,  aged  44,  November  23rd,  1894,  was  sent 

to  me  by  Mr.  Jessop,  of  Leeda  Family  history  of  alcoholism.  At 
the  age  of  20  the  patient  had  frequent  hysterical  attacks,  and  for 
these  stimulants  were  prescribed  in  rather  large  quantities.  Two 
years  later  she  began  to  drink  in  excess,  but  did  not  do  so  often, 
and  rarely  became  intoxicated.  From  32  to  36,  she  was  an 
abstainer ;    she  then   couunenced  taking  stimulants  again,  and 


attacks  of  genuine  dipsomania  soon  appeared.  From  that  time 
she  suffered  from  an  almost  constant  craving  for  alcohol.     She 

was,  however,  a  woman  of  culture,  refinemeut  and  high  principle 

devoted  to  her  huslfand  aud  children — and  the  idea  of  giving  way 
to  drink  was  in  every  way  abhorrent  to  her.  She  struggled  with 
all  her  might  against  the  temptation  ;  but,  after  fighting  it  aucceas- 
fully  for  a  week  or  two,  the  craving  became  irreaiatible,  and  a 
driukiug-bout  invariably  followed.  fl 

Hypnotic  treatment  was  begun  on  November  23rd,  1894, 
and  continued  to  February  14th,  1895.  From  the  very  firat 
sitting  she  abstained  from  stimulants,  but  the  craving,  although  H 
much  dimiuiflhed,  did  uot  entirely  disappear  for  some  months. 
Up  to  the  present  date — April,  1903 — there  has  been  absolutely 
no  relapse.  It  is  to  be  noted  tliat  in  this  case,  although  the 
patient  responded  immediately  to  suggestion,  there  were  uo  other 
indications  of  hypnosis. 


(b)  Casf3  Improved. 

No.  60.  Mr. ,  aged  40,  October,  1891,  had  a  family 

history  of  alcoholism  and  had  long  taken  spirits  too  freely :  for 
the  kst  four  years  his  drinking  -  bouts  had  been  frequent  and 
severe.  He  suffered  from  insomnia,  digestive  troubles,  and 
lightning  pains,  and  walked  badly — his  feet  seemed  encased  in 
wool,  and  ho  had  difficulty  in  feeling  the  pavement  A  well- 
known  specialist  told  him  he  had  locomotor  ataxy,  and  was 
incurable.  Ho  was  then  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Morier,  of  St.  John's 
Wood,  and  hypnotised  1 5  times,  liesult :  six  months'  abstention 
from  alcohol,  with  marked  improvement  in  general  health  and 
ner\'ouH  symptoms.  lusomnia  then  reappeared,  aud  lie  took 
alcohol  occasiounlly  and  narcotics  —  geuerally  sulphonal — 
regularly.  After  six  weeks'  renewed  treatment  in  the  autumn  of 
1892,  he  remained  an  abstainer  for  three  years,  and  the  ataxic 
symptoms  entirely  disappeared.  Later,  he  agaiu  took  narcotics 
regularly  and  stimulants  occasionally,  and  died  suddenly  &om 
cardiac  syncope. 

No.   61.    Mr.  ,   aged   47,  April,    1895.      Father  and 

mother  drank  to  excesa  The  patient,  who  lived  in  Australia, 
commenced  drinking  when  at  Oxford,  and  had  done  so  ever 
since.     He   married  in   1876^  and   was  frequently  intoxicated 


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during  Iub  houeyinoou.  In  1878.  he  had  his  first  epileptic  fit, 
followed  by  six  others  at  diataat  intervals.  There  had  been 
three  attacks  of  delirium  tremens,  the  first  in  1879.  He  not 
only  had  frequent  excessive  drinking  -  bouts,  but  also  took 
fitimulauts  regidarly,  except  when  ill  after  an  unusually  bad 
attack.  He  always  got  drunk  when  he  visited  hia  farm,  and 
only  returned  home  sober  four  times  out  of  a  hundred  and  fifty. 
He  came  to  England  in  1895,  and  had  an  attack  of  delii'ium 
tremens  just  before  beginning  •  treatment  in  April,  1895.  He 
was  then  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Allden,  of  Bridport,  and  easily 
hypnotised  at  the  first  attempt ;  he  at  once  become  a  total 
abstainer,  but  treatment  was  continued  for  two  months.  He 
then  went  back  to  Australia,  fought  a  keenly  contested  election 
without  touching  stimulants,  and  gained  a  seat  in  Parliament 
There  was  no  relapse  until  the  autumn  of  1898,  when  he  began 
to  take  stimulants  occasionally.  He  returned  for  further  treat- 
ment on  January  9tb,  1901.  He  was  again  easily  hypnotised, 
and  at  once  gave  up  all  stimulanto.  There  has  been  no  return 
of  the  epilepsy. 

(c)  Failures. 

No.  62.  Mrs. .  aged  40,  September.  1893,  with  a  family 

history  of  alcoholism,  had  suffered  from  dipsomania  for  seven 
years.  After  a  fortnight's  treatment,  during  which  time  the 
patient   took  stimulants   regularly,   and   became   intoxicated  on 

,  more  than  one  occasion,  the  treatment  was  abandoned. 

|l       No.  63.   Mr. ,  December.  1893.  aged  32,  with  famUy 

history  of  alcoholism,  had  taken  stimulants  in  excess  since  the 
age  of  18.  Well-marked  dipsomania  during  the  last  five  years. 
The  patient  was  seen  on  four  occasions,  but.  as  each  time  he 
presented  himself  in  an  intoxicated  condition,  the  treatment  was 

.abandoned. 

I  Remarks. — In  addition  to  cases  reported  by  other  observers 
in  this  country,  successful  ones  have  been  published  by  Knory, 
Farez,  Vlavianos,  Bourdo!i,  Bechterew,  Ribokoff.  Bushnell,  Voisin, 
Uidame,  Forel,  Tatzel,  Hirt,  Nielsoo,  de  Jong,  Bcrnheim,  van 
Eeden,     van     Henterghem,     Hamilton     Osgood,     Wetterstrand, 

,  Schrenck- Not  zing,  Krafft-Ebing,  etc. 

For  example,  de  Jong  reported  tliat   he  had  treated  many 
9,  some  of  which  had  then  remained  over  three  years  without 

Q 


relapse,  Hirt  claimed  to  have  had  eight  complete  recoveries  out 
of  thirteen  cases.  Wettcrstraud  cited  the  case  of  a  man  who 
for  several  years  had  drunk  a  bottle  of  brandy,  and  injected 
30  centigrammea  of  morphia,  daily.  Kecovery  took  place  after 
34  sittings,  and  there  had  been  no  relapse.  Voisin  published 
numerous  successful  cases,  some  of  them  being  women  over  40 
years  of  age.  He  traced  the  subsequent  history  of  many  of 
them,  and  reported  years  later  that  there  had  been  no  relapse. 
Ladame  drew  special  attention  to  three  cases  treated  by  Forel : 
alt  of  tbcm  hud  BufTurcd  from  chronic  alcoholism  and  albocka  of 
delirium  tremens,  and  hud  long  been  inmates  of  his  asylum. 
They  were  extremely  difficult  to  manage,  and  expressed  theirfl 
determination  to  resume  drinking  as  soon  as  they  were  liberated ; 
but,  despite  this,  complete  recovery  followed  hypnotic  treatment. 


1 


(III.)  Some  Poi>'T8  in  EEyEBENCE  to  the  Mohbid  CoKDmoifs 

INVOLVED,    AND    THEIB    TREATMENT    BY    HyPXOTIC    SUGGESHON.     ^ 

As  the  majority  of  my  patients  suffered  from  dipsomania,  f 
wish  to  say  a  word  as  to  tliat  condition,  and  the  ditterences 
between  it  and  ordinary  alcoholism.  A  tj^^ical  case  of  the 
former  presents  the  following  phenomena: — The  patient,  while 
abstaining,  begins  to  lie  haunted  with  ideas  about  drink.  This 
is  soon  followed  by  the  desire  for  drink,  but  at  first  the  impulse 
is  combated  by  the  will.  It  soon,  however,  becomes  irresistible; 
and,  after  the  first  glass  ia  taken,  the  craving  is  increased,  and 
the  struggle  is  abandoned  in  despair.  The  patient  then  drinks^fl 
for  a  varying  perio<:l,  after  which  tlie  craving  suddenly  disappears ; 
this  stage  is  followed  by  one  of  physical  weakness  accompanied 
by  remorse.  These  conditions  in  their  turn  disappear,  and  the 
patient  enjoys  a  period  of  more  or  less  complete  health  and  comfort, 
nndistnrl)ed  by  any  morbid  craving  for  atimulants.  This  passes,  and 
a  new  attack  l>egins  which  follows  the  course  of  its  predecessors. 

The  Ezcitini)  Causes  of  DijKoniaviia. — In  many,  but  by  no 
means  all  my  cases,  there  was  a  family  history  of  altoholism. 
It  is  difficult  to  determine,  however,  what  part  this  played  in 
the  production  of  the  dipsomania,  as  T  have  also  known  many 
instances  where  drunkenness  in  the  parents  was  followed  by 
total  abstinence  in  the  children.  On  the  other  hand,  all  the 
dii>8umaniaca  I  have  observed  showed  symptoms  of  degeneracy ; 


ft 


most  of  them  were  iinpulsive,  nervous,  emotional,  sensitive,  and 
thus  more  or  less  ill-balanced  mentally. 

An  accidental  circumstance — usually  some  mental  trouble — 
IS  generally  the  immediate  exciting  cause  of  the  first  attack. 
Similar  causes  may  excite  subsequent  attacks ;  but  wlien  the 
disease  is  fully  developed,  its  manifestations  occur  at  more  or 
less  regular  iutervals,  and  often  without  any  discoverable 
immediate  exciting  cause.  I  do  not  know,  however,  of  a  single 
case  in  which  dipsomania  has  been  suddenly  aroused,  no  matter 
by  what  cause,  in  those  who  till  then  had  been  total  abstainers. 
In  all  tliere  was  a  previous  history  of  the  use  of  alcohol 

Biffe-miccs  heiween  2)ipsv7nania  and  oOur  Forms  of  Intemperance. 
— Many  persons,  who  are  strong,'  botii  mentally  and  physically, 
habitimlly  take  too  much  alcohol — they  do  so  on  account  of  the 
physical  or  mental  comfort  it  brings.  Usually  they  do  not 
struggle  against  their  self-indulj^ence  until  it  begins  to  endanger 
theii*  health,  pocket,  or  reputation.  The  dipsomaniac,  on  the 
other  hand,  drinks  because  he  is  impelled  to  do  so  against  his 
will  Drink,  though  it  may  have  been  enjoyed  previously,  now 
gives  him  neither  physical  comfort  nor  meutal  pleasure,  and  he 
struggles  through  an  attack  like  a  felon  working  out  his  sentence. 

The  moral  couditioa  of  the  average  inebriate  differs  widely 
from  that  of  the  ordinary  dipsomaniac.  Shame  is  often  sadly 
lacking  in  the  foi-mer,  while  the  dipsomaniac,  on  the  contrary, 
feels  his  degradation  keenly.  Finally,  the  drunken  bouts  of  the 
dipsomaniac,  unlike  those  of  the  ordinary  inebriate,  are  rai'ely 
Associated  with  other  excesses. 


Pi-o^osis. 

According  to  Ladame.  the  prognosis  in  dipsomania,  especially 
where  there  is  a  family  history  of  alcoholism,  is  an  extremely 
grave  one  ;  and  prolonged  retention  in  an  asylum  or  a  retreat 
rarely  yields  good  results.  He  admitted  that  total  abstinence 
societies  did  valuable  work,  but  considered  their  method  of 
treatment  somewhat  analogous  to  the  hypnotic.  When  they 
succeeded,  the  patient  was  generally  under  the  influence  of 
religious  ideas,  propounded  and  received  '*  au  momtni  ■psyehc' 
iogiqM,"  while  he  was  in  a  condition  of  remorse  and  despair. 
The  solemn  vow  which  he  made  to  abstain  from  drink  was  also 
a  powerful   self- suggestion.      If   the  subsequent   circumstances 


1 


■were  favourable,  and  his  friends  rallied  round  him  and  encouraged 
him  in  every  way  possible,  there  was  a  chance  of  his  being 
cured.  On  the  other  hand,  mauy  dipsomaniacs  were  not 
responsive  to  reli^ous  or  ordinary  mora!  influences :  such  cases 
were  not  likely  to  receive  benefit  fi-om  total  abstinence  societies 
and  similar  means,  but  often  recovered  under  hypnotic  treatment. 

Hypnotic  Treaimmt, 

The  following  are  the  most  important  points : — 

(1)  The  patient  must  be  willing  to  be  cured.  Difficulties  as 
to  this  arc  more  frequently  encountered  in  cases  of  chronic 
alcoholism  than  in  dipsomania.  Kven  the  latter  patients,  bow-  ■ 
ever,  sometimes  dread  treatment,  as  they  think  it  may  raise  an 
artificial  barrier  between  them  and  drink,  and  yet  leave  them 
fighting  with  the  craving.  Probably  also  they  have  been  told 
that  hypnotism  is  dangerous,  and  will  rob  them  of  their  will- 
power. These  fears  are  usually  dispelled  by  means  of  a  little 
tact  and  explanation.  The  patient  must  be  made  to  understand 
that  the  object  of  the  treatment  is  to  remove  the  craving :  that 
the  force  of  the  volition  is  increased,  not  diminished,  by  hypnosis ; 
and  that  the  use  of  hypnotism  for  medical  purposes,  in  skilled 
hands,  is  absolutely  devoid  of  danger. 

(2)  Susceptibility  to  hypnosis  is  a  >'arying  and  important 
factor.  Most  authorities  ^ree  that  all,  except  idiots  and  those 
suffering  from  certain  forms  of  mental  disease,  can  be  hypnotised. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  ill-balanced  are  usually  difficult  to 
influeuca  Time  and  trouble  are  often  requisite ;  and  frequently- 
slight  hypnosis  alone  can  be  induced.  Fortunately  deep  hypnosis 
is  not  essential  to  the  production  of  good  therapeutic  results. 

(3)  In  dipsomania  one  ought  to  begin  treatment  at  the 
commencement  of  a  period  of  quiescence,  and  aim  at  preventing, 
or  at  all  events  retarding  and  weakening,  the  next  attack. 
When  stimulants  are  taken  continually,  the  patient  must  be 
helped  and  encouraged  to  reduce  them  as  speedily  as  possible, 
and  then  stop  them  altogether. 

(4)  The  management  of  the  patient  during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  treatment,  before  suggestion  has  taken  effect,  is  important. 
If  possible,  he  should  never  be  left  alone,  but  always  have 
near  him  some  trustworthy  person,  to  whom  he  can  confide  his 
temptations,  and  turn  for  aid  in  overcoming  them.     As  restraint 


I 


I 


had  proved  useless  iu  all  the  cases  which  came  uuder  my  notice 
I   never  employed   it     Doubtless   it  might  have   been   a  help 
At  the  commencement  of  the  treatment,  but  its  moral  cilect  is 
I  jnvariably  bad. 

(5)  The  operator  must  be  persevering  and  not  easily  dis- 
couraged :  many  persons,  who  ultimately  do  well,  relapse  more 
than  once  during  treatment. 

(6)  A  distaste  for  alcohol  ought  to  be  suggested,  as  well  as 
the  abolition  of  the  craving  for  it.  The  patient  must  be  made 
to  miderstand  lliat  he  can  never  look  forward  to  being  a  moderate 
drinker,  and  that  the  only  choice  before  him  lifis  between  total 

'  abstinence  and  the  gutter. 

(7)  Even  when  the  craving  disapi>ear8  quickly,  the  patients 
ought  to  be  hypnotised  regularly  for  a  month.  If  they  can  be 
seen  from  time  to  time  for  the  next  six  months,  so  much  the 
better  and  safer. 

(8)  The  object  of  the  treatment  is  not  only  to  cure  the 
diseased  craving,  but  also  to  strengthen  the  will  of  the  patient, 
and  lielp  him  to  combat  the   temptatious   of  social   life.     The 

I  latter  point  is  important.     Some  patients  forget  what  they  have 

gone  through,  and,  although  they  have  no  diseased  craving,  yield 

to  ordinary  temptation.      If  the  patient  has  not  gained  the  power 

of  controlling  himself,  the  treatment  ha-s  failed  in  its  object ;  for 

^l«elf-control,  not  artificiiil  restraint,  is  its  esseJitial  feature. 

^M        In  estimating  the  results,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 

^■majority  of  my  cases  were  extremely  unfavourable  ones. 


I 
I 


(6)  Morphinomania  and  other  Dru^  Habits. 


^ 


Patients  sutfering  from  hysteria  and  neurasthenia  frequently 
acquire  drug  habits ;  the  latter,  however,  are  usually  abandoned 
as  soon  aa  the  insomnia  and  other  morbid  symptoms  disappear 
under  treatment.  This,  however,  is  only  true  of  ordinary  hypnotic 
drugs,  and  does  not  apply  to  opium  or  morphia.  The  treatment 
Eof  imtients  addicted  to  the  latter,  especially  where  the  drug  is 
administered  subcutaneously,  presents  many  difficulties,  and  re- 
lapses are  frequent.  My  personal  results  have  been  so  much 
lesa  satisfactory  than  thase  of  Wetterstrand,  that  I  will  only  cite 
two  cases  from  my  own  practice,  and  deal  more  fully  wuth  hia 
taliatics. 


ajo 


HYPNOTISM 


No.  64.  Mr. ,  aged  25,  Februarj-,  1899,  suffered  frxim 

chronic  diurrhrea  at  the  age  of  16,  for  which  a  mixture  contalniDg 
jBudaimm  was  prescribed.  Thia  was  the  commencement  of  an 
opium  habit  whiuli  had  continued  ever  since:  it  was  diflicult  to 
ascertain  the  exact  amount  taken,  aa  tlio  patient  tried  to  conceal 
this,  but  he  admitted  to  a  daily  cousimiption  of  6  drachms  of 
laudanum.  Latterly  lie  liad  mucli  changed  in  character,  while 
his  memory  and  general  business  capacity  were  raarkctUy  impaired. 
The  patient  was  sent  to  me  by  Or.  Ware,  of  Hampstcad,  on 
February  24th,  1899,  and  hypnotised  40  times  up  to  July  19th, 
1899.     Result:  recovery,  confirmed  by  later  repnrts. 

No.  G5.    Mi-3.  ,  aged   37,  February.    1898.      Twelve 

months  previously,  after  an  attack  of  intluenza,  the  patient  began 
to  sulier  from  insomnia  and  severe  depression.  Sleep  was  never 
obtained  without  narcotics,  and  there  was  one  attempt  at  suicide. 
Si.\  months  later,  there  were  frequent  attacks  of  intercostal 
neuralgia,  and,  to  relieve  these,  morphia  was  injected  subcutane- 
ously.  This  had  been  continued  ever  since,  and  repeated  several 
times  daily.  The  amount  taken  varied,  but  it  was  never  less 
than  .J  grains.  Hypnosis  was  induced  at  the  first  attempt  in 
Februar\%  1898,  and  the  patient  slept  well  the  following  night. 
After  a  fortnight's  treatment  the  morphia  was  abandoned,  and 
all  morbid  symptoms  quickly  disappeared.  Up  to  the  last  report 
(190.'^)  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

The  following  table,  published  in  1896,  gives  Wetterstrand's 
results  in  51  ca.ses  : — - 


Morphiniism  in  wlitdi  llie  morpbiA 
W*B  injected  subcuUineoualy     . 

Morphinism  in  which  ihe  mui-pliia 
wan  tjikeu  internally 

Mor[>hiiLi»m  and  Alcoholism 

Morphinism  and  Cocaluisuk 

Cocainiam  ..... 

Opium  internally 

Ghloralism  .... 

TqUI 


SI       30 


38 


61 


3        6 


S8 


37 


1^. 


^ 


Many  of  tbe  cases  were  extremely  grave  and  of  long  standing ; 
and  with  several  abstineuce-lreatment  in  a  nursing  home  had 
been  tried,  sometimes  more  than  once,  without  success.  Amongst 
the  successful  ones  wiis  a  medical  man  who  had  taken  morpliia 
for  eighteen,  and  cocaine  for  four,  years.  Another  patient,  Dr. 
Landgren,  published  his  own  case  five  years  aftei*  he  had  been 
successfully  treated  by  Wetterstrand.  Ho  had  taken  morphia 
for  nineteen  years,  witli  the  exception  of  a  few  months  spent  in 
a  retreat. 

In  many  instances  the  moq>hia  had  been  prescribed  for  the 
relief  of  some  disease.  When  this  was  a  functional  nervous 
disorder  it  generally  yielded  to  sug^^estion ;  but,  even  in  organic 
and  incurable  maladies,  AVetterstnind  was  often  able  to  arrest 
pain,  procure  sleep,  and  break  the  narcotic  habit.  From  this  he 
concluded  that  sng^^estive  treatment  ought  to  be  tried  before 
narcotics  were  prescribed,  even  in  diseases  likely  to  end 
fatally. 

All  Wetterstrand's  cases,  with  the  exception  of  one,  were 
treated  in  private  houses,  and  he  found  residence  in  a  i-etreat 
quite  unnecessary.  The  following  are  tbe  points  which  he  con- 
sidered the  most  imix>rtnnt  in  order  to  ensure  success: — (1) 
The  patient  should  be  placed  uuder  tlie  care  of  an  absolutely 
trustworthy  nurse.  (2)  The  doctor  must  gain  tbe  patient's  con- 
fidence, treating  him  as  an  invalid  deserving  of  symi»athy,  and 
not  blame  him  for  having  given  way  to  a  bad  habit.  (3)  The 
morphia  should  not  be  stopped  at  once,  but  rapidly  decreased, 
and  the  patient  constantly  informed  of  the  diminution.  (4)  In- 
jections of  water,  instead  of  morpliia,  were  wrong  and  ought  to  be 
scrupulously  avoided.  (5)  The  sittings  should  be  held  once  or 
twice  daily,  and,  if  possible,  profound  hypnosis  induced. 

Latterly  "Wetterstrand  has  treated  many  of  bis  drug  cases  by 
"  prolonged  sleep,"  and  his  i-esults  have  been  even  more  brilliant 
than  those  already  cited.  Successful  cases  are  also  reported  by 
other  observers.     Thus :  — 

No.  66  (Fulda).    Miss   ,  aged   36,  had  suffered   from 

hysteria  for  eleven  years,  and  bad  injected  moi-phia  subcutane- 
ously  during  the  last  ten,  the  average  amount  taken  being  20 
centigrammes  daily.  Insonmia,  depression,  and  amenorrhcea — 
the  latter  of  fifteen  months'  duration.  After  three  months* 
hypnotic  treatment  all  morbid  symptoms  hud  disappeared,  and 


the  morphia  habit  was  abandoned  Two  years  later  there  had 
been  no  relapse. 

No.  67  (Marot).  Mrs. ,  aged  37,  had  suffered  since  the 

age  of  26  from  grande  kysUrie  of  the  true  Salpttricre  type — con- 
vulsions, aniesthesiie,  ovarian  pain,  restriction  of  the  field  of 
vision,  etc.  There  were  also  marked  gastric  disturbances :  the 
patient  liad  kept  her  bed  for  nineteen  mouths,  and  was  much 
emaciated 

lu  August,  1883,  her  medical  man  gave  her  an  injection  of 
morphiii,  and  this  was  repeated  daily  by  herself  or  others  until 
the  end  of  July,  1889.  It  was  impossible  to  determine  the  exact 
amount  taken :  her  own  chemist  admitted  that  he  supp1ie<l  her 
with  10  to  20  centigrammes  daily;  but  it  was  known  that  she 
also  got  it  from  others,  but  not  to  what  extent  Finally,  she 
could  not  pass  more  than  au  hour  without  an  injection  :  her  arms, 
legs,  and  abdomen  were  covei-ed  with  numerous  cicatrices,  the 
result  of  abscesses,  as  well  as  subcutaneous  nodules  and  the 
ordinary  marks  resulting  from  the  use  of  the  syringe. 

In  July,  1889,  the  patient  was  deeply  hypnotised  at  the  first 
attempt,  and  slept  till  nine  o'clock  the  following  morning  in 
response  to  suggestion.  The  treatment  was  continued  daily  until 
the  patient's  recovery,  which  was  rapid.  Tliree  and  a  half  years 
later  tliere  had  been  no  relapse,  and  the  skin  was  absolutely 
normal. 

According  to  Marot,  the  craving  for  morphia  can  only  be 
removed  by  suggestion  :  ortHnary  treatment  may  get  rid  of  the 
physical  necessity  for  taking  it,  but  there  is  always  the  danger 
that  the  craving  will  return. 

Further  successful  cases  are  also  reported  by  Voisin,  Bc'rillon, 
Tanzi,  Bauer,  and  many  others. 


(6)  Vicious  and  Degenerate  Children. 

The  following  conclusions  ns  to  the  value  of  hypnotism  in  the 
treatment  of  vicious  and  degenerate  children  were  submitted  by 
Bcrillou  to  the  International  Congress  of  Hypnotism,  Paria, 
1889:— 

(1)  Many  carefully  observed  facts  prove  the  therapeutic 
value  of  suggestion  in  the  following  diseases  of  children :  iucou- 


c 


tinence  of  iiriue  anil  fieces,  nervous  twit^liings,  nocturnal 
terrors,  ouauiam,  blepharospasm ;  and  other  disturbances  of  the 
aervous  system  of  a  functional  character. 

(2)  So   far,  no   appreciable   results   have   been  obtained  in 
cretinism,  idiocy,  or  deaf-mutism. 

(3)  Suggestion    coustitutes    an    excellent   auxiliary   in    the 
^education  of  vicious  and  degenerate  children,  especially  where 

there  are  habits  of  lying,  cruelty,  inveterate  idleness,  or  cowardice, 
k       (4)  Suggestion  should  be  conQned  to  cases  where  the  usual 
'methods  of  education  have  failed,  and  medical  men  alone  should 
employ  it     It  is  not  necessary  to  hypnotise  normal  children : 
ordinary  training  ought  to  be  sufficient  for  them.     Wlien.  how- 
ever, children  are  addicted  to  theft,  and  other  vicious  or  repulsive 
habits,  aixd  are  atllioted  with  disgustiiifj  infirmities,  we  ought  to 
to  cure  them  by  hypnotism,  especially  when  their  parents  are 
despair,  owing  to  the  foilure  of  all  other  forms  of  treatment. 
Tliese  conclusions  were  adopted  unanimously  by  the  Congress, 
and  were  trausaiitted  to  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and 

Itlie  Minister  of  the  Interior. 
The  following  are  illustrative  cases  from  my  own  practice : — 
No.  68.  Mr. ,  aged  19,  February  26th.  1893.  Family 
history  bad ;  mother  highly  nervous,  father  died  insane.  Up  to 
the  age  of  14  the  patient  wo.s  lively  and  intelligent;  he  then 
commenced  to  masturbate,  and  his  mental  condition  rapidly 
deteriorated.  He  lost  interest  in  his  studies,  and  fi-equently 
stole,  generally  in  a  purposeless  manner.  He  had  been  e.\pelled 
frou*  school,  and,  wlien  I  first  saw  liim,  was  under  the  care  of 
i>r.  Kingston,  of  Willesden,  who  sent  him  to  me.  I  was  informed 
ihat  the  patient  was  still  guilty  of  theft,  addicted  to  self-abuse, 
untruthful,  absolutely  untrustworthy,  and  strangely  apathetic  and 
lazy.  There  was  little  or  nothing,  even  in  the  way  uf  amuse- 
lent,  in  wliich  he  took  the  least  interest 

After  two  months'  hypnotic  treatment  he  began  to  improve : 
fore  the  end  of  the  year  he  had  recovered,  and  learnt  a  business 
wl>ich  he  took  great  interest.     Later  reporUs  satisfactory. 

No.  69,  Miss  ,  aged   16,  January   22ud,  1894.     Her 

lother,  who  had  a  family  history  of  insanity,  was  momlly  insane, 

ad  lived  a  vagabond,  drunken  life.      Her  fatlier  and  uncle  both 

drank,  and  died  insane.     1  was  iuformed  that  the  patient  was  deceit- 

.iul,  rebellious,  and  mischief- making.     She  frequently  complained  of 


queer  feelings  in  her  head,  but  it  was  difficult  to  t^ll  how  much 
was  real  ami  how  much  pretence.  She  was  quick  and  intelligent, 
and  could  do  her  lessons  in  about  a  quarter  of  the  time  most  fl 
children  took.  She  wtis  very  impatient  of  restraint :  she  had  ^ 
been  sent  Lo  two  or  three  families  and  one  school,  but  in  each 
instance  had  been  dismissed,  as  she  was  so  insubordinate  and 
unmanageable. 

I  was  also  informed  that  the  patient  lied,  stole,  and  bad 
frequent  outbursts  of  violent  passion.  I  found  her  strong,  mus- 
cular, and  well-dovelopeil ;  palate  normal,  menstruation  regidar. 

On  January  22nd,  1894,  after  consultation  with  tlie  late  Dr. 
Hack  Tuke,  she  was  placed  in  a  nursing  home,  and  regularly 
hypnotised  for  a  mouth.  This  was  followed  by  marked  improve- 
ment, and  for  the  next  three  years  tlie  treatment  was  occasionally 
repeated,  but  at  distant  intervals.  TIic  patient  finally  grew  into 
a  bright,  healthy,  attractive  woman,  who  now  (1903),  with  the 
exception  that  she  is  still  somewhat  emotional,  shows  hardly  a 
trace  of  her  former  defects. 

No.  70.   Miss   .  aged   13.  March,   1894.      Bad   family 

history.  Before  tiie  patient  was  bom  her  mother  sufi'ered  from 
melancholia.  The  child  herself  had  been  mentally  peculiar  from 
infancy;  she  was  i>ersistently  untruthful,  deceitful,  insolent,  and 
dirty  in  her  habits.  She  had  been  addicted  to  self-abuse  since 
the  age  of  7.  On  several  occasions  she  had  stolen  money  from 
servants  and  others — sometimes  considerable  amounts.  She  bad 
been  expelled  from  school,  and  had  tu  be  kept  at  home.  She  waa 
strong,  healthy,  and  well-grown,  with  nothing  abnormal  about 
the  head  or  palate. 

After  consultation  with  Dr.  Savage,  the  patient  was  hypnotised 
three  times  a  week  from  March  to  May,  1894 ;  this  was  followed 
by  marked  improvement,  and  the  treatment  was  repeated  at 
intervals  during  the  next  two  years.  Complete  recovery  took 
place,  and  up  to  the  present  date  (1903)  there  has  been  no 
relapse. 

No.  71.  Miss ,  aged  22,  April,  1895,  had  suflered  from 

fita  of  violent  passion  since  early  childhood.  She  was  so  little  able 
to  control  herself  that  her  mother  often  feared  slie  might  kill  her 
sister,  and  she  still  (1895)  often  came  to  blows  with  her  younger 
brother.  She  had  always  been  intensely  selfish,  and  could  not 
see  wliy  she  should  do  anything  for  others.     She  admitted  her 


I 


defects  of  character  witliont  shame,  and  said  she  heartily  enjoyed 
quarrelling  ami  setting  others  by  the  ears.  She  consented  in  the 
waking  state  that  I  should  try  bo  alter  her  character,  and  I 
suggested  during  hypnosis  that  slie  should  give  up  quarrelling, 
and  Lake  a  pleasure  in  helping  others.  A  complete  change  took 
place  :  she  became  aflfectiouate,  good-tempered  and  helpful.  Even 
when  ill  there  was  no  trace  of  her  former  irritability.  Up  to  the 
pre&cnt  date  (1903)  there  lias  been  no  relapse.  This  patient  was 
originally  sent  by  Dr.  Boulting,  of  Hampstead,  on  account  of  spinal 
neuralgia  and  insomnia,  and  was  successfully  treated  by  hypnotism 
for  these  affections.' 

Na  72.  Miss  • -,  aged  13,  February.  1900,  had  always 

been  emotional  and  highly  nervous.  For  several  years  she  Iiad 
walked  in  her  sleep,  and  during  the  last  four  had  been  addicted 
to  constant  nail-biting.  Wearing  gloves  at  night  and  other 
careful  treatment  failed  to  check  the  habit,  and  the  nails  were 
always  worn  to  the  quick.  This  pntient,  who  was  sent  to  me  by 
Professor  William  James,  of  Harvard  University,  was  easily 
hypnotised  at  the  first  attempt,  and  neither  bit  her  nails  nor 
walked  in  her  sleep  after  the  second  sitting.  Later  reports 
satisfactory. 

Enurtsis  noctwnui   is  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
children,    and,    with    one    exception,    in    every    case 
1  induced  genuine  hypnosis  the  patient  recovered, 
for  example,   I   had    1 8    cases,   all    successful.       Of 
were  girls  and   6  boys,  their  ages  varying  from  4  to  12  years. 
In  every  instance  the  recovery  waa  confirmed  by  later  reports. 

The  failure  already  referred  to  was  a  young  lady,  aged  23, 
who  had  sutlered  from  enuresis  Jiocturiia  from  infaucy.  This  had 
become  progressively  worse,  and  since  the  age  of  1 6  had  occurred 
every  night.  She  was  of  a  nervous  temperament  and  somewhat 
imtable,  but  otherwise  strong  and  healthy :  there  was  nothing 
physically  wrong  with  the  bladiler  or  urethra.  Careful  and  varied 
medical  treatment  had  been  without  result.  Hypnosis  was 
easily'  induced  at  the  first  attempt,  and  the  incontinence  dis- 
appeared as  long  as  she  remained  under  treatment.  Shortly  after 
returning  home  she  relapsed  ;  with  renewed  treatment  the  enuresis 
again  ceasud,  but  only  to  reap{>eur  later. 

Na  73.  Mr. ,  aged  27,  April,  1900.     When  I  first  saw 

*  Cu«  No.  Vi,  pp.  194-5. 


degenerate 
in  which 
In  1890. 
these,    12 


336 


HYPNOTISM 


this  patient  I  was  informed  lliat  he  never  spoke,  except  when 
questioueJ,  and  that  Iiis  repUea  were  gencniU}'  unintelligible. 
Nothing  seemed  to  interest  him,  and  he  neither  worked  nor 
amused  liimself.  He  was  heir  to  an  entailed  estate,  a  fact  which 
added  importauce  to  his  mental  condition.  The  latter,  in  the 
opinion  of  a  well-known  alienist,  was  more  likely  to  terminate  in 
idiocy  than  improvement. 

Apparently  the  patient  had  been  beickward  in  development, 
and  in  consequence  had  been  the  butt  of  his  schnolfellows.  As 
the  result  of  this,  he  had  progressively  lost  confidence  in  himself, 
and  had  become  more  and  more  self-conscious.  Behind  all  this, 
however,  he  appeared  to  possess  much  more  intelligence  than  he 
was  credited  with ;  and  this  \'iew  was  shared  hy  Dr.  Fletcher 
Beach,  who  saw  the  patient  in  consultation  with  me. 

Hypnotic  treatment  was  begun  on  April  19th,  1900,  and 
repeated  on  44  occasions  up  to  February,  1901.  During  that 
time  the  patient  spoke  more  and  more  distinctly,  and  became 
less  shy  and  self-conscious.  Since  then  his  life  has  become 
progressively  more  normal.  He  is  now  engaged  in  active  work, 
and  even  speaks  in  public.  The  last  report,  in  December,  1902, 
was  tljoroiighly  satisfactory. 

The  following  are  from  the  practice  of  others : — 

No.  74  (Voisin).  Miss  — .  aged  11,  December,  1886,  lied 

persistently,  and  had  masturbated  since  she  was  two  years  old. 
She  could  not  l)e  left  alone  for  a  moment  during  the  day,  and  it 
was  always  necessary  to  tie  her  hands  at  night.  liecovered  after 
hypnotic  treatment 

No.    75    (Voisin).   Miss  ,   aged    9^,  July,    1887,    waa 

intelligent,  but  excessively  idle.  At  tlie  age  of  7,  while  living 
with  the  children  of  peasants,  she  waa  taught  to  masturbate.  Six 
montlis  later  she  was  dismissed  from  school  on  this  account^ 
and  her  mother  frequently  caught  her  renewing  the  practice. 
Hypnotised  five  times  from  duly  25th  to  August  15th,  1887. 
Recovered. 

No.  76   (Voisin).  Master  .  aged  16,  June   1888,  had 

always  been  ditlicalt  to  manayo,  but  from  the  age  of  6  had 
become  more  and  more  uncontrollable.  He  lied,  stole,  and 
masturbated:  treatment  and  discipliue  produced  no  improvement, 
and  he  was  expelled  from  every  school  he  went  to.  He  recovered 
after  being  hypnotised    regularly   for   a   month.     A  year   later 


I 
I 


I 


there  had  been  no  return  of  his  vicious  Iiabita :  his  character  was 
completely  changed,  he  enjoyed  work,  was  amiable  and  well- 
behaved,  admired  what  was  good,  and  sought  every  possible 
occasion  to  be  useful  and  pleasing  to  others. 

In  1889,  Li<^beault  published  22  consecutive  cases  of  more 
or  less  grave  mental  disturbance  in  children;  of  these  10  re- 
covereiJ,  8  were  improved,  and  in  4  there  was  no  result  The 
following  are  three  examples  : — 

No.  77.  Master  ,  aged    18»  collapsed   after  overwork, 

and  had  long  been  under  medical  treatment  without  benefit.  He 
was  dull,  stupid,  morose,  and  avoided  everybody ;  he  rarely 
did  anything  on  his  own  account,  was  obstinately  silent,  and 
would  hardly  reply  to  questions.  He  suiVered  from  general 
feebleness,  diarrhcea,  iucouLuieuce  of  urine,  muscular  tremor, 
profuse  perspirations,  and  headaches.  Ho  recovered  after  a 
month's  hypnotic  treatment,  and  there  was  no  relapse. 

No.  78.  Master ,  aged  17,  began  to  suffer  from  headache 

some  mouths  previously  when  preparing  for  an  examination. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  became  stupid*  and  then  passed  into  a 
condition  resembling  melancholia  -with  mutism.  He  recovered 
after  two  montlis'  hypnotic  treatment,  and  there  was  no  relapse. 

No.  79.  Miss ,  aged  8,  had  always  been  stupid  and  had 

learnt  witli  ditticulty :  she  also  masturbated  and  suffered  from 
incontinence  of  urine.  Complete  recovery  after  abort  hypnotic 
treatment. 

Herillon  has  recorded  numerous  cases  of  nocturnal  terror  in 
children  in  which  recovery  took  place  after  a  few  hypnotic  treat- 
ments. Equally  good  results  were  obtained  in  varioas  nervous 
"tics" ;  amongst  these  patients  one  constantly  made  a  noise  with 
his  tongue,  another  suffered  from  involuntary  winking  of  the 
right  eyelid. 

B<;rillon  has  reported  many  cases  of  nail-biting  which  have 
been  cured  by  hypnotic  suggestion  ;  in  some  this  habit  was  the 
only  symptom  of  degeneracy,  in  others  it  was  associated  or  followed 
by  other  nervous  symptoms, 

IWrillon  terms  nail-biting  onychophofius,  and  considers  the 
condition  a  serious  one  for  the  following  reasons : — 

(1)  It  is  a  sign  of  degeneracy,  and  is  frequently  followed  by 
other  symptoms  of  this  condition,  cy.  onanism,  nocturual  terrors, 
sleep-walking,  nervous  irritability,  etc. 


(2)  It  may  be  the  means  of  iDtrodadng  the  germs  of  disease 
into  the  mouttis  of  the  patienUi. 

(3)  Nail-bit^TB  become  clumsy  in  the  use  of  their  liands ; 
and  the  conditiou  is  often  afisociated  with  a  certain  amount  of   h 
local  anaesthesia.  | 

(4)  The  habit  is  a  common  one :  in  one  school  34  per  cent 
of  the  children  bit  their  nails,  and  36  per  cent  bit  their  pen- 
holders; in  another  20  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  52  per  cent  of 
the  girls  were  uail-bitera.  fl 

In  1887,  LitSbeault  published  77  cases  of  enuresis  nociurna,  ^ 
of  which  45  were  boys  and  32  girls ;  the  average  age  was  a  little 
over  7;  the  youngest  being  3  years  old,  the  eldest  18.     With 
all,  except  9,  the  habit  dated  from  birth. 

lUsuits. — 5  6    recovered,    9    were    improved,    8    showed    no 
improvement,  while  4  were  only  seen  once,  and  of  these  there  fl 
was  no  further  news.  ™ 

CuUerre  has  reported  24  cases  of  enuresis  ncetuma,  with 
21  recoveries.  fl 

Many  other  equally  successful  cases  of  the  hypnotic  treat-  ™ 
ment  of  vicious  and  degenerate  children  have  been  published  by 
Voisin,  Lidbeault,  B(;rillon,  Bourdon,  Kegb,  de  Jong,  Schrenck- 
Notziiig,   Ladame,   Forel,   Teuscher,   Boufl'^,   Bechterew,  Wetter- 
strand,  Cullerre,  Bauer,  Ringier,  Lemoine,  Joire,  Farez,  and  others. 


(7)  Obsessions. 


The  following  cases  are  from  my  own  practice : — 

No.  80.  Mr.  ,  aged   24,  consulted  me  in  May  1889. 

Some  months  previously  he  had  had  a  number  of  diseased  glands 
removed  from  the  face  aud  neck,  and  weut  up  the  Mediterranean 
to  recruit.  While  crossing  a  plank  he  fell  and  injured  his 
perineum :  an  abscess  formed,  which  burst  externally  and  into 
the  urethra.  When  I  saw  him  there  was  a  large  unhealthy 
wound  through  which  the  urine  escaped.  I  instructed  him  to 
pass  a  soft  catheter  regularly,  aud  the  wound  became  more  healthy. 
One  day  he  was  impelled  to  empty  his  bladder  before  he  could 
pass  the  instrument,  and  the  water  again  escaped  from  the 
wound-  This  happened  more  and  more  frequently ;  at  last  the 
idea  of  passing  water  caused  him  at  once  to  empty  his  bladder. 


I 

i 


^ 


^ 


lO  matter  where  he  was  at  the  time.  This  ajipeared  to  be 
intirely  inde{jeinleiit  of  the   physical   coudition  of  the  bladder, 

hich  did  not  coutract  because  it  was  full  or  uncomfortable,  but 
because  the  idea  of  urination  presented  itself  to  the  patient's 
mind,  and  was  instantly  translated  into  its  physical  equivalent. 

!e  now  thought  constantly  about  his  condition,  wliich  thus 
became  greatly  aggravated.  He  began  to  sleep  badly,  and  awoke 
frequently  during  tlie  ni^^'lit:  the  instant  he  did  so  he  thought  of 
his  bladder  and  was  immediately  compelled  to  empty  it.  Despite 
treatment,  these  symptoms  continued  for  several  months,  and 
his  state  became  a  grave  one.  1  had  not  previously  employed 
hypnotism,  but  tlie  mental  element  in  this  case  seemed  so  marked 
that  1  determined,  since  other  treatment  had  failed,  to  try  what 
this  would  do.  After  explaiuing  to  my  patient,  an  educated 
man,  that  I  had  no  practical  and  only  slight  theoretical  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  I  proceeded  to  liypnotise  him  by  Braid's  method. 
In  a  few  minutes  his  eyeballs  rolled  upwards  and  inwards,  and 

I  he  became  lethargic.  I  repeated  this  the  two  following  days ; 
then  suggested  during  hypnosis  that  he  should  cease  to  think 
,bout  his  bladder,  should  always  be  able  to  pass  his  catheter, 
retain  his  urine  eight  hours,  and  sleep  well.  These  suggestions 
were  immediately  fulfilled ;  from  that  day  there  was  no  return  of 
his  troublesome  symptoms,  and  the  wound  healed  without  opera- 
tion in  about  twelve  mouths.     At  the  present  date  (February, 

1903)  Mr. is  in  good  health. 

No.  81.  Mr. ,  aged  25.  first  consulted  me  March,  1890. 

Formerly  strong  and  athletic,  distinguished  football  player,  bicyclist, 
etc.  Two  years  previously,  after  the  death  of  his  mother  from 
cancer  of  the  breast,  he  began  to  fear  that  he  might  contract  the 
same  disease.  This  idea  grew  stronger  and  stronger ;  he  became 
neurasthenic,  and  suffered  from  insomnia,  depression,  dyspepsia, 
etc  Finally  the  dread  of  cancer  passed  into  tlie  firm  conviction 
that  his  left  breast  was  infected  by  it  He  now  remained  nearly 
always  in  one  room,  and  would  not  go  into  another  without 
mulHing  himself  up  and  putting  on  an  overcoat.  For  some 
mouths  he  complained  of  difficulty  in  moving  the  left  arm,  and 
carrie4l  it  in  a  sling.  I  found  nothing  to  justify  his  fears,  but 
the  muscles  of  the  arm  were  distinctly  wasted  from  disuse.  He 
was  easily  hypnotised  at  the  first  attempt,  and  this  was  repeated 
nearly  every   day   for   a    fortnight,   when  deep  hypnosis  with 


souinambulisra  was  obtained.  His  morbid  ideas  at  oace  dis- 
appeared ;  his  general  health  speedily  improved,  and,  a  few  days 
after  the  treatment  waa  abaudoued,  I  saw  him  driving  a  spirited 
horse-  A  week  afterwards  he  told  me  lie  felt  perfectly  well,  and 
was  going  to  train  a  young  horee  to  jump.  Up  to  the  last  report 
(1901)  thei-e  had  been  no  relapse. 

The   two   cases  given   above  were  drawn  from  my  general 
practice  at  Goolc. 


No.  82.  Mrs. 


-,  aged  46,  March,  1894. 


The  foUowiog 
,  the   patient's 


notes  of  this  case  were  supplied  by  Dr.  — 
husband  :  "  My  wife  suffered  from  myxoedema,  following  iulluenza  ; 
she  had  low  temperature,  loss  of  hair,  dulness  of  intellect, 
slowness  of  movement,  general  irregular  swelling  of  the  body, 
facial  disfigurement,  alteration  of  voice,  and  muscular  pain&  I 
put  her  on  thyroid  extract  iu  January,  1393,  and  although  the 
symptoms  peculiar  to  rayxcedema  disappeared,  she  became  utterly 
sleepless,  her  limbs  trembled  after  the  least  exertion  and  her 
digestion  became  very  bad.  I  brought  her  to  you  ou  March  1st, 
1894,  to  see  whether  suggestion  would  procure  sleep.  At  the 
second  attempt  you  succeeded  in  inducing  very  slight  hypuoais. 
and  she  began  to  sleep  fairly  well.  For  more  than  a  year  she 
had  never  had  more  than  three  hours'  unbroken  sleep,  and  often  far 
less.  She  soon  began  to  sleep  thoroughly  well  and  uninterruptedly, 
and  her  indigestion,  for  which  I  had  found  drugs  and  careful 
dieting  ineffective,  diaap]>eared  after  a  few  suggestions.  Her  legs 
became  stronger,  and  her  energies  restored  very  much  to  what 
tliey  were  twenty  years  ago,  when  she  waa  renowned  amongst 
lier  acquaintances  for  her  untiring  euerg)'.  The  fact,  however, 
that  strikes  me  most  forcibly  is  this — several  memL>ers  of  her 
family  are  sleep-walkers,  and  she  also  walked  in  her  sleep  in 
childhood  and  once  or  twice  as  a  young  woman,  while  the  habit 
is  transmitted  to  our  youngest  girl.  When  her  first  baby  was 
born,  sixteen  years  ago,  the  thought  crossed  my  wife's  mind: 
"  What  if  I  walk  in  my  .sleep  and  do  an  injury  to  my  child  ?  " 
I  endeavoured  to  persuade  her  that  she  had  grown  out  of  the 
habit,  but  the  attempt  was  wholly  fruitless.  The  idea  grew  until 
it  assumed  the  character  of  an  idi^e  Jixe,  and  she  always  tied  her- 
self to  the  bedpost  at  night.  All  attempts  to  break  herself  of 
the  habit  were  failures ;  and  if  she  went  to  bed  without  fastening 
herself  she  was  never  able  to  go  to  sleep  until  she  did  so.     When 


I 

i 


I 
I 


we  moved  into  our  present  honse,  three  and  a  half  years  ago,  she 
became  alarined  at  the  great  height  of  the  bedroom  windows  from 
the  ground,  and  their  lownesiS  from  the  floor.  She  began  to 
suggest  that  possibly  she  might  undo  her  own  knots  during  her 
sleep,  and  get  out  of  the  window.  I  pointed  out  how  uuhkely 
it  was  that  she  should  walk  in  her  sleep  after  a  score  of  years' 
complete  immunity.  She  granted  my  reasoning  was  just,  but  it 
did  not  dispel  her  fear ;  and  she  insisted  upon  my  tying  her  to 
the  bedpost  each  night  in  a  very  elective  manner.  In  May, 
1894,  I  told  you  of  this  persistent  dread,  and  aske<l  you  to 
suggest  that  she  should  neither  walk  in  her  sleep,  nor  be 
apprehensive  of  so  doing.  During  that  sitting  you  repeated  this 
suggestion  two  or  three  times,  but  Iiave  not  done  so  since.  The 
effect  was  magical.  She  has  never  asked  me  to  tie  her  to  her 
bed  from  that  day,  and  tells  me  she  has  never  once  thought 
about  it  To  me  it  is  all  the  more  remarkable  us  the  hypnosis 
in  her  case  is  so  slight,  and  appears  to  pass  into  natural  sleep  if 
you  leave  her  for  a  few  seconds.  She  is  of  a  ueiTouH,  excitable 
temperament,  but  by  no  means  greedy  of  the  mai-vellous  or  ready 
to  accord  belief  to  any  doctrine.  She  had  a  healthy  scepticism 
of  the  possibility  of  any  one  liypuotising  her,  but  was  anxious  for 
the  attempt  to  be  made  as  slie  suffered  so  acutely."  Kecovery 
confirmed  by  later  reports. 

No.  83.  Mr. ,  aged  28,  first  consulted  me  in  April,  1894. 

His  fatlier  was  very  nervous  and  passionate,  and  bad  suffered 
from  "  brain  fever"  and  chorea.  At  the  age  of  14,  the  patient 
had  many  religious  doubts  and  fears,  and  believed  he  had  com- 
mitted the  unpardonable  siu.  At  10,  while  working  in  a  cocoa 
manufactory,  ho  began  to  fear  that  the  red  lead,  which  was  used 
in  fastening  certain  hot  pipes,  might  get  into  the  tins  containing 
cocoa,  and  so  jwisuu  people.  This  was  the  commencement  of  a 
folU  du  doule  and  d^lire  du  (michcr,  which  had  never  since  lefli 
him.  Instead  of  going  on  with  his  work  he  was  irresistibly 
impelled  to  clean  and  reclean  the  tins.  The  following  is  taken 
from  the  letter  of  a  friend  to  whom  he  contided  his  troubles : 

"On    October    1st.    1891,    Mr.    told    me    that    he    had 

attempted  to  commit  suicide,  as  his  life  was  so  misemblc  (he  had 
taken  poison).  He  had  read  of  a  case  of  poisoning  through 
eating  chocolate,  and  connected  himself  with  it,  though  it  was 
five  years  since  he  had  helped  to  mauufacture  auy«     He  now 

a 


believed  he  mi^ht  have  been  careless  with  the  tnoulds.  and  thus 
have  produced  a  poisoned  chocolate,  which  years  afterwards  had 
caused  the  child's  death  !  The  grotesque  absurdity  of  the  story, 
as  he  related  it  to  me,  would  have  made  me  laugh,  had  I  not  felt 
how  terribly  real  it  was  to  Iiim.  His  \nvid  imagination  had 
pictured  every  incident  of  the  tragedy :  the  child  buying  the 
chocolate,  running  home  full  of  happiness,  then  becoming  ill  and 
gradually  sickening  in  awful  agony  till  released  by  death.  The 
keenness  of  mind  with  which  he  sought  to  prove  the  reasonableness 
of  his  beUef  that  he  had  poisoned  the  child  was  extraordinary. 
He  wrote :  '  Yesterday  I  was  unscrewing  some  gas  burnera  in  a 
provision  shop  and  got  some  white  lead  on  my  hands,  and  I  have 
been  thinking  that  it  may  have  got  amongst  the  food.'  I  found 
that  brooding  over  this  fancy  had  brought  him  to  the  verge  of 
despair,  and  for  weeks  his  life  was  a  perpetual  agony.  He 
worries  himself  about  his  work  of  fixing  advertisement-plates  to 
walls,  and  can  never  persuade  himself  that  they  are  securely 
fastened.  He  fancies  the  nails  are  bad,  or  the  mortar  loose,  and 
makes  himself  ill  over  it.  I  have  pointed  out  to  him  that  if  a 
plate  fell  it  would  almost  invariably  slide  down  the  wall.  This 
has  not  prevented  him  from  painting  a  most  elaborate  mental 
picture  of  the  decapitation  of  an  unfortunate  youngster,  who 
happened  to  be  playing  marbles  with  his  head  against  the  wall. 
To  enumerate  all  his  troubles  would  take  a  small  volume.  I 
have  a  great  pile  of  his  letters  before  me  now,  and  I  suppose 
they  constitute  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  anal3rtical  auto- 
biographies it  would  be  possible  to  find.  In  reading  them  I 
cannot  help  marvelling  at  the  strange  imshapely  wonder  of  such 
an  imagination.  He  makes  every  incident  in  his  life  the  founda- 
tion-stone of  a  castle  of  fancies ;  and  of  lute  years  each  castle 
has  become  a  prison — a  torture  chamber  in  which  he  has 
dissected  his  motives  and  his  actions,  until  he  has  ceased  to 
believe  in  liimself  at  all." 

Wlien  I  first  saw  the  patient  the  folic  du  d&uie  and 
dilirt  du  toucher  were  constant,  and  most  varied  in  their 
manifestations.  If  he  accidentally  touched  persons  in  the  street, 
he  began  to  fear  that  he  might  have  injured  them,  and  exaggerated 
the  touch  into  a  more  or  less  violent  push.  If  the  person 
touched  were  a  woman,  he  feared  that  she  might  have  been 
pregnant,  and  that  he  might  have  injui'cd  the  child.     If  be  saw 


1 

I 
I 


I 
I 


a  piece  of  orauge-peel  on  l!ie  pavement,  he  kicked  it  into  the 
rond,  but  soon  afterwards  began  to  think  that  this  was  a  more 
dangerous  place,  as  any  one  slipping  on  it  might  strike  his  head 
against  tlie  curb-stone ;  and  so  he  was  irresistibly  impelled  to 
^-return  and  put  it  in  its  former  position.  At  one  time  he  used  to 
^Pbind  himself  to  perform  certain  acta  by  vowing  he  would  give 
God  his  money  if  he  did  not  do  iheni.  Then,  sometimes,  he  was 
oneertaiu  whether  he  had  vowed  or  uot :  owing  to  this,  he  gave 
sums  to  religious  objects  which  were  quite  disproportionate  to 
his  income.  Apart  from  his  peculiar  fancies,  I  found  the  patient 
perfectly  rational  and  intelligent ;  and,  though  his  d4lire  du 
toucher  hindered  liim  greatly  in  his  work,  he  generally  managed 
to  execute  it,  but  on  some  occasions  ho  was  compelled  to 
abandon  the  attempt.  At  that  time  I  tried  to  hypnotise  him  on 
twenty- four  occasions,  but  apparently  without  Buccess,  aiid  he 
was  then  compelled  to  leave  towu.  He  returned  on  April  2nd, 
1893,  for  a  week's  further  ti-eatmeiit:  he  told  me  that  since  his 
former  visit  liis  morbid  ideas  had  neither  been  so  frequent  nor 
marked,  and  were  accompanied  by  less  mental  agony.  From 
that  date,  though  the  treatment  was  uot  again  repeated,  he  rapidly 
recovered,  and  ai.x  mouths  later  wrote  to  say  he  could  laugli  at 
his  former  fears.  His  recovery  was  confirmed  by  a  later  report 
in  1902. 

Xo.  84.  Mr.  -,  aged  33,  tall,  strong  and  athletic,  was 


to  me  on  March  7tli,  1894,  by  \h\  Houlting,  of  Harapstead. 
1%<&  patient  stated  that  he  had  always  been  of  a  sensitive  dis- 
position, and  inclined  to  be  morbidly  self-conscious.  Of  late 
years  this  had  greatly  developed,  and  made  his  life  a  burden  to 
him.  He  had  the  lixed  idea  that  he  was  constantly  making 
mistakes  in  business,  and  that  all  those  with  whom  he  was 
■brought  in  contact  considered  him  a  fool.  During  a  business 
interview  he  was  embarrassed  and  spoke  with  difficulty,  and  felt 
that  every  one  must  notice  this.     He  had  the  same  feelings  in 

fercncc  to  society,  and  shunned  it  as  much  as  possible.  He 
^«lso  had  morbid  and  entirely  unfounded  fears  about  his  physical 
condition.  He  was  hypnotised  ten  times  to  July  11th,  1894, 
and  his  morbid  ideas  entirely  disaijpeared.  A  year  later  he  told 
xae  there  had  not  been  the  slightest  relapse,  and  that  he  was  now 

ind  of  society  and  at  his  ease  in  it. 

No.  85.    Mr.  .  aged  35,  was  sent  by  me   to  l)r.  de 


Watteville,  oii  October  29tli,  1894.  His  illueas  had  begun  six 
months  previously  after  the  sudden  deatli  of  liia  brother-in-law. 
From  that  time  he  slept  badly,  dreamt  of  his  own  death,  and  was 
haunted  by  constant  fears  about  liimself  and  his  family.  He 
developed  agoraphobia,  was  unable  to  cross  the  road  without 
assistance,  dreaded  losing  his  employment,  and  feared  he  would 
find  his  wife  and  children  dead  when  he  returned  from  work. 
One  day,  when  sitting  alone,  he  believed  he  saw  two  men  bring  his 
coffin  into  the  room.  He  was  utterly  miserable  and  had  strong 
suicidal  impulses.  He  also  had  frequent  attacks  of  giddiness, 
and  felt  he  would  fall  unless  he  caught  hold  of  something :  on 
one  occasion  he  lost  consciousness.  He  was  hypnotised  five 
times  up  to  November  12th:  his  morbid  fears  had  then  almost 
eutiiely  disappeared ;  but,  as  he  still  had  attacks  of  giddiness. 
the  treatment  was  repeated  occasionally  up  to  April,  1895.  His 
recovery  is  confirmed  by  later  reports.  Case  shown  at  Bethlem 
Hospital  and  elsewhere. 

No.  86.  Mr. ,  aged  a 2,  April,  1895.  Ten  years  pre- 
viously this  patient  Ijegan  to  have  peculiar  doubts  and  fears. 
He  felt  that  if  he  did  anything  opposed  to  popular  superstition 
something  dreadful  would  happen  to  the  Almighty,  He  was 
capable  of  recognising  the  absurdity  of  this  when  it  was  pointed 
out  to  him  ;  but  directly  afterwards  his  morbid  ideas  returned  and 
governed  his  actions.  Every  fresh  superstition  he  heard  of  was 
added  to  his  list ;  and  so  many  unlucky  days  and  places  were 
created  by  his  doing,  or  failing  to  do,  things  against,  or  in  con- 
formity with,  tliese  superstitions,  that  his  actions  were  seriously 
interfered  with.  Thus  months  often  passed  before  he  could  find 
a  propitious  day  for  buying  an  article  of  clothing,  and  a  still 
longer  time  wuuld  elapse  before  he  found  a  suitable  occasion  to 
put  it  on.  Sometimes  there  was  nowhere  for  him  to  go,  and 
nothing  he  could  do.  He  was  utterly  wretched,  but  had  succeeded 
in  concealing  his  trouble  from  every  one.  After  prolonged  treat- 
ment he  improved  greatly,  but  his  recovery  could  not  be  said  to 
be  complete. 

I  could  cite  many  other  and  widely  differing  cases,  but  in  all 
the  essential  conditions  were  the  same — the  patients  were  obsessed 
by  ideiis  which  interfered  with  their  actions  or  happiness,  and 
rendered  their  lives  more  or  less  miserable. 

Braid  reported  two  interesting  coses  of  obsession.     In  one 


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the  patient  believed  she  was  haunted  by  the  spirit  of  a  dead 
relative,  and  had  visual  hallucinatioua.  In  the  other,  the  patient 
was  unable  to  get  rid  of  morbid  ideas  associated  with  death, 
which  had  arisen  after  seeing  a  dead  body,  and  in  addition  had 
the  fixed  idea  that  she  still  smelt  the  corpse.  Both  patients 
recovered  after  hypnotic  treatment. 

Many  e(inaUy  successful  cases  are  reported  by  more  recent 
observers.     Thus ; — 

No.  87  (Schrenck-Notzing).  Mr. ;  fixed  idea  regarding 

catching  cold  kept  this  patient  for  six  months  in  liis  room. 
Hypnotised.     Recovered. 

No.  88  (Schrenck-Notzing).  Mr. -,  aged  24,  had  periods 

of  terror  and  uncontrollable  sensations  and  ideas,  with  the  fixed 
idea  that  hisjidtu-^e  did  not  love  him.     Hypnotised.     Recovered. 

No.  89  (Hecker).  Mrs.  was  impelled  to  wash  herself 

continuously  and  unnecessarily ;  had  morbid  ideas  that  the  doors 
and  windows  were  not  properly  fastened,  and  fancied  that  she 
dressed  herself  untidily.  On  one  occasion,  after  having  spent  two 
honrs  trying  to  dress,  she  sent  for  Hecker,  who  fouud  her  in  a 
state  of  great  anxiety,  putting  on  and  off  lier  clothes  until 
exhausted.     Hypnotised  for  a  month.     Recovered. 

No.  90  (A\  fittcstrand).  Mrs. ,  aged  42,  for  several  years 

had  a  morbid  dread  of  thunderstorms;  did  not  dare  go  into  the 
country  in  summer,  and  in  winter  dreaded  what  the  summer 
might  bring.  Constantly  watched  the  appearance  of  the  sky. 
Hypnotised  twenty  times.     Recovered. 

No.  91  (de  Jong).    Mr.  ,  agoraphobia  of  many  years' 

standing.  Hypnotised  ten  times.  Recovered  No  relapse  after 
a  year  and  a  half. 

No.  92  (de  Jong).  Mrs. ,  fear  of  storms  and  of  travelling 

by  rail.     Hypnotised     Iteeovered. 

No.  93  (van  Eeden  and  van  Eentergliem),  Mr.  ,  aged 

56.  Psychical  impotence  for  three  years,  with  the  fixed  idea, 
which  he  recognised  to  be  false,  that  his  wife  was  unfaithful  to 
him.  Hypnotised  eight  times.  Recovered.  No  relapse  after 
twenty-two  months. 

Tliis  list  might  be  largely  extended,  many  other  cases  having 
been  reported  hy  Bernhoim,  DeUKcuf,  Gorodichze.  Russell  Sturgis, 
Voisin,  Buret,  Mavroukakis,  Bourdon,  etc 

Bemar/ca. — Patients   are  generally  ashamed  to  acknowledge 


that  they  siifTer  from  obsessious,  and  often  conceal  them  from 
every  one,  including  their  medical  attemlaut.  Thus,  few  people 
liave  any  idea  how  common  the  disease  is,  and  it  was  only  after 
I  connnenced  to  practise  suggestive  therapeutics  that  1  constantly 
met  with  it.  Fortunately  hypnotic  treatment  frequently  gives 
brilliant  results  in  such  cases :  the  majority  of  those  I  have  seen 
recovered,  and  relapse  has  been  rare.  It  is  necessarj'  to  say 
something  as  to  the  mental  conditions  involveil  in  obsessions,  as 
these  are  very  imperfectly  understood,  and  English  literature  on 
the  subject  is  particularly  scanty. 

One  of  the  most  impoitant  contributions  to  the  subject  is  to 
be  found  in  the  late  Dr.  Hack  Tuke's  paper  on  "  Imperative  Ideas  " 
{Brain,  1894).  He  stated  that  the  mental  phenomena  he  described 
had  been  more  clearly  defined  by  i'rench  and  German  than  by 
English  writers.  This  is  undoubtedly  correct ;  but,  although  the 
former  have  long  i-ecogniseJ  such  conditions,  it  is  only  within 
comparatively  recent  times  that  they,  like  ourselves,  have  ceased 
to  confound  them  with  various  forms  of  insanity.  Ladarae,  of 
Geneva,  for  example,  in  referring  to  the  different  opinions  expressed 
in  reference  to  foli^  du  douU  and  ddire  du  fouchei'  by  Schiile, 
Magnan,  KraRl-Ebiug,  Marc^,  Jules  Falret,  Morel,  Leseque, 
Ball.  Meynert,  Kraepeliu,  and  Scholz,  says  folic  dv  douU  is 
regarded  by  contenjporary  writers  sometimes  as  a  symptom  of  the 
most  varied  mental  affections,  sometimes  as  a  psychopathic  episode 
of  hereditary  degeneracy,  sometimes  ns  a  special  form  of  psychosis ; 
and  sometimes  ae  a  simple  elementary  psychic  trouble,  dependent 
on  the  general  pathology  of  mental  alienation.  Thus  "  doubt,"  he 
says,  does  not  oidy  exist  among  the  patients :  it  has  passed  into 
science,  and  could  equally  well  he  called  folie  du  doiUe  on  account 
of  its  uncertain  place  in  the  chart  of  mental  maladies,  as  well  as 
for  the  strange  symptoms  which  characterise  it. 

According  to  Ladame,  Plnel,  at  the  beginning  of  this  centuty, 
first  commenced  to  recognise /o/w  du  donte,  while  Ebquirol,  in 
1838,  published  the  first  detailed  clinical  observation  of  d/lire 
du  toiuiher,  and  laid  stress  on  the  patient's  constant  6ght  against 
obsessions  and  his  recognition  of  their  absurdity,  lirierre  de 
Boismont,  in  1853,  also  stated  that  the  irresistible  idea  keenly 
combated  by  the  patient  was  characteristic  of  these  cases.  "  The 
following  distinction  must  be  made,"  he  said,  "  namely,  that  ideas 
may  make  one  ill  when  they  dominate  the  mind,  but  one  is  not 


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really  mad  except  when  the  will  has  become  powerless  to  control 
the  impulsious."  Hint  the  patients  fight  against  their  obsessions, 
without  succeeding  in  getting  rid  of  them,  was  particularly 
insisted  upon  in  the  discussion  upon  monomanias  at  the  Medico- 
Psychological  Society  of  Paris  on  June  26th,  1854.  Delaaiauve,  in 
1859,  made  a  first  attempt  to  distinguish  between  pseudo-mono- 
raanias  and  recognised  forms  of  insanity.  After  1860,  observations 
on  ddirt  du  toucher  became  more  numerous,  and  BaiUarger  appears 
to  have  been  the  first  to  notice  tlmt  these  conditions  frequently 
commenced  at  puberty.  Marcd,  in  18G2,  though  he  failed  to 
separate  de'lire  du  toiicfter  from  insanity,  clearly  described  the  origin 
of  imperative  ideas.  "  In  a  predisposed  person,"  he  says,  "  feeble 
of  character,  endowed  with  keen  sensibility,  a  word,  an  emotion, 
a  fear,  a  desire  leaves  one  day  a  profound  impression.  The 
thought,  born  in  tliis  uiauncr,  presents  itself  to  the  mind  in  an 
importunate  way,  takes  possession  of  it,  does  not  leave  it,  dominates 
all  its  conceptions ;  during  this  time  the  individual  may  have 
consciousness  of  all  the  absurdity,  unreasonableness,  or  criminality 
of  this  idea;  the  acts  themselves  soon  confonn  to  these  unhealthy 
preoccupations,  and  become  absurd  and  extravaj^ant." 

The  term,  folic  du  doute,  occurred  for  the  first  time  in 
the  celebrated  discussion  upon  la  inanu  raisonnarUe,  at  the 
Medico  -  Psychological  Society  of  Paris,  March  2  6  th,  1866; 
but  from  what  was  said  by  Jules  Falret  on  that  occasion,  it 
was  evident  that  what  he  called  folu  du  doute  corresponded 
to  dilire  du  ioU'Cher,  and  not  to  the  form  of  mental  trouble 
described  two  years  later  by  Griesinger  as  Griibdsueht  and 
Krankkafte  Frarfesit/^ht.  In  this  discussion  BaiUarger  stated 
that  one  of  his  patients  never  ceased  to  make  suppositions  and  to 
lose  herself  in  "if"  and  "perhaps."  A  clear  distinction  between 
these  diseases  and  recognised  forms  of  insanity  was  made  for  the 
fifBt  time  in  1886  by  Morel,  and  he  stated  that  patients  suffering 
from  imperative  ideas  did  not  interpret  their  ol^essions  after  the 
manner  of  the  insane;  that  they  neither  experiencetl  hallucinalions 
nor  illusions ;  nor  did  they  undergo  those  transformations  which 
change  the  personality  of  the  insane,  and  make  them  radically 
different  from  what  they  were  before.  Heredity,  inclmling  not  only 
hereditary  insanity,  1)ut  also  other  nervous  conditions,  such  as 
hysteria  and  hypochondria,  he  regarded  as  important  exciting  causes. 

In  1868,  (jlriesinger  published  cases  which  showed  for  the  first 


time  that  the  entire  maludy  might  consist  xii  insoluble  questions, 
which  unceasingly  pursued  the  patient,  who  couUl  not  escape  from 
"  why "  and  "  how,"  and  he  considered  the  condition  might  be 
independent  of  emotional  complications.  In  1875,  Legraud  du 
Saulle  showed  that  the  same  patients  could  present  successively 
the  symptr)ra5  of  folie  du  doute  and  those  of  dtUire  du  toucher^ 
and  he  iittemptcd,  by  joining  tliese  two  conditions,  to  form  a 
special  mental  alfectioa  having  a  veritable  morbid  entity. 

In  1877.  Westphal  published  an  important  contribution  to 
this  subject  According  to  him,  the  obsession  never  becomes  a  true 
id4€  Jiice  dUimnte,  but  always  remains  a  stranger  to  the  patient's 
ego,  while  the  insane  conform  logically  to  the  deductions  of  their 
fixed  ideas.  This  scientific  distinction  between  the  fixed  ideas  of 
tlie  insane,  and  mere  obsessions,  has  long  been  recognised  by  the 
Church,  which  has  always  made  a  difference  between  possession 
and  obsession,  saying  for  example :  "  This  man  is  not  possessed, 
he  is  only  suifering  from  obsession."  According  to  Westphal  an 
obsession  is  not  an  emotion,  nor  is  it  ever  produced  by  one,  and  if 
attacks  of  mental  agony  appear  later,  these  are  always  secondary 
and  simply  concomitant  phenomena.  This  opinion  is  opposed  to 
the  observations  of  Morel  and  the  French  savants.  Wille  holds 
thiit  obsessions  can  have  an  emotional  base,  and  thinks  that  they 
are  sometimes  followed  by  veritable  mental  alienntion,  while 
Westphal  atfirms  that  cases  of  obsession  never  become  insane. 
Wille,  as  well  as  Legrand  du  SauUe,  has  noticed  the  frequent 
suicidal  ideas  and  even  attempts  at  suicide,  sometimes  followed 
by  death,  and  considers  folie  du  dovU  and  its  likes  as  an 
intermediate  condition  between  the  ncvroses  and  the  psychoses, 
and  that  obsession  is  always  ready  to  pass  into  madness. 

Westphal  divides  obsessions  into  three  kinds: — (1)  Those 
which  remain  purely  theoretical,  as  the  folk  du  doule,  when  it 
takes  the  form  of  iiuestions.  (2)  Those  which  produce  certain 
actions,  as  the  d^lire  du  tcnt^her.  (3)  Impulsive  obsessions^ 
which  provoke  immediate  actions. 

While  other  authors  since  Morel  have  emphasised  heredity  as 
an  essential  factor  in  obsessions,  Magnan,  in  1885,  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  to  consider  this  mental  trouble  as  a  direct  and 
immediate  sign  of  morbid  heredity. 

In  opposition  to  L^rand  du  Saulle,  Ladame  demands  the 
separation    of  folu   du  doitte  and   d^lire  du    toucJur    into    two 


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distinct  clinical  varieties.  These,  like  plenro-pneunionia,  are 
certainly  often  associated,  he  says,  bat  more  often  exist  isolated. 
In  illustration  of  this  he  cites  the  following  cases : — 

{a)  A  young  man,  aged  28,  suffered  fioin  feiir  of  contamina- 
tion and  frequently  washed  his  hands  as  a  methail  of  pui-ification. 
He  never  feared  he  would  forget  anything  and  never  addressed 
questions  to  himself.  This,  according  to  Ladame,  was  a  case  of 
dilire  dit  toucher  without  folie  dit  dorttc, 

(6)  Miss ,  aged  33,  has  had  since  childhood  ideas  which 

she  cannot  get  rid  of.  She  asks  herself  all  sorts  of  questions 
and  seeks  in  vain  for  their  answers.  These  are  particularly  in 
reference  to  the  other  world  and  the  Creation.  Did  everything 
make  itself  ?  Has  God  created  all  things  ?  Did  not  the  world 
make  itself?  Is  there  a  God  ?  How  can  one  divide  objects  into 
infinitely  little  parts,  when  each  little  part  can  still  be  divided  ? 
How  is  it  that  an  object  infinitely  divided  can  still  be  divided, 
notwithstanding  that  one  cannot  divide  it  any  more  ?  Is  God 
able  to  divide  it  still  further  ?  God  only  can  divide  it  and  never- 
theless this  particle  cannot  be  divided  !  How  do  you  account  for 
that  ?      She  has  never  suffered  from  dilire  du  toiicker. 

Van  Eeden  says  that  iii  four  cases  treated  by  liim  the  con- 
nection between  folie  du  dmtit  and  dilire  du  toucher  could  not 
be  mistaken,  and  that  in  all  these  cases  the  folie  du  doute  was 
evolved  after  the  d^lirc  du  tmicher  and  was  an  evident  con- 
sequence of  it.  One  case  commenced  with  the  fear  of  catching 
syphilis.  The  patient  avoided  touching  anything  he  suspected 
of  being  contaminated,  and,  if  this  Iiappened,  scrupulously  washed 
his  hands.  His  precautions  became  exaggerated,  until  he  not 
only  doubted  their  eflicacy,  but  also  the  clearness  of  his  judg- 
ment; and  then,  despite  the  excessive  attention  given  to  these 
washings,  oould  not  obtain  a  certainty  of  complete  cleanliness. 
A  similar  progressive  evolution  was  obsen'ed,  says  van  Eeden, 
in  another  case,  where  the  patient  suffered  from  crairUe  de 
tfmillnrt,  then  doubt  and  finally  mistrust  of  herself.  The 
d^lire  du  toiieher  began  witli  fear  of  soiling  her  food,  she 
washed  her  hands  incessantly,  but  afterwards  the  doubt  returned. 
Another  patient,  wlio  was  nursing  a  case  of  cancer,  became  afraid 
of  catchiug  it  She  washed  her  liands  constantly,  and  avoided 
coming  iu  contact  with  suspected  persons. 

In  agoraphobia,  claustrophobia,  etc,  van  Eeden  says  the  idea 


of  fright  arises  suddenly  from  the  impressiou  of  the  surroundings, 
and  it  is  only  after  tmviug  this  that  the  ]>aiieut  avoids  open  or 
closed  spaces.  Here  it  is  the  fear  which  causes  the  obsession. 
He  classifies  these  and  similar  conditions  as  follows: — (I)  Con- 
ceptioiis  obs^dttntcs  ;  here  the  obsession  springs  from  a  precise 
and  detailed  conception  of  some  act  which  acquires  an  impulsive 
force.  (2)  Left  ^notions  obsidantes ;  chiefly  terror,  ui  which 
a  momentary  emotion,  an  impression — whicli  a  normal  man  can 
equally  well  experience,  but  which  he  quickly  represses — domi- 
nates the  volition  and  the  reason.  The  patients  are  not  able  to 
say  what  they  fear,  or  if  they  give  a  reason  it  is  eWdently 
an  invented  one.  (3>  Impulsions  obsidantes  ,*  the  irresistible 
tendency  to  commit  strange  or  improper  acts.  (4)  L(s  id^ts 
obsidantes  properly  so-called ;  the  intellect  a  al  obsessions  of  the 
French,  the  GrubdsuM  of  Griesinger  and  Berger.  The  patient 
is  not  able  to  escape  from  the  obsession  to  think  constantly  about 
a  certain  subject  or  question.  Hero  it  is  neither  a  question  of  a 
perception  or  emotion,  nor  of  an  impulse  to  commit  an  act ;  there 
is  only  one  isolated  idea — a  word,  a  phrase,  incessantly  pursues 
the  patient  and  coutinually  occupies  his  thoughle. 

Von  Eeden  regards  what  he  calls  "  manias  of  superstition  "  as 
an  interesting  variety  of  obsessions.  One  of  his  patients,  a  man 
aged  40,  of  heallliy  constitution,  has  since  childhood  attached 
prophetic  signification  to  ptierile  facts  and  events.  To  wear  a 
certain  necktie  promises  him  happiness  or  unhappiness.  If  he  does 
not  touch  a  certain  boundary-stone  he  thinks  evil  will  happen  to 
him.  If  he  does  not  re-read  a  certain  line,  or  make  a  certain 
letter  thicker  when  writing,  something  horrible  will  befall  him. 
At  first  his  strange  ideas  were  insignificant,  or  he  was  able  to 
resist  them ;  but.  as  he  grew  older  they  filled  his  life  and  rendered 
it  intolerable.  For  twenty  years  he  made  a  pilgrimage  every 
Sunday  to  the  railway  station  in  order  to  kick  a  certain  post 
three  times  with  each  foot.  If  he  did  not  do  this  his  father 
would  die.  In  order  to  rid  himself  of  these  obsessions  he  made 
vows  and  associated  threats  with  them.  He  said  for  example : 
"  If  I  yield  to  one  of  my  caprices  in  the  course  of  an  hour  I  shall 
have  apoplexy  before  twentj'-four  hours  have  passed,"  At  first 
this  succeeded,  but  soon  the  effect  of  the  vows  diminished,  and  he 
was  compelled  to  make  them  stronger.  The  unhappy  man  now 
stands  sometimes  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  muttering  the  most 


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fearful  imprecations,  in  order  to  get  the  strength  to  go  an  ermnd. 
If  he  omits  them  he  is  forced  to  obey  the  most  absurd  impulses. 
He  must  stop  l>efore  a  certaiu  house,  retrace  his  steps,  touch 
boundaries,  stop  passere-by  or  touch  their  clothes :  in  a  word,  he 
ia  obliged  to  act  like  a  maniac  His  intellect  is  perfectly  noniial, 
and  he  attends  to  his  business  as  if  nothing  were  the  matter. 

Berillon  thinks  the  professional  character  of  these  nervous 
troubles  has  not  been  sufEcieutly  noticed,  and  he  draws  au 
analogy  between  them  and  the  different  functional  spasms 
which  show  a  tendency  to  professional  Icwmlisation,  In  illus- 
tration of  this  he  cites  the  following  cases : — A  young  priest, 
not  timid  in  the  performance  of  his  other  religious  duties,  sutfered 
agony  on  entering  tlie  pulptt.  Another  suffered  in  the  same 
way  when  he  received  a  confession.  A  medical  student  suffered 
extreme  agony  at  the  sight  of  a  few  drops  of  blood.  A  chemist 
made  up  a  prescription  which  caused  the  death  of  a  customer. 
Ho  was  able  to  prove  that  it  was  dispensed  exactly  as  ordered 
by  the  doctor ;  but,  as  his  existence  became  a  veritable  torture  from 
constant  fear  of  making  a  mistake,  he  sold  his  business.  A  notary 
had  morbid  fears  only  when  he  had  to  give  a  professional  opinion. 
A  hairdresser  noticed  that  his  hand  trembled  one  day,  and  then 
constantly  dreaded  that  this  would  reappear  when  he  shaved  his 
best  cu3tomei"3.  The  same  anxiety  did  not  exist  when  he  had  to 
shave  a  poor  or  unknown  customer.  Dr.  FriJmineau  reports  the 
case  of  an  actor  who  abandoned  hia  profession  on  account  of 
extreme  stage -frighL  Tliis  condition  only  appeared  after  a 
suooessfnl  career.  Dr.  Burillon  reports  several  similar  cases. 
Biegler  has  noticed  a  morbid  fear  amongst  railway  mechanics, 
to  which  he  has  given  the  name  of  sid^rodromopkohie ;  this 
is  characterised  by  an  extraordinary  averaion  to  Uieir  habitual 
occupation,  and  the  sight  of  a  train  or  the  wliistle  of  an  engine 
is  sufficient  to  revive  their  anxiety.  Grasset  mentions  that  a 
distinguished  Parisian  surgeon  commences  to  be  anxious  the 
moment  a  patient  leaves  his  consulting-room  with  a  prescription. 
He  anxiously  asks  himself  whether  he  could  have  written  centi- 
grammes instead  of  milligrammes ;  and  only  recovers  his  mental 
calm  when  his  servant,  sent  to  seek  the  patient,  brings  back  the 
prescription,  and  he  can  see  that  it  is  all  right  Another  doctor, 
he  says,  is  rendered  perfectly  miserable  by  the  fear  of  microbes. 
Brochiu   reports  the  case  of  a  doctor  who  fears  no  contagious 


malady,  except  diphtheria,  and  who  shows  proof  of  veritable 
heroism  every  time  he  sees  a  diplitlieritic  patient  A  case  has 
recently  been  reported  from  abroad,  where  a  medical  maO} 
dreading  that  his  fees  might  be  the  means  of  contagion,  invented 
elaborate  methods  of  sterilising  them ;  and  I  know  of  a  similar 
case  in  this  country. 

These  morbid  fears  are  awkward  enough  when  they  occur  in 
ordinary  life,  but,  according  to  Bt^rillon,  they  acquire  graver  im- 
portance when  the  subjects  of  them  are  liable  to  enforced  military 
service,  especially  in  the  ranks.  In  Legrand  du  SauUe's  classic 
case  of  agoraphobia,  a  lieutenant  of  infantry  experienced  ujudefin- 
able  agony  when  obliged  to  cross  un  open  space  in  civilian  clothes, 
but  this  never  happened  when  he  was  in  uniform.  When  an  officer 
suffers  iu  this  way  he  can  escape  from  the  intolerable  situation 
by  getting  leave  of  absence,  but  it  is  not  so  with  the  soldier. 
B6riUon  gives  amongst  others  the  following  examples  :— 

Paul  C,  aged  25,  illness  dates  from  military  service.  When 
ordered  to  cross  the  horizontal  bar  at  tlie  gymnasium  he  was 
seized  with  extreme  apprehension,  and  afterwards  the  idea  of  this 
exercise  was  always  present.  Again  ordered  to  perform  it  he 
became  terrified,  and  asked  to  be  excused,  but  from  that  time  hia 
superiors  insisted  more  and  more  upon  the  dreaded  exercise. 
One  day  in  attempting  to  cross  the  bar  he  became  giddy  and  fell 
upon  his  head.  A  veritable  agoraphobia  developed ;  and  since  his 
return  from  military  service  he  has  been  unable  to  cross  a  road 
by  himself. 

M.,  aged  37,  commercial  traveller,  suffered  from  chronic 
diarrhcea,  which  caused  him  to  dread  leaving  hotne ;  after  this 
ceased  he  retained  his  nen'ous  fears.  Once,  when  a  shoit  dis- 
tance from  his  house,  the  anxiety  was  so  strong  that  he  was 
obliged  to  return,  and  since  then,  seven  years  ago,  he  has  lived 
in  a  circle  having  a  diameter  of  about  200  metres,  and  nothing 
will  induce  him  to  leave  it.  "When,  as  a  member  of  the  Keserve, 
he  had  to  serve  his  first  period  of  twenty-eight  days,  he  was 
able  to  perform  his  duties ;  but  at  the  second  period  the  agora- 
phobia had  developed,  and  by  dint  of  diplomacy,  ingenuity,  and 
bribery,  he  managed  to  be  kept  constantly  employed  in  the 
barracks. 

According  to  Dr.  G^liueau  a  crowd  of  sentiments  of  repug- 
nance, etc.,  which  the  laity  group  as  "  aversions  "  closely  resemble 


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the  conditions  we  are  discussing.  Henry  the  Third,  for  example, 
who  showed  his  bravery  at  the  Siege  of  hi  Kochelle  and  else- 
where, could  not  hear  the  sight  of  a  cat  The  Duke  of  Epemon 
fainted  at  the  sight  of  a  yoimg  donkey.  Ladislas,  King  of  Poland, 
got,  frightened  and  ran  away  when  he  saw  apj)lea ;  and  Favoriti, 
a  modern  Italian  poet,  could  not  bear  the  smell  of  a  rose.  Dr. 
Pierre  d'Apono  was  so  frightened  at  the  sight  of  milk  and  cheese 
that  he  fainted.  Montaigne  said :  "  I  have  seen  more  people 
driven  to  tlight  by  the  smell  of  apples  than  by  arquebuses,  others 
frightened  at  a  mouse,  made  sick  by  the  sight  of  cream,  or  by 
seeing  a  feather-bed  shaken." 

Ribot  applies  the  term  "  tixed  ideas "  to  the  states  we  are 
discussing,  and  regards  them  as  "  chronic  hypertrophy  of  the 
attention  "  ;  the  "  fixed  ideas  "  being  the  absolute,  "  attention  "  '  the 
tevvporary  predominance  of  an  intellectual  state  or  group  of  states. 
The  Bxed  idea  is  attention  in  its  highest  degree  and  marks  the 
extreme  limit  of  its  power  of  inhibition.  There  exists,  lie  says, 
both  in  normal  attention  and  in  lixed  ideas,  predominance  and 
intensity  of  a  statu  of  consciousness :  tliis  is  more  marked,  how- 
ever, in  the  fixed  idea,  which  is  permanent  and  disposes  of  the 
important  psychical  factor — time.  In  attention,  this  exceptional 
state  does  not  last  long :  consciousness  reverts  spontaneously  to 
its  normal  condition,  which  ia  a  struggle  for  existence  between 
heterogeneous  states.  The  fixed  idea  prevents  all  diffusion. 
There  is  no  antagonistic  state  that  is  able  to  overthrow  it  Effort 
is  impossible  or  vain.  Hence  the  agony  of  the  patient  who  is 
conscious  of  his  own  impotency.  The  following  is  Kibut's  con- 
ception of  the  probable  physiological  condition  associated  with 
fixed  ideas  : — In  its  normal  stale  he  saya  the  entire  brain  works ; 
diffused  activity  is  the  rule.  Discharges  take  place  from  one 
group  of  cells  into  another,  as  the  objective  equivalent  of 
the  perpetual  alterations  of  consciousness.  In  the  morbid  state 
only  a  few  nervous  elements  are  active  ;  or,  at  least,  their  state  of 
tension  is  not  transmitted  to  other  groups.  Wiatever  may  be 
their  position  in  the  ccrebiul  organ,  they  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
isolated ;  all  disposable  energy  has  been  accumuIatG<l  in  them, 
and  they  do  not  communicate  it  to  other  groups ;  whence  their 
supreme  dominance  and  exaggerated  acti\ity.  There  is  a  lack  of 
physiological  equilibrium,  due  probably  to  the  state  of  nutrition 
'  I.t.,  onlinaiy  atUntion. 


iS4 


HYPNOTISM 


of  the  cerebral  centres.  Ribot  refers  to  "Westphars  recognition 
of  the  dUTereuce  between  fixed  ideas  antl  insanity,  and  his  state- 
ment that  "  the  fixed  idea  is  a  disturbance  of  the  form,  of  the 
process  of  ideation,  but  not  of  its  contents."  The  "  formal "  per- 
turbation consists,  says  Ribot,  in  the  inexorable  necessity  that 
compels  the  association  always  to  follow  the  same  path.  There 
is  derangement,  not  in  the  nature,  the  quality  of  the  idea,  which 
is  normal,  but  in  its  quantity,  intensity,  and  d^ree.  Thus  it  is 
perfectly  rational  to  refiect  upon  the  usefulness  of  bank-notes,  or 
the  origin  of  tilings,  and  this  state  difters  widely  from  that  of  the 
beggar  who  thinks  himself  a  millionaire,  or  the  man  who  believes 
himself  to  be  a  woman. 

As  regards  the  connection  between  folie  du  doute  and 
d^lirc  du  toucher,  it  is  intei-esting  to  note  that  the  latter  con- 
ilition  occurred  in  No.  83  (pp.  241-3)  as  soon  aa  the  patient's 
doubts  took  a  material  form,  but  was  not  associated  with  it 
when  his  okneasions  were  purely  intellectual.  Does  not  this 
show  that  the  appearance  of  the  d/Jire  du  toucher  simply 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  folic  du  doute,  and  that  the 
incessant  washings,  etc.,  are  the  patient's  natui-al  physical  efforts 
to  rid  himself  of  his  material  fears,  while  the  character  of  the 
purely    intellectuid    obsessions    renders    such    relief    impossible. 

ilr. (No.  8:J)  sought  and  found  its  nearest  equivalent  in 

telling  his  religious  troubles  to  an  older  friend,  in  whose  opinions 
he  tried  to  find  consolation-  From  this  ]x>int  of  view,  the  second 
of  the  c-ases  quoted  by  Ladame  shows  folic  du  doute  unaasoci- 
ated  with  d^lire  du  tojicher.  This  separation  is,  I  think,  more 
artificial  than  real.  In  his  first  case,  that  of  the  younj^  man  who 
frequently  washed  his  hands  through  fear  of  contamination,  it  ia 
by  no  means  clear  that  this  was  a  case  of  d^lire  du  toucher 
without  fdie  du  doute.  Surely  the  abnormal  and  incessant 
washing  must  have  been  the  result  of  doubts  which  he  thus  tried 
to  remove.  The  same  objections  might  be  raised  to  van  Keden's 
cases,  where  folic  du  doute  is  said  to  liave  resulted  from  d^ire 
du  toucher. 

Hack  Tuke  regarded  imperative  ideas,  and  the  acts  resulting 
from  them,  as  essentially  automatic,  and  considered  this  their 
fundamental  characteristic.  Are  these  acts  automatic  ?  An 
automatic  act  ia  simply  an  habitual  voluntary  one  performed 
inattentively  or   unconsciously ;    while   the   so-called   automatic 


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acts  of  the  siifl'erer  from  imperative  ideas  are  c&rried  out  in 
opposition  to  his  volition,  and  frequently  associated  with  intense 
and  painful  consciousness.  Possibly,  with  justice,  they  might  be 
called  Ttflex^  seeing  that  they  are  the  "  fatal,  unchosen,  response 
to  stimulation," 

The  fact  that  au  imperative  idea  remains  a  Btnmger  to  the 
patient's  ego  distinguishes  it,  according  to  most  authorities,  from 
an  insane  delusion.  This  rule  has  its  exceptions.  One  of  my 
patients,  as  we  have  seen  (No.  86,  p.  244),  commenced  in  1885  to 
be  "  inhibited "  by  various  superstitions.  At  first  this  rarely 
occurred  ;  but  later,  owing  to  the  number  of  his  unlucky  days, 
etc,  the  performance  of  many  acts  was  often  interfered  with. 
Many  people,  by  no  means  insane,  actually  believe  in,  and  are 
in6uenced  by,  identical  superstitious.  This  patient,  however, 
did  not  believe  in  them,  and  keenly  resented  their  interference 
with  his  actions.  Tlic  non-assimilation  of  the  impemtive  idea 
sometimes,  then,  constitutes  the  morbid  element,  and  this  appar- 
ently depends  more  upon  the  individual  than  upon  the  idea 
itself.  The  patient  who  made  herself  miserable  about  the 
Creation  might,  under  other  times  and  circumstances,  have  taken 
pleasure  in  discussing  "  the  number  of  angels  who  could  stand 
on  the  point  of  a  needle ;  or  whether,  in  passing  from  point  to 
point,  they  had  to  traverse  the  intermediate  s|>ace."  Schliemann'a 
imperative  idea  to  discover  tlie  site  of  ancient  Troy  only  differed 
from  those  we  are  discussing  in  the  fact  that  it  was  assitnilated 
by  its  possessor ;  but  this  did  not  constitute  insanity. 

In  nearly  all  my  cases  the  condition  appears  to  have  had  au 
emotional  origin.  The  shock  of  the  sudden  death  of  a  relative 
caused  one  patient  to  fear  his  wife  would  die ;  another  dreaded 
travelling  aft«r  being  frightened  by  a  drunken  man  in  a  railway 
carriage.  Although,  in  some  instances,  the  emotional  element 
changed  its  character,  and  in  all  become  greatly  intcnsihcd,  it 
was  certainly  often  associated  with  the  commencement  of  tlie 
original  trouble. 

Imperative  ideas  are  usually  regarded  as  being  typical  of 
degeneracy,  and  especially  of  hereditary  degeneracy.  Some  of 
my  cases  seem  to  confirm  this :  they  were  weak  mentally  oud 
physically,  and  had  unsatisfactory  hereditary  antecedents.  la 
several  instances  their  imperative  ideas  had  become  insane 
delusions ;  many  of  them  bad  suicidal  imptdses ;  one  attempted 


suicidej  and  another  had  hallucinations.  Ou  the  other  hand, 
tlie  transition  from  tlie  normal  state  to  imperative  ideas  is 
almost  insensible — the  repetition  of  an  iusiguiiicant  saying  being, 
according  to  Kibot,  the  slightest  form,  and  preoccupation,  such  as 
anxiety  about  an  examination,  a  degree  higher.  Most  children, 
too,  have  suffered  at  one  time  or  another  from  imperative 
ideas.  This,  as  a  popular  writer  has  justly  remarked,'  appears  to 
arise  from  an  exaggerated  sense  of  the  importance  of  what  they 
say  and  do,  and  also  from  an  exaggerated  feur  regarding  tlie  notice 
taken  of  them  by  others.  He  says :  "  How  miserable  we  some- 
times make  ourselves  over  some  silly  remark  we  have  made. 
Some  of  us  even  keep  a  little  store  of  foolish  things  we  have 
said  or  done  at  various  times — and  take  them  out  occasionally 
and  blush  over  them.  As  a  child  I  blushed  for  years  at  the 
thought  of  having  piped  out  a  response  in  church  in  the  wrong 
place,  before  the  clergyman's  turn  was  over.  I  felt  as  if  the 
whole  congregation  turned  and  gazed  at  me  with  scornful  ridicule. 
As  I  walked  uway  every  one  who  glanced  at  me  I  felt  sure  was 
thinking,  *  Tliere  goes  the  child  who  made  that  extraordinary 
squeak  in  church.' " 

Every  oue  cannot  have  fixed  ideas,  as  for  example  idiots,  who 
possess  little  spontaneous  and  no  voluntary  attention,  while,  as 
Eibot  says :  "  In  every  sound  human  being  there  is  always  a 
dominant  idea  which  regulates  his  conduct ;  such  as  pleasure, 
money,  ambition,  or  the  soul's  salvation."  Some  of  my  patients 
were  physically  far  above  the  average,  and  many  of  them 
possessed  mental  endowments  of  high  quality,  und  their  morbid 
ideas  did  not  prevent  them  doing  valuable  work.  Most  of  them, 
it  is  true,  were  of  an  emotional,  nervous  type,  but  is  the  sensitive, 
mobile  brain  necessarily  degenerate  ?  May  not  the  accidents  to 
which  it  is  liable  be  the  result  of  its  higher  and  more  complex 
development  ?  The  thoroughbred  is  more  emotional  and  nervous 
than  the  cart-horse,  but  is  this  necessarily  an  evidence  of  its 
hereditary  degeneracy  ?  The  term  "  degenerate  "  is  applied  so 
freely  and  widely  by  some  modern  authors  that  one  cannot  help 
concluding  that  they  rank  as  such  all  who  do  not  conform  to 
some  primitive  savage  type,  possessing  an  imperfectly  developed 
nervous  system. 

t  "To  inculcate  oontempt  of  others."    Fall  Mall  OazeUe,  April  4th,  1895. 


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(8)  Epilepsy. 

My  results  in  the  treatment  of  epilepsy  have  been  encouraging 
but  not  conclusive.  Out  of  ten  cases,  five  were  markedly  im- 
proved, but  none  recovered  completely.  This,  however,  does  not 
include  two  cases  associated  with  dipsomania,  which  have  remained 
without  relapse,  the  one  for  four  and  a  half,  the  other  for  five 
years.  In  tlie  following  examples  the  epilepsy  was  not  com- 
plicated by  other  diseases. 

No.  94.  Miss  ,  aged    19,  January   5th,   1890,     Good 

health  up  to  1 5,  when  menstniation  and  attacks  of  petit  mal 
appeared  simiiltaueoualy.  A  few  mouths  later  grand  imd  com- 
menced ;  tirsl  at  night  only,  but  soon  in  the  daytime  also.  The 
convulsions  were  violent  and  generalised ;  and  the  patient  bit 
her  tongue  and  passed  urine  involuntarily.  After  a  fit,  she 
generally  slept  for  several  hours,  and  on  awaking  was  either 
stupid  and  listless,  or  abnormally  excited  and  violent.  On 
several  occasions  she  had  been  severely  burnt  and  Bcalded ;  and 
her  face,  limbs,  and  body  were  scarred  and  <hsfigured.  The 
memory  and  general  mental  condition  began  to  deteriorate  at 
an  early  stage  of  the  illness,  and  she  soon  became  almost  idiotic. 
Uespite  treatment  by  bromides,  etc.,  there  had  been  a  progressive 
increase  in  the  number  of  seizures,  which,  when  I  firat  saw  the 
patient,  averaged  about  twenty  a  week. 

She  was  hypnotised  fifteen  times  from  January  5th  to  the 
end  of  February,  1890;  although  no  drugs  were  given,  the  tite 
ceased  after  the  first  induction  oi  hypnosis.  On  March  7th,  she 
had  a  fright  followed  by  an  attack  of  grand  mal,  and  was 
hypnotised  four  times  in  the  next  fortnight ;  theu,  as  there  was 
no  rela[)se,  treatment  was  abandoned.  The  patient  rapidly  im- 
proved mentally  and  physically,  and  for  the  first  time  in  her  life 
was  able  to  take  a  situation.  She  remained  well  until  November, 
1891.  when  attacks  oi  petit  tnal  reapjieared.  These  were  followed 
early  in  Deceml>er  by  grajtd  mal,  there  being  ten  fits  up  to 
January  19th.  1892.  At  that  time  hypnotic  treatment,  which 
had  been  delayed  owing  to  my  absence  from  home,  was  reeuxned 
and  continued  until  the  end  of  Februaiy.  She  had  two  attacks 
towards  the  end  of  January,  after  which  the  fits  ceased.  She  re- 
turned to  her  situation  in  March,  and  up  to  November,  1892,  when 
I  left  the  neighbourhood,  1  was  informed  that  she  had  only  had 

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one  or  two  very  slight  attacks  of  petit  mal.  During  that  time, 
as  the  patient  lived  some  diaUuce  from  rue,  I  could  not  repeat 
the  treatment,  nor  have  1  been  able  to  get  further  news  of  the 
case.     This  patient  was  drawn  from  my  general  practice  at  Goole. 

No.  95.  Miss- .aged  17, November  23rd, 1897.    Began  to 

have  attacks  of  petit  nial  at  the  age  of  2^  years.  These  occurred 
frequently  for  several  years,  then  disappeared  under  treatment. 

In  1891,  during  convalescence  from  measles,  she  had  her 
first  attack  of  grand  vial,  followed  by  another  attack  the  same 
year  and  one  iu  1892.  No  attacks  in  1893.  In  1894  she  had 
five  attacks;  in  1895  tliirteen ;  iu  1896  five;  while  in  1897 
she  had  twenty-one.  During  all  this  time  she  had  careful 
medical  treatment,  and  took  bromides  regularly  in  full  doses. 

The  last  of  the  attacks  just  referred  to  occurred  on  November 
22nd,  1897,  and  hypnotic  treatment  was  begim  the  following 
day.  The  sittings  were  rep^at^d  thirty  times  up  to  the  end  of 
1898,  and  during  that  time  there  were  no  attacks. 

The  sittings  were  then  reduced  to  one  a  month,  and  she  had 
one  attack  in  August,  1899.  I  saw  her  again  iu  January,  1900, 
after  which  the  treatment  was  discontinued  until  November, 
when  she  again  had  an  attack.  From  that  date,  to  April,  1901, 
the  patient  was  hypnotised  three  times,  and  there  were  no  further 
attacks.  She  tlieu  went  abroad  and  treatment  was  discontinued. 
The  attacks  recommenced,  and  she  had  six  between  Jime  Ist  and 
October  19th,  1901.  Hypnotic  treatment  was  then  recommenced, 
and  she  had  twenty-nine  sittings  from  October  2l6t,  1901,  to 
February  24th,  1903.  Duriug  that  time,  a  period  of  seventeen 
months,  tlierc  have  been  no  attacks,  and  the  patient  has  improved 
greatly  both  mentally  and  physically.* 

In  this  case,  on  the  advice  of  Dr.  de  Watteville,  who  saw  the 
patient  with  me,  medical  treatment  was  also  continued,  and  the 
patient  took  bromides  more  or  less  regularly,  although  not  nearly 
to  the  same  extent  tliat  she  had  done  before  hypnotic  treatment 
was  begun.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  attacks  ceased  when  the 
patient  was  hypnotised  regularly,  and  returned  when  hypnotic 
treatment  was  neglected. 

Elliotson,  Esdaile,  and  Braid,  as  well  as  more  recent  observers, 
have  also  reported  cases,  of  which  the  following  are  examples : — 

Na  96  (Elliotson).  Mr. ,  aged  17,  had  suffered  for  four 

*  Up  to  the  present  date,  May  28th,  1893,  there  has  been  no  farther  r«lai«». 


I 


I 


HYPNOTISM  IN  MEDICINE 


259 


hti 
aii 

I 


from  attacks  of  grawl  and  -pttit  maL  At  tii-st  the  con- 
vulsions wen;  rare,  but  soon  became  rrequent  and  severe :  the 
tongue  was  often  bitten,  and  the  seiisure  always  followed  by 
profound  comiL  In  addition  to  perfect  fits,  there  were  often 
fragmentary  ones  indicated  by  transitory  deafness.  There  was 
neither  hysteria  nor  any  other  nervous  symptom.     As  the  disease 

'^had  resisted  three  years'  medical  treatment,  drugs  were  abandoned 
and  the  patient  mesmerised  regularly.  He  recovered  rapidly, 
knd  two  years  later  there  had  been  no  relapse. 

No.  97  (Esdaile).  Mrs.  GoodaU,  aged  33,  epilepsy  of  nineteen 

^years'  duration.  The  attacks,  preceded  by  an  aura  and  accom- 
panied by  violent  convulsions  with  loss  of  consciousness,  occurred 
about  twice  a  month.  For  six  yeare  she  had  also  suffered  from 
severe  abdominal  pain,  and  was  unable  to  sleep  without  Cannabis 
Indica.  She  entered  the  Me.snieric  Hospital  on  January  28th, 
1847,  and  was  under  ti-eatment  for  two  months,  liesult:  the 
fit«  ceased,  she  slept  naturally  without  narcotics,  and  the  abdominal 

(pain  disappeared.  Later  reports  confirmed  her  recovery. 
Braid  also  recorded  a  case  of  grand  trial  treated  hypnotically, 
wrhich  had  not  rehipsed  eight  years  later. 
No.  98  (Wetterstrand).  Miss  D,  von  B.,  aged  24,  first  seen 
September,  1891.  Epilepsy  of  ten  yeare'  duration.  The  attacks 
became  rarer  under  h3rpnotic  treatment,  and  the  last  occurred  on 
Christmas  Bay,  1891.  The  patient  then  got  t)ie  tixed  idea  that 
^H  the  fits  would  return  when  she  left  Stockholm,  Wetterstrand 
^fcras  xmable  to  remove  this  by  suggestion  ;  he  therefore  put  her  to 
^Hleep  on  March  5th,  1892,  and  maintained  the  condition,  with  the 
^exception  of  a  few  hours,  until  April  8th,  1892.     AiVlien  aroused 

she  had  lost  her  obsession,  and  there  was  no  relapse. 
^^  From  an  early  date  in  bis  hypnotic  practice,  Wetterstrand 
^^reported  cases  of  epilepsy  successfully  treated  by  suggestion,  but 
his  resulu  have  been  still  more  striking  since  lie  adopted  the 
method  of  prolonged  sleep.  In  1893,  ten  cases  treated  in  the 
latter  way  had  already  passed  several  years  without  relapse. 

In  1897,  Dr.  Woods  published  fourteen  cases,  of  which  two 
— aged  13  and  8^  years  respectively — are  stated  to  have  re- 
covered, and  t^*n  to  have  been  much  improved.  In  the  successful 
cases  the  duration  of  the  disease  had  been  two  years  in  each 
stance,  while  in  one  two  years,  and  in  the  other  sixteen  months, 
passed  without  relapse. 


26o 


HYPNOTISM 


B^rillou  has  published  twenty  cases  with  iour  i-ecoveries,  and 
Dr.  Hilger,  Magtleburg,  seven,  two  of  which  were  improved. 
Voisin,  Spehl,  Stadelmnnn,  de  Jong,  and  others  have  also  reported 
successful  cases. 

Remarks. — No  one  has  obtained  results  in  epilepsy  equal  to 
those  of  Wetterstrand ;  and  his  success  appears  to  be  due  to  the 
employment  of  "prolonged  sleep."  His  statistics  are  so  stai'tling 
that  Forel  only  acceptfid  them  after  personal  investigation.  It 
is  possible  that  with  the  more  general  employment  of  "  prolonged 
sleep"  others  may  obtain  results  equal  to  those  of  Wetterstrand ; 
but,  to  give  h}i)uotism  a  fair  trial,  it  should  be  commenced  as 
soon  as  the  disease  shows  itself,  and  not,  as  is  usually  done,  put 
off  until  all  other  forms  of  treatment  have  failed. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  some  authorities  cite 
cases  which  cannot  be  regarded  as  conclusive,  as  patients  were 
stated  to  have  been  cured  before  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  to 
warrant  this.  Further,  the  description  of  the  case  sometimes 
casts  doubt  on  the  accuracy  of  the  diagnosis,  and  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  hystero- epilepsy,  a  disease  frequently  cured  by 
hypnotic  treatment,  is  common  in  France,  and  may  be  mistaken 
for  genuine  epilepsy. 


1 


(9)  Chorea. 

The  following  cases  are  from  my  own  practice  : — 

No.  99.  Master ,  aged   15,  April  3rd,  1894,  had  good 

health  up  to  two  years  previously,  wlien  he  had  influenza  followed 
by  chorea — the  latter  lasting  four  months.  No  history  of  fright 
or  rheumatism.  Heart  normal.  The  present  attack  began  at 
Christmas,  1893,  and  again  after  intlueuza.  The  right  arm  and 
leg  were  first  affected,  then  the  left.  The  condition  had  been 
growing  steadily  worse :  the  patient  constantly  dropped  things, 
was  unable  to  write,  could  not  dress  himself,  and  walked  with 
difficulty.  Treatment :  iron,  arsenic,  cod-liver  oil,  change  of  air, 
eta     No  improvement. 

The  patient  was  then  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  de  Watteville,  and  hyp- 
notised thirteen  times  from  April  3rd  to  May  23rd.  1894.  Before 
the  termination  of  the  treatment  the  spasms  Imd  entirely  dis- 
appeared.    Recovery  confirmed  by  later  reports. 

In  six  other  consecutive  cases  of  chorea,  recovery  took  place  in 


I 


each  instance,  while  in  none  did  the  duiation  of  the  treatment 
exceed  three  weeks.  One  of  these  patients,  a  girl,  aged  18,  also 
suffered  from  headache,  and  frequent  attacks  of  gtddiue&s  and 
drowsiness.  These  symptoms — suspiciously  like  those  of  the 
minor  forms  of  epilepsy — also  entirely  disappeaied  after  hypnotic 

^■treatment 

In  another  case,  not  included  in  the  above  list,  the  patient 
had  had  chorea  three  years  previoiisly,  but  twitching  movements 
in  the  fingers  had  persisted  after  recovery.  This  patient  was 
deeply  hypnotised  at  the  first  attempt,  and  the  abnormal  move- 
ments entirely  ceased  after  the  second  sitting. 

^h       Elliotson  reported  many  successful  cases,  and  asserted  that 

^■mesmerism  yielded  Ixitter  results  than  iron  or  arsenic  ;  the  latter 
Vising  the  remedies  he  had  formerly  recommended  in  place  of 
purgatives,   blisters,   and   the    other  debilitating  measures   with 

^B  which  chorea  used  to  be  treated  in  his  day. 

^P  Numerous  cases  are  also  recorded  by  modem  obeervers,  and 
of  these  the  following  is  an  example : — 

Xo.  100  (Dumontpallier).  Miss ,  aged  12,  October,  1892, 

had  suffered  from  chorea  since  November,  1891.  The  spasms, 
which  were  frequent,  practically  affected  all  the  voluntary 
muscles  with  the  exception  of  the  lower  limbs.  Heart  normal. 
No  improvement  after  nearly  twelve  months*  careful  medical 
tre;itment  Hypnosis  was  induced  at  the  first  attempt,  and  the 
choreic  movements  ceased  for  two  hours :  at  the  end  of  a  week's 
treatment  they  had  entirely  disappeared. 


(10)  Stammering. 

The  following  cases  are  from  my  own  pi*actice : — 

Xo.  101,  Dr.  ,  aged   28,  November,  1892.  Imd  always 

stammered,  but  was  strong  and  healthy,  and  showed  no  other 
aervous  symptoms.  Hypnotised  forty-six  times  up  to  July  Vth, 
1893;  this  was  followetl  by  marked  improvement.  Two  years 
later  the  patient  stated  that  he  was  practically  well. 

No.  102.  Mr. ,  aged  17,  Dex^mber.  1893,  had  stammered 

idly  since  commencing  to  speak :  at  times  he  was  quite  inar- 
ticulate and,  in  addition,  there  were  many  words  he  could  never 
pronouncf  at  alL  He  was  morbidly  conscious  of  his  infirmity, 
ad   led   a  solitary,   miserable   life.       He  suffered  greatly  from 


insomnia,  and  sometiuies  passed  several  consecutive  nights  with- 
out sleep.  Hypnotised  seventy-two  times  from  January  to  May, 
1893.  He  soon  slept  well,  but  it  was  only  towards  the  end  of 
the  treatment  that  the  stammering  improved. 

He  again  consulted  me  iu  September,  189S,  and  slated  that 
there  had  been  hardly  any  return  of  the  stammering.  He  con- 
fessed, however,  tliat  he  liad  long  been  addicted  to  excessive 
masturbation,  and  that  he  hod  lost  all  power  of  mental  work. 
He  suffered  from  various  UQurastheuic  symptoms ;  had  recently 
failed  iu  an  im|K)rtant  examination,  and  was  in  despair  about 
himself.  He  recovered  under  further  treatment.  At  the  Inst 
report  (1902)  he  was  practising  as  a  barrister,  and  could  speak 
in  public  without  difficulty. 

Out  of  48  cases  of  stammering  treated  by  Wetterstrand  15 
were  cured,  19  improved,  while  in  l-t  there  was  no  result. 
Successful  cnsea  are  also  reported  by  Ringier,  von  Cor\'al,  Hamil- 
ton Osgood,  and  othera ;  but  the  results  as  a  whole  have  not 
l)een  so  satisfactory  as  those  obtained  in  other  functional  disorders. 
Most  of  the  cases  sent  to  me  were  severe  and  of  long  standing ; 
while  the  patients  and  their  friends,  discouraged  by  the  failure  of 
other  methods  to  which  yeara  had  been  devoted,  seldom  gave 
hypnotic  treatment  a  fair  trial. 


(11)  Sea-Sickness 

The  following  coses  are  from  my  own  practice : — 
No.  10:i.  Mrs.  ,  aged  41,  March  20th.  1892. 


A  ftiU 


account  of  this  case  is  given  on  pp.  191-4,  but,  in  addition  to  her 
other  symptoms,  the  patient  invariably  suffered  from  sea-sickness, 
even  on  the  shortest  voyage,  or  in  the  calmest  weather.  This 
had  been  a  great  disadvantage  to  her,  as  her  husband  was  captain 
of  a  merchant  steamer,  and  often  wished  to  take  lier  with  him. 
In  April,  1892,  I  suggested  during  hypnosis  that  she  should  1^ 
free  from  sea -sickness.  Before  the  end  of  the  summer  she 
made  eight  voyages  between  the  Hmuber  and  Loudon :  her 
husband  reported  that  on  the  first  outward  voyage  there  was  a 
strong  north-east  swell,  while  on  returning  the  weather  was 
rough  and  the  steamer,  which  was  iu  ballast,  rolled  heavily; 
rough  weather  was  also  encountered  on  some  of  the  other  trips. 
But  the  patient  had  not  even  the  slightest  feeling  of  nausea  and 


ate  hearty  meals.  Case  shown  at  the  International  Congress  of 
Psychology,  Loudon,  1892,  and  elsewhere. 

No.  104.  Miss  ,  aged   19,  September,  1891,  had  good 

health,  but  the  shortest  voyage  pnjduced  violent  and  even 
dangerous  sea-sickness.  Profound  hypnosis  was  easily  induced 
at  the  first  attempt,  and  curative  suggestions  given,  During  the 
following  year,  the  patient  crossed  the  Channel  several  times 
without  being  sick.  The  treatme)it  was  then  repeat^id,  aa  she 
wished  to  go  to  India.  During  the  voyage  a  cyclone  was 
encountered,  and  she  alone  amongst  the  passengers  remained  well. 
The  return  journey  was  equally  successful,  and  further  voyages 
to  and  from  India  were  also  free  from  sickness.* 

The  following  cases  were  published  by  Gorodichze,  in  1896  : — 

No.  105.   Mrs.  ,  aged  ;i6,  was  healthy,  but  of  a  ner\-ous 

temperament.  She  lived  by  the  eea  and  often  went  out  boating, 
but  was  always  sick,  even  when  it  was  absolutely  calm.  After 
hypnotic  treatment  she  remained  at  sea  for  seven  houi-s  in  a 
small  sailing  boat  in  extremely  rough  weather,  without  feeling  the 
least  inconvenience. 

No.   106.  Mr.   ,  aged  40,  suffered  from   neurasthenia 

with  obsessions.  Hia  business  took  him  frequently  to  London, 
and  every  time  he  crossed  the  Channel  lie  was  sick.  After 
hypnotic  treatment  sea-sickness  ceased,  and  during  a  particularly 
rough  voyage  he  was  the  only  passenger  who  was  uot  ill. 

No.  107.  Mr. ,  aged  46,  nervous  and  a  bad  sailor,  was 

cured  by  hypnotic  treatment. 

No.  108.  Mrs.  ,  aged  37,  suffered  from  neuralgia  and 

migraine.  Formerly  always  sick  at  sea,  but  after  treatment  made 
many  voyages  without  inconvenience,  despite  bad  weather. 

An  extremely  successful  case  is  also  published  by  Berillon, 
while  Farez  cites  instances  of  sickness  caused  by  railway  travelling 
whiclj  were  cured  by  suggestion. 


(12)  Skin  Diseases. 

No.  109.  f^ritus  t*uh(e  a?id  £czema. — Mrs. ,  aged  49, 

August,  1889,  had  always  been  nen'ous  and  emotional.     Three  of 

her  children  had  died  of  infantile  convulsions ;  one  suffered  from 

epilepsy  and  two  from  hysteria.     At  an  earlier  date  the  patient 

'  Se«  also  Case  No.  SI,  pp.  201-2. 


264 


HYPNOTISM 


had  had  several  attacks  of  pelvic  inflammation,  associated  with 
endometritis  and  menorrhagia :  the  latter  diseases,  after  lasting 
five  years,  yielded  to  treatment  in  1883.  The  menopause  soon 
followed,  and  the  patient  had  good  liealth  for  two  years.  In 
1885,  she  began  to  suffer  from  pruritus  vulvje,  and  eczema  of  the 
hips  and  thighs.  Irritation  was  always  present,  but  at  night  it 
l>ecame  intolei*able  and  produced  insomnia.  She  had  long  sufifered 
from  constipation  :  the  bowels  never  acted  without  medicine,  and 
rarely  oftener  than  once  a  week.  The  uterus  was  retroflected, 
and  bound  down  by  adhesions  resulting  from  the  former  pelvic 
intlammation. 

For  four  years,  1  treated  the  patient  by  drugs  an<l  local 
applications  under  the  supervision  of  a  skin  s^tecialist,  but  with- 
out improvement  I  then  sent  her  to  Mr.  Mayo  llobson, 
who  thought  the  uterine  displacement  and  chronic  constipation 
interfered  with  the  rectal  circulation,  and  played  an  important 
part  in  the  origin  and  maintenance  of  the  disease.  He  stretched 
the  sphincter  uui  under  etlier,  but  this  neither  cured  the  constipa- 
tion nor  relieved  the  other  symptoms. 

In  August,  1889,  I  tried  to  hypnotise  the  patient,  other 
treatment  being  abandoned.  The  attempt  failed,  and  was  repeated 
unsuccessfully  on  sixty-six  occasions  during  the  next  four  months, 
her  condition  meanwhile  growing  steadly  worse.  At  the  sixty- 
eighth  sitting  somnambulism  was  induced.  All  irritation 
vanished  immediately,  and  she  slept  soundly  on  that  and  the 
following  nights.  The  bowels  acted  daily.  In  a  fortnight  all 
trace  of  eczema  disappeared,  and  treatment  was  abandoned.  At 
the  last  report,  three  years  later,  there  had  been  no  return  of  any 
of  the  symptoms,  and  she  had  not  required  to  take  even  a  simple 
aperient.  Case  seen  after  recovery  by  Dr.  Churton,  of  Leeds, 
and  others. 

No.  110.  Hifpcrkydrosis. — Miss ,  aged  1 5,  consulted  me 

in  January,  1890,  on  account  of  frequent  attacks  of  migraine, 
accompanied  by  vomiting,  from  which  she  hud  suflercd  for  three 
years.  Menstruation  normal.  I  noticed  that  on  the  back  of  the 
left  forearm  a  patch  of  skiu,  about  2^  inches  long  by  1^  broad, 
was  the  seat  of  coustant  perspiration.  This  condition,  which 
had  existed  from  infaucy,  was  always  excessive,  and  invariably 
rendered  more  so  by  emotion  or  exertion.  The  forearm  was 
always  enveloped  in  bandages,  but  these  rapidly  became  saturated, 


I 
I 


and  then  the  perspiration  diijiped  upon  the  floor.  The  patient 
was  frequently  punished  at  achoo]  because  she  soiled  her  needle- 
work, and  her  condition  distressed  her  greatly,  as  she  wished  to 
become  a  dressmaker. 

On  Janimry  lOtb,  the  patient  was  hypnotised  for  the  first 
time,  somnambulism  induced,  and  suggestions  given  as  to  the 
headaches  and  hj'perliydrosis.  The  following  day  the  perspiration 
had  markedly  diminished,  and  it  ceased  entirely  after  the  re- 
induction  of  hypnosis.  Treatment  was  then  abandoned.  The 
case  was  shown  at  the  International  Congress  of  Experimental 
Psychology,  Loudon,  August,  1892,  and  neither  up  to  that  date, 
nor  since,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn,  has  there  been  any 
return  of  either  hyperhydrosis  or  migraine,  and  the  patient  now 
follows  the  occupation  of  her  choice. 

Elliotson  reported  various  successful  cases*  notably  one  of 
ti^cma  impeti^hioidts,  of  two  years'  duration  and  aR'ecting  the 
whole  scalp,  and  another  of  long-standing  psoriasis. 

Other  cases  are  reported  by  modern  writers : — 

No.  Ill   (Hamilton  Osgood*).  Eczema, — Master  ,  aged 

11,  had  suffered  from  eczema  since  he  was  eighteen  months  old. 
In  October,  1893,  just  before  hypnotic  treatment  was  begun,  this 
extended  from  the  umbilicus  to  the  feet:  the  forearms  were 
covered  \vith  crusts  and  sores,  there  were  deep  inflamed  fissures 
on  the  wrists,  and  large  sores  in  the  armpits.  The  boy  was 
irritable  and  nervous,  and  slept  badly,  owing  to  the  constant 
irritation. 

After  the  first  sitting,  the  irritation  ceased,  and  the  child 
slept  soundly  the  whole  night.  At  the  end  of  a  month's  treat- 
ment all  trace  of  eczema  had  disappeared ;  and,  although  there 
was  some  retuni  of  it  within  the  year,  this  again  yielded  to 
suggestion,  and  complete  recovery  took  place. 

No.  112   (Hamilton  Osgood).  Eczema. — Mrs.  .aged  68, 

eczema  of  eight  years'  duration,  which  had  resisted  all  treatment. 
Much  irritation,  insomnia  and  mental  depression.  Complete 
recovery  after  eighteen  sittings,  despite  the  fact  that  only  alight 
hypnosis  was  induced,  and  the  patient  retained  full  memory  of 
all  that  was  said  or  done. 

^  Dr.  Ilannlton  Osgood,  oF  BoBtoo,  after  studying  Hypnotiiiu  on  the  Continent, 
hu  yiractised  it  with  much  kqccws.  He  hM  aUo,  by  lecturing  and  irriting,  done 
much  to  call  the  attention  of  the  prt>res«>oii  in  America  to  tbv  aubjeot. 


No.  113  (Hamilton  Osgood).  Eczana  rubrxtin. — Miss 


aged  28,  suffered  from  eczema  rubrum.  affecting  particularly  the 
scalp,  face,  bauds,  aud  feet :  this  had  been  unrelieved  by 
four  years'  careful  treatment.  The  palms  of  the  hands  were 
enormously  thickened  and  intersected  by  deep  fissures — the  con- 
dition almost  resembling  elephantiasis ;  there  was  also  insomnia 
with  nmch  irritation.  The  patient  commenced  to  sleep  after  the 
first  sitting,  and  at  the  end  of  the  forty-seventh  all  trace  of  the 
disease  had  disappeared. 

No.  114  (Stadelmann).  Eczema, — Miss ,  aged  46,  seam- 
stress, eczema  of  the  hands  aud  feet  of  eight  years*  duration ;  the 
feet  were  swollen,  and  so  hot  and  painful  that  the  patient  was 
unable  to  keep  them  covered.  Irregular  menstruation,  insomnia, 
uric  acid  aud  rheumatism.  Complete  recovery,  without  relapse, 
after  a  week's  hjrpnotic  treatment. 

No.  115  (Charpentier).   ^/>7w,rAyrfnww.— Mr. ,  aged  22, 

had  suffered  from  hy}>erhydrosis  of  the  palms  of  both  hands  for 
seven  years :  this  had  come  on  suddenly  aiter  a  fright,  and  had 
been  excessive  ever  since.  If  the  patient  wiped  his  hands  drops 
of  sweat  reappeared  almost  immediately,  and  dripped  freely  from 
the  fingers.  The  condition  was  neither  affected  by  temperature 
nor  by  the  amount  of  liquid  consumed,  but  was  aggravated 
by  emotion  aud  when  the  attention  was  drawn  to  it.  Drugs, 
externa]  applications,  and  electricity  had  produced  no  effect ;  but 
the  patient  recovered  completely  after  four  montlis'  hypnotic 
treatment. 

Other  successful  cases,  some  as  striking  as  those  just  quoted, 
are  reported  by  Farez,  Bt-rillon,  Grossmann,  Backman,  etc. 

Remarks.  -—  That  suggestion  should  influence  perspiration 
seemis  reasonable,  when  one  considers  how  much  that  seoretion 
is  influenced  by  emotion.  Farez  has  noticed  that  hospital 
patients  frequently  perspire  from  the  axilla  when  undergoing 
medical  examination.  Bcrillon  and  Magnin,  who  have  vaccinated 
a  large  number  of  adults,  ob8er\'ed  that  a  certain  proportion  of 
them  were  frightened  and  perspired  freely.  Nervous  and  self- 
conscious  persons  frerjuently  suffer  from  a  temporary  hyperhydrosia, 
when  they  are  compelled  to  shake  hands  with  strangers. 

It  is  now  generally  recognised  that  eczema  is  sometimes  of 
nervous  origin,  and  in  this  is  probably  to  be  found  the  explanation 
of  its  occasional  cure  by  hypnotism. 


CHAPTER 

OM    THE   MANAGEMENT    OF    8UBGICAL    AVD   MEDICAL   0ABE8. 

(I)  Surgical  Cases. 

As  already  pointed  out,  hypnotic  ana?stheaia  is  of  more  scientific 
than  practical  interest  It  can,  however,  be  evoked  by  suggestion 
in  nearly  all  cases  of  ])rofoini(I  hypnotic  somnambulism.  At  lirst, 
on  testing  with  the  faradic  brush,  one  may  only  find  a  slight 
amount  of  aua-sthesia.  If,  however,  appropriate  suggestions  are 
made,  the  ano^thesia  may  ultimately  become  deep  enough  to 
ensure  absence  of  pain  during  surgical  operation. 

In  cases  of  protracted  operation  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
that  the  suggestions  should  be  repeated,  both  as  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  hypnosis  and  the  presence  of  the  ameathesia.  Before 
arousing  the  patient,  the  operator  should  suggest  post-hypnotic 
amesthesia,  i.€.  absence  of  pain  on  waking.  Should  the  effect  of 
this  suggestion  wear  off  and  pain  reappiear,  it  can  often  be  again 
arrested  by  rehypnotising  tlie  patient  and  repeating  the  sug- 
gestions. In  good  hypnotic  subjects  it  may  be  advisable  only  to 
suggest  analgesia,  without  loss  of  oi-dinary  sensation,  especially 
lor  the  condition  after  operation. 


(n.)  Medical  Cases. 

Medical  practice  and  experiment  should  be  kept  absolutely 
iiatinct;  and  no  suggestions  should  ever  be  made  to  patients, 
except  those  necessary  for  the  induction  of  hypnosis,  and  the 
relief  or  cure  of  disease.  This  rule  does  not  apply  after  recovery, 
when  the  individual  has  ceased  to  be  a  patient  :  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  my  experimental  work  was  conducted  with  former 
patients  who  placed  themaelvea  at  my  disposal. 

a67 


The  selection  of  paiienU  for  hypnotic  trealuieut,  ami  the 
hope  of  relief  or  cure  held  out  to  them,  ought  naturally  to  be 
regulated  by  the  same  principles  as  tboee  governing  ordinary 
medical  practice.  Thus,  if  the  case  is  one  of  organic  disease,  it 
ought  to  bo  clearly  explained  to  the  patient  that  cure  is  absolutely 
out  of  the  question.  He  should  be  told  that  at  most  there  may 
be  a  tliin  overlying  stratum  of  functional  nervous  disturbance ; 
and  that  there  is  only  a  possibility,  not  a  certainty,  of  this  l>eing 
removed  by  hypnotic  treatment. 

In  cases  alleged  to  be  functional,  the  operator  ought  to  satisfy 
himself  that  the  symptoms,  which  he  is  about  to  attempt  to 
relieve  by  sugge-stion,  are  not  in  any  way  associated  with  organic 
disease.  Even  then,  he  should  never  tell  the  patient  that  he  is 
sure  of  curing  liim,  but  only  hold  out  such  reasonable  hope  as 
experience  fully  justifies. 

Patients  should  always  be  given  to  understand  that  the 
operator  neither  claims  nor  possesses  any  mysterious  or  occult 
power,  and  that  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  are  really  dependent 
iipou  changes  which  take  place  in  the  subject's  own  brain.  If 
the  patient  be  intelligent,  it  may  be  advisable  to  tell  him  some- 
thing about  modern  hypnotic  theor)%  and  to  explain  to  him  that 
possibly  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  may  be  due  to  the  arousing 
of  powers  dormant  in  a  secondary  consciousness. 

As  a  rule,  the  patients  sent  to  me  have  exhausted  all  ordinary 
methods  of  treatment  before  consulting  me.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, they  come  for  hypnotic  trwitment  solely,  and  receive 
that  alone.  If.  however,  other  methods  have  not  been  exhausted, 
and  any  of  them  appear  likely  to  lielp  the  patient,  these  are 
employed  as  well  as  hypnotism.  Fm*ther,  in  certain  cases — in- 
somnia for  example, — where  the  patients  are  more  or  leas 
dependent  upon  narcotic  drugs,  these  are  not  stopped  until  the 
curative  elfects  of  suggestion  are  able  to  replace  them. 

Patients  treated  by  hypnotic  methods  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes :  (1)  Those  in  whom  deep  hypnosis  has  been  induced. 
(2)  Those  slightly  hypnotised.  (3)  Thnst*  in  whom  hypnosis  has 
either  been  doubtful  or  entirely  absent. 

(I)  Th^  first  class,  which  numbers — according  to  statistics 
already  cited  —  about  1 3  per  cent  of  those  influenced,  is 
the  easiest  to  deal  with.  Such  patients  can  be  hypnotised 
or  aroused  at  a   word,  and  are  generally  markedly  responsive 


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to  curative  suggestions.  To  talce  an  illustrative  case,  let 
us  suppose  that  the  patient  is  suHering  from  insomnia.  He 
is  hypnotised  and  told  that  he  is  to  sleep  for  half  au  hour. 
During  this  time  curative  suggestions  are  given :  eg.  that  the 
patient  shall  t'eel  restful  aud  drowsy  at  bedtime,  full  asleep 
as  soon  as  lie  puts  his  head  upon  the  pillow,  sleep  all  night, 
etc.  These  suggestions,  if  the  case  is  one  of  deep  hypnosis,  are 
likely  to  he  responded  to  in  whole  or  in  part.  If  the  success 
has  only  been  partial,  the  treatment  is  renewed  on  another  day, 
and  the  suggestions  rejieated.  If  this  is  not  enough,  the  methods 
may  be  varied  with  success.  For  example,  if  the  patient  suffers 
from  various  symptoms,  it  is  sometimes  better  only  to  suggest  the 
relief  of  one  of  these  at  a  time  :  with  other  cases  it  is  advantageous 
to  employ  "prolonged  sleep"  in  addition  to  suggestive  treatment. 
The  latter  method  was  largely  used  by  EUiotson  and  Esdaile,  and 
possibly  made  up  in  a  large  measure  for  their  ignorance  of  the 
value  of  suggestion.  According  to  Wetterstrand,  too  much 
attention  has  been  given  to  suggestion,  while  the  curative  value 
of  prolonged  hypnotic  sleep  lias  been  entirely  foi-gotten.  His 
results,  and  those  of  Voisin,  obtained  in  this  way,  are  both  striking 
and  valuable- 
Patients  treated  by  this  method  ought  to  be  placed  in  charge 
of  a  nurse  who  is  put  en  rapport  with  them.  At  first,  even  in 
cases  where  the  patient  has  1:>een  deeply  hypnotised,  it  is  often 
necessary  that  the  suggestion  to  continue  sleeping  should  be 
repeated  sevei'al  times  a  day ;  for  if  this  is  not  done,  hypnosis 
terminates  spontaneously  and  the  treatment  is  interrupted.  The 
action  of  the  hladiler  and  Iwwels  should  be  regulated  by  suggestion, 
and  the  patient  fed  at  regular  intervals  without  being  aroused. 

(2)  Cases  of  Slight  Ni/pnosis. — Here,  with  the  exception  that 
prolonged  sleep  cannot  he  employed,  the  treatment  is  practically 
the  same  as  under  Cla.ss  1.  The  patients  rest  in  a  more  or  less 
lethargic  condition  while  curative  suggestions  are  given ;  and 
these  are  varied,  or  repeated,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  each 
individual  case. 

(3)  Oases  in  which  Hypnosis  is  eUhtr  doi/htful  or  ahscnt. — In 
this  class  suggestion  frequently  yields  results  as  striking  as  those 
found  in  the  two  others,  but  it  is  often  extremely  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  patient  has  been  hypnotised  or  not  This 
point,  which  is  of  distinct  theoretical  as  well  as  practical  interest, 


270 


HYPNOTISM 


will  be  again  referred  to  when  discussing  hypnotfc  iSiSOTy.  The 
management  of  the  cases  in  this  group  is  more  difficult  than  thai 
in  the  two  preceding  ones,  and  the  followiug  points  are  im- 
portant : — 

Patients,  who  do  not  pass  into  a  condition  followed  by 
amnesia  on  waking,  generally  believe  that  they  have  not  been 
hypnotised,  and  thus  conclude  that  they  cannot  be  influenced  by 
suggestion.  The  operator  should,  therefore,  carefully  explain 
that  genuine  hypnotic  conditions  are  not  necessarily  followed  by 
amnesia ;  and,  further,  that  many  patients,  who  present  none  of 
the  usual  phenomena  of  hypnosis,  are  still  remarkably  responsive 
to  suggestion. 

If  possible,  the  patients  belonging  to  this  class  should  be 
trained  to  concentrate  their  attention  on  some  soothing  mental 
picture,  while  the  operator  makes  his  suggestions.  In  this  way 
a  dreamy  condition  is  often  obtained,  which  may  be  one  of  slight 
hypnosis  or  only  the  borderland  of  normal  sleep.  During  this, 
the  operator  ought  to  suggest  the  deepening  of  this  drowsy  or 
quasi-hypnotic  state,  and  also  make  appropriate  curative  sug- 
gestions. He  should  also  e.\pUin  beforehand  the  uncertainty 
which  exists  as  to  the  fuUihneut  of  the  latter :  they  are  made  at 
this  early  stage  because  some  patients  respond  to  cumtive  sug- 
gestions immediately,  even  when  hypnosis  is  obviously  absent, 
while  with  others  it  is  the  repetition  of  the  suggestion  whioh 
seems  to  bring  about  its  fulfibnent. 

Another  group,  in  this  class,  presenta  difficulties  peculiarly 
ita  own.  Thus,  in  cases  of  muscular  tremor,  spasms,  convulsions, 
persistent  hiccough,  etc.,  it  is  often  impossible  for  the  patient  to 
maintain  physical,  or  mental,  quietude  even  for  a  few  momenta. 
Despite  this,  many  of  them  recover  after  a  more  or  less  prolonged 
suggestive  treatment  In  some  instances  improvement  does  not 
take  place  until  hypnosis  has  been  induced ;  in  many  others, 
however,  the  patients  recover  without  having  passed  into  any 
condition  even  remotely  resembling  the  hypnotic.  An  example 
of  the  first  variety  is  cited  p.  185:  here  the  patient  did  not 
improve  until  hypnosis  was  evoked,  and  it  was  interesting  to 
observe  how  at  first  the  attacks  of  spasm  appeared  during  that 
condition  and  invariably  terminated  it.  An  example  of  the 
second  variety  is  cited  pp.  178-80  :  here  the  patient  suffered  con- 
tinuously from  either  generalised  convulsions  or  violent  unilateral 


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muscular  spasms.  Yet,  under  these  unfavourable  conditions, 
curative  suggestions — repeated  daily  for  }mlf  an  hour  at  a  time — 
were  speedily  respondexi  to. 

The  nature  of  the  curative  sujrgestions  made  by  the  operator 
is  of  extreme  importance,  particularly  iu  cases  of  slight  or  doubt- 
ful hypnosis.  This  statement  requires  further  development. 
Certainly,  if  the  patient  has  been  deeply  hypnotised,  he  will 
i*espond  to  any  suggestion  he  understands,  if  this  is  neither 
oppose<l  by  his  will  nor  beyond  the  range  of  his  hypnotic  powers. 
On  the  other  hand,  particularly  where  hypnosis  ia  slight  or 
doubtful,  it  is  often  essential  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the 
patient  and  his  surroundings ;  to  gain  his  confidence,  and  to  learn 
his  hopes,  fears,  and  difficulties.  Here,  suggestion  should  not 
only  be  employed  in  conditions  obviously  or  possibly  hj-pnolic, 
but  carrietl  on  also  in  the  patient's  waking  life,  and  extended  to 
his  friends  and  relatives.  It  is  one  thing  to  successfully  suggest 
relief  from  some  slight  functional  disturbance  to  a  deeply  hypno- 
tised patient,  and  another,  and  much  more  ditficult  one,  to  induce 
the  dipsomaniac  to  abstain  from  drinking.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  suggestions  must  be  varied  to  meet  the  carefully  studied 
requirements  of  each  individual,  and  everything  done  to  incite 
him  loyally  to  co-operate  in  the  experiment.  Friends  and  rela- 
tives, who  possibly  have  given  up  in  despair  trying  to  help,  must 
also  be  urged  to  renewed  and  more  earnest  eiforts.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  many  forms  of  hysterical  disease.  In  some  cases, 
it  ia  true,  the  illness  has  come  on  suddenly  as  the  result  of  shock 
or  over-strain,  but  in  many  others  it  is  a  culminating  point  in  a  life 
which  has  been  characterised  by  lack  of  discipline  and  self-control. 
Convulsions  or  spasms,  wliicli  the  patients  are  incapable  of  in- 
fluencing by  their  volition,  have  often  had  countless  forerunners 
in  tricks  of  gesture,  bursts  of  passion,  petulance,  emotion,  or  the 
like.  Such  patients  ought  to  be  taught  by  friends,  as  well  as 
physician,  to  try  to  control  every  unnecessary  expression  of 
emotion,  and  to  make  a  voluntary  etlbrt  in  their  waking  life  to 
check  defects  which  have  certainly  preceded,  and  may  possibly 
have  provoked,  their  malady. 

The  central  facior  in  all  hypTwtic  trmiraent  ought  to  he  the 
development  of  the  pdtienCs  control  of  his  ovm  organism.  He 
should  clearly  understand  that  the  operator  exercises  no  mysterious 
power  over  him,  but  simply  arouses  forces  which  arc  latent  in 


273  HYPNOTISM 


his — the  patient's — own  brain.  It  should  be  plainly  pointed 
out  to  him  that  his  disease  frequently  demonstrates  the  feebleness 
of  his  volition:  he  desires,  for  example,  to  resist  drinking,  but 
cannot ;  he  wishes  to  escape  from  an  obsession,  but  is  unable  to 
do  so.  The  hypnotic  training,  which  enables  him  to  carry  his 
wishes  into  effect,  does  so  by  increasing,  not  diminishing,  his 
voluntary  control  of  his  own  organism.  He  should  be  taught  to 
apply  this  increased  power  for  himself,  not  only  in  the  immediate 
instance  for  which  he  seeks  relief,  but  abo  on  other  occasions, 
for  fresh  troubles,  should  these  arise. 


CHAPTER    Xrt 


m'PNOTIC    TKEORIES. 


Bbfokb  attempting  to  discuss  hypnotic  theories,  it  is  necessary  to 
clearly  define  the  phenomena  themselves.  To  facilitate  this  the 
latter  may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  (1)  TIioBe  observed  in 
subjects  who  exhibit  the  widest  range  of  hypnotic  pheuomena, 
and  who  are  usually  tenned  "somuanibules."  (2)  Certain 
therapeutic  results  which  sometimes  follow  suggestion,  but  are 
not  associated  with  the  usual  phenomena  of  hypnosis. 

Group  \. — Here  in  a  typical  ciise  the  following  phenomena 
are  to  be  observed.  The  subject,  after  undergoing  one  or  other 
of  the  methods  of  hypnotisation,  passes  into  a  condition  super- 
ficially resembling  sleep.  Tliia  state  is  characterised  by 
"  suggestibility,"  %.e.  in  it  various  phenomena  can  be  excited  by 
the  sujigestions  of  the  operator. 

Further,  as  the  result  of  training,  the  subject  can  be  taught 
to  pass  into  the  so-called  hypnotic  state  in  respouse  to  a  given 
signal.  Henceforth,  hypnosis  can  be  evoked  immediately,  with- 
out the  subject  closing  bis  eyes  or  showing  any  symptoms 
resembling  sleep. 

Again,  this  conditiou,  like  the  fonner,  is  chai'acterised  by 
"  suggestibility,"  and  in  it  the  phenomena  described  in  the 
chaptt^r  on  "  Hypnotic  Phenomena  "  can  be  evoked. 

The  operator  apparently  has  obtained  a  power  of  controlling 
the  subject's  organism,  to  an  extent  and  in  a  manner  which  are 
without  parallel  iti  waking  life.  He  can  excite  by  suggestion 
physiological  and  psychological  phenomena,  which  the  subject 
had  never  previously  been  able  to  elicit  by  the  action  of  his  own 
volition. 

Further,  and  the  point  is  an  all-important  one  in  reference 


to  hypnotic  tlieory,  the  subject  can,  and  does,  reject  all  snggestioiis 
which  would  be  opposed  to  tlie  feelings  or  prejudices  of  his 
noruial  state. 

Fiuaily,  the  subject  can  be  trained  to  hypnotise  himself,  and 
can  then  evoke  phenomena  identical  with  thos«  previously  elicited 
by  the  operator.  In  this  condition,  it  is  clearly  to  be  seen  that 
it  is  the  subject  himself  who  has  gained  this  new  and  far-reaching 
powei'  over  his  own  organism.  Thus,  every  theory  which  fails  to 
explain  the  ])henomeua  of  aelf-hf/pnosu!  must  be  rejected  as 
unsatisfactory. 

Qroup  2. — In  typical  examples  of  this  group  curative  results 
are  apparently  obtained  by  suggestion,  iu  cases  where  all  the 
other  characteristic  phenomena  of  hypnosis  are  absent.  Thus,  in 
the  {:ii5eo^(jramkkT/stdrii'(So.  1, pp.  178-80), the  patient's  convulsive 
movements  only  ceased  during  normal  sleep.  Here  the  only 
method  employed  was  "suggestion";  and,  if  the  patient's  recovery 
resulted  from  it,  the  treatment  was  certainly  carried  out  under 
conditions  the  opposite  of  those  usually  regarded  as  hypnotic. 

Between  the  extreme  examples  of  the  two  groups  just 
referred  to,  many  intermediate  conditions  are  to  be  observed. 
Thus,  amongst  experimental  coses,  there  are  many  in  which  the 
phenomena  still  demoiistrdte  an  increased  control  of  the  subject's 
organism,  although  not  such  a  far-reaching  one  as  in  profound 
somnambulism.  Again,  many  patients  treated  by  suggestion  pass 
into  a  more  or  less  marked  lethargic  condition,  or  show  other 
symptoms  which  may  be  claimed,  with  more  or  less  reason,  to  be 
hypnotic. 

In  discussing  hypnotic  theories  in  general  it  is  impossible  to 
keep  these  two  groups  distinct,  as  many  authorities,  notably 
Beniheim,  regard  increased  suggestibility  as  the  only  distinction 
between  the  hypnotic  and  the  normal  state.  The  existence, 
however,  of  two  widely  differing  groups  of  phenomena  ought  not 
to  l>e  lost  sight  of,  and  I  propose  later  to  further  contrast  them- 
and  to  discuss  the  question  whether  the  phenomena  of  the  second 
group  owe  their  origin  to  hypnotic  inflaeuce,  or  to  emotional 
states  similar  to  those  observed  in  normal  life. 

In  attempting  to  present  a  jacture  of  hyj^uotic  theories  the 
first  difficulty  encountered  is  due  to  their  number  and  di^■e^sity. 
Max  l)e.ssoir,  as  we  have  seen,  cited  1182  works  by  774  authors 
in  1888-90;  and  it  would   be  diilionlt   to    find   two   of   them 


I 
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agreeing  in  every  detail  as  to  the  theoretical  explanatiou  of  all 
hypnotic  plieuomena. 

Apparently,  little  of  value  has  been  discovered  which  can 
jnstly  be  considered  as  supplementar)*  to  Braid's  later  worlc, 
while  much  has  been  lost  through  ignorance  of  his  researches. 
In  the  successful  exposure  of  the  errors  of  the  Charcot  school  by 
Ueruheini  and  his  colleagues  is  to  be  found  a  reproduction  of 
Braiil's  controversy  with  the  mesmerists;  while  the  Nancy 
theories  themselves  are  but  au  imperfect  reproduction  of  Braid's 
later  ones. 


^ 


THEORIES   OF   THE  LATER    MKSMERISTS. 

In  order  to  understand  the  evolution  of  hypnotic  theory  it 
is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  views  of  tlie  mesmerists. 

According  to  KlUoLson  and  K-sdaile,  the  phenomena  of 
mesmerism  were  entirely  physical  in  origin.  They  were  supposed 
to  be  due  to  the  action  of  a  vital  curative  fluid,  or  peculiar 
physical  force,  which,  under  certain  circumstances,  could  he 
transmitted  from  one  human  being  to  another.  This  was  usually 
termed  the  "  od  "  or  "  odylic  "  force.  Various  inanimate  objects, 
such  as  metals,  crystals,  and  magnets,  were  also  siipposetl  to 
possess  it;  and  to  be  capable  of  inducing  and  terminating  the 
mesmeric  state,  and  of  exciting,  arresting,  and  modifying  its 
pheuomeua-  Oue  metal,  for  example,  apparently  produced 
catalepsy,  another  changed  this  into  paralysis ;  and  even  a  glass 
of  water  seemed  to  become  charged  with  odylic  force  when 
breathed  upon  by  the  mesmeriser.  Every  one  was  not  susceptible 
to  these  influences :  those  who  were  were  termed  "  sensitives," 
and  appiirently  developed  many  strange  and  new  faculties.  For 
instance,  if  they  looked  at  a  magnet  in  the  dark  they  saw  streams 
of  light  issuing  from  its  poles,  one  colour  from  the  negative, 
another  frouj  the  positive. 

EsdaUe  thus  summaiised  liis  theory  of  the  therapeutic  action 
of  mesmerism  :— "  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  vital 
fluid  of  one  person  can  be  poured  into  the  system  of  another.  A 
merciful  God  has  engrafted  a  comniunicable,  life-giving,  curative 
power  in  the  human  body,  in  order  that  when  two  individuals  are 
found  together,  deprived  of  the  aids  of  art.  the  one  in  health  may 
often  be  able  to  relieve  his  sick  companion,  by  impairing  to  him 


a  portion  of  his  vitalit)-."  The  mesiQeric  influence,  he  said,  waal 
a  physical  power  which  one  animal  exerted  over  another,  under^ 
certain  circumstances  and  conditions  of  their  respective  systems : 
irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  nervous  energy  being  the  cause 
of  all  mesmeric  phenomena.  He  considered  that  there  was  a 
resemblauce  1>etween  the  action  of  mesmerism  and  the  effects  of 
wine,  opium,  Indian  hemp,  etc.  In  tlie  first  stage  there  was 
stimulation  ;  in  the  second,  confusion  of  the  mind^  with  exaltation 
of  some  organs  and  depression  of  others  ;  while  in  the  tliird  stage, 
coma,  with  complete  extinction  of  sensibility,  occurred. 

Esdaile  held  that  a  drug,  or  method  of  treatment,  in  order  to 
be  successful,  should  possess  the  powei'  of  producing  such  changes 
in  the  organism  as  were  opposed   to  diseased  action.      In  hiftj 
opinion,  no  remedy  rivalled  mesmerism  in  its  influence  on  thj| 
nervous  system,  and  was  at  the  same  time  e«iually  devoid  of 
danger.     By  its  means,  one  could  abolish  pain  and  produce  pro- j 
longed  sleep,  without  the  bad  effects  associated  with  narcotics  ;■( 
and  this  in  itself  was  sufficient  to  cure  a  great  variety  of  diseases. 

Esdaile   observed   that  local   inflammation  and  sympathetiCj 
fever  disappeared  during  mesmeric  trance,  and  that  the  pulse  and 
temperature  became  normal.     Later,  he  successfully  trejited  manj 
different  forms  of  inflammation  by  "prolonged  sleep."    His  explan« 
tion  of  these  results  is  pnrticularly  interesting,  us  it  forestalled 
Delba?nf's  ingenious  theory  as  to  the  connection  Iwlween  pa 
and  irritation.     According  to  Esdaile,  pain  anil  irritation  wer 
the    causes    which    maintained    inflammation.       If   these    wei 
removed    for   a    length    of   time    the    circulation    recovered    it 
equilibrium  and  the  inflammation  ceased,  just  as  a   tire  expir 
for  want  of  fuel. 

It  did  not  seem  possible  to  Esdaile  that  suggestion,  expecta<] 
tion,  and  imagination,  alone,  could  explain  what  he  bad  seen  an^ 
done :  he  insisted  that  he  had  often  operated  on  patients  wl 
had  never  heard  of  mesmerism,  and  to  whom  he  Imd  given  no 
preliminary  explanation.  He  could  not,  ho  said,  have  taught  his 
patients  the  different  i)lienomena  tliey  exhibited,  as  he  himself  was 
unacquainted  with  them  when  lie  commenced  his  experiments :  he 
knew  nothing  of  mesmerism,  and  concluded  that  the  peasants  and 
coolies  of  Bengal  were  equally  ignorant. 

Esdaile  believed  in  clairvoyance,  and  held  that  the  mesmer 
influence  could  be  exercised  at  a  distance  and  conveyed  by  mean 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


rfj 


of  inanimate  objects.  He  thought  that  a  mesnicrisetl  subject 
acquired  the  power  of  uuderstniiding  and  prescribing  for  his  own 
complaints :  this  he  regarded  as  an  exaltation  of  the  natural 
medical  iustincts  of  animals.  It  was  this  secret  uiouitur,  he  said, 
that  prompted  the  dog  to  eat  grass  when  sick,  and  the  ciiick  to 
peck  gravel  the  moment  it  broke  the  shell.  The  same  power 
enabled  auiinals  to  choose  wholesome  plants  and  to  reject  poisonous 
ones.  Tlie  medical  instinct  of  somuambulea  was  thus  only  a 
revival  of  ancient  knowk^dge. 

Ksdaile  asserted  tliat  mesmerism  had  long  been  known  in 
India;  but  believed  that  its  secrets,  which  had  descended  from 
remote  antiquity,  were  confined  to  certain  castes  and  families. 
Thus,  when  l>r.  Davidson,  late  Resident  of  Jeypore,  in  Upper 
India,  visited  the  Slesmeric  Hospital  in  Calcutta,  and  eaw  the 
Native  assistants  stroking  and  breatliing  upon  their  patients,  he 
said  that  he  now  understood  what  the  Jar-2ihoonk  of  Upper  India 
was :  it  was  nothing  but  mesmerism.  Many  of  his  patients,  after  he 
liad  vainly  tried  to  cure  them  of  difiereut  complaints,  used  to  ask 
loave  of  absence  in  order  to  be  treated  by  tlie  Jadoowallft,  and  to 
his  great  surprise,  they  often  returned  cure<l  shortly  afterwards. 
Ill  reply  to  his  inquiries,  they  all  said  they  had  gone  through  a 
jprocess  called  Jar-phoonk,  the  meaning  of  which  he  could  never 
make  out.  He  now  saw  it  before  him  in  the  continuous  stroking 
and  breathing  of  Eadaile's  mesmerise  re.  Jarna  meant  in  Hindoo- 
stanee  to  stroke,  and  p>ioo)da  to  breathe,  which  very  exactly 
described  the  mesmeric  processes. 

Dr.  Thorbum  wrote  to  Esdaile  from  Arracan,  to  tell  him  that 
mesmerism  had  been  used  from  time  immemorial  amongst  some 
of  the  rudest  hill  tribes  in  Assam,  particularly  the  Mivis.  Amongst 
the  Assamese,  the  passes  received  different  names,  according  to  the 
sites  over  which  they  were  made :  thus,  those  used  to  relieve 
headache  were  called  Matapon,  while  the  long  passes  were  known 
by  the  same  name  as  in  Upper  India,  namely  Jar-phoonk. 

Colonel  Bagnold,  of  the  Bombay  Army,  described  the  same 
practices  as  prevalent  in  Bombay ;  and  related  the  case  of  a 
woman  who  was  treated  by  a  mendicant  devotee,  by  means  of 
what  was  evidently  mesmerism,  mixed  up  with  inoantations  and 
1^  religious  ceremonies.  The  operator  caused  the  patient  to  look  at 
^B  a  string  of  sandal-wood  beads,  which  he  held  before  her  eyes ; 


=78 


NVPJVOr/SAf 


stopping  to  breathe  upon,  or  Ifiy  bis  lianrls  on,  her  chest.     Under 
this  treatment  she  soon  became  drowsy  and  went  to  sleep. 


BRAID'S  THEORFES. 

As  already  mentione*?,  Braid  first  regarded  mesmeric  pheno- 
mena as  the  outcome  of  self-deception  or  tiickery ;  later  he 
became  convinced  that  a  larye  proportion  of  them  were  genuine, 
but  all  wrongly  iuterprete<1.  Careful  examination  satisfied  him 
that  such  pliysical  phenomena  as  cataleptic  rigidity  of  the  muscles, 
and  such  psychic  ones  as  inhibition  of  pain  during  operation, 
were  genuine.  Further,  other  phenomena,  which  sceptics  genei  - 
ally  regarded  as  affording  strong  evidence  of  the  falsity  of 
mesmerism,  contained,  according  to  Braid,  a  certain  amount  of 
truth,  although  that  was  lamentably  misrepresented.  For  example, 
certnin  mesmeric  subjects  saw  streams  of  light  issuing  from  thu 
poles  of  magnets,  othei-s  were  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of 
clairvoyance.  Braid  was  able  to  demonstrate  that  the  first 
phenomenon  was  a  visual  hallucination  created  by  unconscious 
suggestion;  while  the  latter  illustrated  the  hypertesthesia  of  the 
special  senses  tliat  occurred  during  the  mesmeric  or  hypnotic 
state ;  and  owing  to  this,  tlm  subjects  received  hints  from  the 
operator  and  spectators,  which  tliey  could  not  have  obtainetl 
in  the  normal  state.  These  points,  to  which  I  will  again  refer, 
are  now  mentioned  to  draw  attention  once  more  to  the  fact  that 
Braid's  opposition  to  mesmerism  was  mainly  from  the  theoretical 
side.  Tlie  cardinal  point — on  which  all  his  theories  were  based 
— was  his  discovery  that  the  phenomena  were  suhjcciivc  in  origin, 
and  not  due  to  any  mysterious  "force"  or  "tiuid"  possessed  by 
the  operator.  Braid's  own  theories  differed  widely :  his  earlier 
ones  were  physical,  his  later  more  purely  psychical ;  and  T  now 
propose  to  give  an  outline  of  all  of  them. 

At  the  aiaiice  of  Lafontaine's,  already  referred  to,^  Braid  had 
observed  that  the  mesmeric  condition  was  induced  by  fixed 
staring ;  and  concluded  that  the  inability  to  open  the  eyes  arose 
from  paralysis  of  certain  nerve-centres  and  exhaustion  of  the 
levator  muscles.  He  expresses!  his  conviction  that  the  phenomena 
of  mesmerism  were  due  to  functional  changes  in  the  nervous, 
circulatory,  respiratory,  and  muscular  systems,  induced  by 
'  Sm  p.  22,  md  ftlw  Appendix. 


* 
^ 


staring,  physical  repose,  fixed  attention,  and  suppressed  respiration. 
He  boldly  asserted  tlmt  all  the  phenoiuenii  depended  on  these 
physical  and  psychical  conditions :  they  were  neither  due  to  the 
volition  of  the  operator,  nor  to  the  power  of  hia  passes  to  throw 
out  a  magnetic  Ihiid,  or  to  excite  the  activity  of  some  mystical 
universal  fluid  or  medium.  As  we  have  already  seen,  he  sub- 
stituted the  word  "  Hypnotism  "  for  that  of  "  Mesmerism,"  and 
invented  the  terminolo;t,'y  we  now  use. 

At  first.  Braid  induced  hypnosis  by  making  the  subject  look 
at  a  briglit  object,  held  iii  such  a  position  above  the  forehead  as 
was  calculated  to  produce  the  greatest  possible  strain  u|X)n  the 
eyes  and  eyelids ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  told  him  to  rivet  his 
mind  on  the  idea  of  that  one  object.  Braid  not  only  maintained 
that  tlio  condition  was  a  purely  subjective  one,  produced  in  this 
mechanical  way,  but  also  claimed  to  have  successfully  demonstrated 
that  it  could  be  thus  induced  in  persona  who  had  never  heard  of 
mesmerism  or  hypnotism,  and  who  were  ignorant  of  what  was 
expected  of  them.  In  illustration  of  this,  he  asserted  that  he  had 
hypnotised  one  of  his  servants,  who  knew  nothing  of  mesmerisu), 
by  giving  him  such  directions  as  impressed  him  with  the  idea  that 
his  fixed  attention  was  merely  required  for  the  purpose  of  watching 
a  chemical  expeiimeut  with  which  lie  was  already  familiar.* 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  Braid's  earlier  conclusions: — 

(1)  Continued  mental  and  visual  concentration  threw  the 
nervous  system  into  a  new  condition- — that  of  hypnosis.  In  it 
pheuomeua  could  be  excited,  which  differed  from  those  observed 
iu  ordinary  sleeping  or  waking  life,  oud  varied  according  to  the 
methods  employed. 

(2)  At  first,  during  hypnosis,  there  was  excited  action  of  all 
the  organs  of  special  sense,  sight  excepted,  together  with  a  great 
increase  of  muscular  power.  Afterwards  the  senses  became  more 
torpid  than  during  natural  sleep. 

(3)  During  hypnosis  the  operator  could  control  the  subject*8 
nervous  energy ;  and  was  able  to  excite  or  depress  it,  either 
locally  or  generally. 

(4)  In  the  same  way  lie  could  also  alter  the  force  and 
frequency  of  the  subject's  pulse,  and  modify  hia  circulation. 

(5)  A  similar  influence  could  be  exerted  over  the  muscular 
system. 


*  Bnid  cnfcircljr  abudoaed  tbis  view  at  a  Uter  ilaU.     Se«  p.  282. 


(6)  Rapid  and  important  changes  could  be  produced   in    t; 
capillary  circuklion,  and  in  nil  the  secretions  and  excretions   of 
the  body. 

(7)  By  means  of  Iiypuotism  many  diaeases  might  be  cured, 
even  some  that  had  resisted  ordinary  treatment 

(8)  Tlie  same  agency  could  sometimes  prevent  the  pain  of 
surgical  operations. 

(9)  During  hypnosis,  by  manipulating  the  cranium  and  face, 
the  opemtor  couM  excite  certain  mental  and  physical  phenomena: 
these  varied  according  to  the  parte  touclied. 

At  first,  after  inducing  hj-pnosis,  Braid  resorted  to  various 
physical  methods  in  order  to  produce  changes  in  the  muscular 
and  circulatory  systems ;  he  believed  this  excited  the  diflereut 
liypnotic  phenomena,  and  played  an  important  part  in  the  cure 
of  disease.  He  also  held  that  cures  could  sometimes  be  effected 
by  similar  methods  in  the  waking  condition.  From  the  descrip- 
tion of  hia  manner  of  inducing  hypnosis  it  is  evident  that  he 
employed  verbal  suggestion ;  but,  at  that  time,  this  was  certainly- 
done  unconsciously,  and  in  ignorance  of  its  value. 

Amongst  other  interesting  observations,  Braid  found  that  he 
coxild  terminate  the  hypnotic  condition  by  means  of  a  current  of 
cold  air.  He  also  noticed  that  he  could  make  a  rigid  limb 
flexible  by  blowing  on  it ;  that  he  could  restore  the  sight  to  one 
eye  by  the  same  means  and  leave  the  other  iusensible.  Further, 
he  could  excite  one-half  of  the  body  to  action,  while  the  other 
remained  rigid  and  torpiil ;  or  make  the  subject  pass  from  a 
general  state  of  inactivity  of  the  organs  of  special  sense  and  tonic 
muscular  rigidity,  to  the  opposite  condition  of  extreme  mobility 
and  excited  sensibility.  He  acknowledged  that  he  was  unable  to 
explain  these  extraordinary  phenomena,  but  stated  that  he  had 
no  difliculty  in  reproducing  them :  that  they  were  independent 
of  any  rapport  between  operator  and  subject;  and  invariably 
appeared,  no  matter  whether  the  current  of  air  came  from  the 
lips,  the  motion  of  tlie  hand,  a  pair  of  bellows,  or  any  other 
inanimate  object. 

The  subjective  explanation  of  the  origin  of  hypnotic  pheno- 
mena was  not  a  new  one.  and  had  already  been  given  both  by 
the  Abbe  Faria  and  Bertraud.  Their  views,  however,  if  not 
entirely  forgotten,  liad  exercised  no  practical  influence  on 
mesmeric  theory ;    and  Braid  was  evidently  unacquainted  with 


I 
I 


i 
I 

I 


HYPNOTJC  THEORIES 


281 


^ 


them  when  he  cointnenced  his  mesmeric  researches.  Thus,  his 
conclusions  were  aiTxved  at  indcpeudently,  auU  successfully  sub- 
stituted for  those  universally  held  iu  his  day.  At  a  later  date, 
when  his  opponents  pointed  out  the  similarity  between  the 
theories,  Braid  asserted  that  this  was  more  apparent  than  real, 
as  Faria  had  attributed  everything  to  the  efi'ect  of  the  imagina- 
tion. On  this  point  they  certainly  difrei*ed ;  although  tliey  were 
alike  in  asserting  that  neither  contact  nor  magnetic  tluid  waa 
necessary. 

Braid  did  not  believe  that  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  were 
the  result  of  the  subject's  attention  to  his  own  symptoma 
Referring  to  some  articles  on  Animal  Magnetism  which  had 
appeared  in  the  ^hdical  Gazette  in  1833,  he  said  that  in  the 
wiiter's  opinion  the  plienomena  were  the  result  of  attention 
strongly  directed  to  different  paita  of  the  body ;  whereas,  by  his 
method,  the  attention  was  riveted  to  something  outside  the  body. 

In  opposition  to  the  theory  that  hypnotism  resembled  reverie, 
Braid  stated  that  reverie  proceeded  from  an  unusual  quiescence 
of  the  brain,  and  the  inability  of  the  mind  to  direct  itself  strongly 
to  any  one  point  There  was  a  defect  in  the  attention,  which, 
instead  of  being  fixed  on  one  subject,  wandered  over  a  thousand, 
and  was  even  feebly  and  ineffectTiftUy  directed  to  these.  That, 
he  said,  was  the  very  reveree  of  what  was  induced  by  his  method; 
because  he  riveted  the  attention  to  one  idea  and  the  eyes  to  one 
point,  as  the  primary  and  imperative  condition. 

At  first  Tiraiil  was  inclined  to  believe  in  phrenology  ;  and 
considered  it  possible  that  the  passions,  emotions,  and  intellectual 
faculties  could  be  excited  during  hj-pnosis,  by  touching  or  rubbing 
certain  parte  of  the  head  and  face.  He  cited  twelve  cases  in 
which  he  thought  he  had  observed  these  phenomena  in  subjects 
who  were  ignorant  of  phrenology,  uninfluenced  by  previous 
training,  or  by  leading  questions  and  suggestions  on  the  part  of 
the  operator.  He  admitted,  however,  that  it  was  probable  that 
errors  might  have  arisen  through  the  remarkable  docility  of 
hypnotic  subjects,  which  made  tlicm  anxious  to  comply  with 
every  suggestion  or  indication  given  by  the  operator.  This,  and 
other   reasons,  caused   him  to  regard  his  results  with  distrust ; 

I  and  he  stated  that  it  was  his  intention  to  conduct  a  new  series  of 
experiments  on  fresh  subjects,  in  order  to  ascertain  to  what 
extent  it  might  bo  practicable,  by  arbitrary  associations,  to  excite 


opposite  phenuiueiia  by  touching  identical  purts  of  the  bead.  He 
hoped  tliese  would  enable  him  to  determine  whether  tliere  was 
any  necessary  connection  between  the  parts  touched  and  the 
phenomena  evoked ;  or  whether  they  depended  entirely  upon 
associations,  which  had  originated  from  some  partial  knowledge 
of  phrenology,  arbitrary  arrangement,  or  accidental  circumstances 
which  hud  U-eu  overlooked  or  forgotten.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
repetition  of  a  definite  sensation  would  be  followed  by  a  revival 
of  the  feelings  with  which  it  had  been  formerly  associated. 

Some  experiments  wliich  Braid  made  in  order  to  determine 
whether  hypnosis  could  be  induced  by  methods  other  than  the 
stereotyped  ones,  appear  to  have  Hrst  suggested  alterations  in  his 
hypnotic  theorj*,  and  shaken  bis  faith  in  the  purely  physical 
explanation  of  hypnotic  phenomena.  At  iirst,  as  already  stated» 
he  required  his  patients  to  look  for  a  considerable  time  at  some 
inanimate  object,  until  the  eyelids  closed  involuntarily.  He 
frequently  found,  however,  that  this  was  followed  by  pain  and 
slight  conjunctivitis,  and,  in  order  to  avoid  this,  he  cloaeil  the 
patient's  eyes  at  a  much  earlier  stage.  Despite  this,  he  was  able 
to  hypnotise  as  easily  as  before,  and  without  subsequent  un- 
pleasant symptoms.  This  led  to  further  e.\perimeDt,  when  ho 
found  he  could  induce  hypnosis  as  readily  in  the  dark  as  in  tlie 
light,  if  the  eyes  were  kept  fixed,  and  the  tx>dy  and  mind  at 
absolute  rest.  Despite  much  perseverance,  Braid  never  succeeded 
in  hypnotising  idiots:  ho  always  failed  also  with  young  children, 
and  with  persons  of  weak  intellect,  or  of  restless  and  excitable 
minds,  who  were  unable  to  comply  with  hia  simple  rules.  As 
he  succeeded  with  the  blitid,  Braid  concluded  that  the  impression 
was  made  through  the  mind  and  not  througli  the  optic  nerves. 
He  obser>'ed  also  that  the  oftener  subjects  were  hypnotised,  the 
more  susceptible  they  Ixicame ;  and  thus,  from  association  of 
ideas,  the  condition  might  ultimately  be  evoked  entirely 
through  the  action  of  the  imagination.  If  a  subject  believed 
Bomelhing  was  being  done  which  ought  to  hypnotise  him, 
although  he  did  not  see  what  this  was,  hypnosis  would  probably 
be  induced  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  expert  operator  in  the 
world  would  exercise  his  influence  in  vain,  if  the  patient  were 
ignorant  of  hia  efiforts. 


1 
I 
I 


^ 
^ 


Hypnotism ;  A  Condition  of  Mental  Concentration  or 
Monoideism. 

In  opposition  to  his  former  physical  theory.  Braid  attempted, 
in  1847,  to  explain  all  hypnotic  phenomena  by  mental  concen- 
tration or  monoideism ;  whether  the  plienonaena  appeared  in  deep 
stages  resembling  sleep,  or  in  "alert  "  ones,  difFering  only  in  their 
suggestibility  from  the  normal  state. 

After  explaininij  what  induced  liini  to  adopt  the  term 
"  hypnotism,"  he  now  confessed  that  grave  objections  might  be 
urged  against  it  Thus,  under  it  had  been  grouped  many  con- 
ditions which  varied  widely,  whereas  only  those  subjects  who 
passed  into  a  state  resembling  sleep,  and  followed  by  amnesia  on 
awaking,  could  be  said  to  be  really  "  hypnotised."  Of  those  who 
were  relieved  or  cured  by  hypnotic  treatment  not  more  than  one 
in  ten  reached  this  J^tage.  The  word  hypnotism,  therefore,  led 
them  to  think  that  they  could  not  be  benefited  by  methods  thiit 
failed  to  produce  the  condition  implied  by  the  term.  Braid, 
therefore,  proposed  that  the  term  "  hypnotic  "  should  he  restrinted 
to  cases  of  urtilicial  sleep  followed  by  amnesia  on  awaking,  but  in 
which  the  lost  memory  could  be  revived  in  subsequent  hypnoses. 

Further,  Braid  even  proposed  to  abolish  his  old  terminology 
altogether,  and  to  substitute  a  fresh  one,  which  he  believed  to  be 
more  in  keeping  with  his  advancing  knowledge.  He  had  become 
convinced  that  all  the  conditions  which  he  had  formerly  grouped 
as  hypnotic  phenomena  were  really  the  result  of  mental  con- 
centration. Fixed  gazing,  concentration  of  the  attention  on  a 
real  or  imaginary  object — the  usual  hypnotic  methods — all  tended, 
lie  said,  to  produce  monoideism.  As  the  result  of  impressions 
received  from  without,  either  in  the  form  of  verbal  suggestions  or 
physical  sensations,  an  individual  in  the  nonnal  state  might  have 
his  attention  fixed  on  one  i>art  or  function  of  his  body,  and  with- 
drawn from  others.  Such  suggestions  acted  more  powerfully 
during  hypnosis;  because,  in  that  condition,  the  attention  was 
more  concentrated  and  the  suggestions  were  aided  by  the  subject's 
imagination^  faitli,  and  expectation.  In  this  way  dominant  ideas 
were  created — these  reacted  on  the  body  and  produced  their 
physical  equivalent. 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  his  new  theory,  Braid  invented 
the  following  terminology  : — 


MmiO'-ulcolo'jif :  the  dociriDe  of  the  iofluonce  of  dominaut 
ideas  upou  mental  aud  ph^'sical  states. 

Monoideism :  the  coudition  resulting  from  the  mind  being 
possessed  by  dominant  ideas. 

To  M<moideise :  to  practise  the  method  hj  whicb  mouoideiam 
is  induced. 

Morundeiser :  the  person  who  monoideises. 

Monoideised :  the  condition  of  the  i>erson  who  is  in  a  state  of 
monoideism. 

UonoUU^-Zhjnaviic^ :  the  mental  and  physical  changes  which 
result  from  monoideism. 

P$ycho-Physuilogy :  a  generic  term,  comprising  tJie  whole  of 
the  phenomena  which  result  from  the  reciprocal  actions  of  mind 
and  matter. 

According  to  Braid,  the  fascination  of  birds  by  serpents,  the 
phenomena  of  "  electro-biology,"  of  table-turning,  the  divining-rod, 
the  gyrations  of  the  odometer  of  Dr.  Mayo,  the  movements  of  the 
magnetometer  of  Mr.  Eutter,  etc,  were  all  examples  of  un- 
consciousness or  involuntary  muscular  action  resulting  from 
dominant  ideas.  When  the  attention  was  absorl^d  by  an  idea 
associated  with  movement,  a  current  of  nervous  force  was  sent 
into  the  muscles  and  a  correspomling  motion  produced,  not  only 
without  conscious  eflort,  but  eveu  in  many  instances  in  opposition 
to  volition.  The  subject  lost  the  power  of  neutralising  the 
dominant  idea,  and  was  irresistibly  drawn  or  spellbound  according 
to  the  nature  of  tlie  impression  produced  ;  aud  might,  in  this  way, 
be  brought  under  the  control  of  others,  by  means  of  audible, 
visible,  and  tangible  suggestions. 

The  meutiil  luid  pliysical  phenomena,  no  matter  what  processes 
were  employed  to  induce  hypnosis,  resulted  entirely  from  dominant 
ideas  :  it  mattered  little  whether  these  had  existed  in  the  subject's 
mind  previously,  or  were  afterwards  verbally  suggested  by  the 
operator.  The  latter  acted  like  an  engineer  and  called  into  action 
the  forces  in  t!ie  subject's  own  organism,  controlling  and  directing 
them  in  accordance  with  the  laws  which  governed  the  action  of 
the  mind  upon  the  body. 

Braid  thorouglily  recognised  that  all  the  phenomena  most 
characteristic  of  hypnosis  could  be  induced  without  the  subject 
haWng  passed  through  any  condition  resembling  sleep.  He  ex- 
plained this  by  his  "  mental-concentration"  theoty.    The  condition. 


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he  said,  was  essentially  a  subjective  one,  due  to  the  distribution 
of  nervous  energy  witliin  the  subject's  own  body,  which  arose 
from  the  intiuence  of  his  own  mind  upon  his  physical  organism. 
Wliile  all  was  absolutely  iudependeut  of  the  trausmission  of  any 
occult  influence  from  one  person  to  another,  both  direct  and 
indirect  suggestions  played  an  important  part.  Their  influence 
depended,  however,  on  the  ideas  ui-oused  in  the  mind  of  the 
subject,  and  this  involved  no  loss  of  "  magnetic  power "  ia  the 
operator.  If  the  mesmeric  theory  were  true,  a  preacher  or  author 
would  lose  "  vital  Huid  *'  in  exact  proportion  to  the  numbers 
intluenced  by  his  spoken  or  printed  ideas.  This,  of  course,  was 
absurd — a  posthumous  work  might  be  quite  as  telling  as  one 
printed  during  the  life  of  the  author :  the  suggestion  of  new  ideas 
to  the  mind  of  the  reader,  through  the  printed  symbols  of  thought, 
being  the  only  cause  of  whatever  effect  the  book  produced. 

In  Neunjpnolog^y  Braid  stated  that  he  was  unable  to 
account  for  the  fact  that  a  current  of  air  -arou-sed  hypnotised 
subjects  from  their  trance ;  but,  later,  he  thought  he  had  found 
an  explanation  for  this  in  monoideism.  The  particular  function 
called  into  action,  he  said,  occupied  the  whole  attention  of  the 
person  hypnotised,  while  others  passed  into  a  state  of  torpor: 
thus,  only  one  function  was  active  at  any  one  time,  and  was 
hence  intensely  so.  The  arousing  of  any  dormant  function  was 
equivalent  to  superseding  the  one  in  action.  In  this  way,  a  state 
of  muscular  rigidity  ceased  when  a  current  of  cold  air  was 
directed  to  the  skin,  because  this  called  the  attention  to  the  skin. 
and  withdrew  it  from  the  musctilar  sense. 

According  to  Braid,  there  was  a  difference  between  spinUanfons 
and  imlutiil  somnumbulism  ;  in  the  former  the  subjects  were 
impelled  to  certain  trains  of  action  by  internal  impulses,  while  in 
the  latter  they  tended  to  remain  at  absolute  rest,  and  to  pass  into 
a  state  of  profound  sleep,  unless  excited  by  some  impression  from 
without. 

Natural  and  artificial  sleep  were  not  reganled  by  Braid  as 
identical :  the  principal  ditVerence  between  the  two  was  bo  be 
found  in  their  respective  mental  conditions.  In  passing  into 
ordinary  sleep  the  mind  was  diffusive  and  passive — flitting  from 
one  idea  to  auother  indifferently.  Thus,  the  subject  was  unable 
to  fix  his  attention  on  any  regular  train  of  thought,  or  to  perform 
any  act  requiring  much  effort  of   will.     This   passiveness  was 


continued  during  sleep ;  and  audible  suggestions  aud  sensible 
impressions,  if  not  iulejise  enougli  to  terniiuutc  it,  only  aroused 
<U*eams,  wherein  ideas  passed  tlirough  the  sleeper's  mind  without 
exciting  detiuite  physical  acts.  On  the  other  hand,  an  active  and 
concentrated  state  of  mind  was  produced  by  the  methods  for 
inducing  hypnosis.  This  condition  was  favourable  to  suggestion ; 
the  various  impressions  conveyed  to  tlie  subject's  mind,  either 
indirectly  or  by  tlie  verbal  suggestions  of  the  operator,  were 
quickly  seized  and  responded  to.  Finally,  hypnosis  had  cui'ed 
many  diseases,  which  had  resisted  natui-al  sleep  and  every  other 
known  remedial  agency  for  years.  For  instance,  a  few  hypnotic 
sittings  of  ten  minutes  each  had  cured  a  patient,  who  must  have 
liad  at  least  eight  years'  sleep  during  his  long  illness. 


Magnets,  etc. 

In  Braid's  time  the  mesmerists  held  that  magnets,  certain 
metals,  crystals,  etc.,  possessed  a  peculiar  power  over  sensitive 
subjects.  In  their  presence,  some  experienced  an  unpleasant 
sensation  like  an  aura,  others  gob  headache,  or  attacks  of  fainting 
or  catalepsy,  with  spasms  so  violeut  tliat  they  apparently 
endangered  life.  Frequently,  there  was  hyperies thesis  of  the 
special  senses ;  wliile  many  fancied  they  saw  brilliant  streams  of 
light  flow  from  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  15raid  investigated  the 
matter  witli  the  following  results : — The  phenomena  appeared 
cither  when  the  subjects  knew  beforehand  wlmt  was  expected  of 
them,  or  received  the  necessary  information  from  the  suggestions 
or  leading  questions  of  the  operator.  Apart  from  these  conditions, 
the  phenomena  never  aijpeared  ;  but  imitation  magnets  produced 
them  wliLMi  the  subjects  believed  real  ones  were  being  used. 

Reichenbach  asserted  that  when  a  sensitive  phtte  was  placed 
in  a  box  with  a  magnet,  it  received  an  impression  just  as  if  it 
had  been  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of  the  light  Braid 
repeated  the  experiment,  aud  also  had  similar  ones  performed  for 
him  by  an  expert  photographer ;  but,  when  all  sources  of  fallacy 
were  eliminated,  the  results  were  invariably  negative. 

Braid  constantly  insisted  that  the  effects  attributed  to  mag- 
netic or  "  odylic  "  force  were  entirely  due  to  the  action  of  suggested 
ideas.     The  following  experiment,  he  said,  illustrated  this,  and 


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aIbo  sliowed  how,  despite  supposed  rapport,  a  subject  responded 
fo  suggestions,  even  when  these  were  not  given  by  the  original 
operator. 

One  day  Braid  called  on  a  London  pliysician  who  used 
niesraerisiii  in  liis  practice.  The  latter  tohl  him  that  he  had  been 
obtaining  wonderful  results  from  the  use  of  magnets,  and  offered 
to  demonstrate  this  on  a  subject  who  was  at  that  moment  in  a 
state  of  mesmeric  trance.  He  asserted,  for  example,  that  when 
he  touched  the  subject's  limbs  with  the  magnet,  this  produced 
catalepsy ;  and,  certainly,  what  he  had  ]iredicted  happened. 
Braid,  in  his  turn,  stated  that  he  had  an  iu.struinent  in  his  pocket 
which  was  quite  as  powerful,  and  offered  to  prove  this  by  operat- 
ing on  the  same  subject  He  then  informed  the  doctor,  in  the 
subject's  presence,  that  when  he  put  the  instrument  into  her 
hands  it  would  produce  catalepsy ;  and  it  at  once  did  so,  just  as 
in  the  former  instance.  Having  terminated  the  catalepsy  by 
means  of  passes,  Braid  placed  the  instrument  in  another  position. 
and  stated  that  it  would  now  have  the  very  reverse  effect — -that 
the  subject  would  not  be  able  to  hold  it,  owing  to  jwiralysis  of 
her  muscles:  this,  us  well  as  many  other  experiments,  was 
successful.  Braid  then  privately  explained  to  the  doctor  the 
real  nature  and  jiowers  of  his  apparently  magical  instrument 
It  was  nothing  more  than  his  portmanteau -key  and  ring,  and  its 
varied  powers  were  merely  the  result  of  the  predictions  which 
the  subject  had  heard  Braid  make.  The  experiments,  he  said, 
simply  illustrated  the  jjower  of  suggestion  during  hypnosis; 
neither  magnet  nor  portmanteau-key  played  any  real  part  in 
them. 

In  1843,  Braid  referred  to  Elliotson's  belief  in  the  mesmeric 
powers  of  certain  metals  and  to  Wakley's  test  experiments.  The 
latter,  operutiug  with  a  non-mesmerising  metal,  made  the  subject 
believe  he  was  using  a  mesmerising  one,  wliereupon  she  fell 
asleep:  from  this  lie  concluded  that  all  the  subjects  were  im- 
postors. Braid,  on  the  contran-,  asserted  that  the  artificial  sleep 
was  genuine,  but  hnd  been  induced  solely  by  suggestion  :  the 
metals  were  neither  mesmeric  nor  non-mesmeric.  In  the  same 
way.  Braid  explained  the  action  of  the  "  wooden  tractors,"  which 
Dr.  Haygarth,  in  1799,  substituted  for  tlie  "  metallic  ones"  of  ifr. 
Perkins,  with  equally  successful  results,  llic  latter  consisted  of 
two  pieces  of  metal,  one  of  iron  and  the  other  of  brass,  about 


three  incliea  long,  blunt  at  one  end  and  pointed  at  the  other. 
They  were  invented  by  I)r.  Eliaha  Perkins,  of  Norwidi,  Connecti- 
cut, who  in  179G  took  out  a  patent  for  them.  They  were  used 
for  tlie  relief  of  headache,  and  other  nervous  pains,  and  were 
applied  by  drawing  them  lig!itly  over  the  part  affected  for  about 
twenty  minutes.  This  method  of  treatment,  which  was  very 
fashionable  at  one  time,  was  termed  Perkinism  in  honour  of  its 
inventor. 

According  to  Braid,  it  had  long  been  recognised  that  various 
anomalous  sensations  followed  the  prolonged  direction  of  the 
attention  to  any  pail  of  the  body  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  remarkable  cures  had  occasionally  been  caused  by  mental 
excitement,  and  severe  illness  and  even  death  had  resulted  from 
fear,  it  was  usually  supposed  that  these  sensations  were  unaccom- 
panied by  physical  change.  With  the  exception  of  Br.  (afterwards 
Sir  Henry)  Holland,  who  wrote  on  the  intluence  of  attention  on 
the  bodily  orgiins  in  his  Medkal  jVofcs  ami  Rejltctions,  Braid  said 
no  one  believed  that  definite  physical  changes  could  be  excited, 
regulated,  and  controlled  by  the  voluntary  mental  eflbrts  of  a 
healthy  individual ;  or  that  the  same  results  might  be  produced 
involuntarily,  by  the  direct  or  indirect  suggestions  of  another 
person. 

Braid  cited  the  following  cases  as  illustrating  the  power  of 
6U^;estion  to  cause  alterations  in  bodily  functions : — - 

(1)  Increased  secretion  of  milk  (coso  reported  p.  88). 

(2)  Cures  of  Umg-atandiiig  hysterical  paralysis  tcUhoui  organic 
lesioji.  Here,  if  eonlideut  verbal  suggestions  were  made  to  the 
patient  during  hypnosis,  the  results  were  sometimes  instantaneous ; 
and  the  paralysis  disappeared  as  if  by  the  action  of  a  magical 
spell. 

(3)  Activity  of  dru{fs  in  sealed  tu})gs:  Braid  had  heard  of  the 
discovery  of  certain  drugs  in  America  whioli  were  said  to  exercise 
their  iulluence  through  glass :  i.e.  if  the  patient  held  the  bottle  con- 
taining tlic  medicine  in  his  hand,  it  produced  the  same  effect  as 
if  he  took  the  medicine  by  the  mouth.  To  those  who  laughed  at 
the  idea  Braid  retorted  that  imagination,  attention,  and  expectation 
were  capable  of  producing  the  effects  attributed  to  the  drug.  He 
was  soon  able  to  prove  this  experimeu tally.  Having  described 
to  a  friend  the  wonderful  properties  of  this  American  emetic, 
which  was  capable  of  acting  through  glass,  he  placed  a  pliial 


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containinj?  coloured  water  in  her  Imnd.  She  immediately  began 
to  be  sick,  but  this  ceased  when  she  was  given  another  pliiul, 
which  she  was  told  was  the  antidote. 

Braid  believed  that  these  and  similar  facts  enabled  us  to 
understand  how  liypnotism  cured  or  relieved  disease.  Suygcstioii, 
either  verbal  or  indirect,  aroused  certain  ideas  in  the  mind  of 
the  patient.  According  to  their  nature,  tiiese  acted  as  stimulants 
or  sedatives,  and  either  directed  attention  to,  or  withdrew  it 
from,  particular  oi"gaus  or  functions.  In  ortlinar}'  practice,  similar 
results  were  produced  by  prescribing  medicines  which  acted  as 
general  or  local  stimulants  or  sedatives. 

If  blushing,  a  phenomenon  due  to  altered  capillary  circulation, 
appeared  imiuediately  as  the  result  of  a  mental  impression, 
dominant  ideas  might  equally  well  produce  powerful  effects  on 
other  parts  of  the  bixly.  According  to  Braid,  homa?opathy,  as 
well  as  liypuotisui,  illustrated  the  action  of  suggestion.  Sir  J.  T. 
Simpson  hud  proved  tliut  one  homoiopatluc  dilution  was  so  weak 
that  a  patient  would  have  to  take  a  dose  every  second  of  time, 
night  and  day,  for  thirty  thousand  years,  before  he  consumed  one 
grain  of  the  original  drug ;  while  another  was  so  attenuated  that 
it  would  require  a  mass  of  tlie  dilution,  ecjuul  to  sixty-one  times 
the  bulk  of  the  earth,  to  contain  a  single  grain  of  medicine  I 

Further,  Braid  held  that  the  mental  element  associated  witii 
the  administration  of  drugs  in  general  had  been  far  too  much 
ignored.  It  was  worth  finding  out,  he  said,  how  much  of  the 
benefit  derived  from  ordinarj'  treatment  was  due  to  the  effects  of 
medicine,  and  how  n)uch  to  suggestion.  A  mental  impression 
was  produced  whenever  a  drug  was  consciously  taken;  and  this 
might  account  for  the  remarkable  changes  of  opiiuon  as  to  the 
value  of  particidar  medicines.  At  one  time  a  universal  favourite 
appeared  to  possess  every  valuable  quality,  then  was  discarded 
as  worthless,  while  later  it  regained  its  former  position.  All  this 
arose  naturally :  a  simguine  doctor  prescribed  the  remedy  with 
contidence,  and  his  patients  caught  the  inspiration.  Every 
suooessfid  result  increased  the  faith  of  both  physician  and  patient. 
Thus  the  medicine  acquired  curative  jxjwers  in  excess  of  its 
physical  properties.  Later,  when  the  same  remedy  was  prescribed 
doubtfully  by  others,  the  mental  influence  on  the  patients  was 
unfavourable ;  and  so  the  drug  was  robbed  of  some  of  the  value 
that  naturally  belonged  to  it, 

u 


Braid's  views  as  to  clairvoyaiace,  telepathy,  etc,  have  already 
been  referred  to,  as  also  his  rules  for  the  avoidauce  of  experi- 
mental error. 


Phrenology. 

Braid's  increased  knowledge  of  the  power  of  mental  influences 
over  hypnotic  phenomena  soon  led  him  to  discard  even  the 
slightest  belief  in  phrenology.  He  complained,  however,  that  the 
antlior  of  an  article  iu  the  North  Britisii  Ecviav,  for  November 
1854,  confounded  him  with  the  "  Phreno  -  Mesmerists,"  and 
attributed  to  him  tlie  belief  that  touching  particular  parts  of  the 
head  would  make  a  hypuotised  subject  laugh,  pray,  sing,  steal, 
fight,  etc.  In  reply,  Braid  stated  tliat  liis  earlier  experiments  had 
neither  proved  nor  disproved  the  doctrine  of  plirenology  ;  but  left 
that  precisely  where  they  fouud  it  The  phenomena  might  arise 
in  various  ways:  (1)  From  a  previous  knowledge  of  phrenology. 
(2)  From  training  during  hypnosis,  so  that  when  points  were 
touclied,  with  which  particular  ideas  had  beeu  associated  by 
verbal  suggestion,  the  phenomena  appeared.  This  arbitrary 
asaociation,  however,  co\Ud  be  equally  readily  established  by 
touching  parts  of  the  body  other  than  tlie  head.  The  touch 
simply  called  into  action  the  "  muscles  of  expression,"  and  thus 
excited  in  the  mind  of  the  subject  the  ideas  witli  which  these 
were  usually  associated  iu  the  waking  condition.  This  latter 
method  was  tlie  natural  one,  and  was  simply  an  inversion  of  the 
usual  sequence  subsisting  between  mental  and  muscular  excitation. 
Thus,  first,  the  touch  called  into  play  tlie  muscles  constituting  the 
"  anatomy  of  expression  "  of  any  given  passion  or  emotion  ;  and, 
secondly,  this  physical  expression  suggested  to  the  mind  of  the 
subject  the  corresponding  passion  or  emotion,  with  which  it  had 
been  associated  in  the  waking  condition.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, the  mental  impression  would  have  come  first  and  excited 
its  corresponding  physical  manilestation ;  but  here  the  physical 
condition  preceded  the  mental  one  and  acted  as  its  exciting 
cause. 

This  theory  was  published  by  Braid  in  1843  ;  and,  in  1844, 
he  practically  demonstrated  that  he  could  induce  all  the  so-called 
phrenological  phenomena  by  verbal  suggestion,  no  matter  what 
part  of  the  body  was  touched. 


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Suggestion,  Passes,  etc. 


^ 


At  first  Braid  employed  mechanical  methods  for  the  induction 
of  hypnosis  and  its  phenomena.  Later,  he  stated  that  these 
acted  mainly  as  indirect  suggestions,  and  that  direct  verbal 
suggestion  was  best  for  all  hypnotic  purposes.  After  hypnotising 
his  subjects,  he  stated  in  a  confident  manner  the  results  be  wished 
to  obtain,  and  often  found  that  these  could  be  varied  by  simple 
change  of  voice.  Thus,  if  he  made  a  subject  see  an  imaginarj' 
sheep,  and  then  asked  hira  in  a  cheerful  manner  what  colour  it 
was,  this  tone  usually  elicited  the  reply  "White,"  or  some  b'ght 
colour.  If  he  theu  asked :  '*  What  colour  is  it  now  f  "  giving  a  sad 
intonation  to  the  word  now,  the  reply  would  usually  be  "  Black." 

llraid  explained  the  action  of  passes  and  other  physical 
methods  in  the  following  manner : — Kvery  fresh  impression 
modified  existing  functions,  whether  the  new  impression  was  a 
mental  or  a  physiwd  one.  The  bmiii  received  many  impressions 
which  subsequently  influenceil  the  mind,  idthough  they  were  not 
all  perceived  when  conveyed  to  it  by  the  organs  of  sense;  while 
others,  too  slight  ever  to  become  conscious,  might  nevertheless  be 
sufficient  to  produce  a  local  influence  on  the  nen'es  and  capillaries. 
Thus,  a  person  might  be  so  absorbed  in  a  book  as  not  to  notice 
he  was  sitting  in  a  draught,  and  yet  this  might  cause  rheumatism. 
In  like  manner,  passes,  which  the  subject  was  hai*dly  conscious 
of,  might  produce  a  pliysical  effect  either  through  pressure,  agitation 
of  the  air,  changes  in  temperature,  or  electrical  states.  They 
were  most  powerful,  however,  when  they  directly  excited  mental 
action,  either  by  fixing  the  attention  on  one  part  or  function  of 
the  body  and  withdrawing  it  from  others  ;  or  by  arousing  ideas 
previously  associated  with  the  physical  impression.  All  these 
effects,  however,  could  be  neutralised  by  direct  suggestion ;  and 
thus  by  training  it  was  quite  possible  to  make  passes  produce 
results  opposite  to  those  formerly  evoked  by  them.  If,  on  making 
the  passes,  the  operator  verbally  stated  what  would  happen,  this 
did  happen  instead  of  the  usual  result.  From  that  time,  "  through 
the  double  conscious  memory " — to  use  Braid's  own  words — a 
like  impression  would  recall  the  idea  that  had  been  arbitrarily 

ciated  with  it 


Dangers. 


Some  of  the  opponents  of  hypnotism  asserted  that  it  could  be 
used  to  excite  the  animal  passions :  thus,  they  said,  virtuous 
women  might  l:>ecome  the  victims  of  unprincipled  men,  and  after- 
wards retain  no  consciousness  of  what  had  taken  place.  This 
charge,  Biuid  stated,  was  not  in  keej>ing  with  observed  facts.  In 
replying  to  it  he  cited  many  reasons  for  tiis  belief  that  the 
practice  of  hypnotism  was  devoid  of  danger,  and  amongst  these 
the  following  are  the  more  important : — 

(1)  He  had  successfully  demonstrated  that  hypnosis  could 
never  be  induced  without  the  subject's  knowledge  and  consent 

(2)  Perception  and  judgment  were  not  abolished  in  hypnosis; 
this  was  not  only  true  of  the  "  alert "  condition,  but  extended 
also  to  the  "  deep."  Even  wlieu  the  subjects  were  in  the  latter 
state,  if  anything  were  done  which  was  opposed  to  their  moral 
sense,  they  at  ouce  passed  into  the  "  alert "  stage,  and  were 
then  as  capable  of  defending  themselves  as  when  in  the 
waking  condition. 

(3)  Hypnosis  undoubtedly  Increased  the  moral  sense,  and 
rendered  subjects  more  fastidious  as  to  conduct  than  when 
awake. 

(4)  Even  supposing,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  it  were 
possible  for  an  unprincipled  person  to  commit  an  immoral  act 
upon  a  deeply  hypnotised  subject,  the  hitter's  loss  of  memory  on 
awaking  would  not  protect  the  criminal.  Coasciousness  was 
never  abolished  during  hjrpnosis ;  and  everything  which  had 
taken  place  during  it  could  be  recalled  by  the  subject  in  sub- 
sequent hypnoses. 

Further,  Braid  objected  that,  while  hypnotism  had  been 
credited  with  dangers  widch  it  did  not  possess,  those  who  attacked 
it  raised  no  objections  to  the  use  of  cMoroform  or  ether. 
Although  in  no  way  an  oppoueot  of  the  latter,  he  drew  attention 
to  the  following  facts  : — 

(a)  On  several  occasions  he  had  witnessed  the  most  intense 
manifestations  of  erotism  arise  spontaneously  during  the  earlier 
stages  of  etherisation. 

(6)  Ether,  chloroform,  and  other  narcotic  drugs  had  frequently 
been  administered  for  criminal    purposes.     Sometimes  this  had 


I 


been  doue  without  the  subject's  knowledge,  and  various  crimes 
had  been  jierpetrated  during  tlie  unconsciousness  of  the  victim. 


Analogfous  States. 

Draid  thought  that  the  voluntarily  suspended  nuimatiou  of 
Colonel  Townsend,  and  the  prolonged  trance  of  the  fakirs,  might 
be  explained  by  hypnotism.  Some  instances  of  the  latter  were 
remarkably  well  authenticated  by  the  evidence  of  English  officers 
of  position.  On  one  occasion,  a  fukir  was  buried  at  a  depth  of 
four  feet ;  it  was  arranged  that  the  experiment  should  last  nine 
days ;  and  an  English  officer  liad  the  grave  constantly  watched 
by  sentinels.  At  the  end  of  the  third  day,  the  offirer,  fearing  the 
fakir  might  be  dead,  and  that  this  might  l>e  tlie  cause  of  trouble 
to  hiniself,  insisted  on  the  termination  of  the  experiment.  When 
the  mau  was  dug  up,  he  was  as  cold  and  stiff  as  a  rauromy  and 
apparently  lifeless ;  he  revived,  however,  after  being  inanipulated 
for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

Braid  also  found  a  resemblance  between  the  condition 
produced  by  hashish  and  certain  hypnotic  states ;  and,  in  support 
of  this,  quoted  the  experiments  mude  by  r>r.  O'Shaughnessy  at 
Calcutta,  and  already  cited,  p.  45. 

In  discussing  other  theories,  Braid's  will  be  again  referred 
to;  meanwhile  I  wish  to  draw  attention  shortly  to  the 
following  points.  Braid's  theories  changed  as  his  knowledge 
increased,  and  he  Iiehl  in  all  three  distinct  and  widely  diB'ering 
ones.  In  the  first,  he  explained  hypnosis  from  an  almost  purely 
physical  standpoint ;  in  his  second,  he  considered  it  to  be  a  con- 
dition of  iuvolimtary  mouoideism  and  concentration  of  the 
attention.  His  third  theory  differed  from  both  of  these.  In  it 
he  recognised  that  reason  and  volition  were  unimpoii-ed,  and  that 
the  attention  could  be  simultaneously  directed  to  more  points 
than  one.  The  condition,  therefore,  was  not  one  of  involuntary 
monoideiam.  Further,  he  recognised  mnre  and  more  clearly  that 
the  state  was  essentially  a  conscious  one,  and  tliat  the  losses  of 
memory  which  followed  on  awaking  could  always  be  restored  in 
subsequent  hypnoses.  Finally,  he  described  as  "  double  con- 
sciousness "  the  condition  which  he  had  first  termed  "  hypnotic," 
then  "  monoideistio."  As  already  noted,  few  students  of 
hypnotism  are  acquainted  with  any  of  Braid's  theories  except  the 


earliest ;  aud  his  third  and  latest  one,  which  he  promised  to  put 
befoi-e  the  public  in  a  more  complete  form,  never  saw  the  light 
in  the  manner  he  intended.  My  account  is  drawn  from  little- 
knovrn  pamphlets,  unpublished  MS.,  etc. 

The   following   is   a  summary  of  Braid's  latest  theories : — 

(1)  Hypnosis  could   not   be   induced   by  pliyaical  means  alone. 

(2)  Hypnotic  aud  so-called  mesmeric  phenomena  were  subjective 
in  origin,  and  both  were  excited  by  direct  or  by  indirect  sugges- 
tion. (3)  Hypnosis  was  characterised  by  physical  us  well  as  by 
psychical  changes.  (4)  The  simultaneous  appearance  of  several 
phenomena  was  recognised,  and  much  importance  was  attached 
to  the  intelligent  action  of  a  secondai^'  cousciousneas.  (5)  Voli- 
tion Wtts  unimpaired,  moral  sense  increased,  and  suggested  crime 
impossible.  (6;  Hajtp&rt  was  a  purely  artificial  condition  created 
by  suggestion.  (7)  The  importance  of  direct  verbal  suggestion 
was  fully  recognised,  as  also  the  mental  influence,  of  physical 
methods.  (8)  Suggestion  Wiis  regarded  as  the  device  used  for 
exciting  the  phenomena,  and  not  considered  as  sufticient  to 
explain  them,  (9)  Important  differences  existed  between 
hypnosis  and  normal  sleep.  (10)  Hypnotic  phenomena  might 
be  induced  without  the  subject  ha\ing  passed  throuj^h  any  con- 
dition resembling  sleep,  (11)  The  mentally  healthy  were  the 
easiest,  the  hysterical  the  most  difHcult,  to  influence. 

In  this  country,  during  Braid's  lifetime,  Iiis  earlier  views 
were  largely  adopted  by  certain  well-known  men  of  science, 
Itarticularly  Professors  W.  B.  Carpenter  and  J.  Hughes  Bennett, 
but  they  appear  to  have  known  little  or  nothing  of  his  latest 
theories.  Bennett's  description  of  the  probable  mental  aud 
physical  conditions,  iuvolved  in  the  state  Braid  described  as 
"  monoideism,"  is  specially  worthy  of  note.  Not  only  is  it  inter- 
esting in  Itself,  but  it  serves  also  as  a  standard  of  comparison 
with  which  to  measure  the  theories  of  later  observers,  who  have 
attempted  to  explain  hypnosis  by  cerebral  inhibition,  psychical 
automatism,  or  botli  these  conditions  combined. 

BENNETT'S  THEORIES. 

(A)  Physiological. 

Accordini;  to  Bennett,  hypnosis  was  characterised  by  altera- 
tions in  the  functional  activity  of  the  nerve  tubes  of  the  white 


I 
I 


the  coiinectiou  between  the  "aiiKliou- cells. 


matter  of  tlie  cerebral  lobes.     He  suggested  that  a  certain  pro- 

^ portion  of  tliese  became  paralysed  through  continued  monotonous 
stimulation  ;  while  the  action  of  others  was  conseijuently  exalted. 
As  these  tubes  connected  the  cerebral  gangUon- cells,  suspension 
of  their  functions  was  assumed  to  bring  with  it  interruption  of 
th 
Th 


(B)  Psychical 


I 


From  the  psychical  side,  he  explained  the  phenomena  of 
liypnosis  by  the  action  of  predominant  and  unchecked  ideas. 
These  were  able  to  obtain  prominence  from  the  fact  that  other 
ideas,  winch,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  would  liave  controlled 
their  development,  did  not  arise;  because  the  portion  of  the  brain 
with  which  the  latter  were  associated  had  its  action  temporarily 
suspended,  ic,  the  cormection  between  t!ie  gunglion-cells  was 
broken,  owing  to  the  interrupted  connection  between  the  "  fibres  of 
association."  Thus,  he  said,  the  remembrance  of  a  sensation 
could  always  be  called  up  by  the  brain ;  but,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  from  the  exercise  of  judgment,  comparison,  and 
other  mental  facilities,  we  knew  it  was  only  a  remembrance. 
When  these  faculties  were  exhausted,  the  suggested  idea  pre- 
dominated, and  the  individual  l>elieved  in  its  reality.  Thus,  he 
attributed  to  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  as  a  whole,  a  certain 
power  of  correcting  the  fallacies  which  each  one  of  them  was  likely 
to  fall  into;  just  as  the  illusions  of  one  sense  were  capable  of 
being  detected  by  the  healthy  use  of  the  other  senses.  There 
were  illusions  mental  and  sensorial :  the  former  caused  by  pre- 
dominant ideas,  and  corrected  by  proper  reasoning ;  the  latter 
caused  by  perversion  of  one  sense,  and  corrected  by  the  right 
application  of  the  others. 

In  hypnosis,  then,  according  to  this  theory,  a  suggested  idea 
obtained  prominence  and  caused  mental  and  sensorial  illusions, 
because  the  check  action  — the  inhibitory  power — of  certain 
higher  centres  had  been  temi>orurily  suspended  These  theories 
were  first  published  by  Professor  Bennett  in  1851. 

Remarks. — In  many  respects  the  theories  (jf  modern  observers 
resemble  those  we  have  been  discussing.  The  Sulpetriere  school 
has  revived  many  of  the  errors  of  the  mesmerists.  Heidenhain 
reproduced  the  physical  side  of  Braid's  theories  as  to  monoideism, 


while  Beruheim  tlid  tlie  saiue  thing  for  the  psycliical  side.  Other 
observers,  instead  of  regarding  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  entirely 
from  a  physical,  or  entirely  from  a  psychical,  point  of  view,  have 
recognised,  like  Braid  and  Bennett,  that  the  mental  changes  were 
of  necessity  associated  with  physical  ones,  and  vice  versd. 

In  the  latest  of  modern  theories  is  to  be  found  a  reproduction 
and  development  of  Hraid's  views  fts  to  double  consciousness. 
Tliis  theory  stands  apart.  In  all  others,  the  phenomena  of 
h>'pnosi3  are  supposed  to  depend  on  some  inhibitory  action,  in 
gome  limitation  or  arrest  of  the  tuucLious  that  subserve  normal 
life.  In  tlie  "  double  "  or  "  secondary  consciousness  "  tlieory,  on 
the  other  hand,  tlie  subject  is  credited  with  an  augmented  power 
of  controlling  liis  own  organisui ;  his  volition  is  supposed  to  be 
increaseii,  and  his  consciousness  unimpaired. 

modern  hyrnotic  theoeies. 

chalicot's  theoky.  or  that  of  the 
salpStrikke  school. 

The  theories  of  this  school  are  now  almost  universally 
discredited  by  those  practically  engaged  in  hypnotic  work.  Even 
as  far  back  as  the  Second  International  Congress  of  Psychology 
(London,  1892)  they  had  almost  ceased  to  attract  attention;  and 
it  was  obvious  that  the  views  of  the  Kancy  school  had  almoet 
entirely  supplanted  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  they  cannot  be  passed  by  witliout 
examination,  for  many  in  this  countiy,  who  liave  not  studied 
hypnotism  practically,  still  regard  them  as  affording  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  hypnotic  phenomena.  The  following  is  a  summarj' 
of  the  principal  points  in  the  theories  of  this  school : — 

(1)  It  was  asserted  that  hypnosis  was  an  artificially  induced 
morbid  condition ;  a  neurosis  only  to  be  found  in  the  hysterical. 
"Women  were  more  ejisily  influenced  than  men,  children  and  old 
people  were  almost  entirely  insusceptible. 

(2)  Hypnosis  could  be  produced  by  purely  physical  means; 
and  a  person  could  be  hypnotised,  as  it  were,  unknown  to  himself. 

(3)  Hypnotic  phenomena  were  divided  into  three  stages, 
lethargy,  catalepsy,  and  somnambulism,  which  were  induced  and 
terminated  by  definite  physical  stimuli. 


1 


^ 


(4)  Hypnotism,  so  far,  had  not  proved  of  much  therapeutic 
value. 

(5)  While  there  did  not  exist  a  single  case  in  which  a 
hjrpnotic  somnambule  had  acted  criminally  under  the  influence 
of  suggestion,  hypnotism  was  not  without  its  dangers.  Hysteria 
might  be  evoked  in  trying  to  induce  hypnosis. 

(6)  Certain  hypnotic  phenomena  could  be  induced,  transferred, 
or  terminated,  by  means  of  magneta,  metals,  etc. 

(7)  There  was  a  difference  between  suggestion  in  normal  life 
and  in  hypnosis.  The  former  was  a  physiolo^cal  phenomenon, 
the  latter  a  pathological  one.  Suggestibility  <:lid  not  constitute 
hypnosis,  it  was  only  one  of  its  symptoms. 

The  above  theorj'  has  been  strongly  attacked,  chiefly  by  the 
so-called  Nancy  school.  15efore  referring  in  detail  to  the  objec- 
tions they  raised  to  it,  I  wish  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that 
they  pointed  out  the  insufficiency  of  the  data  upon  which  it  had 
been  founded,  and  cited  the  confession  of  one  of  its  own  sup- 
porters that  only  a  dozen  cases  of  true  hj'pnoais  had  occurred  in 
the  Salp6tri^re  in  ten  years,  and  that  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  experiments  had  been  made  upon  one  subject,  who  had  long 
been  an  inmate  of  that  hospiUiL  On  the  other  hand,  the  Nancy 
school  called  att-ention  to  the  extended  nature  of  their  own 
observations,  and  to  the  fact  that  their  conclusions  had  been 
drawn  from  the  study  of  many  tlious;ind3  of  cases. 


(Irt)  Is  Hypnosis  a  Morbid  Condition  which  can  only  be 
Induced  in  the  Hysterical  ? 

This  question  must,  1  think,  be  answered  in  the  negative. 
Charcot  argued  that  hypnotism  and  hysteria  were  identical, 
because  in  both  the  urine  presented  similar  characteristics.  In 
reply  to  this,  Moll  pointed  out  that  all  Charcot's  subjects  suffered 
from  hysteria;  and,  as  the  phenomena  which  characterise  waking 
life  are  readily  induced  in  hypuosis,  Charcot  easily  created  a 
complete  type  of  hysteria  by  suggestion. 

If  the  hysterical  alone  can  be  hypnotised,  we  must  conclude 
from  the  statistics  already  cited  (pp.  57-67)  that  at  least  80 
per  cent  of  mankind  suffer  from  hysteria. 

Further,  the  highest  percentage  of  successes  was  obtained 
amongst  those  classes  most  likely  to  be  free  from  hysteria.     Thus, 


the  majority  of  the  152  undergraduates  hypnotised  Ly  'Wing6eld 
at  Cambridge  would  be  drawn  from  our  public  schools ;  and,  if 
these  do  not  alwaj*^  turn  oat  good  scholars,  they  cannot  at  all 
events  be  accused  of  producing  hysterical  invalids.  Li^beault 
found  soldiers  and  sailors  particularly  easy  to  influence,  while 
Grossmann,  of  Berlin,  recently  asserted  that  bard-headed  North- 
Germans  were  verj*  susceptible.  Professor  Forel,  of  Zurich,  told 
me  that  he  bad  hypnotised  nearly  all  his  asylum  warder? ;  that 
he  selected  these  himself,  and  certainly  did  not  choose  them  from 
the  ranks  of  the  hysterical.  Most  of  Esdaile's  patient's  were 
males,  and  he  drew  particular  attention  to  the  fact  that  they  were 
free  from  liysteria. 

These  and  similar  facts  apparently  justify  the  statements  of 
Forel  and  Moll,  that  it  is  not  the  healthy,  but  the  hysterical,  who 
are  the  most  difltcult  to  influence.  Forel,  as  we  have  seen,  considerB 
that  every  mentally  healthy  man  is  naturally  hypnotisable  ;  while 
Moil  says,  if  we  take  a  pathological  condition  of  the  organism  as 
necessary  for  hypnosis,  we  shall  be  obliged  to  conclude  that 
nearly  everibody  ia  not  quite  right  in  the  head.  The  mentally 
unsound,  particularly  idiots,  ai-e  much  more  difficult  to  hypnotise 
than  the  healthy.  Intelligent  people  and  those  with  strong  wills 
are  more  easily  hypnotisable  than  the  dull,  the  stupid,  or  the 
weak-willed.  Forel  says  that  the  most  difficult  to  influence  are 
without  doubt  the  insane  ;  while  the  number  of  mentally  healthy 
persons  hypnotised  by  Liebeault  and  Beruheira  alone  amounts  to 
many  thousands.  My  personal  experience  accords  with  these  views, 
I  formerly  found  no  difficulty,  for  example,  in  hypnotising  healthy 
Yorkshire  peasants  for  operative  purposes,  and  amongst  that  class 
obtained  100  per  cent  of  successes.  Kow,  when  ray  patients  are 
usually  chronic  nervous  invalids,  I  find  the  difficulty  of  inducing 
hypnosis  greatly  increasetl.  This  experience  is  not  alone  a  personal 
one ;  for,  on  visiting  hypnotic  cUniques  in  France,  Switzerland, 
Holland,  and  Sweden,  I  invariably  fouud  that  others  encountered 
similar  difficulties. 


I 
I 

I 
1 

I 
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ilh)  Are  Women  more  Susceptible  than  Men  ? 

All  observers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Salpetri6re  school, 
agree  in  stating  that  sex  has  little  or  no  influence  upon  suscepti- 
bility.    According  to  Liebeault,  the  difference  between  the  two 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


» 


sexes  is  rather  less  tlian  1  per  cent     All  Wingfield's,  and  the 
majority  of  Esdaile's,  subjecta  were  men. 

(Ir)  Are  Children  and  Old  People  Insusceptible  ? 

As  we  have  already  seen,  Wetterstrand  found  that  children 
from  3  or  4  to  15  years  of  age  could  be  influenced  without 
exception,  B(5riUon.  out  of  250  cases  in  childi'en,  hypnotiseti 
80  per  cent  at  the  first  attempt.  Lii^beault  also  found  children 
peculiarly  susceptible ;  and  one  of  his  statistical  tables  records 
100  per  cent  of  successes  up  to  the  age  of  14.  In  adult  life 
age  apparently  makes  little  difference.  In  the  same  table  we 
find  that  from  the  ages  of  14  to  21  the  failui-es  were  about  10 
per  cent,  and  from  63  years  and  upwards  about  13  per  cent. 

(2)  Can  Hypnosis  be  induced  by  Mechanical  Means  alone  7 

This  question  is  answered  by  the  Nancy  school  in  the  negative* 
and  my  own  experience  agiees  with  this.  I  know  of  no  single 
instance  where  liypnosia  hiis  followetl  tlie  employment  of  mechanical 
means,  when  mental  influences  have  been  carefully  excluded,  and 
the  subjects  have  been  absolutely  ignorant  of  what  was  expected 
of  them.  Xu  one  was  ever  hypnotised  by  looking  at  a  lark- 
mirror,  until  Luys  borrowed  that  lure  from  the  birdcatchere,  and 
invested  it  with  hypnotic  power.  On  the  other  Iiand,  any 
physical  method  will  succeed  witli  a  susceptible  subject  who 
knows  what  is  expected  of  liira. 

(8)  Are  Hypnotic  Phenomena  divided  into  Three  Distinct 

Stages  ? 

The  production  of  the  definite  stages  described  by  the  Sal- 
petri^re  school  as  arising  from  their  respective  physical  stimuli, 
has  never  been  noticed  by  other  observers.  Amongst  the  many 
hundreds  of  hypnotised  subjects  I  have  seen,  none  have  I'espouded 
to  the  manipulations  which  produced  such  striking  phenomena  at 
the  Salpetri^re.  On  the  other  hand,  I  and  many  others  have 
found  tliat  we  could  easily  evoke  these  stages  by  verbal  suggestion, 
and  train  the  subjects  to  manifest  them  at  a  given  signal.  The 
condition,  however,  was  always  an  artificial  one. 


Further,  the  Salp^triere  stages  cannot  be  accepted  nntii  it  is 
proved  that  suggestion  was  rigorously  excluded.  Instead  of  this, 
we  know  that  in  many  instances  tlie  experiments  were  discussed 
Itefore  the  subjects  themselves.  It  is  specially  vrorthy  of  note 
that  Charcot*8  stages,  as  described  by  his  followers,  have  lost 
much  of  their  original  clearness  and  precision.  Other  phenomena, 
in  adtlition  to  the  characteristic  ones,  have  appeared;  and  the 
latter  have  not  been  confined  to  their  proper  places,  i.c.  the  stages 
have  become  mixed.  Again,  the  phenomena,  instead  of  only 
appearing  in  response  to  definite  physical  stimuli,  have  become 
more  capricious  in  their  ori^n  ;  and  one  method,  instead  of  only 
exciting  its  appropriate  stage,  sometimes  produces  all  three. 
This  tends  to  show  that  the  phenomena  really  result  from  varying 
mental  states,  the  outcome  of  direct  or  indirect  suggestion,  and 
not  from  definite  and  unvarying  physical  stimuli — a  view  further 
streugtheued  by  the  fact  that  it  is  admitted  that  tlie  physical 
stimulus  only  acta  wiieu  given  by  the  persou  who  is  eti  ra/jpart 
with  the  subject 


(4)  Is  Hypnotism  of  little  Therapeutic  Value  7 

On  the  one  hand,  we  Imve  the  negative  evidence  of  a  few 
cases  observed  at  the  Salpetritre,  where  experiment,  not  cure, 
seemed  the  main  end.  On  the  other,  we  have  the  positive 
evidence  drawn  from  many  thousands  of  cases,  where  li}'pnotism 
has  been  successfully  employed  for  the  cure  or  relief  of  disease. 


(6)  ^  Can  various  Physical  and  Mental  Phenomena  be  excited 

by  the  Application,  or  near  Presence,  of  certain  Metals, 
Magnets,  and  other  Inanimate  Objects  ?  ^ 

Here,  in  Uie  assertions  of  the  Salpetri^re  school,  and  their 
refntJition  by  that  of  Nancy,  we  have  an  exact  counterpart  of 
the  controversy  lietween  Braid  and  the  mesmerists.  All  the  old 
errors,  the  result  ot  ignoring  mental  influences,  are  once  more  fl 
revived.  ^ledicines  are  again  alleged  to  exercise  an  influence 
from  witliin  sealed  tubes.  The  physical  and  mental  conditions 
of  one  subject  are  stated  to  be  transferable  to  another,  or  even 

'  No.  (0)  viU  be  duoQssed  later. 


^ 


an  inanimate  object.  It  is  useless  to  enter  into  any  ai-guracucs 
to  refute  these  statements ;  for  this  would  be  needlessly  repeating 
the  work  of  Braid.  Indeed,  in  many  instances,  their  absurdity 
renders  argument  unnecessary :  for  example,  when  a  sealed  tube 
containing  laurel-flower  water  was  brought  near  a  Jewish  prosti- 
tute, she  adored  the  Virgin  Mary !  »om  this  it  might  be 
inferred  that  different  religious  beUefs  were  represented  by  different 
nerve  centres,  and  that  these  could  be  called  into  action  by 
appropriate  physical  stimuli  The  chief  apostle  of  these  doctrines 
was  Luys ;  and  considerable  attention  was  drawn  to  tliem  in  this 
country  in  1893,  by  popular  articles  in  the  daily  papers  and 
elsewhere.  Indeed,  the  editor  of  a  well-known  medical  journal 
thought  them  of  sutticient  importance  to  demand  his  writing  a 
book  in  onler  to  disprove  them.  He  apparently  was  ignorant  of 
the  fact  that  M.  Dujardin-Beaumet/.  hud,  in  1888,  reported  to 
the  AcacUmu  dc  Midecim  that  Luys'  experiments  were  conducted 
BO  carelessly  as  to  rob  them  of  all  value,  and  that  among  students 
of  hypnotism  they  were  entirely  disregarded. 

The  Salp^tri^re  theory  not  only  resembles  that  of  tho  later 
mesmerists,  in  attributing  to  magnets,  metals,  etc.  the  power  of 
exciting  varied  and  wonderful  phenomena,  but  also  differs  little, 
if  at  all,  from  it  in  other  respects.  Thus,  the  mesmerists  stated 
that  all  were  not  susceptible  to  the  iniluences  just  referred  to, 
and  called  those  who  were  "  sensitives."  The  Salpetrit^re  school 
say  the  same  thing,  but  call  their  sensitives  "  hystericaL"  Again 
both  schools  regarded  the  influence  as  a  purely  physical  one, 
which  could  be  exerted  without  the  knowledge  and  against  the 
will  of  the  subject.  There  was  one  important  dilference,  however, 
between  the  later  mesmerists  and  the  Charcot  school  When 
Elliotsou  commenced  to  investigate  the  subject,  nothing  was 
known  about  its  mental  side  or  about  the  influence  of  suggestion. 
Thus,  his  errors  were  excusable,  and  almost  unavoidable.  When 
Charcot  started  his  researches,  not  only  had  Braid  already  demon- 
stiuted  as  fallacious  all  the  errors  Charcot  and  his  followers 
adopted  later,  but  Li(5beauU  also  had  pointed  out  the  influence 
of  suggestion,  and  how,  through  ignorance  of  it-s  ]K)wers,  false 
conclusions  were  sure  to  l)e  drawn.  Despite  all  tliis,  Klliotson's 
pioneer  work  brought  upon  him  hitter  attacks  and  threatened 
ruin,  while  Charcot's  fallacies  did  not  injure  the  reputation  he 
had  established  in  other  departments  of  science. 


The  remaining  points  (Nos.  5  and  7),  namely,  the  alleged 
dangers  of  hypnotism  and  the  nature  of  suggestion,  will  be 
referred  to  in  discussing  the  theories  of  the  Nancy  school,  and  in 
the  chapter  on  the  "  So-called  Dangers  of  Hypnotism." 


HEIDENHAIN'S  THEORY. 


The  Salpetri^re  theory,  which  assumed  that  hypnosis  oonld 
only  be  induced  in  the  hysterical,  gave  us  an  explanation  c 
hypnotic  phenomena,  which  was  at  the  same  time  both  entirely 
physical  and  patholo^cal.  Heidenhain's  theory,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  be  Uikeu  as  a  type  of  the  purely  physiological  one. 
According  to  him,  the  phenouiemi  of  hypnotism  owed  their  origin 
to  arrested  activity  of  the  ganglion-cells  of  Uie  cerebral  cortex. 
He  held  that  these  higher  centres  were  inhibited  by  the  mono- 
tonous stimulation  of  other  nerves,  i.e.  by  fixed  gazing,  }>asse8, 
etc.,  and  that  sensory  impressions,  which  usually  produced  move- 
ments after  passing  to  the  higher  centres  and  evoking  conscious- 
ness, now  did  so  by  passing  directly  to  the  motor  centres.  This 
was  easentially  a  "  short-circuiting  of  nervous  currents "  theory. 
Heidenhain  regarded  the  hypnotised  subject  o-s  a  pure  automaton, 
who  imitated  movements  mode  before  him,  but  who  was  entirely 
unconscious  of  what  he  did.  To  have  caused  him  to  move  his  arm, 
he  said,  the  image  of  a  moving  arm  must  have  passed  before  his 
retina,  or  an  unconscious  sensation  of  motion  mnst  Imve  been 
induced  through  passive  movement  of  his  arm.  ITie  subject  had 
no  idea  corresponding  to  the  movements  he  made:  the  sensory 
impression  led  to  uo  conscious  perception  and  to  uo  voluntary  move- 
ment, but  sufficed  to  set  up  unconscious  imitation.  In  reference 
to  the  playing  of  different  parts  by  hypnotised  subjects,  Heidenhain 
said  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  subject^s  realised 
what  they  did :  this  was  (juite  out  of  the  question ;  the  hypnotised 
iniUvidnal  neither  thought  nor  knew  anything  about  himself. 
Heidenhain  held  that  the  fact  of  the  subject's  forgetfulness  of  the 
sensations  he  had  experienced  during  hypnosis  afforded  satisfactory 
e\idence  that  these  sensations  had  been  unconscious  ones.  This 
theory  was  firet  published  in  1880,  and  attracted  considerable 
attention.  It  was  accepted,  for  e.xample,  by  Professor  M'^Kendrick, 
of  Glasgow,  and  restated  by  him  in  the   ninth  edition  of  the 


I 
I 

I 

I 
I 


^ 


I 


^ 


Uncydopwlia  BrUannica,  as  giving  a  true  and  scientific  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomena  of  so-caUe<l  animal  magnetism. 

To  this  explanation  many  objections  may  be  urged,  thus : — - 

(1)  It  is  a  mistake  to  call  the  hypnotic  action  on  the  cortical 
functions  inJiibition,  without  stating  explicitly  that  the  normal 
action  of  these  functions  in  respect  to  motion  is  always  to  a  large 
extent  inhibitory ;  and  that  the  complete  description  of  the 
method  by  which  the  so-called  automatic  reflex  responses  are 
brought  about  is  thus  "inhibition  of  the  inhibitory  functions." 

(2)  While  giving  an  elaborate  exposition  of  the  theory  of 
cerebral  inhifnlian  produced  by  peripheral  stimulation,  Heidenhoin 
omitted  to  take  into  consideration  the  result  of  central  stimulation  by 
means  of  an  idea  or  emotion.  As  hypnosis  can  be  equally  well 
induced  in  that  way,  Heidenhain's  theory  cannot  be  accepted,  as 
he  wished  it  should,  in  substitution  for  that  of  "  dominant  itleafi." 
It  cannot  justly  1«  considered  as  an  alternative  to  it,  as  it  is 
simply  the  physiological  statement  of  psychical  facts. 

(3)  The  theory  itself  is  not  a  new  one;  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  details,  it  is  essentially  an  imperfect  reproduction  of  that 
of  the  late  Professor  John  Hughes  Bennett,  of  Edinburgli, 
published  in  1851.  Bat  Bennett,  as  we  have  seen,  possessed  a 
clearer  Wew  of  the  whole  problem,  and  did  not  fall  into  the 
mistake  of  attempting  to  substitute  the  physiological  statement  of 
psychical  facts  for  the  facts  themselves. 

(4)  Hypnosis  can  be  induced,  not  only  in  the  absence  of 
monotonous  peripheral  stimulation,  but  even  without  any  peripheral 
stimulation  at  all  At  the  present  day,  it  is  usually  evoked  by 
central  stimulation,  which,  in  those  who  have  been  previously 
hypnotised,  need  not  be  persistently  monotonous ;  the  single  word 
"  Sleep  "  being  then  sufficient  to  excite  the  condition.  In  such 
cases,  the  factor  which  Heidenhain  regarded  as  essential  to  the 
production  of  hypnotic  phenomena,  i.e.  raonottmoiis  peripheral 
stimulation,  is  absent. 

(5)  Instead  of  a  hypnotised  subject  imitating  a  movement 
which  he  sees,  and  failing  to  perform  one  which  is  verbally 
suggested  to  him,  the  reverse  is  actually  the  case.  As  a  rule  the 
slightest  verbal  suggestion  is  sufficient  to  induce  the  movements 
described  by  Heidenhain ;  on  the  other  hand,  hypnotised  subjects 
never  copy  movements  made  before  them  unless  they  have  been 
trained  to   do  bo.     The  imitative  movements  only    take  place. 


according  to  Moll,  when  the  hypnotic  subject  is  conscious  of  them, 
and  knows  that  he  is  intended  to  make  them.  If  they  were 
unconscious  reflexes,  the  subjects  would  imitate  any  person's 
movements ;  but  they  only  imitate  the  one  pei-son  who  exists  for 
them,  i.e.  the  operator,  and  him  only  when  they  know  he 
wishes  them  to  do  so.  When  audi  experiments  are  often 
repeated  the  imitation  may  become  automatic  in  later  hypnoses, 
as  is  the  case  in  waking  life.  At  first,  however,  a  clear  idea  of 
the  movements  to  be  made  is  neceasary  ;  and  since  we  regard  the 
cerebral  cortex  as  the  seat  of  ideas,  and  as  there  is  no  reason  for 
shifting  them  to  another  part  of  the  brain  in  hypnosis,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  activity  of  tlie  cortex. 

(6)  Heideuhain's  only  argument  is  based  upon  the  subject's 
subsequent  defect  of  memory ;  he  thus  assumes,  as  his  sole  test 
for  present  consciousness,  the  subsequent  remembrance  of  its 
content.  Yet,  if  the  reality  of  that  test  be  granted,  the  question 
whether  a  man  was  conscious  when  he  read  an  article  in  the 
Times,  may  depend  on  whether  or  not  he  received  a  blow  on  the 
head  when  Itc  had  finished  it.  Further,  there  is  a  more  radical 
objection  to  all  these  arguments  founded  on  subsequent  loss  of 
memory,  the  very  fact,  indeed,  that  memory  is  frequently  present. 
Braid,  for  example,  found  that  only  some  10  per  cent  of  his 
subjects  were  unable  to  recall  the  events  of  hypnosis,  while 
Schrenck-Notzing's  International  Statistics  give  15  per  cent. 
Again,  if  on  awaking  the  act  performed  during  hypnosis  is 
forgotten,  the  lost  memory  can  be  revived  in  subsequent  hypnoses ; 
and,  finally,  the  amnesia  which  would  otherwise  follow  deep 
hypnosis  can  be  entirely  prevented  by  suggestion. 


THEORIES   OF   VINCENT   AND   SIDIS. 

Various  otlier  modern  theories  are  based  more  or  less  entirely 
on  a  supposed  cerebral  inhibition.  Thus,  Bennett's  theory  crops 
up  again  in  Vincent's  I/i/pnotism.  Thirty-two  pages  are 
devoted  to  "  neurons  "  and  "  dendrons,"  "  inaptic  "  and  "  aptic  " 
acts,  and  reasons  for  rejecting  the  term  "  refiex."  Finally,  we 
arrive  at  Vincent's  hypnotic  theor}',  which  is  founded  simply  on 
an  inhibition  of  one  set  of  functions — with  an  increased  ca[>acity 
of  action  in  the  others — the  inhibition   and   dynamogeuia  of 


\ 


I 


Brown-Sdquard.  "  The  stimulua,"  Vincent  says,  '*  instead  of  being 
dissipated  amongst  au  indefinite  number  of  neuronic  groups,  ia 
confined  to  those  -w-hose  function  is  the  pure  appreciation  of  the 
stimulus ;  the  other  groups,  whose  function  is  the  consideration 
of  the  reasonableness  of  the  suggestion  aud  the  development  of 
the  stimulus  in  other  conscious  directions,  are  inhibited" 

Sidis,  in  the  Psychology  of  Swjgestion,  explains  the  pheno- 
mena of  hypnosis  in  exactly  the  same  way.  "  There  is,"  he  says, 
"  a  functional  dissociation  between  the  nerve-cells.  The  associa- 
tion-fibres, that  connect  groups  into  systems,  commtmities,  clusters, 
and  constellations,  contract.  The  fine  processes  of  the  nerve-cells, 
the  dendrons,  or  the  terminal  arborisation,  or  the  collaterals 
that  touch  these  dendrons,  thus  forming  the  elementary  group, 
retract  and  cease  to  come  into  contact."  He  further  discusses 
which  association -fibres  give  way  first,  aud  whether  the  neuraxon 
is  contracted  as  a  whole,  or  whether  the  fibrillar  alone  contract, 
and  80  withdraw  the  terminal  arborisations  for  minute  distances. 
All  this  might  be  of  interest  if  it  wei-e  related  in  any  way  to 
the  subject  in  dispute.  The  phenomena  to  be  explained,  how- 
ever— increased  volition,  memory,  intelligence,  etc. — are  just  the 
exact  opposite  of  those  which  have  l>een  assumed ;  and  theories, 
no  matter  liow  elaborate,  nor  how  learned  in  terminology,  are 
yalueless  when  founded  upon  imaginary  mental  states,  the 
existence  of  which  is  simply  assumed  by  the  operator.  What 
does  it  matter  whether  lack  of  consciousness  or  loss  of  memory 
be  produced  by  iuteiTuption  of  association-fibres,  arrested  action 
of  ganglionic  cells  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  retracted  dendrons  or 
discomiected  neurons,  or  even  by  an  inJixbUion  of  the  amasboid 
movemenU  in  the pscudopodic,  proloplojmiic  proiongatioivi  of  tht  neuro- 
spo7t/jium}  if  the  problems  we  are  dealing  with  actually  involve 
an  increase  of  intelligence,  consciousness,  volition,  and  memory  ? 


MR.   ERNEST  HART'S  THEORY. 


^f  Ernest   Hart   ("H}'pnotiam   and   Humbug,"  Ivineiecnik   Century, 
January    1902)  in    the   following   complicated   and   somewhat 

1  RUckardt'i  theoiy,  afcervards  elaborated  by  LA[iiiie,  Golgi,  RunoD  y  0^, 
Dural,  and  Lugiro. 


3o6 


HYPNOTISM 


atfl 


obscure  sentence : — "  Ideas  arising  in  the  mind  of  ^e 
are  sufficient  to  iuflueuce  the  circulation  in  the  hrain  of  the 
person  operated  on,  and  iu  such  variations  are  adequate  to  produce 
sleep  in  the  natural  state,  or  ortificiftUy  by  total  deprivation,  or.^ 
by  excessive  increase,  or  local  aberration  in  the  quauUty  oxS 
quality  of  the  blood  to  produce  coma  and  prolonged  insensibility 
by  pressure  of  the  thumbs  upon  the  carotid ;  or  hallucinations, 
dreams,  and  visions  by  drugs,  or  by  external  stimulation  of  the 
nerves,  or  to  leave  the  consciousness  partially  affected,  and  tlie 
person  in  whom  sleep,  coma,  or  hallucinations  is  produced, 
subject  to  the  will  of  others  and  incapable  of  exercising  his 
own."  ■ 

The  existence,  however,  of  cerebral  anaemia  iu  hypnosis  is  by" 
no  means  established.     The  belief  in  its  existence  is  an  old  one, 
which  recent  investigations  have  done  much  to  discredit.     Manyi 
years  ago  Carpenter  suggested  it  as  a  possible  explanation  of 
least  some  hypnotic  phenomena,  and  Hack  Tuke  also  considere 
there   was   a    partial    spasm    of   the    cerebral    blood-vessels   in 
hypnosis.     Heidenhain,  too,  at  first  supposed  that  nnjemia  of  the 
brain  was  the  cause  of  hypnosis.     He  soon  gave  up  this  opinion 
for  several  reasons,     (a)  He  saw  hypnosis  appear  iu  spite  of  thd^ 
inhalation  of  nitrite  of  amyl,  which  causes   hypenemia   of  the" 
brain,     (h)  The  investigations  of  Forster  discovered  no  change 
in   the  vessels   at   the   back   of  the   eye   during   hypnosis,     (c) 
Salvioli  and  liouuhut  stated  that  they  found  cerebral  hypertemia^ 
daring  hypnosis.  fl 

Mental  activity  varies  in  hypnosis  just  as  it  does  in  normal 
life,  and   in   both   is   doubtless  associated  with  changes  iu  thcj 
blood  supply ;    but,  even  granting  that  cerebral  autemia  exist 
in   hypnosis,  to  assume  that  it  explains  its  phenomena  is  un- 
scientific.      For,  as   Professor  William    James   points   out.   the 
change  in  the  circulation  is  the  result,  not  the  cause,  of  th« 
altered  activity  of  Uie  nervous  matter.     Many  iwpular  writers, 
he  says,  talk  as  if  it  were  the  other  way  about,  and  as  if  mental 
activity  were  due  to  the  afflux   of  blood:    this  belief  has  no] 
physiological  foundation  whatever;  it  is  even  directly  opposed^ 
to  all  that  we  know  of  cell  life.     The  stomach  does  not  digest. 

*  Here  "subject"  U  ui  obvious  misprint  for  "operator"  ;  while  the  deeeripiiovJ 
of  the  wonderful  f»ti  perforniod  by  "idtrss"  might  lesd  one  to  suppoM  tlial  tlie^ 

writer  believed  in  spiritualistic  materislibstions  and  the  like. 


Btofl 

in-B 
hafl 


kbec&use  more  blood  Hows  into  it.  nor  do  the  muscles  of  the  arm 
contract  for  a  similar  reason:  on  the  contrary,  their  increased 
blood  supply  follows  their  increased  functional  acti\ity.  If  one 
desired  to  be  hypercritical,  one  might  still  further  object  that 
when  a  correlation  had  been  established  between  a  physical 
condition  and  a  psychical  state,  the  one  did  not  in  any  true  sense 
explain  the  other.  As  Tyudall  said  :  "  There  is  no  fusion  possible 
between  the  two  classes  of  facts.     The  passage  from  the  physics 

l«f   the    brain    to    the    corresponding    facts   of  consciousness  is 

'  untliinkable." 


THE  THEORIES   OF   THE   NANCY   SCHOOL. 


lb  is  difficult  CO  condense  the  views  of  the  so-called  Nancy 
school,  for  not  only  do  marked  differences  of  opinion  exist 
between  its  various  members,  but  the  views  held  by  some  of  the 
more  prominent  among  them  have  changed  greatly  of  late  years. 
It  must  be  noted  too,  in  justice  to  them,  that  Li(5beault  and  his 
followers  do  not  claim  to  have  founded  a  school.     As  Professor 

BBeaunis  said:  "We  bear  frequently  nowadays  of  the  school 
of  Nancy,  but  there  is  something  in  this  term  which  has  been 
applied  to  us  which  does  not  correspond  with  the  reality.  The 
term  'school'  impliea  a  community  of  which  all  the  members 
hold  the  same  ideiis.  This  we  are  not ;  but  the  public  quickly 
accept  ready-made  labels  without  ti-oubling  themselves  much 
about  the  ideas  underneath  them.  In  our  researches,  undertaken 
with  mistrust  and  doubt,  we  have  arrived  at  similar  results  upon 
a  certain  number  of  points.  Each  observer,  however,  retains  his 
iwn  ideas  and  individuality,  and  it  is  easy  to  note  the  profound 
and  even  radical  differences  that  separate  us.  These  diversities 
of  opinion  are  easily  explained,  and  their  non-existence  would  be 

Isint possible  in  a  science  still  in  its  infancy.  What  is  common  to 
all  of  us  is  the  convnction  of  the  importance  of  these  cjuestions, 
and  the  l)elief  hi  their  future — the  profound  conviction  that  this 
method  so  ridiculed  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  advances  of 

Hthc  human  mind,  and  one  of  its  most  precious  possessions." 

^P  Taking  Bernheim  as  tlie  leading  representative  of  the  so- 
called  Nancy  school,  we  find  the  essential  part  of  his  theor)'  to 
be    a    reproduction    of    the    peychical    half   of    Bennett's.      In 


neogwan  eaira  aaenMi  cfaugee,  not  oC  a 
p«ttolB0rai  ctencter;  tek  to  Aen  he  denes  aaj  pl^sieal 
•qnhmfent.  Tfaus,  if  ve  join  HfiwirnTMin't  porelT-  phymA^W— ^ 
tlworj  «EBd  BtffBieia'a  pvdbf  psji^ieai  ooe»  ««  obtaia  an 
atiewite  lepvodaetioB  «f  BeBostfa  two  thworirfc 


BERNHCIM'S  THEORIES. 

In  hjpnoets,  aeoonUng  to  Bemfaebn,  Uie  whole  nenrooa 
of  the  subject  is  concentnted  npon  a  smgk  idea.  This 
concentration  may  be  changed  from  one  point  to  another  in 
response  to  the  aoggCBtUma  of  the  operator;  bni,  though  the 
focus  ehifta  its  pUoe,  the  same  concentration  continues  to  exist. 

In  the  noTTQfll  state,  be  says,  we  are  eubject  to  errors 
illusions,  and  hallacinatious.  Sometimes  these  are  spontaneoos, 
or  follow  imjjerfect  sensorial  impressions ;  someumes  thej  an 
anggested  to  as,  and  accepted  without  being  challenged.  In  the 
normal  state  there  is  a  tendency  to  accept  ideas  suggested  by 
otbers,  and  to  act  ujK>n  them ;  but  every  formulated  idea  is 
questioned,  and.  as  the  result  of  this,  either  accepted  or  reje 
In  the  hypnotised  subject,  on  the  other  hand,  there  exists 
peculiar  aptitude  for  transforming  the  suggested  idea  into  an  act 
This  is  so  quickly  accomplished  that  the  intellectual  inhibition 
has  not  time  to  prevent  it ;  and.  when  it  comes  into  play,  it  does^ 
00  too  late,  as  the  idea  has  been  translated  into  its  physical* 
e<iuivalcnL  If  consciousness  follows  the  suggested  act,  it  at 
events  follows  it  Uk>  late  to  interfere  with  its  fulfilment 

llennelt,  as  we  liave  siien,  regarded  the  phenomena  of  hypnc 
as  the  result  of  a  definite  physical  change  in  the  subject ; 
Bcmhoim.  on  tlie  other  band,  attempts  to  explain  them  (a)  by] 
finding  an  analogy  between  tlieui  and  the  phenomena  of  thoj 
normal  state,  and  (b)  by  means  of  suggestion. 

According  to  Bemheim,  hypnotic  phenomena  are  analogous  to  1 
many  nortnal  acts  of  an  automatic,  involuutar)%  and  unconscious  | 
nature;  and  nothing,  absolutely  nothing,  difl'erentiates  natural 
and  artificial  sleep.  If  any  distinction  at  all  exists  between  the , 
nminal  and  the  hypnotic  state,  this  can  be  explained  by  means 
of  suggestion.  Both  the  normal  and  the  hypnotised  subject  can ' 
be  influenced  by  it ;  but,  as  it  has  been  suggested  to  the  latter  J 


I 
I 

I 


that  he  should  become  more  responsive,  a  peculiar  aptitude  for 
transForming  tlie  idea  into  an  act  has  in  this  way  been  artificially 
developed.  In  other  tvards,  every  one  is  suggestible^  and  if  you  take 
some  one  and  suggest  to  him  to  heccme  more  suggestible,  tfiat  ia 
hypnotism  f  Thus,  suggestion  not  only  excites  the  phenomena 
of  hypnosis,  but  also  explains  them.  Suggestion,  ie.  the  mental 
impression,  including  the  preliminary  suggestion  to  become  more 
suggestible,  conveyed  from  the  operator  to  the  subject,  is  the  only 
essential  factor  in  the  equation  ;  all  else  is  practically  unimportant. 
This  theory  cootaiua  five  distinct  propositions,  none  of  which 
can  be  accepted  without  discussion : — 

(1)  Notliing  differentiates  natural  and  artificial  sleep 

(2)  Hypnotic  phenomena  are  analogous  to  many  normal  acts 
of  an  automatic,  involuntary,  and  unconscious  nature. 

(3)  An  idea  has  a  teudency  to  generate  its  actuality. 

(4)  In  liypnosis  the  tendency  to  accept  suggestions  ia  some- 
what incx'eased  by  the  action  of  suggestion  itself.  Such  increased 
suggestibility,  one  of  degree,  not  of  kind,  alone  marks  any  differ- 
ence between  tbe  hypnotic  and  the  normal  state. 

(5)  The  result  of  suggestion  in  hypnosis  is  analogous  to  the 
result  of  suggestion  in  the  normal  state. 

It  is  abo  asserted  tliat  in  the  five  preceding  projiositions  is 
to  be  found  a  complete  explanation  of  hypnosis  and  its  phenomena. 


(1  and  2)  Explanation  of  Hypnosis  by  Means  of  a  Supposed 
General  Analogy  between  it  and  the  Normal  Sleeping 
and  Waking  States. 


My  chief  objections  to  this  are  : — 

(Ist)  That  an  analogy,  no  matter  how  successfully  established 
between  two  sets  of  phenomena,  by  no  means  explains  either 
of  them. 

(2ndly)  That  many  important  points  of  difference  exist 
between  hypnosis  aud  ordinary  sleep. 

(3rdly)  That  the  automatic,  involuntary,  aud  unconscious  acts, 
in  which  liernheim  seeks  to  find  his  analogy,  rarely,  if  ever, 
occur  in  hypnosis,  and  are  certainly  by  no  means  characteristic 
of  it. 


(1)  The  Supposed  Identity  of  Hypnosis  and  Ordinary  Sleep. 


Braid  considered  that  marked  difl'erences  existed  between 
hypnosis  on  the  one  hand,  and  natural  somnambulism  and  thefl 
normal  sleeping  state  on  the  other.  These,  he  thought,  consisted 
mainly  in  the  increased  mental  and  physical  powers  of  the 
hypnotised  subject.  Many  other  authorities  agree  with  Braid. 
Thus,  Moll  says,  the  memor)'  is  not  at  all  afTected  in  slight 
hypnosis ;  we  always  presuppose,  however,  a  great  decrease  of 
self-consciousness  in  sleep,  and  it  is  just  this  self-consciousnesa 
which  remains  intact  in  sUght  hypnosis. 

According  to  Max  Hirsch  and  SpiUa — whose  views  are 
shared  by  Lehmann,  the  distinguished  Danisli  psychologist 
hypnosis  and  sleep  are  far  from  being  identical.  In  reply  lo 
Liebeault's  assertion  that  the  latter  condition  results  from  the 
concentration  of  the  subject's  attention  upon  the  idea  of  sleep, 
Hirsch  points  out  that  little  children  fall  asleep  easily,  simply 
because  they  do  not  concentrate  their  attention;  and  they,  at 
the  same  time,  arc  quite  unacquainted  with  the  idea  of  sleep. 

Sully  finds  the  following  differences  Iwtween  sleep  and 
hypnosis :  (a)  Tlie  greater  ].>art  of  our  dream  material  in  niglitly 
sleep  comes  from  within  the  organism,  and  not  from  without,  as 
in  hypnosis,  (fi)  The  natural  drean»  is  more  complex  and  varied 
than  the  hypnotic,  (c)  The  hypnotised  subject  tries  to  tnmslate 
his  hallucinations  into  actions  in  a  manner  (hat  finds  do 
parallel  in  ordinary  sleep. 

Delbtvuf  said :  "  I  put  the  subjects  to  sleep ;  or  more 
correctly  speaking,  they  believe  that  they  have  been  asleep."  This 
conception  of  the  condition  is,  I  think,  the  true  one.  In  deep 
hypnosis  tliu  subjects  believe  that  they  have  been  asleep,  Ijecause 
on  awaking  they  arc  unable  to  recall  what  has  happened. 
The  condition,  however,  may  have  been  characterised  by  great 
mental  and  physicjd  activity,  presenting  in  subsequent  amneeia 
its  solitary  point  of  resemblance  to  normal  sleep.  Finally,  this 
amneaia  itself  is  not  a  necessary  concomitant  of  the  state,  and 
can  be  easily  prevented  by  suggestion. 


I 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


3n 


I 


* 


(2)  The  supposed  Analogy  between  Hypnotic  Phenomena,  and 
the  Automatic,  Involuntary,  and  Unconscious  Acts  of 
Normal  Life- 

AccoTdiitg  to  Braid's  conception  of  hypnosis,  the  state  was 
characterised  by  mental  ami  physical  phenomena»  which  were  not 
to  be  found  in  other  conditions.  The  hypnotised  subject  had 
acquired  new  and  varied  powers,  but  had  not  at  the  same  time 
lost  liis  volition  ov  moral  sense.  He  asserted  that  he  had  proved 
that  no  one  could  be  aftected  by  hypnotism  at  any  stage  of  the 
process,  unless  by  voluntary  compliance  The  subjects  were 
docile  and  obliging ;  but,  despite  this,  they  refused  all  criminal 
suggestions,  aud  even  developed  a  higher  sense  of  propriety  than 
characterised  their  normal  condition. 

Totally  different  views  were  formerly  held  by  Bernheim  and 
certain  other  members  of  the  Nancy  school.  They  believed  that 
the  subject's  volition  was  weakened  or  destroyed,  and  considered 
this  condition  to  be  one  of  automatism.  To  both  these  points  I 
wish  to  draw  attention. 

The  hypnotic  state  was  described  as  one  of  cerebral  automatism; 
and,  according  to  Bernheim,  its  phenomena  found  their  analogy 
iu  various  automatic  movements  of  normal  life,  such  as  walking?. 
Suggested  crimes,  which  would  really  seem  to  differ  essentially 
from  acts  like  these,  were,  however,  described  as  illustrating 
"  automatism "  iu  its  highest  form.  It  is  with  this  illustratioa 
that  I  desire  to  deal  at  present.  Let  us  take  a  typical  case.  It 
is  suggested  to  a  high-principled  girl  in  the  somnambulistic  state 
that  she  shall  take  a  piece  of  sugar  from  tlie  basin  and  put  it 
into  her  mother's  tea-cup,  after  having  been  informed  that  this 
is  really  a  lump  of  arsenic,  certain  to  cause  death.  Let  us  now 
attempt  to  understand  the  supposed  mental  condition  with  regard 
to  consciousness  and  volition,  and  then  compare  it  with  the  usual 
scientific  conception  of  automatism.  It  is,  I  think,  generally 
conceded  by  the  Nancy  school  thai  hypnotic  acts  are  conscious 
ones;  and  tliat,  if  amnesia  follows  on  awaking,  the  lost  memory 
can  l>c  restored  in  sul^sequenb  hypnoses.  Indeed,  Professor 
Bernheim,  when  discussing  the  SalpStri^re  experiments,  insists 
upon  the  fact  that  the  hypnotised  subject  is  conscious  in  all 
stages.     Therefore,  the  alleged  criminal  act  was  a  conscious  act. 


312 


HYPNOTISM 


Aj^ain,  we  are  told  llmL  somnambules,  before  accepting  criminal 
suggestions,  frequently  struggle  against  them.  This  would 
indicate  that,  in  some  instances  at  all  events,  they  are  carried 
out  in  opposition  to  voliliou  as  it  exists  in  hypnosis.  Furtlier,  it 
must  be  concedetl  that  a  criminal  act  would  not  be  performed 
voluntarily  by  a  virtuous  person  in  the  normal  state.  The  sug- 
gested act,  tlien,  is  one  which  would  have  been  opposed  by  volition 
in  the  waking  state. 

Now  let  ns  turn  to  "  automatism/'  as  defined  by  Professor 
Waller,  the  well-known  physiologist.  "  The  word,"  he  says,  "  has 
received  two  diametrically  opposed  meanings,  viz.  (1)  self- 
moving,  self-rising,  spontaneous ;  (2)  automaton-like,  that  is  to 
say,  like  a  mechanism,  that  appears  to  be  self-moving,  but  that 
we  know  to  be  moved  by  secret  springs  and  hidden  keys."  The 
second  sense  is  the  one  in  which  he  employs  it,  and  is  also,  I 
think,  the  one  now  generally  adopted  by  science.  As  the  supposed 
essential  characteristic  of  the  suggested  crime  is  the  fact  that  it 
arose  not  spontaneously,  but  in  response  to  the  desires  of  the 
operator,  it  is  obvious  that  if  it  is  automatic  at  all,  it  must  accord 
with  the  second  conception  of  automatism.  Now  let  us  follow 
Br.  Waller  in  his  further  definition  of  the  second  condition,  and 
tlien  see  how  this  agrees  with  the  so-called  "hypnotic  automatism." 
According  to  lum,  the  automatic  action  is  essentially  a  retlex 
action,  and  dilfers  from  it  only  in  that  it  is,  as  a  rule,  the  habitual 
or  serial  effect  of  habitual  or  serial  stimuli.  An  automatic  act  is 
the  repeated  or  rhythmic  motor  response  to  a  repeated  or  con- 
tinuous excitation.  Usually  it  is  carried  on  unconsciously. 
Automatic  actions  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-groups  :  (1) 
primary  or  inherited,  of  which  the  act  of  sucking  is  an  example ; 
(2)  secondary  or  acquired,  as,  for  example,  walking.  In  this 
discussion  1  think  we  may  disregard  primar}*  or  inherited  automatic 
acts.  Obviously,  to  kill  one's  mother  cannot  be  regarded  as  an 
inherited  automatism ;  and  if  such  a  crime  be  automatic  at  all, 
it  must  fall  under  the  group  of  secondary  ones.  Of  this  form  of 
automatic  act  the  winding  of  one's  watch  may  be  taken  as  a 
typical  example.  This  is  first  performed  consciously  and  volun- 
tarily. After  a  time  consciousness  sometimes  ceases  to  particijjate 
in  the  action.  On  attempting  to  wind  our  watch  many  of  us 
must  have  occasionally  found  that  we  had  already  done  ao, 
although    quite    incapable    of   recalling    the    fact.       Now,    tliis 


I 


automatic  act  is  simply  a  voluutary  oue,  performed  iuattentively 
or  uuoousciowaly — one  that  hag  previously  beeu  frequently  per- 
formed, atid  follows  well-worn  nerve-chanuels.  It  has  commeuced 
as  a  conscious,  voluntary  net.  It  has  become  unconscious  by 
repetition,  but  still  remains  voluntary,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  an 
act  which  the  consciousness  would  generally  approve  of,  did  it 
happen  to  participate  in  it. 

Let  us  consider  the  so-called  automatic  crime  of  the  hypnotised 
subject,  and  see  how  it  agrees  with  this  conception  of  automatism, 
(a)  The  crime  has  not  been  a  habitual  oue.  In  the  present 
instance  the  ver\'  nature  of  the  act  renders  this  impossible. 
Obviously,  the  subject  could  not  have  habitually  killed  her  mother. 
The  alleged  automatic  act  must,  then,  in  this  instance,  have  been 
perfonued  for  the  fit-at  time.  Now  the  essential  character  of  the 
secondary  or  acquired  automatic  act  is  that  it  has  been  frequently, 
consciously,  and  voluntarily  performed  previously  to  becoming 
automatic,  and  follows  in  consequence  well-worn  nerve  tracts 
which  offer  no  obstacle  to  its  fulfilment  (&)  The  hypnotic  act, 
on  the  contrary,  is  performed  consciously;  and  the  attentiou, 
instead  of  being  directed  in  other  channels,  as  in  genuine  auto- 
matifim,  is  supposed  to  be  intensely  concentrated  on  the  operator, 
or  on  the  signal  given  by  him — a  signal  sometimes  so  faint  that 
the  subject  is  only  enabled  to  recognise  it  by  means  of  the  hyper- 
festhesia  of  his  special  senses,  (c)  The  hypnotic  crime  is  some- 
times supposed  to  be  performed  in  opposition  to  volition  as  it 
exists  iu  hypnosis,  and  is  always  supposed  to  be  in  opposition  to 
the  normal  volition.  The  genuine  automatic  act.  on  the  other 
hand,  has  only  teen  enabled  to  l^ecome  automatic  owing  to  the 
fact  that  it  has  previously  been  frequently  performed  as  a  volun- 
tary one ;  and  now,  when  performed  unconsciously,  it  still 
remains  such  an  act  as  the  volition,  as  a  general  rule,  would 
approve  of.  The  so-called  *'  automatic  crime  "  of  the  hypnotised 
subject  not  only  differs,  then,  from  the  general  scientific  con- 
ception of  automatism,  but  is  its  exact  op^xfsite  iu  every  detail. 

While  holding,  and  holding  strongly,  that  the  hypnotic  crimes 
we  are  discussing  cannot  in  any  sense  be  termed  automatic,  I  do 
not  deny  that  the  hj^jnotic  subject  can  be  trained  to  perform 
automatic  acts.  If  1  suggest  some  simple  movement  to  a  subject, 
whicli  his  volition  does  not  disapprove  of,  doubtless  after  a  time 
it  may  be  performed  automatically,  ie,  after  having  been  fre- 


HYPNOTISU 


3M 


he  eiseiUed  imcomeioqily  »  a  ^ennnie  aatn—tfe  act,  in 

to  the  habitaal  aumulaa  which  hu  exdtcxl  it. 

Patting  Mide  the  qncataoa  iHiecher  tb«  scnadled  h^^^K 
irnea  are  execsked  aiitaaMrtieAny*  there  fftiwiim  uioUier 
Tctry  iroportant  ooe,  whether  bypnodc  sahjecis  ate  more  or 
under  the  ooDtrol  of  the  opentor,  and  thus  cad  he  catiipelle<]'  « 
perform  crimioal  or  other  acts,  which  womld  be  opposed  by  theu 
noimal   volition.      Formerly  the   writings  of  the   Xancy   school^ 
indicated  a  belief  that  the  hypnotic  sute  was  esaeatiailT   char- 
acterieed  by  the  obedience  of  the  sabject  to  the  opetstor.      Some 
years  ago  most  atress  was  laid  upon  complete  obedience,   and 
U^beanlt  said :  *  We  may  poetnlate,  as  a  first  principle,  that  a 
sabject,  during'  the  »tate  of  hypnotic  sleep,  is  at  the  mercy  of  the 
operator,  and  carries  oat  soggestions  with  the  fatality  of  a  falliosr 
Atone."      Bemheim  saya :    *"  In  profound  aonmamboliam,  or   the 
iiixth    deji;ree,  the   snbject  remains  asleep,  becoming  a   perfect 
automaton, obeying  all  the  commands  of  the  operator"  {Suggt^tite  B 
Therapeifiici,   p.    8).   .    .    ,  Again,    "  the    subjecte    more    deeplr 
influenced    by    Ii}'pnotism    pass    into    a    condition     known    as 
somnambuliflm.     Then  new  phenomena  appear.     The  automatism 
is  complete.    The  human  organism  has  become  almoat  a  machine 
obedient  to  the  ojierator's  will  "  (p.  29).  ..."  The  most  strilcinir 
feature  in  a  hypnotised  subject  is  his  automatism  "  (p.  125):    Now 
possibly  as  the  result  of  the  influence  of  the  late  Professor  Delb<^uf, 
ft  greater  power  of  resistance  is  conceded.     In  a  more  recent 
article  Lit'bonult  admits  that   he  has  only  encountered   4   to   5 
per  cent  of  hypn<»li8ed  subjects  to  whom  one  could  with  absolute 
I'lfiirtinty    succe.s.sl'uUy  suggest   crime.      This   admission    is    an 
im|Mirttuit  one;  but  despite  it,  the  so-called  automatism  is  still 
ro((imlc'd  (IS  the  essential  cliarncteristic  of  the  hj-pnotic  state.     At 
the  Moflcow  C'onjjresB  in  1897,  liernheim  veered  round  from  his 
previous    automatic    tlieory,   and   admitted    that   many   subjects 
reBinted    sujigeslions.       Tliey    rUo    retained,    he    said,   sufficient 
volition  for  some  things,  and   only  carried  out  suggestions  which 
were  agreeable  or  ludifTerent  to  them.      Certain  subjects  also 
realised  the  experimental  nnture  of  the  crimes  it  was  suggested 
th«y  should  commit     He  still  believed,  however,  that  a  certain 
small  proportion  could  be  induced  to  commit  real  crimes. 

If  only  four  or  five  out  of  a  hundred  subjects  evince  the  so- 


b 


I 
b 


called  automatism,  surely  one  is  not  justified  in  desciibing  this 
phenomenon  as  the  essential  characteristic  of  the  whole  group.  If 
five  out  of  a  hundred  unhypuotiaed  individuals  presented  certain 
phenomena  which  were  absent  in  the  remainder,  one  would  surely 
not  choose  these  rarely  occurring  phenomena  as  the  descriptive 
characteristics  of  the  class,  and  those  upon  which  the  belief  in 
other,  and  more  frequently  observed  phenomena,  should  depend. 
Yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  this  was  the  position  assumed  by 
Durand  de  Gi*os,  who  assured  Delbccuf  that  if  he  succeeded  in 
proving  that  the  suggested  crimes  of  the  Nancy  school  were 
recognised  by  the  subject  as  experimental  ones,  he  would  destroy 
hypnotism  entirely.  The  existence,  then,  of  many  undisputed 
phenomena,  which  are  common  to  all  hypnotic  subjects,  is  to 
depend  upon  the  acceptance  of  others,  which  it  is  alleged  occur 
in  4  or  5  per  cent  alone  out  of  the  same  number. 

Putting  aside  the  question  of  the  average  number  of  subjects 
in  whom  it  is  alleged  crime  can  be  successfully  suggested,  I 
desire  first  to  refer  to  some  of  my  own  observations,  and  after- 
wards to  consider  them  in  conjunction  with  the  so-called  suggested 
crimes  of  Bembeim  and  others,  iu  order  to  gain,  or  at  all  events 
to  strive  after,  a  clearer  conception  of  the  mental  states  involved. 

Wlien  I  commenced  hypnotic  work  some  twelve  years  ago, 
I,  as  Delboeuf  at  first  did,  believed  that  the  hypnotic  subject  was 
entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  operator.  I  was  soon  awakened 
from  this  dream,  liowever,  not  by  the  result  of  experiments  made 
to  test  the  condition,  but  from  constantly  recurring  facts  which 
spontaneously  arose  in  opposition  to  my  preconceived  theories. 
Of  these  facta  the  following  ernes  are  illustrations : — 

Miss  C,  aged  19,  an  uneducated  girl,  had  been  frequently 
hypnotised,  and  was  a  good  somnambule.  She  had  had  sixteen 
teeth  extracted  at  Leeds  during  hypnotic  ana?sthesia  (p,  1G5). 
At  a  later  date,  having  examined  her  mouth  and  found  that 
a  fragment  of  one  of  the  stumps  remained,  I  asked  her  to 
come  to  my  house  to  have  it  removed.  She  mentioned  this  to 
one  of  her  neighbours,  an  old  woman,  who  advised  her  to  have 
no  more  teeth  extracted,  as  this  would  cause  her  month  to  fall  in. 
The  following  day  she  presented  herself,  and  was  at  once 
hypnotised ;  but  refused  to  open  her  mouth,  or  to  permit  me  to 
extract  the  tooth.  Emphatic  suggestion  continued  for  half  an 
hour  produced  no  result.     This  was  the  first  occasiou  on  which 


jl6 


HYPNOTISM 


ahe  had  rejected  a  suggestion.  I  tben  awok«  her,  and  asked  why 
she  refused  to  have  the  tooth  extracted.  She  told  me  what  her 
neighbour  had  said,  and  expressed  lier  deteruunation  to  have 
nothing  more  done.  I  explained  the  absurdity  of  this,  aud 
pointed  out  that,  as  she  had  only  the  fragment  of  one  tooth 
remaining,  its  removal  could  not  afiect  the  appearance  of  her 
face.  As  she  was  still  obstinate  I  said :  "  Unless  this  fragment 
is  removed  you  cannot  have  your  ariihcial  teeth  fitted."  This 
argument  was  sufficient.  She  gave  her  consent  in  the  waking 
state,  was  at  once  hypnotised,  aud  operated  on  without  pain. 

Sarah  L.,aged  20,  was  a  good  somnambule,  who  had  been  the 
subject  of  two  painless  operations  (Case  No.  6,  pp.  161-2).  At  a 
later  date  I  wished  to  satisfy  myself  of  the  depth  of  the  hypnotic 
amesthesia,  as  another  aud  more  serious  operation  was  contem- 
plated. Having  obtained  her  consent  to  test  the  condition,  I 
hypnotised  her  and  prickeil  the  pidp  of  her  thumb  deeply  with  n 
needlOj  and  also  pinche<l  her  arm  severely.  Slie  showed  no  sign 
of  pain,  and  afterwards  remembered  nothing  of  what  had 
occurred.  A  few  days  later.  I  wished  to  repeat  the  process. 
Slie  again  permitted  me  to  pnck  her  tliumb,  but  when  I  attempted 
to  pinch  her  arm  she  drew  it  away,  and  refused  to  let  me  touch 
it  Her  raitther,  wlio  was  present,  gave  the  followiug  explana- 
tion. After  the  first  experiment,  her  daughter  noticed  that  her 
arm  was  blackene<l  in  several  places,  and  asked  the  cause.  When 
told  what  I  had  done,  the  girl  said :  "  I  don't  object  to  being 
pricked  with  a  needle ;  but  I  won't  allow  Dr.  Bramwell  to  pinch 
my  arm  again,  because  tlie  neighbours  might  notice  tbe  marka." 
On  both  occasions  her  ami  was  covered,  and  I  did  not  know  it 
had  been  marked.  I  awoke  the  iMtient.  She  had  no  recollection 
of  what  she  had  said  or  done.  I  told  her  she  had  refused  to  let 
me  pinch  her  arm,  and  asked  the  reason.  She  laughed,  and 
gave  the  same  explanation  as  lier  motlier.  One  day,  when  I  hud 
hypnotised  the  patient,  her  mother  said  to  me :  "  Ask  her  what 
Be  did  on  a  certain  occasion."  I  questioned  her,  hut  could 
obtain  no  resiK)n3e.  I  afterwards  learut  what  she  had  doue.  It 
was  something  which  her  mother  regarded  as  a  joke,  but  which 
was  slightly  indelicate.  Many  persons,  even  fairly  refined  ones, 
would  have  told  this  without  blushing;  and  I  have  little  doubt 
the  patient  would  have  done  so  when  awake. 

Miss  P.  had  been  frequently  hypnotised   and   was  a  good 


I 

I 

I 

I 


aomnambule,  iu  whom  antesthesia  could  be  easily  iuduced  She 
was  maid  tx>  cue  of  my  patients,  a  chronic  invalid,  whose  house 
was  managed  by  a  sister  of  uncertain  temper.  On  one  occasion, 
when  I  had  hj'pnotised  P.,  her  mistress  requested  that  I  would 
ask  her  what  had  been  said  to  her  by  this  sister.  A  quarrel  had 
taken  place,  of  a  somewhat  amusing  uatm'e,  and  her  mistress 
wished  to  hear  P. 'a  account  of  it  iu  hypnosis ;  but,  despite 
energetic  suggestion,  she  absolutely  refused  to  say  a  word  on  the 
subject 

Miss  S.,  aged  19,  in  good  health,  intelligent  and  well- 
educated  This  subject  was  a  good  eomnambule,  iu  whom 
amesthesia  and  other  phenomena  of  deepest  hypnosis  could  be 
easily  induced  She  had  a  l)ad  memory  for  words,  and  was 
extremely  shy  in  reading,  singing,  or  plapng  before  others.  I 
suggested  to  her  that  she  should,  on  awaking,  recite  some  verses 
with  which  she  was  previously  unacquainted,  and  which  I  had 
read  twice  to  her  wlien  asleep.  Sliortly  after  awaking,  she 
repeated  them  with  very  few  mistakes,  and  without  apparent 
embarrassment.  Her  mother  assured  me  that,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  this  feat  of  memory  would  have  been  entirely 
beyond  her  power,  and  that  nothing  would  have  induced  her  to 
read  or  i-ecite  l>efore  me.  On  another  occasion,  her  mother  asked 
me  to  suggest  during  hypnosis,  that  on  awaking,  she  should  go  to 
the  sideboard  in  my  room,  pour  out  a  glass  of  water,  and  drink 
it.  This  suggestion  was  not  carried  out,  and  was  the  first  which 
had  not  been  fulfUled.  In  a  later  hypnosis  she  explained  the 
reason  for  her  refusal — she  did  not  know  me  well  enough  to 
help  herself  to  a  glass  of  water  iu  my  house  without  being 
asked. 

Mr.  E.,  aged  25,  a  shopkeeper,  had  been  frequently  hypnotised 
for  medical  aud  surgical  ]mrposes,  and  was  a  good  soninambule. 
On  one  occasion  I  showed  him  at  the  York  Medical  Society.  At 
the  close  of  my  lecture  I  was  re(^uested  to  give  an  example  of 
changed  personality,  by  making  this  subject  l)elieve  he  was  a 
dissenting  minister  preaching  a  sermon.  He  refused  to  do  this, 
and  I  was  then  asked  to  make  him  believe  he  was  a  hawker 
selling  fish.  This  was  also  rejected ;  but  he  accepted  the 
suggestion  that  lie  was  Barnum.  and  that  the  medical  men  were 
wild  beasts,  and  proceeded  to  describe  them  in  a  highly  amusing 
manner.     I  afterwards  tried  to  make  him  accept  the  first  two 


dosBB  pcsMBtt.     I  tbea  pae  it  iaacapol' 
give  it  to  Ui  fisend  «o dnk.     Beikimt^i 
whfht  imi  poMoosd  Iim 


m  am 


graff  voice.* Oh.  he 


nvM  MOg  CDOOgjB. 

fike  dwec  itJBelBd  liy  K,  bat  ifAmd 


which 


whU  €tny  ovt 
to  eiecue  the 

The  iMi  tvo  aubiectBwS.  and  EL,  aceepled 
irere  spperentlj  in  tipfw—'tiim  to  thexr  nanatX  fhraptwr  I 
DO  ■ttwupt  to  aaeertem  E.'a  mentel  cooifitinn  in  lefeteuue  to  the 
tmyyomd  enme,  but  1  think  ooe  cea  witbovt  wmA  drffimlty 
iiiH^mi  it.  E.  was  a  te^iectable  trartfrnan,  aad  a  auattwhat 
d«ftt«t  DiMenter ;  aad  it  was  not  Qaaatanl  to  aappoae  that  he 
reAned  the  part  of  fiih-havker  as  this  was  not  in  keeping  with 
bis  social  position^  and  that  of  tninister  as  it  oBended  his  rriigtoos 
•osoepttfaitities,  bat  aooeptod  that  of  showman  because  it  con- 
tabed  nothing  objectionaUe  to  him  Wofdd  it  be  reasozkaUe  to 
sappoae  that  be  should  at  the  same  time  be  capable  of  weeing 
fine  rlistinctioQS  between  suggested  alterations  in  personality, 
and  be  unable  to  understand  the  experimental  nature  of  the 
crime  ?  He,  by  the  way.  affords  the  only  instance  in  which  an 
fnuiginary  crime  has  been  carried  out  by  one  of  my  own 
subjects.  All  others,  without  exception,  have  absolutely  refused 
such  suggestions. 

Why  should  S.  have  recited  the  poem  and  refused  to  take  a 
glau  uf  water  from  my  sideboard  ?  The  answer  to  the  first 
quenUon  is  obvious.  Slie  was  extremely  auxioixs  to  get  rid  of  the 
nervous  oralmrmssmeot  from  which  she  suffered,  and  thus  the 
suggestion  ontained  nulhitjg  opposed  to  her  volitiou.  She 
lierMilf  exphiiued  the  second. 

In  the  cases  above  recorded,  althougti  n  certain  amount  of 
ovidoiicu  was  obtained  fVoni  the  patients  themselves  in  reference 
to  their  mental  condition,  no  systematic  attempt  was  made  to 
invvAtignUf  this.  I  am  well  awHre  that  this  admission  is  a 
startling  ono,  and  can   only  say  in   self- excuse   that  this  all- 


I 


^ 


iportaiit  poiut  has  been  eciually  neglected  by  others,  I  have 
since  attompteii  to  repair  the  Uiistake,  and  with  interesting 
results.  For  example,  Miss  D.,  who  was  the  subject  of  the  most 
Btrikiijg  series  of  "  time  apprecintion "  experiments  I  have 
recorded,  also  refused  certain  suggestions.  These  I  will  now 
relate,  as  well  as  her  own  description  of  her  mental  and  physical 
condition  during  hypnosis.  On  one  occasion  during  hypnosis,  I 
asked  her  to  put  her  fingers  to  her  nose  at  Mr.  iSarkworth,  a 
member  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  who  assisted  at 
the  experiments.  She  laughed,  and,  despite  repeated  suggestions, 
absolutely  refused  to  do  so.  At  a  later  date,  in  hypnosis,  I  asked 
her  for  an  explanation.  She  told  me  she  did  not  want  to,  and 
would  give  no  other  reason.  On  another  occasion,  during 
h)'pnosis,  I  suggested  that  she  should  steal  Mr.  Barkworth's 
watch.  The  watch  was  placed  upon  the  table,  and  Mr.  Barkworth 
hid  behind  a  screen.  I  told  tho  subject  that  Mr.  Barkworth  had 
gone  and  hod  left  his  watch,  that  he  was  very  absent-minded, 
would  never  remember  where  he  had  left  it,  would  never  miss  it, 
etc ;  suggested  that  she  should  take  it,  that  no  one  would  ever 
know,  etc  I  awoke  Miss  D. :  she  took  no  notice  of  the  watch. 
I  asked  her,  "  AVhere  is  Mr.  Barkworth  t "  "  Gone  away."  "  He 
has  left  his  watch ;  would  you  not  like  to  take  it  ?  "  She  laughed 
and  said,  "  No,  of  course  not."  I  rehypnotiscd  her  and  asked, 
"  What  did  I  suggest  to  you  a  little  while  ago  when  you  were 
asleep  ? "  "  That  I  should  steal  Mr.  Barkworth's  watch,  that  he 
was  absent-minded,  would  never  miss  it,  etc"  "  Then  why  did 
you  not  do  so  ? "  "  Because  I  did  not  want  ta"  "  Was  it 
because  you  were  afraid  of  being  fouud  out  ? "  "  No,  not  at  all, 
but  because  I  knew  it  would  be  wrong." 

On  another  occasion  1  again  questioned  her  in  hypnosis  in 
refereuce  to  this  su^^gestcd  theft.  1  said,  "  Did  you  recognise 
that  it  was  an  experiment  ?  "  "  Yes,  perfectly."  **  How  did  you 
know  it  was  ? "  "1  can't  tell  you ;  I  only  felt  sure  it  was."  On 
being  questioned  further,  she-  said,  "  Well,  1  knew  you  would  not 
ask  me  to  do  anything  really  wrong."  '*  Well,  tlien,  if  you  were 
quite  cei'tnin  in  your  own  miud  that  it  was  only  an  experiment, 
why  did  you  not  carry  it  out  ?  "  '*  Because  I  did  not  wish  to  do 
what  was  wrong,  even  in  jest."  She  admitted,  however,  that  she 
would  put  a  lump  of  sugar  into  her  mother's  tea-cup,  even  if  I 
said  it  were  arsenic.     Wlien  askt^d  why  she  would  do  this,  and 


Sao 


HYPNOTISM 


yet  would  not  take  the  watch,  she  replied  as  followa :  **  I 
would  not  take  a  watch,  even  if  I  knew  the  suggestion  were 
made  as  an  experiment,  because  this  would  be  pretending  to 
commit  a  crime.  I  would,  however,  put  a  piece  oi"  sugar  into 
my  mother's  tea-cup  if  I  were  sure  it  was  sugar,  even  though 
some  one  said  it  was  arsenic,  because  then  I  sliould  not  be  the 
one  who  was  pretending  to  commit  the  crime.  I  should  only 
have  put  sugar  into  the  tea."  So  subtle  a  distinction  would  not, 
I  tliink,  have  occuri-ed  to  the  subject  in  the  waking  condition. 

In  reply  to  further  (juestions  in  hypnosis,  she  said  she  felt 
sure  she  could  refuse  any  suggestion ;  that  she  felt  she  was 
herself ;  that  she  knew  where  she  was  and  what  she  was  doing. 
"  Are  you  the  same  person  asleep  as  awake  ? "  I  asked.  "  Yes;' 
she  replied,  with  a  laugh.  She  described  the  condition  as  a  sort 
of  losing  herself  iind  yet  not  losing  herself.  She  knew  and  heard 
all  that  was  going  on,  and  yet  seemed  to  take  no  notice  of  iu 
When  Mr,  Barkworth  was  put  en  rapport  with  her,  abe 
remembered  his  voice,  and  recalle*!  the  fact  that  she  had  heard 
it  on  a  previous  occasion,  when  not  eyi  rajyport  with  him.  She 
said  she  was  resting  all  the  time,  and  that  nothing  she  did  or 
thought  tired  her.  I  asked  her  what  it  felt  like  to  have  her  arm 
made  cataleptic  by  suggestion.  She  replied,  "  I  did  not  feel 
frightened,  but  I  felt  startled.  I  think  it  would  surprise  any  one." 
"  When  you  awake  and  find  your  arm  still  rigid,  what  do  you 
feel  then  ? "  "I  feel  amused."  "  Wlien  you  ar«  sleeping  here, 
and  no  one  is  talking  to  you,  do  you  ever  think  of  anything  ?  *' 
"  Yes.  One  day  I  was  troubled  about  my  dressmaking.  My 
employer  was  ill,  and  I  had  more  responsibility  than  usual  I 
had  a  difficult  piece  of  work  to  do,  and  could  not  understand  bow 
it  was  to  be  done.  Wiien  a-sleep  hei'e  I  planned  how  I  would  do 
it,  and  carried  this  out  successfully  when  I  returned  home: 
When  I  awoke  I  did  not  know  that  I  had  done  this.  The  way 
out  of  the  difficulty  suddenly  came  into  my  head  on  my  way 
home,  and  I  thought  I  had  found  it  out  at  that  moment.  I  now 
remember  planniug  while  asleep  what  I  afterwards  carrietl  out" 

On  one  occasion  after  being  hypnotised,  and  when  she  was 
appai-ently  in  the  lethargic  condition,  she  suddenly  volunteered 
the  statement  that  her  mother  wished  to  speak  to  me.  Shortly 
afterwards  the  latter  entered  the  room.  The  subject  was  still 
asleep,  and  no  suggestions  of  rapport  were  made.     Mrs,  D.  com- 


I 

I 

I 


)"■- 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


* 


I 
I 

I 


* 
* 


meiiced  to  tell  me  about  a  friend  in  whom  she  was  interested, 
with  u  view  to  tinding  out  whether  I  thought  hypnotic  treatment 
would  be  of  benefit  in  his  case.  The  subject  suddenly  joined  in 
the  conversation,  and  added  some  important  details  which  Mrs.  D. 
had  foi^otten.  On  awaking  she  remembered  nothing  in  reference 
to  ibis. 

On  another  occasion,  under  similar  circumstances,  Mrs.  D. 
questioned  me  in  reference  to  a  trivial  indisposition  trom  which 
her  daughter  was  suftering,  and  asked  me  whether  I  thought  she 
might  give  her  a  certain  simple  remedy.  Upon  this  the  subject 
commenced  to  laugh,  and  recounted  in  a  higlily  amused  manner 
an  experiment  of  her  mother's  in  domestic  medicine,  of  which  she 
had  been  the  unfortunate  victim. 

One  day.  I  successfully  suggested  a  visual  hallucination  of  her 
own  photograph  to  Miss  D.,  wlxen  she  described  her  appeamncc, 
dress,  etc.  A  further  suggestion  that  she  should  see  a  tjUcolleUe 
photograph  of  herself  was  not  realised.  Questioned  i-^ardiug 
this  in  a  subsequent  hypnosis,  she  replied  as  follows :  "  I  never 
should  have  had  my  photograph  taken  in  such  a  low-necked 
dress ;  and  did  not  wish  to  see  it  or  desciibe  it  to  you,  as  the 
idea  offended  me." 

I  obtained  the  following  account  of  the  hypnotic  condition 
from  another  subject,  an  educated,  intelligent  woman.  She  said  : 
"  When  asleep  I  still  feel  that  I  am  myself,  and  can  think  and 
reason  just  as  well  as  when  1  am  awake.  I  could  resist  any 
suggestion  if  I  wanted  to  do  so.  The  sensation  is  a  pleasant  one, 
as  if  I  wei-e  getting  rested  all  over.  I  am  conscious  of  no  other 
sounds,  except  your  voice.  When  you  are  not  talking  to  me,  the 
condition  is  generally  a  blank.  At  such  times  I  occasionally, 
but  rarely,  think,  or  spontaneously  recall  the  events  of  past 
hypnoses." 

Another  educated  subject,  a  very  good  somnambule,  described 
her  state  in  similar  terms.  She  said  :  "  I  feel  a  kind  of  restfulncss 
which  I  do  not  get  in  any  other  condition  in  life.  1  feel  no 
fatigue.  External  sounds,  other  than  your  voice,  1  hear  vaguely 
as  if  in  a  dream,  but  pay  no  attention  to  them.  I  still  feel  that 
I  am  myself  and  can  reason  just  as  well  as  if  I  were  awake." 
She  also  said  that  she  felt  certain  that  she  could  refuse  any 
suggeation  which  she  disapproved  of,  and  would  not  carry  out  an 
imaginary  crime,  even  if  she  knew  it  was  only  an  experiment. 

Y 


This  subject  readily  accepted  suggestions  of  aiuesthesia  and 
analgesia,  and  was  unable  Co  remember  in  the  waking  state 
either  painful  sensations  or  tactile  impressions.  On  being  re- 
hypuotisod,  however,  though  she  could  not  recall  any  sensation 
of  pain,  she  was  able,  in  response  to  suggestion,  to  state  where 
she  had  been  piiicLed  or  pricked,  and  to  describe  the  tactile 
impressions  associated  with  these  operations. 

Further  experiments  with  Miss  D.  were  made  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Hyslop,  of  Bethlem,  and  of  some  of  these  he  gives  the 
following  account  in  his  work  entitled  Mental  Physiology,  pp.  423- 
424.  "In  the  state  of  artificially  induced  hypnosis,  the  will 
power  is  sometimes  retained  intact.  Bmrnwell  has  demonstrated 
that  although  there  is  an  extreme  readiness  to  react  to  suggestion 
from  without,  yet  there  still  remains  a  higher  controlling  influence, 
or  auto-Buggestion.  which  enables  the  hypnotised  person  to 
deliberate,  choose,  and  inhibit  at  will 

"  During  the  waking  stat«  of  one  of  Dr.  Braiuwell's  subjects 
we  made  the  suggestion  Ui  her  that  she  ought  to  resist  a  certain 
movement  during  her  hypnotised  state.  Dr.  Bramwell  was  not 
present  at  the  time  the  suggestion  was  made*  and  was  quite 
unaware  of  the  restriction  imposed  upon  the  subject.  On  testing 
the  movements  suggested  during  the  hypnotic  state,  he  found  that 
the  subject  absolutely  refused  to  carry  out  his  suggestion  with 
regard  to  this  particular  movement  The  auto-suggestion  jiroved 
as  e6ficacious  during  the  artificial  .state  as  during  the  nonnal  state. 
How  we  arc  to  explain  this  retention  of  the  individuality  of  the 
subject  we  do  not  kuow.  The  facts  alone  would  appear  to 
warrant  the  conclusion  that  the  memory  injage  of  the  special  act 
to  be  restrained  was  present  during  the  artificial  state,  and  that  M 
there  existed  a  certain  degree  of  continuity  between  the  primaiy 
mental  conception  and  the  secondary  inhibition.  On  again 
awaking  this  subject  remembered  our  suggestion,  but  had  not  the 
faintest  recollection  as  to  what  had  hap]>ened  during  hypnosis. 

"This  question  becomes  one  of  extreme  imi^rtance  from  a 
medico-legal  point  of  view.  Dr.  Bramwell  believes  that  subjects 
in  the  hypuotic  state  invariably  refuse  to  perform  acta  which 
would  be  criminal  or  even  indecent.  AVhether  the  refusal  is  only 
a  manifestation  of  an  acquired  tendency  to  resist  or  to  act  in 
certain  directions,  or  whether  there  is  some  mentalinntion  possible 
apai>t  from  true  consciousness,  we  cannot  attempt  to  decide.     In 


I 


the  present  instance  tlie  refiusal  to  perform  the  movement  (to 
make  her  arm  stifi)  was  evidently  the  result  of  the  ante-hypnotic 
suggestion.  We  have  yet  to  learn  how  far  an  individual  is  truly 
responsible  for  his  actions  during  certain  mental  states ;  and,  as 
the  student  may  gather  from  such  instances,  the  mere  absence  of 
memory  of  the  events  which  have  taken  place  during  those  states 
need  not  entirely  negative  the  possibility  of  there  having  been 
some  freedom  of  choice  and  the  power  of  restxtiiuing  certain 
actions." 

In  most  of  the  cases  referred  to  the  subjects  refused  to  carry 
out  suggestions  in  hypnosis,  which  they  would  have  rejected  in 
the  waking  state.  Sometimea,  however,  in  hypnosis  they  refused 
things  tliey  would  readily  have  done  or  submitted  to  when  awake. 
For  instance,  Dr.  AUden,  when  Resident  Physicinn  at  the 
Brompton  Hospital,  hj'pnotised  a  girl,  suffering  from  chronic 
pulmonary  disease,  to  relieve  insomnia.  She  rapidly  became  a 
good  somnambule.  On  one  occasion,  after  he  had  hypnotised  her, 
the  nurse  reminded  him  that  it  was  his  day  for  examining  the 
patient's  chest ;  but,  to  his  astonishment,  she,  although  naturally 
docile  and  obliging,  refused  to  allow  it  to  be  bared.  She  had 
previously  been  examined  dozens  of  times  by  himself  and  others, 
and  hud  never  made  the  slightest  objection.  He  insisted  upon 
her  submitting,  but  was  unable  to  overcom.e  her  resistance.  He 
asked  her  why  she  objected  now,  when  she  had  never  done  so 
previously.  She  replied :  "  You  never  tried  before  to  examine 
my  chest  when  I  was  asleep."  On  awaking  she  remembered 
nothing  of  what  had  occurred,  and  he  said  nothing  to  her  about 
it,  but  examined  lier  chest  as  usual.  Afterwards  the  nurse  told 
her  wiiat  she  had  said,  whereupon  she  was  greatly  distressed,  and 
wondered  how  she  could  possibly  have  been  so  rude  to  her 
doctor. 

These,  and  many  similar  facts,  have  forced  me  to  abandon  all 
belief  in  the  so-called  "  automatism,"  or  better  termed  "  helpless 
obedience,"  of  the  subject :  still  I  must  refer  to  some  of  the 
arguments  in  support  of  it,  before  attempting  to  analyse  further 
the  mental  condition  in  hypnosis.  Of  these  arguments  the 
following  are  examples : — 

(a)  Wlien  subjects  successfully  resist  suggestion,  it  ia  usual 
to  explain  this  by  assuming  that  they  have  not  been  so  deeply 
hypnotised  as  those  iu  whom  no  resistance  has  manifested  itselC 


324 


HYPNOTISM 


I  aiunot  admit  the  correctness  of  tliia  in  my  cases.  During  the 
last  twelve  years,  I  have  hud  fre(|iient  opportunities  of  examining 
hypnotic  subjects  at  home  and  abroad,  and  have  nowhere  obaerveil 
more  profound  somnambules  than  amongst  my  own  subjects — 
rarely,  in  fact,  seeing  cases  to  equal  some  of  them.  Not  only  did 
all  the  subjects  to  whom  I  have  referred  exhibit  the  phenomena 
of  profouudest  somnambulism,  but  nearly  all  had  undergone 
painless  hypnotic  operations. 

(i)  The  personality  of  the  operator,  and  his  method  of 
training  Iiis  subjects,  have  been  supposed  to  play  an  important 
part  in  tlie  acceptance  or  rejection  of  suggestions.  Granting  that 
this  be  true,  it  does  not  explain  the  resistance  wliich  I  encountered. 
I  commenced  by  beUeWng  that  the  subjects  were  entirely  under 
my  control,  and  did  my  best  to  develop  their  supposed  obedience. 

(e)  The  existence  of  one  class  of  phenomena  is  considered  as 
necessarily  impljnng  the  existence  of  another,  and  a  totally 
differing  class.  Dunind  de  Gros  asked :  "  la  it  possible  that 
suggestion  should  have  the  power  of  producing  extraordinary 
physical  changes,  and  yet  be  without  tliis  particular  ettect  upon 
the  moral  state  ? "  The  facts  I  have  already  cited  answer  this 
question  in  the  affirmative.  Putting  these  aside,  the  assumption 
that  the  physical  phenomena  necessarily  imply  certain  moral  ones 
is  unreasonable.  What  inevitable  connection  exists,  for  example, 
between  an  alteration  in  the  pulse-rate  and  the  murder  of  one's 
mother?  ShoiUd  I  not  be  equally  logically  justified  in  assuming 
that  the  subject  in  the  normal  state  who,  in  response  to  suggestion, 
would  play  the  violin  or  paint  a  picture,  would  be  equally  willing 
to  rob  a  church  ? 

(rf)  Evidence  in  favour  of  oljedience  afforded  by  cases  in 
which  the  subjects  are  alleged  to  have  accepted  criminal  and 
analogous  suggestions.  This  is  important.  The  fact  that  the 
phenomenon  of  helpless  obedience  was  invariably  absent  in  my 
subjects,  does  not  justify  me  in  concluding  that  it  did  not  some- 
times occur  in  those  of  other?.  These  cases  of  so-called  automatism 
fall  into  two  classes:  (Ist)  Where  an  imaginary  crime  has  been 
suggested ;  (2ndly)  where  a  real  act  has  been  performed,  wliich  it 
is  assumed  the  subject  would  not  have  submitted  to  in  the  normal 
state. 

(Ist)  First,  as  regards  imaginary  crime:  here,  as  Professor 
Belboiuf  has  pointed  out,  it  is  supposed  that  the  subject  passes 


I 


I 


* 


* 


through  a  mental  state  similar  to  that  of  the  operator.  Assurap- 
tiou.  without  experimental  proof,  is  a  frail  and  nnsatisfactory 
basis  on  which  to  erect  a  theor}\  Let  us  first  examine  the  facts, 
A  somnambule  puts  a  piece  of  sugar  into  lier  mother's  tea-cup, 
while  her  medical  attendant  makes  various  absurd  and  un- 
truthful assertions  as  to  its  composition.  Bemheim  and  Liegeoia 
believe  tliat  the  subject  accepted  these  absurd  statements  as  true, 
J>ecAU8e,  being  h3'pnotised,  slie  was  unable  to  distinguish  between 
truth  and  falseliood.  Delboeuf  claimed  that  she  had  sufficient 
sense  left  to  know  exactly  what  she  was  doing.  To  neither  did  it 
occur  to  asic  tlic  sxibject  duriruj  hi/pnosis  what  aJie  thou{fht  alovt  the 
maiUr  Iwrsdf.  If  they  had  done  so,  she  would  have  promptly 
solved  the  difficult)',  and  tolil  them  that,  while  they  were 
discussing  probabilities,  she  was  quietly  laughing  in  her  sleeve  at 
the  grotesque  absurdity  of  the  whole  performance.  It  may  be 
noticed  in  passing  that  while  Bernheim  considered  the  Salpetriiire 
subjects  so  abnormally  acute  that  lliey  could  catch  the  slightest 
indication  of  the  thoughts  of  the  operator,  and  so  destroy  the 
supposed  value  of  the  phenomena  alleged  to  be  induced  by  metals, 
magnets,  drugs  in  sealed  tubes,  etc. ;  he,  on  the  other  hand, 
supposes  the  Kaucy  subjects  to  be  so  abnormally  devoid  of  all 
intelligence  as  to  be  unable  to  understand  when  a  palpnble  farce 
is  played  before  them. 

(2ndly)  Wlien  a  real  act  has  been  performed  which  it  is 
assumed  the  subject  would  not  have  submitted  to  in  the  normal 
state.  Of  this  Bernheim  oitcs  an  example.  He  states  that  he 
uncovered  a  young  woman,  presumably  a  hospital  patient,  in  the 
presence  of  his  assistants,  and  that  she  appeared  perfectly  calm 
and  indifferent.  Bernheim  also  quotea  a  case  in  which  he 
entirely  failed  in  persuading  another  young  woman,  also  a  good 
somnambule,  to  allow  him  to  uncover  her  or  to  accept  the 
suggestion  that  she  should  commit  an  imaginary  crime,  despite 
the  fact  that  lie  varied  his  suggestions  in  every  conceivable  way. 
To  another  subject  he  suggested  profound  sleep  an<l  insensibility 
to  all  sensations  coming  from  him.  .She  remained  insensible 
when  he  plunged  a  pin  deeply  into  her  nose  and  touched  the 
mucous  membrane  of  her  eyes.  "Wlien,  however,  he  attempted 
to  disarrange  her  clothes,  she  immediately  blushed,  resisted,  and 
spontaneously  passed  into  the  waking  state.  Let  us  take  the 
case   of  supposed   helpless  obedience.      Th^  mere  fact  that  a 


I 

I 


woman  permitted  herself  to  )>q  uncovered  doea  not  necessarily 
imply  that  she  was  incapable  of  resisting.  Before  this  can  be 
used  as  au  argument  iu  favour  of  the  helpless  obedience  of  the 
hypnotised  subject,  one  is  justiiied  in  demanding  that  it  sliould 
be  clearly  proved  that,  under  similar  circumstances,  tlie  subject 
would  liave  objected  to  being  uncovered  in  the  waking  condition. 
Medical  men  are  frequently  obliged  to  uncover  their  female 
patients  for  examination,  and  rarely  encounter  resistance.  The 
first  time  I  visited  Professor  Bemheim's  wards  I  was  struck  by 
the  fact  tliat,  in  order  to  show  some  hysteric4il  muscular  move- 
ments in  the  abdomen  of  a  non-hypnotised  subject,  he  threw  off 
tlie  bed-clothes,  drew  the  patient's  nightgown  up  to  her  neck, 
and  left  her  in  that  condition  while  we  examined  other  cases. 
Though  such  treatment  is  opposed  to  the  practice  of  English 
hospitals,  I  do  not  propose  to  criticise  it.  I  only  desire  to  draw 
attention  to  the  ftict  that  a  patient  was  stripped  in  the  waking 
state,  from  my  point  of  view  unnecessarily  so ;  and  that  she  and 
every  one  else  apparently  regarded  this  as  devoid  of  importance. 
The  particular  hypnotised  subject  referred  to  above  did  not 
object  U)  be  stripped :  why  should  she  ?  She  must  have  been  j 
accustomed  to  see  other  hospital  patients  examined  ;  and,  appar-  H 
ently,  there  was  no  special  reason  why  she  should  have  objected 
to  the  ordinar)'  routine.  Cases  such  as  these  appear  to  me 
absolutely  valueless,  since  the  subject's  supposed  obedience 
remains  so  easily  accounted  for  in  other  ways.  To  render  such 
a  case  worthy  of  serious  consideration,  it  wonld  l>e  absolutely 
necessary  to  eliminate  many  important  factors,  such  as  (a)  the^| 
fact  that  the  subject  was  ill ;  {b)  that  she  was  in  a  hospital  " 
where  patients  were  stripped  as  part  of  the  ordinary  routine ; 
(e)  that  the  examination  was  made  by  a  medical  man.  H 

Strangely  enongli,  the  most  marked  case  of  resistance  to  " 
suggestion  that  I  have  observed  was  shown  by  Liebeault's 
celebrated  sonmambule,  Camille.  When  I  first  visited  Nancy 
in  1889,  IJebeauU  showeti  me  this  subject,  who  had  been 
frequently  hypnotised,  and  whom  he  regarded  as  a  t}*pical 
specimen  of  profound  somnambulism  illustrating  hypnotic 
automatism  in  its  highest  degree.  He  assureil  me  that  the 
suggestions  he  made  to  her  were  carried  out  with  the  fatality  of 
a  falling  stone.  He  hypnotised  her,  and  suggested  that  on 
awaking  she  should  find,  on  opening  the  outer  door,  that  there 


I 


I 


was  a  violent  snow-storm;  tliat  she  aliould  at  once  return, 
complain  of  this,  and  proceed  to  the  stove  to  warm  lierself. 
While  doing  so  one  of  her  hands  would  touch  the  stove,  and  slie 
would  believe  that  she  had  burnt  it.  It  was  a  warm  summer's 
day,  and,  of  course,  the  stove  had  not  been  lighted.  The  subject 
refused  to  accept  the  suggestion.  Lit^beault  insisted  for  some 
time,  and  then  gave  up  the  attempt,  saying  that  she  sometimes 
refused  suggestions.  He  then  asked  her :  "  Will  you  do  this 
another  time  if  you  will  not  do  it  to-day  ?  "  Sbe  replied  :  "  Yea, 
to-morrow."  On  the  following  day  the  suggestion  was  repeatetl 
and  caixied  out  in  all  its  details.  In  this  instance,  then,  the 
"  classic  "  hypnotic  automaton,  the  one  who  was  supposed  to  carry 
out  a  suggestion  with  the  fatality  of  a  falling  stone,  refused  one, 
not  on  moral  grounds,  but  apparently  from  pure  caprice. 

The  diflference  between  the  hypnotised  and  the  normal 
subject  is  to  be  found  not  so  much  in  conduct,  as  in  the 
increased  mental  and  physical  powers  of  the  former.  Any 
changes  in  the  moral  sense  that  I  have  noticed  have  invariably 
been  in  favour  of  the  hypnotised  subject.  As  regards  obedience 
to  suggestion,  there  is  apparently  little  to  choose  between  the 
two.  A  hypnotised  subject,  who  has  acquired  the  power  of 
manifesting  various  physical  and  mental  phenomena,  will  do  so 
in  response  to  suggestion  for  much  the  same  reasons  as  one  in 
the  normal  condition.  In  the  normal  state  we  are  usually 
pleased  to  show  off  our  various  gifts  and  attainments,  more 
especially  if  we  think  they  are  superior  to  those  of  others ;  and 
in  tliis  respect  the  hypnotised  subject  does  not  differ  from  the 
normal.  Both  will  refuse  what  is  disagreeable:  in  both  this 
refusal  may  be  modified  or  overcome  by  appeals  to  the  reason,  or 
to  the  usual  motives  which  iuiiuence  conduct  Wlien  the  act 
demanded  is  contrary  to  the  moral  sense,  it  is  usually  refused 
by  the  normal  subject,  and  invariably  by  the  hypnotised  one. 
1  have  never  observed  any  decrease  of  intelligence  in  hypnosis. 
In  the  alert  stage  it  is  often  conspicuously  increased,  while  in 
the  lethargic  it  is  only  apparently,  not  really,  suspended.  Forel's 
warders,  who  could  sleep  by  the  bedside  of  suiddal  maniacs,  and 
awake  immediately  at  a  given  signal,  or  who  could  inhibit  their 
own  heariug  of  the  purposeless  noises  of  the  insane,  and  acutely 
hear  everything  which  demanded  their  attention,  did  not  in  so 
doing  show  any  loss  of  intelligence.     The  power  of  conoentration 


328 


HYPNOTISM 


in 


riuai  si 


,  with  its  accompanying  inhibition  of  xindesirable 
impressions,  is  a  well-known  and  soiiitiwliat  analogous  contlition, 
but  one  which  is  not  usually  regarded  as  indicative  of  mental 
degeneration. 

When  one  turns  to  the  later  works  of  Bi-aid,  and  sees  liow 
clear  was  his  experimental  proof  that  the  hypnotised  subject  not 
only  had  the  power  of  choosing  between  suggestions,  but  invariably 
refused  those  repugnant  to  his  moral  nature,  one  cannot  help 
feeling  surprised  at  the  revival  of  theories  in  reference  to  so-called 
automatism  or  obedience,  which  are  identical  with  the  views  of 
the  meamerists.  This  is  ihe  more  astonishing  wlien  one  considers 
that  Bemheim,  who  liolds  these  views,  also  boldly  asserts  that 
there  is  nothing  in  hypnotism  but  the  name ;  tliat  it  does  not 
create  a  new  condition,  and  that  hypnotic  acts  are  only  exaggerated 
normal  ones.  According  to  Bernheiiu,  however,  the  moral  state 
in  h}'pnosis  diflera  widely  from  the  normal :  wliich  is  in  obvious 
contradiction  with  his  own  conception  of  hypnotism.  One  can 
understand,  for  example,  how  a  prolonged  muscular  rigidity  may 
be  a  hypnotic  exaggeration  of  a  somewhat  shorter  normal  one ; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend  how  a  hypuutic  williugnes.*!  to 
murder  one's  mother  can  be  an  exaggeration  of  the  refiisal  to  hurt 
a  fly  when  awake.  Bemheim's  view  of  tlie  moral  state  does  not 
follow  logically  from  the  supposed  resemblance  between  the 
hypnotic  and  normal  condition,  but  apparently  lias  its  origin  in 
an  erroneous  estimate  of  the  nature  and  the  power  of  suggestion. 
On  tlie  one  hand,  lie  tells  us  that  the  h)'pnotic  and  normal 
conditions  are  practically  identical,  and  their  only  distinction  a 
slight  diflcreuce  in  suggestibility.  On  tlie  other  hand,  we  are 
informed  that  a  virtuous  individual  will  sometimes  commit 
crime  in  response  to  hypnotic  suggestion.  If  this  were  correct, 
wu  should  be  justified  in  describing  the  origin  of  h>'pnotic  crime 
thus : — 

(a)  A  virtuous  girl  in  the  normal  state  has  a  natural  tendency 
to  accept  the  suggestion  that  she  should  murder  her  mother. 

(6)  In  hypnosis  suggestibility  is  slightly  increased,  and  thus, 
when  it  is  suggested  to  her  to  murder  her  mother,  she  does  sa 

The  views  which  I  have  long  held  regarding  the  hypnotised 
subject's  power  of  rejecting  disagreeable  or  criminal  suggeationB 
are  now  shared,  more  or  less  completely,  by  a  good  many  other 
observers.     These,  however,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn, 


■ 

i 


I 


have  based  their  statements  solely  on  cases  where  suggestions 
have  been  rejected,  and  have  not  attempted  to  ascertain  the 
subjects'  mental  state  by  questioning  them  in  hypnosis. 

Thus,  Professor  Beaunis  says  hypnotised  subjects  usuaDy 
reason  very  locjically  and  evince  striking  powers  of  deduction ; 
they  are  certainly  not  uncouscioua  rnacliines  incapable  of  judg- 
ment. He  frequently  observed  that  subjects  refused  suggestions 
whicli  were  disagreeable  to  them. 

Dr.  Crocfj,  of  Brussels,  also  admits  that  subjects  frequently 
reject  distasteful  suggestiona 

Richter  believes  that  a  somnambule  may  entirely  refuse  to 
perform  certain  acts,  and  oppose  no  resistance  to  others. 

According  to  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  the  liypnotic  somnambule 
is  not  a  pure  automaton,  a  simple  machine  that  one  can  turn  at 
will.  He  possesses  a  personality,  sometimes,  it  is  true,  subdued 
or  weakened,  but  which  in  certain  cases  persists  in  its  entirety, 
and  shows  itself  clearly  by  the  resistance  it  opposes  to  suggested 
ideas.  Tlie  liypuotised  subject  always  retains  liis  individuality, 
and  can  manifest  his  will  by  resisting  suggestions. 

Brouardel  sfiys  that,  if  agreeable  or  indifferent  suggestions  are 
made  to  a  somnambule  by  a  person  whom  he  likes  and  trusts,  he 
will  accept  them;  but,  if  they  are  contrary  to  his  personal 
affections  or  his  natural  instincts,  he  opposes  an  almost  invincible 
resistance  to  them.  He  cites  the  case  of  a  .Teweas  supposed  to  be 
the  absolute  machine  ("  ehose  ")  of  the  operator,  but  who  refused 
to  empty  the  ink-bottle  on  her  best  dress, 

Pitres  mentions  a  case  of  a  somnambule  who  refused  to  awake 
whenever  a  disagreeable  post- hypnotic  suggestion  was  made 
to  him. 

According  to  Br.  Charpignon,  it  is  much  easier  to  restore 
moral  rectitude,  by  means  of  hypnotic  suggestion,  to  a  somnam- 
bule who  has  lost  it,  than  to  j^iervert,  by  the  same  means,  a 
person  of  high  moral  character. 

Br.  de  Jong  cites  many  cases  of  resistance  to  suggestion. 
One  of  his  subjects,  a  profound  somnambule,  apparently  accepted 
criminal  suggestions  as  readily  as  she  did  innocent  ones.  She 
refused,  however,  to  undress  before  another  person,  and  would  not 
tell  an  insignificant  secret  she  had  promised  not  to  reveal. 
Another  subject  refused  to  tell  Br.  de  .long  something  of  an  in- 
delicate nature  which  she  bad  seen,  and  which  she  had  already 


confided  to  a  friend  of  her  owu  sex.  These  subjects,  according 
de  Jong,  i-efused  certain  suggestions,  because  they  involved  real 
facta  which  .were  disagreeable  to  them;  while  they  execute*! 
othei'3  alleged  to  be  criminal,  because  they  recognised  that  these 
were  laboratory  experiments  devoid  of  danger  either  to  tbemselvot. 
or  others. 

Delbceuf   relates   nn    expei-iment   with  J.,  the   somnambule 
already    refened    to   (p.    84).      She    was    a    courageous    young 
woman,  and  sometimes  took  care  of  l>ellxi?ur3  country-house  in  bis 
absence.     She  was  armed  with  a  i-evolver,  owing  to  the  seriousi 
strikes  and  riots  existing  at  that  time.     One  night  a  man  tried  to 
force  the    door.     The   barking  of  the  dogs   awakened    J. ;    she 
opened  tlie  i-sindow,  saw  the  man,  lookout  her  revolver,  went  into 
the  ball  and  watched  for  his  entry  in  order  to  fire  at  him.      The  J 
man,  possibly  frightened  by  the  noise,  disappeared.     On  a  subse-B 
queut  occasion,  Belbcpuf  secretly   discharged   the  revolver;   thea~ 
hypnotised    J.,    and    suggested     that    two    persons    in    another 
ixjora  were  robbers,  and  insisted  that  she  should  fire  at  them.      I 
obedience  to  hia  suggestions  she  fetched  the  revolver,  but,  despi 
his  reiterated  and  emphatic  commands,  absolutely  refused  to  fire 
on  the  contrary,  she  stepped  backwards  and  placed  the  revolv 
cautiously  on  the  floor. 


I 


Suggested  Crimes.— Summary. 


(a)  I  have  never  seen  a  suggestion  accepted  in  hypnosis  whicll 
would  have  been  refused  in  the  normal  state. 

(6)  I   have   observed   that  suggestions  could  be  resisted 
easily  in  the  lethargic  as  in  the  alert  stage. 

(c)  I  have  frei^uently  noticed  iucreased  refinement  in  hypnosis : 
subjects  have  refused  suggestions  which  they  would  have  accepted, 
in  the  normal  condition. 

(d)  I  saw  Camille  refuse  a  suggestion  from  mere  caprice;. 
{e)  Kxamiuation  of  the  mental  condition  in  hypnosis  reveole 

the  fact  that  it  was  unimpaired. 

(J)  The  arguments  of  Bernheim  are  devoid  of  value,  as  thej 
are  foundeil  exclusively  on  cases  where  (1)  a  simple  and  harmlessj 
act  has  been  assumed  to  be  thought  criminal  by  the  subject,  l>ecai 
the  operator  has  stated  it  to  be  so ;  and  (2)  where  the  subje 


has  permitted  something  iii  hypnosis,  wliich  he  would  probably 
have  subiuittecl  to  iu  the  uoriual  state. 


I 


(3)  An  Idea  has  a  Tendency  to  generate  its  Actaality. 

According  to  Bernheim,  the  suggestive  phenomena  of  hypnosis 
depend  upon  the  fact  that,  iu  the  normal  subject,  on  idea  has  a 
tendency  to  generate  its  actuality :  and  this  power  is  supposed  to 
be  artificially  increased  by  suggestion.  But  it  is  not  the  hypnotised 
subject  nlone  who  receives  suggestions,  as  these  are  often  made 
even  more  forcibly  in  normal  life. 

Now,  if  we  confined  our  attention  to  the  hypnotic  state,  and 
considered  how  frequently  a  suggested  idea,  unassociated  with 
violent  emotional  conditions,  produced  a  rapid  and  definite 
response,  we  should  be  inclined  to  admit  that  in  hypnosis  an  idea 
not  only  had  a  tendency  to  generate  its  actuality,  but  almost 
invariably  did  so. 

A  similar  stateiiient,  however,  in  reference  to  normal  life, 
cannot  be  accepted  without  question-  If  an  extended  statisticid 
inquiry  were  made  as  to  the  results  of  suggestion  without 
hjTjnosis,  we  should  fiud  that  these  would  fall  under  three 
classes : — 

(A)  VNTiere  the  suggested  idea  had  produced  no  result. 

(B)  Wl»ere  the  result  was  different,  or  even  opposite,  from 
that  intended. 

(C)  Where  the  suggestion  had  been  responded  to  with  more 
or  less  exactitude. 


^ 
^ 


(A)  WnEHE  THE  Suggested  Idea  had  pboduced  ko  Result. 

A  very  casual  glance  at  the  events  of  everyday  life  would 
compel  us  to  conclude  that  tliis  class  is  the  commonest  of  the 
three.  This  is  evident,  if  we  tliiiik  of  the  numberless  tilings 
inefTectunlly  suggested  in  the  family  circle  to  domestics,  workmen, 
tradespeople,  friends,  acquaintances,  etc^ 

(B)  Where  the  Kesclt  produced  was  opposite  to,  or,  at  all 

ETE.NTS,  DIFFERENT  FROM  THAT  INTENDED. 

Numerous  examples  of  this  class  could  easily  be  cited.  Thus, 
if  a  thief  snatches  my  watch  and  runs  away,  and  I  suggest  to  him 


53Z 


JiYPNOTISAf 


to  stop,  he,  on  the  contrary,  rnns  the  faster,     If  a  street  arab  la] 
making  a  noise  under  my  window,  and  I  tell  him  to  cease  and  goi 
away,  he  not  only  persists,  but  incites  others  to  join  him.      If 
hold  up  ft  good  boy  as  a  pattern  to  a  naiiglity  one,  the  latter, 
instead  of  imitating  the  former,  kicks  him  I 


i 


(C)  Where  the  Suggestion  has  beek  responded  to  with 

MORE  OR  LESS  EXACTITUDE. 

When  we  compare  the  results  of  this  class,  with  those  obtained 
in  the  others,  they  must,  I  am  afraid,  sink  into  insignificance. 
For  one  suggestion  which  has  generated  its  actuality,  we  znnst 
count  at  least  a  hundred  which  have  produced  nothing,  and 
possibly  ten  wliere  tiie  result  has  beeu  an  unexpected  or  disagree- 
able one.  I  would,  therefore,  re-state  the  proposition  as 
follows : — 

(1)  A  suggested  idea  lias  generally  a  tendency  to  generate 
nothing.  | 

(2)  A  suggested  idea  has  frequently  a  tendency  to  generate 
its  opposite 

(3)  A  suggested  idea  rarely  tends  to  generate  its  actuality. 
Wl»en  the  theory  first  crept  into  psycholoi;;y  that  a  suggested 

idea  had  a  greater  tendency  to  evoke  its  actuality  than  to  produce  ii 
other  or  negative  results,  I  do  not  know,  but  certainly  it  is  nowfl 
frequently  quoted  as  an  accepted  truth.  The  production  of  the  " 
flow  of  saliva  by  the  sight  of  food  is  tlie  stock  illustration  of  the 
alleged  phenomenon.  The  most  imporLant  factor  in  the  equation — 
hunger  in  the  subject  of  the  experiment — is  apt  to  he  lost  sight 
of.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  sight  of  a  couple  of  pounds  of 
raw  beefsteak  might  produce  a  flow  of  saliva  in  a  very  hungiy 
man.  But,  after  these  had  been  cooked  and  eaten,  if  he  were 
shown  a  similar  piece  of  raw  steak,  its  sight,  inst^^ad  of  inducing 
a  flow  of  saliva,  would  in  all  probability  simply  evoke  feelings  of 
disgust 

To  this  point,  namely,  that  the  result  of  an  idea  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  the  fact  that  it  has  been  suggested,  as  upon 
the  nature  of  the  idea  itself,  and  its  relationship  to  the  character 
of  its  recipient,  I  will  again  refer  when  discussing  "  Suggestion." 
lileanwliile,  I  wish  to  empliasise  the  fact  that  "  tendency  "  implies 
numerical  proportion.      For  example,  if  I  tire  a  dozen  times  at  a 


HYPNOTIC  THEORrES 


333 


target,  and  if  on  five  occasions  tlie  Lullet  strikes  it,  and  on  seven 
missca  and  passes  to  the  right,  the  Undcnaj  must  be  in  favour  of  the 
results  which  are  numerically  the  greater  of  the  two.  In  the  same 
way^  before  concluding  that  au  idea  has  a  tendency  to  generate  its 
actuality,  one  luust  be  able  to  prove  tliat  out  of  a  given  number 
of  cases  this  result  follows  more  fref^uently  than  others. 


i 


(4)  In  Hypnosis  the  Tendency  to  accept  Suggestions  is 
somewhat  increased  by  the  Action  of  Suggestion  itself: 
this  alone  distinguishes  the  Hypnotic  from  the  Normal 

State- 


Granting  for  the  moment  that  the  normal  and  hypnotic 
States  are  practically  identical ;  that  both  are  characterised  by 
susceptibility  to  suggestion;  how  far  are  we  justified  in  con- 
cluding that  the  increased  BUggestibility  of  the  hypnotic  subject 
is  due  to  "  Suggestion  "  alone — without  the  previous  production 
of  mental  or  physical  change  ?  T^t  us  consider  the  means  by 
which  the  altemtion  has  been  stated — by  Itemheim  and  others — 
to  have  been  brought  about  The  phrase,  "  You  are  to  become 
more  su^j^estible,"  or  the  like,  is  supposed  to  have  artificially 
created  it.  Now,  if  we  admit  that  this  or  a  similar  formula  is 
sufficient  to  change  a  normal  into  a  hypnotic  subject,  and  to 
account  for  his  increased  suggestibility,  we  must  be  prepared  to 
show,  in  order  to  maintain  the  distitictiuu  between  the  two,  that 
the  individual  who  is  still  regarded  as  normal,  Le,  less  suggestible, 
has  escaped  similar  influences.  Suggestions  iu  normal  life, 
however,  are  frequently  associated  with  those  of  increased 
suggestibility.  A  beggar,  in  appealing  for  alms,  not  only  asks 
that  they  should  be  given  liim,  but  also  8u;:gests  in  various  ways, 
directly  or  indirectly,  according  to  his  skill  and  ingenuity,  thut 
the  object  of  his  petition  should  become  more  responsive  to  Ids 
prayer,  %,t,  more  suggesHUe.  There  is  au  important  difterence 
between  the  two.  In  hypnosis,  to  gain  uicreased  suggestibility 
it  is  often  only  necessary  to  repeat  quietly  some  recognist^d 
formula  once  or  twice ;  while  in  normal  life  we  frequently  attempt 
to  obtain  a  like  result  in  a  much  more  forcible  and  varied 
manner.  We  must  conclude,  then,  that  if  the  hypnotic  and 
normal  states  are  practically  ideutical,  and  suggestion  a  factor 


common  to  both,  suggestibility,  as  the  result  of  the  methods 
eiaployed  to  develop  it,  ought  to  be  more  markedly  characteristic 
of  the  normal  than  of  the  hypnotic  condition. 


J 


(6)  The  Result  of  Suggfestion  in  Hypnosis  is  Analogous  to 
the  Result  of  Suggestion  in  the  Normal  State. 

If  we  confine  ourselves  to  cases  in  which  su^^gestiou  in  the 
normal  subject  has  been  employed  iu  the  same  muuncr  03  it  is 
used  in  hypnosis,  the  analogy  is  at  once  seen  to  be  an  extremely 
imperfect  one.  The  results  of  the  workings  of  the  mind  acting 
80  to  say,  iu  cold  blood  upon  the  body,  aj-e  extremely  rare  and 
generally  unimportant.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  turn  to  the 
effects  of  strong  emotional  states,  we  find  many  phenomena 
which  more  or  less  closely  resemble  those  of  hypnosis.  Siuiiltirity 
of  result,  however,  does  not  necessarily  imply  identity  of  cause; 
and  an  attempted  analogy  which  is  based  solely  on  the  former 
and  ignores  the  latter  must  ever  be  an  imperfect  one.  Fear, 
hope,  faith,  religious  excitement,  and  the  tike,  are  almost  invariably 
present  in  cases  which  are  cited  as  analogous  to  hypnotic  onea. 
Nut  only  are  these  conditions  unnecessary  for  the  induction  of 
hypnosis,  but  some  of  them,  such  as  fear,  absolutely  preclude  its 
production :  thus,  hypnotic  phenomena  can  be  evoked  in  the 
absence  of  all  those  conditions  that  are  essential  for  the  production 
of  similar  phenomena  in  the  normal  state ;  and,  further,  the ' 
presence  of  some  of  these  conditions,  instead  of  favouring 
hypnosis,  prevents  or  hinders  it.  Putting  aside  this  important 
objection — the  difference  between  the  conditions  associated  with 
the  development  of  the  phenomena — there  still  remain  certain 
points  of  contrast  between  the  phenomena  themselves.  These  I 
now  enumerate : — 


(A)  Suggestion  in  Hypnosis. 

(1)  Once  deep  hypnosis  has  been  induced,  a  wide  range  ot\ 
phenomena,  both   mental   and   physical,  can   be  evoked  at  any 
time,  and,  with  the  consent  of  the  subject,  by  any  one.     Further, 
a    considerable   number   of    phenomena    can    bo   simultaneously 
produced  in  the  same  subject 

(2)  One  phenomenon  can  be  immediately  changed  into  its 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


335 


opposite,   i.t.   muscular   rigidity   into   paralysis,   ansesthesia   into 

hypeneifthesia,  etc. 
^m       (3)  Hypnotic  phenomena  cau  be  tenninatetl  at  will. 
^       (4)  The  date  of  the  appearance  of  the  plieuomeuon  can  be 

delayed,  t.g.  it  can  be  suggested  during  hypnosis  tliat  it  shall  not 

appear  till  twelve  niouths  afterwards. 

(5)  With  two  important  limitations,  the  suggestion  will 
invariably  be  responded  to,  t.e.  it  must  contain  nothing  in 
opposition  to  the  subject's  moral  sense :  it  must  not  be  beyond 
the  range  of  his  hypnotic  powers. 

(6)  Under  the  conditions  just  mentioned,  the  exact  natui-e  of 
the  response  can  be  predicted,  i.t.  similar  stimuli  will  produce 

» identical  results. 
1^  (7)  Subjects  who  readily  respond  to  suggestions  when 
hypnotised,  are  frequently  the  very  ones  who  liave  for  years 
resisted  suggestion  in  the  waking  condition,  even  when  this  has 
been  associated  with  emotional  states.  For  example,  a  patient 
who  had  long  suffered  from  dipsomania  had  received  many  and 
varied  suggestions  in  the  waking  state.  The  grief  of  his  friends 
and  relatives,  and  their  repeated  remonstrances,  were  powerful 
suggestions.  So,  too,  were  the  loss  of  foitune  and  self-respect; 
and  the  physical  sufferings,  associated  with  keen  remorse,  which 
followed  his  drinking-bouts.  Twelve  montlis  passed  in  a  home 
for  inebriates  must  also  have  been  full  of  suggestions  of  many 
kinds.  All  these,  however,  produced  no  result ;  and  yet,  after  a 
few  weeks'  h^-pnotic  treatment,  the  patient  abandoned  the 
alcoholic  habit,  and  still,  after  a  lapse  of  eight  years,  remained 

^an  abstainer. 

^^       (8)  Hypnotic  suggestion  tends  to  gain  strength  by  repetition. 


(B)  Suggestion  bv  Means  of  Emotional  States. 


(1)  Tlie  I'csultaut  phenomena  arc  usually  isolated  ones,  or, 
at  all  events,  much  moi-c  limited  in  number  than  those  wliich 
can  be  simultaneously  evoked  in  tlie  hypnotised  subject*  Further, 
they  cannot  be  produced  by  any  one.  Thus,  the  subject  who  had 
been  inthienccd  by  the  "  touch "  of  a  king,  would  probably  be 

Eve  to  that  of  a  peasant, 
ae  phenomenon  cannot  be  immediately  changed  into 


its  opposite  without  an  alteratiou  iu  the  emotional  state  which] 
httd  produced  it. 

(3)  Emotionnl  phenomena  cannot  be  terminated  at  will, 

(4)  The  date  of  the  appearance  of  the  phenomena  can  rarely 
be  delayed  or  fixed. 

(5)  The  phenomena  are  evoked   with  less  certainty  than  iu 
hypnosis :    an   emotional  state   which   will    produce   a  physical  I 
efifect  in  one  subject  may  prothice  nothing  in  another. 

(6)  Identical  emotional  states  do  not  always  produce  similar  | 
physical  phenomena.     On  the  contrary,  opposite  conditioaa  are 
frequetilly  evoked  in  diilereiit  subjects  by  identical  emotions,  tjj. 
fear  will   paralyse  one,  and  excite  violent  muscular  movements 
in  another. 

(7)  Subjects  who  are  unable  to  respond  to  certain  suggestions 
in   the  normal  state  often  readily  carry  out  similar  ones  whenj 
hypnotised. 

(8)  An  emotional  suggestion  frequently  loses  strength   by{ 
repetition,  if.  a  subject  may  quickly  come  to  disregard  former  fears. 

So  far  we  have  been  occupied  iu  discussing  tlie  facts  upon 
which  Bernheim's  theoretical  explanation  of  hypnosis  is  founded. 
To  these  exception  has  been  taken  on  every  point,  viz. : — 

(I.)  To  the  supposed  identity  of  uonxiid  and  hypnotic  sleep. 

(II.)  To  the  supposed  analogy  l)elween  the  phenomena  of 
hypnosis,  and  the  automatic,  involuntary  and  unconscious  acts  of 
normal  life. 

(III.)  To  tlie  guneral  principle  that,  in  normal  life,  an  idea 
has  a  tenduucy  to  generate  its  actuality. 

(IV.)  To  the  statement  that  suggestion — regarding  this  as  a 
thing  apart,  uuussociatL'd  by  mt'iital  or  physical  cliange — increases 
suggestibility  in  the   hypnotised   subject ;    and   that   this  alone  ^ 
forms  the  sole  distinction  between  hypuosi.s  and  normal  life.  H 

(V.)  To  the  supi>03ed  general  analogy  between  the  result  of 
suggestion  in  the  normal  state  and  in  hypnosis. 

In  all  these  statements   there  is  only  one  I  am  prepared  to 
accept,   namely,   that    suggestion    plays    an    important    part    in 
evoking  hypnotic  phenoiuena.     There  remains  for  our  consideni- 
tion  the  question  how  fur  suggestion  ctpiains  the  phenomena  of  i 
hypnosis. 


Does  Snggestion  explain  Hypnosis  and  its  Phenomena? 


The  answer  to  this  (|ue8tiou  must,  I  think,  be  a  distinctly 
negative  one.  The  success  of  suggestiou  depumls  nob  so  much 
on  the  suggestion  itself  as  on  the  conditions  inherent  in  the 
subject.  These  are:  (1)  willingness  to  accept  and  cany  out  the 
suggestion,  and  (2)  the  power  to  do  so.  lu  the  hypnotised 
subject,  except  in  reference  to  criminal  or  improper  suggestions, 
the  first  condition  is  generally  present.  The  second  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  of  the  hypnosis,  and  the  personality  of  the 
subject.  For  instance,  I  might  suggest  analgesia,  in  precisely 
similar  terms,  to  three  subjects,  and  yet  obtain  quite  different 
results.  One  might  become  profoundly  analgesic,  the  second 
slightly  so,  and  the  third  not  at  all.  Just  in  the  same  way,  if 
three  jockeys  attempt  to  make  their  horses  gallop  a  certain 
distance  in  a  given  time,  the  suggestions  conveyed  by  voice,  spur, 
and  whip  may  be  similar,  and  yet  the  results  quite  different. 
One  liorse,  in  response  to  suggestion,  may  easily  cover  the  required 
distance  in  the  allotted  time ;  it  wjis  both  able  and  willing  to 
perform  the  feat.  The  second,  in  response  to  somewhat  increased 
suggestion,  may  nearly  do  so;  it  was  williug.  but  had  not  sufiicient 
staying  power.  Tlie  third,  able,  but  unwilling,  not  only  refuses 
to  begin  the  race,  but  bolts  off  in  the  opposite  direction.  With 
this  hoi-se  we  have  tbe  exact  opposite  of  the  result  obtained  in 
the  first  instance ;  and  yet  possibly  the  amount  of  suggestion  it 
received  largely  exceeded  that  administered  to  the  others.  As 
Jlyera  has  pointed  out,  the  operator  directs  the  condition  upon 
which  hypnotic  phenomena  depend,  but  does  not  create  it. 
*'  Beruheiui's  command,  *  Feel  pain  no  more,'  is  no  more  a  scientific 
instruction  how  not  to  feel  pain,  t!»an  the  prophet's  'Wash  in 
Jordan  and  be  clean  *  was  a  pharmacopoeia!  prescription  for 
leprosy."  In  hypnosis,  the  essential  condition  is  not  the  means 
used  to  excite  the  phenomena,  but  the  peculiar  state  which 
enables  them  to  be  evoked.  Suggestion  no  more  explains  the 
ptienomeua  of  hypnotism  than  the  crack  of  a  pistol  explains  a 
boat-race.  Both  are  simply  signals — mere  points  of  departure, 
and  nothing  more,  lu  Bernheim's  hands  the  word  "  suggestion  " 
has  acquired  an  entii*ely  new  signification,  and  differs  only  in 
name  from  the  "  odylic  "  force  of  the  mesmerists.      It  has  become 

z 


mysterious  and  all-powerful,  and  is  supposed  to  be  capable,  not 
only  of  evoking  and  explaining  all  the  pbeuomena  of  hypnotism, 
but  also  of  originating — nay,  even  of  being — the  condition  it«el£ 
According  to  this  view,  suggestion  not  only  starts  the  race,  bat 
also  creates  the  rowers  aud  builds  the  boat ! 


Braid's  later  Views  regarding  Suggestion,  etc. 
(1)  Origin  op  thb  Suggested  Idea. 

While  Braid  held  that  hypnotic  phenomena  resulted  from 
dominant  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  subject,  he,  at  the  same  time, 
stated  that  it  was  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  these  had 
existed  previously,  or  were  afterwards  audibly  suggested  by  the 
operator,  or  indirectly  created  by  the  sensory  impressions  resulting 
from  his  manipulations. 

(2)  Sklf-sttggestioh. 

Braid  cited  many  instances  in  which  hypnosis  and  its 
phenomena  were  entirely  the  result  of  self-suggestion,  although 
they  were  supposed  to  be  due  to  other  causes. 

(3)  Passes  and  other  Manipulations. 

Braid's  views,  as  to  the  influence  of  passes  and  other  manipu- 
lations being  mainly  mental,  has  already  been  given  (see 
p.  291). 


I 


PolntB  of  Difference  between  Braid  and  the  Nancy  School 

as  to  Suggestion. 

The  difference  between  Braid  and  the  Kancy  school,  with 
regard  to  suggestion,  is  entirely  one  of  theory,  not  of  practice. 
"Braid  employed  verbal  suggestion  in  hypnosis  just  as  intellij^ently 
fts  any  member  of  the  Nancy  school  This  fact  is  denied  by 
Bemheim,  who  says:  "It  is  strange  that  Braid  did  not  think  offl 
applying  suggestion  in  its  most  natural  form — suggestion  by 
speech — to  bring  about  hypnosis  and  its  therapeutic  effects.  He 
did  not  dream  of  explaining  the  curative  effects  of  hypnotism  by 
means  of  the  psychical  influence  of  suggestioD.  but  made  use  of 


I 


suggestion  wthout  knowing  it."  This  statement  has  its  sole 
origin  in  ignorance  of  Braid's  later  works.  In  these  his  references 
to  the  use  of  verbal  suggestion  in  therapeutics  are  both  clear  and 
numerous,  and  various  examples  have  already  been  given.  Braid, 
however,  while  anticipating  Bernheim  as  to  the  practical  use  of 
suggestion,  differed  entirely  from  him  in  his  theoretical  conception 
of  it.  He  did  not  regard  suggestion  as  explanatory  of  hypnotic 
phenomena ;  but,  like  Myers  at  a  later  date,  looked  upon  it 
simply  as  an  artifice  used  in  order  to  excite  them.  He  considered 
that  the  mental  phenomena  were  only  rendered  jw^sible  by 
previous  physical  changes ;  and,  as  the  result  of  these,  the  operator 
was  enabled  to  act  like  an  engineer,  and  to  direct  the  forces 
which  existed  in  the  subject's  own  person. 


The  Views  of  Braid  and  of  Forel  as  regfards  Passes. 

While  Braid  believed  that  the  mental  effect  resulting  from 
the  indirect  physical  action  of  mecbnnical  means  could  be  checked 
or  reversed  by  stronger  and  more  direct  verbal  suggestion,  he 
still  held,  and  I  think  justly,  that  physical  impressions  were 
capable  of  producing  both  physical  and  mental  results.  Forel, 
on  the  other  hand,  denies  the  physical  influence  of  mechanical 
processes,  on  the  ground  that  suggestion  is  capable  of  altering 
their  supposed  action.  He  says :  "  Blowing  on  the  face  no  longer 
awakens  my  subjects,  because  I  have  suggested  that  this  would 
remove  pain  instead  of  arousing  them."  From  this  he  concludes 
that  the  act  of  blowing  produces  no  result,  and  considers  this  a 
powerful  argument  against  the  Somatic  school.  Would  it  not  be 
equally  logical  to  contend  that  the  prick  of  a  pin  produced  no 
physical  effect  because  the  subject,  when  rendered  insensible  to 
pain  by  suggestion,  had  been  taught  to  regard  the  pin-prick  as 
a  signal  to  evoke  some  other  condition  ? 


Attention  in  Hypnosis. 

While  Braid  and  Beniheim  differ  as  to  the  physical  changes 
which  precede  or  accompany  hypnosis,  they  both  attach  much 
importance  to  the  question  of  attention  in  reference  to  the  in- 
duction of  hypnosis  and  its  phenomena. 


Attention  in  the  Induction  of  Hypnosis. 

According  to  Braid,  the  iuduciion  of  hypnosis  ia  fiicilitat« 
either  by:  (1)  the  concentration  of  the  attention  on  some 
external  object,  or  (2)  concentration  of  the  attention  on  some 
idea  connected  with  hypnotism. 

Li^beault  and  Beruheim  consider  that  ordinary  and  hypnotio^ 
sleep  are  both   due   to  the   fixation   of  the   attention   and    tlkofl 
nervous  force  upon  the  idea  of  sleep.     The  individual,  they  say, 
who  desires  to  go  to  sleep  chooses  a  quiet  spot,  meditates,  and 
keeps  still.     His  nervous  force  is  concentrated  upon  a  single  idea, 
and  deserts  the  nerves  of  sensation,  emotion,  and  S|>ecial  sense. 
The  conditions  that  induce  the  hypnotic  state  are  identical :  the 
subject  is  told  to  concentrate  his  mind  upon  the  idea  of  sleep ; 
and,  to  aid  himself  in  doing  so,  is  directed  to  look  fixedly  atH 
some  object.     Bodily  repose  results  from  this  ;  the  senses  become™ 
less  acute  and  more  and  more  isolated  from  the  external  world, 
and  finally  thought  is  arrested. 

A  connection  undoubtedly  exists  between  the  subject's  power 
of  attention,  and  the  facility  with  which  hypnosis  can  be  induced] 
For  example,  idiots,  who  possess  little  spontaneous  and  no  volun-^ 
tary  attention,  cannot  I>e  hypnotised  at  all ;  and  others,  such  as  J 
thoee  suffering  from  mania,  hysteria,  etc.,  whose  attention  is] 
actively  turned  into  other  channels,  are  extremely  difficult 
influence. 

In   reference   to   the  connection  between  the  attention  and 
the  induction  of  hypnosis,  the  following  points  seem  worthy  of' 
notice : — 

(a)  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  attention  should  be  con- 
centrated on  the  idea  of  sleep.  Braid,  as  we  have  seen,  easU/J 
induced  hyjmosis  when  the  patient  gazed  steadily  at  an  externa 
object,  and  concentrated  bis  attention  on  the  idea  of  that  object 
Moreover,  primarj'  hypnosis  need  not  resemble  sleep,  and  th< 
subject  may  at  once  pass  into  the  alert  stage,  without  ha\iD^ 
even  closed  his  eyes. 

(6)  Primary  hypnosis  has  sometimes  been  induced  in  cases] 
where  it  would   be  difficult   to  prove  that  any  concentration  ol 
attention  had  existed,  either  upon  any  external  object  or  upon] 
the  idea  of  sleep.     In  these  cases,  the  subject,  after  having  gi^ 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


341 


his  consent  to  the  experiment,  haa  rested  quietly,  and  voluntarily 
reduced  his  mental  activity.  He  has,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
emptied  his  mind  of  all  thought,  and  produced,  not  a  condition 
of  concentration,  but  its  opposite — abstraction. 

(c)  The  phenomena  of  natural  somnambulism,  which,  as 
Gumey  pointed  out,  in  respect  to  the  absorption  of  the  mind  in 
one  direction,  present  the  closest  analogy  to  those  of  hypnotism, 
demand  no  previous  concentration  of  attention  at  alL 

((/)  Once  hypnosis  has  been  induced,  the  condition  can  be 
evoked  at  any  time,  and  practically  instantaneously,  in  response 
to  a  previously  arranged  signal.  Here,  then,  although  the 
attention  of  the  subject  has  been  momentarily  directed  to  the 
signal,  prolonged  concentration  of  attention  has  been  absent. 


F       Does  Concentration  of  Attention  cause  Hypnosis? 

As  Gumey  said,  even  if  we  confine  ourselves  to  cases  where 
attention  is  actually  present  during  the  production  of  hypnosis, 
what  ground  is  there  for  describing  it  as  t!ie  cause  of  that 
stale  ?  The  general  effects  of  a  one-sided  sti-ain  of  mind  or  body 
are  pretty  well  known,  and  "  tonic  cramp  of  the  attention  "  may 
be  a  very  satisfactory  description  of  the  one-sided  absorption  in 
a  particular  direction  which  characterises  many  isolated  stages 
of  hypnotic  trance.  But  what  tendency  should  tlie  cramp  of  an 
attention,  which  is  directed  to  a  button  held  in  the  hand,  have 
to  produce,  or  to  facilitate,  a  fresh  cramp  or  series  of  cramps, 
when  the  attention  is  diverted  to  quite  fresh  objects.  He  had, 
he  said,  lignin  and  again  found  the  complete  change  to  a  new 
genus  of  ideas  to  be  absolutely  effortless  and  instantaneous — 
found,  that  is,  that  the  attention,  which  had  as  usual  been  fixed 
during  the  process  of  hypuotisation,  became  quite  abnormally 
mobile  afterwards.  This  great  mobility  of  attention  seems  an 
odd  result  of  previous  rigid  attention  to  a  button.  If  I  am  told, 
he  said,  that  a  particular  mental  attitude — that  of  fixed  or  one- 
sided attentiou — is  the  cause  of  cei-tain  meutal  phenomena  which 
are  new  to  me,  I  am  surely  justified  in  demanding  that  the  order 
of  events  shall  present  some  perceptible  coherence — shall  at  least 
not  run  directly  counter  to  what  my  general  experience  has  led 
me  to  expect 

Again,  taking  the  case  where  the  attention  la  concentrated 


during  the  production  of  the  state,  how  doe-s  this  explain 
fact  that,  when  a  subject  is  left  to  himself  in  hypnosis 
condition  is  usually  one  of  abstraction  ?  Here,  then,  as  a 
supposed  result  of  a  previous  concentration  of  attention,  we  h*v« 
the  spontaneous  developmeut  of  its  opposite. 

Thus,  preliminary  fixation  of  attention  cannot  be  accepted  as 
an  explanation  of  subsequent  mobility.  All  that  we  can  concede 
so  far  is:  (1)  That  fixation  of  the  attention  frequently  precedes, 
and  usually  facilitates,  the  induction  of  hypnosis.  (2)  That  the 
attention  in  hypnosis  can  easily  be  rendered  excessively  mobile. 


Rapport  and  Attention. 

Tlie  following  is  Li^beault'a  view : — "  It  is  observed,"  he  sa; 
"  that  nearly  all  aitiHcial  somnambules  are  in  relation  by  their 
senses  with  those  who  pub  them  to  sleep,  but  only  with  tb 
The  subject  hears  everything  the  operator  says  to  liirn,  but  hi 
him  alone,  provided  the  sleep  is  sufficiently  deep.  He  only  h 
the  operator  when  he  is  addressed  directly  by  luin,  and  not  when 
a  third  person  is  spoken  to.  This  rapport  extends  to  the  other 
senses."  According  to  Li^beault,  the  subject  remains  en  rapport 
with  the  hypnotifler  because  he  goes  to  sleep  while  thinking  of 
liim,  and  this  does  not  differ  from  what  sometimes  happens  in 
ordinary  sleep.  A  mother  who  goes  to  sleep  close  to  the  cradle 
of  her  child  does  not  cease  to  watch  over  him  during  her  slee* 
but,  while  she  hears  his  slightest  cry,  is  inseusible  to  othi 
louder  sounds.  The  concentration  of  the  subject's  attention  upoi 
the  operator,  and  his  mental  retention  of  the  idea  of  the  one  wi 
put  him  to  sleep,  is  the  cause  of  the  rapport. 

In  rapport,  Bernheim,  ou  the  contrary,  finds  his  solitary  poiui 
of  difference  between  normal  and  hypnotic  sleep.  He  says: 
"  In  ordinary  sleep,  as  soon  as  consciousness  is  lost,  the  subject 
is  only  in  relationship  with  himself.  In  induced  sleep  his  mind 
retains  the  memory  of  tlie  person  who  put  him  to  sleep,  hence 
the  hypnotiser's  power  of  plajiug  upou  his  imagiuatiou,  of 
suggesting  dreams,  and  of  directing  the  acts  which  are  no  longer 
controlled  by  the  weakened  or  absent  will." 

The    following  was    Braid's   view   of   the   condition    of   the 
attention  in  h}'pnosi8 : — 

The  principal  difJerence  between  hypnotic  and  normal  sleep 


is  to  be  found  in  the  mental  condition.  \Mien  falling  into 
oniinury  sleep  Uie  miud  passes  from  one  idea  to  another  in- 
difierently,  and  the  subject  is  unable  to  fix  his  attention  on  any 
regular  train  of  thought,  or  to  perform  any  act  requiring  much 
voluntary  effort.  As  the  result  of  this,  audible  suggealious  and 
sensory  impressions  received  by  the  sleeper,  if  not  intense 
enough  to  entirely  awaken  him,  seldom  do  more  than  arouse 
dreams,  in  which  ideas  pass  through  his  mind  without  exciting 
definite  physical  acts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  concentration  of 
attention,  which  is  tlie  result  of  the  means  employed  for  inducing 
hypnosis,  is  ooutiuued  into  the  state  itself;  and  verbal  suggestions 
or  sensory  impressions  excite  definite  trains  of  thought  or  physical 
movements,  instead  of  dreams. 

Certain  points  of  difference  and  resemblance  are  to  be  noticed 
between  these  views. 

According  to  Bmid,  the  condition  of  the  attention  in  hj'pnosis 
favoured  response  to  external  suggestion,  but  not  to  suggestion 
conveyed  by  any  particular  person,  such  as  the  hypnotiser.  It 
was  possible  by  suggestion  to  create  an  artificial  state  in  which 
^the  subject  seemed  only  to  be  en  rapport  witli  the  operator,  but 
tiiis  condition  was  only  an  apparent,  not  a  real  one.  The  subjects 
really  heaixl  the  suggestions  of  others,  though  special  artifices 
might  be  necessary  in  order  to  make  them  respond  to  them.  In 
illustration  of  this.  Braid  cited  a  case  in  which  he  made  a 
aomnambule  respond  to  his  indirect  suggestions,  conveyed  in  the 
form  of  confident  predictions  of  what  was  going  to  happen, 
though  the  subject  was  asleep  when  he  entered  the  room,  and 
apparently  only  en  rapport  with  the  original  operator  (see  p. 
287).  Carpenter  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  rapport  wag 
unknown  to  Mesmer  and  his  immediate  disciples,  and  was  not 
discovered  until  long  after  the  practice  of  mesmerism  had  come 
into  vogue.  The  phenomena  of  rapport  only  acquired  constancy 
and  fixity  in  proportion  as  its  laws  were  announced  and  received. 
Mesmerists  ignorant  of  rapport  produced  a  great  variety  of 
remarkable  phenomena,  but  did  not  discover  this  one  until  the 
idea  had  been  put  into  their  minds,  and  thence  transferred  to 
their  subjects. 

Bemheim  and  LitSbeault  believe  that  a  real  rapport  exists 
between  the  subject  and  the  operator,  and  that  this  follows  as 
a  natural  consequence  from  the  methods  employed  in  inducing 


hypnosis.  Not  only  does  it  exist,  but,  according  to  Bernheim, 
the  operator's  power  of  evoking  hypnotic  phenomena  depends  on 
it.  W)iile  Bemheim  and  Li«^beault  agree  on  this  point,  they 
differ,  as  we  have  seen,  on  another.  For  Bernheim  finds  in 
rapport  the  sole  difference  between  hypnotic  and  ordinarj'  sleep; 
while  la^beaiilt,  on  the  contrary,  tries  by  means  of  it  to  establish 
an  analogy  between  them. 

My  own  observations  in  reference  to  rapport  have  led  rae  to 
conclusions  similar  to  those  of  Braid,  viz. :  (1)  That  rapport  does 
not  appear  unless  it  has  been  directly  or  indirectly  suggested. 
(2)  That  the  condition  is  always  an  apparent — never  a  real — 
one.  Thus,  it  could  always  be  experimentAlly  proved  that  the 
subjects  actually  had  been  cognisant  of  what  Imd  been  said  and 
done  by  others  who  had  not  been  placed  en  rapport  with  them. 
In  those  who  did  not  know  what  was  expected  of  them,  and  to 
whom  neither  direct  nor  indirect  suggestions  of  rapport  were 
made,  this  condition  did  not  api»ear.  On  the  contrary,  they 
heard  and  ol>eyed  any  one  who  might  address  tliem. 

Moll,  in  J)er  M<ipport  in  der  Bypnosf,  published  in  1892,  comes 
practically  to  the  same  conclusion  as  Braid  in  regard  to  rapport, 
viz.,  that  it  is  caused  by  direct  or  indirect  suggestions  of  the 
operator,  or  by  self-snggestions  which  result  from  the  subject's 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  hypnotic  state. 

It  is  true,  as  li^beault  has  pointed  out,  tliat  rapport  fre- 
quently exists  between  the  sleeping  mother  and  her  child,  and 
that  siie  will  hear  its  slightest  cry  and  yet  be  unconscious  of 
louder  sounds.  This,  however,  has  no  analogy  in  the  hypnotic 
state.  The  nntraiiied  somnambule  re3]x)niis  with  equal  readiness 
to  the  voice  of  any  one,  and,  if  he  has  been  taught  only  to  respond 
to  one  voice,  he  still  hears  others.  Again,  the  ditlerence  between 
hypnotic  and  normal  sleep  is  not,  as  Bemheim  says,  that  rajyport 
exists  only  in  tlie  former.  On  the  contrary,  we  might  with 
justice  establish  a  distinction  between  hypnotic  and  normal  sleep, 
on  the  ground  that  rapport  is  absent  from  the  former  and  is  a 
frequently  recurring  phenomenon  in  the  latter. 


Bemheim's  Explanation  of  Hypnotic  Amnesia. 


According  to  Bernheim,  every  one  possesses  a  certain  definite 
amount  of  nervous  force  or  cerebral  activity.     During  the  waking 


i 


state  this  is  concentrated  in  the  higher  nervous  centres — the 
reasoning  part  of  the  brain — while  in  hypnosis  it  is  concentrated 
in  the  lower  centres — the  imaginative  or  automatic  part.  All 
the  iniprefisions  received  during  hjrpnosis,  all  the  phenomena 
induced — conceptions,  movements,  sensations,  images — owe  their 
origin  to  this  concentrated  and  accumulated  nervous  force. 
When  tJie  subject  awakes  and  resumes  his  self-control,  however, 
the  nervous  activity  is  again  diffused  through  the  higher 
centres  of  the  brain  and  to  the  periphery.  The  impressions 
received  during  hypnotic  sleep  fade,  liecause,  having  been  per- 
ceived, as  it  were,  if  the  simile  may  be  permitted,  by  a  quantity 
of  nervous  light,  they  are  no  longer  bright  enough  to  be  conscious 
when  this  light  ceases  to  be  concentrated  upon  them.  "When 
hypnosis  is  again  induced,  the  former  state  of  concentration 
>  reappears,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  lost  memories  are  revived. 

This  explanation  is  ingenious,  but  unfortunately  not  in 
acconiance  with  observed  facts.  If  I  suggest  to  a  subject  that 
on  awaking  he  will  remember  the  events  of  hypnosis,  he  invari- 
ably does  so.  Yet,  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  tlie  redistri- 
bution of  nervous  force  to  the  higher  centres  should  liave 
inevitably  prevented  this.  Again,  suggestion  may  rob  the 
hypnotised  subject  of  the  power  of  recalling  the  events  of 
previous  hypnoses.  But,  if  Bemheim's  explanation  were  correct, 
the  lost  memories  could  not  escape  revival,  seeing  that  they  must 
have  reappeared  when  the  nervous  force  was  again  concentrated 
in  the  lower  centres. 


I 


The  Influence  of  the  Operator  in  inducing  the  so-called 
Automatism. 

In  the  estimation  of  the  part  played  by  the  operator.  Braid 
ditfered  from  certain  members  of  the  Nancy  school  According 
to  the  former,  the  operator  merely  acted  as  on  engineer  who 
directed  the  forces  in  tlie  subject's  own  body  ;  and  the  phenomena 
of  hypnosis  could  also  he  evoked  by  iileaa  previously  existing  in 
the  subject's  mind.  The  latter  reganl  the  operator's  rdk  as  a 
much  more  important  one :  not  only  arc  his  suggestions  n  mighty 
force  in  themselves,  but  their  power  is  increased  by  a  constant 
undermining  of  the  volition. 

For    tlie   successful   manifestation    of  hypnotic  phenomena. 


346 


HYPNOTISAf 


1 


f  Orel  considers  it  essential  chat  the  subject  should  be  under  the 
dominion  of  the  operator,  and  have  lost  hia  own  power  of  con- 
centration and  attention.  He  regards  the  condition  as  a  battle 
between  operator  and  subject,  in  which  the  former,  after  capturing 
outpost  upon  outpost,  at  last  reigns  supreme  in  tlic  central  citadel 
itself.  "The  mind  of  a  man,  A.,  imposes  itself"  be  says,  "  upon 
the  mind  of  another  man,  B.,  takes  possession  of  it  by  entering 
through  some  crevice  in  ita  armour,  and  finishes  by  reigning 
there  more  or  less  as  master,  and  by  employing  the  brain  of  B, 
aa  its  docile  iustrumeut." 

According  to  Beruheim,  the  natural  tendency  that  exists  in 
every  one  to  accept  suggestions  is  grnduatly  and  skilfully  devoloped 
by  the  operator. 

In  opposition  to  the  views  of  Beraheim,  etc,  I  would  insist 
on  two  classes  of  cases  : — 

(1)  Instances  wlure  the  operator  has  deliberately  tried  to  vhinimi« 
hia  own  importance  in  reference  to  the  induction  of  hypnotic 
ph^TiomeTui, 

Although  I  soon  ceased  to  believe  that  the  subject's  volition 
was  dominated  by  that  of  the  operator,  I  still  found,  as  the 
result  of  sensational  writings  on  the  question,  that  a  considerable 
nimiber  of  my  patients  objected  to  be  h}T>noti3©d,  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  interfere  with  their  volition.  To  obviate  this 
difificulty,  I  changed  my  method  of  inducing  and  mana^ng  the 
hypnotic  state,  I  commenced  by  informing  every  new  patient 
that  I  did  not  believe  it  possible  for  the  operator  to  dominate  the 
volition  of  the  subject,  and  that,  even  if  such  a  thing  were 
possible,  it  could  certainly  be  prevented  by  suggestion.  I  ex- 
plained to  my  patients  that  nothing  would  be  suggested  without 
their  consent  having  been  pre^'iously  obtained  in  the  normal  stale. 
Under  these  circumstances,  if  the  suggestions  wei*e  successful, 
this  would  not  imply  any  interference  with  volition,  seeing  thatA 
their  consent  bad  Blrea<ly  been  obtained.  I  pointed  out  that  the^ 
fulfilment  of  a  hypnotic  suggestion  frequently  demonstrated  an 
increased,  not  diminished,  power  of  volition.  For  example^  a 
patient  who  desired  to  resist  a  morbid  impulse,  but  was  unable 
to  do  so  by  the  exercise  of  his  normal  volition,  might  gain  this 
power  by  hypnotic  su^estion.  Thus,  the  suggestion 
suspend  the  volition  of  the  subject,  but  removed  the 


I 


did   DotJ 

J 


which  prevented  the  wish  from  being  carried  into  action. 
Further,  as  resistance  was  manifested  despite  suggested  obedience, 
it  was  reasonable  to  expect  that  this  might  be  enormously 
increased  by  training,  I  suggested,  therefore,  to  all  patients 
during  hypnosis,  that  they  should  invariably  possess  this  power 
of  reaiatance,  and  also,  that  neither  I  nor  any  one  else  should  ever 
be  able  to  reinduce  hypnosis  without  their  express  consent  This 
change  of  method  did  not  affect  the  results.  Notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  patients  were  convinced,  and  justly  so,  that 
they  possessed  complete  control  of  the  whole  condition,  hypnosis 
was  evoked  as  easily  as  formerly,  and  as  wde  a  range  of 
phenomena  was  induced. 

( 2a)  Cases  leJure  aji  attempt  has  been  vukU  to  (each  the  subject  to 
evoke  hypnosis  and  its  phenomena  vnthmU  the  inUrventum  of 
the  operator. 

As  already  stated  (pp.  52  and  53),  I  have  frequently  instructed 
patients  to  hypnotise  themselves,  and  to  evoke  the  phenomena  of 
hypnosis  by  self-suggestion. 

(26)  Cases  wftere,  after  very  slight  hypnosis,  the  palierU  has  taught 
himself  to  ettoke  hypnosis  a)id  its  phejiomena. 

An  account  of  a  case  of  this  kitid  is  given  pp.  201-2. 

In  such  cases  it  would  be  difficult,  I  think,  to  explain  hypnotic 
phenomena  as  the  result  of  arrested  or  weakened  volition,  and  of 
outside  interference  by  the  operator.  It  might  be  objected, 
perhaps,  that  the  influence  of  the  operator  had  not  been  entirely 
eliminated,  on  the  ground  that  ho  had  been  associated  with  the 
induction  of  the  primary  hypnosis.  The  conditions,  however, 
that  are  more  or  less  frequently  associated  with  the  origin  of  a 
particular  state  are  by  no  means  essential  for  its  aftcr-mauifeata- 
tion.  i-'or  instance^  tlie  art  of  swimming  is  usually  taught  either 
by  means  of  a  life-belt,  or  by  attaching  the  pupil  to  a  cord  which 
the  teacher  holds  aud  guides  by  means  of  a  rod.  These  artificial 
aids,  however,  are  not  essential  lo  the  art  of  swimming :  they  are 
only  useful  in  its  acquirement.  It  would  be  illogical  to  ascribe 
a  champion's  power  of  winning  a  race  to  the  life-belt  he  dis- 
carded years  before.  In  the  same  way,  it  would  be  unjustifiable 
to  attribute  a  subject's  power  of  influencing  forces  within  his  own 
body  by  suggestions  arising  in  his  own  mind,  to  the  influence  of 


the  operator  who  had  formerly  instructed  him  how  to  evoke  and 
direct  this  power.  And  the  objection  applies  with  additioaal 
force  where  the  subject,  having  been  hypnotised  (slightly,  if  at 
all),  without  any  instruction  in  self-suggestion  by  the  operator 
has  taught  himself  the  practice  from  books. 


Monoideism. 


4 


Beruheim,  as  we  have  already  seen,  still  holds  the  theory  of 
monoideism,  which  Braid  originated,  but  afterwards  discarded. 
In  hypnosis,  according  to  the  former,  the  mind  of  the  subject  is 
concentrated  on  a  single  idea.  Impressions  which  under  ordinary 
circumstances  would  reach  consciousness  now  cease  to  do  so,  not 
only  because  they  do  not  happen  to  be  attended  to,  but  also 
because  the  subject  has  no  faculty  left  wherewith  to  attend  to 
them.  Thus,  this  is  not  only  a  *'  conceiUration  of  attention. "  theory, 
but  a  *'  concentration  and  limited  quantiti/  of  attention  "  theory. 

Beauuis,  while  admitting  the  influence  of  attention  in  the 
prodnctiou  of  the  pheuomeua  of  hypnotism,  does  not  believe  that 
all  the  facts  can  be  explained  by  tlie  "  concentration  of  attention  " 
theory.  "  If,"  he  says,  "  a  hallucination  is  suggested  to  a  subject 
and  realised  on  awaking  immediately  afterwards,  it  may  be 
possible  to  explain  this  on  tlie  assumptiou  that  tlie  attention  was 
still  concentrated  upon  the  suggested  idea."  He  does  not  believe, 
however,  that,  when  the  appearance  of  the  phenomenon  lias  been 
delayed  for  a  lengthened  period,  it  can  be  explained  in  the  same 
vay;  for  he  does  not  consider  it  possible  that  the  subject's 
attention  can  have  been  concentrated  on  the  suggested  idea  all 
the  time. 

Guniey,  who  also  rejected  the  "  concentration  of  attention ' 
theory,  said  the  energy  of  attention  was  not  a  fixed  quantity, 
bound  to  be  always  in  operation  in  one  direction  or  another; 
nor  did  the  human  mind,  any  more  than  Nature,  abhor  a  vacuum. 
What  did  we  gain,  then,  by  employing  a  general  term  to  describe 
such  special  effects  ?  When  once  the  (gas)  chandelier  metaphor 
was  abandoned — when  once  it  was  recognised  that  in  a  multitude 
of  cases  the  quantity  of  attention  turned  on  in  one  direction  was 
in  no  way  connected  with  its  withdrawal  from  any  other — the 
idea  of  a  common  psychic  factor  seemed  ont  of  place  and  mis- 
leading. 


1 


This  theoretical  objection  is  iu  accordance  with  observed 
facta.  Doubtleas  certain  hypnotic  states  exist  in  which  all  the 
attention,  so  far  as  it  ie  calleii  into  action,  is  concentrated  upon 
one  idea.  In  order  to  prove,  however,  tliat  directing  the  attention 
upon  a  new  point  neceasaiily  withdrawH  it  entirely  from  the  old 
one,  it  must  be  shown  that  the  phenomenon  which  resulted  from 
the  former  concentration  inevitably  ceased  when  the  latter  one 
arose.  A  cutaneous  analgesia  of  the  arm  might,  with  some  sltow 
of  reason,  be  said  to  result  from  attention  directed  to  the  muscles 
during  suggested  catalepsy :  on  the  ground  that  no  attention  was 
left  wherewith  to  attend  to  painful  sensations.  But  while  the 
catalepsy  still  exists,  how,  by  tliis  theory,  can  one  explain,  for 
example,  a  cutaneous  tactile  hyperesthesia  of  the  same  limb,  by 
means  of  which  the  subject  can  distinguish  the  two  points  of  the 
compass  at  half  the  normal  distance  ?  If  the  subject  is  on- 
conscious  of  painful  sensations  because  hia  attention  is  entirely 
concentrated  on  his  muscular  condition,  this  same  lack  of  atten- 
tion to  the  skin  ought  not  only  to  have  prevented  abnormal 
distinctness  of  tactile  impressions,  but  even  to  have  inhibited  the 
usual  ones.  The  experiment  can  be  still  further  complicated ; 
for,  while  still  permitting  the  catalepsy  to  persist,  the  cutaneous 
tactile  hyperaistliesia  can  be  associated  by  suggestion  with  a 
cutaneous  analgesia  over  the  same  area.     Now  the  subject's  whole 

(attention  cannot  be  directed  to  maintaining  a  condition  of 
muscular  rigidity,  if  he  still  has  enough  of  it  left  to  suftice,  not 
only  for  the  increased  perception  of  certain  tactile  sensations,  but 
also  for  the  selection  ^  and  inhibition  of  other  painful  ones. 
Further,  the  opposite  of  these  phenomena  can  be  simultaneously 
evoked  on  the  other  side  of  the  body ;  the  subject's  muscles  can 
be  paralysed  by  suggestion,  his  tactile  sensibility  abolished,  and 
his  sensibility  to  pain  increased.  The  attention  is  now  directed 
upon  six  different  points,  and  could,  with  equal  case,  be  simultane- 
ously directed  on  many  others.  A  psychic  blindness,  for  example, 
could  be  suggested  on  one  side,  a  psychic  deafness  on  the  other ; 
hyperaesthesia  of  the  sense  of  smell  and  taste  on  the  one  side,  and 
diminished  or  abolished  sensibility  on  the  other,  eta,  etc.  But 
this  is  not  all ;  for  while  the  attention  is  presumably  turned  in  all 

.these   different  directions,   the  subject  may   be  engaged  in  the 

P  '  Before  tbo  ptinrul  woutioni  cvi  be  iohibited  thej  mait  b«  sorted  out)  as  it 
were,  from  cbe  other  ssDsstions  the  subject  is  experienciDg. 


3$o 


HYPNOTISM 


fluccessful  solution  of  some  iDtellectual  problem.  A  still  fnrthei 
complication  is  possible.  Let  us  suppose,  as  in  the  case  of  one  of 
my  own  subjects,  that  at  an  earlier  date,  in  u  previous  hypnosis, 
a  suggestion  tc  record  the  time  at  the  expiration  of  40,S4o 
minutes,  or  some  such  complicated  number,  had  been  made ;  this 
may  be  carried  out,  despite  the  existence  of  the  various  muscular 
and  sensorial  conditions  already  refeiTed  to,  and  the  fact  that,  at 
the  moment  of  its  fultilinunt,  the  subject  is  engaged  in  some 
other  mental  effort 

This  picture  of  the  hypnotic  state  is  neither  fanciful,  nor 
dependent  solely  on  my  own  personal  observation.  The  fact  that 
numerous  and  varied  hypnotic  phenomena  can  be  simultaneously 
evoked  in  the  same  subject  has  been  repeatedly  observed  and 
recorded  by  others,  and,  strange  to  say,  even  by  those  who 
attempt  to  explain  hypnosis  by  the  concentration  of  the  attention 
upon  a  single  point  It  is  solely  the  important  bearing  of 
these  facte  upon  this  particular  theory  wliich  has  hitlxerto  been 
60  largely  overlooked. 

Granting  that  hypnotic  phenomena  are  the  result  of  changes 
in  the  attention,  one  is  forced  to  conclude  that  these  are  the 
exact  reverse  of  those  stated  by  Bernheim  as  explanatory  of  the 
hypnotic  state :  the  simultaneous  presence  of  many  phenomena 
clearly  shows  that  hypnosis  cannot  be  explained  by  the  concen- 
tration of  the  attention  on  any  one  given  point.  Again,  the  fact 
that  the  multiple  phenomena  are  sometimes  similar  in  character 
to  llie  isolated  ones,  indicates  that  the  explanation  of  hypnotic 
phenomena  by  means  of  the  awuwiw/  of  the  attention  concentrated 
ia  also  fallacious.  If  €dl  the  attention  is  requisite  for  the 
productiuu  of  one  phenomenon,  and,  wliile  this  one  still  lasts, 
many  other  hypnotic  phenomena  are  simultaneously  induced, 
whence  do  the  secondary  ones  derive  that  excessive  amount  of 
attention  which  is  said  to  be  necessary  for  the  induction  of  the 
primary  one  ?  The  hypnotic  condition  differs,  then,  from  tfao 
normal,  not  l>ecause  only  one  phenomenon  can  be  manifested  iu 
il  at  once,  but  because  it  may  present  simultaneously  many  and 
more  varied  phenomena  than  can  be  induced  in  the  normal  state 
at  any  one  time.  In  a  word,  hypnosis  is  frequently  a  state  of 
jool^'ideism^  not  one  of  mcfU>-itUianu 


i 


MOLL'S  THEORY. 


Dr.  Albert  Moll,  of  Berliu,  attempts  to  explain  the  phenomena 
of  hypnosis  by  seeking,  like  Bemheim,  an  analogy  between  them 
and  those  of  normal  life.  There  are,  he  says,  two  caniinal  facts 
that  we  ought  to  keep  in  mind:  (1)  We  are  liable  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  ideas  of  others,  and  to  accept  as  true  statements 
which  we  ourselves  have  not  investigated.  (2)  When  a  physio- 
Ic^cul  or  psychological  effect  is  expected  it  has  a  tendency  to 
appear. 

The  two  facts  just  cited  are  sufficient,  Moll  thinks,  to  explain 
many  of  the  phenomena  of  slight  hypnosis.  The  increased 
susceptibility  to  suggestion  evinced  in  this  state,  as  the  result  of 

fthe  subject's  weakened  volition,  alone  separates  it  from  the 
ordinary  waking  condition.  Moll  does  not  believe  that  any 
analogy  exists  between  slight  hypnosis  and  sleep,  for  in  the 
former  there  ia  neither  loss  of  memory  nor  alteration  in 
consciousness. 

In  order  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  deep  hypnosis,  in 
addition  to  the  factors  just  referred  to,  Moll  introduces  a  third, 
i.e.  a  dream  cojisciotisness  similar  to  that  which  exists  in  natural 
sleep.  He  tliiuks  the  positive  hallucinations  of  deep  hypnosis  are 
similar  to  those  that  occur  in  dreams,  and  that  they  are  caused 
in  the  same  manner  by  peripheral  or  central  stimuli.  The 
character  of  the  dream  aroused,  the  uatui*e  of  the  mental  picture 
excited,  by  the  ptrip^ieral  stimulus,  depends,  in.  sleep  as  well  as 
in  hypnosis,  upon  the  personality  of  the  subject.  The  dividing 
line  between  sleep  and  hypnosis  is  merely  a  quantitative 
difference  in  the  movements  occurring  in  both  :  in  hypnosis  these 
are  easily  induced ;  in  sleep  they  are  duller,  slower,  and  rarer. 

For  the  protluction  of  Ticf/atiri:  lialluci nations,  Moll  considers 
that  the  three  following  factors  are  necessar}' : — 

I         (a)  The  subject's  conviction  of  the  absence  of  on  object  or 

'  sensory  impression. 

According  to  Moll,  if,  in  the  waking  state,  we  are  convinced 
of  the  absence  of  something  actually  present,  this  belief  tends  to 
prevent  our  perceiving  it.  Thus,  he  says,  if  a  man  is  working  in 
some  place  which  i^  generally  quiet,  and  where  he  does  not 
expect  to  hear  a  noise,  lie  would  not  notice  if  one  were  made ! ! 


35a 


HYPNOTISM 


I 


lu  Moll's  opinion,  the  hypnotised  subject's  conviction  of  the 
uon-existencG  of  ao  object  or  senaory  impresaiou  amea  in  the 
following  manner.  The  suggested  idea  cuunot  be  supplanted  by 
a  voluntary  one,  for,  owing  to  the  alterations  in  the  attention 
which  result  from  tlie  methods  of  the  operator,  the  subject  is 
unable  to  control  the  ideas  conveyed  to  him  or  to  put  forward 
his  own.  External  ideas  dominate  his  consciousness.  Xfa4; 
conviction  of  the  non-existence  of  an  object  arises  from  tha 
subject's  weakened  will,  and  his  dependence  on  the  operator. 
The  fact  that  many  motor  suggestions  have  already  been  made. 
which  the  subject  has  been  unable  to  resist,  renders  further 
suggestions  easy. 

(fc)  Diversion  of  attention. 

The  diversion  of  the  subject's  attention  follows  the  conviction 
of  the  non-existence  of  the  object :  he  believes  that  no  object  \& 
present,  and,  therefore,  ceases  to  direct  his  attention  to  it 

(f)  Drtam  consciousness. 

Moll  considers  that  the  existence  of  a  "  dream  consciousness  ^ 
is  also  necessarj'  for  the  explanation  of  negative  hallucinations. 
In  it  not  only  do  former  memory -pictures  reappear  as  haliucina- 
ttons,  but  sensory  impressions  no  longer,  as  in  normal  life,  induce 
feelings  or  perceptions. 

MoU  explains  the  sudden  and  often  nearly  systematic  forget- 
fulness,    in    reference    to    hypnotic    states,    by    means    of   Max      I 
Dessoir's  theory  of  the  "  Doppel-lch."      He  also  considers  that 
the  punctual  execution  of  post-hypnotic  commands  is  only  com-      i 
preheustble   if,   in   addition    to    the    primary   consciousness,   a  fl 
secondary  ont  ivorks  inttUyjenily  in  us.  " 

To  this  theory  the  following  objections  might,  I  think,  with  j 
justice  be  raised : —  ■ 

(1)  According  to  Moll,  in  light  hypnosis  there  is  a  slight 
inhibition  of  the  will,  which  becomes  more  profound  in  deep  ^ 
hypnosis.  This  point  has  already  been  referred  to  in  discussing  I 
the  so-called  automatism  and  the  inriuenco  of  the  operator ;  and  1 
have  endeavoured  to  show  that  this  inhibition  of  the  will  was 
not  present  in  cases  which  I  have  personally  observ-ed.  Further, 
in  self-hypnosis,  where  the  influence  of  the  oi>emtor  has  been 
entirely  eliminated,  hypnotic  phenomena  can  be  readily  induced. 

(2)  The   objections  which  have  already  been  raised  to  the 
supposed    identity   of  normal   and   hypnotic  sleep  are  equally 


I 


» 


icable  to  Moll's  "  drearu-consciousness  "  theory.  Sully's  views 
VtB  to  the  diUci'encQ  between  the  movemcubs  accurring  in  these 
conditions  have  already  been  referred  to  (p.  310). 

(3)  r  know  of  no  instance  in  which  a  dream  has  spontane- 
oualy  arisen  iu  the  ljy]iuotised  subject  as  the  result  of  a  peripheral 
stimulus.  it  is  true  that  subjects  can  be  taught  to  exhibit 
various  hypnotic  phenomena  iu  response  to  peripheral  stimuli ; 
but,  aa  Moll  himself  has  pointed  out  regardiug  the  movements 
occurring  in  Heideuhaiu's  cases,  the  subjects  nmst  first  have  a 
clear  idea  of  what  is  expected  of  tliem. 

(4)  MoU  assumes  a  loss  of  consciousness  in  deej)  hypnosis. 
on  which  he  largely  bases  the  supposed  resemblance  between 
that  condition  and  normal  sleep.  Various  objections  to  this  vievf 
have  been  raised  in  discussing  Heidenhain's  theory :  the  hypnotic 
state  is  almost  invariably  a  conscious  one;  and,  though  amnesia 
usually  follows  on  awaking,  it  can  be  prevented  by  suggestion. 

(o)  The  supposed  analogy  drawn  from  normal  life,  which 
MoU  selects  aa  an  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  negative 
hallucinations  arise — from  the  conviction  of  the  absence  of  an 
object  or  sensory  impressiou^ — ^is  a  peculiarly  unfortuuate  one. 
A  noise  is  not  the  less  likely  to  be  heard  because  of  previous 
quietness:  on  the  contrary,  a  particular  noise  would  be  less 
likely  to  be  detected  if  it  followed  numerous  others.  Again, 
the  cessation  of  a  habitual  noise,  which  we  expect  to  be  con- 
tinued, does  not  on  that  account  escape  notice.  "When  the 
screw  of  a  8team-l>oat  stops,  tins  almost  invariably  arouses  the 
attention  of  the  passengers;  and,  even  if  they  are  asleep,  it 
usually  awal^es  them  immediately. 

(6)  Moll's  analogies  drawn  from  normal  life  to  explain 
hypnotic  memory  are  somewhat  strained.  For  example,  in 
refei-cnce  to  the  recollection  in  hypnosis  of  the  events  of  previous 
hypuoscs,  he  cites  Max  Dcssoir's  statement  that  he  liad  heard  of 
one  person  who  once  during  sleep  took  up  a  dream  at  the  point 
where  he  had  left  it  of5'  on  the  fonner  night.  Surely  this  is 
attempting  to  explain  the  little-known  in  tenns  of  the  less-known, 

(7)  To  Moil's  explanation  of  certain  hypnotic  phenomena  by 
means  of  the  *'  intellifient  action  of  a  secondary  consciousness  "  I 
shall  again  refer.  Meanwhile,  I  would  point  out  that  this  does 
not  agree  with  the  "involuntary  dream-consciousneas  theory"; 
the  two  explanations  contradict  each  other. 

2  a 


HYPNOTiSM 


Before  describing  this  latest  hypnotic  Llieory — tiiat  whicli 
attempts  to  uxpluin  lij-piiolic  plieuoniena  by  tht  irtieliufaU 
action  of  n  secondary  ccnsdowmets — I  wish  to  diaw  atteotioD 
to  the  analogy  which  is  supposed  to  exist  between  hypnosis  and 
certain,  and  otteD  widely  differing,  pathological  conditions. 


The  Supposed  Analogy  hetween  Hypnosis  and  certain,  and 
often  widely  differing,  Fathological  Conditions. 

As  we  8hall  presently  see,  Moll  drew  attention  lo  the  con- 
tradictory nature  of  these  supposed  analoj^dea ;  but,  nevertheless, 
a  further  illustration  of  theiu  is  to  be  found  in  '*  Hypnotism  in 
Court,"  and  "  Hypnotism,"  two  articles  which  appeared  in  the  July 
and  October  numbers  of  the  Jounuxl  of  Mrnial  ^Science  for  1898. 
Hott)  are  apparently  from  the  same  pen.  and  as  they  are  unsigned, 
I  will,  for  convenience'  saka,  call  the  writer  X. 

According  to  X,  hypnotism  is  related  to  hysteria,  stupor, 
"  latah,"  etc. 

(L)  Hysteria. — As  we  have  seen,  the  supposed  conuection 
between  hypnotism  and  hysteria,  disputed  by  Esdaile  and  Braid 
more  than  fitly  years  ago,  was  restated  by  the  Salpetriere  school, 
and  successfully  disproved  by  that  of  Nancy.  X's  attempt  to 
revive  an  ancient  fallacy  is  not  likely  to  be  successful,  esi»ecially 
as  he  does  not  support  it  by  a  single  observed  fact. 

At  the  International  Congress  of  Experimental  Psychology. 
Loudon,  1892,  it  was  generally  recognised  that  susceptibility  lo 
h}'pnosi3  did  not  indicate  the  existence  of  hysteria  or  any  other 
morbid  condition.  Hypnotism  was  found  to  increase  the  patient's 
volition :  thus  hypnotic  cure  was  due  to  the  intensification  of  an 
entirely  normal  moral  process,  and  was  not  essentially  dependent 
upon  assistance  from  without. 

According  to  X,  self-control  is  weakened  in  liypnosis.  This 
view  is  an  old  mesmeric  fallacy  wiiich  was  successfully  exploded 
by  Braid  over  fifty  years  ago.  My  subjects,  no  matter  how 
deeply  hypnotised,  could  always  choose  between  suggestions,  and 
invariably  rejected  what  was  distasteful. 

X  asserts  that  therapeusis  admits  the  principle  tliat  a  lower 
tissue  may  be  sacrificed  to  save  a  higher,  but  that  it  is  distinctly 
bad  practice  "  to  harm  the  higlier  organ  to  release  the  lower,  a« 
hypnotism  does."     This,  however,  concerns  orrlinary  rather  than 


I 
I 


^ 


^ 


hypnotic  practice.  Most  of  the  disctises  which  are  treated  hypnotic- 
ally are  central  in  their  origin,  as,  for  example,  dipsomania, 
hysteria,  obsessions,  etc.  In  such  cases  it  is  the  cure  or  relief 
of  the  higher  organ  which  is  at  stake,  and  no  sacrifice  of  any  kind, 
either  higher  or  lower,  is  involved.  Lost  or  weakened  self-coutrol 
is  at  the  root  of  the  diseases  just  referred  to  ;  and,  when  hypnotism 
cures  them,  it  does  so  by  developing  the  patient's  own  volition. 

If,  however,  we  judge  ordinary  practice  by  Xs  standards, 
the  administration  of  narcotics  and  auiesthetics  must  be  condemned, 
and  their  employment  for  the  rcHef  of  pain  considered  bad  practice. 
His  opinion,  I  tliink,  is  not  now  generally  held  by  the  profession, 
although,  as  we  have  seen,  in  1842,  Dr.  Copland  asserted,  at  the 
Koyal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society,  that  **  pain  was  a  wise 
provision  of  nature,  and  patients  ought  to  sutler  pain  while  their 
surgeons  were  operating;  they  were  all  the  better  for  it,  and 
recovered  better." 

(II.)  Stupor. — Stupor  has  been  divided  into  two  forms — (1) 
Anergic:  (2)  Delusional. 

(1)  Allergic, — In  typical  cases  there  is  blueness  and  swelling 
of  the  hands  and  feet,  slow  and  feeble  circulation,  vacant  expression, 
retention  (or  in  some  cases  incontinence)  of  urine  and  faeces ; 
complete  absence  of  mental  function  in  the  region  of  will,  pei'- 
ception,  memory,  and  often  even  of  consciousness, 

(2)  Ueliisionai  —  This  form  is  the  outcome  of  profound 
melancholia,  in  which  the  mental  activity  is  terminated  by  a 
melancholic  delusion. 

Stupor  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  pathological  changes  in  the 
brain  and  its  blood-vessels :  it  is  generally  associated  with  grave 
disease,  and  freijuently  has  a  fatal  termination  {Uktionary  of 
Psychological  McdiciiW,  Hack  Tuke). 

Here,  again,  X  contents  himself  with  simple  assertion,  and  omits 
to  adduce  a  single  fact  in  support  of  the  supposed  connection 
between  stupor  and  hypnosis.  Hypnotised  persons  do  not  turn 
blue,  nor  do  their  hands  and  feet  swell ;  they  do  not  lose  control 
over  tlie  bladder  or  bowels.  Their  volition  is  unimpaired,  their 
perception  and  memory  are  often  abnormally  acute,  and  conscious- 
ness is  rarely,  if  ever,  lost.  Hypnosis  is  not  associated  with 
profound  melancholia,  nor  does  it  end  in  a  cessation  of  mental 
activity.  On  the  contrary,  the  hypnotised  person  may  be  able 
to  solve  mental  problems  of  great  difficulty  which  are  beyond  the 


range  of  his  normal  powers.      Again,  stup<jr,  ualike   h_>iJUo»i^. 
cannot   be   originated,  guided,  or  terminated  at  wilL        Further. 
hypnosis  does  not  arise  from  pathological  changes  in  the  brain  aad  I 
its  hlood-ve-'-sels,  nor  has  it  a  fatal  termination. 

(UL)  L&tah. — X  talks  of  lutah  as  if  it  were  a  disease,  though.  | 
as  Moll  has  pointed  out,  the  word  "  latah  "  designates  the  sufferera 
from  the  complaint,  not  the  disease  itself;  hut  tins  is  a  minor 
matter.  The  disease,  according  to  Gilles  de  la  Tourette,  is  a 
"tie"  characterised  by  certain  abnormalities  of  movement,  par- 
ticularly by  the  imitation  of  gestures,  and  of  certain  anomalies  of 
Bpeecli,  such  ivs  the  use  of  l>ad  language  and  the  repetition  of  Uie 
last  words  uttered  in  the  patient's  presence.  Bambeiger  stales 
that  violent  contractions  of  the  tlexors  and  extensors  of  the 
muscles  of  the  leg  take  place  when  the  ]>atient  attempts  to  stand. 
and  thus  a  jumping  movement  is  produced. 

According  to  OUftord  and  Talcott  Williams,  the  condition  13 
latent  in  the  Malay  race,  and  can  be  produced  by  startling  them 
and  making  them  jump.  They  will  then  imitate  actions  which 
are  painful,  dangerous,  or  obscene.  The  Malays  are  a  race  par- 
ticular to  a  fault  about  all  matters  of  iiersoual  modesty;  but  a 
latah  Malay  woman  will  strip  naked  in  a  public  place  at  the 
casual  invitation  of  a  paBsing  stranger. 

In  attempting  to  establish  au  analogy  between  hypnotism 
and  "  latah,"  X,  as  usual,  states  an  old  fallacy  without  adducing 
a  single  fact  in  support  of  it  His  theory  is  apparently  a  repro- 
duction of  that  of  Dr.  Gillmore  Ellis  {The  Journal  of  MetUal 
Science,  January,  1897,  p.  32);  Keither  writer  seems  to  be 
aware  of  the  fact  that  similar  views  were  expressed  at  an  earliet 
date  by  several  Continental  observei's,  and  their  unsoundness 
demonstrated  by  Moll  and  others. 

Tlie  fallacy  appears  to  have  arisen  from  untrained  and  super- 
ficial observation.     Thus,  it  has  been  noticed  tliat  both  the  latah 
Malay  and  the  hypnotised  {lerson  imitate  gestures  ;  the  conditions,  I 
therefore,  are  assuineil  to  be  similar.     The  circumstances,  how-l 
ever,  under  which  they  do  so  are  widely  different.     The  moment  I 
a  "  latah  "  is  startled  he  will  at  once  imitate  any  gesture  mad»] 
before  him  by  any  one.     He  will  also  mimic  the  swaying  motion 
of  wind -shaken  boughs  as   readily  as  the  actions  of  a  human 
being  (CUftbrd).     No   verbal   suggestion  is   necessary.     On   t 
other  hand,   hypnotised  subjects  never  copy  movements    ma 


I 


I 


before  them  unless  they  have  been  trained  to  do  so,  and  then 
only  the  movements  of  the  hypnotiser.  Agftin,  hypnotised 
persons,  even  despite  energetic  suggestions,  will  not  imitate 
actions  which  involve  real  danger,  actual  indelicacy,  or  obscenity, 
nor  do  they  make  use  of  bad  language,  further,  the  hypnotic 
subject,  unlike  the  lutah,  does  not  hop  about  like  a  kangaroo  the 
moment  you  startle  him.  Finally,  iiypnosis  can  be  terminated 
at  will,  but  tlie  disease  from  wliich  the  latah  suffers  is  xmcon- 
trollable  and  frequently  incurable. 

Other  writers  besides  X  have  attempted  to  establish  a  con- 
nectiou  between  hypnosis  and  n»any  and  widely  differing  diseased 
conditions.  In  every  instance  the  fallacy  bus  been  due  to  the 
imperfect  observation  of  some  isolated  hypnotic  phenomenon, 
lienedikt's  theory  is  fairly  characteristic  of  this  class.  In  his 
view  of  hypnosis,  its  numerous,  varied,  and  complex  mental  and 
physical  conditions  are  ignored,  and  it  is  simply  classified  as  an 
artificially  induced  catalep-sy;  because  in  hj^mosis  the  muscles 
can  be  rendered  rigid  by  suggestion, 

Such  theories  have  the  merit  of  simplicity,  and  possess  the 
additional  advantage  tliat  they  can  be  made  without  careful 
observation  or  prolonged  study.  What  should  we  think,  however, 
of  the  observer  who  described  normal  human  life  as  simply  an 
artificially  induced  sneeze,  because  the  act  of  sneessing  could  be 
readily  evoked  by  the  presentation  of  a  pinch  of  snuff! 

We  can  produce  paralysis,  stammering,  or  pain  by  suggestion, 
but  hypnosis  itself  is  none  of  these  things.  MoH  points  out  that 
it  is  illogical  to  call  hypnosis  a  disease  because  morbid  imitations 
of  it  are  to  be  found.  Yawning  itself  is  not  a  disease,  although 
attacks  of  it  occur  wliich  are  morbid  in  cliaracter.  Thus,  we  are 
no  more  justified  in  inferring  that  the  hypnotised  subject  suffers 
from  hysteria  becatis©  he  can  imitate  its  symptoms,  than  in  con- 
cluding that  an  actor  is  nuid  when  he  portrnys  insanity.  Further, 
hypnosis — subject  to  the  limitations  already  referred  to — is 
entirely  under  the  control  of  tlie  operator,  or  of  tlie  subject  bim- 
self;  but  there  is  no  disease  which  can  be  originated,  guided, 
and  terminated  at  a  moment's  notice. 

Moll  also  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  these  jibysiological 
theories  frecjuently  conlriulict  each  other.  Thus,  Kieger  and 
t'onrad  regard  hypnosis  as  an  artiticial  mania,  while  Meynert 
maintains  that  it  is  an  expeiimentally  produced  imbecility — two 


forma  of  mental  disease  which  an»  utterly  dissimilar.  Semal  and 
Hack  Tuke  also  called  hypnosis  an  artiticially  induced  insanity. 
We  might,  says  Moll,  call  hypnosis  an  insane  condition,  if  we 
also  regarded  sleep  and  dreams  as  such.  When  paychologiata 
wish  to  discover  analogies  to  mental  disorders  tliey  always  have 
recourse  to  dreams ;  but  no  one  maintains  that  in  order  to  lose 
our  sanity  it  is  only  necessary  to  go  to  sleep.  Two  conspicuous 
characte  lis  tics  of  hypnosis  are  suggestibility  and  the  fact  that  the 
state  can  be  terminated  at  will ;  but  we  do  not  Rnd  these  united 
in  mental  disorders  or  in  neuroses.  Wliile  ph}*siologists  fail  to 
consider  what  an  enormous  influence  an  idea,  aroused,  for 
example,  by  the  word  "  Awake ! "  exercises,  their  theories  will 
ever  remain  unsatisfactory.  We  ought,  Moll  continues,  to  set  our 
faces  decidedly  against  the  way  in  which  certain  physiolo^yists 
juggle  with  words,  as  if  the  eiugmas  of  consciousness  were  child's 
play  to  them.  When  Meudel,  speaking  of  the  phenomena  of 
hypnosis,  explains  that  we  liuvc  to  do  with  a  strong  stimulation 
of  the  cerebral  cortex,  and  Ziemssen  declares  the  exact  contrary. 
i.e.  chat  the  cerebral  cortex  is  too  little  stimulated,  and  the  sub- 
cortical centres  too  much,  we  are  startled  at  such  contradictions, 
and  can  only  hope  that  in  the  future  less  will  be  asserted  and 
more  proved. 

THE   SECONDARY   OK  SUBLIMINAL   CONSCIOUSNESS 

THEORY. 

Within  recent  times  another  theory  has  arisen.  Tliis,  instead 
of  attempting  to  explain  hypnotism  by  the  arrested  action  of 
some  of  the  brain  centra's  which  subserve  normal  life,  would  do 
80  through  the  arousing  of  certain  powers  over  which  we  normally 
have  little  or  no  control.  This  theory  appears  under  different 
names,  "  Double  Cousciousuess,"  **  I^as  Dttpjfcl'/ch,"  etc.,  and  the 
principle  on  which  it  depends  is  largely  admitted  by  &cicno& 
William  James,  for  example,  says :  "  lu  certain  jjersons,  at  least, 
the  total  possible  consciousness  may  be  split  into  pans  which 
coexist,  but  mutually  ignore  each  other." 

The  clearest  stutemont  of  this  view  was  given  by  the  late 
F.  W.  H.  flyers ;  he  suggested  that  the  stream  of  consciousness 
in  which  we  habitually  lived  was  not  our  only  one.  Possibly 
our  habitual  consciousness  might  be  a  mere  selection  from  a 


4 


I 


multitude  of  thoughts  antl  seusatious — some  at  least  equally 
conscious  with  those  we  empiricaUy  knew.  No  primacy  was 
granted  by  this  theory  to  the  ordinary  waking  self,  except  that 
among  potential  selves  it  appeared  the  fittest  to  meet  tl»e  needs 
of  common  life.  As  a  rule,  the  waking  life  was  rememltei-ed  in 
hypnosis,  nnd  the  hypnotic  life  forgotten  in  the  waking  state : 
this  destroyed  any  claim  of  the  primary  memory  to  be  the  sole 
memory.  The  self  below  the  threshold  of  ordinary  consciousness 
Myers  termed  the  "  subliminal  consciousness,"  and  the  empirical 
self  of  common  experience  the  **  supraliminal."  He  held  that  to 
the  subliminal  consciousness  and  memory  a  far  wider  range,  both 
of  physiological  and  of  psychical  activity,  was  open  than  to  the 
supraliminal.  The  latter  was  inevitably  limited  by  the  need  of 
concentration  upon  recollections  useful  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence ;  while  the  former  included  much  that  was  too  rudimentary 
to  be  retained  in  the  supraliminal  memory  of  an  organism  so 
advanced  as  that  of  man.  The  recollection  of  processes  now 
performed  automatically,  and  needing  no  supervision,  passed  out 
of  the  supraliminal  memory,  l>ut  might  he  retained  by  the 
subliminal.  The  subliminal,  or  hypnotic,  self  conld  exercise  over 
the  nervous,  vaso-motor,  and  circulatoiy  systems  a  degree  of 
control  uuparnlleled  in  waking  life. 

He  suggested  that  the  spectrvm  of  consciouanfss,  as  he  called 
it,  was  indetinitely  extended  at  both  ends  in  the  subliminal  self. 
Beyond  its  supraliminal  physiological  limit  lay  a  vast  number 
of  complex  processes  belonging  to  the  Wiy's  nutrition  and  well- 
being.  These  our  remote  ancestors  ^  might  possibly  have  been 
able  to  modify  at  will,  but  to  us  they  seemed  entirely  withdrawn 
from  our  sphere  of  volition.  If  we  wished  to  alter  them  we 
must  do  so  by  drugs  and  medicament'),  whether  the  body  to  be 
treated  was  our  own  or  another's. 

At  the  superior  or  psychical  end  the  subliminal  memory 
included  an  unknown  category  of  impressions,  which  the  supra- 
liminal consciousness  was  incapable  of  receiving  in  any  direct 
fashion,  and  which  it  must  cognise,  if  at  all,  in  the  shape  of 
message?  from  the  subliminal  consciousness.  Myers  arranged 
hypnotic  phenomena  into  three  divisions : — 


'  It  is  to  b«  noted  that  Vijers  nxed  the  term  "  ancestors"  aooiewhat  looMlr.  It 
ii  not  clear  iti  tho  preaent  iiuttance  whetliar  li«  meuit  remote  human  uioMton,  or 
soroo  lower  fonn  ortnimsl  Hfe. 


HYPNOTISM 


(1)  The  Great  Dissociative  Triamph  of  Hjrpnotism,  namely, 
the  inhibition  of  pain  under  conditions  of  nerve  and 
tissue  with  which  it  was  usually  inevitably  connected. 

Here,  psychologically,  the  whole  interest  lay  in  the  question 
whether  pain  waa  suppressed  together  with  Bensatious  of  uveij 
kind,  or  wliellier  other  sensations  persisted,  piiin  nlone  being 
inhibited.  Our  ancestors,'  Myers  suggested,  Imd  already  attained 
to  a  rough  practical  knowledge  of  this  distinction.  They  knew 
that  if  you  stunned  a  iiiau  by  a  blow  he  would  not  feel  the  pain 
for  some  time.  Also,  that  if  you  ran  pius  into  particular  parts 
of  a  witch's  body  she,  although  perfectly  awake  and  conscious  of 
other  sensations,  would  feel  no  smart 

The  second  of  these  discoveries  was  the  more  important. 
By  stumiing  your  enemy  you  only  pi*oved  that  vital  functions 
could  continue  unimpaired,  uutwithstantling  that  the  l>rain's 
action  was  so  far  disturbed  tliat  all  consciousness  was  temporarily 
abolished.  By  pricking  the  witch  in  her  "  marks  " — now  called 
hysterical  analgesic  zones  or  patches — yon  proved  that  i>ain  was 
a  dissociable  accident  of  organic  injury;  that  other  sensations 
might  persist,  and  that  of  pain  alone  be  in  some  way  inhibited. 
The  iusensitiveness  to  pain  which  ran  wild  iu  hysteria  was  now 
being  directed  into  useful  channels  by  "  liypnotic  suggestion." 
Some  intclligeTue  was  involved  in  a  suppression  thus  achieved ; 
for  this  was  obtained,  not,  as  with  narcotics,  by  a  general  loss  of 
consciousness,  but  by  the  selection  and  inhibition  from  amongst 
all  the  percipient's  possible  sensations  of  di«igreeable  ouea  alone 
Tlib  was  not  a  mere  anitsthetisation  of  some  pai'ticular  group  of 
nerve-endings,  such  as  cocwue  produced:  it  involved  the  removal 
also  of  a  number  of  concomitant  feelings  of  nausea,  exhaustion, 
and  anxiety,  which  were  not  always  directly  dependent  on  the 
principal  pain,  but  needed,  as  it  were,  to  be  tirst  subjectively 
distinguished  as  disagreeal'le  before  they  were  picked  out  for 
inhibition.  This  freedom  from  pain  was  obtained  without  either 
deadening  or  dislocating  the  general  nervous  system,  with  no 
approach  either  to  coma  or  to  hysteria.  The  so-called  hypnotic 
trance  was  not  necessary  :  sometimes  the  pain  could  be  prevented 
by  "  post-hypnotic "  suggestion  destined  to  fulfil  itself  after  the 

)  Lc  Comp«ntively  receat  horota  ascestors. 


i 

t 


awakeniug ;  and,  if  tliere  were  trance,  this  was  ofteu  no  mere 
lethargy,  but  a  state  fully  as  alert  and  vivid  as  ordinary  waking 
life. 

Myers  argued  from  this  that  it  was  plain  that  hypnotic 
analgesia  thus  induced  was  by  no  means  a  mere  ordinary  narcotic 
— not  a  fresh  specimen  of  familiar  methods  for  checking  pain, 
by  arresting  all  conscious  cerebration.  It  was  a  new  departure; 
the  first  successful  attempt  at  dissociating  forms  of  sensation 
whicli,  throughout  the  known  history  of  the  human  organism, 
had  almost  invariably  been  foimd  to  exist  together. 

(2)  The  Associative  or  Synthetic  Triumphs  of  Hypnotism, 
namely,  the  production  and  control  of  organic  processes 
which  no  effort  of  the  ordinary  man  could  set  going  or 
in  any  way  influence. 

Hypnotic  analgesia,  Myers  said,  might  be  classed  with  equal 
justice  as  a  dissociative  or  as  an  associative  act  The  sensations 
were  severed  from  the  main  supraliminal  current,  and  thus  far 
the  act  was  dissociative.  The  group  itself,  however,  had  to  be 
formed,  and  the  more  complex  it  was  the  more  this  involved 
some  associative  act.  Inhibition  of  all  the  pain  consequent  on  an 
operation  was  in  reality  a  complicated  associative  process.  It 
involved  (a)  the  singling  out  and  fitting  together  of  a  great 
number  of  sensations  wliich  had  the  one  subjective  bond  of  being 
disagreeable ;  and  {b)  the  iuliibitiou  of  all  of  them,  which  thus 
left  the  supraliminal  consciousness  in  perfect  ease. 

In  further  illnstratiou  of  the  associative  powers  of  hypnotism, 
Myers  referred  to  alterations  in  the  pulse,  the  secretions,  excretions, 
etc ;  he  also  cited  Delbo?uf 's  case  of  two  symmetrical  bums 
on  the  same  subject,  one  of  which  ran  the  ordinary  course  of 
inflammation,  while  in  the  other  the  morbid  action  was  arrested 
by  su^estion  (p.  84). 


bv 


(3)  The  Intellectual  or  Moral  Achievements  of  Hypnotism. 

Xh^sc,  like  the  othei-s,  were  based  upon  physiological  changes. 
lut   presented   problems  still  more   profound.     The  removal  of 
the  craving  for  alcohol  and  morphia,  the  cure  of  kleptomania, 
bad  temper,  excessive  indolence,  etc.,  were  all  cited  by  Myers  as 


3fa 


HYPNOTISM 


illustrating  the  moral  and  psychological  cliangcs  which  auggestiu; 
could  effect 

Volition,  etc. — According  to  Myers,  the  hypnotic  subject  wm 
not  a  maimed  and  stunted  normal  individual,  but  one  who.  while 
he  bad  gained  increased  power  over  his  own  organism,  had  not 
at  tlie  same  time  lost  his  volition,  or  the  mental  and  moral 
qualities  which  had  formerly  distinguished  him.  He  admitt«(] 
that  there  was  some  difficulty  in  explaining  hypnotic  obedience . 
but  held — ^.justly,  as  we  have  seen — that  this  would  be  refill 
when  the  act  suggested  was  contrary  to  the  subject's  moral  nature. 
He  believed  that  a  complete  comprehension  of  the  suggested  act 
existed  in  the  subliminal  strata,  and  that,  wlien  great  need  arose, 
the  subliminal  self  would  generally  avoid  compliance, not  necessarily 
by  awakening  the  organism  into  ordinary  life,  but  by  plunging  it 
into  a  hysterical  access  or  into  a  trance  so  deep  that  the  unwelcome 
order  lost  its  agitating  power.  The  moral  tone  of  the  somnambal? 
was,  in  Myers'  opinion,  the  precise  opposite  of  the  drunken 
condition.  Alcohol,  by  paralysing  first  the  higher  inhibitoiy 
centres,  made  men  boastful,  impure,  and  quarrelsome.  Hypnotisa- 
tion,  apparently  by  a  tendency  to  paralyse  lower  appetitive  centre^ 
produced  the  contrary  effect.  The  increased  refinement  an4! 
cheerfulness  of  the  developed  somnambule  were  constantly  noticed. 

The  Possible  Source  or  Origin  of  Hypnotic  Oontrol  over 

Intimate  Or^^anic  Processes. 


I 


Myers  asked  whether  we  could  find  anything  in  our  ancestry 
which  suggested  to  x\s  these  internal  powers  of  modifying  circula- 
tion, quickening  cell-proliferation,  and  altering  trophic  processes 
in  unknown  ways.     He  admitted  that  the  analogies  to  which  we 
could  appeal  were  vague  and  remote,  yet  he  said  we  could  pointj 
to   the   general   fact   that,  in   man  and   the   higher  animals,  ani 
increa.se  in  the  power  of  motUfying  the  action  of  the  organism,  as] 
a  whole,  had   evidently   been   purchased   by  a   decrease   in  the] 
power  of   modifying  its  internal   parts  or  constituent  element 
The  self-shaping    powers  of   the   amceba,  the   self-regen€ 
powers   of   the   worm   or  crab,   died    gradually  away    into    the 
comparative  fixity  of  the  organism  of  the  higher  mammalia. 

It  was  possible,  he  thought,  that  this  fixity  was  more  apparent 
than  real.     "  We  may,"  ho  said,  "  regard  the  human  organism  as 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


363 


an  aggregation  of  primitive,  unicellular  organisms,  which  have 
divided  their  functiona  and  complicated  their  union  in  response 
to  the  demands  of  the  environment,  and  along  such  lines 
of  evolution  as  were  possible  to  the  original  germ.  It  is 
possible,  too,  tliat  all  tliese  processes  —  beginning  with  the 
amoeboid  movements  of  the  primitive  cell — were  accompanied 
by  a  capacity  of  retaining  the  impress  of  previous  excitations,  a 
rudimentar)'  memory  which  at  first  constituted  all  the  conscious- 
ness which  our  lowly  ancestoi-w '  possessed.  And  further,  as 
evolution  went  on,  and  more  complex  operations  were  developed, 
while  the  primitive  ]»rocesse5  of  cell-change  became  stereotyped 
by  long  heredity,  the  memorj'  which  represented  these  earlier 
changes  sank  to  a  low  psychical  depth,  became  subliminal,  and 
could  no  longer  be  summoned  by  voluntary  eflbrt  into  the 
supraliminal  sequence  of  conscious  states.  How  do  we  know 
that  any  psychical  acquisition  is  ever  wholly  lost  ?  or  even  that 
a  memory  is  the  weaker  Irfcuuse  it  has  sunk  out  of  voluntary 
control  ?  It  may  be  possible,  by  appropriate  artifices,  to  recall 
primeval  memories,  and  to  set  in  motion  any  physiological  process 
which  c^uld  at  any  moment  of  our  ancestral  history  have  been 
purposely,  however  blindly,  i>erfonned." 
H  In  justice  to  Myers,  however,  it  must  be  admitted  that  he 
"was  doubtful  whether  all  hypnotic  phenomena  conltl  be  explainetl 
by  the  above  theory.  Thus,  he  asked :  Do  not  the  moral  and 
psychological  achievements  of  hypnosis  I'epi'esent  a  point  beyond 
that  to  which  such  analogies  can  carry  us  ?  Tliese  changes  must, 
he  said,  of  course,  rest  on  a  physiological  basis ;  but  that  basis 
implies  a  well-developed  human  brain.  The  knowledge  of 
cortical  centres,  which  must  somewhere  exist  to  make  such 
changes  poaaible,  can  scarcely  have  been  inherited  from  pre- 
human ancestors.  Xothing,  perhaps,  in  the  whole  inquiry  is  of 
deeper  interest  than  the  possibilities  thus  dawning  upon  us  of 
disentangling,  from  the  cerebral  labyrinth  which  represents  a 
man's  tastes  and  character,  the  sju'cial  brain  processes  which 
stand  for  some  special  temptation — say,  those  which  represent 
the  reaction  of  his  organism  to  alcohol.  What  is  the  hidden 
process  that  to  one  patient  makes  brandy  ns  nauseating  as  it  is 
to  a  cat — that  in  another  patient  makes  the  morphia  craving  as 
[impossible  as  it  is  to  a  rabbit  ? 

'  I.e.  the  original  f^smii  of  erolution. 


Hysteria,  a  Disease  of  the  Subliminal  Selfl 


ifyers  did  not  consider  the  subliniinal  self  free  from  disturi 
ance  and  disease  any  more  than  the  supraliminal.  Subliminal 
disturbances,  he  said,  were  likely  to  arise  and  make  themaelves 
felt  in  the  supraliminal  I>f?ing.  "  IIow  shall  we  distinguish,"  he 
asked,  "  these  subterranean  froin  the  supeilicial  storms  ?  How 
shall  we  reco^ise,  for  instance,  a  disturbance  of  the  '  hypnotic 
stratum ' — as  we  may  style,  for  convenience'  sake,  that  group 
of  potential  perceptions  and  reactions  which  are  readily  evoked  in 
a  suitable  subject  by  the  hypnotic  trance  ?  It  would  be  absurd 
to  attempt  to  explain  ignotum  per  ifjnoiin^,  the  wtiology  of 
disease  by  its  relation  to  hypothetical  strata  of  the  subliminal 
self.  But  one  remark  I  must  make,  since,  crude  as  it  may  be. 
it  oHers  at  least  a  chance  of  light  upon  a  subject  at  preaoit 
liopelessly  coni'used. 

"  I  say,  then,  that  our  moat  plausible  conception  of  n  morbid 
disturbance  of  the  hypnotic  self  is  a  derangement  of  fuuctions  or 
capacities  which  are  habitually  observed  in  the  hypnotic  state, 
and  in  that  alone.  1  should  say  that  the  reason  for  so  referring 
the  source  of  such  demn^'eineut  would  be  increased  if  the  subject 
were,  when  hypnotised,  aware  of  ths  exciting  external  cause  of 
such  derangements,  and  capable  of  modifying  them  iu  a  way 
impossible  to  him  in  waking  life. 

"  Xow  it  is  a  striking  characteristic  of  the  hypnotic  self  that 
it  can  exercise  over  the  nervous,  the  vaso-motor,  the  circulatoi 
systems  a  degree  of  control  xinparnllcled  iu  waking  life. 
Are  we  uware  in  practice  of  any  niidady  or  group  of  maladies 
in  wliich  these  functions^  these  capacities,  are  the  subject  of 
special  disturbances  ?  Are  there  amestliesife  appearing,  shifting, 
aud  disappearing  as  rapidly  as  the  suggested  auiesthesia  of 
hypnotism?  Are  there  anomalous  vaso-motor  disturbances 
which  seem  to  follow  the  patient's  mci-e  c^iprice  ? 

"  The   reader   will   answer   with   the   word   hysteria.       And, 
meaningless  or  misleading  though   that  term  be,  it  is  in  fact  oi 
first   and   obvious  rei>ly.      Not   indeed   all,   hut   almost   all,   tbi 
phenomena  which  can   be  induced  by  suggestion  in  the  hypno 
state  occur  spontaneously  in  hysterical  patients, 

"  But  this  will  not  complete  our  answer.     From  the  poini 


I 


lat    i 


N 


of  view  of  our  present  analogy,  the  diJJ'erentia  of  hysteria  will  be 
simply  an  irrational  self-suggcation  in  regions  beyond  the  power 
of  the  waking  will — a  morbid  or  uncontrolled  functioning  of 
powers  over  the  organism  which  alfeet  profounder  modifications 
than  the  empirical  self  can  parallel.  Thus  the  pnxiuction  of 
patches  of  amesthesia  or  analgesia  is  a  characteristically  hysterical 
symptom,  and  it  implies  a  power  of  modifying  the  sensibility 
to  touch  or  pain  which  we  cannot  imitate  under  ordinary 
conditions." 

*'  liut  when  hysteria  is  thus  regarded,  it  is  seen  that  several 
other  maladies  fall  under  the  same  category  ;  '  attaqucs  de  sommeili 
*  association  -  neuroses,'  '  ZwangsvorsidluiiQen'  and  a  host  of 
monomanias,  show  a  similarly  morbid  functioniiig  of  precisely 
that  class  of  powers  which  hypnotism  exhibits  to  us  in  harmless 
or  beneficent  operation.  Tliey  are  self-suggestions  of  an  irrational 
and  hurtful  kind.  They  are  diseases  of  the  iiypuotic  stratum. 
Hypnotism  is  not  a  morbid  state ;  it  is  the  manifestation  of  a 
group  of  perfectly  normal,  but  habitually  subjacent  powers, 
whose  beneficent  operation  we  see  in  cureis  by  therapeutic 
suggestion,  whose  neutral  operation  we  see  in  ordinary  hypnotic 
experiment,  and  whose  diseased  operation  we  see  in  the  vast 
variety  of  self-suggestive  maladies. 

"  1  would  ofter  this  view  to  the  consideration  of  those  who 
justly  realise  the  close  connection  between  hj'pnotiam  and 
hysterical  phenomena,  but  mistakenly  endeavour  to  force  all  the 
hypnotic  phenomena  into  the  hysterical  category. 

"  M.  Babinski,  for  instance,  argues  as  follows  on  behalf  of  the 
Salpetriere  \iew  that  all  hypnotic  subjects  are  hysterical  The 
Nancy  subjects,  he  says,  although  asserted  by  Nancy  doctors  to 
be  non-hysterical,  yet  show  in  the  h)'pnotic  trance  phenomena 
which  we  observe  elsewhere  in  hysteria  alone.  For  that  reason 
they  must,  in  eflect,  be  hysterical.  Tliis,  surely,  is  to  reason  in  a 
somewhat  obvious  circle ;  and  those  who,  with  the  great  majority 
of  competent  judges,  are  convinced  that  non-hysterical  persons 
may  most  assuredly  be  nevertheless  hypuotisable,  must  seek 
some  other  explanation  for  the  similarity  of  phenomena  in  the 
two  states.  That  explanation  I  have  here  attempted  to  give  by 
suggesting  that  hysteria  (and  many  cognate  troubles)  should 
ifather  be  said  to  fall  imder  hypnotism,  than  hypnotism  under 
hysteria.     Those  self-suggestive  troubles  exhibit  the  disordered 


3%  HYPXOT7SJr 

^.r^^'.'rii  '.--i  t-:p«rTdc-il  S3is;jr  ir   like   decree  of  |«ve: 

yf,  i>.y/^i  '^,-  i*yl-r  tLr=.  ^tytLc^rmtoI.  azid  to  reciid  afii 
:ufiH   '-  -ry^;'.  y,   "^ :.  i :  -    ■:•*  -    i^trvcr    1 1    cl-r^eZ t   iiiTroiQ^l  i 

T:.^  '  z^orriJu  "  zuJi-  w**  ^elj,  be  tiK>Qgbi.  lo  Itfios 
'j'.:*:<:o;--r^;rlr4*  an  iLiiiviiu^  in  j-hvsiological  as  the'i 
Ki^:.  ;:;  '.I'.rolou':''-^!  tr^^iises.  Wr;a:  '.>  man's  naxore  ud 
M  KiAii'^  •  u'jtz:.  "  f  If  :he  Guesdon  were  asked  in  na 
f^jtitH  \'f'KHr  auimal  type  :h^  answer  vould  be  a  coznpoi 
*AVf  ouH.  But  iziazi's  eL'i  and  aim  are  doc  so  simpae 
tnWuit'. :  he  ::iU3:  choose  be:wc*n  ideals :  he  xnuft  pcrs 
iw;:her  objects,  even  to  some  sacrifice  of  the  lower.  Ti 
z'ufjuld  f.e'iitate  to  assume  that  Brigham  Voung  had  ; 
:usxhH  end  and  aim  more  successfoUy  than  Sir  Isaac  Sevu 

Myera  suggested  that  {.^ycbolo^cal  experiment  was  i 
much  the  same  {loint  as  was  medical  experiment  in  the  < 
Hipjxx;rat/;n :  that  though  we  attempted  to  describe  and  ) 
the  pfiychical  nature  with  which  we  bad  to  deal,  we  had  a 
yet  invent*--*!  any  instruments  for  probing  or  artifi< 
modifying  it.  Not  only  so,  but  the  very  idea  of  tn 
mfxlify  our  psychical  selves  by  deliberate  scientific  eip< 
w&s  tiH  foreign  and  unacceptable  to  most  men,  as  the 
mfxlirying  his  death-rate  by  sanitation  was  to  the 
navage. 

Ju0t  iifl  the  Hcientitic  discoveries  of  such  men  as  Past< 
LiHler  had  increased   our  jx)wer  of  checking  or   curing 
,i  from  the  piiyHical   side,  in  a  manner  and  to  an  extent  whi 

not  dreamt  of  by  the  earlier  physicians,  so  Myers  thought 
jKfHHiblu  tliat  in  hypnotism  we  might  find  a  somewhat  i 
power  of  iniluencing  jisycliical  conditions. 

After  criticising  adversely  the  theories  of  Mesmer,  Heidc 
Cliarcot,  iksrnheim.  and  others,  Myers  said : — "  It  is,  theref 
it  fieems  to  me,  in  a  field  almost  clear  of  hypothesis  i 
HuggeHt  my  view  that  a  stream  of  consciousness  flov 
within   us,  at  a  level  beneath  the  threshold  of  ordinary  v 


life,  and  that  this  consciousness  embraces  unknown  powers,  of 
which  these  hypnotic  phenomena  give  us  the  first  sample." 


THEORY   OF  THE  LATE   PROFESSOR  DELBCEUF. 

In  many  i-espects  Delbceufs  views  closely  resembled  those  of 
Myers.  Thus,  l>ellxeuf  believed  that  suggestion  was  not  only 
capable  of  inhibiting  sensations  of  pain  intimately  associated  with 
organic  injury,  and  of  modifying  or  arresting  various  morbid 
nervous  conditions  which  arose  more  or  less  diiectly  from  it ;  but 
was  also  capable  of  iuflueucing  the  organic  changes  which,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  would  have  resulted  from  the  injury 
itsell  In  support  of  this  theory,  he  cited  numerous  interesting 
cases,  of  which  the  following  are  examples : — 

One  of  his  subjects  had  her  fingers  accideutly  severely  crushed  ; 
auggestiou  at  once  stopped  the  pain,  and  the  healing  process  was 
exceptionally  rapid.  Another  subject  had  a  considerable  portion 
of  her  thumb  cut  off.  The  following  day,  after  a  sleepless  and 
painful  night,  she  was  unable  to  rise  her  hand.  Suggestion 
entirely  removed  the  pain,  and  the  wound  healed  with  unusual 
rapidity. 

Uu  June  15th,  1886,  astrongyonng  peasant  woman  was  shot 
in  the  back  with  a  revolver.  All  attempts  to  extract  the  bullet 
failed  ;  and  during  several  days  her  recovery  seemed  more  than 
doubtful.  When  Delbreuf  saw  her,  on  June  iiGth,  all  immediate 
danger  had  disappeared ;  but  she  was  extremely  feeble,  and  could 
hfti-dly  sit  up  for  half  an  hour  a  day  in  an  arm-chair.  Slie  had 
freriueni  attacks  of  shivering,  followed  by  profuse  perspiration. 
She  could  only  take  liquid  nourishment,  and  this  was  rarely 
retained.  She  also  suffered  greatly  from  insomnia,  and  from 
persistent  pain  in  the  abdomen.  The  bowels  were  constipated, 
and  defecation  and  micturition  were  painful  The  wound  was 
kept  o|>en  with  antiseptic  dressings.  She  was  hypnotised  on 
June  26th,  and  the  process  was  repeated  the  following  day.  Im- 
provement was  immediate  and  marked :  she  was  able  to  retain 
solid  food,  pain  disappeared,  and  the  action  of  the  bladder  and 
bowels  became  normal.  By  June  30th,  slie  was  able  to  stand  and 
[Volk,  and  to  do  light  work,  such  as  sewing  or  knitting.  A  few 
days  later,  she  was  again  hypnotised,  and  at  once  recommenced 


her  ordinary  domestic  occupatioua.     The  wuiinU  liealed   rapidly 
and  she  shortly  afterwards  took  another  situation.     There  waa  no  ^ 
relapse.  H 

Delbceufs  most  striking  case,  that  of  the  two  symmetrical 
burns,  has  already  been  described  (p,  84). 

In  Delboeufs  opinion,  the  persistent  belief  that  one  waa 
suffering  from  disease  miglit  sometimes  ultimately  cause  disease ;  M 
and,  in  the  same  way,  the  conviction  that  a  morbid  condition  did  ■ 
not  exist  might  contribute  to  its  disappearance.  He  considered 
that  the  organic  changes  lliat  followed  such  an  injuiy  as  we 
have  described  in  the  case  of  J.  (p.  84)  were  not  alone  due  to 
the  injury  itself,  but  were  also  partly  caused  by  the  subject'a 
consciouflueas  of  pain.  The  absence  or  presence  of  pain  might,  to  a 
greater  or  leaser  extent,  iutluence  vaso-raotor  conditions.  On  the 
one  hand,  organic  injury,  unassociated  with  pain,  might  not  be 
followed  by  congestion,  inilammation,  or  suppuration;  while  in  an 
identical  injury,  accompanied  by  pain,  these  conditions  miglit  Ite 
present  The  consciousness  of  pain,  in  addition  to  being  some- 
times responsible  for  morbid  changes  at  the  site  of  injury,  might 
also  help  to  spread  them  to  otlier  parts  more  or  less  remote ;  and 
thus,  when  pain  was  removed  or  relieved,  this  really  meant  the 
disappenrnnce  or  decrease  of  one  of  the  factors  in  the  organic 
malady. 

According  to  Delbceuf,  experiments  like  these  led  us  to  sup- 
pose that  the  action  of  the  moral  on  the  physical  might  be  almost, 
if  not  quite,  equal  to  that  of  the  physical  on  the  moral.  Hence 
it  followed  that  the  idea  of  absence  of  mischief  might  bring 
about,  or  at  least  favour,  a  cure.  How,  asked  Delbceuf,  are  we  to 
ex])lain  the  mechanism  of  this  inverse  action  of  the  moral  on  the 
physical  ?  The  action  of  organs  which  are  dependent  upon  the 
sympathetic  system  cannot  be  modified  voluntarily  by  the  will . 
the  unstriped  muscles,  the  vaso-motors,  the  glands,  act  without 
the  intervention  of  the  cerebral  hemisplu*res. 

The  following  was  his  explanation :  In  the  lower  forms  of  life 
the  animal  was  just  as  conscious  of  what  was  taking  place  in  its 
interior  as  it  was  of  what  was  happening  at  its  periphery.  With 
the  progress  of  development,  however,  its  attention  would  be 
directed  more  or  less  exclusively,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  oi^ane 
which  placed  it  in  direct  relationship  with  the  external  world, 
and  warned  it  of  the  passing  of  outside  events  of  importance  to 


its  existence  and  well-being;  ou  tlie  otlier,  to  the  means  of 
attack  or  defence,  which  it  learnt  to  use  from  day  to  day  with 
greater  certainty  and  \*igour.  At  the  saiue  time,  the  cares  of  the 
interior  would  be  got  rid  of  more  and  more  completely,  and  would 
be  confided  to  a  ser\'ant  who  had  been  trained  to  look  after  them. 
and  whose  zeal  could  be  depended  upon.  In  a  higldy  developetl 
animal  such  as  man,  the  importauce  of  coiiseious  life  distraetetl 
the  attention  from  the  phenomena  of  vegetative  life  :  the  con- 
tinual obligation  to  provide  for  the  uecessities  of  existence 
absorbed  the  will,  while  tlie  mechanical  regularity  with  which 
Internal  organs  acted  rendered  conscious  attention  regarding  them 
unnecessary.  lu  ordinary  life  our  attention  was  mainly  con- 
centrated on  the  external  worlds  the  principal  source  of  our 
pleasures  and  our  pains ;  and  our  will  was  devoted  to  perfecting 
our  means  of  attack  and  defence.  The  rapid  changes  of  external 
phenomena  masked  the  regularity  of  internal  phenomena,  which 
took  place  habitually  without  oui-  knowledge.  The  care  of  the 
vegetative  life  had  been  handed  over  by  the  will  to  nervous 
mechanisms  which  had  leanit  to  regulate  themselves,  and  which 
in  general  fulfilled  their  task  to  perfection.  Sometimes  the 
■  machine  went  wrong,  and  inter\'eution  became  desirable.  The 
power  which  formerly  voluntarily  regulated  it  had,  however, 
dropped  out  of  the  normal  consciousness;  and,  if  we  desired  to 
find  a  substitute  for  it.  we  must  turn  to  hypnotism.  Id  the 
hypnotic  state  the  mind  was  in  part  drawn  aside  from  the  life  of 
relation,  while  at  the  same  time  it  preserved  its  activity  and 
power.  Voluntary  attention  could  be  abstracted  from  the  outer 
world,  and  directed  with  full  force  upon  a  single  point ;  aud  thus 
the  hypnotic  subconsciousness  was  able  to  put  in  movement 
machinery  which  the  normal  consciousness  had  lost  sight  of  and 
ceased  to  i-egxdate.  It  might  then  be  able  to  act,  not  only  on  the 
reflexes,  but  on  the  vaso-motor  system,  on  the  unstriped  muscles, 
on  the  apparatus  of  secretion,  etc.  If  a  contrary  opinion  had  till 
now  prevailed,  this  was  because  observation  hud  been  exclusively 
directed  to  the  normal  exercise  of  the  will.  The  will  could,  how- 
ever, in  the  hypnotic  state,  regulate  movements  which  had  become 
irregular,  and  assist  in  the  repair  of  organic  injury.  In  a  word, 
hypnotism  did  not  depress,  but  exalted  the  will,  by  permitting  it 
to  concentrate  itself  upon  the  point  where  disorder  was  threatened. 


2  B 


370 


HYPNOTISM 


THEORY  OF   PROFESSOR  BEAUNIS. 

Somewhat  siruilor  views  are  also  expressed  by  Professor 
Beaunis.  The  cerebral  activity,  at  a  given  instant,  he  saysy 
represents  a  collection  of  sensations,  ideas,  and  memories.  Of 
those  some  alone  become  sufficiently  conscious  to  enable  us  to 
perceive  them  cleiirly  and  precisely,  while  the  remainder  pass 
without  leaving  durable  traces.  In  a  series  of  cerebral  acts  a 
certain  number  of  intermediate  links  frequently  e.^cape  lis,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  greater  number  of  mental  phenomena  take  place 
without  our  knowledge.  Sensations  to  which  we  do  not  pay  any 
attention  may  nevertheless  excite  cerebral  action,  and  originate, 
without  our  knowledge,  ideas  and  movements  of  which  we  after- 
wards become  conscious.  Our  brain  acts  without  our  knowledge, 
with  an  activity  of  which  we  are  unable  to  fonu  an  idea  ;  and  the 
facts  of  consciousness  are  only  feeble  fugitives  from  this  mysterious 
work.  Hypnotic  phenomena,  Beaunis  thinks,  afiford  examples  of 
this  subconscious  cerebration. 

Beaunis'  description  of  subconscious  mental  activity  so  closely 
resembles  the  theories  of  the  late  Professor  W.  B.  Carpenter  that 
I  now  give  an  account  of  these,  in  justice  to  the  earlier  ^\Titer. 


y 


CARPENTER'S   UNCONSCIOUS  CEREBRATION. 


According  to  Carpenter,  much  of  our  intellectual  activity — I 
both  reasoning  and  imaginative — was  essentially  om^owut/u:,  and  . 
might   be  described  physiologically  as  the   rtflex.  aeium   0/  tlu 
Cerebrum.       Tliere    was,   he    said,    a    further    question,    namely* J 
whether  this  action  might  not  take  place  unwnsciottsly.     The  viewl 
had  been  held  by  German  metaphysicians,  from  Leibnitz  onwa 
that  the  mind  might  undergo  modifications,  without  l>eing  it*?ell 
conscious  of  the  process  until  the  results  presented  themselves  uA 
the  consciousness,  in  the  new  ideas,  or  new  combinations  of  ide 
which    the    process    had    evolved.      This   "  Unconscious    Cc 
bration,"  taking  place  in  the  higher  sphere  of  cerebral  actixityJ 
had  its  exact  parallel  in  such  automatic  acts  as  those  of  walking 
when  the  latter  occurred  while  the  attention  was  uninteri'uptedly ' 
diverted  from  them. 


Each  of  the  nervous  centres  had  au  independent  "  retiex " 
activity  of  its  own,  sometimes  "  primary "  or  *'  original/'  some- 
times "secondary"  or  "acquired";  while  our  coti^cicusncss  of  its 
exercise  depended  upon  the  impression  which  it  made  upon  the 
Sensorium,  which  was  the  instrument  alike  of  the  extenial  and  of 
the  internal  senses.  Kegarding,  therefore,  all  the  automatic 
operations  of  the  mind  as  "  reflex  actions  "  of  the  Cerebrum,  there 
was  no  more  difficulty  in  comprchending  that  such  reflex  actions 
might  proceed  without  our  knowledge — theh-  results  being  evolved 
as  iTUcllectxuU  produds^  when  we  became  conscious  of  the  impres- 
sions transmitted  along  the  "  nerves  of  the  internal  senses  "  fi*om 
the  Cerebrum  to  the  Sensorium— than  there  was  in  understauding 
that  impressions  might  excite  muscular  movements  through  the 
"  reflex  "  power  of  the  Spinal  Cord,  mthout  the  necessary  inter- 
vention of  sensation.  **  In  both  instances,"  Carpenter  said,  "  the 
condition  of  this  mode  of  unconscious  operation  was  that  the 
receptivity  of  the  Sensorium  should  be  suspended  quoad  the 
changes  in  question,  either  by  its  own  functional  iuactiWty,  or 
through  its  temporary  engrossment  by  other  impressions." 

As  an  example  of  this  form  of  unconscious  mental  activity. 
Carpenter  cited  the  spiyrUa^icom  remembrance  of  some  name, 
phrase,  occurrence,  etc.,  which  we  had  been  previously  vainly 
trying  to  recollect.  It  was  important  to  note,  he  said,  that  the 
lost  name  suddenly  flashed  into  our  consciousness,  cither  when 
we  were  thinking  of  something  altogether  difterentj  or  when  we 
had  just  awakened  out  of  profound  sleep.  In  the  tirst  case  the 
mind  might  have  been  entirely  engrossed  in  the  meantime  by 
some  quite  different  subject  of  contemplation,  and  we  could  not 
detect  any  link  of  association  whereby  the  result  had  been 
obtained,  notwithstanding  that  the  whole  "  train  of  thought " 
which  had  jmssed  tliruugh  the  mind  in  the  interval  might  be 
most  distinctly  remembered.  In  the  second  case,  the  missing 
idea  seemed  more  likely  to  present  itself  when  the  sleep  had 
been  profound  than  when  it  had  been  disturbed. 

Carpenter  cited  various  authorities  and  exiunples  in  illustra- 
tion of  the  above  phenomenon.  Of  these  the  following  are  the 
more  interesting :  Miss  Cobbe  said  we  often  "  ransack  our 
brains  "  to  And  some  lost  name^  etc,,  and,  failing  to  do  so,  we  at 
last  turn  our  attention  to  other  matters.  By  and  by,  when,  ao 
1^  as  consciousness  goes,  our  whole  minds  are  absorbed  in  a 


372 


HYPNOTISM 


diflejeut  topic,  we  exclaim,  "  Eureka  !  the  word  was  so  and 
So  familiar  is  this  pheuoiuouoQ,  that  we  are  accuatoined  io 
similar  straits  to  say,  "  Never  mind ;  I  shall  think  of  the  luissing 
word  hj  and  by,  when  I  am  attending  to  something  else  " ;  and 
we  deliberately  turn  away,  just  as  if  we  possessed  an  obedient 
seci-etary  whom  we  could  order  to  hunt  up  the  missing  woid 
while  we  occupied  ourselves  with  something  else.  The  more 
this  common  phenomenon  is  studied,  the  more  the  observer  of 
his  own  mental  processes  will  be  obliged  to  concede,  that,  so 
far  as  his  own  conscious  self  is  concerned,  the  research  is 
made  absolutely  icithout  him.  He  has  neither  pain,  pleastire, 
nor  sense  of  labour  in  the  bask,  and  his  conscious  self  is 
&U  the  time  suffering,  enjoying,  or  labouring  on  totally  difl'ereni 
ground. 

In  speaking  of  the  same  phenomenon,  the  late  Dr.  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  said  the  idea  we  were  seeking  comes  all  at  once 
into  the  mind,  delivered  like  u  prepaid  parcel  laid  nt  the  door  of 
consciousness,  like  a  foundlin"  in  u  basket  How  it  came  there, 
we  do  not  know.  The  mind  must  have  been  at  work,  groping 
and  feeling  for  it  in  the  dark;  it  cannot  have  come  by  itself. 
Yet,  all  the  while,  our  consciousness,  so  far  a«  iw  were  canscunt^  cf 
our  coiistiousness,  was  busy  with  other  thoughts. 

Carpenter  said  that  be  was  in  the  habit  of  trusting  to  Hat 
method  of  recollectiou.  He  found  he  was  much  more  likely  to 
recover  lost  memories  in  this  way,  by  withdrawing  hia  mind  from 
the  search  when  it  was  not  quickly  successful.  It  was  better  to 
give  himself  up  to  some  other  occupation,  rather  than  to  induce 
mental  fatigue  by  continued  unsuccessful  eQbrts. 

In  further  confirmation  of  the  above  theory,  Carpenter  cited 
the  phenomena  observed  with  "  talking  tables  "  and  "  plancbettea.* 
Here,  ideas  which  had  passed  out  of  the  conscious  memory  some- 
times expressed  themselves  in  involmUary  muscuUir  mto^wments.  to 
the  great  surprise  of  the  individuals  executing  them.  Generally 
the  answers  given  in  this  way  only  expi-essed  the  ideas  consciously 
present  to  the  minds  of  the  operators.  True  answers  were,  how- 
ever, sometimes  given  to  questions  as  to  matters  of  fact,  notwith- 
standing that  tliere  might  l^e  entire  ignorance  (proceeding  from 
complete  forgetful n ess)  of  those  facts,  or  absolute  disbelief  in  the 
statement  of  them.  These  results,  which  were  falsely  attributed 
to  "spiritual"  agency,  were  really  due   to  the  revival   of    lost 


I 


impressions,  which  now  disclosed  their  existence  through  the 
automatic  motor  apparatus. 

Carpenter  also  asserted  that  there  were  cases  in  which  two 
distinct  tniins  of  mental  action  were  carried  on  eimidtaneously — 
one  conseioxdt/,  the  other  anemiacimidy ;  the  latter  guided  the 
movements,  which  might  express  something  quite  unrelated  to 
the  subject  that  was  entirely  and  coniinumisly  engrossing  the 
attention.  In  support  of  this  he  quoted  the  following  passage 
from  Miss  Cobbe : — 

"  Music-playing  is  of  all  others  the  most  extraordinary 
manifestation  of  the  powers  of  unconscious  cerebration.  Here 
we  seem  not  to  have  one  slave,  but  a  dozen.  Two  dill'ereut  lines 
of  hieroglyphics  have  to  be  read  at  once,  and  the  right  hand  has 
to  be  guided  to  attend  to  one  of  them,  the  left  to  another.  All 
the  ten  fingers  have  their  work  assigned  as  quickly  as  they  can 
move.  The  mind,  or  something  which  does  duty  as  mind, 
interprets  scores  of  A  sharps  and  B  tiats  and  C  naturals  into 
black  ivory  keys  and  white  ones,  crotchets  and  quavere  and  demi- 
semiquavers,  rests,  and  all  the  other  mysteries  of  music  The 
feet  are  not  idle,  but  have  something  to  do  with  the  pedals,  and, 
if  the  instrument  be  a  double-action  harp  (or  an  organ),  a  task  of 
pushiugs  and  puUings  more  difficult  than  that  of  the  hands. 
And  all  this  time  the  performer,  the  conscioxis  performer,  is  in  a 
seventh  heaven  of  artistic  rapture  at  the  results  of  all  this 
tremendous  business,  or  perchance  lost  in  a  flirtation  with  the 
individual  who  turns  the  leaves  of  the  music-book." 

Carpenter  also  received  from  a  distinguished  prelate  the 
following  account  of  hia  own  frequently  repeated  experience  of 
another  form  of  unconscious  cerebration  : — 

"  I  have  for  years  been  accustomed  to  act  upon  your  principle 
of  *  Unconscious  Cerebration,'  with  very  satisfactory  results.  I 
am  frequently  asked,  as  you  may  supjfose,  to  preach  occasional 
sermons ;  and  when  I  have  undertaken  any  such  duty,  T  am  in 
the  habit  of  setting  down  and  thinking  over  the  topics  I  wish  to 
introduce,  without  in  the  (irst  instance  endeavouring  to  frame 
them  into  any  consistent  scheme.  I  then  put  aside  my  sketch 
for  a  time,  and  give  my  mind  to  some  nltogcthcr  diffennt  snhject ; 
and  when  1  come  to  write  my  sermon,  perhaps  a  week  or 
two  afterwards,  I  very  commonly  find  that  the  topics  I  set 
Sown   have  arra-nged  tkoMelvu^  so   that  I   can  at  once  apply 


374 


HYPi\OTISAf 


myself  to  develop  them  on  the  plan  in  which  they  present  them- 
selves before  me." 

In  the  following  example,  given  by  Wendell  Holmes,  cbe 
individual  was  con^ious  of  the  fiow  of  an  undercurrent  of  mental 
action,  although  this  did  not  rise  to  the  level  of  distinct  ideation : — 
A  business  man,  who  had  an  important  question  under  considera- 
tion, gave  it  up  for  the  time  as  too  much  for  him.  Immediately  M 
after  having  done  so  he  was  couscious  of  on  action  going  on  in  bis  V 
brain,  which  was  so  unusual  and  painful  as  to  excite  his  appre- 
hensions tliat  he  was  threatened  with  paralysis,  or  something  of 
that  sort  After  some  hours  of  this  uneasiness,  his  perplexity 
was  all  at  once  cleared  up  by  the  solution  of  his  doubts  coming 
to  him— worked  out,  as  he  believed,  in  that  obscure  and 
troubled  interval. 

According  to  Wendell  Holmes,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  ■ 
ponons  who  think  most — that  is,  have  most  conscious  thought  ' 
pass  through  their  minds — do  most  mental  work.  Tlie  tree  you 
plant,  he  said,  grows  while  you  are  sleeping.  So  with  every  new 
idea  that  is  planted  in  a  real  thinker's  brain  :  it  will  be  {rrowini; 
when  he  is  least  conscious  of  it.  Au  idea  in  the  brain  is  not  a 
legend  carved  on  a  marble  slab :  it  is  an  impression  made  on  & 
living  tissue,  which  is  the  seat  of  active  nutritive  processes. 
Shall  the  initials  1  carved  in  bark  increase  from  year  to  year 
with  the  tree,  he  asked,  and  shall  not  my  recorded  thought 
develop  into  new  forms  and  relations  with  my  growing  brain  ? 

Carpenter  believed  that  the  same  mode  of  unconscious  action 
had  a  large  share  in  the  process  of  inventimi,  whether  artistic  or 
poetical,  scientific  or  mechanical.  When  inventors  were  brought 
to  a  stand  by  some  difticiUty,  the  tangle  was  more  likely  to 
unravel  itself  if  the  attention  was  completely  withdrawn  from  it, 
than  by  any  amount  of  continued  effort.  They  kept  the  dtjsired 
result  strongly  before  tlieir  attention  in  the  first  instance,  just  as 
we  did  when  we  tried  to  recollect  something  we  had  forgotten, 
by  thinking  of  everything  likely  to  lead  to  it ;  but,  if  they  did 
not  succeed,  they  then  put  the  problem  aside  for  a  time,  and  gave 
their  minds  to  something  else.  Later,  just  what  they  wanted 
"  came  into  their  heads." 

Remarks. — The  "subliminal"  or  "secondary  consciousness" 
theory  presents  many  points  for  consideration ;  of  these  the 
following  are  the  more  important : — 


(I.)  The  Hypnotic  Powers  and  the  Conditions  more  imme- 
diately associated  with  them- 

The  special  point  of  interest  in  the  cases  cited  as  illustratiDg 
the  powers  of  the  hypnotic  state  is  the  supposed  mental  comUtion 
of  the  subject.  The  immediate  origin  of  hypnotic  phenomena 
depended,  according  to  Myers,  upon  a  voluntary  alteruiiou  in  the 
arrangements  of  ideas.  The  introduction  of  the  term  voluntarjf, 
wiih,  at  the  same  time,  the  recognition  that  all  the  subject's 
attention  was  not  requisite  for  the  production  of  any  solitary 
hypnotic  phenomenon,  formed  an  important  distinction  betu'een 
this  theory  aud  some  of  those  we  have  already  considered. 

With  regard  to  Bernheim's  theory,  when  discussing  those 
of  the  Nancy  school,  I  raised  the  following,  amongst  other, 
objections : — 

{a)  The  hypnotic  condition  cannot  be  called  one  of  mono- 
ideism,  because  many  phenomena  can  be  evoked  at  the  same  time. 

{h)  It  cannot  be  explained  by  the  concentration  of  the 
attention  upon  a  single  jxiint,  because,  again,  many  phenomena 
can  be  evoked  simultaneously. 

{c)  It  is  not  due  to  arrested  or  impaired  volition,  as  we  have 
sliown  (1)  that  the  subject  can  resist  the  suggestions  of  the 
oi)erator;  and  (2)  he  can  in  cases  of  self-hypnosis  voluntarily 
create  the  phenomena  for  himself. 

(d)  It  cannot  be  explained  by  "  suggestion  "  alone,  as  this 
was  merely  the  artifice  used  to  excite  the  phenomena. 

Despite  these  objections,  one  must  admit  that  certain  of  tlie 
phenomena  described  liy  Myers,  which  aiv  also  cited  by  others  as 
illustrating  the  theory  of  monoideism,  possess  one  important 
point  in  common,  namely,  a  change  in  tlie  arrangement  of  ideas. 
If,  for  example,  a  hypnotised  subject,  supposed  to  be  under  the 
influence  of  his  operator,  sees  a  hallucinatory  cat,  and  a  self- 
hypnotised  subject  successfully  suggests  one  to  himself,  the 
phenomenon  is  practically  identical  in  Ixith  instances.  The  only 
difference  is  the  explanation  of  its  origin.  Bennett  l)elieved  that 
the  hypnotised  subject  saw  a  haUuciua^lry  cat  because  the 
genesis  of  his  ideas  was  not  interfered  with,  but  only  tlieir 
voluntary  synthesis.  Thus,  the  operator  was  able  to  suggest  the 
remembrance  of  a  cat ;  but  the  subject,  owing  to  the  involuntary 


arrest  of  certain  inentai  powers,  failed  to  understand  that  it  wb» 
only  a  reniemiirance,  and  believed  in  its  reality.  In  Mvcrs* 
opinion,  the  subject,  instead  of  having  lost  the  power  of  voluntary 
synthesis  of  ideas,  had  acquired  an  increased  power  of  volimtarv 
association  and  dissociation  of  ideas.  The  remembrance  of  the 
image  of  a  cat  had  received  hallucinatory  vividness,  not  becaase 
the  subject  was  unable  to  check  it  from  lack  of  voluntatj 
synthesis  of  ideas,  but  because  he  had  elected  to  allow  it  to 
become  vivid  by  voluntarily  inhibiting  the  appearance  of  all  ideas 
which  would  have  interfered  with  its  clearness,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  he  imd  associated  with  it  ideas  connected  with  the 
remembrance  of  formerly  seen  cats. 

Beruheim,  as  we  have  seen,  attempted  to  explain  tbe 
phenomena  of  hypnosis  by  the  invoUmtary  concentration  of  the 
attention  on  one  point.  According  to  Myers,  the  mental  changes 
which  took  place  were  not  only  voluntary  but  varied  ones ;  and 
thus,  if  the  phenomena  were  due  to  the  subject's  attention,  he 
must  have  acquired  the  power  not  only  of  turning  it  upon  one 
point,  but  upon  several  points  simultaneously. 

The  inhibition  of  sensory  impressions  in  h\-pno9i8  presents  * 
certain  analogy  to  what  ia  found  in  the  normal  state.  The  student 
at  his  Irooks,  wlio  wishes  to  carry  on  his  work  without  disturbance, 
may  gradually  train  himself  to  be  unconscious  of  external  sounds. 
He  teaches  hia  attention  to  concentrate  itself  upon  the  problem 
before  him,  and  to  disregard  more  and  more  the  noises  which 
might  distract  him.  So  also,  in  looking  into  a  microscope  with 
one  eye,  he  may  train  himself  to  keep  the  other  eye  open,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  become  imconscious  of  the  objects  within  its 
field  of  vision.  Here,  both  the  hypnotised  and  non -hypnotised 
subject  are  producin*;;  voluntary  changes  in  their  attention. 
Important  points  of  difference,  however,  exist  Itetween  the  twa 

(1)  The  student  does  not  disregard  auditory  or  visual  im- 
pressions the  first  time  he  tries  to  do  so.  On  the  contrary, 
prolonged  training  ia  often  necessary  for  him  to  obtain  this 
power ;  and  frequently  he  is  unable  to  acquire  it.  In  the  deeply 
hypuotise<l  subject,  ou  the  other  hand,  the  power  can  be  developed 
by  a  single  suggestion,  and  with  almost  absolute  certainty. 

(2)  In  the  normal  subject  the  inhibition  of  the  sensory  im- 
pressions is  associated  with  concentration  of  the  attention  upon 
aomething  else.     The  moment  the  student  closes  his  books  lie 


becomes  conacious,  for  example,  of  the  or^an-grinder  under  his 
window,  of  whose  presence  he  was  igDorant  a  mou^ent  before. 
The  instant  the  attention  ceuses  to  be  directed  to  the  object  under 
the  microscope,  the  braiu  becomes  conscious  of  the  impressions 
received  through  the  other  eye.  "With  the  hypuotised  subject 
the  condition  of  the  attention  is  extremely  variable.  You  may 
find  absence  of  painful  sensations  at  the  very  moment  that  you 
direct  the  subject's  attention  to  the  fact  that  you  are  piercing  his 
flesh  deeply  with  a  needle.  Again,  you  may  find  increased 
sensory  perceptions  of  the  two  points  of  a  compass,  when  you 
have  engaged  his  attention  in  the  attempted  solution  of  a  mental 
problem.  This  inhibition  of  sensory  impressions  by  the  normal 
subject  might,  perhaps,  be  justly  regarded  as  an  acquired  automatic 
act,  but  it  is  uu  automatism  which  only  acts  properly  when  the 
attention  is  voluntarily  concentrated  on  something  else.  At  first 
the  stxident's  attention  must  have  been  consciously  di\nded  between 
the  problem  contained  in  liis  book,  and  the  process  of  inhibiting 
the  sensory  impressions.  In  the  hypnotised  subject,  the  inhibitory 
act,  seeing  that  it  has  been  performed  witliout  pre^'ious  training, 
cannot  be  regarded  as  completely  analogous  to  the  acquired 
automatic  inhibitory  act  of  the  normal  subject.  It  can  also  be 
performed  without  conscious  concentration  of  all  the  attention  in 
another  direction.  "We  must  not  conclude,  however,  that  the 
liypnotic  act  is  not  associated  with  a  concentration  of  some  of 
the  attention,  merely  because  (a)  the  subject  is  attending  to 
something  else  at  the  same  time,  and  {h)  l>ecause  he  id  not 
conscious  of  attending  to  the  particular  act  itself.  It  is  possible 
that  the  hypnotic  act  may  have  been  peiformed  by  means  of  a 
subconscious  concentration  of  attention,  wliich  existed  in  some 
lower  hypnotic  substratum  of  the  personality. 


<II.)  Moral  and  Volitional  Conditions. 

The  views  of  Myers  practically  agree  with  those  I  have 
expressed  in  discussing  the  question  of  8o-calle<l  automatism.  I 
have  rarely,  however,  myself  seen  subjects  try  to  escai»e  objection- 
able commands  in  tlie  manner  in  which  he  described  it,  although 
several  instances  of  this  kind  have  been  recorded  by  Professor 
Beaunis  and  othei-s.      In  one  of  these  cases  the  subject  refused  to 


awake  after  a  disagreeable  post-hypnotic  suggestion  had  beeu 
given.  Another,  under  similar  circumstances,  rather  than  fultil 
the  suggestion,  passed  from  the  "  alert "  to  the  "  deep  "  stage  of 
hypnosis. 

(III.)  Hysteria. 

Myers'  theory  that  hysteria  is  a  disease  of  the  hypnotic  suIh 
stratum  is  an  extremely  ingenious  one,  and  is  the  only  reasonable 
explanation  of  the  resemblance  between  certain  hypnotic  and 
hysterical  phenomena  \rith  which  1  am  acquainted.  As  we  have 
seen,  those  who  believed  that  hypnosis  and  hysteria  were  identieaJ 
stated  that  the  hysterical  alone  could  be  h}-pnotised.  On  thf 
other  Imnd,  those  with  wider  experience  have  successfully  demon- 
strated that  the  hysterical  are  generally,  if  not  invariably,  the 
most  difficult  to  inlhjence.  Of  this  fact  Myei*s'  theory  possibly 
affords  an  exjdauation.  May  not  the  difficulty  of  inducing 
hypnosis  in  the  hysterical — of  making  one's  suggestions  find  a 
resting-place  in  them — be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hypnotic  sub- 
stratum of  their  personality  is  already  occupied  by  irrational  self- 
suggestions  which  tlieir  waking  will  cannot  control  ? 


I 


(IV.)  The  Evidence  for  the  Existence  of  a  Sabliminal 
Consciousness. 

The  subliminal  consciousness  theory  is  so  interesting  and 
important  thnt  I  propose  to  refer  at  some  length  to  the  phenomena 
that  might  be  cited  as  evidence  in  its  favour ;  and  also  to 
discuss  the  attempts  to  explain  these  phenomena  in  other  way» 
Before  doing  so,  however,  I  wish  to  draw  particular  attentiou 
to  one  extremely  important  point — namely,  the  vailing  signifi- 
cance given  to  the  term  "  secondary  consciousness  "  by  diiferent 
authorities.  Thus,  some  reganl  the  condition  simply  as  a  sub- 
stratum of  the  pei-sonality ;  while  others  consider  the  phenomi 
to  be  so  striking  and  distinct  as  to  entitle  them  to  he  conside: 
as  forming  a  secondary  i>crsoTmli(u.  The  former  view  is  the  oi 
I  hold,  and  I  projiose  later  to  give  my  reasons  for  adopting  it 

The  facta  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  a  secondary  conscious 
ness  may  be  divided  into  three  groups ; — (a)  Those  arising  from, 


4 


or  more  or  less  closely  associated  with,  morbid  states,  (b)  Those 
occurring  in  normal  waking  or  sleeping  lite,  (c)  Those  arising 
spontaneously,  or  as  the  result  of  suggestion,  in  the  hypnotic 
condition. 


(a)    PhEXOUENA    ARIsrNQ    FROM,    Olt    MORE    OR    LESS    CLOSELY 
ASSOCIATED   WITH,    MOHBID    STATES. 

To  those  who  have  not  studie<l  hypnotic  phenomena  this 
group  is  practically  the  only  one  that  is  recogoised.  The  cases 
comprised  under  it  diiier  widely.  Ai  its  lower  end,  so  to  speak, 
are  included  those  in  whicli  the  patients,  after  a  seizure  of  some 
sort,  perform  certain  acts  of  which  tJieir  ortlinary  cousciousuess 
is  ignorant.  These  vary  from  purposeless  automatic  acts  to 
thefts  committed  with  more  or  less  skill  or  cunning,  and,  ap- 
parently, are  neither  recalled  in  the  normal  state  nor  in  suh- 
sequent  attacks.  At  the  highest  end  of  the  group  we  find 
Felida  X/  whose  case  differs  in  many  respects  from  these. 
Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  many  of  the  former  can  be  justly 
cited  as  cases  of  double  consciousness,  and  this  point  will  be 
again  referred  to,  when  summarising  and  contrasting  the  different 
groups. 

The  follo\ving  are  illustrative  cases  : — 

(1)  Louis  "V. — This  young  man  presented  two  distinct  states, 
differing  from  each  other  mentally,  morally,  and  physically.  In 
the  primary  state  he  was  docile  and  intelligent,  while  sensibility 
and  movement  were  normal.  In  the  secondary  he  was  violent, 
vicious,  and  less  intelligent;  and  presented  hysterical  conti-actures. 
Each  state  was  completely  independent  of  the  other,  and  possessed 
absolutely  distinct  memories.  ("  The  Life  History  of  a  Case  of 
Double  or  Multiple  Personality."  by  A.  T.  Myers,  M,D,,  Journal 
of  Mental  Scitficc,  January.  1886 ;  "  Les  Vai-iaiions  de  la 
Personnaliti?,"  par  MM.  Bourru  et  Burot,  Remu  de  I'Hijpnotis^ie, 
1887.  p.  193.) 

(2)  Dr.  Riegcr  {Dcr  ffyptwtismKs,  1884,  pp.  109-115)  cites  a 
case  of  frequently  recurring  attacks  of  secondary*  consciousness  in 
an  epileptic.  In  the  normal  condition  his  character  was  orderly ; 
but  this  state  alternate*!  with  others  iluring  which  he  would  leave 
his  house  for  weeks  at  a  time,  and  lead  the  life  of  a  thief  and 

'  pp.  385-8. 


/fVPA'Or/SAf 


* 


vagabond ;  sometimes  being  sent  to  prison,  sometimes  to  asyhima. 
iu  his  primary  condition  he  had  no  memory  of  the  acts  for  vhich 
he  Iiad  l)een  punished. 

{'S)  Dr.  Lewis  C  Brnce  {Brain,  1895,  vol.  xviii.  p.  54)  gives 
an  account  of  an  asylum  patient  who  not  only  showed  two  separate 
and  distinct  states  of  consciousness,  but  in  whom  also  the  right 
and  left  brain  alternately  exert^dd  a  preponderating  influence  over 
the  motor  functions.  At  one  time  he  was  ambidextrons  and 
only  understood  English,  at  another  lie  was  left-handed  and 
spoke  AVelsh. 

The  account  of  the  following  case  is  condensed  &om  the 
notes  supplied  me  by  Dr.  Albert  Wilson,  of  Leytonatone,  who 
also  kindly  permitted  me  to  see  the  patient : — 

(4)  Mary  W.,  bom  October.  1882,  had,  in  April,  1895,  an 
attack  of  meningitis  associated  with  influenza.  During  the  third 
and  fourth  weeks  of  the  illness  there  was  high  temperature  with 
delirium  bordering  on  mania ;  and  she  called  people  snakes  and 
did  not  recognise  her  friends.  In  the  fifth  week,  during  con-; 
valescence,  her  character  changed :  and  she  began  to  give  those 
around  her  names  which  were  not  their  own :  thus,  her  father* 
was  '*  Tom  "  ;  her  mother, "  Mary  Ann,"  etc  About  the  sixth  week 
attacks  of  secondary  consciousness  appeared ;  the  patient  would 
suddenly  turn  a  somersault  ou  the  bed,  aud  then  assume  a  new 
character — returning  suddenly  to  the  normal  and  resuming  what 
she  had  been  occupied  with  before  the  attack.  At  fi  rst  the 
seizures  lasted  from  ten  to  fifty  minutes,  but  increased  to  hours, 
days,  and  weeks  as  the  time  went  on.  The  secondary  self  knew 
nothinjr  of  the  primary  one,  and  vice  versd  ;  further,  the  secondary 
self  had  apparently  lost  much  of  the  knowledge  the  primary  self 
bad  acquired.  Thus,  in  the  second  state  the  patient  did  m 
know  what  her  legs  aud  anus  were,  and  was  childish  iu  her  talk. 
She  could  write  her  name,  however,  but  this  she  did  l>ackward9|.^ 
beginning  at  the  tail  of  the  last  letter  and  writing  quickly  fromj 
right  to  left — not  mirror-writing. 

After  a  few  months  the  periods  of  normal  life  became  shorter,,' 
and  iu  place  of  one  secondary  stage  various  others  showed  them- 
selves from  time  to  time.  Of  these  there  were  sixteen  in  idl*^ 
termed  by  Dr.  Wilson  stages  a,  h,  c,  d,  etc  In  each  stage  theW 
patient  remembered  what  had  happened  during  previous  attacks 
of  the  same  stage,  but  knew  nothing  of  what  had  occurred  iu 


of  the  other  stages ;  while  the  primary  consciouaneas  remembered 
events  in  the  normal  life  alone,  and  knew  nothing  regarding  the 
incidents  which  happened  in  any  of  the  numerous  other  stages. 

At  the  end  of  a  year  the  normal  condition  rarely  appeared, 
and  then  only  as  a  Hash — sometimes  coming  to  the  surface  for 
five  or  ten  minutes,  sometimes  only  for  a  few  seconds. 

The  following  states  were  noted,  most  of  them  being  named 
by  the  patient  herself: — 

(a)  The  patient  called  herself  "  Thing " ;  she  was  vacant, 
knew  nothing  of  her  past  life,  and  could  not  stand. 

(h)  Called  herself  "  Old  Nick,"  and  was  passionate  and  mis- 
chievous. 

(c)  Here  there  was  catalepsy  with  deaf-mutism,  but  the 
patient  wrote  down  all  she  wanted 

(<£)  In  this  stage  the  patient  had  forgotten  not  only  the 
incidents  of  normal  life,  but  apparently  idso  much  of  the  general 
knowledge  acquired  during  it.  In  writing,  she  spelt  backwards 
in  the  manner  already  described. 

(f)  A  stage  characterised  by  terror. 

(/)  Here  the  patient  called  herself  *'  Good  thing,"  and  was 
docile,  but  usually  without  power  in  her  feet  or  hands ;  this 
stage,  however,  was  quite  diKtinct  from  (a). 

{ff)  The  patient  now  called  liei-self  "  I'retty  dear,"  was  sweet 
and  amiable,  but  could  not  write  or  spell. 

(A)  Called  herself  "  Mamie  Wud  "  .  in  this  state  she  recalled 
the  events  of  childhood  better  than  when  awake,  but  was  unable 
to  remember  anything  about  her  illness. 

(i)  This  stage  was  somewhat  like  (d) ;  when  in  it  the  patient 
knew  nothing,  and  thouglit  she  was  just  born. 

{k)  Here,  the  patient  called  herself  "  Old  Pei-suader,"  and 
asked  for  a  stick  to  strike  people  with,  if  they  would  not  do  what 
she  wished. 

(I)  She  called  herself  "  Tom's  darling,"  and  was  apparently 
a  nice  child. 

(m)  In  thb  stage  she  asserted  that  she  had  "  no  name,"  and 
was  violent  and  unkind. 

(n)  She  called  hei-self  "  The  dreadful  wicked  thing,"  threw 
her  slippers  into  the  tire  in  a  temper,  etc. 

(o)  In  this  stage  she  called  herself  "  Tommy's  lamb,"  and 
Fwas  blind  and  idiotic. 


302 


HYPNOTISM 


(p)  In  December,  1896,  a  further  stage  developed,  which, 
lasted  till  February,  1897.  In  it  tlie  i)atient  constantly  repeated 
the  word  "  picters,"  and  drew  beautifully ;  she  even  did  so  when 
she  vfAS  prevented  from  seeing  the  paper  on  which  she  was 
drawing.  Tlie  original  self  was  uimble  to  draw.  During  this 
stage  the  pupils  were  dilated  and  reacted  feebly  to  light,  while 
the  patient  was  apparently  insensible  to  sound. 

As  time  went  on,  the  patient,  when  in  abnormal  stages, 
began  to  have  some  idea  of  what  had  taken  place  in  her  ordinary 
life ;  when  in  the  latter  condition,  however,  she  still  had  no 
recollection  of  luiytltiug  that  had  liappeued  in  any  of  the  abnormtd 
stages.  In  July,  189S,  she  passed  into  a  condition  more  closely 
resembling  the  normal  one ;  she  was  still,  however,  childish,  and 
called  herself  "  Critter  Wood." 

In  the  spring  of  1900,  five  yeai'S  after  the  commencement  of 
her  illness,  she  had  apiMireatly  settled  down  into  stage  (y),  but 
had  been  taught  that  Maiy  W.,  not  "  Pretty  dear,"  was  her  name 
She  was  a  line,  healthy,  well-developed  girl,  who  helped  in  the 
house  and  was  anxious  to  learn  typewriting  in  order  to  keep  herself 
Her  character,  however,  diflered  slightly  from  her  original  one,  and 
she  was  still  somewhat  childish  at  times. 

In  another  group  of  cases  the  secondary  state,  while  markedly  1 
inferior   to  that  particular    individual's   primary   one,   finds  its 
couutei'part  in  degenerate  states  which  are  not  necessarily  insaufi. 

(5)  Of  this  the  following  case,  recorded  by  "  Dagonet "  (G.  R I 
Sims)  in  the  Befcne,  January  31st,  1897,  is  an  example: — One! 
night  Mr.  Sims  received  a  message  from  the  master  of  a  work- 
house, to  the  etfect  tliat  the  police  had  brought  a  man  to  the  i 
Infirmary  whom  tliey  had  found  insensible  in  the  street,  apparently 
suftering  from  drink.      A  letter,  signed  by  Mr.  Sims,  was  in  his 
pocket.     Mr.  Sims  knew  him  as  a  professional  man  in  a  good 
]K>sitiou.     Next  day  he  was  conscious,  but  absolutely  denied  bis 
identity.     He  said  he  was  a  street  musician,  and  that  his  comet  < 
had  been  stolen  during  a  row  iu  a  public-house  where  he  was 
playing.     He  returned  to  his  lodgings  as  soon  as  he  was  <\is- 
charged  from  the  Infirmary,  and   told  his  landlady  he  thought  be  { 
must  have  bad  a  fit  and  fallen  down  in  the  stieet,  for  he  wM 
bruised  and  ached  all  over,  but  did  not  remember  anything  about 
it     Exclusive  of  the  time  passed  in  the  Infirmary,  he  had  beenj 
absent  from  his  lodgings  for  a  week,  but  maintained  that  he  had  | 


only  left  the  house  that  morning.  A  few  days  later  he  fulfilled 
an  important  professional  engagement.  All  went  well  for  some 
time ;  then  he  again  suddenly  disappeared.  Search  was  made  for 
him,  and  he  was  eventually  found  playing  a  cornet  outside  a 
public-house  in  Camden  Town.  Addressed  by  his  proper  name, 
he  made  no  sign,  and  when  questioned  asserted  that  he  had  been 

an  itinerant  musician  for  the  last  fifteen  years.     To-day  Mr. 

is  again  living  an  ordinary  respectable  professional  life,  and  has  not 
the  slightest  knowledge  of  his  periodical  lapses  into  another  person- 
ality— -that  of  a  street  musician.  His  name  is  well  known  to  all 
who  are  familiar  with  music  and  the  dnima. 

In  another  group,  the  secondary  state,  instead  of  being  one  of 
obvious  mental  disorder,  differs  little  in  intelligence  and  volition 
from  the  primary  one.     The  following  are  examples  : — 

(6)  Ansel  Bourne,  an  itinerant  preacher  aged  61,  residing  at 
Greene,  Khode  Islaud,  suddenly  disappeared.  In  spite  of  the 
publicity  which  the  newspapers  gave  to  the  fact  and  the  efforts  of 
the  police  to  find  him,  he  remained  undiscovered  for  two  months. 
He  then  found  himself  at  Norristown,  Penusylvania,  where  for  the 
previous  six  weeks  he  had  been  keeping  a  small  variety  store 
under  the  name  of  A.  J.  Brown,  appearing  to  his  neighbours  and 
customers  as  a  normal  person.  When  his  normal  consciousness 
returned,  he  was  extremely  alarmed  to  find  himself  in  an  unknown 
situation,  with  absolutely  no  memory  of  his  surroundings  or  of  the 
incidents  which  had  taken  place  from  the  date  of  liis  disappearance. 
{Froeeeditufs  of  ilu  iSvcUiy  for  Psychical  JUsearch,  1891,  p.  22.) 

(7)  Emile  X,  barrister,  sometimes  passed  without  loss  of  con- 
sciousness into  a  secondary  condition  which  lasted  from  a  few 
minutta  to  several  days.  During  it  he  led  an  active  life  which 
apparently  did  not  difler  from  his  normal  one.  The  state  always 
terminated  suddenly,  and  the  ordinary  consciousness  retained  no 
recollectiuu  of  what  had  just  passed.  After  one  attack,  which 
lasted  three  weeks,  he  came  to  himself  a  hundred  miles  from 
home.  (Dr.  Proust,  Professor  of  Hygiene  at  the  Hotel  Dieu,  Paris, 
Jievue  de  V ffijpnotisiHc,  March,  1890.) 

(8)  Mr.  N.,  aged  32,  educated,  consulted  Forel,  and  told  him 
the  following  story.  He  stated  that  he  hod  been  living  for  some 
weeks  in  Zurich  and  liad  vague  recollections  of  aiTiving  there 

Lafter  a  long  voyage.     Beceutly  he  had  read  two  newpaper  articles 
Idescribiug  the  sudden  disappearance  from  Australia  of  a  Mr.  N., 


384 


HYPNOTISM 


I 
I 


aud  he  felt  that  he  was  the  peraou  referred  to,  although  at  th« 
same  time  it  seemed  imi>03sible  that  this  could  be  true.  K 
entered  the  Burghdlzli  Asylum  for  treatment  aud  was  hypnotised 
by  Forel,  who  succeeded  in  restoring  Ids  lost  memory  by  suggestion, 
and  thus  obtained  au  account  of  his  doings  from  the  time  be  had  _ 
left  Australia.  There  was  no  reason,  pecuniary  or  moral,  for  hii  fl 
disappearance.  He  recovered  under  Forel's  treatment  [*'  Ein  Fall 
von  temporaner,  totaler,  theilweisse  retrogi*ader  Amjiesie  (durch 
Suggestion  geheilt)  "  von.  M.  Naef,  Voluutiirarzt  an  der  Heilan* 
stalt  Burglnihli/'  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ifj/pnotismiis,  1897,  p.  321.] 

(9)  The  following  ^  is  the  moat  recent  example  I  have  been  ahU 
to  trace  of  the  group  we  are  considering  : — On  April  16th,  1900, 
George  Ridderband,  aged  19,  a  law  student  and  the  sou  of  ft  well- 
known  lawyer,  suddenly  disappeared  from  his  home  in  New  York. 
No  reason,  except  that  he  bad  been  studying  hard  for  an  cxaminA- 
tion,  was  discovered  for  this  either  at  the  time  or  afterwards. 
His  parents  put  the  matter  iu  the  bands  of  the  police.  On  April 
2l8t,  the  lad  walked  into  a  police  station  and  told  the  following 
atory.  Five  days  previously  he  suddenly  found  himself  walking 
iu  the  street,  but  neither  knew  who  nor  where  he  was,  uor  could 
he  recall  anything  as  to  his  past  life.  Since  then  he  had  been 
wandering  about,  struggling  in  vain  to  revive  his  lost  memories. 
keeping  meanwhile  a  diary  of  his  proceedings.  He  asked  if  any  j 
one  corresponding  to  him  had  been  advertised  for  as  missing,  andfl 
the  sergeant  recognised  bira  as  the  lost  George  Ridderband.  He  ■ 
was  taken  home  and  placed  under  medical  care.  At  first  he  did 
not  recognise  any  of  his  relatives,  but  a  week  later  his  memory 
commenced  to  return ;  he  was  still,  however,  unahle  to  account 
in  any  way  for  his  disappearance. 

hi  another  section  of  this  group,  the  secondary  state,  &om  a 
physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  }X)int  of  view,  is  superior  to  the 
primary  oue.      The  following  are  examples  : — 

(10)  A  girl,  aged  18,  healthy,  but  quiet  and  somewhat  stupid 
in  character,  swallowed  some  UnguetUuin  Lytta;-,  After  the  acute 
symptoms  of  poisoning  passed  off,  a  cutaneous  hypenesthesia  of 
the  head  and  morbid  sensitiveness  to  sound  i*emained  She 
had  frequent  attacks  of  temporary  insensibility,  aud  passed 
alternately  ti-om  her  ordinar}'  mental  condition  to  a  secondary  one. 
and  from  this  in  its  turn  back  again  to  the  normal  one.     In  tte 

*  From  tho  A'rw  York  Heruld. 


secondary  state  she  was  excitable :  lier  conversation  was  lively 
and  spirited,  and  she  was  intellectually  superior  to  what  she  was 
in  the  primary  condition.  The  memories  of  the  two  states  were 
absolutely  distinct :  the  primary  self  knew  nothing  of  the  second- 
ary one,  the  secondary  self  nothing  of  the  primary  one.  ("  Case 
of  Double  Consciousness,"  by  Thomas  Mayo,  M.D.,  F.K.C.S., 
London  Medical  Gazette,  New  Series,  vol.  i.  1845,  p.  1202.) 

(11)  Mary  Keyuolds,  a  dull  and  melancholy  young  woman, 
was  found  one  morning  in  a  profound  sleep,  from  which  it  was 
impossible  to  aixjuse  her.  After  twenty  hours  she  awoke,  but  her 
disposition  was  absolutely  changed,  and  she  had  no  memory  of 
her  past.  She  was  now  cheerful,  buoyant^  sociable,  and  merry ; 
but  did  not  recognise  her  friends,  and  had  lost  the  power  of 
reading  and  writing.  Five  weeks  later,  she  passed  into  the 
primary  state ;  again  became  dull  and  melancholy,  and  remembered 
nothing  of  her  secondary  condition.  After  tlio  lapse  of  a  few 
m.ore  weeks,  she  again  passed  into  the  secondary  state  following  a 
profound  sleep,  and  took  up  her  new  life  precisely  where  she  had 
left  it.  The  memories  of  the  two  states  were  absolutely  distinct : 
in  the  firet  she  remembered  former  primary  states,  but  these  alone ; 
in  the  second  she  only  remembered  former  secondary  states. 
These  alterations  of  consciousness  continued  for  fifteen  years^ 
then  finally  ceased,  leaving  her  permanently  in  the  second  state. 
In  this  she  i^emained  without  change  for  the  last  twenty-five 
yeai-s  of  her  life.  ("  Case  of  Mary  Reynolds,"  by  Dr.  Weir  Mitchell, 
TraruLo/tJu  ColUye  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia.  X^x\{  ^ih^  1888.) 

(12)  K^lida  X,  aged  14 J,  without  known  cause,  though  some- 
times under  the  intluence  of  emotion,  had  attacks  of  sharp 
pain  in  both  temples,  followed  by  a  state  of  profound  stupor, 
which  lasted  ten  minutes.  She  then  spontaneously  opened  her 
eyes  and  appeared  to  awake,  but  in  reality  passed  into  n  condition 
of  secondary  consciousness.  This  lasted  for  an  hour  or  two,  then 
the  stupor  and  sleep  reappeared,  and  ahe  passed  into  her  ordinary 
state.  The  secondary  state  differed  markedly  from  the  primary 
one.  In  the  latter  she  was  a  miserable,  querulous,  hysterical 
invalid ;  and  remembered  nothing  of  her  secondary  life,  which 
was  superior,  both  intellectually  and  physically,  to  the  primary 
one.  Here  she  was  gay,  active,  and  intelligent ;  and  remembered 
not  only  all  the  events  which  had  taken  place  in  fonner  attacks 
of  secondary  consciousness,  but  also  those  of  normal  life.     As 

2  c 


386 


HYPNOTISM 


time  went  on,  the  frmiueiicy  of  the  aecomlary  attacks   becamft 
greater  and  their  duration  longer,  till,  at  the  age  of   24,  the/ 
commenced  to  exceed  the  periods  of  normal  life.    But  from  24  to 
2'7  years  of  age  she  i-eniained  in  the  normal  state.      After  thia 
the  secondary   attacks    became   more  and    more    frequent,   and 
finally   almost   completely   occupied   her  entire  existence.      In 
1875,  tVlida,  who  was  tlieii  32  years  of  age,  told  Azam  that  she 
etill  suffered  from  attacks  associated  with  loss  of  memory.      These 
so-called  "  attacks,"  however,  were  simply  lapses  from  her  secondaiy  ■ 
consciousness  into  her  ordinary  primary  one.     Thus,  once  when  " 
returning  from  a  funeral,  she  felt  her  attack,  Lt,  her  normal  state, 
come  on.     She  became  unconscious  for  a   few  seconds  without 
lier  companions  noticing  it ;  then  awoke   in  the  primarj*  state, 
absolutely  ignorant  of  the  reason  for  which  she  was  in  a  mourning 
coach.     Accustomed  to  these  accidents,  she  waited  till,  by  skilful 
questions,  she  was  able  to  gra-sp  the  situatiou,  and  thus  none  of     I 
those  present   knew   what   bad   Ijappened.     Later  she   lost  her     I 
sister-in-law  after  a  long  illness,  and,  during  a  relapse  into  the 
normal  state,  knew  nothing  about  the  death,  and  only  guessed  at, 
it   from   the  fact   that  she   was   in   mourning.      In   the   earlier  I 
periods  the  transition  from  one  state  to  another  was  marked  by 
a  stage  of  more  or  less   prolon^'ed   unconsciousness.      As  time ' 
went  on  this  diminished,  an<l,  finally,  tlie  loss  of  coosciousaeae , 
became  so  brief  that  Felida  was  able  to  disguise  it      In  1887,1 
wlien  Azam  published  the  account  of  the  case,  Ftldida  was  44 
years  of  age,  and  her  lapses  into  normal  life  had  become  more  \ 
and  more  rare.     {Hjfpnotisme,  dottbU  cojiscience,  ti  aU^raiions  dt  la\ 
pfrsonnal-U^,  par   le   Dr.   A^am.      Paris,   1887.     J.   B.    Balli^M 
et  Fils.) 

In  1888,  Dr.  Ladame,  of  Geneva,  communicated  a  somewhat] 
analogous  case  to  the  SocxMi  MMico-Psychoioffiqm,  which  had  I 
been  cured  by  suggestion. 

SponiajKous  somrutvtbidisvi  affords  another  example  of  Groopj 
(a).  In  volition  and  consciousness  are  to  be  found  the  main 
differences  between  it  and  induced  somnambulism.  Tlie  hypnotic 
subject  knows  what  he  is  doing  and  why  he  does  it,  and  can  I 
reject  disagreeable  suggestions.  Unless  specially  trained,  he 
usually  onl}'  acts  in  response  to  influence  from  witliout — iutluenc« 
more  or  less  directly  transmitted  to  him  by  the  suggestions  of 
others.     The  spontaneous  somnambule^  on  the  contrary,  acts  bia ! 


own  dreams.  His  halluciuatious  sometimes  excite  criminal  acts ; 
and  authentic  cases  are  i-ecorded  in  which  spontaneous  sotniiambnles 
liave  committed  murder,  under  the  delusion  that  the  person 
attacked  was  a  wild  beast  or  a  burglar.  Spontaneous  somnam- 
hubsm,  properly  speaking,  is  a  neurosis ;  and,  as  Hack  Tuke 
pointed  out,  iu  its  severest  forms  it  approaches  perilously  near 
epilepsy,  while  the  condition  of  mental  automatism  which  some- 
times succeeds  epileptic  fits  closely  resembles  that  of  the  sleep- 
walker. Yellowlees  looks  upon  spontaneous  somnambulism  as  a 
form  of  insanity,  and  terms  it  somnoniania.  He  holds  that  the 
sole  diflerenoe  between  it  and  insanity  or  epileptic  violence  is 
that  it  occurs  during  sleep,  and  involves  only  a  temporary  arrest 
of  volition,  instead  of  the  more  prolonged  loss  of  control  which 
results  from  organic  mischief. 


(6)  Facts  in  suppout  of  a  SBC0Ni»ABy  Consciousness  dbawk 
FROM  Normal  Waking  or  Slkkping  Life, 

Here  the  evidence  is  not  so  clear  aa  in  the  preceding  sectiou, 
but,  without  the  hypothesis  of  a  secondary  consciousness,  it  is 
difficult  to  explain  phenomena  such  as  the  following : — 


(1)  Time  a^tpreciatum  in  cases  suc}i  as  those  about  to  he  cited. 

Dr.  George  Savage  possesses  the  power  of  awaking  at  a  given 
hour,  and  has  teste^l  it  on  several  occasions.  The  following  is 
an  example: — One  day,  having  to  catch  an  early  train,  he 
determined  to  awake  at  6  a.m.,  and  slept  soundly  without  awaking 
until  the  exact  time.  The  seven  following  momiugs  be  awoke 
exactly  at  6  A-iL,  notwitlistanding  that  he  went  to  bed  at  different 
hours  and  there  was  no  necessity  for  early  rising.  This  involuntary 
repetition  of  self-waking  at  unusual  times  also  occurred  when  he 
was  roused  by  others  at  abnormally  early  liours.  Thus,  when  in 
the  Alps,  if  he  were  called  at  2  or  3  A.M.,  he  would  certainly 
awake  spontaneously  at  the  same  hour  next  morning,  even  if  he 
had  been  much  fatigued  by  climbing.  Dr.  Savage  states  that 
the  accuracy  of  the  time  of  awaking  in  these  instances  has  puzzled 
Mm  greatly. 

Tlie  following  is  Professor  Marcus  Hartog's  own  account  of 
L'his  case : — 


and 
vheu  ■ 

lastfl 


"  When  I  was  a  student,  under  17.  I  fouud  I  could. 
eleepiug  soundly,  awuke  at  any  given  hour  I  bad  set  myself 
overnight.  The  peculiarity  of  such  awaking  wa3  that  it  was 
always  sudden  and  complete,  not  preceded  by  a  period  of  broken 
sleep,  nor  accompanied  by  the  drowsiness  of  an  ordinary  unpre- 
pared awaking.  If  I  found  that  it  was  needless  to  get  up  I  soon 
fell  asleep  again,  and  then  had  the  ordinary  drowsy  awaking, 
often  oversleeping  myself.     This  faculty  has  persisted  with  me. 

"  Again,  withuut  previous  training,  between  the  ages  of  20  and 
25,  on  three  distinct  occasions  I  had  to  nurse  friends,  wheu 
I  had  to  administer  food  and  medicines  at  reguhir  inter\'i 
attending  also  to  their  necessities  as  they  arose.  The 
occasion  extended  over,  T  think,  three  weeks.  On  each  occasion 
the  facility  and  manner  of  awaking  cumpletely  and  suddenly  waa  _ 
exactly  the  same  as  for  early  rising,  whether  at  the  stated  hour  I 
or  at  the  least  stir  of  the  patient.  On  lying  down  to  rest  agaiu 
and  closing  my  eyes.  I  seemed  to  see  a  gradually  widening  visU, 
and  as  my  eyes  diverged  I  fell  asleep ;  the  time  occupied  could 
not  have  been  ruore  than  n  quarter  of  a  minute,  though  I  felt 
wide  awake  at  the  moment  of  closing  my  eyes.  My  sleep  oa 
these  occasions  was  singularly,  if  not  absolutely,  dreamletf. 
though  I  was  under  the  greatest  mental  anxiety  while  awake."        | 

In  Professor  Hartog's  case  the  awaking  at  fixed  hours  was 
never  involuntarily  repeated,  ift  as  regards  the  awaking  at 
repeated  intervals.  Sometimes,  however,  when  he  set  himself  ui 
awake  at  a  fixed  time  in  the  morning,  this  was  repeated  for 
several  days,  as  in  Dr.  SavEige's  case. 

Here  no  ordinary  physiological  explanation  is  possible ;  and. 
while  the  oi-dinary  consciousness  was  asleep,  an  intelligence  of 
some  kind  must  have  watched  the  passage  of  time. 


(2)   Tht  recollection  of  fonjottcn  facts  vHtJiout  the  association  of 
ideas  connected  with  normal  memory. 

Every  one,  I  think,  must  recall  instances  similar  to  those 
described  by  Carpenter,  in  which  he  has  tried  to  remember  & 
forgotten  name,  and.  after  having  failed  to  recall  it  by  every 
device  imaginable,  has  at  last  put  the  problem  on  one  side  in 
disgust  and  turned  his  attention  to  other  things.  Later,  the 
forgotten  name  rises  into  consciousness  with  a  suddenness  which 


is  etartliDg,  and   no  association  of  ideas  can   be  discovered   to 
account  for  its  appearance. 


(3)   The  ejxctUion  of  mental  work,  which  t?i€  ordinary  consciousness 
had  failed,  or  neglected,  to  perform. 

My  personal  experiences  afford  examples  of  this  quite  as 
striking  as  those  cited  by  Carpenter.  Thus,  when  I  began  to 
speak  in  public,  I  wrote  my  lectures  beforehand  and  committed 
them  to  memory.  Later,  I  confined  myself  to  jotting  down  the 
various  headings,  and  to  recalling  mentally  the  diDereiit  facts  I 
wished  to  group  around  them.  I  then  dismissed  the  subject  from 
my  mind.  As  soon  as  I  began  to  speak,  the  lecture  unrolled 
itself,  as  it  were :  sentences  appeared  to  spring  unbidden  to  my 
lipa,  and  were  uttered  with  greater  ease  and  Huency  than  those 
wliich  had  formerly  been  carefully  committed  to  memory.  If  the 
lectures  hail  to  be  published,  tliey  were  written  after  delivery ; 
and  though  I  was  able  to  reproduce  their  substance,  I  was  always 
conscious  that  I  failed  to  do  so  as  to  their  exact  form. 

Further,  after  a  time,  either  from  increased  confidence  in  my 
own  powers  or  from  the  fact  that  I  was  overworked,  the  ordinaty 
waking-self  kicked  more  and  more  at  the  task  demanded  of  it. 
In  consequence  of  this,  the  secondary  self  received  less  carefully 
j)repared  information  ;  but,  despite  this,  it  continued  to  do  its  work 
equally  well. 

Since  I  left  college  I  bad  done  no  literary  work  of  any  kind 
until  I  began  to  write  on  hypnotism,  and  my  earlier  efforts  were 
difficult  and  painful.  In  every  instance  I  began  by  collecting  an 
over-abundant  supply  of  information,  and  then  had  dilficulty  l>oth 
in  grouping  and  cxpressitig  it.  I  frequently  spent  hours  in  pain- 
ful thought,  with  no  more  apparent  result  than  the  M'riling  of  a 
few  lines;  and  even  these  often  failed  to  satisfy  me.  Gradually, 
however,  I  came  to  rely  more  and  more  oik  the  secondary  self. 
When  I  encountered  a  difliculty.  I  recalled  as  clearly  as  I  could 
the  facts  1  wished  to  express,  then  put  the  matter  on  one  side. 
A  day  or  two  later,  I  often  was  able  to  dictate  to  my  secretary 
for  hours  at  a  stretch.  Not  only  so,  but  the  work  was  character- 
iscd  by  marked  absence  of  effort,  and  accompanied  by  a  distinct 
feeling  of  detachment,  and  even  of  surprise.  The  moment  before 
a  sentence  was  uttered,  I  could  not  have  told  what  it  was  likely 


to  be.     Further,  tlie  memory  of  what  I  dictated  in  this  way  8iv>a 
sank  below  the  level  of  ordinaiy  consciousness.     If   I  read  it  a' 
few  weeks  later,  it  appeal^  to  be  the  work  of  some  one  else,  and 
I  could  not  trace  the  association  of  ideas  wliich  must  necessarily 
have  been  connected  with  its  execution. 

Where  the  aid  of  the  secondary  self  had  not  been  evoked,  and 
the  work  had  been  done  at  the  first  attempt,  consciously  and 
laboriously,  I  could  always  afterwai-ds  recall,  more  or  less  per- 
fectly, the  steps  of  reasoninj^,  association,  etc.,  which  had 
connecteil  with  my  work. 

(4)  The  80-ctdied  inspirations  of  genius. 

According  to  Myers,  works  of  genius,  instead  of  being 
result  of  an  "  infinite  capacity  for  taking  trouble,"  were  due  to  the 
intelligent  action  of  a  secondary  consciousness.  The  labour  wm 
performed  in  a  "  subterranean  worksliop,"  as  it  were,  and  then 
presented  in  completed  form  to  tlie  normal  consciousness.  The 
latter  not  only  believed  that  it  had  done  the  work  itself,  bnt 
thought  that  tliis  had  been  performed  instantaneously. 

Tliis  view  practically  reproduced  that  of  C'ar|>enter  as  to  thd 
origin  of  what  he  tenned  invt^)U\on,     The  invasion  of  the  trngwra- 
Hon  into  the  normal  consciousness  is  often  sudden  and  startling. 
While  the  subject  of  it  undoubtedly   believes   tliat  he,  i.e.   liisi 
ordinary  waking  self,  originated  it,  he,  at  the  same  tin»e,  odenl 
acts  as  if  it  were  something  unconnected  witli  his  usual  stream  ofl 
consciousness.     He  feels  that  the  inspiration  may  escape   him,] 
and  with   feverish  haste  tries  to  record  it  with  jjen,  pencil,  orj 
brush. 


(c)  Hypxotic  Phenomena  which  aphabentlv  strppoRT  thk 

THEORY    OF    A    SECONDARY    CONSCIOUSNESS. 

These  are  too  numerous  to  be  recounted  in  detail,  and  it  might 
even  be  claimed  that  every  deeply  hypnotised  subject  shows  evi- 
dence—if  in  mem  or)' -changes  alone^of  the  existeuceof  a  secondary 
consciousness.  In  tlie  waking  state  lie  can  recall  nothing  of' 
what  has  happened  in  profrmnd  hypnosis ;  b\u  when  hypnotised 
he  not  only  remembers  the  events  of  previous  hypnoaes,  but  also 
all  that  his  ordinary  memory  can  recall  of  waking  life,  and  « 
in  addition,  much  that  it  has  foi-gotten. 


i 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


39  > 


The  time  appreciation  experiments  already  reported  (pp.  119- 
133)  furnish  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  double 
consciousness  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  Further,  the  fact 
that  nothing  could  be  recalled  by  the  ordinary  hypnotic  self 
regarding  calculations  which  must  inevitably  have  been  mode  in 
some  form  of  hypnosis,  apparently  showed  that  the  subject 
possessed  a  third  substratum  of  the  personality.  This  view  is 
also  held  by  William  .Tames,  who  wrote  me  as  follows : — 

'*  Miss  D.'s  case  is  most  extraordinary.  I  agree  entirely  with 
you  that  a  'third  self  must  be  involved,  but  what  such  a  third 
self  in  its  totality  ntay  signify.  I  haven't  the  least  idea." 

The  dressmaking  problem,  with  its  solution  in  the  hypnotic 
state  (p.  320),  is  also  an  interesting  example  of  the  spontaneous 
action  of  the  hypnotic  self.  Further,  it  illustnites  experimentally 
the  probable  origin  of  the  inspirations  of  genius,  and  the  way  in 
which  they  reach  the  normal  consciousness.  Miss  D.  in  her 
waking  state  was  striWng  after  a  result  wliich  she  could  not 
obtain,  just  as  an  inventor  or  ai'tist  might  have  dona  Later, 
when  she  was  again  in  the  waking  state  and  thinking  of  some- 
thing else,  the  solution  of  the  problem  ciime  suddenly  into  her 
mind.  She  thought  she  had  solved  it  there  and  then.  Question- 
ing in  a  subsequent  hypnosis,  however,  quite  accidentally  revealed 
the  foIlo^viug  facts  : — 

First,  she  had  worked  out  the  problem  when  profoundly 
hypnotised,  her  condition  at  the  time  resembling  deep  sleep. 

Secondly,  on  awaking  she  knew  nothing  of  what  she  had 
done,  and  it  was  only  after  the  lapse  of  some  hours  that  the 
iipnish  into  the  ordinary  consriousness  occuircd. 

Tliirdly,  this  uprusli  brought  with  it  no  knowledge  of  its 
origin,  t>.  her  waking  self  neither  knew  then  nor  aftenvarda 
whence  the  ijispiratum  had  lieen  derived. 

Fourthly,  when  again  hypnotised  she  recalled  that  the  problem 
had  been  present  in  her  mind  during  hypnosis.  She  also 
rememl}ered  liaving  solved  it,  and  that  her  ]>ninary  consciousness 
was  ignorant  of  the  fact.  Further,  she  also  knew  the  exact  moment 
at  which  the  uprush  had  taken  place,  and  was  evidently  amused 
by  the  primary  consciousness  having  claimed  as  ite  own  the  work 
done  by  the  secondary  one. 

I       The  phenomena  of  automatic  writing,  of  which  examples  have 
already  been  cited  (pp.  139-141).  show  not  only  that  a  secondary 


consciousness  exista,   hut  also  tJmt  it  may  be  in  action  simul- 
taneously with  the  uonual  one. 

The  following  casts  aiao  apparently  afford  evidence  of  ike 
ticiaUncc  of  t\oo  or  m&rt  sub-consfnoiis  states. 

(1)  Sarah  L  was  the  first  person  in  whom  I  foond  any  evidenoe 
of  80-called  multiple  pereonality  ;  and,  when  she  came  under  my 
notice  over  twelve  years  a^o,  I  knew  nothing  of  the  literature  of 
the  subject  In  tlie  normal  state  she  vrns  quiet,  respectful,  and 
somewhat  shy,  and  retained  this  character  when  I  hypnotised 
)»er.  She  was  a  profound  somnambule ;  in  waking  life  she  kne* 
nothing  of  the  events  of  hypnosis,  but  in  hypnosis  could  recall  all 
the  memories  of  the  normal  state  as  well  as  the  incidents  vt 
liypnotic  life.  Her  surgical  and  medical  history  has  already  been 
given  (No.  6,  pp.  161-2,  and  No.  25,  pp.  197-8),  and  the  reader 
is  now  referred  to  it  in  order  to  show  the  genuine  and  profound 
character  of  the  hypnosis. 

Before  coming  under  ray  care,  Sarah  L  had  been  hypnotised' 
and  exhibited  by  a  stage  performer;  and,  some  time  afu-r  the 
events  just  recorded,  her  mother  told  me  that  Sarah  occasionally 
hypnotised  herself,  and  that  the  condition  then  differed  markedlv 
from  the  one  I  induced.  After  some  coaxing,  the  girl  consented 
to  hypnotise  herself,  and  went  through  the  following  perform- 
ance : — First,  she  closed  her  eyes  and  appeared  to  pass  into  a 
lethargic  state;  then  a  few  minutes  later  awoke  with  a  changed 
expression :  instead  of  having  a  shy  and  modest  air,  her  eyes 
sparkled  and  she  looked  f^iU  of  miscliief.  In  place  of  addressing 
me  as  "  Sii-  '* — she  had  formerly  been  a  servant  of  mine,  and  an 
extremely  resjwctful  one — slie  put  her  hand  on  my  arm  and  said 
in  a  familiar  way,  '  I  say."  She  then  began  to  ask  me  imperti- 
nent fiuestions  about  the  persons  she  had  seen  at  my  house,  and 
to  criticise  them  in  a  particularly  free  and  sarcastic  fasluoa 
The  performance  was  so  interesting  and  amusing  that  I  got  her 
to  hypnotise  herself  on  a  good  many  occasions.  The  same 
phenomena  always  appeared ;  she  invariably  became  familiar, 
jnqnisitive,  and  sarcastic  ;  while  her  highest  praise  for  any  one  &1j« 
approved  of  was  conveyed  in  the  words,  "  She'll  do."  Other  facte 
were  noticed  and  reported  to  me  by  her  mother.  Thus,  some- 
times when  Sarah  hypnotised  herself,  she  would  remember  that 
her  mother  owed  her  a  few  coppers  and  insist  upon  having  them 
at  once.     If  they  were  refused,  she  would  take  them  by  force: 


i 


.:Kj;i 


to  this,  however,  her  mother  lent  herself.  The  girl  would  then 
generally  go  out  and  buy  oranges,  and,  ou  her  return,  eat  them 
all  herself:  this  selHshnesB  was  quite  out  of  keeping  with  her 
normal  character.  Sometimes  when  her  mother  asked  her  to  do 
work  that  waa  distasteful  to  her,  such  as  blacking  the  grate,  she 
would  induce  self-hypuosis  with  profound  lethargy,  and  remain 
apparently  deeply  asleep  for  hours.  T  hail  never  tinght  her  to 
hypnotise  herself,  nor,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  had  this  been  done 
by  any  one  else.  During  this  third  stage — which  was  one  of  self- 
hypnosis —  she  remembered  everything  that  had  happened  in 
previous  conditions  of  this  kind,  and  also  the  events  of  the 
normal  state  and  those  of  ordinary  hypnosis ;  but  the  waking 
consciousness  and  the  ordinary  hypnotic  one  knew  nothing  of  the 
events  of  this  third  state.  After  1  had  observed  the  condition 
for  some  time,  I  concluded  that  it  was  not  likely  to  be  beneficial 
to  the  subject,  and  suggested  during  ordinary  hypnosis  that  she 
should  lose  the  power  of  creating  it.  Tlie  suggestion  was  success- 
ful and  the  condition  never  reappeared. 

(2)  Pierre  Janet  has  been  fortunate  in  finding  seveinl  subjects 
who  apparently  possess  so-called  multiplex  personalities,  and  has 
published  full  and  interesting  accounts  of  their  cases.     Amongst 

these  that  of  b^onie ,  is,  I  think,  one  of  the  most  striking. 

This  subject,  Madame  11,  aged  45,  possessed,  according  to  Pierre 
Janet,  three  distinct  and  well-marked  personalities,  viz. :  Loonie 
I. ;  the  Xj^onie  of  normal  life,  a  serious  and  sad  peasant  woman, 
calm,  slow,  gentle,  and  timid.  Leonie  II. ;  Lc'onie  in  the  ordinary 
hypnotic  state,  a  gay,  noisy,  restless  being,  given  to  irony  and 
bitter  jesting:  wlio  describes  her  visitors  in  an  impertinent 
fasliion.  and  apes  their  airs  and  graces.  I/onie  II.  refuses  to 
identify  herself  with  Leonie  I.,  and  calls  the  latter  a  stupid 
womau. 

Madame  B.,  -Le.  Ijeouie  I.,  has  had  attacks  of  spontaneous 
somnambulism  sincx!  she  was  three  years  old,  and  from  sixteen 
upwards  has  been  frequently  liypnotised  by  various  people, 
Now,  when  Loonie  II.  is  called  to  the  front,  she  knits  together 
the  events  of  her  spontaneous  and  induced  soumambulistic  states, 
and  fonus  the  history  of  her  life  from  them ;  the  memories  of 
wukiiig  life  are  not  forgotten,  but  these  are  ascribed  to  I^onie  I. 

Wiieu  Leonie  II.  is  hypnotised  more  deeply,  a  third  person- 
ality appears,  Leonie  III.,  who  is  grave,  serious,  slow  in  speech 


and  uiovement.  Thia  I^'onie  separates  lierself  both  from  Li-onie 
I.  of  \vakinj5  life,  and  the  I/onie  II.  of  the  ordinar)'  hypnotic 
State.  The  foiiner  she  describes  as  a  good,  but  rather  stupid 
woman,  and  the  latter  as  crazy.  "  Fortvinately,"  she  eays,  "  Uiere 
is  nothing  of  ine  in  either  of  them."  Ltjoiiie  I.  knows  herself 
alone;  L^onie  11.  knows  herself  and  lA!*onie  I.,  while  Leooie  HL 
not  only  knows  herself,  but  also  the  two  others.  L«^onie  1.  la 
enibarrussevl  and  ashamed  when  Leonie  II.'s  friends,  who  are 
strangers  to  her,  speak  to  her  in  the  street  I^'onie  II.  spontane- 
ously writes  leltei-s,  which  Liionie  T.  finils  and  destroys,  as  »h« 
does  not  understand  them.  Afterwards  Leonic  II.  hides  het 
letters  where  she  knows  L^onie  I.  will  never  look  for  theflL 
L<?onie  II.  visits  places  where  L**onie  I.  has  never  been,  then  dis- 
appears and  jiushes  Leonie  I.  to  the  front,  leaving  her  frightene<i 
by  her  strange  surroundings,  etc. 

(3)  In  "An  Experimental  Study  of  Visions"  (^r/rtn.  1898) 
Dr.  Morton  Prince  records  some  interesting  experiments  which  hfl 
tnade   with   Miss   X,   a    patient    who    sulfered    from    hysterical 
neurasthenia.     Miss  X  was  ea.si]y  hypnotised  and  at  first  passed] 
into  the  ordinary  "deep"  stage,  then,  when  ordered  to  sleep  moral 
profoundly,  a  fresh  condition  developed,  which  diflered  both  from! 
that  of  waking  life  and   from  ordinary  hypnosis      According  W I 
Dr.  Prince,  these  stages  formed  three  distinct  personalities,  viz: — I 

X,  I.  The  Miss  X  of  ordinary  waking  life,  who  is  reserved, 
morbidly    conscious.    self-containeJ.    serious,    deferential,    andj 
dignified. 

X,  11.  The  Miss  X  of  the  primary  hypnotic  condition,  who] 
is  sad,  serious,  and  apparently  weak  and  siitfcring. 

X,  HI.  Tlie  Miss  X  of  the  secondary  or  deeper  hypnotic] 
state,  who  is  flippant  and  jovial,  free  from  all  physical  infirmiLiesi  I 
full  of  fun  and  reckless. 

X,  I.  remembers  the  events  of  waking  life  alone  and  knovrd  i 
nothing  of  X,  II.  and  X,  111. :  while  X,  11.  remembers  all  that  hu 
passed  in  previous  primary  hypnotic  states,  also  all  that  X,  I.  can 
recall,  and  in  addition  some  other  events  of  waking  life  which  X, 
L  has  forgotten. 

X,  HI.  remeinbers  all  the  events  of  the  secondary  or  deeper] 
hypnotic  stages,  as  well  as  everything  X,  I.  and  X.  II.  can  recall 
In  addition,  she  can  describe  incidents  in  the  past  life  of  X.  I. ' 
that  are  lost  to  the  memory  of  the  latter,  and  can  thus  explam-l 


mucli  that  the  wakioy  jiersonality  is  at  a  loss  to  account  for. 
She  kiiowa  all  about  umny  of  tlie  little  abseut-minded  doiuga  of 
X,  I. ;  and  does  not  hesitate  to  voluntarily  tell  of  them,  although 
X,  1.  is  morbidly  and  unnecessarily  reserved  about  her  whole  life. 

Dr.  PriJice  made  this  tripartite  personage  look  into  a  globe, 
which  took  tlie  place  of  the  ordinary  glass  ball  used  in  crystal 
gazing^  and  describes  the  visions  which  the  dillerent  personages 
saw.     The  following  ia  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  these : — 

X,  IIL  was  the  personality  in  action  and  voluntarily  related 
the  following  incident,  telling  it  with  much  gusto  as  a  joke 
against  Miss  X  (X.  I.),  whom  she  talked  of  as  "She": — "'She' 
received  a  letter  from  a  photographer  yesterday.  '  She '  put  it 
into  her  pocket,  where  '  She '  had  some  bank-notes.  Then,  as 
'  She '  walked  along,  *  She '  took  out  the  money  and  tore  it  to 
pieces,  thinking  it  was  the  letter.  *  She '  threw  the  money  into 
the  street."  In  response  to  questioning,  X,  HI.  repeated  the 
words  of  the  photographer's  note  and  counted  mentally,  with 
some  difficulty  and  concentration  of  thought,  the  amount  of 
money.  X.  Ill,  said  "She"  was  absent-minded,  and  thinking  of 
something  ebe  when  "  She  "  tore  up  the  money.  Hypnosis  was 
now  terminated  and  the  ordinary  pereonality  X,  I.  appeared,  who, 
in  reply  to  questions,  slated  that  slie  had  received  a  letter  from 
her  photographer  which  she  had  torn  up,  and  that  she  had  the 
bank-notes  in  her  pocket.  She  was  asked  to  show  them,  and 
produced  the  letter.  This  surprised  her,  but  she  thought  she 
must  have  left  the  bank-notes  at  home  and  could  not  believe  she 
had  destroyed  them.  The  notes  were  undoubtedly  lost,  and  an 
account  of  the  occiirrence,  similar  to  that  given  by  X,  III.,  was 
obtained  by  making  Miss  X  (X,  I.)  look  into  the  globe  antl 
suggesting  that  she  sliould  see  what  had  really  happened.  Here, 
apparently,  the  ordinary  hypnotic  state,  namely  X,  IT-,  was 
induced  by  indirect  suggestion  and  fixed  gazing;  and  the  vision 
appeared  in  response  to  the  suggestions  of  the  operator. 

"  Crystal  gazing,"  the  method  employed  by  Dr.  Prince,  is  not 
really  necessary  for  the  production  of  hypnotic  visions ;  it  simply 
acts  by  presenting  a  point  upon  which  tlie  suggested  memories 
are  concentrated  and  rendered,  as  it  were,  objective.  Any 
memory  which  exists  in  the  hypnotic  consciousness  can  be  evoked 
by  suggestion  without  the  crystal.  Under  ordinary  circumstances 
the  hypnotic  subject  rarely  visualises  his  memories,  but  when  he 


J96 


HYPNOTISM 


looks  into  the  crystal,  this  acte  as  a  suggestion  that  he  should  fie«| 
with  liis  eyes  wliat  has  happened.  I  have  frequently  made 
similar  ex])enments  with  hypnotic  subjects,  and  in  place  of  the 
crystal  made  them  ](K)k  at  the  top  of  my  stethoecope,  which 
answered  equally  well. 

Gurney  stated  that  he  had  experimentally  demonstrated  the 
existence  of  positive  and  distinct  stages  of  memory  within  the 
conscious  portion  of  the  hypnotic  trance.  The  subjects  o(  these 
experiments  were  first  hypnotised  lightly,  and  something  was 
told  them  wliieh  they  were  asked  to  remember.  Deeper  hypnosis 
was  Lbeu  induced,  when  the  subject  was  asked  what  it  was  that 
he  had  just  been  told ;  it  was  then  found  that  he  neither  re- 
membered what  hud  been  related  to  hini,  nor  even  the  fact  that 
he  had  been  told  anything  at  all.  While  in  tliis  deep  stage, 
which  Gurney  termed  B,  some  new  incident  was  related  to  the 
subject  which  he  was  a^ain  naked  to  remember.  He  was  then 
recalled  to  the  lighter  stuge,  lenued  A  by  Guniey,  and  asked  to 
repeat  what  he  had  been  told  :  he  had  forgotten  what  he  had 
heard  a  few  minutes  before  in  stage  B,  but  i"ei)eated  instead  what 
had  been  told  him  in  the  earlier  stage  A,  in  which  he  now  again 
found  himself.  Brought  once  more  to  B,  he  similarly  remembered 
what  he  had  been  told  in  that  state,  while  he  was  again  com- 
pletely oblivious  of  what  had  been  impressed  upon  him  in  A. 
On  awaking,  he  retained  no  memoiy  of  anything  that  had  been 
told  him  in  either  stage. 

Many  coses,  of  which  the  following  is  an  example,  were  cited 
by  Gurney  to  illustrate  these  alterations  in  hypnotic  memory : — 

(4)  S.,  a  young  man  living  at  Brighton,  was  told  in  state  A,  the 
lighter  stage  of  hypnotic  trance,  that  the  pier -head  had  been 
washed  away,  and  in  state  By  the  deeper  stage  of  trance,  that  an 
engine  boiler  had  burst  at  Brighton  station  and  killed  several 
people.  He  was  then  brought  from  stage  B  back  again  to  A, 
when  he  recalled  all  that  had  been  told  him  about  the  accident 
to  the  pier.  Hypnosis  was  again  deepened  ;  stage  B  appeared, 
and  the  following  convei'sation  took  place  between  the  operator 
and  the  subject : — 

Operator,  "  But  I  suppose  they  will  soon  be  able  to  build  a 
new  one." 

Had  the  pier  been  present  in  S-'s  mind,  this  remark,  said 
Gurney,  would  naturally  have  been  taken  to  refer  to  it,  as  it  bad 


( 


formed  the  subject  of  conversation  only  a  few  aeconds  before. 
S.,  however,  at  once  replied  :  *'  Oh,  there  are  plenty  on  the  liue  " 
— meaning,  plenty  of  engines. 

Operator.  "  The  pile-driving  takes  time,  though." 

S.  "Pile-driving?  Well,  I  don't  know  anything  about 
engines  myself." 

The  subject  was  now  brought  back  to  stage  A  and  the  con- 
versation continued : — 

Operator.  "  If  they  have  plenty  more,  it  does  not  matter 
much." 

S.  "  Oh,  they  can't  put  it  on  in  a  day ;  it  was  a  splendid 
place." 

Operator.  "  Why,  I  am  talking  about  the  engine." 

S.  "  Engine !  What,  on  the  pier  ?  I  never  noticed  one 
there." 

Here  the  subject's  mind  had  obnously  again  reverted  to  what 
had  been  told  liim  in  stage  A. 

In  the  above  case,  as  in  atl  others  of  a  like  nature  cited  by 
Gurney,  the  normal  self  knew  nothing  of  stages  A  and  J?,  and 
these  knew  nothing  of  each  other. 

I  Benwrks. — The  importance  of  memory  in  relation  to  8ul>- 
conscious  states  is  insisted  on  both  by  William  James  and  Myers. 
According  to  the  former,  the  theory  of  "  double  cousciousneas " 
is  only,  after  all,  a  development  of  what  is  found  in  Locke's  famous 
chapter  on  '"  Identity  and  Diversity : "  namely,  that  personality 
extended  no  further  than  con.sciousness,  and  that  there  would  bo 
two  diOcrent  persons  in  one  man,  if  the  experiences  undergone  by 
that  man  fell  into  two  groups,  each  gathered  into  a  distinct  focus 
of  recollection.  Purther,  says  James,  "  it  must  be  admitted  that, 
in  certain  persons  at  least,  the  total  possible  consciousness  may 
be  split  into  parts  which  coexist,  but  mutually  ignore  each  other 
and  share  the  objects  of  knowledge  between  them,  and — more 
remarkable  still — are  complementary." 

Myers  lield  that  the  formation  of  a  secondary  chain  of 
memory  was  the  fundamental  point  in  hypnosis.  This  chain  of 
memory  was  essential  to  the  grouping  of  the  various  acts  which 
manifested  the  secondary  consciousness.  This  classification 
excludes,  and  I  think  justly  so,  some  of  the  cases  cited  by  some 
authorities  as  examples  of  double  consciousness.  Amnesia,  even 
when  associated  with  alterations  in  character,  does  not  constitute 


double  cousciousness.  If  it  did,  the  bather  who  had  forgotten 
the  number  of  his  machine  ami  lost  his  Lemp<fr  itiight  be  desorilted 
as  a  case  of  eecoudary  ]>er8onality. 

It  amst  be  admitted,  however^  that  the  phenomena  just  c-ited 
as  affording  evidence  for  the  existence  of  a  secondary  conscious- 
ness are  explained  in  other  and  even  widely  differing  ways. 
Moat  of  the  discussion  has  centred  round  the  phenomenon  of  time 
appreciation,  with  its  attendant  calcuhitions.  and  to  thU  I  now 
propose  to  refer. 


UUi^^l 


THEORETICAL  EXPLANATIONS  OF  TIME  APPRECIATION 

IN  HYPNOSIS. 

Delboeuf,  as  we  have  seen,  pointed  out  that  the  terminal  days 
in  Beaunis  and  IJegeois'  experiments  fell  on  easily  recognised 
dates,  with  which  the  subjects  were  ac(|uainted.  These  experi- 
ments, he  said,  did  not  show,  as  they  were  supposed  to  do,  that 
soninambulea  possessed  the  power  of  counting  days,  but  only 
that  they  were  able  to  retain  a  given  date.  To  remove  this! 
objection,  his  suggestions  were  made  in  minutes,  and  the  majority 
of  mine  were  given  iu  a  HJniilar,  but  even  more  complicated, 
form.  In  explaining  the  phenomenon,  therefore,  we  must  take 
into  account  not  only  the  appreciation  of  the  passage  of  time, 
but  also  the  feats  of  memory  and  arithmetical  calculation  wliich 
sometimes  exceeded  the  subject's  normal  powers. 


I 


Bernheim's  Theory. 

This  is  mainly  based  uptm  tlie  supjwsed  occurrence  of  scP 
hypnosis  in  somnambules  and  the  existence  during  that  coudittonj 
of  a  peculiar  mental  concentration,  with  subsequent  revival  d\ 
hypnotic  memories.  According  to  Bernheim,  conscious  mental] 
activity  exists  both  in  sleep  and  in  hypnosia  During  sleep  vre 
are  conscious  that  our  mind  thinks  and  works,  just  as  tlM 
hypnotic  somuamhuHst  knows  what  he  is  doing;  but  the  fomj 
of  consciousness  differs  from  tliat  of  waking  life.  In  both  sleep! 
and  hypnosis  concentration  of  the  ner\'0U3  force  upon  the  sug-l 
gested  idea  is  the  chaiacteristic  phenomenon.  This  coatinueij 
to  exist,  although  dream  succeeds  dream  in  sleep,  and  varying! 


suggestions  are  instantly  executed  in  hypnosis  :  the  nervous 
concentration  has  only  changed  its  object,  the  locus  shifted  its 
place. 

According  to  Beniheiui,  if  an  individual  goes  to  sleep  deter- 
mined to  awake  at  a  given  hour,  his  attention  is  fixed  upon  this 
idea,  and  he  thinks  about  it  voluntarily  and  consciously  all  night. 
When  he  awakes,  he  believes  he  does  so  spontaneously,  since  the 
conscious  thoughts  of  sleep  are  forgotteu.  Finally,  he  says,  the 
lost  memories  of  hypnosis  may  be  revived  by  chance  association 
of  ideas,  like  forgotten  impressions  of  the  waking  state,  and  also 
in  other  ways,  and  therefore  the  memory  of  the  suggestion  has 
not  been  latent  all  the  time.     In  support  of  this  he  cites : — 

First :  Experiments. — Two  subjects,  who  bad  received  deferred 
suggestions,  when  hypnotised  and  questioned  in  the  inten^al, 
stated  that  during  natural  sleep  they  had  once  dreamt  of  what 
had  been  suggested  during  hypnosis. 

Sicundly :  Certain  general  of)servaliom  a»  to  th€  mental  condition 
in  samnambules. — The  memory,  he  says,  of  wliat  has  taken  place 
during  hypnosis  depends  upon  the  psychical  concentration  already 
referred  to;  every  time  this  is  reproduced,  the  lost  memory  ia 
revived.  Somnambules  pass  easily  and  spontaneously  from  the 
normal  to  the  hjrpnotic  state ;  they  then  become  self-absorbed 
aud  concentrated,  and  recall  the  operator's  suggestions.  They 
know  when  these  should  be  executed,  and  take  their  measures 
accordingly.  They  reinforce  the  idea  of  not  forgetting  them, 
just  as  a  person  in  natural  sleep  determines  not  to  miss  the  hour 
set  for  awaking.  Although  the  suggestion  may  have  been  present 
in  tlieir  minds  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  they  forget  it  if  we 
divert  their  attention  from  themselves  by  s])eakiDg  to  them.  By 
doing  this  we  have  disturbed  their  psychical  concentration — - 
drawn  their  cerebral  activity  from  the  inside  to  the  outside — and 
produced  another  state  of  cousciousucss  in  wliich  the  memory  of 
the  suggestion  is  lost,  the  memories  of  the  second  or  hypnotic 
state  being  etlaced  in  the  flrst  or  normal  one. 

In  consequence  of  this,  when  the  somuambule  carries  out  a 
suggestion,  he  believes  tliat  the  idea  has  newly  and  spontaneously 
dnwne<l  in  his  mind — "  Se  no  hnf/er  remembers  that  it  is  a 
memory^  Thus,  in  Bemheim's  opinion,  a  deferred  suggestion  is 
no  more  difficult  to  explain  than  one  executed  immediately  on 
kwaking. 


Three  points  are  involved  in  Beniheim's  theory : — 

(1)  Ntrvons  concentraiian  and  its  relationship  to  hypnotk  Tnemor^^ 

Bernbeim's  tlieories  as  to  nervous  concentration,  eta,  htvt 
already  been  discussed  (pp.  339-45).  and  their  fallacies  poii 
out. 

(2)  Admitting    t/iat    hyp^wtic   memory    is   associated    vnth    thi*l 

jasychical    concentration,    th4    evidence    in    favour    of   (ktl 
frequent  and   spontaneous  ocairrence   of  the  latter  is  ftx 
from  convincing. 

Granting  that  two  subjects  had  once  dreamt  of  a  suggestion 
during  natural  sleep,  this   does  not  justify  the  conclusion  tbftt 
somnambules  pass  easily  and  spontaneously  from  the  normal  to 
the  hypnotic  state.     Further,  although  the  memories  of  hypnosig. 
whether  self-induced  or  not,  are  lost  on  awaking,  these  can  W 
easily  evoked  by  questioning  in  subseijuent  hypnoses.      If,  there- 
fore, subjects  passed  spontaneously  into  the  hypnotic  state,  and 
thought  about  the  suggestions,  they  could  be  made  to  recall  tli«l 
fact  that  they  hnd  done  so.     Despite  this,  Bernheim's  generalisa- 
tions  are   founded   on   the  two  dreams  just  cited;  and  he  ha» 
apparently    made   no    attempt   to    discover    the    actual    meoiat 
conditions  involved,  although  he  might  easily  have  done  this  bYj 
means    of   the   simple   metliod    of   interrogation    in    subsequen&l 
hypnoses. 

(3)  Granting  both  the  points  in  dilute,  i.e.  the  psychical  coneerUra* 

tion   and   its  spontaneous  occurrence,  the  difficulty   is  <<iff] 
unsolved. 

If  no  trace  of  the  hypnotic  memory  remains  in  the  nonnftl 
state,  what  advantage  does  the  normal  consciousness  obtain  from 
the  unknown  or  forgotten  fact  that  the  hypnotic  consciousness 
recalled  the  suggestion  at  some  time  before  the  date  fixed  for  its  { 
fulHlmeut  ? 

Beaonis'  Objections. 

Beaunis  also   raises   many  objections  to   Bernheim's  viemi 
Thus,  while  admitting  the  influence  of  attention  and  couccntratioD 
upon  the  production  of  certain  hypnotic  phenomena,  he  holds 


I 


that  these  are  iusuftieieut  to  explaiu  deferred  sujj^estions.  They 
may  account  for  a  hallucination  realised  immediately  on  awaking, 
but  not  for  one  that  has  been  retarded  for  several  days.  Hure 
the  subject  was  unconacious  of  the  suggestion  luitil  the  halluciua- 
tiou  api>eared  at  the  hour  hxed,  and  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that 
all  this  time  he  was  under  the  induence  of  a  dominant  idea. 
Eernheim's  experiments,  therefore,  do  not  settle  the  question. 
Granting  that  the  subject  di-eamt  of  the  suggestion  in  normal 
sleep  two  days  before  it  fell  due,  it  is  still  necessary  to  explaiu 
how  it  was  carried  out  at  the  time  fixed.  The  suggestion,  it  is 
true,  now  involves  a  shorter  period  of  time,  i.e.  two  days  instead 
of  the  original  number ;  but  this,  while  reducing  the  extent  of 
the  problem,  still  leaves  it  unsolved. 

Beaunis  disputes  Bemheim's  assertion  that  those  who  wish 
to  awake  at  a  given  hour  think  of  this  all  night,  for,  he  says,  if 
this  were  true,  they  would  afterwards  remember  having  done  so. 
Dreams  which  have  passed  rapidly  through  the  brain  can  often 
■Jbe  recalled  in  every  detail  t  we  should,  therefore,  be  able  to 
remember  still  more  vividly  the  ideas  upon  which  our  attention 
'has  been  constantly  fixed.  Further,  he  states  that  some  people 
always  know  what  o'clock  it  is,  and,  if  suddenly  asked,  are  able 
to  give  an  exact  reply,  no  matter  how  much  their  attention  may 
have  been  concentrated  on  other  things.  Had  they  consciously 
noted  the  passage  of  time,  they  would  afterwards  be  able  to  recall 
having  done  so.  This,  however,  is  not  tiie  case,  and  they  are 
unable  to  explain  how  the  feat  was  performed. 

Finally,  in  contradistinction  to  Beniheim,  Beaunis  justly 
points  out  that  important  differences  exist  lietween  the  modes  in 
which  the  lost  memories  of  the  waking  stat«,  and  those  of  h}'pnosi8. 
are  revived.  The  former  may  be  recalled  at  any  time  by  a 
chance  association  of  ideas :  for  example,  things  long  forgotten 
may  be  remembered  on  hearing  the  name  of  some  one  we  knew 
in  childhood.  The  lost  memories  of  hypuusis,  however,  possess 
the  distinctive  and  essential  characteristic  tliat  they  cannot  be 
revived  by  a  chance  association  of  ideas,  and  are,  therefore, 
fundamentally  different  from  those  of  the  waking  state.  The 
hypnotic  suggestion  is  only  realised  at  the  hour  fixed,  and  cannot 
take  place  befoi-e,  even  when  associations  occur  which  would  have 
lestored  lost  normal  memory.  Thus,  if  it  is  suggested  to  A  that 
he  is  to  do  something  at  the  expiration  of  ten  days,  when  he 

2  D 


hears  B  cough  three  times ;  iT*  signals,  if  given  at  any  time 
before  the  day  fixed,  produce  no  response,  although  they  inevit- 
ably do  80  when  the  appropriate  time  arrives. 

Beaunis'  Theory. 

Beaiinis  attempts  to  explain  tlie  phenomenon  of  time  apprecia- 
tion by  the  existence  in  the  human  organism  of  a  subconacious 
physiological  power  of  time  measurement.  The  phenomenon  of 
deferred  suggestion,  he  says,  is  analogous  to  that  of  awaking  at 
a  fixed  hour  from  normal  sleep;  and  both  may  be  explained  by 
the  existence  of  n  sort  of  mental  mechanism,  arranged  like  an 
alarm-clock,  to  produce  a  raovenieut  at  a  fixed  liour.  The  brain, 
as  already  stated,  ia  a  machine  which  acta  without  our  knowle<lge, 
with  an  activity  we  are  unable  to  estimate ;  and  tiie  things  of 
which  we  are  conscious  only  feebly  represent  this  mysterious 
work.  The  power  of  appreciating  time,  rudimentarj'  (or,  rather,  ■ 
atrophied)  in  the  civilised  man,  is  well  developed  in  the  savage  ^ 
and  lower  animals.  Thus  a  dog,  accustomed  to  go  out  with  his 
master  at  a  certain  hour,  will  show  that  the  time  has  arrived  by 
expressive  pantomime^  should  liis  master  delay  a  little  in  getting 
ready  for  his  walk.  In  Beaunis'  opinion,  the  measurement  of 
time  by  somuambules  is  an  act  of  subconscious  cerebration. 

Paul  Janet's  Objections. 

•Janet  grants  that  an  image  of  which  one  is  imconscious  may 
exist  in  the  memory ;  and,  further,  that  it  can  be  revived,  evea 
at  a  fixed  date,  if  the  operator  associates  tlie  suggestion  with 
some  definite  sensation,  as,  for  example,  the  sight  of  a  particular 
person.  He  cannot,  however,  understand  the  return  of  the  lost 
memory  at  a  fixed  day  unthovt  other  association  than  the  numew- 
tion  of  time.  Thirteen  days,  for  example,  do  not  represent  a 
sensation,  but  form  an  abstraction.  The  carrying  out  of  a 
suggestion,  therefore,  at  the  expiration  of  such  a  period  pre- 
supposes the  existence  of  a  subconscious  power  of  measuring 
time — an  entirely  imkuown  faculty.  Up  to  this  eveTything  fl 
could  be  explained  by  the  law  of  association  of  ideas ;  but  here  ^ 
we  make  a  sudden  jump,  and  the  thread  of  analogy  ia  completely 
broken.  No  association  can  explain  the  subconscious  counting  of 
thirteen  days,  and  the  "  suggestion  theory  "  breaks  down  here. 


Beaucis'  Reply. 

A  day  ia  not  an  abstraction.  The  idea  of  a  day  represents  a 
series  of  definite  impressions,  the  result  of  external  agencies,  such 
as  light,  temperature,  etc.,  which  produce  in  our  organism  different 
kinds  of  reactions.  Animals  kuovv  exactly  the  hour  at  which 
they  are  habitually  fed,  and  an  attack  of  fever  returns  at  the 
same  hour  each  day,  or  every  other  day,  for  weeks ;  this  indicates 
that  the  measurement  of  time  is  not  an  abstraction,  but  haa  its 
roots  in  the  very  life  of  the  organism.  The  periodicity  of  days, 
weeks,  months,  and  seasons  corresponds  to  periodic  organic 
variations,  which  under  certain  circumstances  may  acquire 
sufficient  intensity  to  constitute  a  sort  of  "  subconscious  faculty 
for  measuriug  time,"  although  the  word  "  faculty  "  is  a  little  too 
philosophic  a  term  for  an  organic  aptitude  of  this  kind. 

Kemarks. — Beaunig' explanation  assumes  (1)  the  existence  of 

^a  subconscious  faculty  for  measuring  time^  and  (2)  its  applica- 
bility to  the  cases  in  question. 

(1)   77u  Subeonscioits  MeasuremeTU  of  Time. — According    to 

rBeaunis,  time  appreciation  is  highly  developed  in  savages,  while 
certain  civilised  persons  can  awake  at  a  given  hour,  and  others 
always  know  what  o'clock  it  is.  In  support  of  this,  however,  he 
does  not  cite  a  single  example  or  experiment.  Let  us  take  the 
simplest  case,  i.e.  awaking  at  a  given  hour.  Many  persons,  it  is 
true,  believe  that  they  can  do  this :  usually,  however,  the  self- 
waker  only  shows  the  power  of  giving  himself  a  lighter  sleep 
than  usual ;  he  awakes  several  times  during  the  night,  and  in 
tlie  end  does  not  always  hit  the  exact  hour.  On  behalf  of  the 
Society  for  Psychical  Kesearch,  several  persons,  who  believed 
they  possessed  this  power  of  self-waking,  tested  it  in  a  rigorously 
scientific  manner.  Tlie  results  were  disappointing.  One  experi- 
menter only  succeeded  on  2  occasions  out  of  17,  and  one  of 
these  was  his  usual  hour  of  awaking ;  another  was  successful  in 
5  times  out  of  29,  but  on  3  of  these  he  awoke  at  other  hours  as 
well;  while  the  third  was  right  2  out  of  13  times;  and  the 
fourth  only  succeeded  in  4  instances  out  of  46. 

Since  I  became  interested  iu  time  appreciation,  many  people 
have  assured  me  that  they  could  awake  at  any  given  hour.  None 
of  them,  however,  were  able  to  experimentally  reproduce  the  alleged 
phenomenon,   while   the  cases   of  Savage  and   Hartog,   already 


referred  to,  are  the  only  genuine  one3  1  know  ol.  If,  howover. 
the  faculty  were  as  universal  as  Bcaunis  asserts,  there  wowJU  be 
no  employment  for  the  professional  "knockers  up"  of  manu- 
facturing districts. 

The  "fever"  argnment  is  also  fallacious;  it  is  the  porantic 
malarial  micro-organisms  which  manifest  periodicity,  not  their 
human  hosts. 

(2)  The  Ap2)licahiliii/  of  Beaunia'  TJi^ory  to  the  particular  Cata 
in  qtitstion, — The  experiences  of  Savage  and  Hartog  '  undoubtedly 
show  that  certain  persons  can  awake  at  a  given  hour.  The  exist- 
ence of  such  a  faculty  as  a  rare  occurrence  in  the  normal  state, 
does  not,  however,  explain  why  it  is  almost  universal  among 
hypnotic  soranambules :  to  invoke  it  is  an  attempt  to  explain  the 
little-known  in  terms  of  the  less-known ;  and  the  analogy,  even 
if  successfully  eatablislied,  does  not  solve  the  problem,  but  adda 
another  to  it.  Granting  that  the  uncivilised  man  possesses  some 
natural  power  of  marking  the  passage  of  time,  it  would  be  of 
little  use  to  him  in  cases  such  as  those  described  by  Delbccuf  audi 
myself.  If  he  cannot  count  above  five,  how  is  he  to  bring  hij' 
powers  to  bear  on  a  suggestion  which  starts  from,  say,  3.15  P.it 
yesterday,  and  is  to  terminate  in  40,845  minutes? 

Delbceuf  s  Theory. 

Delboeuf  first  pointed  out  that  his  subjects  in  the  normal 
state  were  unable  to  make  the  necessaiy  calculations  involved  in 
his  time  experiments.  As  the  latter  were  successful,  this  showed, 
he  said,  that  the  subjects  when  hypnotised  had  an  idea  of  the 
passage  of  time,  and  subconsciously  calculated  when  the  sugges- 
tions fell  due.  Apparently  they  possessed  a  sort  of  mechanism 
like  an  alarm-clock,  which  they  set  to  go  off  at  a  fiJEed  time. 

Edmund  Gumey's  Objections  to  the  Theories  of  Deltotif 
and  Beaunis. 

According  to  Gurney,  commands  to  be  fulfilled  at  a  particulflr] 
date  involved  the  reckoning  of  time.     This  was  usually  assumed  [ 
to  be  physiological.     Thus,  Delbceuf  believed  that  the  subject] 
calculated  when  the  order  fell  due,  and  said  to  himself :  "  I  shall 
fall  into  a  trance  at  such  and  such  a  moment,  and  then  perform 
the  act"     The  subject  set  his  organism  like  an  alarm-clock  for  a 

»  Pp.  S87-8. 


given  time  ahead :  his  mind,  relieved  of  responsibility,  then  went 
off  duty  till  the  suggestiou  fell  due,  when  it  was  aroused  by  its 
own  automatic  machinery,  the  action  resembling  the  running 
down  of  an  alarm-clock.  Gurney  asserted  that  hypnotic  subjects 
never  formulated  their  orders  in  this  way,  and  that  Delbojufs 
explanation  was  pure  guesswork,  unsupported  by  fact 

Further,  he  said,  even  if  we  granted  the  purely  physiological 
hypothesis  for  cases  of  short  duration — where  the  idea  of  the 
time  fixed  could  be  easily  grasped,  and  thus  the  setter  of  the 
alarm-clock  knew  exactly  what  he  was  about — it  would  be  a 
very  different  thing  to  extend  it  to  others  where  the  command 
had  been  executed  after  the  lapse  of  months. 

Gurney,  like  Delbanif,  drew  a  distinction  between  commands 
to  be  carrietl  out  at  a  specific  date,  such  as  New  Year's  Bay,  and 
those  where  a  length  of  time  alone  was  named,  as  in  the  direction 
to  do  something  "  on  the  sixty-ninth  day  from  this."  In  the 
former  instance,  the  brain  might  at  once  register  the  date  along 
with  tlie  order,  and  the  arrival  of  the  former  would  thus  suffice 
to  arouse  the  latter.  A  length  of  time  could  not  be  registered 
in  this  way.  Its  termination,  till  reckoned  by  the  calendar,  was 
quite  indefinite ;  and  when  the  particular  day  arrived  it  conveyed 
nothing  likely  to  revive  the  suggestiou — it  carried  no  more  sixiy/- 
ninihness  about  it  than  any  other  day. 

Gurney  considered  that  Beannis'  explanation  did  not  fully 
meet  Janet's  objection  that  such  a  length  of  time — ie.  sixty-nine 
days — was  simply  an  abstraction.  Admitting  that  "  a  day  "  was 
a  sufficiently  familiar  and  definite  unit  to  present  a  concrete 
character — that  it  represented  a  series  of  conscious  reactions — 
and  further,  that  there  were  periodic  organic  changes  which 
extended  over  weeks  and  months,  this  did  not  prove  that  "  the 
measurement  of  time  was  not  an  abstraction.  h\)t  had  its  roots 
and  conditions  in  the  very  life  of  the  organism."  It  did  not 
follow  that  •*  sixty-nine  days  "  were  concrete  in  character  because 
this  was  the  case  with  "  one  day,"  and,  further,  tlie  organic  con- 
ditions associated  with  established  physiolc^ca}  periods  were 
absent  from  these  other  periods,  suddenly  and  arbitrarily  fixed 
by  human  volition.  The  vxtai  processes  tcere  as  ttnabls  to  make 
a  tivir  calculation  of  this  kind  as  a  xhod-hot/s  digestion  to  work 
OMt  a  proposition  of  Eucliff.  Such  time  measurement  was  not  a 
function  of  animal  life;  its  result  was  not  an  ineWtable  bodily 


% 


state,   but  a  needless  act      It  depended — not  on   progresstvi 
changes  in  the  stomach  or  blood — but  on  an  original  course 
cerebration  taking  place  iu  the  higher  tracts  of  the  brain,  initiated 
by  an   impression,  that  of  the  command,  which  had  a  distin 
psychical  side. 

According  to  Gurney,  the  passage  of  time  must  be  registered. 
looking  at  it  from  the  brain  side  alone,  not  by  general  gradual 
change,  but  by  a  series  of  specific  changes  correspombug  to  the 
days  and  units  of  raeasurenienc ;  and  this  was  the  only  kind  of 
cerebral  process  capable  of  clearly  differentiating  the  case  from 
that  of  ordinary  physiological  time  reekouiug.  Further,  imless 
cerebral  events  such  as  were  normally  correlated  with  the  ideas 
"sixty,"  "sixty-one,"  "sixty-two,"  etc.,  really  took  place,  how 
could  the  gulf  be  spanned  with  precision  ?  Any  other  kind  of 
change  would  not  know  when  to  stop,  or  how  to  assi^ciate  a  point 
it  had  reached  with  the  order  given  long  before.  Granting  that 
these  specific  brain-changes  took  place,  was  it  not  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  their  mental  correlate  existed ;  and  that,  hidden 
from  our  view,  there  was  an  actual  watching  of  the  course  0(1 
time  ?  This  hypothesis,  he  said,  went  a  long  way  towardi 
removing  Paul  Janet's  difficulty — Uxtm  this  point  of  view  hiSi 
"  unknown  faculty  "  resolved  itself  into  a  known  one,  working  ia 
the  normal  way,  but  below  the  surface  of  ordinary  consciouaueML 

Gurney's  Theory. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  carrying  out  of  a  post-hypnotic  conuiiaDdj 
several  thousand  minutes  after  awaking  can  neither  be  explaiuedj 
by  any  ordinary  physiological  power  of  appreciating  time,  nor  by] 
a  supposed  spontaneous  reliypnosis  with  tein|>orary  revival  <rfl 
memorj*.  The  feat,  according  to  Gurney,  could  only  be  performed  I 
as  the  result  of  the  intelligent  action  of  a  secondary  consciousness  I 
which  watched  the  time  as  it  passed  just  as  the  ordinary  one  did;] 
and,  when  the  correct  time  arrived,  pushed  the  ordinary  con- 
sciousness on  one  side,  took  its  place,  and  carried  out  thej 
command.  In  Gurney's  opinion,  the  mental  conditions  involved] 
iu  the  execution  of  post-hypnotic  commands  varied  widely  in] 
different  cases.     Of  these  the  following  are  examples : — 

(1)  A  subject  was  told  to  do  something  ten  minutes  al^r  she] 
awoke.     On  awaking,  she  looked  at  the  clock  until  the  expiration.! 


I 


of  the  time,  theu  executed  the  order.  In  this  case  the  subject 
was  conscious  of  having  consulted  the  clock,  and  afterwards — 
apart  from  any  question  of  the  revival  of  hypnotic  memory  iu 
post-hypnotic  states — remembered  having  done  so. 

(2)  A  subject  was  told  to  do  something  five  minutes  after  he 
awoke.  Immediately  on  awaking,  he  looked  at  the  clock,  and 
continued  to  do  so  at  intervals,  talking  naturally  meanwhile  to 
those  present.  At  the  end  of  five  minutes  he  executed  the  oixler. 
Afterwards,  he  neither  recollected  looking  at  the  clock,  nor 
carrying  out  the  command. 

This  case  appeared  to  occupy  an  intermediate  position 
between  No.  1  and  tlie  others  about  to  be  cited. 

(3)  A  subject  was  told  that  on  the  thirty-ninth  day  from 
then  he  was  to  execute  a  post-hypnotic  suggestion.  He  had  no 
memory  of  the  command  when  awake,  and  no  reference  was 
made  to  it  until  March  19th,  when  he  was  suddenly  asked, 
during  hypnosis,  how  many  days  had  elapsed  since  it  was  given. 
He  instantly  replied, "  Sixteen,"  and  added  tliat  there  were  twenty- 
three  more  to  run.     Both  statements  were  correct. 

(4)  Another  subject  was  told  on  March  26th,  that  he  was  to 
do  something  on  the  123rd  day  from  then.  On  April  18th,  he 
was  rehypDotised  and  asked  if  he  remembered  the  order.  He  at 
once  replied,  "Yes,  this  is  the  twenty -third  day;  a  hundred 
more,"  Further  questioning  made  it  clear  that  every  few  days 
the  command  occurred  to  his  mind,  and  that  he  calculated  how 
many  days  had  passed  and  how  many  more  had  to  elapse.  His 
waking  memory  retained  no  recollection  of  the  original  suggestion, 
uor  was  it  aware  of  the  memories  and  calculations  which  he  had 
described  when  hj-pnotised. 

In  the  two  last  cases  the  watching  was  undoubtedly  wholly 
of  an  internal  kind,  and  although  obviously  accompanied  by 
consciousness,  was  afterwards  entirely  forgotten. 

Remakk-s. — The  experiments — -as  also  those  described  in 
Groups  3  and  4,  Automatic  Writing,  pp.  139-141 — showed, 
according  to  Gumey,  that  the  hypnotic  substrata  included  higher 
psychical  functions  tlian  mere  random  spurts  of  memory — to  wit, 
proceaaes  of  deliberate  reckoning  and  reflection,  which  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  to  conceive  as  having  only  a  physiological 
existence.  In  Xo.  4,*  the  order  itself  was  remembered  and 
'  I.e.  in  No.  (4)  jast  cited,  not  Groap  4. 


4o8 


HYPNOTISM 


i 


realised  by  the  secondary  conscioiisuess,  while  the  primAiy 
consciousuess  was  wholly  without  knowledge  of  it.  In  Guniey's 
opinion,  these  ao- called  automatic  writings,  in  most  cases  at 
all  events,  were  intelligent,  and  involved  mentation.  When  a 
statement  was  made  which  the  subject  was  told  he  was  after- 
wards to  record  in  writing,  the  performance  might  possibly 
be  regarded  as  an  exclusively  automatic  one,  due  to  a  "  setting  of 
the  organism."  Sometimes,  however,  Uie  impression  was  made 
■without  a  hint  as  to  the  future — without  the  faintest  suggestioD 
that  it  would  afterwards  produce  any  result  whatever.  Yet.  in 
the  midst  of  quite  in*elevant  surroundings  and  experiences,  the 
phenomenon  appeareil,  as  socm  as  the  op|>ortunity  of  "automatic" 
representation  arose.  Here  the  organism  could  not  have  been  speci- 
ally set  for  the  effect.  Further,  if  we  regarded  the  action  aa  purely  Jl 
automatic,  we  should  be  compelled  to  concede  a  singular  power  fl 
to  hypnotic  impressions,  viz.  tliat  of  storing  up  energy  in  the  brain 
which  would  work  meehauically  outwards  along  the  motor  nerves. 
as  soon  as  the  act  of  writing  was  sutticiently  easy  for  the  muscles. 
Moreover,  memory  on  rehypnotisation  afforded  strong  evidence  of 
mentation.  Not  only  did  the  subject  remember  the  origiiml 
idea  conveyed  to  liim,  and  the  fact  that  he  had  written  some- 
thing, but  also  the  exact  words  he  had  used  to  convey  his  con- 
ception of  the  impression.  Surely  this  indicated  an  intelligent 
apprehension  of  the  words.  We  have  seen  that  the  niemorv  of 
these  so-called  automatic  acts  could  he  recalled  in  hypnosis,  while 
others,  in  addition,  indicated  the  existence  of  a  hypnotic  memory 
superior  to  the  normal  one,  since  the  facts  recorded  had  occurred 
at  an  early  period  of  the  subject's  life  and  had  long  been  forgotten. 

Granting  the  existence  of  a  sfcoiuiarif  C07iscu»(sncss,  how  far  doa 
this  explain  all  the  phenomena  we  have  been  eormdering  f 

The  facts  just  cited — and  these  might  be  supplemented  by 
many  more — apparently  indicate  not  only  that  a  secondary 
consciousness  exists,  but  also  that  it  can  act  simultaneously  with, 
and  independently  of,  the  primary  one-  Even,  however,  if  we 
grant  the  existence  of  a  secondary  consciousness,  this  does  not 
explain  all  the  phenomena  of  time  appreciation  and  arithmetical 
calculation  that  we  have  iteen  considering. 

Obviously,  if  the  intelligence  of  the  secondary  consciousDesa 
were  at  all  comparable  to  that  of  the  pi-imary  one,  it  would  not 
be  difficult  for  it   to  calculate  the  arrival  of  the  39th  or  the 


i 


123rd  day  from  any  giveu  date.  lu  Gui*ney*s  cases,  it  apparently 
performed  this  feat  with  ease,  and  the  subject  when  iiypuotised 
could  recall  the  manner  in  which  it  had  been  accomplished. 

Here  the  secondary  consciousness  apparently  acted  in  just 
the  same  way  as  the  primary  one  might  have  done  under 
similar  circumstances;  having  to  execute  an  order  on  the  39th 
day  from  a  given  date,  it  recalled  the  fact  from  time  to  time,  and 
noted  how  many  days  had  passed  and  how  many  had  to  come. 
Many  of  the  experiments  I  have  cited,  notably  the  more  com- 
plicated ones  executed  by  Jliss  I).,  present  more  difficult 
problems;  and  by  none  of  the  theories  alrejuiy  considered  can 
these  be  properly  solved.  Bernheim'a  explanation,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  in  opposition  to  observed  facts,  while  Gurney's  objections 
to  that  of  Beaunis  apply  with  even  greater  force  to  my  cases. 
Thus,  if  there  is  little  analogy  between  ordinary  physiological 
periods  of  time,  and,  for  example,  39  days  chosen  suddenly  and 
arbitrarily  by  human  volitiou,  the  analogy  is  still  less  between 
the  former  and,  say,  40,845  minutes. 

I  Further,  the  secondary  consciousness  theory,  while  it  affords 
a  reasonable  explanation  of  the  way  in  which  Gurney's  subjects 
carried  out  their  suggestions,  fails  to  account  for  much  that  is 
important  in  the  cases  of  time  appreciation  I  have  cited.  The 
following  are  the  principal  points  which  demand  explanation : — 
(1)  The  want  of  hypnotic  memory  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
suggestions  were  carried  out  (2)  The  fact  that  the  suggestions 
not  only  involved  feats  of  arithmetical  calculation  and  memory  fur 
beyond  the  subjects'  normal  powers,  but  also  in  some  cases  beyond 
their  ordinary  hvpnotic  ones.  (3)  The  difference  in  the  nature 
of  the  time  appreciation  required  in  Gurney's  cases  and  in  those 
cited  by  me. 

(1)  The  icant  of  hypnotic  memory  fts  to  th4  manner  in  which 
the  sitffgestions  wtre  carried  out. 

According  to  Bernheim,  the  hypnotic  subject  is  conscious  in 
all  stages ;  and  all  the  memories  of  hypnotic  life,  which  are  lost 
on  awaking,  can  be  restored  by  suggestion  or  other  means.  This 
statement  is  not  absolutely  correct.  Hypnotic  life,  it  is  true,  is 
more  conscious  than  the  normal  one,  and  lacks  the  prolonged  and 
regularly  recurring  periods  of  unconscioxisneas  represented  in  the 
latter  by  sleep.     Sometimes,  however,  deeply  hypnotised  subjects 


receive  impressions  and  even  perform  acta  of  which  they  ar« 
unconscious : — 

(a)  ThuSj  where  anieaihesia  has  been  induced  for  surfac«l 
purposes,  the  subjecta  cuu  recall  nothing  of  the  operations,  either 
when  awake  or  in  subsef^uent  hypuoses.  (.lencrally  speakiDg, 
however,  present  forgetfuhiess  does  not  prove  past  unconscious- 
ness. When  we  find,  however — in  the  instances  where  antlgesU 
and  hyperasthesia  liave  been  siuiukaueously  excited — amnesia  as 
to  certain  sensations,  associated  with  hypenii'Sthesia  as  to  others, 
we  have  reasonable  grouuds  for  inferring  that  the  scnsatioDi 
which  cannot  be  recalled  never  occurred,  and  thus  could  not  be 
present  to  consciousness.  This  view  is  further  strengthened  by 
the  fact  tlittt  the  operations  were  cbaracteri-seil  by  alif>ence  of 
shock,  persistence  of  analgesia  after  awaking,  and  unusiinl  rapiditj 
of  healing. 

(b)  If  a  subject  is  told  to  be  unconscious  of  everythiuitj;  until 
aroused    by   the    operator,   he   will,    if   ueither    questional    nor 
touched,  take  no  notice  of  what  is  said  or  done  around  him.  wbila] 
suggestion,  in   subsequent   hypnoses,  often   fails   to   revive  an/] 
memory  of  what  has  taken  place. 

{e)  If  a  simple  movement  ia  suggested,  of  which  volitioDJ 
does  not  disapprove,  it  may  after  a  time  become  automatic :  U ] 
after  having  been  frequently  consciously  aud  voluntarily  per- 
formed, it  may  be  executed  unconsciously,  as  a  genuine  automatic] 
act,  in  response  to  the  habitual  stimulus  which  has  excited  iLJ 
Here,  again,  the  lost  memory  cannot  be  recalled  by  suggestion  iuj 
subsequent  hypnoses. 

"With  the  exception  of  examples  of  the  three  classes  jii 
cited,  the  acts  of  hypnotic  life  are  performed  consciously, 
can  be  recalled  by  suggestion  in  subsequent  hypnoses.  Further,] 
since  the  hypnotic  memory  is  more  exact  and  far-reaching  than  thej 
normal  one,  the  absence  of  memory  as  to  given  circumstances  of* 
hypnotic  life  other  than  (hose  just  cited  is  mailcedly  suspicious. 
These  suspicions  are  deepened  when  the  forgotten  act  is  analoguua  i 
to  those  invariably  remembered  by  the  hypnotised  sul 
Gurney's  subjects  easily  remembered  their  calculations  as  to 
days  that  had  passed,  those  that  had  to  come,  aud  the  teruiiua 
time  of  the  experiment  In  some  instances,  when  the  arithmetic 
problems  involved  were  simple,  Miss  0.^  recalled  in  subseqaeo 

^  See  pp.  134-9. 


I 


hj'pnoses  the  fact  that  she  had  calculated  the  termiual  time 
of  the  suggestion,  and  had  set  herself  to  carry  it  out  at  the 
appointed  hour.  This,  by  the  way,  Guruey  asserted  hypnotised 
subjects  never  did.  "When  the  experiments  became  more  com- 
plicated, Miss  0.  ceased  to  do  this,  and  then,  like  Misa  D.,*  was 
unable  to  revive  in  hypnosis  the  slightest  trace  of  memory  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  suggestions  had  been  carried  out : 
they  could  then  recall  no  calculations  and  no  time-watching,  no 
foretelling  of  the  terminal  time,  and  no  recognition  of  it  when  it 
arrived.  Yet,  from  what  we  know  of  hypnotic  memory,  it  is 
impossible  to  doubt  that,  if  calculations  and  observations  of  this 
kind  had  been  made  by  the  subjects,  tliey  would  have  been  able 
to  have  remembered  them  when  again  hypnotised. 

(2 )  The  fcut  that  the  suggestions  not  only  involved  ftats  of  arithmeti- 
cal calculation  and  tneinortj  beyond  the  sahgectd  normal  pmoers, 
but  also  in  sonie  cases  beyond  their  ordinartf  hypnotic  ones. 

Delboeuf  pointed  out  that  his  subjects  in  the  uonnal  state 
were  unable  to  make  the  necessary  calculations  involved  in  his 
time  experiments ;  therefore,  tlxe  success  of  these  experiments,  he 
said,  demonstrated  that  the  subjects  when  hypnotised  had  an  idea 
of  tlie  passage  of  time,  and  subconsciously  calculated  when  the 
suggestions  fell  due.  Experiments  made  in  hypuosis,  however, 
showed  that  the  subject  was  quite  incapable  of  calculating  even 
mucli  simpler  problems  than  those  involved ;  and,  although  this 
fact  was  recorded  by  Delboeuf  himself,  he  apparently  entirely 
missed  its  significance. 

AVhen  my  subject,  Jliss  D.,  was  asked  to  calculate  in 
hypnosis  the  time  that  tlie  suggestions  would  fall  due,  she  was 
wroug  in  the  first  nine  instances,  her  errors  frequently  being 
extremely  gross  ones.  Again,  unless  specially  askeil  to  do  so,  the 
secondary  consciousness,  apparently,  made  uo  calculations  at  all. 
The  time  appreciation,  however,  could  not  be  carried  out  in- 
dei)endeiitly  of  such  calculations — obviously  the  subject  could 
not  perform  an  act  at  the  expiration  of  40,845  minutes  unless 
she — or  some  *'  self  "  or  "  consciousness  "  within  her — knew  the 
terminal  time  this  represented. 

Further,  in  Miss  D.'s  case,  the  hypnotic  memory  was 
apparently  incapable  of  retaining  the  complicated  series  of  figures 

■  See  pti.  119-39. 


HYPNOTISAf 


\ 


wliich  were  read  to  her.  AVhen  she  was  questioned  about  them 
iu  subsequent  hypnosis,  but  1)«fore  the  falfilment  of  the  sugges- 
tions, she  always  recalled  that  the  latter  had  been  made,  bat 
rarely  correctly  remembered  their  details — her  recollection  being 
less  and  less  distiuct  in  proportion  to  the  time  which  had  elapsed 
since  tliey  had  been  received. 

( 3 )  7*he  difference  in  tlte  nature  of  the  ti-me-apprecialion  rttiuired 
in  Ouiviey's  case  and  in  those  cite<l  by  me. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  recognition  of  b 
particular  day  on  its  arrival,  and  the  lu^t  minute  in  snch  a  series 
as  40,845.  A  secondary  self  or  intelligence,  which  can  count 
the  days  that  have  passed  and  those  that  have  to  come,  and 
refreshes  its  memory  by  doing  this  every  night,  could  have  no 
difficulty  in  recognising  the  terminal  day.  The  varying  impres- 
sions from  the  external  world,  which  tell  us  that  a  new  day  has 
dawned,  would  be  received  as  freely  by  the  secondary  as  by  the 
primarj'  consciousness ;  and  all  that  the  former  would  have  to  do 
would  be  to  associate  them  with  the  calculation  it  had  made  tlie 
previous  night  that  the  next  day  would  be  the  suggested  one.  In 
my  cases  the  problem  was  a  widely  different  one.  Granting  tbftt 
some  intelligence  worked  out  the  arithmetical  portion  and 
deteraiined  that  the  suggestion  fell  due.  for  tixaniple,  iit  3.25  VX, 
a  fortnight  later,  the  determination  of  the  arrival  of  that  particidai 
moment  differs  widely  from  the  recognition  of  the  dawning  of  r 
given  day.  Admitting  that  some  intelligence,  equal  to  the 
primary  one,  tried  to  determine  when  this  moment  arrived, 
circnmstanceH.  often  specially  arranged,  added  to  the  difficulties  of 
the  task.  In  some  instances,  for  example,  Hiss  D.  was  in  i 
darkened  room  for  several  hours  before  the  suggestion  wss 
executed,  and  absolutely  without  any  of  the  ordinary  ntethods  of 
determining  the  time.  Even  if  she  knew  what  o'clock  it  was 
when  she  entered  the  room  at  noon,  how  could  she  determine 
when  it  was  3.25  ? 

The  general  conditions  of  memory,  then,  in  reference  to  the 
experiments  I  have  cited,  apparently  show  that  the  ordinary 
secondary  consciousness  of  hypnosis — or  at  all  events  snch  mani- 
festations of  it  as  Gurney  describes — rlid  not  participate  in  them  at 
alL  Further,  the  feats  iu  calculation  and  memory  were  beyond  the 
power  of  that  consciousness:  we  have  no  evidence  of  the  secondary 


I 

i 


consciousness  carrying  out  time  appreciations  comparable  to  those 
involved  in  these  particular  cases.  Some  intelligence,  however, 
must  have  made  the  arithmetical  calculations,  and,  further,  corrected 
them  wlien  they  were  erroneously  worked  out  by  the  secondary 
consciousness,  as  revealed  by  my  questions  in  hypnosis.  *'  Some- 
thing '  also  must  have  remembered  the  complicated  series  of 
figures  and  the  varyinjj  results  of  the  culculatious,  and  also,  in 
some  fashion,  noticed  the  time  as  it  passed,  and  connected  this 
with  the  date  given  as  the  result  of  the  calculations  involved  in 
the  suggestiona  Could  the  problems  have  been  worked  out  by  a 
third  consciousness  acting  independently  of  the  other  two  i  The 
theory  that  a  multiple  as  well  as  a  secondary  consciousness  exists 
is  not  a  new  one,  although,  us  fur  as  T  know,  it  has^not  yet  done 
duty  in  explaining  the  plienomenon  of  time  appreciation. 

Multiple  Personalities  in  Relation  to  Time  Appreciation 
and  Calculation. 

f  Miss  D.,  as  we  have  seen,  wrongly  calculated  in  hypnosis 
when  a  complicated  time  suggestion  would  fall  due ;  notwith- 
standing this,  tlie  suggestion  was  carried  out  correctly  in  the 
waking  state.  The  subject,  however,  was  unable  to  recall,  when 
again  hypnotised,  that  she  hatl  corrected  the  original  eironeous 
calculation ;  while  at  t!ie  same  time  no  recollection  either  of  the 
original  suggestion,  or  of  the  erroneous  calculation  and  its  subse- 
quent correction,  existed  in  the  normal  waking  consciousness. 
The  results  of  the  time  appreciation  and  calculation,  presumably 
due  to  a  third  consciousness,  appeared  as  a  sudden  uprush  into 
whatever  personality — waking,  sleeping,  or  ordinary  hypnotic — 
happened  to  be  present  at  the  moment  When  the  ordinary 
hypnotic  consciousness  had  been  asked  to  make  the  necessary 
calculations,  and  did  so  erroneously,  the  third  consciousnes.'i  ignored 
these  mistakes  and  did  its  work  correctly.  Further,  the  passage 
of  tlie  message  from  the  third  to  the  second  consciousness  seemed 
to  make  a  particularly  strung  impression  upon  the  latter,  or  to 
leave,  for  some  time  at  all  events,  the  door  of  communication 
open  between  the  two.  Thus,  the  second  consciousness,  which 
had  forgotten  the  details  of  the  suggestion  before  these  were 
carrie<l  out,  could  recall  them  accurately  for  some  time  after 
they  liad  been  executed.' 

>  See  p.  1S8. 


Further,  iu  the  exj^rimeuts  cited,  wo  notice  (1)  that  the 
ordinary  hypnotic  consciousness  possessed  no  recollection  of  having 
made  the  calculations  necessarj*  for  finding  out  the  terminal  time, 
and  (2)  could  not  recall  any  form  of  time- watching.  Furtlier, 
the  ordinary  hypnotic  meuiory  was  incapable  of  retaining  the 
complicated  series  of  suggestions :  it  remembered  they  had  beeu 
made,  but  could  not  recall  their  details.  Thus,  hypnotic  forgetfulnea 
was  not  only  manifested  in  reference  to  acts  svhich  might  possibly  i 
be  regarded  as  automatic  ones  inheiited  from  some  ancestral  typftJ 
but  was  also  shown  in  regard  to  others  of  an  entirely  different 
nature,  and  which  cannot  possibly  have  arisen  in  this  way. 
ObWously  some  of  these  phenomena  cannot  be  regarded  as  heredi- 
tary automatic  acts  of  the  hypnotic  state ;  nor  as  analogous  tol 
normal  automatic  ones,  seeing  that  they  had  not  been  preWousIyl 
performed  in  the  hypnotic  condition.  The  simultaneous  appear- 
ance in  hypnosis  of  a  greater  number  of  phenomena  (reganling 
them  from  their  physical  side  only)  than  can  be  manifested  in 
waking  life,  may  possibly  be  explained  by  the  existence  of  several 
subconscious  states.  The  normal  attention,  apparently,  cannot. 
attend  to  so  many  thingtt  at  once  as  the  h}'pnotic.  Now,  as  wel 
have  seen,  certain  of  these  h3^notic  acts,  seemingly  performed] 
unconsciously,  really  demand  intelligent  attention :  not  only  did] 
they  require  it  in  the  past,  but,  as  they  ai^  neither  inherited  norJ 
acquired  automatic  acts,  they  obviously  require  it  in  the  present  I 
The  evidence  in  favour  of  several  subconscious  states  is  further 
strengthened  by  the  fact  that  these  intelligent  hypnotic  acta  to 
which  we  have  just  refei'retl  are  sometimes  performed  without  any! 
feeling  of  effort  But,  as  Kibot  says :  "  Every  one  knows  by 
experience  that  voluntary  attention  is  always  accompanied  by  i 
feeling  of  eflbrt,  which  bears  a  direct  proportion  to  the  duratioa 
of  the  state  and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  it." 

Granting  that  one  or  more  subconscious  states  exist  in  tb&j 
human  personality,  and  that  hypnotic  phenomena  owe  thetrl 
origin  to  the  fact  that  we  have  by  some  means  or  other  succeeded  ' 
in  tapping  them,  two  questions  still  remain : — 

First,  let  it  be  supposed  that  I  possess  a  friend  called  "Brown,"  i 
who  is  usually,  physically  and  mentally,  an  ordinary  individual, 
from  time  to  time,  however,  he  manifests  an  extraordinary  increase 
of  physical  powers.     Still  more  rarely,  again,  he  displays  a  rang* 
of  mental  powers  of  which  he  had  formerly  given  no  indication. 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


415 


I  ask  for  au  explanation  :  I  am  told  that  "  Browu,"  as  I  know  him 
befit,  is  indeed  "  Browu  " ;  but  that  his  increased  physical  powers 
are  due  to  the  fact  that  when  he  shows  them  he  is  *'  Jones."  and 
his  increased  mental  ones  to  the  further  fact  that  he  is  then 
"  Eohiuson."  Granting  tliat  the  phenomena  alford  evidence  of  three 
separate  personalities.  I  cannot  accept  this  explanation  as  a  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  in  its  entirety.  I  wont  to  know,  first,  how 
"Jones"  and  "Robinson"  acquired  their  powei-s,  and,  secondly,  what 
baa  been  done  toor  by  "Brown  "to  enable  their  powers  to  be  evoked. 

Myers*  explanation,  or  at  all  events  part  of  it,  was  that  these 
powers  were  a  revival  of  those  formerly  possessed  by  some  lower 
ancestral  type.  He  frankly  admitted,  however,  that  the  analogies 
to  which  we  could  appeal  were  certainly  vague  and  remote,  and 
that  to  find  them  we  must  leave  the  higher  mammalia  and  descend 
to  the  crab,  worm,  or  amceba.  As  we  have  seen,  Delbfeuf  s  theoiy 
was  practically  a  similai-  one. 

U  it  TtasotiaUe,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  hypnotic  p&icer$, 
regarded  as  a  lokole,  ccUied  in  some  lower  ancestral  type  ? 

Gmutiug  that  a  limited  analogy  exists  between  lower  animal 
types  anti  liypuotised  subjects,  as  to  their  power  of  iufluenciug 
certain  physical  conditions,  it  would,  I  think,  be  impossible  to 
L  flift^^ish  an  analogy  between  the  mental  and  moiul  powers  of  the 
^Itttst  and  those  of  the  savage  or  lower  animal.  For  example,  the 
subject  who  suddenly  developed  increased  arithmetical  powers 
was  not  likely  to  have  derived  them  from  some  savage  ancestor 
who  was  unable  to  count  beyond  five,  or  from  some  lower  animal, 
presumably  ignorant  of  arithmetic.  Again,  the  same  subject 
whtn  hifpiwtisad  spontaneously  solved  a  difficult  problem  in 
dfessmaking.  The  power  of  correctly  designing  a  garment,  in 
accordance  with  the  passing  fashion  of  the  present  day,  could 
hardly  have  been  derived  from  some  woad-stained  ancestor,  or 
lower  animal  form.  Further,  the  increased  modesty  of  the 
hypnotised  subject,  his  greater  power  of  controlling  or  checking 
morbid  passions  or  cravings,  does  not  find  its  counterpart  in  the 
savage  or  the  ape. 

Mycra  admitted  that  the  ai-gument  from  analogy  was  weakest 
when  we  considered  the  mental  and  moral  powers  of  hypnosis. 
But  if  it  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  the  subliminal  state  that 
the  "spectrum  of  consciousness"  is  extended  at  both  its  physiological 
and    its  psychological    ends,   surely  au  explanation    is   equally 


necessary  of  both  these  extensions.  A  theory  in  itseli"  imperfect 
becomes  still  more  so,  when  every  fact  that  is  suppoeeil  to 
establish  the  extension  of  one  end  of  the  sj^ectrum  renden  th« 
extension  of  the  other  still  more  dithcult  to  explain. 

If  we  admit  thai  hypnotic  powers  are  derived  from  sane  loicln 
non-human  type,  is  their  easy  recovery  probable  f 

I  have  seen  cases  in  which  all  the  phenomena  character; 
of  deepest  hypnosis  could  be  readily  evoked,  ahaolutelif  ro- 
training,  within  a  couple  of  minutes  of  the  commencement  of  the 
process  employed  for  the  iuduction  of  the  primary  hypnosis-     If 
any    of   these   were   derived  from    amceba,  worm,   or  crab,   the 
rapidity  with  which  they  were  aroused  was  surely  surprising. 

Is  it  likely  that  the  hypnotic  powers  should  k<ii;e  be^n  lost  in 
development  ? 

Some  of  the  powers  of  the  hypnotic  state  arc  said  to  hare 
dropped  out  of  the  supraliminal  cousciousness  in  the  process  d 
evolution,  as  their  association  with  it  had  become  uuuecessanr  tn 
the  struggle  for  existence.  It  must  be  noticed,  however,  tlitt 
mnuy  of  these  powers  have  not  only  ceased  to  be  employed 
automatically  or  unconsciously,  but  also  have  sometimes  appar- 
ently disappeared  altogether ;  and.  until  hypnosis  was  induced,  no 
means  existed  by  which  the  supraliminal  consciousness 
evoke  them.  Now,  the  powers  which  the  hypnotic  self 
are  so  nnmerous.  varied,  and  frequently  so  essential  for  the  com<j 
fort  or  well-being  of  the  individual,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
conclude  that  development  is  responsible  for  tlieir  loss  \  Take 
for  example,  the  power  of  inhibiting  poiu.  Uranting  that 
lower  type  possessed  it — &  fact  diflicult  to  prove — when  aodi 
why  was  this  important  power  dropped  ?  In  this  over-civilisedj 
age,  we  appear  to  have  abandoned  some  of  the  powers  of 
subliminal  self  Just  at  the  very  moment  when  we  most  requii? ' 
them ;  as  is  shown  by  the  complaints  about  street  noises  and  cbe 
manners  of  children.  In  many  instances,  at  all  events,  the 
supvaliniinal  self  is  sadly  embarrassed  by  the  fact  that  it  cannot 
perform  tliat  feat,  so  easy  to  the  subliminal  one,  of  shutting  outj 
undesired  sensations  of  sound ;  and  can,  in  consequence,  neitbe 
work  by  day  nor  sleep  by  night 

IVhai   is  the  conncct'ioji    bettoeen   hypnotic    methods  and  the 
prodvx^lion  of  hypnotic  pheiiomena  ? 

To   this    I    think    no    reasonable   answer   has    been   give 


i>nally,  I  can  see  no  logical  connection  betweoii  the  acts  of 
dated  gazing,  of  eoncenlratiou  of  attention,  or  of  suggested  ideas  of 
drowsy  states,  and  the  wide  and  varied  phenomena  of  hypnosis. 
Hypnotic  phenomena  do  not  ap]>ear  spoiitaueoualy,  and  some  of 
the  methods  described  must  have  been  employed  in  each  case 
before  primary  hypnosis  was  induced.  But  I  cannot  conceive  the 
idea  that  such  methods  explain  the  phenomena. 

Shock,  hysteria,  etc.,  are  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the  phenomena 
of  multiple  persoualitieJi  in  cases  unassociated  with  hypnotism,  but 
tliese  terms  explain  nothing.  We  know  little  of  the  essential 
couditiuus  associated  with  these  morbid  states,  nor  why  they 
should  protiuce  nn  apparent  severing  of  the  personality  in  some 
instances  and  not  in  others. 


I 


Pierre  Janet's  Theory, 

According  to  Pierre  Janet,  the  preseni-e  of  the  secondary  self 
18  always  a  8}Tnptoni  of  hy.steria ;  the  essential  fact  about  hysteria 
being  its  lack  of  synthetising  power,  and  the  consequent  dis- 
integration of  the  field  of  consciousness  into  mutually  exclusive 
parts.  Furtlier,  the  primaiy  and  secondary  consciousnesses  added 
together  never  exceed  the  normal  total  consciousness  of  the 
individual. 

Here  the  generalisation  is  certainly  far  too  wide.  Doubtless 
many  cases  of  secondary  consciousness  correspond  with  Janet's 
description ;  others,  however,  present  conditions  which  are  its 
exact  opposite.  Thus,  while  hysteria  is  a  prominent  symptom  iu 
cases  of  spont/tneom  "secondary  consciousness,"  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  not  necessarily  connected  in  any  way  with  its  "hypnotic" 
forms.  Thousands  of  healthy  men,  absolutely  devoid  of  any  trace 
of  hysteria,  liave  been  hypnotised ;  while  hysteria  itself,  instead 
of  favouring  the  induction  of  hypnosis,  renders  it  more  difficult. 

Further,  on  the  relation  between  the  severed  personalities  and 
the  normal  total  consciousness,  William  Jamef>  justly  points  out  that 
many  instances  have  been  noted  in  which  the  secondary  self  is  more 
highly  developed  than  the  primary  one — it  knows,  for  example, 
all  that  the  ordinary  self  ever  knew,  and  also  mach  that  it 
had  either  forgotten  or  never  known.  Dr.  l*rince's  case  *  is  a 
typical  example  of  this.  Here,  the  third  personality  not  only 
knew  all  about  her  own  life  aitd  that  of  the  secondary  personality, 

1  Pp.  8945. 
2  E 


but  also  could  recall  (a)  all  that  tlie  uonual  jwrsouality  coaW 
remember,  ami,  further,  {h)  many  things  that  the  primary  persoa- 
tility  bad  known,  but  forgotten,  as  well  as  (c)  acte  which  the 
normal  self  had  performed  automatically  or  absent-mindedly,  and 
which  had  only  aroused  normal  cotisciouauess  partially,  if  at  all 
(d)  Finally,  the  third  personality  recalled  events  which  had 
occurred  in  the  delirium  of  fever — things  which  the  primaiy 
self  was  absolutely  ignoraiit  of.  and  indeed  had  never  known.^ 

Jieinarks. — None  of  tlie  theories  we  have  been  examining  can 
be  considered  satisfactory.  No  revival  of  powers  supposed  to  be 
possessed  by  lower  animal  forms  can  possibly  explain  the  entire 
range  of  hypnotic  phenomena ;  neither,  again,  can  they  be 
accounted  for  by  an  interrupted  connection  between  the  nerv^ 
cells,  nor  by  that  elastic  term  "  hysteria."  Gurney's  theory — that 
the  secondary  consciousness  calculates  and  watclies  the  time  just 
as  the  primajy  one  might  do — is  satisfactoiy  for  those  instanoet 
in  which  it  has  been  proved  that  this  has  occurred.  It  faila, 
however,  when  wu  attempt  to  apply  it  to  those  instances  in  which 
the  proof  was  absent,  and  in  which  the  feats  in  calculation  and 
time  appreciation  were  bejond  the  powers  of  the  secondary  self. 

As  the  secondary  self  is  often  intellectually  superior  to  the 
primary'  one,  though  we  do  not  know  why,  we  might  be  inclined 
to  admit,  although  equally  without  reasou  for  it,  that  the  third 
self  tiaoscends  the  second  one.  As  all  the  selves  inhabit  od« 
body,  and  as  the  secondary  and  tertiary  ones  have  presumablj 
access  to  all  the  information  which  reaches  the  primary,  are  we 
to  suppose  that  they  have  proved  the  apter  scholars  ?  It  seen 
more  than  fancif id  to  imagine  that  while  the  school-boy's  < 
self  was  learuiug  liia  lessons,  a  second  boy  was  peering  ovc 
shoulder,  as  it  were,  and  doing  the  work  still  better.  What  mo 
we  say,  however,  to  the  idea  of  a  third  boy  learning  along  with' 
Nos.  1  and  2,  and  surpassing  both  of  them  ? 

Even  granting  that  a  third  self  exists,  and  that  it  possesses 
powers  superior  to  those  of  the  second  one,  we  are  not  yet  at  the 
end  of  our  difficulties,  for  the  examples  of  time  appreciation  we 
have  been  discussing  present  problems  still  more  complex  than 
those  with  which  Gumey  had  to  deal.  As  we  have  seen,  there  w 
a  marked  difference   between   knowing  a   particular   day  on   its 

I  Ib  Ftilda  X'l  cue,  the  sMondftry  persoDality,  whieli  atom  sptntatucm^if,  vu 
mu-lttdly  gupfrior  to  the  primary  one  (pp.  386-0). 


i 


HYfNOTIC  THEORIES 


419 


arriva],  and  recognising  which  is  the  terminal  one  amongst  a  long 
series  of  minutes.  For  example,  suppose  that  a  suggestion  to  be 
fulfilled  in  40,845  minutes  fell  due  at  3.15  this  afternoon,  and 
that — from  12.20  P..M.  of  the  same  day — the  subject  of  it 
remained  in  a  room  where  she  was  deprived  of  all  ordinary  means 
of  determining  the  passage  of  time.  We  have  seen  tliat  the 
ordinary  hypnotic  self  wiis  frequently  unable  to  make  the 
necessary  calculations  involved  in  the  problem.  Now,  granting 
that  the  subject's  third  personality  was  able  to  do  so,  and  had 
actually  calculated  3.15  as  the  terminal  time,  and  further,  that 
this  self  had  noted  the  time  on  entering  the  room  and  calculated 
that  2  hours  and  55  minutes  had  to  expire  before  the  suggestion 
fell  due,  and  even  admitting  that  this  third  self  was  able  to 
impart  this  information  to  the  primary  consciousness  and  to  enlist 
its  aid  iu  the  attempt  to  hit  upon  the  exact  moment,  viz.  3.15, 
the  question  still  remains,  how  was  this  done  ? 

According  to  William  James,  onr  usual  time  appreciations — 
minutes,  hours,  and  days — have  to  be  conceived  symbolically  and 
constructed  by  successive  mental  additions.  To  realise  an  hour, 
we  must  count  "now!"  "now!"  "now!"  indefinitely.  Each 
"  now  "  is  the  feeling  of  a  separate  bit  of  time,  and  the  exact  sum 
of  the  bits  never  makes  a  very  clear  impression  on  our  minds. 
We  have  no  sense  for  "  cwywi^  timel'  and  have  to  subdivide  the 
time  by  noticing  the  sensations ;  after  we  have  received  a  certain 
number,  onr  impression  of  the  amount  told  off  becomes  quite 
vague,  and  our  only  way  of  knowing  it  accurdtely  is  by  counting, 
noticing  the  clock,  or  some  other  symbolic  conception.  Our 
estimation  of  the  length  of  time  varies  from  many  causes.  A 
time  full  of  interesting  experiences  seems  short  in  passing,  but 
long  when  looked  back  upon ;  time  empty  of  incident  is  long  in 
passing,  but  seems  short  in  retrospect.  Time  passes  quickly 
when  wc  arc  so  occupied  with  what  is  happening  as  not  to  notice 
the  time  itself.  When  we  do  nothing  and  feel  but  little  wo  grow 
more  and  more  attentive  to  the  passage  of  time.  The  length  of 
a  watched  minute  seems  incredible  because  the  attention  is 
devoted  to  the  feeling  of  the  time  itself,  such  attention  being 
capable  of  extremely  tine  subdivision.  In  conclusion,  James 
,  says,  "  We  are  constantly  conscious  of  a  certain  duration — -the 
H  specious  present — varying  in  length  from  a  few  seconds  to  prob- 
^H  -ably  not  more  than  a  minute,  and  that  this  duration  (with  its 


content  j)«rceivcd  a.s  having  one  pari  earlier  and  the  other  later) 
is  the  original  intuition  uf  time.  Longiir  times  are  conceived  by 
adding,  shorter  ones  by  dividing,  portions  of  the  vagwely  bounded 
unit,  and  are  habitually  thought  by  uh  symbolically.  Kant's 
notion  of  iniuUimi  of  objective  time  as  au  'infinite  necessary 
continuum  *  has  nothing  to  support  it  The  cause  of  the  intuition 
whicli  we  really  have  caiinot  be  the  duration  of  our  braiu  pro- 
cesses or  our  mental  changes.  That  duration  is  rather  the  object 
of  the  intuition  which,  being  realised  at  ever}'  moment  of  sucli 
duration,  must  be  due  to  a  permanently  present  cause.  Thia 
cause — probably  the  simultaneous  presence  of  brain  processes  of 
different  phase — fluctuates  ;  and  hence  a  certain  range  of  variation 
in  the  amount  of  the  intuition,  and  its  subdivisibility,  accrues." 

Further,  *'  the  dii-ect  intuition  of  time  is  limited  to  intervals 
of  considerably  less  than  a  minute.  Beyond  its  borders  extends 
the  immense  region  of  coiweivfd  time,  past  and  future,  into  one 
direction  or  another  of  which  we  mentally  project  all  the  events 
which  we  think  of  as  real,  and  form  a  systematic  order  of  them 
by  giving  to  each  a  date." 

If  we  accept  James'  explanation  as  to  the  methods  by  which 
time  appreciations  are  ctirried  out — and  I  know  of  no  other  more 
plausible — the  time  appreciations  of  Mi.ss  D.  seem  still  more 
remarkable  and  inexplicable. 

White  I  have  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  theories  as  to  the 
origin  of  so-called  secondary  and  m^iltiple  personalities  are 
entirely  inadequate,  both  as  to  the  states  themselves  and  to  their 
phenomena,  /  h<ive  no  theorif  of  tny  mm  to  brimj  forward  in 
substiluti&ii  for  these.  The  fresh  facts  I  have  cited,  although 
interesting,  only  add  to  the  complexity  of  the  problems  we  have 
to  solve.  As  William  James  truly  says,  these  manifestations  of 
the  "hidden  self"  are  immensely  complex  and  fluctuating  thingi, 
which  we  have  hardly  begun  to  understand,  ami  concerning  which 
sweeping  generalisation  is  sure  to  be  premature.  Meanwhile,  he 
adds,  a  comparative  study  of  subconscious  states  is  of  the  meet 
urgent  importance  for  the  comprehension  of  our  nature. 


1 

i 


i 


* 


At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  I  drew  attention  to  the  fact 
that  so-called  hypnotic  phenomena  might  be  divided  into  two 
apparently  well-defined  groups.  I  now  propose  to  discuss  the 
second  of  these  ; — 


GROUP   U. 


I 


Therapeutic  Results,  when  these  occur  in  conditions  unassoci- 
ated  with  clear  and  unmistakable  Symptoms  of  Hypnosis.^ 


^Rm 


I- 


k 


As  already  stated,  many  intennediate  stages  are  to  be  observed 
between  tlie  second  group,  and  that  which  we  I»ave  recently  been 
discussing,  ix.  hypnotic  soniiiainbulism.  For  the  sake  of  conveni- 
ence and  clcanie.ss,  I  propose  to  disregard  tlie  links  which  connect 
the  two  groups,  and  to  limit  myself  to  the  consideration  of  the 
therapeutic  pheuomena  wluch  have  apparently  been  produced  by 
"  suggestion  "  alone. 

The  cases  dniwn  from  my  own  -pra^Uice,  cited  in  the  chapters 
"  Hypnotism  in  Surgery  "  and  "  Hypnotism  in  Medicine,"  were 
selected  for  the  following  reasons : — 

(1)  As  I  wished  to  give  striking  examples  of  the  therapeutic 
wers  of  hypnotism,  1  practically  cited  successful  cases  alone. 

(2)  Aa  I  desired  to  show  that  the  curative  results  of  hypnotic 
treatment  were  often  lasting,  I  selected  those  cases  in  which  I 
had  been  able  to  trace  the  after-history. 

I        (3)  For  the  sake  of  increased  evidential   value,  I  confined 
myself  to  instances  wliere  the  patients  had  been  seen  by  other 
medical  men,  both  before  and  after  liypuotic  treatment. 
I        The  question  of  the  depth  of  the  !i}'pno3is,  or  even  whether 
hypnosis  had  been  inducetl  at  all,  was  not  taken  into  considera- 
tion.    1  now  propose  to  rcimir  this  omission,  and  to  divide  all 
the  cases  cited  into  two  classes : — 
I       (a)  Those  in  which  genuine  hypnosis  was  induced 
I        (6)  Those  in  which  the  characteristic  phenomena  of  hypnosis 
were  absent 

After  having  made  this  division,  T  will  discuss  the  mental 
and  pliysical  conditions  which  were  apparently  present  in  the 
second  class. 

L  Surgical  Casks. 


Profound  hypnosis  was  induced  in  all  the  surgical  cases 
reported  from  my  own  piactice,  the  only  apparent  exception 
being  that  of  Mrs. (No.  8).      In  this  instance  it  is  true  that 

I  *  It  is  to  b«  not«tl  tliat  tlju  Group  ii  inrariftbly  ineladed  in  all  geoeni  sUtistiet 
a«  to  "Siiggmtibilit;,"  t.<.  all  patients  wfan  hare  rHpoiidetl  Xa  curaliw.  sng^utiota 
arc  thrreiQ  asaufned  to  hare  been  hjfpttc(i9*d. 


the  patient  appeared  to  be  awake.  She  had,  however,  been 
deeply  hypDotised  ou  former  occasions,  and  her  condition  during 
operation  was  really  one  of  hypnosis,  although  this  had  been  bo 
modified  by  training  as  to  make  it  resemble  the  waking  state. 


XL  Mboical  Cases. 


J 


X  A.  Grande  Hy&t&it, — In  Case  No.  1,  the  only  one  fully 
recorded,  there  were  no  symptoms  of  hypnosis. 

1  P>.  Afonosipvpfoynatic  Hysteria. — In  Xos.  6,  7,  8,  and  9 
hypnosis  was  induced,  while  in  Nos.  5  and  10  it  was  apparently 
absent. 

1  C.   Ordinary  Hysteria.— \w.  Nos.    20,  21,  22,  24,  25,  and 
29  hypnosis  was  induced,  while  in  Xos.  23,  26,  30,  and  3 
was  absent. 

1  P.  Mmtal  Trovhhs  of  a  Hystfrical  Ndivrc. — None  ofmy 
cases  in  this  group,  i.e.  Nos.  32,  33,  34,  35,  36»  37.  as  well  aa 
the  unnumbered  case  following  No.  37,  presented  symptoms  of 
hypnosis. 

2.  Neurasthenia. — In  Case  No.  40  hypnosis  was  induced ;  in 
Case  No.  41  hypnosis  was  apparently  absent. 

3.  Insanity.- — In  No.  46  hypnosis  was  induced. 

4.  Dipsonmnia. — In  Nos.  56  and  61  hypnosis  was  induced, 
while  in  Nos.  57,  58,  59,  60.  62,  and  63  it  was  apparently  abeeoL 

5.  Morphinmnania. — In  No.  65  hypnosis  was  induced,  while 
in  No.  64  it  was  apparently  absent. 

6.  Vicious  and  Dtfjencraie  Children. — In  Nos.  68,  69,  71,  and 
72  hypnosis  was  induced ;  in  Nos.  70  and  73  it  was  apparently 
absent. 

7.  Obsessions. — In  Nos.  80,  81.  and  85  hj'pnosis  was  induced;,: 
in  Nos.  82,  83,  84,  and  86  it  was  absent. 

8.  Epilfpsy. — In  No.  94  hypnosis  was  induced;  in  Na  95 
it  was  absent. 

9.  Chorea, — In  No.  91)  hypnosis  was  induced. 

10.  Stammerivij. — ^lu  Xos.  101  and  102  hypnosis  w*8 
apparently  absent. 

11.  Sea'siA-ufss. — In  Nos.  103  and  104  hypnosis  was  induced* 

1 2.  Sl'in  Disease.^. —  I ii  Xos.  1 0\)  nnd  110  hypnosis  wa; 
induced. 

Thus  out  of  the  above  fifty-nine  illustrative  medical  caaeA' 


4 


HYPNOTIC  THEORIES 


433 


twenty-eight  were  bypnotised.and  thirty-one  pi*e8eut«d  no  s}Taptoiii8 
of  hypnosis.'  Further,  though  many  of  the  latter  were  cases  of 
grave  and  long-standing  illness,  yet  in  some  instances  the  recovery 
was  extremely  rapid.  Was  their  recovery  due  to  hypnotic  in- 
fluence or  simply  to  "suggestion,"  more  or  less  closely  associated 
with  emotional  conditions?  This  question  is  an  extremely 
difficult  one  to  answer.  On  the  one  liand,  the  conditions 
regarded  as  characteristic  of  hypnosis  were  wanting.     Thus: — 

(1)  In  most  instAuces,  owing  to  muscular  spasm  or  mental 
unrest,  concentration  of  attention  was  absent,  and  there  waa 
repose  of  neither  mind  nor  body. 

(2)  There  was  no  involuntary  closure  of  the  eyes. 

(3)  In  a  few  instances  tht-  patients  became  lirowsy,  but  this 
resembled  the  drowsiness  of  normal  hie,  and  was  not  followed  by 
amnesia. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  evidence  as  to  the  results  being  dua 
to  *'  suggestion  "  alone  is  by  no  moans  convincing.     Thus  : — 

(1)  The  patients  were  actually  subjected  to  one  or  other  of 
the  usual  methods  of  inducing  hypnosis.  Fixed  gazing  (except 
in  cases  of  convulsions  and  the  like),  monotonous  |)asses,  and 
suggestion  were  all  employed. 

(2)  Suggestion  in  ordinary  life,  apart  from  profound  emotional 
states,  rarely  produces  curative  results  such  us  those  described. 

(3)  Alany  of  the  patients  were  absolutely  incredulous  as  to 
their  receiving  benefit  from  the  treatment 

(4)  Others  approached  the  subject  with  an  open  mind,  but 
few,  if  any,  had  profound  faith  in  iL 

(5)  In  most  instances,  suggestion  had  already  been  unsuc- 
cessfully employed,  and  sometimes  so  even  when  associated  with 
profound  emotional  states. 

While  I  am  quite  willing  to  admit  tliat  I  cannot  demonstrate 
that  the  cases  in  qucstiun  were  hypnotised.  I  find  it  equally 
difficult  to  believe  that  their  recovery  was  due  to  suggestion  alone. 
For,  as  just  stateil,  suggestion  had  already  played  an  important 
part  in  their  treatment,  and  entirely  with  negative  results. 

Tims,  for  example,  in  Case  No.  1,  the  blisters  which  were 
applied  to  the  limbs  to  render  muscular  movement  painful  were 
so  many  indirect  suggestion?. 

'  I.e.  d«cpite  the  fut  that  tbcM  pfttients  tX\  nnderwtnt  hypnotic  trMtin*nt» 
none  of  than)  prcaenttd  unmiaUtkahie  syniptonia  of  hypnoiit. 


In  No.  10,  the  patient  had  firmly  believed  that  a  certain  doctor 
conlcl  cure  him,  bub  this  self-suggestion  had  produced  no  result 

In  No.  23,  the  patient  had  received  varied  and  forcible 
suggestions ;  for  instance,  she  was  told  that  the  application  of 
Facquelin's  cautery  was  certain  to  cure  her.  Despite  this,  it  had 
no  effect;  but  suggestions,  tofien  associated  with  hypnotic  wiihod*^ 
were  at  once  responded  to. 

No.  31  is  particularly  interesting.  The  patient,  a  well-known 
scientific  man,  had  systematically  tried  to  inHueuce  liimself  by 
suggestion,  but  without  success.  After  three  hj'pnotic  sittings, 
he  not  only  recovered  from  his  insomnia,  but  also  acquired  the 
power  of  self-suggestion.  He  cotdd  prevent  sea-sickness  and  ameet 
the  pain  of  organic  disease,  even  although  this  power  had  not 
been  suggested  to  him  by  me. 

In  Nos.  58  autl  59,  two  typical  cases  of  dipsomania,  the 
patients  had  undoubtedly  received  frequent  and  forcible  sugges- 
tions from  their  friends  and  relatives,  but,  despite  this,  suggestion 
produced  no  result  until  associated  with  hypnotic  methods. 

In  mast  of  the  other  cases  cited  suggestion  had  already 
played  a  jwirt,  but  in  none  had  it  produced  the  slightest  effect 

Taking  all  the  above  facts  into  consideration,  while  I  am  not 
prepared  to  assert  tiiat  the  cases  in  question  were  genuinely 
hypnotised,  I  find  it  equally  difficidt  to  lielieve  that  the  corative 
results  were  due  to  sn^^estion  alone.  It  is  possible  that,  owing 
to  the  methods  employed,  some  change  was  produced  in  the 
patients'  organism  which  rendered  them  more  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  suggestion  than  they  luul  previously  l)een  in  the 
nonual  state.  Further  than  that  I  have  nothing  to  say,  for  I  am 
ignorant  both  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  the  change  in  queetioD, 
and  of  the  reason  why  hypnotic  methods  should  have  evoked  it 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


THE    SO-CALLED    DANGERS    OF   HYPNOTISM. 


1  HAVE  purjKwely  pefrainei:!  from  discussing  the  risks  of 
hypnotic  practice  until  theory  had  been  dealt  with.  For  the 
question  whether  danger  exista  depends  mainly  upon  the  evidence 
which  can  be  adduced  iu  favour  of  hypnotic  automatism.  As  we 
have  seen,  however,  automatism  cannot  be  regarded  as  the 
essential  characteristic  of  the  hypnotic  state. 

Braid  did  not  believe  that  hypnotic  practice  was  dangerous, 
and  his  views  have  already  been  stated  (pp.  292-3). 

H  Personally,  T  have  never  seen  a  single  hypnotic  somnambule 
who  did  not  Ijoth  possess  and  exercise  the  power  of  resisting 
suggestions  contrarj'  to  his  moral   sense.^     Despite  this,  1  can 

^■conceive  the  possibility  that,  under  certain  circumstances,  hurtful 
suggestions  might  be  made  with  success.  If  a  subject  believed 
that  hypnosis  was  a  condition  of  helpless  automatism,  and  that 

Hthe  operator  could  make  him  do  whatever  he  liked,  harm  might 
result,  not  through  the  operator's  i>ower,  but  in  consequence  of 
tlie  subject's  self- suggestions. 

|h  The  cases  in  which  it  has  been  "clearly  proved  "  that  hypnotism 
has  done  undoubted  harm  are  neither  numerous  nor  important 
Charcot,  and  other  members  of  the  Salpetriere  school,  asserted 
that  hysterical  symptoms  sometimp-s  appeared  after  the  attempted 
induction  of  hypnosis.  Tljat  such  phenomena  occurred  with  them 
is  not  surprising,  when  one  considers  the  nature  of  the  patients 
and  their  surroundings,  and  the  violent  and  startling  methods 
sometimes  resorted  to.  Charcot  also  recorded  one  or  two 
instances  where  the  employment  of  hypnotism  for  stage  purposes 
had  produced  bad  effects. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  Bernheim,  who  still  believes  in  the 

'  Thi«  iUUmcnt  iodades  also  tU  the  sligbur  forms  of  faypnoais. 
4^5 


posiiihUUij  ijf  Buggestetl  criiinj,  udiuita  tlmt  no  single  instance  of 
genuine  hypnotic  crime  has  yet  been  proved,  and  asserts  that  iu 
the  "classical"  cases,  copied  from  one  author  to  another,  the 
subjects  Imd  really  not  been  hypnotised  at  all.  Even  if  one 
admitted  that  hypnotism  was  not  free  from  danger,  the  same 
thing  could  be  said  of  other  methods  of  treatment*  The  points 
to  be  considered  are  the  nature  of  the  risks,  and  whether  these 
are  capable  of  being  minimised  or  eliminated.  The  opponents  of 
hypnotism,  however,  instead  of  discussing  these  pointa  calmly, 
have  sometimes  attacked  hypnotism  on  account  of  its  alleged 
dangers  in  a  manner  which  they  themselves  would  be  the  first  to 
recognise  as  unfair  if  applied  to  any  other  branch  of  science. 

Far  example,  in  the  Ecvuc  MidiceUc  de  I'Esty  February  1st,  1895, 
Bernlieiin  records  the  only  case,  as  far  as  T  know,  in  which  death 
followed   hypnosis    induced    by  a  medical  man.       The   patient 
suffered  from  phlebitis,   accompanied    by  severe   jwin ;    and   to 
relieve  this,  Beruheim  hypnotised  hiui.     He  died  two  hours  after- 
wards, and  post-mortem  examination  showed  that  death  was  due 
to  emliolisni  of  the  pnlmonary  artery.     The  case  is  referred  to  ia 
the  British  Medical  Journal,  and  though  it  is  admitted  that  the 
occurrence  was  nothing  more  than  an  "unlucky  coincidence,"  it  is 
stated,  at   the  siime  time,  that  "  it  is  at  least  arguable  lliat  thaa 
psycliical   excitement  induced   by  the  hj^motising  process  uiayB 
have  caused  a  disturbance  in  the  circulatory  system,  wliich  had  a 
share  in  bringing  about  the  catastrophe."     Bernheim  has  hypno- 
tised  over    10,000  hospital   patients;   sometimes   this  would   ho 
done  for  the  relief  of  pain  associated  with  inevitably  fatal  ^laladie^ 
and.  therefore,  the  matter  for  surprise  is  that  death  has  not  more 
frequently   ocourred   during,  or  shortly   after,   the  induction   of 
hypnosis.     The  majorily  of  fatal  illnesses  receive  medical  treat- 
ment :    it  would,  then,  according  to  the  theory  of  the  Brititk^k 
Medical  Journal,  be  justifiable  to  argue  that  the  admin  is  tratiooS 
of  drugs  "  may  have  had  a  share  in  bringing  about  the  catastrophe." 
Certainly  their  use  is  likely  to  be  attended   with   more   physical 
and  psychical   excitement   than   is  involved   in    the  hypuotisin; 
processes  in  vogue  at  Nancy. 

Such  arguments  against  hypnotism  are  dangerous  and  apt 
provoke  uiipleasiiut  replies.     For  example,  Moll,  in  speaking 

*  A  modicine  given  to  nU«v«  iDsomiiia  somettmei  prodacei  «  "drag- habit "| 
tnatnifliit  by  gHgfftstiom,  howorer,  does  not  gira  rise  to  &  *'  hypnotic-babiL" 


1 


• 


hostile  criticisms,  said:     "If  Professor- 


had  shown 


same  scepticism  when  the  tuberculin  craze  excited  all  Germany, 
much  injury  to  science  and  to  his  patients  would  have  been 
preventetl.  The  wantonness  with  which  at  that  time  the  lives  of 
many  were  staked  will  reniaiu  as  a  lasting  blemish  upon  science ; 
and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  excessive  use  of  tuberculin  was 
the  cause  of  the  untimely  death  of  mauy  liunian  beings.  In 
ordinar)'  life,  one  would  describe  such  a  proceeding  as  an  offeuce 
against  the  person,  of  which  the  issue  was  death.  I  cannot 
admit  that  there  is  a  special  law  for  clinical  professors,  and 
that  when  they  have,  in  such  a  manner,  hastened  the  death  of  a 
human  being,  another  expression  should  be  useil." 

Articles  upon  hypnotism  by  X,  which  appeared  in  tlie 
Journaf  of  Mniffd  Siifitre,  have  already  been  referred  to.  His 
statements  as  to  its  dangers  show  e\'idence,  I  am  afraid,  of  too 
hasty  genendisation.  as  well  as  of  misquotation.  Thus,  in  re- 
ferring til  my  address  to  the  I'sycholojjdcal  Section  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  at  Edinbur^jh/  he  says  :  "  The  bold  otLfmi)t  of 
iJr.  Milne  Bramwell  to  prove  that  there  are  no  drawbacks  to  the 
therapeutic  use  of  hypnotism  is,  however,  a  challenge  which 
should  be  promptly  met."  Now  I  have  never,  either  in  writing 
or  speaking,  asserted  that  tliere  were  no  drawbacks  to  tlie 
therapeutic  use  of  hypnotism,  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  constantly 
pointed  out  that  sucli  existed.  For  example,  in  this  country 
hypnotism  is  rarely  resorted  to  until  other  remedial  measures 
have  failed,  and  this  greatly  decreases  its  chance  of  success. 
Further,  1  have  never  denied  that  liypnotisra,  through  ignorance 
or  malice  on  tlie  part  of  the  operator,  mif^ht  be  an  misused  as  to 
do  harm ;  this  risk,  however,  is  not  only  grossly  exaggerated, 
but  falls  far  short  of  that  associated  with  ordinary  medical 
treatment. 
^_  What  I  really  said  was  totally  dift'erent,  namely,  that,  as  far 
Hiils  my  experience  went,  the  emplojTnent  of  hypnotism  by  medical 
men  ac(iuainted  with  tlie  siibject  was  devoid  of  danger.  In 
support  of  this,  I  cited  Forel's  assertion  that  he,  as  well  as 
Liabeault,  Bernheim,  Wetterstrand,  van  Eeden,  de  Jong,  Moll, 
aud  the  other  lollowers  of  the  Nancy  school,  had  never  seen  a 
^single  instance   in    which   mental   or   physical    harm   had   beea 

^P     ■  Sfxty-aixth   Anntul    Meeting  of  the  nritish   Mediral  AaMKUtioo.     Sm  tht 
BrituK  Meditai  JoHmaf,  September  10th.  1898,  pp.  M9-S7S. 


caused  by  hypnotism.  No  complete  record  of  their  cases  has  been 
published,  but  the  number  certainly  exceeds  fifty  thouamd.  On 
October  IPth.  1898,  Forel  informed  me  that  he  still  held  this 
opinion,  and  had  never  observed  even  the  slightest  inconvenienc« 
from  hypnotic  practice.  Further,  I  have  watched  the  work  of 
nearly  all  those  cited  by  Forel,  and  have  seen  nothing  opposed  to 
Ilia  statement. 

I  could  add  many  names  to  ForeVa  list,  but  will  content ; 
myself  by  quoting  two  in  this  country,  choosing  them  for  tlieir : 
connection  with  asylum  practice. 

In   1890,  Or.  Percy  Smith  and   the  late  Dr.  A.  T.  Myera , 
published  an  account  of  the  hypnotic  treatment  of  twenty-one  J 
insane  patients   in   Bethleni   Hospital.      I  am  authorised  by  the 
former  to  state  that  nn  harm  wa-s  done. 

I  have  also  Dr.  Ontterson  Wood's  permission  to  state  that, 
while  he  acted  as  Honorary  Secretary  to  the  British  MedicAl 
Association  Committee  for  the  Investijpition  of  H\'pnotism,  he 
performed  many  expcrinients,  and  arrived  at  the  following  con- 
clusions with  regard  to  hj'pnotism : — (1)  Its  phenomena  were 
genuine.  (3)  It  was  of  distinct  therapeutic  value.  (3)  Its  use  ^ 
in  skilled  hantis  was  absolutely  devoid  of  danger.  f 

My  position  might  be  attacked  in  two  ways :  (A)  by 
attempting  to  prove  mal -observation ;  (I?)  the  facts  being  — 
granted,  by  showing  that  they  did  not  warrant  the  conclusions  f 
drawn  from  them.  Iliese,  the  only  two  points  at  issue,  X 
entirely  ignores.  He  says  :  '*  Very  many  ol>servers  have  seen 
CAses  in  which  hypnotism  has  been  followed  by  very  definite  and 
distinctly  evil  results.  Many  instances  of  this  kind  have  been 
recorded,  and  good  service  would  be  done  by  theii'  collection  and 
tabulation,  as  a  check  to  future  assertions  uf  this  kind."  Granting 
that  tliis  be  true,  what  connection  has  it  with  the  point  ini^ 
dispute  ?  If  a  group  of  surgeons  performed  a  certain  operation  I 
fifty  thousand  times  without  a  death,  would  they  not  be  justified] 
in  inferring  that  in  their  hands,  at  all  events,  it  was  devoid 
danger  ?  Would  Lheir  position  be  weakened  by  the  "  collection| 
and  tabulation  "  of  the  failures  of  others  ? 

Still  there  reuiain  for  discussion  the  hypnotic  dangers  referred"^ 
to  by  X,  namely  ( 1 )  evil  results  recorded  by  other  observers,  andj 
(2)  those  occurring  in  his  own  practice. 


THE  SO-CALLED  DANGERS  OF  HYPNOTIShf 


419 


(1)  Harm  reported  by  Others. 

Aa  regards  this  f^up,  X  does  not  cite  a  single  authority  or 
case ;  surely  the  "  collection  and  tabulation  "  to  which  he  refers 
should  have  been  done  beforehand,  aud  the  results  preseuted  in 
such  a  way  as  to  enable  one  to  judge  of  their  value  as  evidence. 

T  have  investigated  every  case  hrouf^ht  to  my  notice  where 
hypnotism  was  stated  to  have  done  harm,  and  in  none  has  the 
charge  been  proven.  The  two  follo'wing  may  mrs^  as  a  com- 
mencement of  the  "  collection  "  X  is  desirouR  of  making  ; 

(A)  A  patient,  suffering  fium  LorticoUis,  who  liail  been  under 
my  care  for  a  few  weeks,  shortly  afterwards  underwent  a  surgical 
operation ;  an  important  blood-vessel  was  accidentally  cut,  and 
about  ten  days  later  she  died  from  secondary  hatmorrhage.  I 
was  informed  tliat  the  suzgeon  asserted  the  h;emorrhage  and 
deatl)  were  due  to  the  fact  that  the  patient's  constitution  had 
beeu  weakened  by  hypnotism.  If  tliis  were  true,  tlie  relatives 
felt  that  they  had  contributed  to  the  death  by  permitting  the 
patient  to  try  hypnotic  treatment,  and  I  was  asked  whether  I 
could  in  any  way  reassure  ihem.  This  1  had  little  dilticulty  in 
doing.  1  informed  them  (a)  that  hypnotism  did  not  weaken  the 
constitution  ;  under  its  influence  Jtadaile  hail  reduced  tlie 
mortality  in  the  removal  of  the  tumoui's  of  elephantiasis  from  50 
to  5  per  cent,  and  my  own  operative  eases  had  uU  done  well, 
(i)  Even  granting  that  hypnotism  could  weaken  the  constitutioD, 
it  was  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  its  influence  had  spread  from 
the  patient  to  the  surgeon,  and  thereby  caused  him  to  accidentally 
cut  a  blood-vessel,  (c)  I  mentioned  the  not  unimportant  fact 
that  I  had  al>solutely  failed  to  hypucitise  t!io  ijutient. 
I  (B)  In  April,  1897,  a  medical  acquaintance  told  me  I  must 
alter  my  views  as  to  the  dangers  of  hypnotism,  because  by  its 
means,  M.,  a  Swiss  medical  man,  had  seduced  eleven  young  female 
patients,  and  had  in  consequence  been  condemned  to  five  years' 
imprisonment.  One  of  the  victims,  1  was  told,  had  committed 
suicide,  and  before  doing  so,  had  left  a  written  statement  of  the 
fact  that  she  had  beeu  seduced  through  hypnotism.  Further,  1 
was  informed  that  the-se  statements  were  conlirmed  by  ample 
official  evidence.  This  I  asked  to  see,  and  received  what  was 
described  aa  '"  the  official  testimony  from  Dr.  Calouder,  of  the 
{dvokaturhwrtmi  in  Chur.  where  the  case  was  tried,  stating  that 


I 


hypnotism  bail  been  abused  in  tliis  shocking  betrayal."  My 
colleague  continued,  "  I  could  also  forward  you  the  four  German 
newspapers  sent  me ;  but  as  they  contain  no  details  which  I  have 
not  already  given  you,  you  probably  woidd  not  care  to  have  tliem." 

The  following  is  u  translation  of  the  document  in  tjuestion  : — 
"  In  reply  U*  your  favour  of  the  26Dh  inat,  I  hasten  to  infonn 
you  that,  at  the  trial  of  lir.  M.,  no  support  was  found  for  the  assertion 
that  he  had  employed  hypnotism  in  the  treatment  of  his  patientA. 
— (Signed)  Dr.  Calender." 

I  asked  for  the  German  newspapers,  and  found  that  in  the 
account  of  the  trial  Iiypnotism  was  not  even  mentioned.  I  then 
laid  the  matter  before  Professor  Forel,  of  Zuricli.  who  replied  as 
follows  : — *•  Dr.  M.  has  never  hypnotised  a  patient  The  question 
was  not  raised  at  the  trial,  and  no  one  suggested  that  he  had 
employed  hypnotism.  The  entire  history  is  an  English  iuveutioiit.| 
In  Zurich  no  one  has  spoken  or  written  of  hypnotism  in  con* 
nection  with  Dr.  il.  He  is  a  throat  specialist — an  ordinary 
erotic  pig.  and  has  long  been  known  as  such.  I  have  written  to 
the  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  who  tried  Dr.  ^L,  and  he  ha> 
sent  me  a  written  statement  which  confirms  mine;  this  I  now^ 
enclose  so  that  you  may  have  a  trustworthy  document."  ^'^f'V 
feasor  ForeVs  letter  and  that  of  the  Judge  are  still  in  my~ 
possession.  They  desciibe  Dr.  M.'s  methods  of  seduction,  but  as 
these  have  nothing  to  do  with  hypnotism,  and  are  not  particularly 
suitable  for  publication.  I  refrain  from  quoting  them. 

(2)  X's  Oases 

X  says  that  in  his  special  department,  presumably  asyluin 
jmcticc,  the  evils  consequent  Km  hypnotic  influence  are  grave,  and 
that  the  few  cases  in  which  it  seemed  desirable  to  induce  hypnoeia 
were,  in  the  end,  apparently  deteriorated  in  mental  condition,  and 
that  the  conservation  of  mental  power,  so  urgently  indicated,  was, 
in  fact,  endangered.  From  this  he  concludes  that  hypnosis 
involves  a  weakening  of  the  power  of  self-control,  and  "  is,  indeed, 
a  shunting  on  one  of  those  side  tracks  of  disordered  mental 
function  of  which  insanity  is  the  terminus."  Here  I  may  poi 
out: — 

(1)  No  figures   are  given,  and  the  word  "few"   is 
definite  one. 


(2)  The   disease   from   which   the   patients  suffered   is    not 
^stated,  nor  the  ab3oIutely  essential  information  given  whether  it 

was  one  likely  to  end  in  mental  deterioration  apart  from  the 
treatment. 

(3)  If  X  found  that  hypnotic  treatment  produced  grave  evils 
in  every  instance  in  which  lie  employed  it,  the  fact  that  he  con- 
tinued to  use  it  in  otlier  cases,  be.sides  the   first  one  in  which   it 

Phnd  done  harm,  certainly  demands  explanation. 
(4)  X  gives  no  detailed  account  of  his  cases,  and  thus  the 
dangers  to  which  he  refers  are  baaed  more  upon  assertion  than 
upon  evidence  which  might  be  examined  and  judged. 
^f  (5)  It  is  to  be  noted,  too,  that  X  regards  hypnosis  as  a  con- 
dition analogous  to  hysteria,  stupor,  aud  latah.  As  already 
pointed  out,  this  view  is  an  entirely  erroneous  one.  Thus,  if  X 
evoked  these  conditions  iu  his  patients  by  artificial  means,  the  idea 
that  these  states  had  anything  to  do  with  hypnosis  cannot  be 
entertained  for  a  moment  At  the  same  time,  if  he  actually 
succeeded  in  producing  the  symptoms  of  hysteria,  stupor,  and 
latah   in   patients   who   were  already    suffering  from  some   other 

»form  of  mental  disorder,  I  can  readily  believe  that  this  "involved 
R  weakening  of  their  powers  of  self-control,  and  was,  indeed,  a 
shunting  on  one  of  those  side  tracks  of  disordered  mental  fimction 

»of  which  insanity  is  the  terminus." 
Granting  even  that  mental  deterioration  actually  resulted 
from  X's  so-called  hypnotic  practice,  one  cannot  Iielp  feeling  that 
his  personal  and  limited  experiments  do  not  warrant  the  con- 
clusions he  draws  from  them.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  a  recognised 
principle  in  medicine  that  those  who  fail  have  the  right  to  cry 
'*  Halt  * "  to  the  successful ! 

The  commonest  examples  of  the  alleged  evil  results  of  hypnotic 
practice  are  found  on  examination  to  be  nothing  but  cases  of 
^^ delusional  insanity.  A  sensational  instance  of  this  kind  recently 
^fewent  the  rouud  of  the  Continental  press.  It  was  asserted  that  a 
Uuiversity  professor  had  hypnotised  one  of  bis  students  and  made 
him  the  subject  of  many  disagreeable  experiments.  It  was  even 
stated  that  the  former  had  only  escaped  conviction  by  exercising 
his  hypnotic  influence  over  the  witnesses,  and  compelling  them  to 
give  false  evidence.  This  story  was  not  devoid  of  foundation. 
lA  student  had  actually  brought  an  action  against  a  professor  on 
Ithe  grounds  just  stated.     It  was  proved  iu  court,  however,  that 


432  HYPNOTISM 


the  professor  had  never  hypnotised  any  one,  and  that  the  student 
was  suffeiing  from  delusional  insanity. 

From  time  to  time  charges  of  a  like  nature  are  made  in  the 
police  courts,  and  are  the  subject  of  sensational  paragraphs  in  the 
daUy  press :  sometimes,  improbable  as  it  may  seem,  they  are  even 
gravely  reproduced  in  medical  journals. 

In  the  insane  mind,  hypnotism  and  telepathy  are  gradually 
taking  the  place  of  electricity,  and  I  frequently  receive  letters 
from  persons  who  complain  that  they  are  the  victims  of  telepathic 
persecution.  In  every  instance,  however,  the  writers  are  obviously 
insane. 


'TER  XIV. 


8UMUARY    AND    CONCLUSION, 


.Historical, — Looking  back  on  the  revival  of  mesmerisia.  and  on 

I  the  origin  and  earlier  development  of  hypnotism,  one  must  admit 
that  these  movements  were  almost  entirely  due  to  EUiotaon  and 
£sdaile,  Braid  imd  Li^beault,  all  of  whom  were  more  or  less 
martyrs  to  what  they  believed  to  be  the  truth. 

L        Elliotson's    researches  cost   him  ofhcial   position,  reputation, 

rfortune,  and  friends.  He  never  entered  University  College  after 
the  practice  of  mesmerism  had  been  forbidden  within  its  walls ; 
and  from  that  time  (1838)  forward,  uittil  the  Second  Inter* 
national  Congress  of  Experimental  Psychology  was  held  there  in 

|1892,  neither  hypnotism  nor  mesmerism  received  the  slightest 
recognition  by  the  College.  At  the  latter  date,  at  the  reqneat  of 
the  late  Dr.  A.  T.  Myers,  I  brought  to  the  Congress  several 
patients  who  had  undergone  painless  hj^snotic  operations.  When 
I  showed  these  at  two  of  the  meetings,  reindncing  analgesia  and 
other  hypnotic  phenomena,  history  repeated  itself.  Just  as 
Elliotaon's  demonstrations  excited  so  much  interest  that  he 
found  he  had  to  move  from  a  smaller  to  a  larger  lecture  room, 
BO  the  same  thing  occurred  in  my  case. 

I  Esdaile's  earlier  mesmeric  work  was  ignored  by  the  medical 
anthorities,  while  his  later  efforts  were  bitterly  opposed.  In  lis 
case,  however,  opposition  only  acted  as  a  stimulus.  It  imj>elled 
liim  to  do  more  thau  he  had  ever  intended,  and  thus  brought 
about  his  appeal  to  the  Government,  which  re3ulte<l  io  the 
establishment  of  the  official  mesmeric  hospital  at  Calcutta. 

m  Esdaile  was  more  a  sux^eon  than  a  man  of  science,  and  could 
not  understand  why  Professor  Bennett  supported  '  hypnotism ' 
at  the  very  time  '  mesmerism '  was  so  fiercely  attacked.  Esdaile 
had  evidently  failed  to  grasp  the  importance  of  Braid's  views  as 

2  F 


to  tlie  suhjictice  natui*e  of  hypnotic  phenomena,  and  said  he 
would  willingly  have  called  hia  operations  '  hypnotic,'  if  he  had 
known  that  a  change  of  title  was  all  that  was  ueceasary  in  order 
to  insure  their  recognition. 

Esdailc's  later  days  were  certainly  saddened  by  the  treat- 
ment he  received,  and  he  naturally  asked  what  he  had  done  to 
deserve  it.  He  pointed  out  that  he  had  remained  poor  for  the 
sake  of  mesmerism,  and  had  also  saved  thousands  of  human 
beings  the  pain  which,  until  then,  had  invariably  been  associated 
with  surgical  operations.  This,  in  itself,  surely  did  not  justify 
his  being  considered  as  an  outcast  from  his  profession. 

Bi-aid,  who  was  essentially  open-minded,  and  inspired  with 
the  truest  scientific  spirit,  eagerly  seized  upon  all  fresli  facts,  and 
altered  his  theories  in  accordance  with  them.  He  not  only 
invented  the  terminology  we  still  use,  but  even,  at  a  later  date, 
rejected  it  as  misleading. 

Although  Braid  beliex'ed  that  hypnotic  suggestion  was  a 
valuable  remedy  in  functional  nervous  disorders,  he  did  not 
regard  it  as  a  rival  to  other  forms  of  treatment,  nor  wish  in  any 
way  to  separate  its  practice  from  that  of  medicine  in  general. 
He  held  that  whoever  talked  of  a  *'  universal  remedy "  was 
either  a  fool  or  a  knave :  similar  diseases  often  arose  from 
opposite  pathological  conditions,  and  their  treatment  ought  to 
be  varied  accordingly.  He  objected  to  being  called  a  hypno- 
tist ;  he  was,  he  said,  no  more  a  '  hypnotic '  than  a  *  castor-oil ' 
doctor. 

Li^beault  was  rather  neglected  than  abuse<l  Although 
ElUotson  had  many  followers,  and  Braid  obtained  a  certain 
amount  of  scientiHc  recognition,  Lit^beault,  like  Ksdaile,  worked 
alone.  If  he  were  mentioned  at  all,  a  tiling  which  i&rely 
happened,  it  was  only  as  a  fanatic  or  a  madman. 

Methods  of  inducing  Hypnosis,  Susceptibility,  etc. — The 
various  methods  of  inducing  the  hypnotic  state,  as  well  as  the 
causes  which  appax*ontly  influence  susceptibility  to  hypnosis, 
have  already  beeu  discussed  iji  detail.  The  principal  points 
which  ought  to  be  kept  in  mind  are : — 

(1)  That  there  is  as  yet  no  satiafactoiy  explanation  why 
hypnosis  should  bt)  evoked  by  the  methods  employed. 

(2)  That  the  varying  susceptibility  to  hypnosis  is  equally 
difficult   to  understand.     Wc  do  not  yet  know  why  identical 


i 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION 


435 


methods   sliould    produce    liy pilosis   iii   one   instftnce,  aud   have 

^  jtppareutly  no  efTect  in  another. 

f  (Z)  That  it  is  e<iui\lly  unexplained  why  susceptibility  to 
curative  auggestiona  should  obviously  be  developed  in  patients 
who  have  undergone  hypnotic  methods  of  treatment,  but  in  whom 
hypnosis  has  not  manifestly  been  evoked. 

The  Experimental  Phenomena  of  Hypnosis. — Many  of  the 
phenomena  whicli  are  stated  to  occur  in  the  bypuotic  condition 
are  undoubtedly  genuine,  aud  their  existence  has  been  confirmed 
by  careful  and  repeated  experiment.  Others,  Kuch  as  the  pro- 
duction of  blistei-s  and  changes  of  temperature  by  suggestion, 
must  be  rejected :  there  is,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  trustworthy 
evidence  as  to  their  occurrence. 

Hypnotism  in  Medicine. — It  is  diHicult  to  estimate  the 
exact  value  of  hypnotism  in  comparison  with  other  forms  of  treat- 
ment. There  are,  however,  one  or  two  broad  facts  which  ought 
to  be  kept  in  mind : — 

(1)  Hypnotism,  as  already  pointed  out,  is  not  a  universal 
remedy.  It  is  simply  a  branch  of  medicine,  and  those  who  practise 
it  sometimes  combine  it  with  other  forms  of  treatments  Thus,  in 
some  instttuces  it  is  difficult  to  say  wliat  proportion  of  the  cura- 
tive i*esults  were  due  to  hypnotism,  and  whut  to  other  remedies. 

(2)  On  the  other  hand,  many  cases  of  functional  nervons 
disorder  have  recovered  under  hypnotic  treatment  after  the  con- 
tinued failure  of  other  methods.  The  cases  already  cited 
illustrate  this.  Many  of  the  patients  had  long  suffered  from 
serious  illness,  while  in  most  instances  several  years  have  now 
passed  without  relapse. 

Further,  the  diseases  which  frequently  respond  to  hypnotic 
treatment  are  often  Uiose  in  which  drugs  are  of  little  or  no 
avail.  For  example,  what  medicine  would  one  prescribe  for  a 
man  who,  in  the  midst  of  mental  and  physical  health,  had 
suddenly  become  the  prey  of  an  obsession  ?  Such  patients  are 
rarely  insaaie :  they  recognise  that  the  idea  which  tornieuts  them 
is  morbid ;  they  can  trace  its  origin  and  development,  but  yet 
are  powerless  to  get  rid  of  it.  In  a  recent  case,  the  patient  ^  gave 
*the  following  account  of  his  illness.  He  was  upset,  he  said,  by 
some  trouble  of  a  sentimental  nature,  aud  went  to  Paris  for  a 
day  or  two's  change.     There  he  saw  a  play  in  which  insanity 

'  Tbii  padeot  recovered  a/tar  «  wetlc'i  hypnotic  trutment. 


I 


1 


was  skilfully  portruycd  by  one  of  the  actors.  Immediately 
afterwards  the  laughter  and  gestures  of  his  friends  appeared 
insane  in  character,  and  he  awoke  the  next  night  with  the  feel- 
ing that  he  himself  was  going  mad.  From  the  intellectual  side, 
he  knew  liis  fnend.s  were  not  insane,  and  did  not  helieve  that  he 
was  likely  to  become  so ;  but  the  obBession  was  ever  present 
In  cases  of  this  kind  hypnotism  frequently  yields  good  results ; 
and,  until  I  began  hypnotic  practice,  1  had  no  conception  of  the 
number  of  people  whose  lives  were  made  miserable  by  morbid 
ideas.  Sometimes  these  take  the  form  of  undefined  dreads,  and 
are  associated  with  neurasthenia ;  at  other  times  some  particular 
obsession  dominates  the  patient's  whole  life. 

(3)  In  estimating  hypnotic  reaultg,  it  must  not  be  forgotten, 
too.  that  the  utajority  of  cases  treated  in  this  way  are  extremely 
unfavourable  ones.  Since  I  came  to  Loudon,  patients  have 
rarely  been  sent  to  me  wlien  they  first  fell  ill,  and  with  most  of 
them  every  other  form  of  treatment  had  been  tried  before 
hypnotism  was  resorted  to.  As  the  value  of  hypnotic  treatment  ■ 
and  its  freedom  from  danger  become  more  fully  recognised,  it 
will  doubtless  be  employed  in  earlier  stages  of  disease.  When 
that  day  comes  the  results  ought  to  be  still  more  striking. 

(4)  Above  all  else,  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the 
object  of  all  hypnotic  treatment  ought  to  be  the  development  of 
the  patient's  control  of  his  own  organism.  As  already  pointed 
out,  many  illnesses  represent  the  culminating  point  in  a  life 
wtiich  has  been  characterised  by  lack  of  discipline  and  self- 
control  While  attention  is  given  to  physical  culture,  the 
emotional  side  is  too  ofttin  neglected;  but  much  disease  would 
be  prevented  if  we  could  develop  and  control  moral  states  just  aa 
an  athlete  does  physical  ones. 

The  80 -called  Dangers  of  Hypnotism. — I  have  little  to 
add  to  what  bus  already  been  said  us  to  the  dangers  of  hypnotism. 
Although  I  am  willing  to  admit  that  it  is  possible  that  harm 
may  be  done  through  the  mismanagement  of  hypnotic  cases,  1 
have  personally  seen  no  evidence  of  this  either  in  my  own 
practice  or  in  that  of  others.  Further,  I  have  never  seen  even 
the  slightest  bad  eOect  follow  carefully  conducted  hypnotic 
experiments.  For  several  years  Sidgwick.  Gumey.  Myers,  and 
others  experimented  regularly  on  the  same  group  of  male  subjects. 
ftnd  the  latter  suffered  neither  at  the  time  nor  afterwards. 


i 


• 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION 


437 


There  remains  the  further  question  as  to  the  risks  which 
may  he  encountered  by  those  wlio  embark  on  hypnotic  practice. 
These  have  practically  ceased  to  exist.  It  is  true  that  an  attempt 
was  made  in  1893  to  discredit  hypnotism  by  drawing  attention 
to  the  fallacious  nature  of  Luys'  experiments  and  theories,  but, 
as  already  stated,  his  experiments  had  long  ceased  to  interest 
real  students  of  hypnotism.  At  the  present  day  the  treatment 
of  hj'pnotisin  by  the  profession  is  not  (mly  fair  but  generous. 

Hypnotic  Theories, — Ttie  views  of  the  mesmerists  and  those 
of  the  Salpetriere  school  have  ceased  to  interest  scientific  men. 
All  theories  which  attempt  to  find  a  general  explanation  of 
hypnotic  phenomena  in  a  physiological  or  a  psychological 
inhibition,  or  in  a  combination  of  the  two,  will  doubtless  suffer  a 
similar  fate.  The  increased  volition  and  intelligence,  which  are 
frequently  observed  in  the  "  alert "  stage  of  hypnosis,  cau  be  ex- 
plained neither  by  an  arrested  action  of  the  higher  ner\'ous  centres 
nor  by  a  hypothetical  automatism.  Further,  subjects  can  be 
taught  to  hypnotise  themselves,  and  cau  then  induce  the  state 
and  its  phenomena  at  will.  In  such  cases  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  that  the  phenomena  can  be  due  to  the  suspeuaiou  of 
the  subject's  volition,  or  to  the  operator's  supposed  power  of 
controlling  him. 

If  the  subliminal  consciousness  theory  does  not  satisfactorily 
explain  all  the  problems  of  hypnosis,  we  are  at  all  events 
indebted  to  it  for  a  clearer  conception,  not  only  of  the  condition 
as  a  whole,  but  also  of  many  of  its  component  parts. 

The  following  points  in  this  theory  seem  most  worthy  of 
notice : — 

( 1 )  Tliat  the  essential  characteristic  of  the  hypnotic  state  is 
the  subject's  far-reaching  power  over  his  own  organism. 

(2)  That  vobtion  is  increased  and  the  moral  standard  raised. 

(3)  That  the  phenomena  of  liypnosis  arise  from,  or  at  all 
events  are  intimately  connected  with,  voluntary  alterations  in 
tiie  association  and  dissociation  of  ideas. 

(4)  Subliminal  or  subconscious  states  are  more  clearly 
defined  than  in  previous  theories. 

K        (5)  Myers'  theory  ^  closely  resembles  Braid's  latest  one.     The 

'  At  th«  MeetJDc  of  the  British  Medical  Auociution,  Edinliargli,  1808,  Mjren, 
bj  special  rei|ue«t,  |*Ave  an  aoeount  of  bis  hypnotic  thoorirs  to  the  Piycbological 
Section.     Se«  BritiiK  Medical  Journal^  S«pt  lOth.  1898,  p.  674. 


existence  of  alternatiug  con&ciousnedses  wa3  not  only  recognised 
by  Braid,  but  was  also  regarded  by  him  as  explanatory  of  certain 
h^'puotic  plieuomeua 

The  appreciation  of  time,  with  its  accompanying  necessary 
calcolations.  and  the  solution  in  hypnosis  of  the  *  di'essDiaking 
problem*  (p.  320),  are  phenomena  which  have  an  important 
bearing  on  hypnotic  theory.  Doubtless  Carpenter  would  have 
regarded  the  latter  as  a  case  of  "  unconacious  cerebration."  The 
so-called  secondary  self,  however,  was  quite  conscious  that  it  hnd 
solved  the  problem ;  and,  when  hypnosis  was  again  induced,  was 
able  to  give  an  account  of  the  occurrence,  and  to  tell  when  the 
knowledge  it  had  elaborated  was  received  by  tJie  onlinary  selt 

While  the  phenomena  of  hypnosis  show  that  consciousness 
can  be  split  up  into  two  or  more  well-defined  parts,  this  does  not 
justify  us  in  concluding  that  distinct  personalities  may  exist  in 
the  same  human  being.  To  the  physiologi-st,  at  all  events, 
something  more  is  necessary  than  evidence  of  alternating  groups 
of  memories  and  changes  of  temper.  To  put  the  matter 
crudely,  the  phenomena  we  term  mental  are  dependent  on  the 
life  and  activity  of  the  organ  wliich  we  call  the  brain.  All  the 
physical  part  of  the  mechanism  is  enclosed  in  one  skull,  and  the 
varying  psychical  manifestations  are  associated  with  the  changes 
that  take  place  therein.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  au  individual 
may  receive  impressions  which  do  not  arouse  consciousness  at 
the  time,  and  that  these  may  be  the  starting-point  of  mental 
processes  of  which  he  only  afterwards  becomes  conscious  througli 
their  results.  In  hypnosis,  too,  he  may  do  mental  work  of  which 
he  is  conscious  in  that  condition,  and  of  which  he  may  yet  know 
nothing  in  the  normal  state.  Through  accident  or  disease  he 
may  become  amnesic,  aphasic,  or  both ;  or  he  may  reviw 
memories  long  lost  to  his  normal  consciousness.  All  these 
varying  psychical  conditions,  however,  have  their  physical 
correlative;  they  correspond  to  changes  wliicli  have  taken  place 
in  that  particular  individual's  brain.  However  great  may  be  the 
alterations  in  consciousness,  however  marked  the  changes  in 
character,  we  cannot  get  away  from  the  fact  that  these  are 
dependent  on  the  one  brain  the  individual  was  born  with,  and 
the  changes  that  one  brain  has  undergone  in  subsetjiiont  life. 
*  John  Smith '  does  not  cease  to  be  '  John  Smith '  when  he  is 
hypnotised,  nor  when  he  becomes  insane. 


\ 


i 


I 


If  Braid  and  Myera  have  done  much  towards  giving  us  a 
clearer  idea  of  the  h}'puotic  state,  they  have  also  added  to  the 
difficulties  of  explaining  iL  A  conception  of  hypnosis  whicli 
limited  ita  manifestations  to  simple  automatic  movements  was 
comparatively  easy  to  explain.  The  hypnotic  subject  who,  while 
he  has  not  lost  the  physical  and  mental  powers  of  his  waking 
condition,  has  acquired  new  and  far-reaching  ones,  presents  a 
very  different  problem.  But  normal  life  contains  many  problems, 
both  physiological  and  psychological,  which  are  yet  unsolved, 
and  some — such  as  the  causal  connection  between  mental  and 
physical  states— which  are  apparently  insoluble  ;  and  wliile  this 
is  so,  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  expect  a  complete  explanation 
of  that  still  more  complex  state — the  hypnotic.  Further  ob- 
servation, however,  is  always  giving  us  clearer  insight,  if  not 
into  the  central  problem  itself,  at  all  events  into  the  phenomena 
that  characterise  it  What  increased  practical  advantage  this 
may  give  us  in  curing  and  preventing  disease,  alleviating  pain, 
giving  sleep,  and  impro%'ing  moral  states,  time  alone  will  show. 


CHAPTER    XV 

BEFEllENCES. 


FRENCH. 

FaoU  THE  REVVR  DB  I'BrPNOTlSMSf  vol  J.  1887-68  to  vol  XV.  1900-01. 

Artioala!}  et  R£mon'd,  Dra.  Vol.  vi,  p,  S50,   "  Note  6ur  tin  cab  d'h^niorrhagiei 

auriculairefs  oculaires  «t  palmaires  provoqu^  par  la  BOggesUon." 
[^Bechterew,    Dr.    (St,    Pctereburg).       Vol.    liv.    p.    89.       "La    auggeetioii 

hypnotiqnc  ut  le  traiUmeni  de  ronanisme."     "Siir  Ie«  obeeMdU  et 

les  illuflions  iinporiune«." 
Vol.  xiv.  p.  156.     "  L'importonce  rle  lliypnotinme  et  de  la  atiggBBtioB 

dans  le  trattement  dc  ralcoolisme." 
BtoiLLON,  Dr.  Edgar.     Vol.  i.  p.  S18.     "Gu^rison  par  auggeatioii  poat- 

hypnotiqae  d'une  habitude  vicieuse  daianl  de  dix  ans." 
Vol.  ii.  p.  50.     "Les  applications  dc  I'hypnotiaioe  au  traitement  dea 

enfantB  vicieux." 
Vol.  ii.  p.  169.     *-  De  la  suggestion  et  de  eea  applications  k  la  p^dagogte." 
Vol.  ii.  p.  176.     "'Tics  nerveux  trait^-s  par  aviggestion." 
Vol.  iv.  p.  35.     "  Valeur  de  la  suggestion  hypnotique  Jans  le  trvte' 

inent  de  rhyHtMc." 
Vol.  iv.  p.  153.     "  Les  applications  de  la  suggestion  h  la  p^diatrie  et& 

r^acation  mentale  dec  enfants  vicieux  on  d^g^^r^s." 
Vol.   iv.   p.   33R.       "  Nem-osthi^nie  grave    trait4*e  avec  succ^   par  la 

suggestion  hypnotique" 
Vol.  V.  p.  97.     "  Les  indications  formelles  de  la  suggestion  hypnotique 

en  psychiatrie  et  en  neuropathologie." 
Vol.  Ti.  p.  165.     "  Ataxie  locomotrice  traits  avec  anoote  par  la  sngge*- 

tion  hypnotique." 
VuL  vi.  p.  269.     "  M^chaniame  des  ph^nomines  hypnotiquM  provoqu^ 

chez  des  sujeta  hysl^riques." 
Vol.  vii.  p.  1S9.     "  Le  traitement  paychothdrapeutiqne  de  la  morphino- 

manie." 
Vol.  vit.  p.  177.     '*  Vomiseenients  incoercibles  de  la  groueMe  traits  avec 

80001*8  par  la  suggestion." 
Vol.    viii.    p.    16.      *' Onychophagie.      Hyst^o  •  ^pilepeie.       Gu^riion 

rapide  par  la  suggestion." 
Vol.  viii.  p.  90.     "  Habitudes  vicieuses  associ^eB  chez  une  petite  fiUe. — 

Onanisme  et  onychophagie,  traites  avec  sucok  par  la  suggeatioiL" 

440 


i 


Vol.  Tiii.  p.  241.     "  Le6  pliobiea  neurasth^aiques  envisage  an  point 

de  vue  du  service  militaire.'' 
Vol.  viii.  p.  359.     "  Le  traittiment  peychique  de  1' incontinence  nocturne 

d'tirine." 
Vol.  ix.  p.   28.     "Le  traitemeut  de  la  morpbinoiuanie."     (Diacuasion 

by  Taszi,  etc) 
Vol.  ix.  p.  33.     ^'Phobies  neuraathuniqiies  envisage  au  point  de  vue 

profeuionel-'' 
Vol.  ix.  p.  90.     "Cri  byst^rique  datant  de  troia  mois  gueri  en  une 

seule  stance  par  la  suggestion." 
Vol.  xii.  p.  167.     "Les  principes  de  la  p^agogie  auggeslive."     (Giving 

list  of  his  articles.) 
Vol.  xiii.  p.    102.     "De  I'emploi  de  la  suggestion  bypnotique  dans 

I'^acation  dee  epileptiques." 
Vol.  xiii.  p.  245.     **  Mai  dc  nicr  et  vcrtiges  de  U  locomotion." 
Vol.  XV.  p.  84.     "Mdancholie  traitt^  avec  succ^  par  la  Buggestioii 

hypnotiqnc." 
BtRlLLON  et  Darikr,  Dts.      VoL  xiii.  p.  179.     "Strabisme  avec  dip1opi« 

gueri  par  la  suggestion  hypnotiqne." 
Bernhciu,  Prof.     Vol.  1.  p.  129.     "Dc  la  suggestion  envisogiJe  au  point 

de  Tuc  pvdagogiqae." 
Vol.  ii.  p.  138.     "Sur  un  ess  de  regular isation  des  r^les  par  suj^fes- 

tion." 
Vol  xii.  p^   137.      "A  propoe  de  l'<^tude  sur  James  Braid  par  Ic  Dr. 

Milne  Braniwell  et  de  son  rapport  lu  au  Congria  de  Bruielles." 
Besse,  Dr.     VoL  iii.  p.  213.     "Troubles  hyst^JriquestroitiJs  par  ITiypnotisme." 
&ESA.NQON,  Dr.  (Piirim).     Vol.  i.  p.  160.     "  Diarrh^  provo<iute  par  suggestion 

chez  une  hyHt^riqne  hypnotisable."     (Also  three  teeth  extracteil  during 

hypnotic  onip'ttbef-ia.) 
BoUTT^,  Dr.     Vol.  xiii.  ]'.  76.     "La  suggestion  hypnotique  comroo  traite- 

ment    de  Vonychopha^i^-       Quelqties   reflexions    sur    ce   syndrome 

consid^n^  ronime  tare  de  dtlgt'iic-rescence.'* 
BouRDONj  Dr.     Vol.  iii.  p.  141.     "JalouBie  morbide  comproniettant  la  vie, 

gu^rie  i>ar  la  suggestion," 
Vol.  vi.  p.  35B.     "Applications   varit^cs  dc   la  suggestion  chez  nne 

hyst^ro-^pileptique. " 
VoL  viii.  p.  59.     "Anestb^fiie  chirurgicale  par  suggestion," 
Vol.  X.  p.  S7.     "  La  psychoth^rapie  ennsag6e  comme  compUmsnt  de  la 

th^rapeutique  gcnt-rale." 
Vol  X.  p.  134.     "  Onychophagie  ot  habitndes  sutomatiquea,  onaniamei 

etc»  chez  les  enfant^  vicieux  on  dog^n^r^ 
Vol.  xiii  p.   i  46.     "  La  psychoth^rapie  envisag^e  comme  complement 

de  la  th^rdpeutique  gencrale. 
Vol.  xiv.  p.  145.     "  L'alcoolisme  et  le  tab^ismc  traits*  avec  eocoes  par 

la  suggestion  hypnotique." 
VoL  xiv.  p.  176.     "  Accouchements  sans  douleors  par  la  m^thode  du 

Dr.  Joire.     Anesth^sie  suggestive." 
VoL  XV.  p.  365.     "  Applications  de  la  psychotht'rapie  aux  nenrasth^nies 

graves  et  anciennes  avec  complications  diverses :  phobiee,  obsessions 

bsrpocundriaque,  polyaarde,  etc'* 


BouBOON,  Dr.     Vul  xi.  p.  250.     "Deux  cas  de  bli-pbarosposme  tooique 
bilateral  donloureux   d'origine  by8tenque>  gu^ris  par  U  suggestioa 
hypnotique." 
BocRRU  et  ficROT,  Drs.      Vol.  i.  pp.  192,  236,  261.     "  Les  vaxialioos  do 

ta  peTBonTialit^.'* 
Bbaxwell,  J.  Milne,  M.B.     Vol.  is.  p.   373.     "Un  caa   dTiyperhydroee 
Iocalu^*e  traitiJ  avec  succ^s  par  la  suggeetioa  hypnotique." 
Vol.  xi.  p.  49.     "  La  guf^riaou  des  ob»cssion8  par  U  suggestioii.'' 
Vol.  xi.  pp.  269,   309.  340,  372.     VoL  sii.  pp.  27,  00,  87.      ''JftiBO 

Braid  ;  son  ccuvre  et  sea  i^crita." 
Vol.  lii.  p.  129.     "La  valeiir  tla-iapeutiqiie  de  rhypnotisnie  et  de  la 
sugtjfaLion." 

Vol.  xii.  p.  353.      "James  Braid  et  la  suggeation."  

Br£31aud,  Dr.     Vol.  ii.  p.  16.     "*  Quon»oa  par  lliypnotiame  d'une  mute 
dcR  Eouvellea  accouch^cs. 
VoL  vii.  p.  280.     "Observation  d'un  byst^rlque." 
Brown-S^uaro,  Dr.     Vol.  ii.  p.  l&S.     "La  duality  du  cerreau  et  de  U 

moelle  opiniore." 
BuoNBV,  Dr.     Vol.  T.  p.  179.     *' Mutrorrlmgiea  couB^ativea  &  des  flbrooMi 

ut^riua.     Qa^hsou  par  rhypnotiaine." 
BuRCEHARDT,  Dr.      Vol.    iij.    p.    56.     <* Application   de   rhypuotiame   itt 

traitement  des  maladies  ment&Ies." 
BuROT,  Dr.     Vol.  i.  p.  355.     "  Qrande  hystdrie  gu^rie  par  I'cmptoi  de  U 
Bugj^eation  et  de  rauto-stiggestion." 
Vol.   ii.  p.  330.     "Sur  un  an  de    tica  conruUifs  arec  ^holalie  et 

eoprolalie." 
Vol.  iii.  p.  160.     "  Nevropathie  avec  acriuie  salivaire  et  constipation 

dataut  de  35  qds,  guvrie  par  la  suggestion." 
Vol  iii.  p.  251.     "Siirditi!-  double  datant  de  dix  joun  gu^rie  en  nne 

seule  Nuance  par  la  eaggestion." 
Vol.  iii.  p.  336.     *'  Manie  hyaterique  avec  impal»ioni  et  hallacluatioos 

gu6rie  par  la  suggestion." 
Vol.  ir.  p.  55.     "Hoquet  datant  de  six  inois,  gu^ri  en  deux  i^cet 
par  la  suggestion." 
Bdrot  et  BoiTRRD,  Drs.     See  BourrC. 
Charpentikr,   Dr.       Vol.   xiv.    p.    204.      "  Hyperhydroee   aboodante   des 

mains  guorie  piir  I'hypnotisme.'' 
Cbazaraln.  Dr.     See  DtxiiK,  Ch. 
Chotkau,  Dr.     Vol.  viii.  p.  24B.     "  Voniiseeoients  incuerciblea  cbez  une 

femmc  enceinte  du  4  moia  traitos  par  suggestion.     Ou^rison." 
Clacs  et  Jxcons,  Drs.      VoL  x.  p.  312.      "Un  caa  d'hyst^rie  chei  ma 

6llette  de  8  ans,  gutiriion  par  suggestion.'' 
Darter,  A.,  et  B£rillon,  Dra.     St€  Bi^rillon. 

David,  Dr.  Vol,  vi.  p.  57.  **  N^Svropathio  cbaracteris^e  par  dea  criaet  de 
ptours,  diitanl  de  dix  ana  :  guorison." 
Vol.  vi.  p.  236.  *'  Hystvrie  convulsive ;  iddea  de  persecution  el  de 
Biiicidt*  ;  gii^rison.  Somnanibulisme  hystcrique  et  •omnambuliinie 
hypnotique." 
VoL  ix.  p.  243.  "  Un  cas  de  neurastb^nie  lypbilitique,  gu^rieon  par 
suggestion." 


\ 


I 

i 


REFERENCES 


443 


Yol.  XL  p.  268.     "Contracture  spaamodique  de  psoas  illat^ue  gauche 
datont  de  4  aus.     Gu^riaon  en  une  seule  seance." 
)feCLB,  Ch..  et  Chazara[N,  Dr.      Vol.  ii.  p.  144.     "Lea  couninta  de  la 

polarity  dans  rnimant  et  dons  le  corps  bumain." 
)fiOA,  Mile,  (docteur  en  m^-decine,  Bordeaux):     Vol  xiii.  p.  373.     •'Un 
cas  de  spasmes  rytlimiques  hyat^riquea.      Qn^riaon  rapide  par  I& 
suggestion  hypnoiique." 
'BBLBtEur^  Professear.      Vol.  vii.   p.   200.      "Quclques  considt^rationi  sur 
la  pBychologie  do  I'hypnotiame  a  propoa  d'un  cos  dc  manie  homicide 
guf^rie  par  suggestion." 
VoL  ix.  pp.  SS&,    S60.     "  L'hypaoAe  et  lea  suggestions  criminelles." 
^KLBfficr  et   Fkaipont,    Profs.      Vol.  v.  p.    289.      '*  Accouchement  doni 

rhypnotiame." 
}iAZ,  Dr.  A.  M.     Vol.  vi.  p.  309.     "  Quelr^ues  faits  d'anesth^e  chirurgicale 
Bonn  I'intluence  de  la  suggefttion." 
iDoBROVouiCT,  Mile.     Vol.  V.  pp.  274,  310.     "  Huit  observations  d'accouche- 
mcnt  sans  douleur  sons  t'intluence  ile  I'bypnotisme." 
>oumoo5,   Dr.   Jaquaribe  (Brazil).      Vol.   xv.   p,    266.      "Note   sur   la 

gu^rison  d*un  cas  d 'hype rhytl rose  des  mains." 
)uiloNTPAU.TEn,  Dr.     VoL  i.  jx  457.     "  De  I'aJial^^e  hypnotique  d*ns  le 
travail  de  I'accouchement" 
Vol.  vi.  p.  175.     "De  Taction  de  la  suggestion  pendant  le  travail  de 

raccouchenient." 
VoL  vii.  p.  173.     "  01»erv&tion  de  choree  gu^rie  par  la  tli^rapeuiiqae 

suggestive," 
VoL  X.  p.  SI.     "  Vomissenients  incoerciblea  depuia  10  moia,  chez  une 
jcune  fille  de  1 4  ans.     Hystdrie.     Qu(!n»on  rapide  des  vomissenients 
apr^s  suggestion  hypnotique." 
DtJRAXD,  Dr.  (de  Oroe).    VoL  x.  p.  8.    "  Suggestions  criminelles  hypnotiquea." 

VoL  X.  p.  161.     "  L'hypnotisme  et  la  mornle." 
EcDKN,  Dr.  VAN.     Vol.  vi  p.  5.     "Les  obscaaions." 

Iet  VAN  Rentergueu.     VoL  ix.  p.  161.     "  Le  traitement  ps>'chothera- 
peudqae  de  neuraslb&nie." 
AKTON,   Dr.      Vol.    v.   p.    150.      "Un  aoeonchement  sana  donleor  sous 
i'in&uence  de  rbypootisation." 
AREZ,  Dr.  Paul.     VoL  xiiL  p.  136.     "Traitement  psycbologique  du  mal 
de  mer  et  des  rertigea  de  la  locomotion  (chemiu  dc  fer,  omnibna, 
tramway,  etc)." 
VoL  xiii.  p.   336.     ^^Hypnotisme  et  aommeil  prolong<S  dana  un  can 
^L     de  dt'lire  alcoolique," 
HToL  xiii.  p.  371.     "Contre  la  morphinomanie." 
VoL    xiv.   p.    53.      "  Incontinence  d'urine  et  suggestion  pendant   Ic 
Bomnieil  nnturel." 
VoL  xiv.  p.  206.     *'  Hyperbydroae  palm&irc." 
VoL  xiv.  p.  296.     "Idt'cs  delirantea  de  persecution  avec  lialluci nations 
auditivBS  et  visuellee  consecutives  &  un  lr«uniali*uie  psychique  che« 
an  glycosurique,     Traitement  hypnotique  et  gu^rison  des  troubles 
menlaux,  malgr^  1e  persistonce  de  la  glycoeurio." 
roREi^  Prof.  August.     Vol.  iii.  p.  277.     "Un  cas  d'auto-hypnotiaation." 
Fbaji'ost  et  DELU(Eur,  Profs.     Set  Delikbcf. 


444 


HYPT^OTISM 


G£uNE&D,  Dr.     Vol.  viii.  p.  353.     "Les  psemlo-phobiei." 

tioix,  Dr.     Vol.  vi.  p.  245.     "  Anorexic  hyat^rique  traiwJe  avec  uico^  |)ftr 

la  surest  ion  hypnotit^ae." 
OoBODtcHE,  Dr.     Vol.  viii.  p.  fi3.     "  Cn  ca«  <le  claostrophobie  gu^ri  pftr  U 

6ugge»liou  hypnotitjue." 
Vol.  xi.  p.  124.     "Lt!  mal  de  mer  et  le  moyea  de  le  pr^Tenir  par  U 

suggestion  hypnotiquc." 
Obos,  Dr.  (Apt).     Vol.  ii.  p.  245.     "  ImpoeEibiliU  de  marcher  daUnt  de 

3  ann^ea.     Hypnotiaroe  et  suegeation.     Ou^rison.'' 
Herrero,  Dr.  A.  S.     Vol.  iv.  p.   193.     **  L*hypnoti8ation  forc^e  et  centre 

lu  volonUJ  artitt^  du  sujel." 
Jacobs.    &«  Claus. 

Ja^HET,  Dr.  JuLBB.     VoL  iii.  p.  339.     "  Un  caa  d'hysl^rie  grave." 
JoiRE,  Dr.      Vol.   xiii.   p.    39.      "  De  I'emploi  de  I'aualgMe   hypnotiqtu 

dans  lea  accouchement^." 
JoiRS  et  Lhmoine,  Dra.     Vol.  vii.  p.  68.     "De  rbypnotiame  per  les  miroin 

rotatife  dans  le  trait^Mneut  de  I'hysti^Tie." 
Vol.  ix.  p   5S.     "Application  de  la  psych otherapic  4  la  consultatwn 

medicate  de  I'bdpital  de  la  Charit^  de  Lille." 
Jong,   Dr.    dr.     Vol.   vi.    p.    78.     "Quelques  obKrvationa  sur   la   valeur 

m^dicale  de  la  i>sycbotht^rapte." 
Jouiw^E,   Dr.     Vol.   T.   p.    18.     **  Petite  hyatcrie  et   tronblea   dnm^nor- 

riw-iques  trait<;8  par  sug^'eslion  hypnotiquc." 
KiNOBBCRT,  Dr.     Vol.    V.   p.    298.     '*  Accouchement  pendant  le  aommeil 

hypnotique," 
KxoRT,  Dr.     Vol.  ix.  p.  337.     "Oueh&on  d'un  ca9  d'akoolivme  cbrooiqoe 

par  la  5Ug>*eelioii.     Annulation  de  la  suggeatiou  par  un  r^ve." 
Krafjt-Ebing,  Dr.  K,  de.     Vol.  vii.  p.  262.     "  Hystvrie  grave.      Ou^riaoa 

par  la  suggestion  hypnotique." 
Ladauk,   Dr.    (Geneva).       Vol.    ii.    pp.    129,    165.      "  Le   traitement  dea 

buveurs  et  de«  dipwmanea  par  rhypnoliBme," 
Vol.    ii.    p.    257.      "Obaervatiou    de   somnanibulianie    hyat^rique  avec 

dtSdoublement  de  peraoonalite  gni-ri  par  In  niggestion  bypuotique" 
Vol.  iv.  p.  67.     '*  Inversion  aoxuelle  chex  un  d^n^r^." 
VuL  v.  p.  130.     "La  folie  du  doute  et  le  d^ire  du  toucher." 
Laorave,  Dr.  CosTE  dk.     Vol.  iv.  p.  161.     "Quelqm-a  exp^encas  d'anto- 

bypnotiame  et  d'au to- suggestion." 
Leuoixe  et  JoiRE,  Drs.     Sat  Joire. 
Lkvillaix,  Dr.     Vol.  iv.  p.  353.     "CEdfeme  bleu  des  hyat^riques  reproduit 

expi^rimentalemeiit  par  la  suggestion  bypnotique." 
LilBEAtTLT,  Dr.  A.  A.     Vol.  i.  p.  71.     "Traitement  par  euggestion  hypa<^- 

tiqu«  de  I'incontinence  d'urine  chez  lea  adultea  et  les  enfiuita  an 

deaana  de  Lroia  ana." 
Vol.  iii.  p.  195.     "  Eniploi  de  la  suggeation  bypnotique  pour  I'^ducation 

des  eiifauts  et  dea  adole'wentB.'' 
Vol.  ix.  pp,  97,  134.     "Veille — Sommeil — Hypnotisme." 
Vol  ix.  pp.  289,  330.      "Suggeationa  criminellea  hypnotiquea." 
LouBBoao,  Prof.     Vol.  i.  p.  245.     "DiagnoBtic  et  gutrison  dea  paznlysMfl 

byat^riquea." 
Mabillk  ct  Rau&dibb,  Drs.     Vol.  iL  p.  42.      "  D^roulement  apontan^  on 


provoqui^    dee    ^tots  siiccesufs   de   porsoiuiAlit^i   chcz   an    byat^ro- 
^pileptique." 
PHaba^don  de  Montbvel,  Dr.  £.     Vol.  xL  p.  S89.     '*  Deux  caa  de  fausse 
groasesse  par  crainte  de  la  aiaterulUf  arec  rap{}el  inimddiat  de  la 
menstruation  par  suggestion  A  I'^tat  de  veille." 
Hajuhibco,   Lir.   (Bucharest).     Vol.  xiv.  p.    214.     "Un  caa  d'henuplegie 
I  hystfirique  gu^rl  par  la  suggestion  bypnotique  et  6tudi^  a  I'aide  de 

"  la  cliroaophotograpliie." 

Mabot,  Dr.     Vol.  vii.  p.  233.     '*  ^forpllinomanie  et  aoggestion :  garrison 

datant  de  trois  aua  et  dcmi." 
Mavbouicakib,  Dr.  Antoixe.     Vol.  ii.  p.   374.     "Lea  neurastbiSniquea  et 
la  suF^gestioQ.     Agoraphobie  trait^e  avec  succes  par  la  suggestion." 
Vol.  vii.  ]).  374.     "  Les  neurastbeniques  et  U  suggestion." 
PllESNKT,  Dr.     Vol.  ii.  p.  33.     **Un  accoucheiuent  dans  le  somnambulisme 
provoqu^." 
Vol.  ir.  p.  321.     ^'Autographisme  et  stigmates." 
et  RODX,  Drv.      Vol.  iii.  p.   119.      '^Spasmes  de  I'ur&thre  et  troubles 
nerve  ui.'* 
^Keilbon,  Dr.  Hubert  (Canada).     Vol.  vL  p.    14.     "Le  traitemcnt  hypno- 

tique  'le  la  dipsomania." 
^DaoooD,  Dr.  Hamiltus  (America).     VoL  ix.  p.  300.     "  Qnatra  caa  d'ecnSina 
et  un  de  dermntite  traiti^s  par  suggestion." 
Pad  de  Satnt-Mahtin,  Dr.     Vol.  xv.  p.  17.     "  Thanatopbobie,  ^oraphobie 
et  divers  troubles  nerveux  trait^s  avec  succ^  par  la  suggestion. " 
Vol.    XT.   p.    52.       '*  Ortbopikiie   meatale   et   moralu    par  suggestion 
pendant  le  sommeil  neturel." 
'  PaiTZL,   Dr.     Vol.  i.   p.    157.     "  Accoucbement  d'une  primipare  pendant 
I'hypnotiame," 
Pbookt,    Prof.      Vol.  iv.   p.    2G7.       "  Automatisme   ambulatoire  cbez  un 

hyst^rique." 
Ramet,  Dr.      VoL  i.  p.  60.       '*  R(*tr<ici«*ement  spasmodique  du  canal  de 
I'ur^tbre  traits  sans  succ^s  par  rurHbrotomie  interne  et  gn^ri  par  la 
suggestion  hypnotique." 
Rfon,  Dr.     Vol.  x.  p.  321.     "  Klt^ptomanie  et  hypnotberapie." 
RtuoKD  et  Aktigalas,  Drs.     See  Abtioalaa. 

IRbntbboheh,  Dr.  vas.     Vol.  fiL  p.  215.     "Kupture  du  pdrin^e  complete 
datant  de  quelques  ann^es.     Maladitf  orgnnique  da  coeur  defendant 
I  I'emploi  tlu   chloroforme   pour  provoquer    I'aneBth^sie.      Opt-ration 

I  radicale  et  aans  doulenrs  notables,  sous  riufluence  do  la  auggeation 

sans  sommeil." 
et  VAN  Eedek,  Dra.     See  Van  Eedkx. 
RiBOROFF,  Dr.     Vol.  xiii.  p.  127.     "  Du  Iraitemeut  de  I'alcoolisme  par  la 


Vol.  i.    pp.   170,  209.      "  Les  mouTementa  in- 


et  VAN  Eeden,  Dra. 
IiBOROFF,  Dr.     Vol.  xiii. 

suggestion. " 
RioHET,   Prof.  Chables. 

conscients." 
I         Vol.  ii.  p.  208.     "  Hypnotisme  k  distance." 
r        VoL  ii.  p.  225.      "  Experiences  sur  le  eonuneil  k  distance." 
RiFAT,  Dr.     VoL  ii.  p.  597.     *•  £lude  but  I'hj'pnotismc  et  la  suggestion." 
,  RocBdoviTCB,  Dr.      Vol.  ii.    p.    364.      "  Lo    traitemeot  dw   habitudes 
Ticieuses  par  la  snggeitioD." 


*'  Br<Llure  da  second  degr^  provoqnee 
"  Applications  dc  I'liypnotinae  h 
"Op6ratioiu  cliirurgicales  faitet 
ganche   op^r^   pendant   ]& 


RVBALKIV,  Dr.  T.      Vol.  iv.  p.   301. 

par  Buggestion." 
Sandbero,  G.  (Sweden).     VoL  vi.  p^  331. 

Tan  dentaire." 
SoHMKLTZ,   Dr.  (Nice).     Vol.  ix.  p.   47. 
pendant  le  mmnieil  hypuutique." 
Vol.    X.    p.    180.      "Sarconie  du    testicle 
sommeil  hypnotique." 
SoBBBNCX-NoTZixa,   Dr.   voN.      Vol.   iv.   p.    172.      «Un  caa  d'iuvefsion 
aexuelU  ain<fdior^  par  la  eu^;«stiou  hypnotique." 
Vol.  V.  p.  Ifi.     "  Ik'itiar<iiicB  eur  le  traitement  de  rinveraion  texoelle 
par  la  8Uggeeti<m  hypnotique." 
Spbhl,    Prof.    (HruaaeU).      VoL    xi.    p.    265.      **  ^pilepsie  Jackaonnianne. 

Tzuit«nient  par  la  RUggestion  indirecte.     Gu^riaon." 
STADEUiANN,  Df.     Vul.  xiv.  p.  330.     "  Tiaitement  jwychiqne  d'lm  cafi  de 

folie  d^liraute  (Zw&ngsirresin)." 
TiLLAUX,  Dr.    Vol.  iv.  p.  26.    "  Une  application  cliinirgicale,  a  I'H^tel-Diea, 

de  ranesth&iie  somnatnliulique." 
TucKKTf,   Dr.   C.   Llotd  (London).     Vol.    xv.   p.   80.     "Lee  indicationa  de 

I'hypnotiazne  et  de  la  snggefltion  danti  le  traitement  de  Talcooliame." 
Valkntin,  Dr.     Vol.  xi.  p.  116.     "  Du  trtiiteuienl  dca  ueurabtliuniea  gnrea 

par  la  jisycliotli^rapie." 
Vlavjanos,  Dr.     Vol.  xiii.  p.  296.     "Du  trailement  des  phobiea  en  g^&ftl 
et  de  I'agoniphobie  eu  pHiticuUer." 
VoL  xiii.  p.  361.     '*  Le  trditenient  de  ralcooliame  par  I'hypnotiaine." 
VoL  xiv.  p.  11.     "  A>;oraphoLiL*  trailiie  par  la  suggestion  bypnotiqne.* 
VoL  xiv.  p.  73.      "Tic   convulsif  du  oou  et  de  la  t«te  gn^  par  la 
suggestion  hypnotique." 
VoiBiN,  Dr.  AcoDSTE.     VoL  i.  p.  4.     "  Dc  lliypnotisme  et  de  la  anggaation 
hypnotique    dans     leura    tip]dications    au    traitcment    dea    maisdrWf 
nerveuscs  et  mentales.'' 
Vol.  i.  p.  44.      OherviUionV.     "  Hyst^rie,  folie  hyat^rique.      Hallucina- 
tion-i  de  la  vue  et  de  I'uuie.     Id<.k!S  de  auicide.     H^ianesth6sie  et 
h^mi  -  dyschronmu»p6ie.     Traitcment  ]iar  la  suggestiun  hypnotique. 
Gui^rison." 
Vol.  L  p.  161.     "  J^lorphinomanie  gu^rie  par  suggeetiou  hypnotique.** 
VoL  ii.  p  151.      "  Obeervations  d'onanisnie  gu^ri   par  ta  suggeotioa 

hypnotique.'' 
Vol.  iu  p.  364.    "  Le  traitcment  des  habitudes  vicieuses  par  la  anggestunL** 
VoL  iii.  pp.  48,  65.     "De  la  dip&omauie  et  dea  habitudes  alcooUqucs 

et  de  leur  trait<:nient  par  la  suggeation  hypnotique." 
VoL  iii.  p.  130.     "  Un  cas  de  perTeraite  morale  gu^ri  par  la  auggealaoB 

hypnotique." 
VoL  iii.  p.  353.     "Folie  lyp<''mauLaque  avec  id^es  de  suicide  datant  de 
8   aos.       Ph^noiutfues   chur^'iques   hystcriques.       Quc^haon    par    la 
suggestion  hypnoticjue." 
VoL  ix.  p.  22,     "Attaques  conTuUivea  hystt^ro-^pileptiqnes.     Yertigca 
auivia  de   dclire    et   dliallucinations.      Hypnotisnie  obtenu  par  le 
miroir  rotatif.     Gu(5rison." 
VoL  ix.  p.  245.     "Nicotisme  gu^i  par  suggeation." 


I 


Vol.   X.   p.    27.      "Hy8t(?ro-cntalep9ie,      Difficulty's   de   1ft   suggefition 
hypnolique   tenant    i   Vabsence    de    I'ouie    et   de    la    vue    pendant 
I'hypnoee,     Proct-d^  suivi  de  ituccji&     GuilriBon  dc  la  catalopsie." 
Vol.  X.  p.   341.      "Fulie    lyp^moiuaquc  avec  hallucinations    et   id^ 

de  peratcution,  trait^e  avec  succ^  par  la  snggestion." 
Vol.  I.  p.  360.     **  Un  accouchement  ilana  Tt-tat  dTiypnoliame." 
^  VoisiN,  Dr.  Jules.     Vol.  ii.  p.  242.     "  Gu<5rison  par  la  suggeation  hypaotiqud 
d'idi^es  dijlirantes  et  de  miilancholic  avec  conscience." 
Vol.  XV.  p.  1 B.     *'  Orthopedic  morale  et  hypnotisme." 
[WETtEasTBAXD,  Dr.  Otto  G.  (Stockholm).     Vol.  v.  p.  141.     "Sur  le  traite- 

ment  de  la  morphinonianie  par  la  suggestion  li\-pnotiquc." 
f Wood,  Dr.  Edward.     Vol.  iv.  p.  246.     "Operation  chirurgicale  pratiqu^e 
dane  I'^tat  d'hypnotidme." 


FnsNCB  BooEs  A!a>  Pamphlets. 


I 


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AzAUt   Dr.     "Note  sur    le  sonimeil    nerveux   ou    hypnotiauie."      Archives 
gerufnila  de  M^decxne,  cincjuibnte  K^rie,  vol.  xv.  p.  5.     Parifi,  lfl60. 
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IB^RiLLON,  Dr.  Edgak.     "Hypnotisme  et  suggestion.     Th^orie  et  applica- 
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**  Premier   Congrea    Intematiooal    de    l'bypnoti«me    experimental    et 
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DuPOTET,  M.     "  Jonrnal  du  Magn^ti^me  R^dig^  par  une  SociiJt^  de  Magu^ti-  fl 
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Vol.  iv.  1847,  p.  21)9  ;   vol.  viii.  1849,  p.  66  ;  voL  x.  1801,  pL  510 ; 
vol  xiv.  1855,  p.  400  ;  vol  xix.  1860,  pp.  62,  105. 
DcnANU,    Dr.    (de  Gnw).     "Coura   th^oriijue  et  pratique  de    bnudJame  on 

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EsDKN,  Drs.  A.  W.  van  Kuntehuhkm  et  F.  vak.      **Cliniqae  de  peycho- 
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**  Psycho-thi*rapie.     Conipte  rendu  dus  r^4ultats  obtenus  datu  la  cliniqtM 
de  peycho-tb^raple   suggestive   d'Anisterdom  p«ndnut   la    deuxi^iie 
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VtstAy  Prof.  Chakleb.     "  Sensation  et  mouvement"     Pariii,  1 887.  ■ 

Oaboabd,  Dr.      **  Influence   de   la  suggestion  sur  ccrtaiuR  irouble«  de   la  ^ 
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Jakkt,  PtoI.  Ptebrb.     "Les  actes  incooscientes  dans  le  Bomnombaliinie.' 
Hanu  Phii<isophiq}i^  Mara,  1688. 
■' L'automatismo  psycbologique."     Paris,  1889. 
"Gtat  mentale  des  IiyBt^riquea."     Paris,  ltl94. 
**  Nevru^^es  et  idees  fixes."      Paris,  1898. 
JoiRE,  Dr.     "  De  Teniploi  ile  Tanalg^aie  hypnotique  dans  les  BCOoneheBieBto? 

1898. 
JoNO,  Dr.  A.  DE.     "  Valeur  thtirapeutique  de  la  suggestion  dans  qaelqOM 
psychoses."       GovtpUis   rembu   ttxt  premier    CofUfrh    IrU^matwnal    d* 
I'Hypnotimie  txp^nunUiC  H  Omajmitiqutt  p.  196.     Paria,  1889. 
"  Sur  les  obeessiona.''     Deuxi^mt  Conifri*  InttmatioTuii  de  VHypHetimu 

expMmental  €t  th^rapeutiqtte.     Moscoti,  1897. 
"  La  BuggesUon  hypnotique  dans  le  ti-aitemeiit  de  I'alcooliHDe  et  de  la 
morpbinomanie."     Idem,  Moscou,  1897. 
KBAFTT-EBisa,    Dr.    R.    vu5.      "  Psychopathia    sexualis,    avec   recherches 
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LarOKTAlNS,  Ch.     "  Mt-uioires  d'un  Magnt^tiseor."     Paris,  1860. 
LliBEACLT,    Dr.   A.   A.      "^bauche  dc  psycbologie."      Paria  et  Koacy, 
1873. 
"£tude  snr  le  coomognutisme.''     Paris,  1883. 


uaae. 

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2  G 


<50 


HYPNOTISM 


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QERMA2f. 


From  tbb  ZRirscHRxrr  fVr  HrpsorisMVSy  vol.  i  1892  to  toL  x  1900. 


Backr,  Dr.  C.     VoL  t.   pi  31.     "Aiu  d«r  bypuotischen   Poliklinik   de* 

Herrn  Prof.  Forel  in  Ziirich." 
Berouann,  Dr.      Vol.  it  p.   &0.      "Ein  Fall  von  IJagensaftfluM,  geh«iU 

durcli  hypnotiache  Sug^iion."  ^ 

Brrtsghinuer,  Dr.     Voi  vi.  p.  3fi5.     **£in  Fall  von  Scorbut  und  ein  Fall^ 
von  Anaraie  durch  Hypnottsuiiia  Relicilt." 
Vol  viii.  p.  104.      "Paychieche  ZwauxeKustandc.     (RAum/of  Oermui, 
Frcncb,  and  English  Uieraturu  on  the  HubjecL) 
BoNJOUB,  Dr.     \'o1.  vi.  p.   146.     "Neue  Expchoiente  liber  den  EinfloM 
der  Psyche  auf  den  Kbrper.'*     (Also  in  the  Eenu  de  VHypnatimu^ 
vol.  xii.  p.  79.) 
BRiiOELMANK,  Dr.  WiLHELM.    Vol.  il  p,  84.     "  Psychotherapie  und  Aathma."* 
Vol.  ii  p.  300.     "  Casuiatiachea."     (Asthma.)  h 

VoL  V.  p.  2dG.     "Suggestive  Erfahrunfjen  und  Beobachtungen.*'  ■ 

VoL  X.  p.  13.      "Zur  Lehre  von  perversen  Seioalisraua." 
Brunnbbro,  Dr.  Ttko.     Vol.  i.  p.  434.     "Den  Hypnotiska  aoggcstionen 

och  desa  Anwdndung  vid  Menstruations  Rubbningar." 
Citllehre,  Dr.     VoL  iv.  pi   377.     "  L'inconliuence  d'urine  ei  ton  tmite- 

ment  par  la  suggeation." 
Delbsup,  ProL      VuL  i.   p.   46.      "Einige  peychologiflche  Bctracbtsmg«a 
iiber  deu  Hypnotiamus  gclegentUch  eines  durch  Suggestion  geheilt^n 
Falles  von  Mordmanie." 
DlUDB,   Dr.      VoL    V.   p.    219.      "Erfolge   der  hypnotiacheu    Suggeativ- 
Behandlung  in  der  Praxis.     I." 
Vol.  vii.  p.  36.     "Erfolge  der  hypnotiacheu  Snggeativ-Behandluug  in 
der  ProxiB.     H."  _ 

DbLLKiN,  Dr.     VoL  iv.  p.  06.     "  fieitroge  zur  Phyaiologie  der  Hypnoae."       H 
FoREt^  Prof.  Adqcst.     VoL  ii  p.  fi5.     *'  Die  Heilnng  det  9mhlveratopftui|t  " 
durch  Suggesiiou." 
VoL  iii.  p.  229.     "  Durch  SpiritiamuB  erkraukt  und  durch  Hypnotianiaa 

geheilt" 
Vol.  ill  p^  269.     "  Behandlung  eines  Falles  von  Paranoia  tncipJena  (1)." 


VoL  iil  p.  270.     '*  2  Falle  voq  Enuresis,  1  diiu-na,  1  noctunia." 

Vol.  X.  p.  1.     "  Bemerkungen  £u  der  Behiuidlung  der  Nervenkronlccn 

durch  Arbeit  and  zur  allgemeinen  Psychothcrapie." 
Freud,  Dr.  Sicju.     Vol  i.  p.  102.     "Ein  Fall  toq  hypnotischer  Ueilung 

nebst  Beiaerkungen  iiber   die  Entstehuag  hysteriacher  Symptome 

durch  den  Geyenwillen.'' 
FRntDLAKDER,    Dr.     Vol.   X.    p.    17.      "Zur   kritiflchcn    StoUung   der   §o- 

genanuten  Erytliropliobie  and  ilirer  Behandluug  durch  HypnoM." 
FccHS,  Dr.     Vol.  viii.  p.  373.     "Therapie  der  anomalen  Viu  aeiualia  bei 

Manneru  mit  Beriicksichtigung  der  Suggest! v-Beliaudlung." 
FcLDA,  Dr.     Vol.  ii.  p.  404.     "  Uorphiniamus  gelieilt  durch  Hypncue." 
Gehstbr,  Dr.  Karl.     Vol.  i.   p.  319.     "  Beitrage  zur  suggeatiTcn  Psycho- 

therapie." 
VoL  iii.  p.  206.     *'  Ein  Fall  von  hysterischer  Kontraktur." 
Qraeter,    Dr.     Vol.   viit  p.    129.     "  Ein  Fall  von  epileptiachcr  Amnesie 

durch  hypnoti«che  Hypermne«ie  htseitigt" 
QrossuanN}  Dr.     Vol.  i.  p.  71.     ".Suggwtion  und  Milcheecretiou,  vorUufige 

Mittheilung." 
Vol.    i.    pp.    356,   398.      "Die   Suggestion,   8]ieciell   die   hypnotische 

Suggesliou,  ihr  Weaeu  und  ihr  Heilwerth." 
VoL  ii.  p.  198.     "Die  hyimotiBche  Suggestion  bei  der  Kepoeition  und 

Nocbbebaudlung  von  Kuochonbruchen  und  Verrenkungen." 
VoL  iii.  p.  76.     "  Die  Erfolge  der  Suggefltioustherupie  (tiypnose)  bei 

organiechen  Lalimungen  und  Paralysen." 
VoL  iil  p.  240.     '*Zur  fiu^^^gestiven  Bebandlung  der  Qelenkkrankheiten 

milbesomlerer  Behkksichtiguag  des  chront«chen  OelenkrheumatiimuB 

and  der  GichU" 
HassiMSTEXH,  Dr.  W,     VoL  ii.  p.   116.     "Die  Hypnose  im   Dienste  der 

Sa  ugli  ngeemahrung/' 
Hkrzuero,  Dr.     VoL  ii.  p.  297.     "Snggestionftherapie  in  der  Oyniikologic." 
HiLOER,  Dr.     Vol  viii.  p.  1 7.     "Zur  K&suistik  der  hypnotischen  Behondlung 

der  Epilepeic." 
Vol.  X-  p.  190.     "  Beiln^;  Eur  Fruge  der  Uypnotisirbarkeit." 
HiLUBR  und  Sanqer,  Drs.     Vol  x.  p.  223.     "Ein  Full  von  Aphonie  iiach 

l^rj^igofis^ur    guhcilt    duich    syateniatische   Spracbiibuiigen    unter 

Anwendun^  ^^^  Hypnotb" 
HiRT,  Dr.     Vol  ii.  p.  2S7.     "Ueber  die  Bcdcutuog  der  VerbalauggeHtion 

fiir  die  Neurotherapie." 
ISHELDER,  Dr.  Waj-tkr.      VoL    vil  p.  201.     **  Ueber  die  Bedeutung  der 

Ilypnoae  fiir  die  Nachtwochen  dea  Wartpereonfll<i" 
Joso,  Dr.  DE.      Vol  i.  p.  178.     "Die  Suggestibilitat  bei  Melancholic." 
Krafft-Ebikg,  Dr.  R.  von.     Vol  iv.  p.  27.     "Zur  Si^geativbehandlung 

der  Hysteria,  grayis." 
Vol  ix.  p.  249.     "Ueber  Ecmneaie." 
Lani>orek,    Dr.  S.      Vol  ii.  p.  23.      "Offener  Brief  an  Herm  Dr.  med, 

Bingawanger    in    Krcuzlingen  -  KoustAnz   von    Dr.    S.     Landgren, 

Proviiuialarxt  in  Leksand,  Dalelcarlien,  Schweden." 
Marcixowski,  Dr.     Vol.  ii.  p.  5.     " Selbfitbeobachtung  in  der  Hypnoee." 
Moll,  Dr.  Albert.     Vol  i.  p.  107.     "  Literaturbericht" 
MuRALT,  Dr.     VoL  x.  pi  75.     "  Zur  Fmge  der  epileptiachen  Amnoaie." 


4Sa 


HYPNOTISM 


Kakf,  Dr.     Vol.  vl  p.  321.     **£in  Fall  von  tezuporiiner,  totaler,  theiliraM 

reUograd«r  Amnesic  (durch  Sii].'geiitiou  guheiltV 
Bajtschen'Dcrg^  Dr.     Vol.  iv.  p.  269.     *'  Beitnige  zur  Frage  der  hypnotiscfa- 

TOggestiven  Therapie." 
Renterorkm^  Dr.  yak.     Vol  ir.  p.  333.     "Li^Uault  et  aon  ^oole."     (Con- 
tinued, vols,  v.,  ri.,  and  vii.) 
Vol.  vL  p.  259.     "Ein  Fall  von  Muakelkranipf  (Tic  rotatoire)." 
Vol.  vii.  p.  389.     **£ia  inUt'c.-«sauter  Fall   von  spontanem  SomDua- 

buliamua." 
Vol.  \-tii.  p.  1.     "  Dritter  Bericht  uber  die  in  der  pftycho-tlierapeutieclie& 
CUiiik    in    Amfiterdatn    erhaltenen   Heitultate  wiihnind   den  Jahrui 
1893-1897." 

RiNOlBR,    Dr.    (jeqrg.      Vul.   ii.    p.    143.      "Ein    Fall    Ton   hysterisclien 
Mutisiuuti." 
Vol  ii.  p.  317.     "Zur  Behandlung  der  Bleichsucht." 
Vol.  vi.  p.  IQO.     "  Zur  Kudactioa  der  Suggmtiou  Iwi  Enuresia  uoctumi.'' 
Sanger  und  Uiloer.     Hm  Uilger. 

Schmidt,  Dr.  Ccrt.     Vol.  ii.  p.  285.     "Suggestion  nod  MA}*enerkrankungCD." 
SCHOLZ,   Dr.     Vol  i.   pp.    172,   187.      " Coauistische    Mittfaeilungen   uber 

S  uggestion  »-T  h  e  rapic." 
SCHREXCE-NoTZi.v<},  Dr.  VON.    VoL  i.  p.  49.     "  Eine  Geburt  in  der  Uypnow." 
Vol  i.  p.  351.     "  Ceber  Suggestion  und  suggestive  Zustande." 
Vol.  ii.  p.  I.     *'Ein  Beitrag  zur  psychischen  nnd  suggostivcn  Behand- 
lung der  Neurasthenic.'' 
VoL  ii  p.  30.     *'  Die  Suggestions  there  pie  bei  krankliaften  Erschcinungco 

dea  GcHchlechtAsi lines." 
Vol.   ii.    p|x    S.'iG,    39B.      <*  Suggestion,    Suggestivthcrapie,   paychische 

Behandlung.     Ein  kritischcr  Ruckblick  auf  die  neuere  Literatur." 
Vol.  iv.   p.  209.     *'  Ein  experimenteller  und   kritischer    Beitrag  <ur 
Frage  des  suggestiven  Hervorrufung  clrcumacripter  ▼asomotorischer 
Veranderungen  auf  der  iiusaeren  HauL" 
ScHDpp,  Fale.     VoL  iii.  p.  46.     *'  Hypnose  und  hypnotiaehe  Suggestion  in 

dor  Zahnheilkunde." 
SsiFt  Dr.    Vol  ix.  pp  275,  371.     *'  Casuistische  Beithige  zur  Piychotherapie." 
SjdaTRijM,    Dr.    Axel.      Vol    vii.    p.    263.       '*  Ein   Fall    von   spontanem 
Somimnibuliemuii  auf  liystenscher  Qrundlage  luit  scbnellater  Heilung 
durch  hjpuotiscbe  Suggestion.'' 
Stacbuiann,  Dr.     Vol  lit  p.  19.     **  Zwei  Falle  von  Muskelziickiingen  be! 
Aniimuchen  geheilt  durcb  Suggestion  nacfa  einmabger  Behaudlong.'' 
Steubo,  Dr.     Vol  ii.  p  302.     *'  Ciisuistischea." 
Tatzei*,  Dr.     Vol  i.  p.  245.     "Eine  Qeburt  in  der  Hypnoee." 

Vol  ii,  p.   19.     "Drei  Falle  von  nichthysteriachen  Liihroongen  und 

deren  Heilung  mittelst  Suggestion." 
Vol  iii.  pp.  260-268.  *'  Fall  von  hysterisclien  Anrallen."  "  Hysteriache 
Krampfe."  "  Cloniscber  Kranipf  der  rechten  ArmniuskulaCttr." 
"Clonischer  Krampf  der  Accessoriusmustulatur."  "  Traumatischt; 
Keuroee."  "  DiiKtomanie."  "  Rh^amatismus."  '*  Symptumatidcb« 
Behaudlung  bei  einern  Niereucarcinom." 
Vol  vii  p.  249.  *'Die  suggestive  Behandlung  einzelner  Formca  d 
Parasthesie  der  Qeschlechtsempfiudung." 


»Vol.  vii.  p,  257.     "  Hy&tcrie  iind  Suggestion/' 
VoL  ix.  p.  231.     "Eine  hypaolieche  Entfetlungskur." 


» 


TcuscHBR,   Dr.      Vol.  lit  jx.   3S1.     "U«ber  luggestiveti   Beh&ndlung  der 

Kimier." 
VooT,  Dr.  OsKAR.      Vol.  vii.  p.   286.      "  Spontone  Somnarabulie  in  der 

Hypnose." 
Vol  viii.  p.  65.     "Zar  Aletliodik  der  ntiologiftcben  Erforschuog  der 

Hysteric" 
Wettebstrast),    Dr.    Otto   G.      Vol.    i.   p.    17.      "Ueber   den    kimstlich 

Lverliingorten  Schlaf,  besonders  bei   der  B«handlung  der   HjRterie, 
Epilepeie  »nd  Hystero-Epilepaie." 
Vol.  ii.  pp.  306-312.     "CanuiHischea." 
Vol.  iv.  p.  8.     "  Die  Heilun;;  des  chroniachen  Morphinismus,  Opium- 
genusscfl,  Cucainismus  und  C'hloralismus  mit  Snggcntion  iind  Hypnou 
(1888-1896)." 
Books  and  Vamvbl«k. 

Baibelacreh,  Dr.  Edcard.     "  Die  Saggestionstberapie  und  ihre  Tecbnik." 

Stuttgart,  1889. 
BEirxDiKT,  Dr.  Moriz.    "  Hypnotiuniu  und  Suggestion."    Leipzig  and  Vienna, 

1894. 
BiaasTAKOER,  Dr.  Orra     "  Die  Patbologie  und  Tberapie  der  Neura»tbenie." 

Jena,  1896. 
BrCueuia>*N',  Dr.  W.     "Ueber  den  Hypnotismu^  und  nine  Verwertbung  in 

dyr  Praxis."     Berlin,  1889. 
DE880IR,  Dr.  Max.  "  Bibliograpbie  dee  Mttlernen  Hypnotismue."  Berlin,  1868. 
"Das  Doppel-Icb."     Berlin,  1889. 

•         '*  Erster    Nachtrag    zur    Bibliograpbie   dea   modemen    UypnotiBmaa." 
Berlin.  1890. 
DcBOls,  Dr.     "  Correspundenz-Blatt  fur  Scbweizer  Aerzte."     Noe.  1 0  and  1 1, 

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E. 


3. 


4. 


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"Resolute  Credulity."     Ihid.  voL  xl  p.  213. 
"The  Subliminal  Self."     find.  vol.  xi.  p.  334. 

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Nervous  Derangements  by  Suggestion."     Boston,  1895. 
Pall  Mall  Gaxettk,  April  4lh,  1895.     "To inculcate  contempt  of  others." 
Pekcika,  Jonathan,  M.D.,  F.R.S.     "Tho  Elements  of  Materia  Medica  and 

Thcrapeuticfl."  Second  edition.  Vol.  ii.  p.  1097.  London,  1842. 
PrrERSON,  Frederick,  M.D.,  and  Kenellv,  A.  E.,  Chief  Electrician,  Edison 
Laboratory,  Vice-Pre»ident,  Aiuert<:an  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 
"Some  Physiological  Experiments  with  Afogneti  at  the  Edison 
Laboratory."  Read  before  the  Section  in  Neurology  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Medicine,  October  14lfa,  1692. 
PanrcE,  Morton,  M.D.      "An  ExperiroenUil   Study  of  Viaions."      Brain, 

1898,  p.  528. 
PBOCEEDiKoa  OF  THK  SocicTT  TOH  PbYCBicAL  RESEARCH.     "Report  of  the 

Hypnotic  Committee  for  1894-95."     Vol.  xi.  p.  594. 
RiBOT,  Prof.  Th.     "The  Psychology  of  AttentioiL"     Loudon,  1890. 
Robertson,  Dr.  GEonaE  M.     "  Hyimotism  at  P&ris  and  Nancy :  Nutea  of 
a  Visit."     Journal  of  Mental  Science,  1892. 
'*The  Use  of  Hypnotism  among  the  Insane."     Ihid.  1693. 
R0MANR8,   G.  J.      "  Hvpnotisni,"      NinrUenth  Century^   September,    1980, 

p.  474. 
Smttb,  Dr.  R.  Pehcv,  and  MvEBa,  Dr.  A.  T.     See  Myem,  Dr.  A.  T. 
SiDia,    BoEis,    M-A.,    Ph.D.      "The    PBychology    of    Suggestion,"      New 

York,  1898. 

Stubois,  Russell,  M.D.     "  The  Use  of  Sugijestion  of  the  First  Degree  as  a 

Means  of  modifying  or  of  completely  eliminating  a   Fixed  Idea." 

Medictil  Record,  New  York,  February  17th,  1894. 

Sdlly,  Prof.  James.     "Illusions:  A  Psychological  Study."     London,  1887. 

SCTTON,  C.  W.     "James  Braid,"     Dictionary  0/  National  Biography,  vol.  vi. 

p.  198.     London,  IShC. 
TocKKY,  Dr.  C.  Llotd.     "  Psycho-Therapeulica ;  or  Treatment  by  Hypno- 
tism."    London,  1691. 
"The  Value  of  Hypnotism  in  Chronic  Alcoholism.**     London,  1892. 
"The  Use  of  Hypnotism  in  Chronic  Alcoholism."     London.  1696. 


"Case    of    Miscliit-'Vrtus    Slorbid     IinpulM    in    a    Child    treated    by 

Hypnotism."     Edinhxtrtjh  Medicul  .lonrmil^  June,  1897. 
TtJEB,    D.    Hack,     M.D^     lLd.       "Sleep  -  w-alkiag    and    Uypnotatnu" 

London,  1884. 
"Imperative  Ideas."     Braiu,  jiarl.  ii.,  1894,  p.  179. 
"  A  Dictiunary  of  Psycliologiail  ^^ledicine."     Edited  by.     Loudon,  189S. 
TORNBR,  W.  Arthur,  L.D.S.Kso.    '*  Kxtroctionii  under  Hypnotiun."    Journal 

of  tJu  BrituJi  Denial  A m>ci4iiion^  March  IBlh,  1890. 
Vincent,  Ralph  Habry.     "The  Elements  of  Hypnotism."     London,  1897. 
Wallkr,    Augustds    D.,    M.D.,    F.R^      "  An    Introduction    to    Human 

Physinlogy."      London,  1893. 
WiLKS,   Sir  Samcki.,   M.D.,   F.RJS.      "Stray  Thonghta  on  Some  Medical 

Subjecta."      The  lAincfi^  November  24th,  1894,  pi  1197. 
WiixiAUftON,   Wai.iAii    Cbawford,   LL.D.,    F.R.S.      "  Reminiicencea  of  a 

Vorkdhirc  NalnraliBt."      Iximlon,  1896. 
Woods,  John  F.,  M.D.     "The  Treatment  by  Suggeatton  with  or  without 

Hypnosie."     Journal  vf  Mental  Scimce^  April,  1897. 


I 


Second  aewiou,  London, 
Thirteen 


Jtiifrnaticnal  Cofujreu  of  ExperimetUal  P«ifthcicgy. 

189S. 
**  7%<  ZoiM.     A  Journal  of  Cerebral  PhyBiulogy  and  Mesmerism." 

volumes  published  from  1844  to  1866. 


JAMES  BRAID. 

The  following  are  all  the  books  and  articles  hy  BhaiD  I  have  been 
to  trace : — 

1.  "  Satanic  Agency  and  !tf esmerism  reviewed,  in  a  letter  to  the  Rer. 

H.  M'Xeile,  M.A.,  in    Reply  to  a  Sermon  preached   by  him^ 

(1842,  l2mo). 
S.  "  Neurypnology,  or  the  Rationale  uf  Xervoue  Slee]i,  considered  in 

Relation  to  Animal  Magnetism,  illustrate'l  by  numerotu  coeea  of  ^ 

Rucceaafiil  applir^tion  in  the  Relief  and  Care  of  Diaeoae"  (1843,J 

12mo,  p.  381;. 

3.  '*The  Power  of  the  Mind  over  the  Body:  an  Exft^rimenlal  InquixT'l 
into  the  Nature  and  Cause  of  the  Ph^-'nomeoa  attributed  by  Baroa] 
Keiclicnbach  and  otliers  to  a  *  New  luipondemble'  "  (IB46). 

4.  " Observalioiis  nn  Trance  or  Human  Hybernation"  (I8fiO). 

5.  "  Electro  •  Bioloj^ical  Phenrimeno,  considered  physiologically  and 
psychologically,"  fr'jm  the  Aloitthly  Journnl  of  Medical  SdmM  for 
June,  1851,  with  Appendix. 

6.  "  Mtigic,  Witchcraft,  AniniaL  Magnetism,  Hypnotiani  and  Elcotro- 
Biology:  being  n  Digest  of  tlie  latest  Views  of  the  Author  on 
these  Subjticl«."  Third  edition,  greatly  enlarged,  embracing 
observationii  on  J.  C  Colquhoun's  HiMtmf  of  Mxtfpvetitm  (1652).  \ 

7.  "Hypnotic  Thcrapeuttca,  illuetntted  by  CoAea,  with  an  Appendix  oftj 
Table-turning  and  Spirit-rapping. '     Reprinted  from  the  Mo 
Journal  of  Medical  Scuiue  for  July,  1803. 


8.  "The  Physiolo}^  of  Faacioatiou  aiid  tlie  Critica  criticised"  (180S). 
The  second  part  is  a  reply  to  the  attacks  made  in  The  Zoitt. 

9.  "  Ob»arvationa  on  the  Nature  and  Treatment  of  Certain  Forma  of 

Taralysis  (1855). 

Articlei  in  the  Medical  Tima : — 

10.  "  Aiiimal  Ma^ietisiii  "     Vol.  v.  1841-4S,  p.  283. 

11.  "Animal  Magnetism."     VoL  v.  p.  308. 

12.  '*Keuru-Hypuotiam."     Vol.  vi.  1842,  p.  230. 

13.  "  Pbreno-Mesmerism."     Vol.  ix.  1843-44,  p.  74. 

14.  "Mr.  Braid  on  Menmerism."     Vol.  ii.  p.  203. 

15.  "  Observalions  an  some  Mesmeric  I'benomena."     Vol.  ix.  p.  225. 

16.  "Observations  on  Mesmeric  and  Uypnotic  Phenomena."  Vol.  x. 
1844,  pp.  31  and  47. 

IT.  "Cases  of  Nalunil  Somnambulism  and  Catalepsy,  treated  by 
Hypnotism  :  witli  Remarks  on  the  Phenomena  presented  during 
Spontaneous  Somnambulism,  as  well  as  that  produced  by  various 
Artificial  Ptocessea."     VoL  xi.  1844-45,  pp.  77,  95,  and  134. 

18.  "  ExpLTimuntid  Inquiry  whether  Hypnotic  and  Mesmeric  Mani- 
festations can  be  adduced  in  Proof  of  Phrenology."    Vol.  xi.  p.  181. 

1 9.  "  Magic,  Mesmerism,  Hypnotism,  etc.,  historically  and  physiologically 
couaidered."     Vol.  xi.  pp.  201,  224,  270,  296,  389,  and  439. 

20.  "Case  of  Natural  Somnambulism,  etc."  Vol.  xii.  1846,  p.  117 
(article  giving  further  history  of  case  already  reported). 

21.  "The  Fakirs  of  India."     Vol.  xii.  1846,  p.  437. 

22.  "Dr.  Elliotaon  and  Mr.  Braid."  VoL  xiii.  1845^6,  pp.  99, 120, 
and  141. 

S3.  "On  the  Power  of  the  Mind  over  the  Body:  an  Experimental 
Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  C^use  of  the  Phenomena  attri- 
buted by  Baron  Reichenlmch  and  others  to  a  'New  Imponder- 
able.'"    VoL  xiv.  1846,  pp.  214,  253,  and  273. 

24.  "  Facts  and  Obsenations  as  to  the  Relative  Value  of  Mesmeric  and 

Hypnotic  Coma  and  Ethereal  Narcotii^ia,  for  the  Mitigation  or 
entire  Prevention  of  Pain  during  Surgical  Operations."  Vol.  xv. 
1846-47,  p.  381  ;  continued,  voL  xvi.  1847.  p.  10. 

25.  "Observations  on   the  Use  of  Ether  for  prevtnting  Pain  during 

Surgical  0[>eration8,  and  the  Moral  Abuse  it  is  capable  of  being 
converted  to."     Vol.  xvi.  p.  ISO. 

26.  "Mr.  Braid  and  Dr.  EUiuUwn."     Vol.  xviL  1847-48,  p.  106. 

27.  "  Mr.  Braid  and  Mr.  Wakley."     VoL  xvii.  p.  163. 

S8.  "  Observations  on  Trance  or  Human  Hybernation."  VoL  xxi  1850, 
pp.  351,  401,  and  41G. 

In  774S  Lancet : — 

29.  "Queries  respecting  the  alleged  Voluntary  Trance  of  Fakirs  in 

India."     Vol.  a  1845,  p.  325. 

In  the  Monthly  Journal  of  Medical  Sriencf  : — 

30.  "Hypnotic  Tlierapeutics,  illustrated  by  Cases."    VoL  ^-iii.  Third 

Series,  1853,  p.  14. 


I 


In  the  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Svrffital  Journal: — 

31.  "TUe  Power  of  the  Min<J  over  the  Body:  an  ExpeniuenlAl  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  aDtl  Cause  of  the  Phenotueua  attributed  by 
BaroQ  Reicheiilmch  am!  others  lo  a  '  New  Imponderable.' " 
Vul.  Ixvi.  1846,  p.  286. 
33.  **  Fucta  and  Ob^r\'ation5  rm  to  the  Relative  Value  of  Me»inBric  and 
Hypnotic  Coma,  and  Ethereal  Narcotism,  for  the  Mitigation  or 
cnUre  Prevention  of  Pain  durinj;  Surgical  Opcrationa."  Vol.  livii 
1847,  p.  586. 

33.  "  On  the  Use  and  Abuse  of  Anivathetic  Agents,  and  th«  best  Modca 
of  rousing  Patients  who  have  been  too  intensely  affected  b/ 
them."     Vol  Ux.  1848,  p.  486. 

34.  "On  the  Distinctive  Condiiioua  of  Natural  and  Nen'ous  Sleeps" 
Manchester,  December  17tli,  1845.  A  manuscript  6nt  puhliahed 
in  a  German  translation  in  Preyer'a  book,  Iter  HifpnotismuM^  1890. 

35.  Manch<*teT  Times,  September  1st,  1842.  Account  of  com  of  total 
deafness  successfully  treated  by  hypnotism. 

3G.  '*  Abstract  Report  of  a  Course  of  Six  Lectures  on  the  Physiology  of 
the  Nervous  System — with  particular  reference  to  the  States  of 
Sleep,  Somnambulism  (natural  and  induced),  and  other  conditions 
allied  to  these — delivered  at  the  Royal  Manchester  Institution, 
in  March  and  April,  1853,  by  William  R  Carpenter."  Manch«tUr 
Eiitmiiur  and  TimM  of  April  30th,  1853.     By  Jamea  Braid. 

37.  "On  Table-moving:  a  Letter  to  the  Editor  of  the  MancKaUr 
Examiner  and  Titmi."  This  letter  appeared  on  June  S2nd,  1853, 
and  was  afterwards  published  as  a  pamphlet 

38.  A  Manuscript  on  Uypnolism  by  James  Braid.  January,  1860. 
Translated  into  French  by  Dr.  JuleA  Bimtui  tm  an  appendix  to 
Neuryptwlogic,  and  into  Oernian  by  Preyer  in  IHe  Entdeekitng 
da  Ifypnotitmvs. 

39.  "Talipes."      The  Lanut,  vol.  i,  1841-42,  p  202. 

40.  "  Entire  Absence  uf  Vagina,  with  Rudimentary  State  of  Utenia,  and 
Remarkable    DiBplac-ement  of  Rudimentary  Ovaries  and  their 
Appendages,  iu  a  niorrieti  female,  74  years  of  age."     Monthly       , 
Journal  of  MetUcfd  Sei^Hee,   vol.  \vL   (Third  SeHea,  voL  Til.)  ^ 
1853,  p.  230.  m 

•41.  "Observatlotis  on  Talipes,  Slrabiiimus,  Stammering,  and  Spinal 
Contortion,  and  the  best  Methods  of  removing  them.*'  Edinburgh 
Medical  and  Surgical  Joumn/,  vol  Ivi.  1641,  pi  338. 

In  the  London  Mrdical  Gazette,  New  Series : — 

42.  "Lateral  Curvature  of  the  Spine — Strabisniuf.*'     VoL  i.  1640-41, 

p.  44.'). 

43.  "Stammering."     Vol.  i.  p.  440. 

44.  "Cure  of  Summering."     Vol.  ii.  1840-41,  p.  116. 
46.  "On  the  Operation  of  Talipes."     VoL  il  p.  186. 

46.  "  Case  of  Congenital  Talipea  varus  of  a  Foot  with  Ten  Toes."     With 

illustration.      1648. 

47.  "Arsenic  as  a  Remedy  for  the  Bite  of  the  Tsetse,  etCL"     BritisK 

Medical  Journal^  &Iarch  13th,  1858. 


48.  The  Manchester  anfl  Salfont  Sanitary  Afs^ociatioii.  A  letter  (on 
the  ineaiu  of  iinjiruviug  the  air  uf  Muiichi-stt^r  and  upon  the 
connection  between  cholera  and  eewen)  of  November  Ifitfa,  1863} 
in  tlie  Examina-  and  Tima. 

49.  The  Manchester  Oeolo<^ical  and  Natural  History  Socielitis.  A 
controversial  letter  in  the  MaftdutUr  Couritr  of  Novenibei  26th} 
1859. 

The  following  are  the  principal  refensnces  to  Braid's  work   that  I  have 
been  able  to  trace  : — 

In  the  Medical  Times  .— 

1.  "The    New    Tlieory  of  Animal    Magnetiem."     Vol.    v.    1841-42, 

p.  175.  Editorial  account  of  a  lecture  ipven  hy  Mr.  Duncan  un 
Animal  Magnetism,  at  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms,  on  December 
3l8t,  1841.  The  lecturer,  who  had  adopted  Braid's  Tiew«,  ex- 
plained them. 

2.  "Animal    Magnetism."      Vol.    v.     1841-42,    \k    283.       Editorial 

account  of  two  lectures  by  Braid,  one  on  March  1st,  1842,  at 
Hanover  Square,  and  the  other  next  day  at  the  London  Tavern. 

3.  "On  Mr.  Braid's  Experiments."     By  Dr.  Herbert  Mayo.     Vol  vi. 

1842,  p.  n. 

4.  "MeameriBm,"     Vol.  vi.   1842,  p.   47.     Editorial    account    of   two 

lectures  delivered  by  Brsud. 

5.  "Hypnotism,  or  Mr.   Braid's  Mearaerism."      Vol  x.  1844,  p.  98. 

Letter  to  KdiLur  from  "S."  in  praise  of  Braid's  researclies  and  of 
the  open-niindedness  of  the  Medical  Time*, 

6.  "Conversazione  on  Hypnoliaro."     Vol.  x.  1844,  \k  137.     Editorial 

account  of  the  Convei-sazione  held  by  James  Braid,  at  the  Royal 
Manchester  Institution,  on  April  22nd,  1844,  by  invitation  of 
the  Committee. 

7.  "Jenny    Lind   and    Hypnotism."       Vol   xvi.   1847,    p.  602.     An 

interesting  account  of  Braid's  oxperimenta  to  show  the  power  of 
aomnambulista  in  imitating  langtiages  and  song. 

8.  "Operations  under  Hypnotism  in   Paris."     Vol.  xix.  1859,  p.  046. 

Account  of  Azam,  with  reference  to  Braid. 

9.  ''Mr.  Braid   of   Manchester."       Vol.  i.   1860    (new  series),  p.   35fi. 

Obituary  notice. 

10.  "The  Late"  .Mr.  Braid."     Vol.  1.  1860  (new  series),  p.  396.     Letter 

to  Editor  from  A.  W.  Close,  F.R.C.S.,  exposing  the  absui'dity  of 
certain  statements  in  the  above  account  of  Mr.  Braid's  death, 
lu  Th<  L<inc4it : — 

11.  "Mr.  Bnud's  new  Operation   for  Club    Foot."     Vol.  i.   1841-42, 

p.  336. 

12.  "Hypnotism  in   Paris."     Vol.  ii.   1809,  p^   650.     Article  referring 

to  Azam,  Vclpeau,  Broca,  etc.,  and  stating  that  they  ha<l  copied 
the  methods  of  Bmid  and  Esdailc. 

13.  "Sudden    Death    of  Mr.   James    Braid,   Surgeon,   of   Manchester." 

Vol  I  I860,  p.  335. 


464 


HYPNOTISM 


% 


In  the  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Sitrgicat  Journal : — 

14.  Criticiil   article   on  Braid's  "  ObeervatioDs  on  Trance  or  Hnmui 

Hybernatioa"     Vol.  lixiv.  1860,  p.  421.  M 

lb.  ''Abstract  of  a    Lecture  on    Electro •  Biolog^v,"    delivered   At   tlieV 
Royal  Institutiuu,  Maitchrater,  on  March  26tb,  1691,  hy  James 
Braid.     Vol.  lixvL  1861,  p.  239.  _ 

16.  "Death  of  Mr.  James  Braid,  Sui^con,  of  Matt  cheater."     Vol  ▼•jfl 
1859-60,  p.  10G8.  ■ 

17-  **Caae  of  Contracted  Foot  witli  Severe  Puin,  cured  by  KU'imerism." 
The  Zoiet,  TuL  ui.  184&-4tl,  p.  330.  Article  by  EUiotaon, 
referring  to  Braid. 

18.  "Researcbea  in  Magnetism,  Electricity,  Heat,  Lights  CryAtiilliiiation, 
and  Chemical  Attraction  in  their  Belatioiu  to  Vital  Force." 
By  Karl,  Biiron  von  Reichenbach,  Ph.D.  TranftlAted  by 
William  Gregory,  JL.U.     London,  1850. 

19.  Article  V.  The  British  ami  Foreiipi  Medico  -  Ckirurywtl  Revinc, 
vol.  viii.,  July  to  October,  1851,  p.  378.  An  article  ou 
Meameriam,  Magnetitim,  and  Hypnotiam,  with  faTourable 
reference  to  Braid  and  his  views. 

50.  "Death  of  Mr.  Brnid,  Surgeon."  The  Manchetttr  Courier,  SatunlKy 
March  31st,  18C0.  This  article  gives  an  account  of  Braid's  life 
and  writings. 

51.  "  ObeervaLiona  on  Animal  Magnetism."     By  M.  Andral.     London  ^ 
Medical  Gtte«tU,  vol  i.  1832-33,  p.  792.  ■ 

£2.  "  Electrical  Psychology  ;    or  the  Electrical  Philosophy  of  Mental  " 
Impressions,  including  a  Kew  Philosophy  uf  Sleep  and  of  Con- 
aciouHnefw."     From  the  works  uf  the  Kev.  John  Boree  Dods  and 
Prof.  J.  S.  Grimes.     Revised  and  edited  by  H.  O.  Darling,  etc, 
London,  Gla8j,'0w.      Printt?d  1851. 

53.  "Spirit  Manifestaliunts  exiunini'd  and  explained:  Judge  Edwarda 
refuteil  ;  or  an  Exposition  of  the  Involuntary  Powers  and  In- 
stincts of  tliB  Human  Mind."    By  J.  B.  Dtjda.    New  York,  1854. 

54.  "The  Philosophy  of  Mesmerism  and  Electrical  P^chology  .  .  . 
compri»ed  in  two  Courses  uf  Lectures,  by  J.  B.  Dodi."  Edited 
by  J.  Bum*.     Ixmdon,  1876. 

25.  "  Myst^res  des  sciences  occultes."  l^r  un  Initio.  Paris  (no  date). 
A  short  account  of  Braid  is  given,  pp.  296-300,  and  at  p.  280 
is  to  be  found  a  portrait  of  Braid.  (Facsimile  d'une  lithognphie 
d'apr^s  nature,  impriniee  a  Liverpof^l,  en  1854.) 

26.  "  Ephom<^ridc3  dc  rhypnotisme."  This  contains  an  account  of 
Braid,  without  reference  to  his  later  work*.  Revut  de  VHyy- 
TM)(wm«,  vol.  iL  1888,  p.  276. 

27.  "  Neurypnology,  or  Tlie  Rationale  of  Nervous  Sleep,"  By  Jajcn 
Braid,  MJl.CS.,  etc.  A  New  Edition,  edited,  with  an  Intro- 
duction, Biographical  and  Bibliographical,  embodying  th« 
Author's  Views,  and  further  Evidence  on  the  Subject,  br 
ARTncR  Edward  Waits.     London,  1899. 

AVc — Numerous  other  works  and  articles  containing  accounts  of  Bndd  are 
included  in  the  general  references 


APPENDIX. 


(A)  JAMES  BRAID. 

SiNCK  \rriting  the  historical  chapter  oF  thia  book,  my  attention  has 
been  drawn  to  the  following  independent  account  of  the  origin  of 
Braid's  researches,  from  the  pen  of  the  hito  I>r.  Williamson,  formerly 
Professor  of  Natural  History  at  Owens  CoUoge,  Manchester.  Tiiis  I 
think  of  sufficient  interest  to  quote  in  detail : — 

"  During  the  fourth  decade  of  this  century  the  subject  of  clairvoy- 
ance had  been  much  discussed  in  social  circles,  and  in  the  early  days 
of  my  professional  life  two  men  who  lectured  on  the  subject  visited 
Manchester.  Tlie  first  of  these  was  a  Frenchman,  who  illustrated  his 
lecture  by  experiments  on  a  young  woman.  At  one  of  his  lectures  the 
girl  was  declared  to  he  in  a  slate  of  sound  sleep.  A  considerable  number 
of  medical  men  were  present,  including  our  leading  ophthalmist,  Mr. 
Wilson,  and  one  Mr.  Braid.  The  latter  gentletnaii  was  loud  in  his 
denimciation  of  the  whole  affair.  The  audience  then  called  upon  Mr. 
Wilson  for  bis  opinion  of  the  exhibition.  Of  course  the  question  was, 
*  la  this  exhibition  an  honest  one  or  is  it  a  sham  t '  'Is  the  girl  rcftUy 
Mleop,  or  is  she  only  pretending  to  be  so  1 '  In  reply  to  the  call  of 
the  audience,  Mr.  Wilson  stood  up  and  said :  '  The  whole  afi'air  is  as 
complete  a  piece  of  humbug  as  I  ever  witnessed.'  The  indignant 
lecturer,  not  familiar  with  English  slang  phrases,  excitedly  replied : 
*Tho  gentleman  says  it  is  all  Bog;  I  say  it  is  not  Bfjg ;  there  is  no 
Bog  in  it  at  all.'  By  this  time  several  of  us,  including  Mr.  Wilson,  had 
gone  upon  the  platform  to  examine  the  girl  I  at  once  raised  her 
eyelids,  and  found  the  pupils  contracted  to  two  small  points.  I  called 
Wilson's  attention  to  this  e^adenco  of  sound  sleep,  and  he  at  once  gave 
me  a  look  and  a  low  whistle,  conscious  that  he  was  in  a  mess.  Braid 
then  tested  the  girl  by  forcing  a  pin  between  one  of  her  nails  and  the 
end  of  her  finger.  She  did  not  exhibit  the  slightest  indication  of 
feeling  pain,  and  Braid  soon  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  it  was  not 
all  *Bog.' 

"  lie  subsequently  commenced  a  long  series  of  elaborate  experi- 
ments, which  ended  in  his  placing  the  subject  on  a  more  philosophical 
basts  than  had  been  done  by  any  of  his  predecessors.      For  the  term 

2  H 


'  Animal  Magnetism '   and   other  popular  pbrastis,   Braid  substitat 
'Hypnotism'  and  ' Monoideism.' 

"The  hypothesis  which  he  adopted  was  that  the  subjects  of  the 
experiments  required  to  have  their  mental  faculties  concentrated  upor 
one  idea;  this  accomplished,  two  effects  will  lie  produced  in  a  few 
moments.  The  first  is  a  state  of  sound  sleep,  which  he  succeeded  in 
obtaining  through  either  of  ttie  several  senses,  sight,  hearing,  or  touch  ; 
biit  his  favourite  plan  was  to  seat  the  individual  operated  upon  in  an 
arm-chair,  whilst  be  held  a  bright  silver  object,  usujilly  his  lancet  case, 
a  few  inches  above  the  person's  eyebrows,  and  required  him  lo  raise 
his  eyes  upwards  until  he  saw  the  shining  metal,  soon  after  doing 
which,  the  patient  went  off  into  a  sound  sleep.  But  a  still  more  re- 
markable result  followed,  indicating  a  condition  of  mind  not  so  easily 
explained  as  illustrated. 

"  On  one  occasion  I  called  Braid  in  to  see  a  young  lad  who  bad 
been  suffering  fearfully  from  a  succession  of  epileptic  attacks,  which 
bad  failed  to  yield  to  medical  treatment.  So  far  as  the  epilepsy  was 
concerned  the  hypnotic  treatment  was  a  perfect  success  ;  the  boy,  after 
having  long  cndnrod  numerous  daily  attacks,  was  perfectly  reUeved 
after  the  thii*d  day's  hypnotic  operation.  For  five  subsequent  years, 
during  which  the  youth  remained  under  my  observation,  the  epilepsy 
did  not  return. 

"  Brai<l  always  awoke  his  subjects  from  their  hypnotic  conditioa  by 
sharply  clajiping  his  hands  close  to  the  sleejters'  ears,  which  at  once 
aroused  them.  One  day,  before  doing  this,  Braid  said  lo  me,  'I  will  now 
show  you  another  effect  of  hypnotism.  Lend  me  your  ix»cketrbook  and 
pencil.'  I  did  so.  He  then  placed  the  book  in  the  boy's  left  hand, 
which  he  raised  into  a  convenient  position  in  front  of  the  lad's  breafik 
My  pencil  was  placed  in  his  right  hand,  which  was  lifted  into  such  a 
position  that  the  point  of  the  pencil  rested  upon  one  of  the  pages  of 
the  book.  This  altitude  was  rigidly  maintained  until  Braid  whispered 
in  his  ear:  '  Write  your  name  and  address.'  The  lad  did  so  :  'John 
Ellis,  Lloyd  Street^  Miuiuhester.*  This  done,  the  hook  and  pencil  were 
restored  to  my  pocket.  Braid  then  awoke  the  boy  and  asked,  *JobQ, 
what  were  you  doing  just  now  t '  He  looked  about  rather  wildly  for 
a  moment,  and  persistently  answered,  *  Nothing.'  Braid  then  sent  him 
off  to  sleep  again.  The  question  was  a>;ain  asked  :  'John,  what  were 
you  doing  just  now  ? '  The  lad  answered  promptly,  but  in  a  low  voice : 
*  Writing  my  name  and  address.*  A  succession  of  similar  experiments 
clearly  indicated  two  things  :  first,  that  a  mesmerised  individual  would 
do  what  he  was  told  to  do ;  second,  that  things  done  when  in  that 
state  were  remembered  only  when  the  same  condition  was  resumed ; 
othenrise  they  were  forgotten,  indicating  a  dual  state  of  r/iiW,  which,  so 
far  as  I  know,  hits  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  explained.  I  cannot 
learn  that  Braid's  method  of  experimental  inquiry  and  of  philosophical 
induction  has  been  continued  by  any  i>erson  since  he  died. 


APPENDIX 


467 


"The  second  visitor  to  Manchester  was  of  a  different  type.  Ha 
appeared  to  be  a  man  of  uome  financial  position  in  the  world,  since  be 
had  a  gentlemanly  demeanour  and  kept  a  yacht,  of  which  the  lad  whom 
he  brought  with  him  to  Manchester  was  said  to  be  cabin-boy.  It  was 
affirmed  that  thi^j  lad  was  a  chiirvoyaut,  who  coidd  see  to  read,  however 
much  his  eyes  were  plastered  up.  yome  persons  were  invited  out  of 
the  audience  to  apply  this  plastering,  and  after  they  had  done  so,  the 
lad  certainly  read  as  easily  as  before.  I  at  once  expressed  myself 
dissatisfied  ^nth  the  test,  and  was  requested  by  some  of  the  audience 
to  imdertake  the  closing  of  the  eyes  with  these  plasters.  I  tried  to  do 
so,  but  careful  watching  convinced  me  that  by  vigorous  movements  of 
the  muscles  acting  upon  the  eyelids,  the  lad  contrived  to  loosen  a 
minute  fold  of  the  plaster  close  to  his  eye  ;  through  this  fold  he 
managed  to  read  the  books.  1  saw  at  once  that  this  could  be  stopped 
by  cutting  a  long  strip  of  plaster  which  shoiUd  cover  the  eyebrows,  and 
at  the  same  time  binding  down  the  edges  of  all  the  plasters  with  which 
the  eyes  were  closed.  In  order  to  prevent  any  muscular  action  from 
disturbing  this  additional  bandage,  I  stretched  it  tightly  round  the 
temples  and  fastened  the  two  ends  firmly  together  at  the  back  of  hia 
head.  I  had  no  sooner  done  this  with  one  of  his  eyes,  than  he  pre- 
vented me  from  adopting  the  same  plan  with  the  other ;  he  began  to 
yell  and  declare<I  I  was  killing  him  with  pain.  His  master  instantly 
turne<]  upon  me,  and  affirmed  that  I  had  covered  that  part  of  the  lad's 
forehead  with  which  he  did  see.  Then  the  credulous  fools  in  the 
audience  fell  foul  of  me  for  being  so  cruel.  Of  course  I  threw  the  thing 
up  and  resumed  my  seat.  The  next  day  a  few  medical  friends  met 
the  two  fellows  at  their  hotel  and  plugged  each  of  the  boy's  eyes  with 
small  balls  of  cobbler's  wax;  the  clairvoyant's  vision  at  once  terminated, 
they  left)  and  no  more  was  afterwards  beard  of  them." 


(B)  SPIEIT0ALISM.   CLAIRVOYANCE.  ^TELEPATHY. 

A  certain  section  of  the  general  public  believe  that  there  is  a 
connection  between  hypnotism  and  spiritualism,  and  that  those  who 
practise  the  former  must  be  in  sympathy  with  the  latter.  Any 
connection  with  the  Society  for  Psychical  Uesearch  is  also  regarded  as 
affording  still  stronger  endence  of  spiritualistic  belief.  I  wish,  tlicre- 
fore,  to  supplement  what  I  have  already  said  as  to  spiritualistic  and 
other  so-called  occult  phenomena.  On  jiages  H6-7,  I  called  attention 
to  aouie  alleged  spiintualistic  manifestations  which  were  said  to  have 
occurred  during  hjrpnotic  trance.  In  the  case  referred  to,  the 
medium's  condition  was  ob\'iously  not  one  of  hypnosis.  Further,  I 
have  never  seen  a  single  instance  in  which  hypnotic  phenomena  could 
with  justice  be  claimed  to  be  of  spiritualistic  origin. 

Although    undoubtedly    certain    members    of    the    Society    for 


Psychical  Kesearcb  are  believera  iu  spiritualisra,  the  main  work  ot 
that  body  bos  been  destructive.  Thus,  the  late  Professor  Henry 
Sidgwick  said :  *'  We  have  continually  coniliated  and  exposed  the 
frauds  of  professional  mediums,  and  have  never  yet  published  in  our 
Proceedings  any  report  in  favour  of  any  of  tbem."  The  following  are 
examples  of  this  deslnictive  work  :— ' 

(!)  A  report  of  an  investigation  by  Sir  William  Crookea,  Sir 
Victor  Horsley,  and  the  late  Dr.  A.  T.  Myers,  of  an  alleged  auper- 
natunU  phenomenon  to  which  the  spiritualists  attached  great  lm{x>rt- 
ance,  and  the  investigators  none  at  all. 

(2)  The  complete  destruction  by  Dr.  Hodgson  of  the  Tbeosopbical 
claim  to  mii'aculoiis  ^jowers,  and  of  the  existence  of  Mabatmas. 

(3)  A  series  of  experiments  contrived   to  illustrate  the  **  Possi- 
bilities of  Mal-observatiori  and  Lapae  of  Memory."     These  practically 
refuted  the  assertions  that  certain  phenomena  must  be  due  to  spirits, 
Iwcause  they  could  not  have  been  produced   by  mortals.     Mr.   S.  J. 
Davcy,  a  mcmTtcr  of  the  Society,  since  deceased,  gave  several  years 
to  the  assitluoua  practice  of  certain  tricks  of  sleight  of  hand ;  tbeaa 
he  so  successfully  supplemented  by  ingenious  psychological  artific 
as  to  render  them  inexplicable.     It  would  be  ditbcult  to   find   an] 
piece  of  laboi-abory  work  on  attention  comparable  in  subtlety  at: 
skill  with  Mr.  Davey'a  demonstrations ;  while,  if  we  wish  to  prot 
ourselves  and  our  fellow-creatures  against  fraud  and  imposture,  thii 
kind  of  reply  is  more  effective  (though  more  difficult  to  obtain)  than 
any  mere  denial  or  attempt  at  ridicule  can  be. 

Although  I  have  seen  nothing  to  convince  mc  of  the  genuineness 
of  alleged  sptrituali.stic  phenomena,  the  subject  is  not  without  intcrc 
to  the   physician.     From   time  to  time  I  see  patients  whose  bealtl 
has   undoubtedly   suffered    from    their   taking   part   in   spiritualis 
sianccs.     One  of  these,  a  young  lady  now  under  my  care,  was  supposed' 
to  be  what  is  termed  a  "sensitive,"  and  uiiderwent  training  with  a 
%new  of  tleveloping  this  quality.     She  informed  me  that  during  the 
siancn  she  was  frequently  conscious  of  the  presence  of  a  spiriu     Herfl 
hands  then  became  lifeless  and  fell  from  the  table,  and  she  experienced^ 
a  peculiar  sensation  of  sulfocution.     She  is  now  ill  both  mentally  and 
physically,  and  fears  that  she  is  losing  her  reason. 

Although    I   know   of   no   genuine   case   of    clairvoyance,    many 
persons  believe  in  ita  existence.     The  latter  may  be  divided  into 
groups : — 

(1)  Those  who  are  (he  victims  of  sdf-deception^  I  have  been  assured! 
by  several  persons,  whose  honesty  and  good  faith  were  undoubted^ 
that  they  had  succeeded  in  making  hypnotic  somnambules  see  wha| 
was  taking  place  nt  a  distance.  When  the  cx|>eriment  was  repeat 
in  my  presence,  the  source  of  fallacy  was  at  once  obvious.  Thi 
operator  gave  the  necessary  information  to  the  subject  by  leading 
questions  and  the  like. 


mess 
u-cst^ 
udtd 
isti^ 


In  some  inetances  it  is  the  ignorance  of  the  spectators  which 
causes  belief  in  the  so-called  occult  powers.  For  example,  an  un- 
qualified man,  who  practised  **  mesmeric  healing,"  informed  mo  that 
he  had  a  somnambulc  in  his  pay  who  possessed  the  jKiwcr  of  clair- 
voyance. She  could,  he  said,  diitgnoae  in  this  way  the  diseases  of 
his  |vitient«,  and  also  give  important  suggestions  as  to  their  treatment 
The  man  obviously  believed  his  own  statements.  I  pointed  out  to 
him,  however,  that  he  took  no  steps  to  confirm  his  clairvoyant's 
diagnosis,  and  that  this  might  i}ossibly  be  a  wrong  one.  As  ho  was 
quite  willing  to  put  the  matter  to  the  test,  I  offered  myself  for 
experiment  The  clairvoyant,  after  holding  ray  hand  for  some  time, 
informed  me  that  I  had  disease  of  the  liver.  Although  I  iloubtless 
jiossess  this  organ,  it  has  certainly  never  forced  itself  on  my  notice 
through  disordered  function.  I  wjas,  however,  suffering  from  a 
poisoned  wound  of  the  finger,  and  tlie  axillary  glands  and  lymphatics 
of  my  arm  were  inflamed.  My  hand  was  swollen  and  enveloped  in 
a  poultice,  and  my  arm  was  in  a  sling.  These  obvious  outward 
indications  of  disease  the  clairvoyant  failed  to  notice. 

(2)  CasM  where  the  alleged  dainoifant  ymoer  is  ajigumed  for  pvrj)Oses 
of  deception.     Of  this  the  following  is  a  typical  example : — 

I  was  asked  one  day  by  a  young  woman  to  buy  tickets  for  a 
lecture  on  clairvoyance.  She  assured  me  that  not  only  could  she  see 
what  was  taking  place  at  a  distance,  but  also  that  she  was  able  to 
foretell  future  events.  She  could,  for  cxamjile,  predict  the  rise  and 
fall  of  stocks,  or  name  the  winner  of  the  next  Derby.  I  pointed  out 
that  if  this  were  true,  she  might  easily  have  saved  herself  the  trouble 
of  calling :  her  clairvoyant  powers  ought  to  have  informed  her  that 
I  liad  no  intention  of  purchasing  tickets  for  her  lecture. 

As  alread}'  stated,  although  successful  telepathic  experiment* 
were  formerly  reported  by  several  members  of  the  Society  for 
Psychical  Kesearch,  these  have  not  been  confirmed  b}"-  later  observei-a. 
Despite  this,  the  belief  in  telepathy  is  widespread.  A  typical 
example  is  cited  by  William  James,  not,  however,  as  evidence  in 
favour  of  telepathy  {The  Varieties  of  Jielitfivus  Experience,  p.  125), 
The  patient  sat  quietly  with  a  Christian  Science  healer  for  half  an 
hour  each  day,  and  attributed  the  result  of  the  treatment  to  telepathy, 
although  he  admitted  that  verbal  suggestions  were  given.  The 
messages  were  received,  he  said,  in  a  mental  stratum  quite  below  the 
level  of  his  immediate  consciousness,  and  reached  him  from  a  corre- 
sponding mental  stratum  of  the  healer's  mind.  As  we  have  seen,  many 
of  the  errors  of  the  mesmerists  and  of  the  Salpfitriere  school  arose 
through  imconscious  suirgostion.  In  the  case  just  cited,  suggestion 
was  obviously  present,  and  in  others,  where  the  telepathic  healing 
was  said  to  be  done  from  a  distance,  suggestion  was  not  excluded. 
The  patients  know  that  an  attempt  was  being  made  to  influence  them, 
and  thus  self-suggesliou  came  into  play. 


470  HYPNOTISM 


The  idea  that  one  may  be  influenced  from  a  distance,  against  one's 
will  and  without  one's  knowledge,  is  startling  enough,  even  when  the 
supposed  influence  is  asserted  to  be  for  one's  good.  What  must  one 
think,  however,  of  the  mystic  who  was  an  anti-vivisectionist  as  well 
as  a  telepathist,  and  who  claimed  to  have  killed  Pasteur  by  means 
of  malign  telepathic  influences  ?  With  a  few  exceptions,  i.e.  the 
more  or  less  rigorously  conducted  experiments  already  referred  to, 
the  so-called  telepathy  of  the  present  day  is  simply  an  attempt  to 
represent  in  pseudo-scientific  language  the  superstitions  and  practices 
of  the  dark  ages.  The  occultist  who  claims  to  kill  telepathically 
differs  little,  if  at  all,  from  the  witch  who  was  willing  to  do  an  enemy 
to  death  by  the  slow  melting  of  his  waxen  counterfeit  and  the  like. 


^^^^^H 

Age,  u  inRnenciug  succptibDity  to  hyp- 

British  Hedic&l  Association  Committee  and             ^| 

DOAtx.  62 

hypnotism,  36-7                                                    ^M 

Agorapliobia,  Z-14-fi,  249,  Sfi2 

MtMitneric  InMitntiona,  9                                               ^M 

Alcoholism  and  diiMomaLQio,  221-9 

^M 

cues   ott   tre«ted   by   BaKSestion,^   166. 

Cannabis  ludka  in  the  induction  of  hyp-              ^M 

221-6 

uoeis,  44,  45.  6U,  293                                              ■ 

Amenorrlices,  cum  of.  108,  199 

CoMi.  tablffi)  of,  illustrating  suueptiblUty               ^M 

AmDCKia  during  hypnosis,  106,  108,  109. 

to  hypnosis,  58,  59,  60,  62.  67                           H 

110,  Stid,  397 

CatAle]My,  ex  i>erini<!D tally  induced  by  aug*              ^M 

po»t-hypnotic,  104,  lOS.  106,  107,  108, 

gestion,  75,  77,  78,  80,  151,  152,  153,              ■ 

135.  ISfl,  1S8 

155,  857                                                           ■ 

AMUaiii,  cervbral,  306-7 

tn  aniraals,  156,  157                                                 ^M 

AiiieiU>«sia  and  analgesia  iu  bypnosK  94, 

cases  treated  by  anggeetion.  IS3-5,  187                   ^| 

9S,  107,  322 

Cerebration,  nnoonacioas,  Carpenter's.  370-4              ^| 

AuwAthiwiA  iu    hypnotic  op«r«tiona,    158- 

Cliitdren,  and  tnesmeriAm,  11-12                                 ^H 

176,  816-7 

their  niiiceptibility  to  hypooeis,  62.  299                 ^M 

Aoasthetlca  in  onrger)',  355 

riclons  anti  degenerate,  hypnotic  treat-              ^M 

AiMlceaU  In  hypnosis,  153.  169,  202.  322, 

m»nt  of,  SS2-S                                                       ^M 

8«1 

ClilonU  in  the  induction  of  hypnosis,  47.                ^| 

post-hypnotic,  159.  160,  162-175,  8«0 

1 

Aninial  miignetUni,  305,  466 

Chlorororm,  and  mc«meriftra.  18                                   ^M 

Animals,  faypnosU  tn,  chap.  viiL,  156-8 

in  the  indnction  of  bypno«ii,  45-7,  51,                H 

AphoniA,  ca.ie.1  of,  181,  189 

69,  185                                                             ^^M 

Appendix,  465-70 

Chorea,  and  tnesiiierisni,  12                                     ^^^^H 

Further  rtifcrence  to  Braid,  495-7 

ca»f.s  of,  260.  261,  422                                        ^^^H 

Splritnaltiitii.     clairroyaace,     telvpathy. 

CUin-Qyauc«.  10,  141.  143,  145,  468-9              ^^H 

467-70 

Clauatrophobia,  249                                              ^^^H 

Appetites,  hunger  and  thirst,  u  influosced 

castft  of,  248.  244                                              ^^H 

by  suggestion,  92-5 

Coma,  hypnotic,  97,  108,  150                                     ^1 

Attention.  64,  67,  339-42 

Coufinemeutd  during  bypnoaii,  168,  169-                ^M 

and  Tapport,  842-4 

172.  175.6                                                              V 

Aatomatiani,  and  its  aupposed  connection 

Coasciousnees  in  hypnoeis,  97,  98, 108,  311                 H 

with  hypDoais  148,  377.  408,  425,  300 

Crimes,    suggested,    143,   311,    313,    314,                 fl 

dlscoBsion  on,  311-30 

318-22,  824,  825.  328.  330,  425,  426,                 ■ 

429,  430,  431                                                         ■ 

Bleeding  by  saggectiott,  823 

Criminal  suggutiana,  312,  324-7,  829,  330              ■ 

BlepbarMpoam  treated  by  aoggeetloB,  189, 

Cryital-gazing,  395.  894                                               ■ 

238 

Cotaneons    aeuaibility    aa    laflnencad    by                ^M 

Blind.  h}-pnotiaing  the,  282 

bypnoeia,  91.  92                                                H 

Blistering  by  an^usUoo,  83-4 

Cyat,  remoral  of,  during  bypnoeia,  166                       ^| 

prevented  by  inggestioD,  84 

^H 

BowcIh,  action  of  the,  as  affeoted  by  ng- 

Dugere,  eo-colted,  of  hypnotism,  65,  66,                ^M 

geatlon,  87.  188,  193,  194.  196,  202, 

292,  203,  425-32,  436,  437                                      H 

203,  207,  20S,  216.  232,  233,  237 

Deception  and  mal-ob^ervntion  in  hypnotic               ^H 

'  In  aU  Inttaoecs  where  " eases"  art  cited,  it 

expenuenta,  135,  136,  141.  143-9               ^^^H 

la  to  be  andersUMxl  that  thaae  bave  teen  tieaied 

Ddirt  du  touefitr,  24 1,  247,  248,  249                  ^^H 

by  mgfulUm,  aMOClated  with  k-j/pnetie  mtthodt. 

Dentistry,  painteaa,  in  hypnoais,  162-9               ^^^H 

47 

B 

47a 


HYPNOTISM 


IMpronunU  and  ftlcchollcm,  2S2*0 

euMof,  2210.  S35.  422 
DUcromato}isiA,  181 
Diviaitig  rod,  aution  of,  Braid's  explanation, 

"Doablo  coosciootnen,"  fci:  oxperimentftl 

erideiiCB     of    the    ezlstooae    of,    jmv 

"Automatic   Writing  in    Hypoosla." 

139-41 

"CoQKlooincn  in  Hypnosis,"  97-8 

•*  Hypnotic  nod  Pott-UvpnoticApprwia- 

ll&o  of  Time,"  1U-3P 
"Memory  in  Hypuailit,"  lOO-H 
"Spoatamiity  m  Hypiiosia,"  eS-100 
Boaunid'  theory  of,  370 
Braid's  reco^tion  of.  293,  204 
Carpenter's  theory  of,  370-74 
DcB-wir's,  Mai,  theory  of,  358 
Janieit',  Willtani,  theorv  of,  358 
Moll's  theory  of,  352,  353 
Myeni'  theory  of.  858-67 
"Kvldence  for  the  Exiiitenco  of  a  8iib- 

Uminal  Conacioumeas,"  378-85 
"  Facta    in    support     of    a    Secondary 
Consciouaaesii    drawn    fVom     Normal 
Wakins  and  Sleeping  Life,"  3S7-90 
"  Hypnotic  PhenoTiien-i  which  apparently 
support  the  Theory  of  a  Secondary 
CoitsciouxQMfl,"  890-98 
BiicnjiiiioB  on  ; — 
Beaunis*  theory  of.  402-4 
Panl  Janet's  theory,  403 
Delboeaf  s  tbeor>-,  404 
Oumey's  theory.  404-7 
and  hysteria,  417-18 
author's  views  of.  407-17  418-20. 
Buminarj',  4S7-8 
Dnig  habit*.  229-32 
Dyimenorrhoeft.  caaea  of,  192, 101-9 

Ecbolalla,  7« 

Eczema,  cAaea  of,  268-6 

Elephanliakis,  15.  16,  158 

Enuresis  uoctumo,  catws  of,  235,  238 

Epilepsy,  cases  of,  l:»7-60 

"prolonged  steep"  in,  2A9.  260 
Error.  80urc«s  of,  in  hypnotic  experiment, 
144-8 

rules  for  avoidlog  la   hypnotic  experi- 
ment, 149 
Experiments,  hypnotic,  chapter  on,  74-143 

time  oppreclatioD,  table  of,  133. 

Faith     aa     inflnendog     snsceptlbUity     to 

hypnosis,  64 
Fashion  in  medicine,  289 
FUj:iitiiitat  ana  In  hypnosis,  16.  75.  153 
FoiU  du  douU.     See  Jjiiirt  itu  Ivuehtr 

Halluciuatious  in   bypDosis,   93,  94.  104, 
114,  116 


Hallnoinations,  MoU'sviewof  negative,  351-3 

Uarveiao  oration,  EHiotson\  7 

Ha*hiHh.     Stt  CdunaUa  Indi<*a 

Health,  aa  affected  by  hypnotic  experlmaiita, 

138,  292,  2113.  425-32,  433-7 
Hearing,  increased  by  »aggest)uu,  89 

arrested  liy  suggofctlon.  8U 
Heat,    [diaute   variations    in,   det«cted    in 

hypnoivis,  92 
Hicooii$;h.  coMs  of,  182,  189 

influence  on  susceptihility,  270 
Historical  chap,  ii.,  3-39,  433 
HocncMpatby  and  hypnotism,  SS9 
Hospitals,  mosDiBric  9 

at  Calcutta,  1.%  10 
H}-penB*the«ia  of  npeoinl  »■»«««  In  hypnoaia, 

78,  69-92,  146,  148,  200 
Hyperhydroslo,  ca^a  of,  284,  2fi5,  206 
Bypnoiix,  mseeplibtUly  to,  57,  £9,  01,  62, 
63,  71.  72 
methods  of  indnciug  and  terminatiDg; 

40,  44.  52.  53,  55,  50,  139,  434 
seU,  52.  392 

the  phyiiotogical  phenomena  of,  74-99 
psychological  phenomena  of;  95-143 
rapport  In,  96 
ooRBciousness  in,  97-8 
spontaneity  in,  98-100,  103.  105.  IM 
memory  in,  100-14,  137,  140,  365,  S88L 

399,  400,  401.  408-12 
antomatic  writing  in,  139-41 
ToliUon  ill,  143.  292,  294,  2Ufi,  302,  30S, 
304,   305,  306,    308,  309,  311,   331, 
345,  348,  351,   352,   3M,  356,  377, 
437 
different  stages  of,  cliap.  vil.,  150-6 
in  animals,  chap,  vUI.,  156<7 
and  ntechantcfil  methodi.,  299 
and  sleep,  310 

and  attention,  64,  339,  340,  341,  342 
and   caUlepsy,    75,    77,   78,   161,   IW, 

18S,  367 
and    inhibition  of  pain,    158-76,   360, 

367,  368 
anil  inaanity,  66,  210-31,  355,  357.  35S. 

422,  428,  430-2 
phenoraena  of,  chap,  v.,  74-143 
Hypnotic experinienta.   ^chap.  v.,  74-143 

management  of.  chap,  vi.,  144-9 
Uypnotinn,  origin  of,  3 
spread  of,  80,  84,  36 
phenomena  of.     Set  Hj-pnoais 
and    the    BriUah    Medical   Aaaoctotton, 

36-7 
and  mesmerism,  25,  39 
dangers  of.     .Sev  Danj^rs 
and  the  medical  profeatiun.  24,  436,  4S7 
Its  vnlne   in  the  tteatniont  of  diaesw. 
•Sm  "Hypnotism   in  Surgery,"  cliap. 
ix.,    168-76,    and    **Hypnotiaza    ta 
Medicine,"  chap,  x.,  177-266 
dlssodatlTC  trinmph  of,  860 


I 


INDEX 


473 


HypootlfiD,  associative  trinmph  of,  801 
iDtell«(rtu«l  ftcbieveuienU  o^  861 

HTiteria*  caies  of.  irs>206 

xr  iiirluonclog  vuKcptlbiUt]',  31,  ^  S97. 

rappOMd  oouDectiou  with  liypaoiia,  296, 

801,  80S.  354-2 
ft  iliMAsa  of  the  nibliiniaal  eeU,  364-7, 

378 
anil  multiplex  personality,  417 

l<Ut,^xe.     See  ObaenioDB 

Idioti,  want  of  atteatioa  in,  S7,  29i,  3-10 

Imltatiott  as  influeocfag  Busceptibitity,  64, 

05 
Impotvnce,  psychical  cases  of,  209,  24S 
Iiibibition  of  sensory  impreujon*,  89,  107, 

110,  376,  377 
InsanUy.    See  Hyfuooiii 
Insomnia,  1H  '^('0-3,  23i) 
IntDitfve  powers  of  luvunerio  subjects,  145 
luTolnntary     mnuctilar     anil      vasomotor 

syiteniR,  change*  in,  81-9 

Jar-pboonk,  277 

Lachrymal    awn-tion    a*    Inllaencui    by 

hypuosiii,  87 
Utah,  S54.  356,  481 
Lethargy,  177 

MagBotism,  animal,  SOS 
Magnets,  etc.,  2S6,  300 
Mal-obaemiUon.     See  Deception 
Hodical   cas«l^    rnanngvmtiiit  of,  367.     Se* 

"  HypDotitim  in  Me<licine  " 
Helancbolia,  cases  of,  205,  214,  217,  219 
Hanory.    3m  Uyfmoaii 
Heartniatioo,  diswderi  of,  casct,  191,  196- 
SOO 

experimenbilly  altered  by  suggestion,  87 
Mental  couilltion  as  iollaencing  sosoepti* 

bility.  63,  65 
Mesmeric  trance,  palnleaa  opcomtlou  daring, 

8-10,  15. 16,  18.  19,  54.  158 
Mesnerinn,  158,  211,  275.  277,  433 

and  the  medical  profcMinn,  7,  8,  10,  24 

th«  origin  of  hypnotism,  3 

practised  it  UniTenity  Collt^  6,  7 

benefits  of.  8,  18 

and  bysteria,  9,  17 

and  medical  joumtU.  9 

and  chloroform,  18 

and  children,  1 1 

in  India.  14-17 
Mesmerists,  theories,  etc.,  of  the  later.  6>21, 

275-8 
MctboiL*   of  iaducibi^  hypnoMi.  ohap.  iiL. 
41-53 

claulticatlon  of,  53 

of  terminating  hypnosis,  53-5 

discua>ioQ  on,  55-6 


MUk,  secretion  of,  as  influenced  by  hyp- 
notism. 88 

Monoideiam.  2^3.  293.  294,  348,  375.  466 

Mora]  sense,  increnwil  iu  hypnosis,  292,  322, 
327,  328,  362 

Moriifainomania,  229-32.  422 

Mascalar  sense.  :^  "  Exiierimental  Pbe- 
Domena  " 

^ail-blting.  cases  of,  235,  337.  238 
Nanoy  school  of  bypnotiMu,  152,  307-9 

dieottiision  on,  309-50 
Karcotlcs,  criminal  n»a  of,  292,  298 

end  opemtlooi,  16.  355 

in  the  induction  of  hypnoitifi,  44-7,  51 

an'!  iucrcastMl  oUBcepUl'ility,  C9 
Nntiounlity  imd  susceptibility  lohypnosis,  68 
Nt.-urutb(.-iiia,  casee  of,  2O6-10,  422 
Syraphomauia,  canes  of,  210 

ObMuiofUi,  cases  of,  and  mental  conditions 

Inrolveil.  236-56,  422.  435 
Onanism,  209,  233,  234 
OperatioDs,  hypnotic     Ae  *'  Uypnotism  In 

Swgery  " 

Pain,  inhibition  of.    .v«f  "Experimentsl  Fhe 
nomonB,"ani1  "Hypnotum  in  Surgery" 
PsTalysls,  experimental  induction  of,  76,  77 

cases  oj;  1S9 
PanuoU,  case  of,  220 
Futses.      Su  "Methods  of  inducing  Hyp- 
nosti" 

theories  regaiding  action  of.  291,  339 
Patience  necessar)'  for  hypnotic   ]>mctice, 

43.  71.  182,  239,  264 
tVrkinutm,  S88 

Pcrsooality.    double.  Su     Secomhvy 

consoionsDOss 

multiplex,  379-87.  303-8 
Perfplration.  altered  by  snggostion,  88 

CAMM  of  exce«dTe.     .See  Hyperhydrosis 
Phenomvna  of  hyiiooiiis.     iSu  Hypnosis 

liypDotic.     Sm  Hypnotic 
Phreuologv,  281 

discredited.  200 
Planchette.  140-1 

Psychical  ReMarch  Society.  35,  148 
Pultv  as  iuiltii'tifi'd  by  miggestlou,  81-2 

Rapport  sud  attvutiou.     Sit  Attention 
RsAftoning  in  hypnosia,  S22.  820-30 

beyond  ordinary  jkover.   sometimes  be- 
yond  ordinary  bypuntic  power,  US, 
lie.  123.  126,  127.  411 
Refurenceis  French,  440-50 

German,  450-54 

EngUsh.  464-64 

to  Braid  and  his  works.  460-84 
RcspinUon  as  affpcted.  by  suggestion,  83 

SalpQtriire  school  of  hypnotism,  153,  206, 
398.  301 


474 


HVPiXOTISM 


Satyriaais,  cam  of,  210 

Sea^slckneu,  202.  S62,  422 

Secondary    coDacioaaaoM.         ike    Doable 

cousciouanesa 
Self-coDtxol  and  fajrpnoUani,  74,  1&7,  22&, 

271.272.  35&,  430,  481,436 
S«tr-saggutioa  and  self-  liypnoala,  £2,  58 
in  tliv  iadQctioQ  of  bypnofila,  64. 68,  SO,  07, 
H5,  163,201,  338,  844,347 
8m  anti  tiiftcepttMllty  to  hypnosis,  61.  298 
Sexual  alwrratiODS,  209 
Sight,  mcreued  by  soggesUou,  89,  191-4 
Bkiu,  u  aflecteil  by  Buggtalion,  38 
bliatcring  of,  S3.  84 
Dtilbcpufa  bumiug  expcrimeaU  B4 
BoacaptibiUty  of,  in  liypaosla.  92 
diaeasea  of,  233-3 
Sleep,    "llvpnotir,"    aa    inaccarnte    t«nn, 
37,  41 ' 
natural,  cbnu>^  into  bypnoais,  47,  88 
not  esaential  to  byiHioais,  105 
prolong  ISl,  !»;>,  212  4,  220,  231. 232. 

259,  260,  289 
hystericBl  altacka  of,  191 
hypnotic,  dilTiT«ut  from  uatunil,  310 
and  rapptyrl,  324 
Social  posJttOD  aa  lafluenclng  suscoptibiUtv, 

62 
Somnambniea  and  Notnnanibalism,  68,  72, 
77,  97,  99,  103,  104,  lOfi-S,  114,  139. 
145,  162,  164,   165,   173,  273,   312, 
314,  341,  S43,  390,  426 
SamDambahKni,  waking,  112,  113 

RpontaneoiiH,  336 
Spectatora,  bvbavionr  of,  daring  byptioais, 

65 
Spin  tnnl  lam,  146,  147 

and  Society  for  Paycbical  R«flean:h,  468 
eausoofUl-bealth.  468 
SpoaUBelty  iu  bypnoaia,  98,  100,  103,  138 
Stages  of  bypoosifl,  cbap.  vli.,  150-5 
.Stammehcg,  261,  202,  422 
8t«tho8cop«.',  Urst  used  iu  EngtaDd,  5 
Stupor.  864.  355,  431 
Sablimiiiol  or  aecomlary  conaciouauaea.    .See 

Double  conaciouRDeaa 
Suggestion,  74,  SO.  291.  309,  315,  331.  333, 
384,  42S 
power  of,    daring  liypnoal*.   287,   288, 

289  301 
Mir,   C2,  64,  68,  60,  97,  99,  145,  153, 

201.  338,  844.  847 
raoiatance  to,  70.  98,  100,  101.  103,  107 
Terba),  78.  86,  299 
poat-hypDOtic,  95.  107,  111,  202 
criniiiia},  312,  324 
rejection  of,  274,  311,  315-80.  377 
and  the  pheaotnena  of  bypnosis,  337 
by  writing,  and  at  a  distnnce.  163,  165 


SnggBsUoD,  Bometiinaa  apparantly  cnmtiTe 
vithoDt  hypnnaii,  274 
Bratd    explained    bypnotio    pbcnoiueti& j 

by,  288 
iuefficacy  of  ordinary,  333,  423-4 
b}-pnotlc,  L-nntra.sted  with  ordinary,  SS4*CJ 
does  not  explain  b>'pnoeis,  837-8 
Summary    and    coucluafon,     chap,     xtr.,  j 

4S30 
Saperatitlon  na  an  obaearioii,  244,  250 
Hurgury,  hypnotiam  in.  cbap.  ix.,  158-76 
SuHceptibilKy  to  bypnoda.    Sea  Uj 
auacvptibility  to 

Table-taming,  284 

Teeth •extractiou.      See    "Hypnotiam 

Surgery  ** 
Telepathy.  136.  141-3,  467-70 
Temperance  societlea,  mithoda  of.  anal(voiiSi>j 

to  bypnotit:,  227 
Temp«ratur«  aud  suggeetion,  84,  85 
Terminology,  Braid's  earlier  liypootic,  23, 

24 
Braid'a  later.  289-4,  434 
Tbeoriea,   bypuotxc,  chap.  xiL.,   273*  434^, 

431,  437.  430 
Therapeutic      aaea     of     hypnotiam.     Sm 

"Hypnotism  iu  Medicine,"  cbap. 

177-266,  435.  436 
Therm  o-KeuaibUity,  aa  influanoed  bj  b; 

nofia,  92 
Time,  appreciation  of.  114-39.  S87,  S88, 

391.  398 
discuaaioD  on  its  theoretical  explao^oaa. 

398-415.  418-20,  438 
Tonaila,  removal  of.  dnring  hypnoaia,  116 
Tortlcollla,  caaea  of,  190,  191 
Trance  of  fakim,  293 
Colonel  Townaend,  293 


Unoonactona  cerebration,  Carpentar'a,  870- 
374,  388.  390,  438 

University  OolteK«-.  Elliotaon  at,  6 
meanerlRm  forbidden  at,  7 
BramweU's  dcinouatratlona  at,  4SS 

Urine,  aa  affected  by  luggeitioa,  87, 


I 
I 


Victoria  disaatar,  Tictlm  of,  186-B 

Volition    aud    attention,    aa     iDSuenciag 

auaceptibillty,  64.  66 
la  hypnoaia,   143.  371.  311.  S15.  933, 

346,  354.  355.  357.  362.  377.  425.  437 
Voluntary    muscular   ayatem,    changca    iu 

the,  74,  81 

Weight,  perception  of.  {u  hypnoaia,  90> 
WilL     Set  VoUtion 
Writing,  oatomatio,  in  bypnoeia,  189. 
also  Time  appreciation 


AUTHORS  AND  AUTHORITIES  REFERRED  TO. 


Allincbt,  8S 
Aloock,  SI.  90,  92 
Allbutt,  CliRord.  164 
A]Mel^  224 
Artidt,  '209 
Anigajiu,  82 
Aahburner,  10 
AudUTrenU  172 
Aveabmgger,  6 
Azam,  36,  20,  30,  S86 

BaUoBki,  865 

Baokmui,  266 

BAgnoId,  Col.,  277 

B^lUrgcr,  247 

BaiUir,  4S,  68 

Bkiroor,  A.  J.,  3S 

Balfour,  O.  W.,  35 

BaU,  246 

Bam  burger,  356 

BarcU}-,  129,  135 

Barkworth,  129,  135 

Barrett,  W.  K..  35 

Bartnini,  ISS 

Bfttwr.  232,  ZSS 

Bead),  Fletcher,  236 

Beard.  20» 

Beannis  33.  34,  35,  42,  48, 
55,  60,  68.  82,  83.  87.  89, 
93,  105,  113,  115,  3D7, 
829,  348,  370,  877,  398, 
400.  402,  403,  409 

Bechterew.  225,  238 

BnudUct,  857 

Beanett,  John  Hughes,  30, 
38,  294,  303,  304.  307, 
308.  376.  483 

Baiter,  48.  68,  76 

BerifiMHi,  89 

B^riUon.  67.  62,  181,  199. 
207,  209,  232,  237,  238, 
251,  252,  260,  263,  266. 
299 

B«rtraiul.  08,  280 


Berry,  Hn.  Dickiuxoa,  197 

Bembflitn,  28,  31,  33,  34. 
36,  42,  47,  48,  63,  65, 
57,  62,  63,  as,  6«,  68,  69. 
70,  73,  75,  83.  94,  97. 
104.  105.  106.  108.  lf.3, 
164,  181.  191.  198.  208, 
225.  246,  274,  275,  296, 
298,  307,  309,  311,  314, 
325,  328,  330,  337,  838, 
839,  340,  342,  S43,  344, 
845,  348,  360.  366,  376, 
398,  401,  409,  425,  426, 
427 

BilliDger,  86 

Binet,  82,  75,  94 

BiQgswaiiger,  209 

Bolnmoiit,  Bri«rra  de,  246 

Banchiit,  306 

Bou(T.:s  238 

Boultiug,  195.  201,  203. 235. 
249 

Bourdon.  178,  807,  208.  225, 
2S8,  245 

BoiUTU.  82,  208 

Bouveret,  209 

Bowditch,  35 

Braid,  James,  1,  4,  21,  20, 
30,  38,  39,  40.  45.  52.  55, 
61,  64.  73.  75.  78.  79,  87. 
88,  90,  91.  92.  97.  106, 
107,  141.  144.  146,  148. 
160,  162.  161.  198,  212, 
244,  268,  275,  278.  283. 
286.  287.  290,  293.  300. 
301,  304.  310.  311,  328, 
S3S,  340.  342,  344.  345, 
348.  364,  425,  43%  487, 
438,  465 

Braithwaite.  164 

Bnuuwvtl,  J.  P.,  38 

Br^maiKl,  214 

Briand,  199 

Braea,27. 

475 


Brochbi,  251 
BrDdardel,  329 
Rrown,  W.  H.,  164 
BrowB-St^uanl,  305 
Briico,  Lenifl  C..  164,  380 
BrtlgelmaQQ,  207,  20S 
Bniaoberg,  Tyko,  199 
BiigiHr,  199 
Barckliarttt,  208.  216 
Darot,   82.   189.    199.   208, 

215.  245 
Bushnell.  225 

Caddjr,  164 

CaloDder,  429 

Carpenter.   W.   &,  30,  76, 

294,  306,  343,  370.  388. 

390,  438 
Carter.  T.,  164.  166 
Chaiubeis,  211 
Chareot,  84,  39,  77.  85,  297, 

300.  301,  366,  426 
Charpentler,  266 
CbarpigDon.  329 
Cbraevix,  6 
Charton,  104,  364 
C1atun«r,  86 
ailTonl,  366 
CoIilM.  371,  378 
CoDrwi  368 
Copland,  10,  355 
Corval,  vou,  208,  262 
Cnwfiird,    Rajrmond,    106, 

209 
Crooq.  55.  329 
Cn>ok««,  Sir  WUliain,  408 
Cniiiw,  Sir  FraacU.  86 
CaUerr*.  238 

"  DagOQflt,"  382 
Davidson,  277 
Dvbore,  95 
Dtele,  199 


476 


HYPNOTSSM 


DtlwUnve,  247 

Delboanf,  64. 115.  116, 118. 

152,  245.  276,  310,  314. 
324.  825,  380,  361.  367, 
S{»S,  404,  411.  415 

Dilius,  199.  209 

Dennimo,  164 

DesMlr,  Mu,  34.  35,  152. 

163.  154,  165,  274 
DJAK,  174 
Dobrovolsky,  172 
DoUkra,  62 
Drozdoivski,  208 
Dujnnlin-Beaiiinetz,  301 
Duinont,  83 
Duniontpallitfr,  84, 181,  Idl, 

2tJl 
Diiliotet,  6 
Dunui'l  dc  Gro8,  315,  324 

Eedcn,  van,  43.  57,  60,  61. 

65,    174,  200,  225,   245, 

249,  250.  2.'i4.  427 
KlUotMU,  1,  4,  12.   13,  1(1, 

39.  141.   158.   180.   211, 

25S.  261,  265,  269,  275, 

287,  301.  433 
EUK  GillmuK,  356 
EadtUe,  1,  4,  8.  14.  20.  21. 

38.  39,  40.  44.  4S,  53,  54. 

56.61,  62,66  69,88,141. 

158,  211,  217,  258,  26ft. 

275,  276.  277,  298,  299, 

354,  429,  433 
Esquirol,  246 

Fftlrtt,  Jolea.  246,  247 

Panton,  171.  175,  176 

F&rez,  225,  288,  263.  266 

Paria,  Abb^.  3.  380 

Felkin,  36 

F^  32,  35,  75,  94 

FUUsaier,  96 

FUcb.  86 

Kocaclion,  83.  84,  85,  87 

For«l,  48,  52,  55.  57.  t'2,  63, 
64,65.66,  68,69.70,  71, 
83.  S7.  89,  107.  110.  152, 

153.  174.  20S.  200.  218, 
220.  225,  238,  2(10.  29ft. 
327.  339,  346,  3*3.  427, 
430 

Forstcr.  306 
Fonrnud,  172 
Fraipont,  171 
Fi^miiMvii,  251 
Fnlda,231 

Oanaid,  199 
O^JDMO.  252 

Gerfaordt,  209 


Gerster.  Cu-1,  62,  63,  66,  68 
Ulll«s  de  1a  Tourette,  329, 

356 
Gooilevtf,  17 
GorodichM,  245,  268 
Gott,  164 
Orauet,  251 
Uregory,  88 
Grininger,  247,  250 
Griffith,  164 
Gkm,  A.,  169 
Graismauu,  61,  88, 174,  266. 

298 
Gwheidlen.  46,  68 
GaiTitfy.  Edmund.  35,  109, 

140,  142,  152.  341,   348, 

396,  404.  406,  409,  410, 

418,  436 

Halt,  Manlum,  10 

Hall,  8taal«y.  36 

Hull,  AVUIiNm.  164 

Haiuiltoii,  225,  262 

Harriwjii,  205 

Hart.  Eniest,  96,  305 

Hartley,  164 

Hartcig,  MarctiB,  367.  404 

Hsrvpy,  » 

HiuseiialviD,  89 

Haygartlj.  287 

Keeker,  245 

Heidenban.  34.  77,105,296, 

302,  306,  308.  366 
Helliph.  (S4 
Hellier.  164 
Herrero,  45.  69 
HeuUl.  156 
Hewetaon.    Btmdslack,   161, 

164,  166,  168,  192,  193 
HilK»,  260 
Hirchbergor,  86 
Himh,  Mar.  310 
Hirt.  209.  226 
HoOgAon,  466 
Hoffincvor,  86 
Holland,  Sir  Henry.  288 
Holmes,  O.  W.,  972,  374 
Hokt,  200 

Honl«y,  Bir  Victor.  468 
Hodson.  142 
Hoist,  82.  83,  84,  85 
Hyalop,  822 

lobeldar,  89 

JackKou,  J.,  15 

Jacob,  164 

James,  WiUlam,  35.  235, 306. 

358,  391,  397.  417,  419, 

420.  469 
Janet,  Paul,  402 


Jatiet,  Pierre,  35,  393,  417 

JendruQik,  83,  84 

JasMp.  164 

Jotre,  238 

Jolly.  209 

JoBft  da,  216.  225.  288,  34ft, 

360,  329,  427 
JounUm  17S 
Jotumie,  199 

Kant,  419 

Keen.  212.  217 

King,  164 

Kingabnry.  36,  169 

KingHtoQ.  233 

Kiroher,  156 

Kuory,  2-26 

Kocl),  209 

Kopp,  86 

KozQcholvski,  208 

Kraopetiu.  246 

Krtflt-Kbing.  vou,  68, 64,  70, 

83,  84.  85.  87,  103,   180, 

181,  209,  225,246 

Ladaine.  225,  227,  238,  346. 

248,  254,  386 
Laeoaec,  6 
Lafootaiuc.  22 
Lngrave,  Costa  de,  52 
Laiidgren.  231 
Laufeiiaticr.  209 
Lcgraud  du  Saulle,  348,  352 
Lebinaiin,  84,  810 
Lahr.  209 
LeinolDC,  190,  238 
Leaeqae,  246 
LerillaUi,  85 
Ll^heanlt,  A.  A.,  30,  35,  41.. 

53,57,  60,  61,62.63.  64. 

83.   153,  215.  237.  336, 

298,  299,  301,  307,  31u, 

314.  326,  340,  842,  348, 

427,  433 
Llegeais,   I.  34,  35.  64,  83, 

93,  115,325,  898 
Lieotanl,  172 
Ufibt,  164 
Uiiter,  164 
Littlewood.  164.  168 
Lodge.  Sir  Oliver  J.,  85 
Lojan,  172 
Loinbroio,  35 
Lcivenfeld.  86.  309 
Lny»,  43.  49,  63.  299,  301, 

497 

HttMk,  309 
MabOIe.  83 
MacalUtar,  A.,  85 
MMdooald.  Orevilk  95 


I 


AUTHORS  AND  AUTHORITIES  REFERRED    TO       477 


Msddock.  Sir  Herbert.  H 

Magnu,  2i6.  2iS 

.^lagoio.  266 

Manindon  de  ^loDthjel,  190 

Mnret.^  246,  247 

Mnrcs.  81 

JIarot.  232 

IklavToakjikU.  200.  245 

Mnyn,  Thonum,  382 

MazoU,  173 

MeudAl,  S63 

Blumer,  1, 3.  40, 53, 343  36(; 

Mesnet,  171 

M«)-Lort,  246,  358 

M'Uill,  164 

Miude,  S6 

Michael,  203 

Mitchell,  Weir.  335 

M'KeDdricli,  302 

Moll.  Albert,  1,  34.  48.  63. 

04.  65,  66,  6a,  70,  71.  75. 

70,  77.  78,  79.  80,  82,  87, 

93.  94.  98.  103,  105,  10i>, 

111,  112,  1S3,  297,  804, 

310,  344,  351.  354,  350, 

357.  858.  426,  427 
Mortal,  246.  247.  248 
M'lrier,  61,  224 
Moritz,  86 
Moimtt.  F.,  15 
Nfnynibiin,  164 
MQollar.  86,  209 
Myerm,  A.  T..  142,  216,  428, 

433,  468 
My«»,  F.  W.  H^  35,  142, 

337.  339,  859,  361.  364. 

866,  375,  376,  378,  390. 

397,  415,436,  437,  438 

Naef,  384 

NeilMO.  208.  225 

Ntcol.  IleodenoD.  164,  168 

Offner,  S6 
Oliver,  200 

O'Sbaughnessy,  15,  45,  2^Z 
Oagood,  Uuailtoa,  225,  262, 

266 
OxutDe,  205 

Pftget,  Stephen,  182 
I'mrisb,  86 
Parker.  9 
Wrkins,  287 
Perrooaet,  CUade,  69 
Pinal,  246 
Pitrai,  64,  329 
Poarrlire.  172 
Pnyw,  W..  27,  167 
PriDB*.  Mortoa,  103,394.417 
Prltchird.  Eric.  207 


PriUl.  170 
Pronst,  383 

fUnuey,  35 
R*'gis,  238 

ReicheQbach,  286 

Reuiond,  62 

Reotarsheni,  r&u,  43,  57.  60, 

61,65,174.  1 1>0, 208,  209, 

210,  226,  245 
K*-pi)iiii.  21a.  219 
Kibokoff,  225 
Ribot,   Th.,   35,  253.   256, 

414 
Richer,  Paul.  76 
Ricbet,  Charles.  34,  35.  43 
Richter,  329 
Hieger.  358,  379 
Uw«ler.  251 
KiraL,  45,  69 

Riogier,  61.  203,  238,  262 
lUtzmanu,  208 
Kobertaotu   George.  36,  37. 

216,  217.  219 
Robfitsori,  Rtlmand,  164 
RobfiOD,  H..  164 
Robmn,    Mayo,    164,    106, 

168,  264 
Roe.  194,  207 
Romberg,  Mtf 
Rootne,  187 
Roaentbsl.  209 
Rubbo,  172 
Ruhiuovitcb.  216 
Uu  dinger.  86 
Kybnlkin,  63 

Stinibary,  179,  205 

Salrioli,  306 

Saodberg,  174 

Saulle,  Legrand  du,  248.  252 

Savigu,  210.  SU.  234,  387, 

404 
Scattergood,    Tliomu,    164, 

167 
SchmelU,  173 
Schmidt,  191 
Scholz,  191,  246 
Schrenck-Notriog,  voii,  35, 

45,  47,  48,^7,60.61,08, 

60,70.73.83.85.86,  170, 

175,  207,  309,  225,  238. 

246.  304 
SohtllD,  246 
Sch  venter,  158 
Senul.  358 
Setoo,  204 
Sharbara,  164 
ShiiMham.  205 
Sidgwlck.    Heary,  35,   142, 

436,  468 


Sidis.  304 

Simon,  JniM,  27 

Simpson.  Sir  J.  Y.,  20,289 

Sims.  O.  R.,  382 

Smith,  Percy,  216.  428 

Spehl.  260 

8p«u»r,  Herbert  12 

Spitta,  310 

StMielmauD,  191,  208,  200, 

266 
Stetnlx),  181,  191 
Stewart,  15.  183 
Stewart,  Balfour,  36 
Storgia,  Rosull,  245 
Sully,  310 
Swab,  19S 
Symes.  14 

Tinzi.  232 

Tatiel,  181.  160,  209,  225 

Teale,  Pridgin,  164,  167 

T^moin,  173 

Tetiaoher,  238 

TbompsoD,  Pnser,  £0 

ThompeoQ,  R.,  15 

ThoQUon,  J.  J^  35 

Tborhnru,  277 

Tllloans.  172 

TUIoy.  H«rl>crt,  200 

Toitrette,  Cillcsdola,  76,  329 

■rrevellvan.  164 

Tackey,  Lloyd,  36.  71.  208 

Tako,   Hock.  96.  231.  246. 

254,  306,  358,  387 
Turner,  Arthur.  162,  166 
TVimer,  164 

Valentin,  209 
Vebmdar,  214 
Velpeau,  27,  80 
Venn,  J.,  35 
Verworn,  157 
Vlamuoa.  325 
Voft,  Okw.  72 
VatslD.43.82. 19&199.206. 

206,  209,  212,  217,  220. 

225,  232,  286.  238,  246, 

260,  269 

Wafte,  28 

W'all«r,  82,  85.  312 

Wiire,  230 

Wakley,  2S7 

Waliivr,  223 

Wanl.  Edwanl.  10,  164 

WatteTllle,  de.  44.  119,182. 

188,  188.  243,  258.  260 
Waylea,  164 
Webli,  19 
Westpba],  246.  268 
Wutterstrand,  35.  43,  47,  53, 

57.  61,  62.  65.  06,  08,  69. 


478 


HYPNOTISM 


71,  155,  170,  181,  199, 
208,  209.  225,  229,  288, 
245,  259,  260,  262,  269, 
299,  427 

WUle,  248 

Williams,  Bold,  185 

Williams,  Talcott,  356 

WUliamson,  456 


Wilson,  Albert,  380 

Wilson,  465 

Wingfleld,  Hugh,  61,  62,  96, 

298,  299 
Wonnacott,  204 
Wood,  6, 164 
Wood,  Edward,  174 
Wood,  Outterson,  96,  428 


Woods,  217,  259 
Wundt,  156 

••X,"  364,  427,428,480 

YeUowlees,  387 

Ziemssen,  358 


THE   END 


Pnnt€dbyV..  &  R.  Clark,  Lihitkd,  Edinburgh 


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