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THE 

IMPERIAL  GAZETTEER 

OF  INDIA 


VOL.    XXI 


PUSHKAR  TO  SALWEEN 


NEW  EDITION 

PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  HIS  MAJESTY'S 
SECRETARY  OF  STATE  FOR  INDIA  IN  COUNCIL 


t  >  >  jii  u  Mt^^^wi  mm.vKtmM9* 


MICROFORMED  BY 
PRESERVATION 

MAR  0  3  1987 


DATE 


OXFORD 

AT   THE    CLARENDON   PRESS 

1908 


HENRY  FROWDE,  M.A. 

PUBLISHER   TO  THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  OXFORD 

LONDON,  EDINBURGH 

NEW  YORK   AND  TORONTO 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTES 

Notes  on  Transliteration 

Vowel-Sounds 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  *  woman.* 
a  has  the  sound  of  a  in  '  father.' 
e  has  the  vowel-sound  in  *  grey.' 
i  has  the  sound  of  /  in  '  pin.' 
I  has  the  sound  of  /  in  '  poHce.' 
o  has  the  sound  of  <?  in  '  bone.' 
u  has  the  sound  of  ii  in  '  bull.' 
u  has  the  sound  of  u  in  '  flute.' 
ai  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  mine.' 
au  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  house.' 

It  should  be  stated  that  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  distinguish 
between  the  long  and  short  sounds  of  e  and  o  in  the  Dravidian 
languages,  which  possess  the  vowel-sounds  in  '  bet '  and  '  hot '  in 
addition  to  those  given  above.  Nor  has  it  been  thought  necessary 
to  mark  vowels  as  long  in  cases  where  mistakes  in  pronunciation 
were  not  likely  to  be  made. 

Consonants 

Most  Indian  languages  have  different  forms  for  a  number  of  con- 
sonants, such  as  d^  t,  r^  &c.,  marked  in  scientific  works  by  the  use 
of  dots  or  italics.  As  the  European  ear  distinguishes  these  with 
difficulty  in  ordinary  pronunciation,  it  has  been  considered  undesir- 
able to  embarrass  the  reader  with  them  ;  and  only  two  notes  are 
required.  In  the  first  place,  the  Arabic  k,  a  strong  guttural,  has 
been  represented  by  k  instead  of  q,  which  is  often  used.  Secondly, 
it  should  be  remarked  that  aspirated  consonants  are  common ;  and, 
in  particular,  dh  and  th  (except  in  Burma)  never  have  the  sound  of 
///  in  'this'  or  'thin,'  but  should  be  pronounced  as  in  'woodhouse' 

and  '  boathook.' 

A3 


iv  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

Burmese   Words 

Burmese  and  some  of  the  languages  on  the  frontier  of  China  have 
the  following  special  sounds  : — 

aw  has  the  vowel-sound  in  '  law.' 
6  and  ii  are  pronounced  as  in  German, 
gy  is  pronounced  almost  like  j  in  *  jewel.' 
ky  is  pronounced  almost  like  ch  in  '  church.* 
th  is  pronounced  in  some  cases  as  in  '  this,'  in  some  cases  as  in 

•  thin.' 
w  after  a  consonant  has  the  force  of  ttw.     Thus,  yiva  and  pwe 
are  disyllables,  pronounced  as  if  written  jwjf^  and/z/zf^. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that,  whereas  in  Indian  words  the  accent 
or  stress  is  distributed  almost  equally  on  each  syllable,  in  Burmese 
there  is  a  tendency  to  throw  special  stress  on  the  last  syllable. 

General 

The  names  of  some  places — e.g.  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Lucknow, 
Cawnpore — have  obtained  a  popular  fixity  of  spelling,  while  special 
forms  have  been  officially  prescribed  for  others.  Names  of  persons 
are  often  spelt  and  pronounced  differently  in  different  parts  of  India  ; 
but  the  variations  have  been  made  as  few  as  possible  by  assimilating 
forms  almost  alike,  especially  where  a  particular  spelling  has  been 
generally  adopted  in  English  books. 

Notes  on  Money,  Prices,  Weights  and  Measures 

As  the  currency  of  India  is  based  upon  the  rupee,  all  statements 
with  regard  to  money  throughout  the  Gazetteer  have  necessarily  been 
expressed  in  rupees,  nor  has  it  been  found  possible  to  add  generally 
a  conversion  into  sterling.  Down  to  about  1873  ^^  go'^l  value  of 
the  rupee  (containing  165  grains  of  pure  silver)  was  approximately 
equal  to  25-.,  or  one-tenth  of  a  £  ;  and  for  that  period  it  is  easy  to 
convert  rupees  into  sterling  by  striking  off  the  final  cipher  (Rs.  1,000 
=  £100).  But  after  1873,  owing  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  as 
compared  with  gold  throughout  the  world,  there  came  a  serious  and 
progressive  fall  in  the  exchange,  until  at  one  time  the  gold  value  of 
the  rupee  dropped  as  low  as  \s.  In  order  to  provide  a  remedy  for 
the  heavy  loss  caused  to  the  Government  of  India  in  respect  of  its 
gold  payments  to  be  made  in  England,  and  also  to  relieve  foreign 
trade  and  finance  from  the  inconvenience  due  to  constant  and 
unforeseen  fluctuations  in  exchange,  it  was  resolved  in  1893  to  close 
the  mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  thus  force  up  the  value  of 
the  rupee  by  restricting  the  circulation.     The  intention  was  to  raise 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTES  v 

the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee  to  \s.  4^.,  and  then  introduce  a  gold 
standard  (though  not  necessarily  a  gold  currency)  at  the  rate  of  Rs.  1 5 
=  £1.  This  policy  has  been  completely  successful.  From  1899  on- 
wards the  value  of  the  rupee  has  been  maintained,  with  insignificant 
fluctuations,  at  the  proposed  rate  of  i^.  4^. ;  and  consequently  since 
that  date  three  rupees  have  been  equivalent  to  two  rupees  before  1873. 
For  the  intermediate  period,  between  1873  and  1899,  it  is  manifestly 
impossible  to  adopt  any  fixed  sterling  value  for  a  constantly  changing 
rupee.  But  since  1899,  if  it  is  desired  to  convert  rupees  into  sterling, 
not  only  must  the  final  cipher  be  struck  off  (as  before  1873),  but 
also  one-third  must  be  subtracted  from  the  result.  Thus  Rs.  1,000 
=  £100— -I  =  (about)  £67. 

Another  matter  in  connexion  with  the  expression  of  money  state- 
ments in  terms  of  rupees  requires  to  be  explained.  The  method  of 
numerical  notation  in  India  differs  from  that  which  prevails  through- 
out Europe.  Large  numbers  are  not  punctuated  in  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands and  millions,  but  in  lakhs  and  crores.  A  lakh  is  one  hundred 
thousand  (written  out  as  1,00,000),  and  a  crore  is  one  hundred  lakhs 
or  ten  millions  (written  out  as  1,00,00,000).  Consequently,  accord- 
ing to  the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee,  a  lakh  of  rupees  (Rs.  1,00,000) 
may  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of  £10,000  before  1873,  and  as  the 
equivalent  of  (about)  £6,667  after  1899;  while  a  crore  of  rupees 
(Rs.  1,00,00,600)  may  similarly  be  read  as  the  equivalent  of 
£1,000,000  before  1873,  and  as  the  equivalent  of  (about)  £666,667 
after  1899. 

Finally,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  rupee  is  divided  into 
16  annas,  a  fraction  commonly  used  for  many  purposes  by  both 
natives  and  Europeans.  The  anna  was  formerly  reckoned  as  \\d. ; 
it  may  now  be  considered  as  exactly  corresponding  to  \d.  The 
anna  is  again  subdivided  into  12  pies. 

The  various  systems  of  weights  used  in  India  combine  uniformity 
of  scale  with  immense  variations  in  the  weight  of  units.  The  scale 
used  generally  throughout  Northern  India,  and  less  commonly  in 
Madras  and  Bombay,  may  be  thus  expressed  :  one  maund  =  40  seers  ; 
one  seer  =  16  chittaks  or  80  tolas.  The  actual  weight  of  a  seer 
varies  greatly  from  District  to  District,  and  even  from  village  to 
village  ;  but  in  the  standard  system  the  tola  is  180  grains  Troy 
(the  exact  weight  of  the  rupee),  and  the  seer  thus  weighs  2-057  lb., 
and  the  maund  82-28  lb.  This  standard  is  used  in  official  reports 
and  throughout  the  Gazetteer. 

For  calculating  retail  prices,  the  universal  custom  in  India  is  to 
express  them  in  te»-ms  of  seers  to  the  rupee.  Thus,  when  prices 
change,  what  varies  is  not  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid  for  the 


vi  INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

same  quantity,  but  the  quantity  to  be  obtained  for  the  same  amount 
of  money.  In  other  words,  prices  in  India  are  quantity  prices,  not 
money  prices.  When  the  figure  of  quantity  goes  up,  this  of  course 
means  that  the  price  has  gone  down,  which  is  at  first  sight  perplexing 
to  an  English  reader.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  quantity 
prices  are  not  altogether  unknown  in  England,  especially  at  small 
shops,  where  pennyworths  of  many  groceries  can  be  bought.  Eggs, 
likewise,  are  commonly  sold  at  a  varying  number  for  the  shilling. 
If  it  be  desired  to  convert  quantity  prices  from  Indian  into  English 
denominations  without  having  recourse  to  money  prices  (which  would 
often  be  misleading),  the  following  scale  may  be  adopted— based 
upon  the  assumptions  that  a  seer  is  exactly  2  lb.,  and  that  the  value 
of  the  rupee  remains  constant  at  \s.  A,d. ;  i  seer  per  rupee  =  (about) 
3  lb.  for  2s. ;  2  seers  per  rupee  =  (about)  6  lb.  for  2s. ;  and  so  on. 

The  name  of  the  unit  for  square  measurement  in  India  generall) 
is  the  b'lgha,  which  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
But  areas  have  always  been  expressed  throughout  the  Gazetteer  either 
in  square  miles  or  in  acres. 


MAP 

Rajputana to  face  p.  154 


IMPERIAL    GAZETTEER 
OF    INDIA 

VOLUME    XXI 

Pushkar. — Town,  lake,  and  place  of  pilgrimage  in  Ajmer  District, 
Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  29'  N.  and  74°  33'  E.^  2,389  feet  above 
sea-level.  Population  (1901),  3,831,  nearly  all  Hindus.  Pushkar  is 
said  commonly  (but  erroneously)  to  be  the  only  town  in  India  that 
contains  a  temple  dedicated  to  Brahma,  who  here  performed  the  sacri- 
fice known  as  yajna,  whereby  the  lake  of  Pushkar  became  so  holy  that 
the  greatest  sinner,  by  bathing  in  it,  earns  the  delights  of  Paradise. 
The  town  contains  five  principal  temples,  dedicated  to  Brahma,  Savitri, 
Badri  Narayan,  Varha,  and  Siva  Atmateswara  ;  but  they  are  of  modern 
construction,  as  the  earlier  buildings  suffered  severely  under  Aurangzeb. 
Bathing  ghdis  line  the  lake,  and  many  of  the  princely  families  of  Raj- 
putana have  houses  round  the  margin.  No  living  thing  may  be  put  to 
death  within  the  limits  of  the  town.  A  great  fair  is  held  in  October 
and  November,  attended  by  about  100,000  pilgrims,  who  bathe  in  the 
sacred  lake.  At  this  time  there  is  a  large  trade  in  horses,  camels, 
bullocks,  and  miscellaneous  merchandise. 

Pushpagiri. — Village  and  hill  on  the  Madras-Mysore  border.     See 

SUBRAHMANYA. 

Puttur  Subdivision.  —  Subdivision  of  South  Kanara  District, 
Madras,  consisting  of  the  Uppinangadi  and  Kasaragod  taluks. 

Puttiir  Tahsil. — Zamindari  tahsil  in  North  Arcot  District,  Madras, 
consisting  of  the  northern  half  of  the  Karvetnagar  zavilnddri.  Area, 
542  square  miles  ;  population  in  1901,  170,235,  compared  with  155,546 
in  1 89 1.     It  contains  340  villages,  the  head-quarters  being  Puttur. 

Puttur  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  Uppinangadi  subdivision 
and  tdhik  of  South  Kanara  District,  Madras,  situated  in  12°  46"  N. 
and  75°  12'  E.  Population  (1901),  3,999.  The  surrounding  country 
belonged  to  Coorg,  and  after  the  Coorg  rebellion  of  1837  troops  were 
stationed  here  till    i860. 

Pyapalli. — Town  in  the  Pattikonda  taluk  of  Kurnool  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  15°  14'  N.  and  77°  44'  E.,  at  the  foot  of  a  granite 
hill,   on  the  trunk  road   from   Bangalore  and  Gooty   to   Hyderabad. 


2  P  YAP  ALU 

This  is  the  highest  town  in  the  District,  being  about  1,750  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  is  probably  the  healthiest  station.  Population  (1901), 
3,666.  It  is  the  head-quarters  of  a  deputy-Za/z.^/A/rt?'.  There  is  a  good 
travellers'  bungalow  situated  in  a  fine  tope  planted  by  Mr.  Robertson, 
a  former  Collector.  The  representatives  of  the  ancient  poligdrs  who 
built  the  town  and  fort  still  reside  here,  and  draw  pensions  from 
Government. 

Pyapon  District. — A  sea-board  delta  District  in  the  Irrawaddy 
Division  of  Lower  Burma,  lying  along  the  Gulf  of  Martaban,  between 
15°  40'  and  16°  41'  N.  and  95°  6'  and  96°  6'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,137 
square  miles.  In  shape  it  is  a  truncated  triangle,  the  sides  being  the 
Irrawaddy  on  the  west  and  the  To  or  China  Bakir  river  on  the  east, 
while  the  base  is  formed  by  the  sea-coast,  which  has  a  general  south- 
west to  north-east  direction.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Hantha- 
waddy  District ;  on  the  west  by  Myaungmya  ;  and  on  the  north  by 
Ma-ubin.     The  entire  area  consists  of  a  vast  plain,  intersected  by  tidal 

creeks  and  waterways.     ^Vith  the  exception  of  some 
T^^^^  very  small  areas  called  kondans,   the  whole  of  this 

level  IS  subject  to  mundation  at  high  sprmg-tides, 
and  a  good  deal  is  submerged  throughout  the  monsoon  period.  The 
kondans  are  narrow  strips  of  land,  about  4  to  10  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  plain,  on  which  the  soil  is  dry  and  sandy.  They  are  supposed  to 
be  the  remnants  of  old  sea-beaches.  The  rivers  are  all  tidal,  and  form 
the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  network  of  waters  by  which  the  Irra- 
waddy finds  its  way  into  the  Gulf  of  Martaban.  That  river,  running 
southwards  to  the  sea,  bounds  the  District  on  the  west,  except  in  one 
place  where  Myaungmya  District  extends  east  of  the  stream.  It  is 
navigable  by  river  craft  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  To  river  (or 
China  Bakir)  takes  off  from  the  Irrawaddy  in  Ma-ubin  District,  and 
runs  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  separating  Pyapon  from  Hantha- 
waddy.  Four  miles  below  Dedaye  it  spreads  into  a  secondary  delta,  its 
two  western  branches  being  called  the  Donyan  and  Thandi  rivers,  both 
wide  but  of  little  importance.  Into  the  To  river  itself  (the  eastern 
branch),  at  the  extreme  south-east  corner  of  the  District,  flows  the 
Thakutpin  or  Bassein  creek,  a  tidal  waterway  which  gives  river  com- 
munication with  Rangoon.  In  Ma-ubin  District,  about  20  miles  below 
the  point  where  the  To  river  leaves  the  Irrawaddy,  the  Kyaiklat  river 
branches  off  from  the  To,  and  flows  in  a  southerly  direction,  past 
Kyaiklat  and  Pyapon,  into  the  sea.  In  the  latter  part  of  its  course 
it  is  called  the  Pyapon  river.  A  few  miles  below  Kyaiklat  the  Gon- 
nyindan  stream  takes  off  from  the  Kyaiklat  river,  and  flows  first  south- 
west as  far  as  Bogale,  where  it  is  connected  by  various  creeks  with  the 
Irrawaddy,  and  thence  almost  due  south  into  the  sea  at  Pyindaye, 
under  the  name  of  the  Dala  river.     Its  lower  reaches  are  separated 


PYAPON  DISTRICT  3 

from  those  of  the  Irravvaddy  by  two  large  islands  which  are  covered 
with  fuel  reserves.  Besides  these  more  important  channels,  the  District 
possesses  countless  tidal  creeks — the  Uyin,  Podok,  Wayakaing,  and 
others — which  convert  it  into  a  maze  of  muddy  channels. 

The  geological  and  botanical  features  of  Pyapon  are  the  same  as  are 
noticed  under  Hanthawaddv  District.  The  soil  is  mainly  alluvium 
and  the  jungle  vegetation  is  largely  swamp. 

The  tiger  and  the  elephant  are  practically  confined  to  the  uncleared 
areas  in  the  south,  where  there  are  also  herds  of  wild  buffalo,  wild  hog, 
and  hog  deer.  Crocodiles  are  not  uncommon  in  the  creeks,  and  turtles 
abound  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  on  the  sandbanks  along  the 
southern  coast. 

The  climate,  though  damp  and  depressing,  is  healthy,  and  the 
proximity  of  the  sea  renders  the  temperature  equable.  The  average 
minimum  temperature  throughout  the  year  is  about  65°,  the  average 
maximum  95°,  and  the  average  mean  about  80°.  One  of  the  results  of 
the  proximity  of  the  Gulf  of  Martaban  is  that  the  winds  are  decidedly 
stronger  than  farther  inland.  The  country  enjoys  a  regular  and 
copious  rainfall,  rather  in  excess  of  the  mean  for  the  delta.  The 
annual  average  is  about  95  inches,  decreasing  towards  the  north  in  the 
areas  farthest  removed  from  the  coast. 

The  District  as  at  present  constituted  is  of  modern  creation,  having 
been  taken  in  1903  from  Thongwa  (now  Ma-ubin)  District,  which  itself 
only  dates  back  to  1875.  Until  recent  times  the 
country  was  a  stretch  of  unreclaimed  jungle,  the  only 
indications  of  an  earlier  civilization  being  in  the  south-west.  The 
village  of  Eya,  from  which  the  Irrawaddy  takes  its  name,  is  now  an 
insignificant  hamlet,  though  it  must  have  been  a  place  of  no  little 
repute  in  bygone  days.  Of  historical  remains  there  are  practically 
none.  The  most  ancient  and  revered  pagoda  is  that  known  as  the 
Tawkyat  at  Dedaye,  and  even  this  is  supposed  to  be  not  more  than 
a  hundred  years  old. 

Owing   to  various  minor  alterations    in    the   township   boundaries, 

exact  figures  for  the  population  of  the  area  now  composing  the  District 

are  not  obtainable  for  past  years.     In  1881  the  whole       ^       ,  ^. 
,^.      .      ^  ,  ,.    ,  ,  -1  1  •       r       Population. 

District  formed  little  more  than  a  smgle  township  oi 

Thongwa,  with  a  population  of  about  97,000.     In  1891  this  total  had 

increased  to  about  139,000,  and  in  1901  to  226,443,  a  rate  of  growth 

exceptional  even  for  Burma. 

The  distribution  according  to  the  Census  of  1901  is  shown  in  the 
table  on  the  next  page. 

The  only  towns  are  Pyapon,  the  head-quarters  of  the  District, 
Kyaiklat,  and  Dedaye.  The  increase  in  the  northern  part  has  been 
normal ;  but  in  the  two  southern  townships  the  growth  of  population 


PYAPON  DISTRICT 


has  been  extraordinarily  rapid,  reaching  350  per  cent,  in  the  sea-board 
township  of  Bogale.  Its  rapidity  is  due  to  immigration  into  the  low- 
lying  waste  areas,  where  fresh  land  is  constantly  being  brought  under 
the  plough.  The  influx  has  been  mainly  from  Hanthawaddy  and 
Henzada  in  Lower  Burma,  and  from  Minbu,  Myingyan,  and  Mandalay 
in  Upper  Burma ;  but  Indian  immigrants  are  also  numerous.  Though 
the  inland  portions  are  densely  populated,  the  southern  tracts  washed 
by  the  sea  have  comparatively  few  inhabitants,  large  areas  in  fact  being 
absolutely  uninhabited.  Burmese  is  spoken  by  200,000  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  Karen  by  15,000. 


Township. 

Is 
< 

Number  of 

Population 
in  ifjoi. 

Population  per 
square  mi  e. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  igoi. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 

!£ 

0 
H 

Villages. 

Pyapon 
Bogale 
Kyaiklat   . 
Dedaye 

District  total 

431 

'.057 

277 

372 

I 

1 
I 

157 
272 

394 
312 

43.922 

43.756 
71,770 
66,995 

102 

41 

2.'i9 
180 

106 

+    80 
+  350 

+    51 

+    iS 

16,598 
25,680 
20,100 
19.552 

2,137 

3 

1.135 

226,443 

+  63 

81,930 

Burmans  form  88  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Karens,  num- 
bering about  15,000,  inhabit  the  northern  portions,  especially  the 
Kyaiklat  township.  The  Indian  population  is  made  up  of  about  2,100 
Musalmans  and  6,600  Hindus,  and  is  increasing  steadily.  The  num- 
ber of  persons  dependent  upon  agriculture  is  74  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population.     The  number  of  fishermen  is  large. 

Till  recently  there  have  been  no  Christian  missionaries  at  work, 
though  a  considerable  body  of  Karen  converts  live  in  the  Kyaiklat  and 
Bogale  townships.  The  number  of  Christians  in  1901  was  about 
4,900.  Of  these  4,800  were  native  Christians,  most  of  whom  were 
Baptists. 

The  soil  resembles  that  common  to  the  other  lower  delta  Districts 
of  the  Province.  It  is  a  stiff  homogeneous  clay,  deficient  in  lime,  but 
admirably  adapted  to  rice  cultivation.  The  greater 
part  of  the  cultivated  area  is  inundated,  and  a  con- 
siderable portion  is  but  seldom  systematically  ploughed,  the  long  kaing 
grass  with  which  it  is  covered  being  cut  down  and  burnt,  and  the  rice 
sown  broadcast.  As  the  rivers  deposit  large  quantities  of  silt,  the  land 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  their  channels  is  at  a  higher  level 
than  the  interior.  During  the  rains  the  country  consists  to  a  large 
extent  of  vast  lakes,  in  which  patches  of  higher  ground  appear  as 
islands.  Large  areas  of  land  between  the  main  rivers  lie  too  low  for 
rice  cultivation,  and  remain  untilled  swamps. 


Agriculture. 


FISHERIES 


The    main  agricultural  statistics    for   1903-4  are  as  follows,    areas 
being  shown  in  square  miles  : — 


Township. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Forests. 

Pyapon     .... 
Bogale      .... 
Kyaiklat  .... 
Dedaye     .... 

431 

277 
372 

191 

155 
219 

270 

-       558 

•  Total 

2,137 

835                     558 

Accurate  statistics  of  the  area  cultivated  in  years  previous  to  1903-4 
are  not  available.  It  is  estimated  that  in  1891  about  350  square  miles 
were  cropped,  and  this  area  had  increased  to  769  square  miles  by 
1 90 1.  In  1903-4  rice  covered  822  square  miles  of  the  total.  None 
but  kaukkyi  (wet-season)  rice  can  be  grown.  A  certain  amount  of 
garden  cultivation  is  carried  on  near  the  river-banks  on  the  richer 
soil  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  District,  in  Kyaiklat  and  Dedaye. 
The  gardens  cover  3,100  acres,  the  greater  part  being  plantains,  though 
coco-nut  and  betel-nut  palms  are  also  grown.  The  dani  palm  is  cul- 
tivated along  the  sides  of  the  creeks,  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
District  especially,  covering  5,000  acres.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco 
is  insignificant. 

Little  is  done  to  improve  the  systems  of  cultivation.  Loans  are  not 
required  for  agricultural  purposes,  although  they  are  taken  by  the 
cultivating  classes  from  money-lenders  for  all  sorts  of  extravagances, 
with  the  result  that  land  is  gradually  passing  into  the  hands  of  non- 
resident landlords.  The  large  area  of  cultivable  land  still  unoccupied 
and  the  scarcity  of  labour  keep  rents  low  at  present,  but  the  time  is 
not  far  off  when  these  conditions  will  be  less  favourable. 

Domestic  animals  are  not  bred  in  any  number  :  they  are  usually 
imported,  largely  from  Upper  Burma.  The  moist  climate  and  the 
swampy  character  of  the  land  cause  buffaloes  to  be  used  in  preference 
to  kine,  as  a  rule.  Goats  are  few,  and  ponies  are  rarely  kept,  owing  to 
the  poverty  of  land  communications. 

The  numerous  fisheries,  which  have  been  described  in  considerable 
detail  in  a  recent  report  by  Major  F.  D.  Maxwell,  yielded  a  revenue  of 
more  than  \\  lakhs  in  1903-4.     The  most   impor-  . 

tant  of  the  inland  fisheries  lie  in  the  north  of  the 
District,  in  the  area  enclosed  by  the  To,  the  Kyaiklat,  and  the  Podok 
streams.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  out-turn  leaves  Pyapon  in  the 
shape  of  ngapi  (fish-paste).  Turtle-beds  abound  along  the  sea-coast 
in  the  south,  and  yield  large  numbers  of  turtle-eggs  annually.  The 
variety  of  turtle  found  is  that  known  as  the  loggerhead  ;  the  green 
turtle  does  not  frequent  the  Pyapon  banks,  of  which  the  two  best 
known  are  the  Thaungkadun  and  the  Kaingthaung. 


6  PYAPON  DISTRICT 

A  considerable  stretch  of  'reserved'  forests  occupies  558  square 
miles  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Bogale  township.  The  forests 
have  been  reserved  chiefly  as  a  precaution  against 
scarcity  of  fuel  in  the  future ;  they  are  tidal  and 
contain  no  timber  trees  of  any  value.  The  chief  forest  trees  found  in 
them  are  the  kyanan  {Xylocarpiis  Granatum),  the  kanazo  {Heritiera 
iiiinor),  the  kanbala  {Sonneratia  apetala)^  the  pyu  {^Rhizophora  conjii- 
gata),  the  laba  {Bignonia),  and  the  tamu  {Sonneratia  acida),  all  tropical 
mangrove  forest  trees.  The  thinbaiing  {Phoenix  paludosa),  a  small 
palm,  grows  freely  in  the  District,  and  is  largely  used  for  building 
purposes.  On  the  coast  a  common  species  is  the  tayaw  {Excoecaria 
Agal/ocha).  The  dani  palm  {Nipa  fruticans)  and  the  danon  {Calamus 
arborescens)  abound,  and  are  extensively  used  for  thatching.  The 
receipts  from  the  extraction  of  cane  and  other  minor  forest  products 
amounted  in  1903-4  to  Rs.  12,700. 

Within  recent  years  attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  rice-mills 

in  the  District.     At  present  five  are  working  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

the    principal    towns,    but   it    remains    to    be   seen 

ean  whether  they  will  prove  remunerative.     Besides  rice- 

commumcations.  ,     , 

milhng    and   the   preparation    of    ngapi    no  manu- 
factures of  importance  are  carried  on,  and  no  arts  are  practised. 

Paddy  and  ngapi  are  exported,  the  first  mainly  to  Rangoon,  the 
latter  principally  to  Upper  Burma.  Horns,  hides,  and  firewood  are 
sent  to  Rangoon,  the  latter  in  very  considerable  quantities.  The 
imports  comprise  the  usual  necessaries  of  an  agricultural  population — 
silk  and  cotton  goods,  kerosene  oil,  sugar,  salt,  jaggery,  pickled  tea, 
areca-nuts,  hardware,  and  crockery.  The  trade  is  all  carried  by  water, 
and  a  large  share  of  it  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla 
Company. 

The  network  of  rivers  and  creeks  spreading  over  the  District  gives 
ample  means  of  communication,  both  internal  and  external.  Outside 
the  towns  there  are  no  roads,  but  a  beginning  will  shortly  be  made  in 
road-making.  Launches  ply  daily  between  Rangoon  and  Pyapon  via 
Dedaye  and  Kyaiklat,  between  Yandoon  (in  Ma-ubin  District)  and 
Pyapon  via  Ma-ubin  and  Kyaiklat,  and  between  Kyaiklat  and  Bogale 
via  Pyapon.  Bi-weekly  steamers  run  from  Rangoon  to  Moulmeingyun 
in  Myaungmya  District  through  Dedaye,  Kyaiklat,  Pyapon,  and  Bogale, 
as  well  as  from  Rangoon  to  Kyaikpi,  in  Myaungmya  District,  and  to 
Pyindaye  in  the  dry  season.  All  these  services  are  maintained  by  the 
Irrawaddy  Plotilla  Company.  The  waterways  swarm  with  native  craft, 
and  at  most  of  the  principal  towns  ferries  across  the  rivers  are  con- 
trolled by  Government. 

The  District  is  divided  into  two  subdivisions :  Pyapon,  comprising 
the   PvAPON  and  Bogale  townships  :   and   Kyaiklat,   comprising  the 


ADMINISTRATION  7 

Kyaiklat  and  Dedaye  townships.     These  are  staffed  by  the  usual 
executive  ofificers,  under  whom  are  393  village  headmen  and  4  circle 

tkugyis.    For  public  works  purposes  the  District  forms 

uj-  •  •         r  ^u    TVT  A-  •  •  u-  T      1       Administration, 

a  subdivision  of  the  Myaungmya  division,  which  also 

includes  Ma-ubin  and  Myaungmya   Districts.     The  forests  lie  within 

the  Henzada-Thongwa  Forest  division,  the  head-quarters  of  which  are 

at  Henzada. 

Pyapon  is  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Judge  of  the  Delta  Division,  who 
tries  sessions  cases.  The  civil  work  of  the  District  is  dealt  with  by 
a  District  Judge,  who  has  his  head-quarters  at  Myaungmya,  and  also 
has  jurisdiction  in  Ma-ubin  District.  Two  officers  have  been  appointed 
judges  of  the  Bogale-^//;//-Pyapon  and  the  Kyaiklat-^?^w-Dedaye  town- 
ship courts  respectively,  to  relieve  the  township  officers  of  civil  work. 
Otherwise  the  local  executive  officers  preside  over  their  respective 
courts,  civil  and  criminal.  As  in  other  parts  of  the  delta,  crime  is 
considerable,  burglaries,  thefts,  and  serious  assaults  being  common. 
Violent  crime,  such  as  dacoity  and  robbery,  is  more  rife  than  in  the 
non-delta  Districts,  but  shows  signs  of  diminution.  Cattle-thieving,  an 
important  profession  in  the  Districts  north  and  east  of  the  delta,  is  not 
common,  the  reason  being  that  the  conformation  of  the  country  does 
not  lend  itself  to  the  operations  of  the  cattle-lifter.  In  a  large  number 
of  cases  of  serious  hurt  clasp-knives  are  used,  and  special  efforts  are 
being  made  to  bring  about  a  diminution  of  this  form  of  crime. 

Under  Burmese  rule  the  method  of  assessment  was,  as  in  the  rest  of 
the  delta  Districts,  based  on  the  number  of  yoke  of  plough  animals 
used  by  the  cultivator,  amounting  roughly  to  half  the  gross  out-turn. 
In  1868  acre  rates  were  introduced,  varying  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  2-4 
per  acre ;  and  these  continued  in  force  till  1891-2,  when  the  greater 
part  of  the  District  was  brought  under  settlement.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Bogale  township  was  omitted  from  this  settlement,  the  few 
cultivated  patches  in  the  huge  jungle  spreading  over  this  township 
continuing  to  be  taxed  at  a  uniform  rate  of  Rs.  2-4  per  acre.  Over 
the  rest  of  the  District  rice  land  was  assessed  at  rates  varying  from 
Rs.  I -1 2  on  the  poorest  inundated  lands  to  Rs.  3  on  lands  which 
were  always  certain  of  good  crops,  the  average  being  Rs.  2-6. 
Miscellaneous  crops  were  taxed  at  the  uniform  rate  of  Rs.  2,  and 
orchards  at  a  uniform  rate  of  Rs.  3  per  acre,  except  in  a  few  restricted 
localities  where  the  rate  was  only  Rs.  2-4.  Finally,  in  190 1-2  the 
Bogale  township  was  brought  under  settlement,  and  the  following  rates 
were  fixed :  on  rice  land,  from  Rs.  2-8  to  Rs.  5  per  acre ;  on  miscella- 
neous cultivation,  Rs.  2-4 ;  on  orchards,  Rs.  2-4 ;  on  betel-vines, 
Rs.  10;   on  da7ii  palms,  Rs.  5  per  acre. 

Rapid  as  has  been  the  growth  of  population  and  cultivation,  it 
has   been   slower   than   that   of  the   revenue.      The   following   table 


8 


PYAPON  DISTRICT 


shows,  in  thousands  of  rupees,  the  development  of  the  revenue  since 
1 880-1:— 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

190.^-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

2,00 
7,00 

5.00 
12,00 

1 2 ,00 
19,00 

12,27 
20,94 

The  total  revenue  in  1903-4  included  Rs.  2,11,000  from  capitation 
tax,  Rs.  1,86,000  from  fisheries,  and  no  less  than  Rs.  2,86,000  from 
opium  and  excise. 

The  income  of  the  District  cess  fund,  derived  mainly  from  a  10  per 
cent,  cess  on  the  land  revenue,  and  applied  to  various  local  needs, 
amounted  to  1-4  lakhs  in  1903-4.  The  only  municipality  is'  Pvapon. 
KvAiKLAT  is  at  present  under  a  town  committee,  but  is  shortly  to  be 
constituted  a  municipality. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  has  the  services  of  two 
Assistant  Superintendents,  who  are  in  charge  of  the  subdivisions  of 
Kyaiklat  and  Pyapon.  Under  these  officers  are  4  inspectors,  6  head 
constables,  26  sergeants,  and  134  constables.  No  mounted  men  are 
maintained,  but  2  sergeants  and  12  men  are  employed  in  boats.  The 
civil  police  are  distributed  in  5  police  stations  and  4  outposts,  as  well 
as  at  head-quarters.  The  military  police  number  150,  of  whom  80  are 
at  head-quarters,  25  at  Kyaiklat,  15  each  at  Dedaye  and  Bogale,  and 
15  at  Kyonmange  on  the  To  river,  about  9  or  10  miles  above  Dedaye. 
No  jail  has  been  built  at  Pyapon,  and  prisoners  are  sent  on  conviction 
to  the  Ma-ubin  jail. 

The  percentages  of  males  and  females  able  to  read  and  write  in  1901 
were  returned  at  52  and  9  respectively,  the  proportion  for  both  sexes 
being  36  ;  but  in  reality  the  condition  of  education  is  decidedly  back- 
ward, and  the  people  are  apathetic.  The  weakness  of  the  schools  is 
particularly  marked  in  the  case  of  the  monastic  seminaries,  and  is 
attributed  to  the  loss  of  influence  due  to  the  deterioration  in  character 
of  i\\Q  po?igyis.  The  lay  schools  are  at  present  somewhat  disorganized, 
but  the  recent  improvement  which  has  taken  place  in  the  position  of 
lay  teachers  will,  it  is  hoped,  bring  about  an  improvement  in  this  class 
of  education.  The  most  important  Buddhist  lay  schools  are  at  Pyapon 
and  Kyaiklat ;  and  the  most  advanced  monastic  seminaries  are  those 
at  Bogale,  Dedaye,  Thegon,  and  Kyaiklat,  which  teach  up  to  the 
middle  school  standards.  In  1904  the  District  contained  6  secondary, 
10 1  primary,  and  180  elementary  (private)  schools,  with  an  attendance 
of  5,111  boys  and  991  girls.  The  public  expenditure  on  education 
amounted  to  only  Rs.  7,000.  This  total  was  made  up  of  Rs.  4,800  from 
the  District  cess  fund  and  Rs.  2,200  from  the  Pyapon  town  fund. 

There  are  three  hospitals  and  a  dispensary,  with  accommodation  for 


PYAWBWE  9 

46  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  18,733, 
including  692  in-patients,  and  339  operations  were  performed.  The 
income  amounted  to  Rs.  10,500,  all  but  Rs.  500  from  subscriptions 
being  derived  from  the  District  cess  fund. 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  successful  vaccinations  was  1,883,  repre- 
senting 9  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[H.  M.  S.  Mathews,  Settlement  Report  (1893) ;  Major  F.  D.  Maxwell, 
Report  on  Inland  and  Sea  Fisheries  (1904).] 

Pyapon  Subdivision. — South-western  subdivision  of  Pyapon  Dis- 
trict, Lower  Burma,  comprising  the  Pyapon  and  Bogale  townships. 

Pyapon  Township. — Township  of  Pyapon  District,  Lower  Burma, 
lying  between  15°  47'  and  10°  25'  N.  and  95°  34'  and  95°  47'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  431  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Gonnyindan  river ;  on  the  east  by  the  Pyapon  river  ;  on  the  south  by 
the  sea ;  and  on  the  west  by  tidal  waterways  which  separate  it  from 
the  Bogale  township.  It  is  flat  and  typically  deltaic  throughout.  The 
population  increased  by  80  per  cent,  during  the  decade  ending  1901, 
at  the  close  of  which  period  it  had  reached  a  total  of  43,922,  dis- 
tributed in  one  town,  Pyapon  (population,  5,883),  the  head-quarters 
of  the  District  and  township,  and  157  villages.  In  1903-4  the  area 
cultivated  was  191  square  miles,  as  compared  with  56  square  miles  in 
1 89 1.     The  land  revenue  was  Rs.  3,75,000. 

Pyapon  To"wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same  name 
in  Lower  Burma,  situated  in  16°  18'  N.  and  95°  43''  E.,  in  low-lying 
country  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pyapon  river,  one  of  the  numerous 
outlets  of  the  Irrawaddy,  about  1 2  miles  from  the  coast.  Population 
(1901),  5,883.  It  was  formerly  the  head-quarters  of  a  subdivision,  and 
did  not  become  the  District  head-quarters  till  1903.  A  fair  proportion 
of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  fishing  industry.  Pyapon  stands 
very  little  above  the  level  of  the  river,  which  here  runs  between  muddy 
banks.  Its  affairs  were  managed  by  a  town  committee  from  1899  ^^ 
1905,  when  it  was  constituted  a  municipaUty.  The  revenue  of  the  town 
fund  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  30,000,  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  33,000, 
half  of  which  was  devoted  to  public  works.  Pyapon  contains  the 
usual  public  buildings,  a  hospital  with  18  beds,  and  several  schools. 

Pyawbwe. — Northern  township  of  Yamethin  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  almost  entirely  east  of  the  railway,  between  20°  30' and  20°  44'  N. 
and  95°  59"  and  96°  32'  E.,  with  an  area  of  324  square  miles.  The 
population  was  41,536  in  1891,  and  42,495  in  1901,  distributed  in  211 
villages.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Pyawbwe  (population,  6,379)  on  the 
railway.  The  greater  part  of  the  township  is  level  and  dry,  but  in  the 
east  on  the  borders  of  the  Shan  States  there  are  hills.  The  township 
contained  58  square  miles  under  cultivation  in  1903-4,  and  the  land 
revenue  and  thathatneda  amounted  to  Rs.  78,000. 


TO  PYINDAYE 

Pyindaye. — Old  township  in  Pyapon  District,  Lower  Burma.     See 

BOGALE. 

Pyinmana  Subdivision. — Southern  subdivision  of  Yamethin  Dis- 
trict, Upper  Burma,  comprising  the  Pyinmana  and  Lewe  townships. 

Pyinmana  Township. — Township  occupying  the  centre  and  south- 
east of  Yamethin  District,  Upper  Burma,  and  lying  between  19°  27' 
and  20°  21'  N.  and  95°  43'  and  96°  39'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,474  square 
miles.  The  population  increased  from  46,021  in  1891  to  61,578  in 
1901,  distributed  in  one  town,  Pyinmana  (population,  14,388),  the 
head-quarters,  and  308  villages.  In  the  hills  in  the  south-east  is  a 
Karen  colony  numbering  over  2,000.  The  township  may  be  described 
as  one  large  forest,  with  the  exception  of  the  immediate  surroundings 
of  Pyinmana  town,  and  small  patches  of  cultivation  near  the  villages 
and  streams.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  compared  with  that  of  the  northern 
subdivision.  The  township  contained  76  square  miles  under  cultiva- 
tion in  1903-4,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda  amounted  to 
Rs.  1,58,000. 

Pyinmana  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Yamethin  District,  Upper  Burma,  situated  in  19°  44'  N.  and 
96°  14'  E.,  on  the  Ngalaik  chaimg  and  the  Mandalay-Rangoon  railway, 
161  miles  from  Mandalay,  226  from  Rangoon,  and  49  from  the  District 
head-quarters  at  Yamethin.  Under  Burmese  rule  the  town  was  called 
Ningyan.  After  annexation  dacoities  were  frequent  in  the  neighbour- 
hood ;  in  fact  for  several  months  dacoits,  assisted  by  abundant  cover 
and  the  deep  mud  that  lay  everywhere,  practically  held  part  of  the 
urban  area.  The  town  is  built  on  either  side  of  the  railway  and  south 
of  the  Ngalaik  chaimg^  and  is  well  provided  with  roads.  The  popula- 
tion was  12,926  in  1891,  and  14,388  in  1901,  the  decade  having  been 
one  of  material  progress.  The  civil  station  is  situated  west  of  the 
native  town,  on  a  crescent  of  small  stony  hills  encircling  a  prettily 
situated  lake.  From  the  high  ground  near  the  courthouse  and  club 
a  very  picturesque  view  is  to  be  had  of  the  town,  half  hidden  in  tall 
coco-nut  palms,  and,  over  the  tree-tops,  of  the  taungya-'&ZQXQ.^  moun- 
tains to  the  east.  The  town  owes  its  prosperity  mainly  to  the  teak 
industry.  The  lessees  of  the  valuable  teak  forests  in  the  neighbourhood 
are  the  Bombay-Burma  Trading  Corporation,  which  at  one  time  had 
a  very  large  number  of  employes  at  Pyinmana.  The  town  is  a  flourish- 
ing trade  centre,  and  is  noted  for  its  pottery.  The  clay  used  in  its 
manufacture  is  of  a  darkish  grey  colour,  curiously  mottled  with  rust- 
coloured  spots,  and  is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Ngalaik  chaung. 
Patches  of  colour  are  applied  by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  clay  with 
pounded  sulphate  of  copper  or  blue  vitriol.  After  the  final  burning 
the  parts  so  treated  appear  green  on  a  yellow  ground,  a  colour  effect 
which  seems  to  appeal  to  the  aesthetic  sense  of  the  Burmans.    The 


PYUNTAZA  II 

glaze  is  obtained  by  the  application  of  pounded  slag  that  has  been 
mixed  with  rice-water  till  a  viscid  fluid  is  produced. 

Pyinmana  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1888.  The  municipal 
income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged 
between  Rs.  36,000  and  Rs.  37,000.  In  1903-4  the  receipts  were 
Rs.  45,700,  the  principal  sources  being  bazar  fees  (Rs.  30,000)  and 
house  and  land  tax  (Rs.  8,000).  The  expenditure  amounted  to 
Rs.  38,300,  Rs.  6,800  being  devoted  to  conservancy,  Rs.  6,600  to 
roads,  and  Rs.  4,800  to  the  hospital  and  dispensary. 

Pyintha. — Hill  township  in  the  south-east  corner  of  Mandalay 
District,  Upper  Burma,  lying  between  21*'  42'  and  21°  57'  N.  and 
96°  15'  and  96°  32'  E.,  with  an  area  of  190  square  miles,  for  the  most 
part  rugged  and  jungle-clad.  The  population  was  4,931  in  1891,  and 
4,295  in  1901,  distributed  in  54  villages,  Pyintha  (population,  235), 
28  miles  from  INIandalay  on  the  Lashio  road,  being  the  head-quarters. 
The  thathameda  collections  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  9,000. 

Pykara. — River  in  the  Nilgiri  District,  Madras.     See  Nilgiris. 

Pyu  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Toungoo  District,  Lower  Burma, 
containing  the  Pvu,  Oktwin,  and  Tantabin  townships,  with  head- 
quarters at  Pyu. 

Pyu  Township. — South-western  township  of  Toungoo  District, 
Lower  Burma,  lying  between  18°  15'  and  19°  9'  N.  and  95°  48'  and 
96°  41'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,589  square  miles.  It  is  a  very  large 
township,  extending  from  the  Sittang  to  the  Pegu  Yoma,  and  has 
developed  at  an  extraordinary  rate,  the  cropped  area  having  increased 
threefold  in  ten  years.  The  cultivated  plain  extends  for  from  one  to 
15  miles  west  of  the  Sittang,  and  the  railway  to  Rangoon  runs  through 
the  middle  of  it,  affording  easy  access  to  the  markets.  The  population 
was  45,201  in  1891,  and  85,416  in  1901  (including  6,987  Karens  and 
3,697  Shans),  distributed  in  484  villages,  the  head-quarters  being  at 
Pyu  (population,  1,127),  on  the  railway.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4 
was  250  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  3,78,000  land  revenue.  Owing  to 
its  unwieldy  size,  the  township  was  split  up  in  1905  into  Pyu  and 
Oktwin.  The  reduced  charge  has  an  area  of  943  square  miles  and 
a  population  (1901)  of  74,607. 

Pyuntaza. — Township  in  Pegu  District,  Lower  Burma,  lying  be- 
tween 17°  37'  and  18°  23'  N.  and  96°  o'  and  96°  53'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  1,443  square  miles.  The  population,  which  numbered  23,132  in 
1 89 1,  had  risen  in  1901  to  52,952,  thus  more  than  doubling  itself 
during  the  decade.  The  western  tracts  are  hilly ;  and,  in  spite  of  the 
populous  nature  of  the  flat  eastern  half,  the  average  density  in  190E 
was  only  37  persons  per  square  mile.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
Pyuntaza,  a  village  of  1,273  inhabitants  (1901),  on  the  railway  which 
passes  across  the  centre  of  the  low-lying  area.     The  total  number  of 

VOL.  XXI.  B 


12  PYUNTAZA 

villages  is  232.     The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  170  square  miles, 
paying  Rs.  2,58,600  land  revenue. 

Quetta-Pishin. — A  highland  District  of  Baluchistan,  lying  be- 
tween 29°  52'  and  31°  18'  N.  and  66°  15'  and  67°  48'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  5,127  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by 
Afghanistan ;  on  the  east  by  Zhob  and  Sibi  Districts ;  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Bolan  Pass  and  the  Mastung  nidbat  of  the  Kalat  State. 

The  District  consists  of  a  series  of  valleys  of  con- 
Physical         siderable    length    but    medium   width,   forming    the 

catchment  area  of  the  Pishin  Lora,  and  enclosed 
on  all  sides  by  the  mountains  of  the  Toba-Kakar  and  Central 
Brahui  ranges.  The  valleys  vary  in  elevation  from  4,500  to  5,500 
feet,  and  the  mountains  from  about  8,000  to  11,500  feet.  On  the 
north  lie  the  Toba  hills,  containing  the  fine  plateau  of  Loe  Toba  and 
Tablna.  This  range  sends  out  the  Khwaja  Amran  offshoot  south- 
ward to  form  the  western  boundary  of  the  District  under  the  name 
of  the  Sarlath.  On  the  east  a  barrier  is  formed  by  the  mass  of 
ZarghCm  (11,738  feet),  with  the  ranges  of  Takatu  (11,375  feet)  and 
Murdar  (10,398  feet).  Directly  to  the  south  lie  the  Chiltan  and 
Mashelakh  hills.  Besides  the  Pishin  Lora,  which,  with  its  tributaries, 
drains  the  greater  part  of  the  District,  the  only  river  of  importance 
is  the  Kadanai  on  the  north,  which  drains  the  Toba  plateau  and 
eventually  joins  the  Helmand  in  Afghanistan.  The  District  is  subject 
to  earthquakes.  Severe  shocks  occurred  in  December,  1892,  and  in 
March,   1902. 

Two  different  systems  of  hill  ranges  meet  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Quetta,  giving  rise  to  a  complicated  geological  structure.  The 
principal  rock  formations  belong  to  the  Permo-Carboniferous  ;  Upper 
Trias;  Lias;  Middle  Jurassic  (massive  limestone) ;  neocomian  (belemnite 
beds) ;  Upper  Cretaceous  (Dunghan) ;  Deccan  trap ;  middle  eocene 
(Khojak  shales,  Ghazij,  and  Spintangi) ;  oligocene  (Upper  Nari) ; 
middle  and  upper  miocene  (Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper  Siwaliks) ;  and 
a  vast  accumulation  of  sub-recent  and  recent  formations. 

Except  parts  of  the  Toba,  Zarghun,  and  Mashelakh  ranges,  the  hills 
are  almost  entirely  bare  of  trees.  In  the  valleys  are  orchards  of 
apricot,  almond,  peach,  pear,  pomegranate,  and  apple  trees,  protected 
by  belts  of  poplar,  willow,  and  siiijid  {Elaeagnus  angusti/o/ia).  The 
plane  {chindr)  gives  grateful  shade  in  Quetta.  In  spring  the  hill-sides 
become  covered  for  a  little  while  with  irises,  red  and  yellow  tulips,  and 
many  Astragali.  In  the  underground  water-channels  maiden-hair 
fern  is  found.  The  valley  basins  are  covered  with  a  scrub  jungle 
of  Artemisia  and  Haloxylon  Griffithii.  In  parts  Tamarix  gallica 
covers  the  ground,  and  salsolaceous  plants  are  frequent.  The  grasses 
are  chiefly  species  of  Broinus,  Foa,  and  Hordeum.     On  the  Khwaja 


Q  UE  TTA-PISHIN  t  3 

Amran  range  wild  rhubarb  {Rheum  Einodi)  is  found  in  years  of  good 
rainfall. 

The  '  reserved '  forests  in  Zarghun  form  a  welcome  breeding  ground 
for  mountain  sheep  and  mdrkhor,  but  elsewhere  they  are  decreasing 
in  numbers.  The  leopard  is  found  occasionally.  A  few  hares  are 
met  with  in  the  valleys.  Wolves  sometimes  cause  damage  to  the 
flocks  in  winter,  and  foxes  are  fairly  abundant.  Ducks  are  plentiful 
in  the  irrigation  tanks  in  Pishin.  Chikor  and  sisi  abound  in  years 
of  good  rainfall. 

The  climate  is  dry ;  dust-storms  are  common  in  the  spring  and 
summer  months,  especially  in  that  part  of  the  Chaman  subdivision 
which  borders  on  the  Registan  or  sandy  desert.  The  seasons  are 
well  marked,  the  spring  conmiencing  towards  the  end  of  March,  the 
summer  in  June,  the  autumn  in  September,  and  the  winter  in  December. 
Only  in  July  and  August  is  the  day  temperature  high  ;  the  nights  are 
always  cool.  The  mean  temperature  in  summer  is  78°  and  in  winter 
40°.  The  higher  elevations  are  covered  with  snow  in  winter,  when 
piercing  winds  blowing  off  the  hills  reduce  the  temperature  below 
freezing-point.  The  total  annual  rain  and  snowfall  varies  from  less 
than  7  inches  in  Chaman  to  io|  in  Quetta.  Most  of  it  is  received 
between  December  and  March. 

In  former  times  Pishin  was  known  as  Fushanj  and  Pashang.  The 
ancient  name  of  Quetta  was  Shal,  a  term  by  which  it  is  still  known 
among  the  people  of  the  country,  and  which  Rawlin- 
son  traces  back  to  the  tenth  century.  The  District 
was  held  in  turns  by  the  Ghaznivids,  Ghorids,  and  Mongols,  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  conferred  by  the  ruler 
of  Herat  on  Shah  Beg  Arghun,  who,  however,  had  shortly  to  give 
way  before  the  rising  power  of  the  Mughals.  The  Ain-i-Akbarl 
mentions  both  Shal  and  Pishin  as  supplying  military  service  and 
revenue  to  Akbar.  From  the  Mughals  they  passed  with  Kandahar 
to  the  Safavids.  On  the  rise  of  the  Ghilzai  power  in  Kandahar 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  simultaneously  with  that 
of  the  Brahuis  in  Kalat,  Quetta  and  Pishin  became  the  battle-ground 
between  Afghan  and  Brahui,  until  Nadir  Shah  handed  Quetta  over 
to  the  Brahuis  about  1740.  The  Durranis  and  their  successors 
continued  to  hold  possession  of  Pishin  and  Shorarud  till  the  final 
transfer  of  these  places  to  the  British  in  1879.  On  the  advance  of 
the  Army  of  the  Indus  in  1839,  Captain  Bean  was  appointed  the  first 
Political  Agent  in  Shal,  and  the  country  was  managed  by  him  on 
behalf  of  Shah  Shuja-ul-mulk.  In  March,  1842,  General  England 
was  advancing  on  Kandahar  with  treasure  for  General  Nott  when  he  was 
worsted  in  an  encounter  at  Haikalzai  in  Pishin,  but  the  disgrace  was 
wiped  out  at  the  same  place  a  month  later.    The  country  was  evacuated 

B  2 


14 


Q  UE  TTA-PISHIN 


in  1842  and  handed  over  to  Kalat.  After  Sir  Robert  Sandeman's 
mission  to  Kalat  in  1876,  the  fort  at  Quetta  was  occupied  by  his 
escort  and  the  country  was  managed  on  behalf  of  the  Khan  up  to 
1883,  when  it  was  leased  to  the  British  Government  for  an  annual 
rent  of  Rs.  25,000.  It  was  formed,  with  Pishin  and  Shorariid,  into 
a  single  administrative  charge  in  1883.  Up  to  1888  Old  Chaman  was 
the  most  advanced  post  on  the  frontier ;  but,  on  the  extension  of  the 
railroad  across  the  Khwaja  Amran,  the  terminus  was  fixed  at  its  present 
site,  7  miles  from  that  place.  The  boundary  with  Afghanistan  was 
finally  demarcated  in  1895-6. 

Many  mounds  containing  pottery  are  to  be  found  throughout  the 
District.  In  the  Quetta  tahsll  the  most  ancient  kdrez  are  known  to 
the  people  of  the  country  as  Gal>ri,  i.e.  Zoroastrian.  While  the  present 
arsenal  at  Quetta  was  being  excavated  in  1886,  a  bronze  or  copper 
statuette  of  Hercules  was  unearthed,  which  was  2^  feet  high  and  held 
in  its  left  hand  the  skin  of  the  Nemean  lion. 

The  number  of  towns  is  three,  the  largest  being  Quetta,  and  of 
villages  329.     The  population  was   78,662  in   1891 
and    114,087   in   1901,  an  increase  of  45   per  cent. 
The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  area,  &c.,  by  tahslls  in  1901 : — 


Population. 


Tahstl. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Number  of 

Population. 

Population 

per  square 

mile. 

Towns. 

Villages. 

Chaman 
Pishin    . 
Quetta   . 
Shorariid 

Total 

1,236 

.     2,717 
540 
634 

I 
I 

I 

4 
271 

47 

7 

16,437 

51.753 

44.835 

1,062 

13 

19 

83 

3 

5:127 

3 

329 

114,087 

22 

More  than  84  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  Muhammadans  of  the 
Sunni  sect;  Hindus  number  10  per  cent.;  and  Christians,  who  are 
chiefly  Europeans,  about  3  per  cent.  The  language  most  widely  spoken 
is  Pashtu  ;  Brahui  is  the  tongue  of  about  6  per  cent,  of  the  people, 
and  a  little  Persian  is  also  used.  Of  the  indigenous  population  67,600, 
or  78  per  cent.,  are  Afghans,  rather  more  than  half  of  them  being 
Kakars  and  a  third  Tarins.  Of  the  latter,  the  most  numerous  are  the 
Abdal.s,  represented  by  the  Achakzais  occupying  the  Chaman  sub- 
division and  part  of  Pishin.  The  Brahuis,  who  live  in  the  south  of 
the  District,  form  8  per  cent.,  and  Saiyids,  who  are  numerous  in  the 
Pishin  tahsll,  about  9  per  cent.  The  indigenous  population  is  almost 
entirely  engaged  in  cultivation  and  flock-owning.  The  Afghans  of 
Pishin,  especially  the  Huramzai  Saiyids,  carry  on  a  large  trade  in 
horses.  Many  of  them  have  made  their  way  as  far  as  Australia,  or 
are  engaged  in  trade  in  parts  of  India. 


AGRICULTURE  15 

The  missions  working  in  Quetta  consist  of  branches  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  and  of  the  Church  of  England  Zanana  Missionary 
Society.  They  maintain  two  hospitals  and  four  schools,  one  of  which 
is  aided  from  Local  funds.  A  mission  church  was  opened  in  1903. 
The  efforts  of  the  workers  are  principally  devoted  to  medical  aid  and 
education,  and  few  converts  have  so  far  been  made  among  the  people 
of  the  country. 

The  soil  in  the  centre  of  the  valleys  consists  of  fine  clay  and  sandy 
beds.  Along  the  skirts  of  the  hills  loess  is  found,  and  higher  up 
a  fringe  of  coarse-grained  gravel.     The  soil  of  Shora-  . 

rud  is  impregnated  with  salt.  At  Barshor,  in  the 
Pishin  tahsll,  cultivation  is  carried  on  in  terraced  fields.  Crops  are 
assured  only  on  lands  which  can  be  permanently  irrigated.  The  '  dry- 
crop  '  area  consists  chiefly  of  embanked  land  to  which  flood-water  is 
led.  Irrigated  land  is  allowed  to  lie  fallow  for  one  to  three  years, 
unless  it  can  be  manured  ;  '  dry-crop '  land  can  be  cultivated  every 
year,  but  more  than  one  good  crop  in  five  years  is  seldom  obtained. 
The  harvest  reaped  in  spring  is  sown  with  the  help  of  the  winter  rains ; 
the  autumn  harvest,  which  is  small  compared  with  the  former,  is  sown 
in  June  and  July. 

The  cultivable  area  in  the  two  tahstls  of  Quetta  and  Pishin,  which 
have  been  cadastrally  surveyed,  is  706  square  miles,  of  which  324  are 
cultivated  by  rotation.  Of  this  latter  total,  221  square  miles  (68  per 
cent.)  are  permanently  irrigated  {abi) ;  and  the  remainder  are  either 
'  flood-crop '  {sailaba)  or  '  dry-crop '  {khushkdba).  The  area  under  crop 
in  1902-3  was  72  square  miles,  of  which  79  per  cent,  was  under  wheat, 
the  staple  grain  of  the  District ;  4  per  cent,  under  barley  ;  10  per  cent, 
under  maize  and  millets ;  3  per  cent,  under  green  vegetables  ;  and  4  per 
cent,  under  lucerne.  Owing  to  the  peace  and  protection  which  have 
followed  the  British  occupation,  cultivation  has  increased  very  largely 
during  the  past  twenty-five  years.  Potatoes,  vegetables,  and  lucerne  are 
profitably  cultivated  ;  fruit  orchards  and  vineyards  are  extending  ;  and 
great  attention  is  bestowed  on  melon  growing.  The  cultivators  eagerly 
avail  themselves  of  Government  loans,  the  amount  advanced  between 
1897  and  1904  being  1-3  lakhs. 

The  short-legged  breed  of  Kachhi  cattle  is  imported  for  the  plough. 
Transport  is  by  camel,  and  these  animals  are  used  in  the  plough  in 
Chaman  and  Pishin.  The  local  breed  of  horses  is  excellent,  and  has 
been  much  improved  by  the  introduction  of  imported  stallions,  of 
which  18  are  generally  stationed  in  the  District  in  summer.  The 
branded  mares  number  256.  A  horse-fair  and  cattle-show  is  held  at 
Quetta  in  the  autumn,  which  is  largely  patronized  by  local  breeders. 
Sheep  imported  from  Siahband  in  Afghanistan  are  much  prized. 

Of  the  total  irrigated  area  in  the  tahstls  of  Quetta  and  Pishin,  14  per 


t6  QUETTA-PISHIN 

cent,  is  supplied  from  Government  irrigation  works  and  66  per  cent, 
from  254  kdrez  or  underground  channels.  Water  is  also  obtained 
from  18  streams  and  854  springs.  Artesian  wells  number  24.  The 
Government  irrigation  works  are  the  Khushdil  Khan  reservoir  and 
the  Shebo  canal,  both  situated  in  Pishin.  The  former,  which  is  fed 
by  flood-water  from  two  feeder-cuts,  is  capable  of  holding  about  750 
million  cubic  feet  of  water.  It  commands  about  17,000  acres,  but  the 
average  area  cultivated  by  its  aid  has  hitherto  been  only  3,300  acres. 
This  area  will  probably  be  increased  by  improvements  effected  in  1902. 
Up  to  1903  the  capital  cost  incurred  was  about  10  lakhs.  The  Shebo 
canal  takes  off  from  the  Quetta  Lora  and  is  supplemented  by  a  system 
of  tanks.  It  commands  5,340  acres,  but  less  than  half  of  this  is  irri- 
gated annually.  The  capital  cost  up  to  1903  was  about  6|  lakhs. 
Revenue  and  water  rate  are  levied  together,  on  both  systems,  in  the 
shape  of  one-third  of  the  gross  produce,  the  whole  amount  being 
credited  to  the  Irrigation  department. 

In  1903  the  District  contained  four  juniper  Reserves  on  the  Zarghun 
range,  with  an  area  of  52  square  miles  ;  two  pistachio  forests  of  13 
square  miles ;  and  one  mixed  forest  covering  2  square  miles.  In  the 
latter  tamarisk  is  the  chief  tree.  Experimental  plantations,  covering 
63  acres,  are  maintained  close  to  Quetta. 

Coal  is  found  in  the  Sor  range  to  the  east  of  Quetta.  The  seam 
is  narrow,  but  has  been  traced  for  nearly  20  miles.  It  is  worked  in 
different  places  by  five  contractors.  The  output,  which  is  entirely 
consumed  in  Quetta,  was  7,148  tons  in  1903.  Chromite  has  been 
discovered  in  scattered  pockets  in  the  serpentines  and  basic  igneous 
intrusions  near  Khanozai,  for  working  some  of  which  a  lease  has  been 
given  to  the  Baluchistan  Mining  Syndicate.  During  1903  about  284 
tons  were  extracted. 

The  manufacture  of  felts  and  of  rugs  formed  by  the  dan  stitch  is 
an  indigenous  industry.  Excellent  silk  embroidery  is  prepared,  espe- 
cially by  Brahui  women.    In  Quetta,  Kandaharis  make 

Trade  and        copper  vessels,  which  are  equal  in  quality  to  those 
communications.      ,5.     ^^    ,-  r^,      ,,  ti  r- 

sold  m  Peshawar.      1  he  Murree  Brewery  Company 

has  a  branch  at  Kirani,  about  5  miles  from  Quetta,  the  output  of  which 
was  347,220  gallons  of  beer  in  1903.  In  1904  some  successful  experi- 
ments were  made  in  sericulture. 

The  great  increase  in  trade  is  referred  to  in  the  article  on  Quetta 
Town.  The  only  other  marts  of  importance  are  Kila  Abdullah  and 
Chaman,  from  both  of  which  places  trade  is  carried  on  with  Afghanistan. 
The  total  value  of  this  trade  in  1903  amounted  to  about  13^  lakhs, 
imports  being  valued  at  6|  and  exports  at  7  lakhs.  Live  animals,  g/n, 
asafoetida,  fresh  and  dried  fruits,  and  pile  carpets  are  the  principal 
imports  from   Afghanistan,  and   fnod-grains,   piece-goods,  and    metals 


ADMINISTRATION  17 

from  India.     Exports  to   India  are  chiefly  wool,  ghl,  and   fruits,  and 
to  Afghanistan  piece-goods,  metals,  and  dyes. 

The  Mushkaf-Bolan  branch  of  the  North-Western  Railway,  on  the 
standard  gauge,  enters  the  District  from  the  south  and  runs  to  Quetta, 
where  it  meets  a  branch  of  the  Sind-Pishin  section  from  Bostan.  The 
latter  line  enters  the  District  near  Fuller's  Camp  and  runs  across  the 
Pishin  plain  to  Chaman.  The  District  is  well  provided  with  roads,  the 
total  length  of  metalled  and  partially  metalled  roads  being  405,  and 
of  unmetalled  paths  228  miles.  They  are  maintained  partly  from 
Provincial  revenues  and  partly  from  military  funds. 

Owing  to  its  large  irrigated  area  and  excellent  communications,  the 
District  is  well  protected  and  actual  famine  has  not  been  known.  Some 
distress  occurred  between  1897  and  1902,  owing  to 
deficient  rainfall  and  to  damage  done  by  locusts. 
Relief  was  afforded  by  the  suspension  and  remission  of  land  revenue, 
the  grant  of  advances  for  the  purchase  of  seed-grain  and  bullocks,  and 
the  opening  of  relief  works,  costing  about  Rs.  14,000.  In  years  of 
deficient  pasturage  the  railway  is  used  by  graziers  to  transport  their 
flocks  to  more  favoured  tracts. 

The  District  is  divided  into  three  subdivisions  and  tahsih :  Chaman, 
Pishin,  and  Quetta.     Of  these,   Chaman,  Pishin,  and  Shorarud  in 

Quetta  form  part  of  British  Baluchistan,  and  the  rest       ,    .  , 

r  u     /^     ..    ^   7  -7  •     A  rr^      •.  r^\  Administration i 

of  the  Quetta  tahstl  is  Agency  Territory.  The  execu- 
tive head  of  the  District  combines  the  functions  of  Deputy-Commis- 
sioner for  areas  included  in  British  Baluchistan,  and  of  Political  Agent 
for  Agency  Territories.  A  Native  Assistant  is  in  charge  of  Chaman, 
an  Extra-Assistant  Commissioner  of  Pishin,  and  the  Assistant  Political 
Agent  of  the  Quetta  subdivision.  The  tahsih  of  Quetta  and  Pishin 
each  have  a  iahslldar  and  a  naib-tahsildar  for  revenue  work.  The 
superior  staff"  at  head-quarters  includes  a  Superintendent  of  police, 
two  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  a  Cantonment  Magistrate,  and 
an  Assistant  Cantonment  Magistrate. 

Civil  work  at  Quetta  is  disposed  of  by  a  Munsif,  and  four  Honorary 
Magistrates  assist  the  ordinary  staff  in  deciding  criminal  cases.  Both 
civil  and  criminal  powers  are  exercised  by  all  the  officers  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  Political  Agent  is  the  District  and 
Sessions  Judge.  In  1903  the  total  number  of  cognizable  cases  reported 
was  1,402,  conviction  being  obtained  in  1,232.  Most  of  the  cases  were 
of  a  petty  nature.  The  total  number  of  criminal  cases  disposed  of 
by  the  courts  in  1903-4  was  3,102,  and  of  civil  cases  4,807.  Disputes 
were  referred  to  -eijirga  for  award  under  the  Frontier  Crimes  Regulation 
in  203  cases. 

The  District  furnished  the  emperor  Akbar  with  a  force  of  2,550 
horse  and  2,600  foot ;  Rs.  750  in  cash  ;  4,340  sheep  :  1,280  kharu'drs 


1 8  QUETTA-PISHIN 

of  grain,  and  7  maunds  of  butter.  Nadir  Shah  assessed  Pishin  to 
furnish  a  fixed  number  of  men-at-arms,  a  system  known  as  ghain-i- 
naukar,  which  was  continued  by  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani,  in  whose  time 
895  naukars  were  taken.  In  the  time  of  Timur  Shah  some  of  the 
tribesmen  were  recalcitrant,  and  the  land  of  151  nmikars  was  con- 
fiscated. The  remaining  service  grants  were  subsequently  commuted 
for  cash  payment.  When  the  District  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
British  this  cash  payment  was  still  in  force  in  some  parts  of  the  Pishin 
tahsil^  while  in  others  the  system  had  broken  down,  and  batai,  or  the 
taking  of  an  actual  share  of  the  produce,  had  been  substituted.  The 
combined  system  was  continued  in  Pishin  up  to  i88g,  the  Government 
share  of  the  produce  being  levied  at  rates  varying  from  one-third  to 
one-sixth.  In  1899  a  fixed  cash  assessment  on  irrigated  estates  was 
introduced  for  twenty  years.  The  incidence  per  irrigated  acre  ranged 
from  a  maximum  of  Rs.  5-0-3  to  a  minimum  of  Rs.  1-5-3,  the  average 
being  Rs.  2-13-10.  In  the  Quetta  valley,  the  land  revenue  under 
native  rule  was  obtained  partly  from  a  fixed  assessment  in  cash  or 
kind,  called  zar-i-kalafig,  partly  from  appraisement,  and  partly  by 
division  of  the  crops.  The  system  continued  up  to  1890,  when  batai 
at  a  uniform  rate  of  one-sixth  of  the  produce  and  a  grazing  tax  were 
introduced.  A  fixed  cash  assessment  was  imposed  on  irrigated  lands 
for  ten  years  from  1897,  and  is  now  about  to  be  revised.  The  maxi- 
mum incidence  per  acre  on  irrigated  area  was  Rs.  3-9-4,  the  minimum 
Rs.  1-6-2,  and  the  average  Rs.  2-0-4.  ^^  Shorarud,  revenue  was  first 
levied  in  1882-3  ^^  one-sixth  of  the  produce,  and  from  April,  1897, 
a  fixed  cash  assessment  was  imposed  on  irrigated  lands.  Large  revenue- 
free  grants  are  held,  especially  in  Pishin.  The  estimated  annual  value 
of  the  land  revenue  thus  alienated  is  Rs.  42,700.  The  total  land  reve- 
nue of  the  District  in  1903-4  was  1-5  lakhs,  and  the  revenue  from  all 
sources  3-2  lakhs.  The  land  revenue  yielded  47  per  cent,  of  the  total, 
stamps  12  per  cent.,  and  excise  35  per  cent. 

The  Quetta  municipality  was  formally  constituted  in  October,  1896. 
Its  affairs  are  managed  by  a  committee,  consisting  of  thirteen  nominated 
official  and  non-official  members,  with  the  Political  Agent  as  ex-officio 
president.  The  only  Local  fund  is  the  Pishin  Sadr  and  District  bazar 
fund,  which  is  controlled  by  the  Political  Agent.  Its  chief  source  of 
income  is  octroi,  and  its  expenditure  is  incurred  on  objects  of  public 
utility,  principally  at  Pishin  and  Chaman.  The  income  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  39,600  and  the  expenditure  to  Rs.  34,000. 

Quetta  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  fourth  division  of  the  Western 
Command  and  has  the  usual  staff.  Besides  the  garrison  of  Quetta, 
a  Native  infantry  regiment  is  stationed  at  Chaman  and  detachments 
are  posted  at  Pishin  and,  to  guard  the  Khojak  tunnel,  at  Shelabagh 
and  Spinwana. 


QUETTA   SUBDIVISION  xg 

In  1904  the  total  force  of  police  amounted  to  519  men,  of  whom 
362  were  constables  and  53  horsemen.  The  officers  include  a  Dis- 
trict Superintendent,  an  Assistant  Superintendent,  5  inspectors,  and 
ir  deputy-inspectors.  The  force  was  distributed  in  17  stations.  The 
Quetta  municipality  pays  for  a  force  of  86  police,  the  cantonment 
committee  for  84,  and  Local  funds  for  24  watchmen.  The  local  levies 
number  487,  including  170  mounted  men.  There  is  a  District  jail 
at  Quetta,  and  a  subsidiary  jail  at  PishTn,  with  total  accommodation 
for  139  male  and  10  female  prisoners.  Convicts  whose  term  exceeds 
six  months  are  generally  sent  to  the  Shikarpur  jail  in  Sind. 

In  educational,  as  in  other  respects,  the  District  is  the  most  advanced 
in  the  Province.  In  1904  the  number  of  Government  and  aided 
schools  was  twelve,  with  827  pupils,  including  148  Indian  girls  and 
44  European  and  Eurasian  children.  The  cost  amounted  to  Rs.  23,500, 
of  which  Rs.  7,700  was  derived  from  fees  and  subscriptions,  and 
Rs.  7,100  from  Provincial  revenues,  the  balance  being  met  by  the 
North-VVestern  Railway  and  from  Local  funds.  The  three  mission 
schools  had  85  pupils.  About  900  pupils  were  under  instruction  in 
mosque  schools. 

The  District  possesses  one  Government-aided  hospital,  in  charge  of 
a  Civil  Surgeon,  and  seven  dispensaries,  including  a  female  dispensary 
maintained  from  the  Lady  Dufferin  fund.  They  contain  accommoda- 
tion for  118  in-patients.  The  total  attendance  of  patients  in  1903 
was  63,310;  the  daily  average  attendance  in  Government  institutions 
being  59  in-patients  and  211  out-patients.  Two  of  these  institutions 
are  maintained  by  the  North-Western  Railway,  at  Bostan  and  Shela- 
bagh,  and  two  receive  grants  from  Local  funds ;  the  expenditure  of 
the  others  is  met  from  Provincial  revenues.  In  1903  the  total  expen- 
diture from  Provincial  revenues  and  Local  funds  amounted  to  Rs.  18,109. 
The  Church  of  England  Medical  Mission  maintains  two  hospitals,  to 
which  592  in-patients  were  admitted  in  1902,  while  the  out-patients 
numbered  19,190. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  in  the  town  and  cantonment  of  Quetta, 
and  there  are  indications  that  the  people  are  beginning  to  prefer  this 
method  to  inoculation.  The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903 
was  2,660,  or  about  23  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[Settlement  Report  of  the  Pishin  TahsU  (1899);  J.  H.  Stocqueler, 
Memorials  of  Afghani stdn  (Calcutta,  1843)  ;  Records,  Geological  Survey 
of  India,  vol.  xxvi,  pt.  ii  of  1893.  J 

Quetta  Subdivision. — Subdivision  and  tahsJl  of  the  Quetta-Pishln 
District,  Baluchistan,  lying  between  29°  52''  and  30°  27''  N.  and  66° 
15'  and  67°  18'  E.  It  is  held  on  a  perpetual  lease  from  the  Khan 
of  Kalat.  For  administrative  purposes  Shorarud,  which  is  British 
territory,  is  attached   to   it.     The  two  cover  an   area  of  1,174  square 


20  QUETTA   SUBDIVISION 

miles,  of  which  540  form  the  Quetta  tnhsi/  proper.  The  population 
in  1901  numbered  45,897,  that  of  Shorarud  being  1,062.  The  only 
town  is  Quetta  (population,  24,584) ;  and  the  villages  number  54. 
The  tahsll  occupies  a  valley  about  5,500  feet  above  sea-level,  sur- 
rounded by  mountains.  Shorarud  derives  its  name  from  a  stream  of 
brackish  water,  which  traverses  it  to  join  the  Pishln  Lora ;  it  consists 
of  the  river  basin  and  the  Sarlath  hills,  beyond  which  lies  Shorawak  in 
Afghanistan.  The  Sarlath  hills  afford  excellent  pasturage.  Shorarud 
contains  only  7  permanent  villages.  The  land  revenue  of  the  whole 
tahsll  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  65,500,  of  which  Rs.  2,000  was 
contributed  by  Shorarud.  Owing  to  the  ready  market  available  in  the 
Quetta  town  and  cantonment  and  the  numerous  karez,  the  Quetta 
valley  is  the  best  cultivated  in  Baluchistan,  and  the  extension  of  fruit 
gardens  has  been  marked.  Coal  is  found  in  the  adjoining  Sor  range. 
A  branch  of  the  Murree  Brewery  has  been  worked  near  Kirani 
since   1886. 

Quetta  Town  {Kwatah^  locally  known  as  Shal  or  Shalkot). — 
Capital  of  the  Baluchistan  Agency  and  head-quarters  of  Quetta- 
Pishin  District,  situated  in  30°  10'  N.  and  67°  \'  E.,  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name.  It  is  now  one  of  the  most 
desirable  stations  in  Northern  India.  Quetta  is  connected  with  India 
by  the  North-Western  Railway,  being  727  miles  from  Lahore  and 
536  from  Karachi.  It  was  occupied  by  the  British  during  the  first 
Afghan  War  from  1839  to  1842.  In  1840  an  assault  was  made  on 
it  by  the  Kakars,  and  it  was  unsuccessfully  invested  by  the  Brahuis. 
The  present  occupation  dates  from  1876.  The  place  consists  of  the 
cantonment  on  the  north,  covering  about  15  square  miles,  and  the 
civil  town  on  the  south,  separated  by  the  Habib  Nullah.  Population 
has  risen  from  18,802  in  1891  to  24,584  in  1901.  It  includes  3,678 
Christians,  mainly  the  European  garrison,  10,399  Muhammadans,  and 
8,678  Hindus.  The  majority  of  the  remainder  are  Sikhs.  The  ordinary 
garrison  comprises  three  mountain  batteries,  two  companies  of  garrison 
artillery,  two  British  and  three  Native  infantry  regiments,  one  regiment 
of  Native  cavalry,  one  company  of  sappers  and  miners,  and  two  com- 
panies of  volunteers.  The  police  force  employed  in  the  cantonment 
and  town  numbers  180. 

Municipal  taxes  have  been  levied  since  1878,  but  the  present  muni- 
cipal system  dates  from  1896.  The  income  in  1903-4  was  2-2  lakhs, 
chiefly  derived  from  octroi;  and  the  expenditure  was  2'i  lakhs.  The 
committee  has  obtained  loans  from  Government  for  carrying  out 
drainage  and  water-works,  of  which  the  unpaid  balance  on  March  31, 
1904,  amounted  to  Rs.  31,100.  Half  of  the  net  octroi  receipts  is  paid 
over  to  the  cantonment  fund.  The  receipts  of  this  fund,  from  which 
the  maintenance  of   the  cantonment  is  provided,  were   i-r  lakhs  in 


QUILON  21 

1903-4,  and  the  expenditure  was  i'3  lakhs.  Much  attention  has  been 
paid  to  sanitation  and  the  prevention  of  enteric  fever,  which  was  at  one 
time  common.  A  piped  supply  of  water  for  the  cantonment,  civil 
station,  and  railway  was  completed  in  1891  at  a  cost  of  about  i\  lakhs, 
and  an  additional  supply  has  since  been  provided  for  the  cantonment 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  3^  lakhs.  The  civil  station  and  town  lie  some- 
what low,  and  nearly  \\  lakhs  has  been  expended  in  providing  a  system 
of  street  drainage.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  Residency,  the 
Sandeman  Memorial  Hall,  St.  Mary's  Church,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  civil  hospital  is  well  equipped,  and  the  town  also 
possesses  a  female  dispensary,  two  mission  hospitals,  a  high  school, 
a  girls'  school,  and  a  European  school.  A  mill  for  grinding  flour  and 
pressing  wool  and  chopped  straw  has  existed  since  1887,  The  Indian 
Staff  College  has  recently  been  completed  and  opened.  A  feature  of 
the  station  is  the  gymkhana  ground,  with  its  fine  turfed  polo  and  cricket 
grounds.  The  trade  of  Quetta  is  continually  expanding.  Imports  by 
rail  have  increased  from  39,200  tons  in  1893  to  56,224  tons  in  1903, 
and  exports  from  5,120  to  13,829  tons. 

Quilandi. — Seaport  in  the  Kurumbranad  tahik  of  Malabar  Dis- 
trict, Madras,  situated  in  11°  27'  N.  and  75°  42"  E.  Population  (1901), 
5,870.  It  contains  a  sub-magistrate's  and  a  District  MunsiPs  court. 
It  was  close  to  this  place  that  Vasco  da  Gama's  fleet  first  cast  anchor 
in  1498. 

Quilon  {Kollain). — Town  and  port  in  the  taluk  of  the  same  name, 
Travancore  State,  Madras,  situated  in  8°  53'  N.  and  76°  36'  E.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  15,691.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  on  the  coast  and 
was  refounded  in  a.d.  10 19.  Its  natural  situation  and  consequent 
commercial  importance  made  it  coveted  by  every  foreign  power,  and 
subjected  it  in  its  early  days  to  many  political  vicissitudes.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  State  of  Quilon,  also  called 
Desinganadu,  was  annexed  to  Travancore.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the 
greatest  ports  on  the  west  coast,  but  has  now  fallen  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  from  its  high  estate.  With  the  opening  of  the  Tinne- 
velly-Quilon  Railway,  however,  Quilon,  as  the  terminal  station,  now 
finds  itself  placed  in  direct  communication  with  the  Madras  Presidency 
and  should  revive  once  more.  A  railway  siding  has  been  made  to  the 
edge  of  the  backwater.  The  palace  of  the  Maharaja  of  Travancore 
is  on  the  borders  of  the  Quilon  lake,  called  by  General  CuUen  the 
Loch  Lomond  of  Travancore,  which  possesses  enchanting  scenery. 
The  town  also  contains  a  Residency,  the  office  of  the  Diwan  Peshkar, 
the  District  and  subordinate  courts,  high  schools,  hospitals,  and  other 
institutions.  Cotton-weaving  and  spinning  and  the  manufacture  of  tiles 
are  the  chief  industries.  A  cotton-spinning  mill  has  been  opened 
recently.     The  chief  exports  are  coffee,  tea,  fish,  timber,  pepper,  and 


22  QUILON 

coir ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  salt  and  tobacco.  The  customs 
revenue  averages  about  Rs.  10,000.  The  tonnage  of  vessels  of  all 
classes  which  call  annually  at  the  port  is  22,000.  The  sanitation  and 
conservancy  of  the  town  are  attended  to  by  a  town  improvement 
committee. 

The  ancient  history  of  Quilon  goes  back  to  the  earliest  times  of  the 
old  Syrian  Church  in  India.  The  Nestorian  Patriarch  Jesujabus  of 
Adiabene  noted  in  the  seventh  century  that  Quilon  was  the  southern- 
most point  of  Christian  influence.  It  appears  in  Arabic  as  early  as 
A.D.  851  under  the  name  Kaulam-Mall,  when  it  was  already  frequented 
by  ships  from  China.  It  is  the  Coiluni  of  Marco  Polo,  and  was  an 
important  place  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  Portu- 
guese had  a  factory  here,  which  was  captured  by  the  Dutch  in  1662. 
From  them,  it  passed  to  the  English  East  India  Company.  The 
portion  now  in  the  possession  of  the  British  Government  is  known  as 
Tangasseri. 

Rabkavi. — Town  in  the  State  of  Sangli,  Bombay,  situated  in 
16°  28'  N.  and  75°  9'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kistna.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  5,748,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  bankers,  traders,  and 
artisans.  Local  affairs  are  managed  by  a  municipal  body,  known  as 
the  Daiva,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  3,800.  Rabkavi  is  an 
important  trade  centre.  Silk  is  dyed  and  made  up  into  various  articles 
of  clothing.  Cotton  is  also  dyed  to  some  extent,  with  the  permanent 
dye  known  as  suranji.  The  town  appears  to  have  been  named  after 
the  village  goddess  Rabbava.  It  has  fine  temples,  of  which  that  of 
Shankarling  is  the  principal. 

Rabkob. — Head-quarters  of  Udaipur  State,  Central  Provinces.  See 
Dharmjaygarh. 

Rabupura. — Town  in  the  Khurja  tahsU  of  Bulandshahr  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  15'  N.  and  77°  37'  E.,  19  miles  west 
of  Bulandshahr  town.  Population  (1901),  5,048.  The  place  was 
founded  by  a  MewatI  named  Rabu  in  the  eleventh  century.  The 
Mewatis  were  ousted  by  the  Jaiswar  Rajputs  in  the  time  of  Prithwi 
Raj,  late  in  the  twelfth  century.  From  the  days  of  Shah  Alam  II 
up  to  1857,  Rabupura  was  the  centre  of  an  estate  comprising  24  vil- 
lages, which  was  confiscated  after  the  Mutiny  for  the  rebellion  of  the 
proprietors.  The  town  contains  a  good  brick  market,  and  half  the 
houses  and  shops  are  also  of  brick.  The  American  Methodist  Mission 
has  a  branch  here,  with  a  small  church  and  dispensary.  Rabupura  is 
administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,300. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle.  The  primary  school  contains 
60  pupils. 

Rachna  Doab. — Doab  in  the  Punjab.     See  Rechna  Doab. 

Radhanpur    State. — State    in    the    Palanpur   Agency,    Bombay 


RADHANPUR   STATE  23 

lying  between  23**  26'  and  23°  58'  N.  and  71°  28'  and  72°  3'  E., 
with  an  area  of  1,150  square  miles.  Including  Sami  and  Munjpur, 
it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  petty  vStates  of  Morvada  and 
Tervada ;  on  the  east  by  Baroda ;  on  the  south  by  Ahmadabad  Dis- 
trict and  Jhinjhuvada  in  Kathiawarj  and  on  the  west  by  the  petty 
State  of  Varahi  under  Palanpur. 

The  country  is  flat  and  open.  Its  rivers,  three  in  number,  rise  near 
Mount  Abu  and  the  spurs  of  the  AravaUi  range,  and  fall  into  the 
Little  Rann.  They  generally  dry  up  during  the  hot  season,  when  the 
inhabitants  are  dependent  on  wells  for  their  supply.  Water  is  found 
at  a  depth  of  from  10  to  30  feet,  but  is  sweet  only  near  the  surface, 
owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  Rann.  From  April  to  July,  and  in 
October  and  November,  the  heat  is  excessive.  If  rain  falls,  August 
and  September  are  pleasant  months ;  and  from  December  to  March  the 
climate  is  cool  and  bracing.  The  prevailing  disease  is  fever.  The 
mean  temperature  is  41°  in  January  and   115°  in  June. 

Radhanpur,  now  held  by  a  branch  of  the  Babi  family,  who,  since 
the  reign  of  Humayun,  have  always  been  prominent  in  the  annals  of 
Gujarat,  is  said  to  have  once  belonged  to  the  Vaghelas,  and  to  have 
been  called  Lunavada,  after  Vaghela  Lunajl  of  the  Sardhara  branch 
of  that  tribe.  Subsequently  it  was  held  as  a  fief  under  the  Sultans 
of  Gujarat  by  Fateh  Khan  Baloch,  and  is  said  to  have  been  named 
Radhanpur  after  Radhan  Khan  of  that  family. 

The  first  Babi  entered  Hindustan  in  the  company  of  HumayQn. 
Bahadur  Khan  Babi  was  appointed  faujddr  of  Tharad  in  the  reign 
of  Shah  Jahan ;  and  his  son  Sher  Khan  Babi,  on  account  of  his  local 
knowledge,  was  sent  to  aid  prince  Murad  Bakhsh  in  the  government 
of  Gujarat.  In  1693  his  son  Jafar  Khan,  by  his  ability  and  local 
influence,  obtained  the  faiijddri  of  Radhanpur,  Sami,  Munjpur,  and 
Tervada,  with  the  title  of  Safdar  Khan.  In  1704  he  was  made 
governor  of  Bijapur  (in  Gujarat),  and  in  1706  of  Patan.  His  son 
Khan  Jahan,  also  styled  Khanji  Khan,  received  the  title  of  Jawan 
Mard  Khan,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Radhanpur,  Patan, 
Vadnagar,  Visalnagar,  Bijapur,  Kheralu,  &c.  His  son,  again,  Kamal- 
ud-din  Khan,  usurped  the  governorship  of  Ahmadabad  after  the  death 
of  Aurangzeb,  during  the  incursions  of  the  Marathas  and  the  sub- 
sequent collapse  of  the  imperial  power.  During  his  rule  a  branch 
of  the  family  was  able  to  establish  itself  at  Junagarh  and  Balasinor. 
The  founder  of  the  Junagarh  house,  who  was  also  the  first  Babi  of 
Balasinor,  was  Muhammad  Bahadur,  otherwise  known  as  Sher  Khan. 
In  1753  Raghunath  Rao  Peshwa  and  DamajT  Gaikwar  suddenly 
appeared  before  Ahmadabad  ;  and  Kamal-ud-din  Khan,  after  a  bril- 
liant defence,  was  forced  to  surrender  the  city,  but  was  confirmed  as 
jagirddr  of  Radhanpur,  Sami,  Munjpur,  Patan,  Visalnagar,  Vadnagar, 


24  RADHANPUR   STATE 

Bijapur,  Tharad,  and  Kheralu.  It  was  agreed  at  the  same  time  that 
the  Marathas  should  give  Kamal-ud-din  Khan  the  sum  of  one  lakh, 
besides  presenting  him  with  an  elephant  and  other  articles  of  value. 
Damaji  Gaikwar,  however,  wrested  from  his  successors  all  their 
dominions,  excepting  Radhanpur,  Sami,  and  Munjpur. 

In  1813  Radhanpur,  through  Captain  Carnac,  then  Resident  at 
Baroda,  concluded  an  engagement  with  the  Gaikwar,  whereby  the 
latter,  under  the  advice  of  the  British  authorities,  was  empowered  to 
control  the  external  relations  of  Radhanpur,  and  assist  in  defending 
it  from  foreign  invasion.  In  1819,  on  aid  being  sought  of  the  British 
Government  by  Radhanpur  against  the  Khosas,  a  predatory  tribe  from 
Sind,  Colonel  Barclay  marched  against  them  and  expelled  them  from 
Gujarat.  In  1820  Major  Miles  negotiated  an  agreement  with  the 
Nawab  of  Radhanpur.  Under  the  terms  of  this  agreement  the  Nawab 
bound  himself  not  to  harbour  robbers,  or  enemies  of  the  British 
Government ;  to  accompany  the  British  troops  with  all  his  forces  ;  and 
to  pay  a  tribute  in  proportion  to  his  means.  On  February  18,  1822, 
the  tribute  was  fixed  for  five  years  at  Rs.  17,000.  This  tribute  was, 
in  1825,  remitted  by  the  British  Government,  and  has  never  again 
been  imposed,  the  engagement  of  1820  remaining  in  force  in  other 
respects.  The  Nawab  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  1 1  guns.  The  family 
hold  a  sanad  authorizing  any  succession  that  may  be  legitimate  accord- 
ing to  Muhammadan  law,  and  follow  the  rule  of  primogeniture  in  point 
of  succession. 

The  population  in  1901  was  61,548,  compared  with  98,017  in  1891. 
Hindus  numbered  49,887  and  Muhammadans  8,019.  ^'^6  State 
contains  one  town,  Radhanpur  ;  and  159  villages.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts are  cotton,  wheat,  and  the  common  kinds  of  grain.  Except 
vegetables,  no  irrigated  crops  are  grown.  The  only  manufacture  of 
importance  is  the  preparation  of  a  fine  description  of  saltpetre. 

The  chief  has  power  to  try  his  own  subjects,  even  for  capital  offences, 
without  permission  from  the  Political  Agent.  In  1903-4  the  gross 
revenue  of  the  State  amounted  to  nearly  4  lakhs,  chiefly  derived  from 
land  (2-7  lakhs)  and  customs  (Rs.  79,000). 

The  State  maintains  a  military  force  of  35  horse  and  163  foot.  The 
strength  of  the  police  in  1903-4  was  771  men.  There  are  24  schools 
attended  by  711  pupils,  including  94  girls,  The  State  maintained  six 
medical  institutions  in  1903-4,  treating  more  than  13,400  patients. 
In  the  same  year  over  1,500  persons  were  vaccinated. 

Radhanpur  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in 
Bombay,  situated  in  23°  49'  N.  and  71°  39'  E.  Population  (1901), 
11,879.  It  ^'^s  in  the  midst  of  an  open  plain,  mostly  under  water 
during  the  rains.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  loopholed  wall  15  feet  high, 
8    feet    broad,    and   about    2\    miles    in    circumference,    with    corner 


RAE  BARE  LI  DISTRICT  25 

towers,  8  bastioned  gateways,  outworks,  and  a  ditch  now  filled  up. 
There  is  also,  surrounded  by  a  wall,  an  inner  fort  or  castle,  where  the 
Nawab  lives.  Radhanpur  is  a  considerable  trade  centre  for  Northern 
Gujarat  and  Cutch.  The  nearest  railway  station,  34  miles  distant,  is 
at  Patan.  A  municipality  is  maintained  from  local  taxation,  which 
yielded  Rs.  2,717  in  1903-4,  and  from  a  monthly  grant  of  Rs.  750 
made  by  the  State.  The  chief  exports  are  rapeseed,  wheat,  grain,  and 
cotton ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  cloth,  and 
ivory.  In  1816,  and  again  in  1820,  a  disease,  in  many  symptoms 
resembhng  the  true  plague,  visited  Radhanpur  and  caused  the  death 
of  half  its  population.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Radhan 
Khan,  a  descendant  of  Fateh  Khan  Baloch  who  held  the  town  under 
the  Ahmadabad  Sultans.  Another  tradition  claims  for  the  town  a 
remote  origin  (a.d.  546),  and  that  it  was  named  after  Radan  Deo, 
a  Chavada  chief.  Since  the  defeat  of  Kamal-ud-din  Khan  Babi  at 
Ahmadabad  in  1753,  Radhanpur  has  been  the  head-quarters  of  a 
branch  of  the  Babi  family. 

Rae  Bareli  District.— South-eastern  District  of  the  Lucknow  Divi- 
sion, United  Provinces,  lying  north-east  of  the  Ganges,  between  25° 
49'  and  26°  36'  N.  and  80°  41'  and  81°  34'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,748 
square  miles.  In  shape  it  resembles  a  segment  of  a  circle  with  the 
Ganges  as  the  chord.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north-west  by  Unao ;  on 
the  north  by  Lucknow  and  Bara  Banki ;  on  the  east  by  Sultanpur  and 
Partabgarh  ;  and  on  the  south-west  by  the  Ganges,  which  divides 
it  from  Fatehpur.  The  general  aspect  of  Rae  Bareli 
is  that  of  a  beautifully  wooded,  gently  undulating  Physical 
plain.  It  is  markedly  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ganges  and  the  Sai,  the  former  skirting 
the  District  for  54  miles  along  its  south-western  boundary,  while  the 
latter  runs  through  the  centre  in  a  tortuous  course  from  north-west 
to  south-east.  Both  of  these  rivers  flow  in  deep  beds,  but  the  Ganges 
is  bordered  by  a  fertile  valley  of  varying  width  before  the  upland 
portion  is  reached.  Between  the  Ganges  and  the  Sai  lies  a  chain  of 
jhih  or  swamps  more  or  less  connected  with  one  another,  and  probably 
forming  an  old  river-bed.  North  of  the  Sai  are  found  many  other  y7«7j-, 
but  these  are  ordinary  shallow  depressions  and  have  not  the  narrow 
deep  beds  of  the  southern  swamps.  The  Loni  flows  across  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  District  to  join  the  Ganges ;  and  there  are  many 
smaller  streams,  generally  known  as  Naiya,  which  carry  off  water  only 
in  the  rains,  and  drain  the_/7«/r  to  some  extent. 

The  District  is  entirely  composed  of  Gangetic  alluvium,  and  kankar 
or  nodular  limestone  is  the  only  stone  formation. 

The  flora  presents  few  peculiarities.     Up  to  the  time  of  the  Mutiny 
the  stronghold  of  every  talukddr  was  surrounded  by  dense  jungle,  and 


26  RAE  BARE  LI  DISTRICT 

a  scrub  forest  extended  for  twelve  miles  on  either  side  of  the  Sai. 
Only  a  few  patches  of  dhdk  [Butea  frondosd)  now  remain.  The 
numerous  groves  are  chiefly  composed  of  mango  or  niahud  {Bassia 
latifolia)  and  the  nim  {Melia  Azadirachtd),  Various  kinds  of  fig,  the 
babul  {Acacia  arabica),  and  Jdmun  {Eugenia  Jatnboland)  are  also 
common. 

There  are  a  few  wolves,  but  jackals  abound.  Nilgai  and  antelope 
are  scarce.  Some  cattle  still  roam  wild  near  the  Ganges  and  Sai. 
In  the  cold  season  water-fowl  and  snipe  are  plentiful ;  other  game- 
birds  include  quail  and  a  few  partridge  and  sand-grouse.  Fish  are 
caught  in  the  jhils^  and  also  in  the  rivers. 

The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  temperature  is  not  marked  by 
extremes  of  either  heat  or  cold.  Cool  nights  are  experienced  well 
into  the  hot  season. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  a  little  over  37  inches,  the  east  of  the 
District  receiving  the  heaviest  fall.  As  a  rule  the  amount  is  not  less 
than  24  inches;  but  in  1877,  1880,  and  1896  it  was  only  13  inches. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  1867  and  1894  the  amount  was  60  inches. 

The  District  has  never  played  a  large  part  in  history,  and  it  contains 
few  places  of  importance.  Tradition  relates  that  the  Muhammadan 
saint,  Saiyid  Salar,  raided  it  in  the  eleventh  century ; 
and  from  similar  sources  a  few  details  are  obtained 
regarding  the  three  clans  of  Rajputs — the  Bais,  the  Kanhpurias,  and 
the  Amethias — who  still  hold  the  greater  part  of  the  land.  The  first 
of  these  occupied  a  tract  in  the  south  and  west,  which  was  afterwards 
known  as  Baiswara.  The  earliest  historical  events  of  which  reliable 
accounts  have  been  preserved  are,  however,  connected  with  the  in- 
corporation of  the  District  in  the  Shark!  kingdom  of  Jaunpur,  early 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  At  that  time  the  Bhars,  who  still  held  part 
of  the  country,  were  completely  crushed.  The  Rajputs,  however,  were 
only  partially  reduced,  and  warfare  was  frequent  till  Akbar  estab- 
lished a  more  settled  government.  Under  that  monarch  Rae  Barell 
was  divided  between  the  two  Subdlis  of  Oudh  and  Allahabad.  After 
Akbar's  death  the  Rajputs  appear  to  have  increased  greatly  in  im- 
portance and  power ;  and  when  Oudh  became  a  separate  state  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  Nawab  Saadat  Khan  entrusted  several  of  the 
chiefs  with  the  collection  of  revenue  in  their  own  parganas.  As 
disorders  increased,  attempts  to  assert  independence  became  more 
frequent,  and  the  history  of  the  closing  years  of  Oudh  rule  is  one 
of  constant  fighting  between  chief  and  chief  or  between  the  Rajas 
and  the  court  officials. 

At  annexation  in  1856  a  District  of  Salon  was  formed,  extending 
from  Purwa  in  Unao  to  Allahabad.  A  year  had  hardly  elapsed  when 
the  Mutiny  broke  out.     The  sepoys  abstained  from  rebellion  longer 


POPULATION 


27 


than  in  any  other  cantonment  in  Oudh ;  but  on  June  10,  1857,  they 
ceased  to  obey  orders  and  the  officers  were  warned  to  depart.  The 
whole  of  the  European  staff  was  allowed  to  escape  and  reached 
Allahabad  safely.  The  District  then  reverted  to  its  former  lawless 
state  under  the  Oudh  government,  though  little  help  was  sent  to  the 
rebel  army  at  Lucknow.  Some  of  the  Kanhpurias  at  once  began 
plundering,  but  the  talukdCxrs  for  the  most  part  were  not  actively 
rebellious.  After  the  fall  of  Lucknow,  however,  their  opposition 
became  more  marked,  and  that  of  Rana  Benl  Madho  Bakhsh  of 
Shankarpur  in  Baiswara  was  especially  determined.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Raja  of  Murarmau  was  loyal  throughout,  and  several  of 
the  important  talukddrs  surrendered  early  and  gave  valuable  services. 
It  was  not  till  the  end  of  October  that  Lord  Clyde  made  his  great 
combined  movement  on  Baiswara,  which  ended  in  the  flight  of  Beni 
Madho  a  month  later.  Rae  Barell  then  became  the  head-quarters 
of  the  District ;  but  its  shape  and  size  were  considerably  altered  in 
1 869,  when  part  was  transferred  to  Unao  and  part  to  Bara  Banki,  while 
additions  were  made  from  Sultanpur  and  Partabgarh. 

The  District  contains  many  ancient  mounds,  some  of  which  have 
yielded  stone  carvings,  terra-cotta  images,  and  other  memorials  dating 
from  Buddhist  times.  The  chief  places  of  archaeological  interest  are 
Jais,  Dalmau,  and  Rae  BarelT. 

Rae  Barell  contains  4  towns  and  1,736  villages.  The  population  has 
fluctuated.  At  the  four  enumerations  the  numbers  were:  (1869) 
989,008,  (1881)  951,905,  (1891),  1,036,521,  and 
(1901)  1,033,761.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  Census  of  1869  overstated,  and  that  of  1881  understated,  the 
actual  population.  The  District  suffered  from  famine  in  1877-8  and 
again  in  1896-7.  There  are  four  tahsils — Rae  BarelI,  Dalmau, 
AL\HARAjGANj,  and  Salon — each  named  from  its  head-quarters.  The 
principal  towns  are  the  municipality  of  Rae  Bareli  and  Jais.  The 
following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Population. 


i 

Number  of 

d 

0 

,s 

"3 
a. 
0 

PU. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 
population 

between  189 1 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

Tahsil.              1     .c  ri 

< 

in 

c 

1 

Rae  Barell 
Dalmau 
Maharajganj 
Salon 

District  total 

371 

472 

465 
440 

I 
I 

2 

353 
575 
364 
444 

223,505 
270,900 
278,086 
261,270 

602 

574 
598 
594 

+  0.7 
-  1.8 
+  0.5 
-0.3 

8,192 

9,987 
8,342 
6,198 

1,748 

4 

1,736    1,033,761 

591 

-0.3 

32,719 

Hindus  form  91  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  Musalmans  nearly  9  per 

VOL.  XXI.  c 


28 


RAE   BARELT  DISTRICT 


cent.     Eastern  Hindi  is  spoken  by  almost  the  entire  population,  the 
dialect  in  use  being  Awadhi. 

The  Hindu  castes  most  largely  represented  are  :  Ahirs  (graziers  and 
cultivators),  129,000;  Pasis  (toddy-drawers  and  cultivators),  107,000; 
Brahmans,  105,000;  Chamars  (tanners,  labourers,  and  cultivators), 
98,000 ;  Rajputs  or  Chhattrls,  67,000  ;  Lodhas  (cultivators),  64,000  ; 
Muraos  (market-gardeners),  48,000  :  and  Kurmis  (agriculturists),  44,000. 
Among  Musalmans  are  Gujars,  13,000 ;  Shaikhs,  9,000 ;  Pathans, 
9,000 ;  and  Rajputs,  8,000.  Agriculture  supports  76  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population.  Rajputs  or  Chhattrls  hold  two-thirds  of  the  District, 
the  Bais  and  Kanhpuria  clans  being  the  largest  landholders.  Ahirs, 
Brahmans,  and  Rajputs  or  Chhattrls  are  the  most  numerous  cultivators  ; 
but  Lodhas,  Kurmis,  and  Muraos  are  the  most  skilful. 

There  were  97  native  Christians  in  1901,  of  whom  68  were  Metho- 
dists and  10  belonged  to  the  Anglican  communion.  A  branch  of  the 
American  Methodist  Mission  was  opened  in  1864  and  closed  in  1901  ; 
but  native  catechists  are  still  employed  at  a  few  places. 

The  low  land  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  called  kachhdr,  varies  in 
width  from  two  miles  to  a  few  yards.  The  lowest  portion  is  flooded 
during  the  rains,  but  generally  bears  good  .crops  in 
the  spring ;  the  higher  stretches  are  very  fertile,  and 
occasionally  autumn  crops  can  be  sown  in  them.  The  uplands  vary 
according  to  the  class  of  soil.  In  the  south  it  is  a  rich  firm  loam, 
producing  wheat  and  poppy  in  the  spring  and  millets  in  the  autumn. 
As  thejhi/s  are  approached,  the  soil  becomes  heavier,  and  rice  is  the 
prevailing  crop,  which  is  followed  in  spring  by  gram  and  linseed. 
Large  patches  of  barren  usar  are  common  here.  The  valley  of  the 
Sai  and  its  tributaries  resembles  that  of  the  Ganges,  but  is  inferior  in 
quality.  North  of  the  Sai  is  another  large  area  of  rice  land,  producing 
also  inferior  spring  crops. 

The  tenures  by  which  land  is  held  are  those  common  to  the  Province 
of  OuDH.  About  two-thirds  of  the  District  is  included  in  talukdd?-i 
estates,  and  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  sub-settled.  Under- 
proprietors  also  hold  about  5  per  cent.  The  main  agricultural  statistics 
for  1903-4  are  shown  below,  in  square  miles  : — 


Agriculture. 


TahsU. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Rae  BarelT 

Dalmau  .... 

Maharajganj    . 

Salon      .... 

Total 

371 
472 

465 
440 

216 
256 

233 
241 

94 
123 
129 
123 

70 
76 

77 
5S 

1,748 

946 

469 

1 
281       1 

Rice   is  the  crop  most   largely  grown,  covering  268  square  miles, 


AGRICULTURE  29 

or  28  per  cent,  of  the  net  cultivated  area.  Wheat  (176),  gram  (170), 
barley  (139),  pulses  (99),/^7fW' (95),  arhar  (81),  and  kodon  and  small 
millets  (64),  are  also  important  food-crops.  The  District  is  one  of 
the  largest  poppy-growing  areas  in  the  United  Provinces.  In  1903-4 
the  area  under  poppy  was  48  square  miles,  and  the  price  paid  to  the 
cultivators  for  their  opium  has  sometimes  exceeded  the  land  revenue 
demand  on  the  whole  District. 

Immediately  after  the  Mutiny  there  was  a  great  extension  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  series  of  bad  seasons  commencing  in  1891  checked  the  rise 
which  had  continued  since  the  first  settlement;  but  after  1897  another 
increase  took  place,  and  the  net  cultivated  area  is  now  about  7  per  cent, 
higher  than  it  was  forty  years  ago.  This  increase  in  the  area  under  the 
plough  has  also  been  accompanied  by  an  extension  of  the  system  of 
double-cropping,  and  by  an  increase  in  the  area  sown  on  the  banks  of 
jhlh  with  small  millet  and  rice  to  ripen  in  the  hot  season.  The  most 
important  increase  has  been  in  the  area  under  poppy,  and  the  general 
tendency  has  been  to  cultivate  the  more  valuable  crops  in  place  of 
inferior  staples.  There  has  been  a  little  reclamation  of  land  by  throw- 
ing dams  across  ravines  to  prevent  erosion  and  to  collect  silt.  Advances 
are  freely  taken,  especially  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act.  The 
total  lent  by  Government  during  the  ten  years  ending  1900  was 
3«8  lakhs,  of  which  2-4  lakhs  was  advanced  in  the  famine  year  1896-7, 
In  the  next  four  years  loans  averaged  only  Rs.  4,000.  A  few  small 
agricultural  banks  have  been  started. 

Pasture  land  is  scarce,  and  the  breed  of  cattle  is  poor,  the  best 
animals  being  all  imported.  Ponies  are  still  largely  used  as  pack- 
animals  ;  but  the  breed  is  very  inferior.  A  stallion  is  now  maintained 
in  the  District,  to  introduce  a  better  strain.  Sheep  and  goats  are  kept 
in  large  numbers,  to  provide  wool,  meat,  milk,  and  manure. 

Rae  Bareli  is  well  provided  with  means  of  irrigation.  In  1903-4 
the  irrigated  area  was  469  square  miles,  of  which  300  were  supplied 
from  w^ells,  164  from  tanks  or  jhlls^  and  5  from  other  sources.  The 
number  and  importance  of  wells  is  increasing,  and  the  safety  of  the 
crops  is  thereby  enhanced,  z.%jhils  fail  in  dry  years,  when  most  needed. 
The  larger  wells  are  worked  by  bullocks  ;  but  where  the  water-level 
is  higher,  the  dhenkll  or  lever  and  the  pot  and  pulley  worked  by  hand 
are  used.  Water  is  raised  from  jh'ds  in  the  swing-basket.  There  are 
very  few  artificial  tanks,  and  those  which  exist  are  ascribed  to  the 
Bhars.  The  larger  streams  are  little  used  for  irrigation,  as  their  beds 
lie  deep  below  the  surface  of  the  country. 

Kankar  or  calcareous  limestone  is  found  in  both  block  and  nodular 
formations  in  most  parts  and  is  used  for  making  lime  and  metalling 
roads.  Saline  efflorescences  called  reh  are  collected  for  making  coarse 
glass  and  for  other  purposes. 

c  2 


30  RAE   BARELI  DISTRICT 

The  only  manufacture  of  any  importance  is  that  of  coarse  cotton 

cloth,  which  is  made  in  many  parts  of  the  District.     Finer  materials 

are   produced  at  Jais   and  Rae  BarelI  ;    but   the 

Trade  and        industry  is  dying  out,  as  there  is  little  demand  for 
communications.    ,  V.,        ,         ,  ,  „     ,  •  ,  ,     . 

them,     (jrlass  bangles  and  small  phials  are  made  ui 

a  few  places.     Apart  from  these  industries  little  is  produced  in  the 

District. 

Under  native  government  the  transit  dues  extorted  by  the  land- 
holders prevented  any  trade  of  importance,  and  as  late  as  1866  the 
District  consumed  most  of  its  own  produce  and  hence  imported  little. 
The  improvement  of  communications  and  the  freedom  from  imposts 
have  caused  a  great  advance  in  this  respect;  and  the  District  now 
exports  grain,  opium,  poppy-seeds,  hides,  bones,  oilseeds,  and  a  little 
tobacco  and  raw  sugar,  and  imports  piece-goods,  metals,  salt,  sugar, 
and  spices.  Rae  Bareli  is  the  chief  trading  centre ;  but  Lalganj, 
Maharajganj,  and  BaintI  are  rising  in  importance.  Much  of  the  trade 
of  the  south  is  with  Kalakankar  in  Partabgarh  District ;  and  the  trade 
of  Dalmau,  which  was  formerly  of  some  consequence,  is  declining, 
though  it  is  still  the  site  of  a  large  religious  fair. 

The  main  line  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway  enters  the 
north-west  of  the  District  and  turns  east  from  Rae  Bareli  town,  thus 
passing  through  the  centre.  Communications  by  road  are  fairly  good, 
and  have  been  much  improved  in  recent  years.  There  are  601  miles 
of  roads,  of  which  115  are  metalled.  The  whole  of  the  roads  are  main- 
tained at  the  cost  of  Local  funds,  though  the  metalled  roads  and 
some  of  the  unmetalled  are  in  charge  of  the  Public  Works  department. 
Avenues  of  trees  are  maintained  on  69  miles.  The  chief  routes  are 
the  roads  from  Rae  Bareli  town  to  Lucknow,  Sultanpur,  and  Fatehpur. 
An  old  road  from  Delhi  to  Benares,  north  of  the  Ganges,  passes  through 
the  south  of  the  District. 

Rae  Bareli   has   suffered  from  severe   scarcity  and   famine.      The 

great  desolation  of  1784  was  long  remembered,  and  there  was  scarcity 

_      .  again  in  1810.    The  records  of  events  under  native 

Famine.  .  ,  at 

government  are,  however,  meagre.     After  annexation 

distress  was  experienced  in  1864,  1869,  and  1873,  but  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  acute.  In  1877-8  the  deficiency  in  the  rainfall  was 
followed  by  widespread  scarcity,  causing  acute  distress  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  while  actual  famine  prevailed  for  about  two  months. 
Relief  works  were  opened  both  by  Government  and  by  the  ta/ukddrs, 
and  large  sums  were  spent  by  the  charitable.  In  1881  drought  again 
resulted  in  scarcity  and  the  collection  of  revenue  was  postponed. 
Excessive  and  untimely  rain  in  the  period  1893-5  caused  distress, 
which  necessitated  the  opening  of  small  relief  works.  The  resources 
of  the  people  had  thus  been  seriously  affected  before  the  failure  of 


ADMINISTRA  TION  3 1 

the  rains  in  1896,  which  caused  the  worst  famine  the  District  has 
experienced.  More  than  a  lakh  was  advanced  for  the  construction  of 
wells,  and  the  revenue  demand  was  suspended  to  the  extent  of  3  lakhs. 
In  February,  1897,  more  than  90,000  persons  were  on  relief  works; 
but  the  liberal  advances  made  enabled  a  large  area  of  spring  crops  to 
be  sown  and  food-grains  to  be  imported,  and  by  the  end  of  July,  1897, 
the  famine  was  over. 

The   Deputy-Commissioner   usually   has    a    staff  of    four    Deputy- 
Collectors  recruited  in  India,  and  a  tahsilddr  resides    .  ,    .  . 
at  the  head-quarters  of  each  tahsil.     Three  officers 
of  the  Opium  department  and  an  officer  of  the  Salt  department  are 
stationed  in  the  District. 

There  are  two  District  Munsifs,  four  Honorary  Munsifs,  and  a  Sub- 
ordinate Judge  for  civil  work.  Sultanpur  and  Partabgarh  Districts  are 
both  included  in  the  Civil  Judgeship,  and  Partabgarh  in  the  Sessions 
Division  of  Rae  Bareli.  The  most  common  variety  of  crime  is 
burglary,  for  which  the  Pasis  are  especially  notorious.  Apart  from 
this,  serious  offences  are  rare,  and  the  people  are  quiet  and  law-abiding. 
Infanticide  was  formerly  practised,  but  is  no  longer  suspected. 

At  annexation,  in  1856,  a  summary  settlement  was  made,  the  records 
of  which  have  perished.  The  estates  of  the  talukddrs  were  largely 
reduced,  villages  being  settled  direct  with  the  village  proprietors.  At 
the  second  summary  settlement  in  1859  a  reversion  was  made  to  the 
actual  position  in  1856,  except  where  estates  had  been  confiscated  for 
rebellion.  The  first  regular  settlement,  preceded  by  a  survey,  began 
in  i860  and  was  carried  out  in  different  ways  in  the  three  Districts 
of  which  portions  now  make  up  Rae  Bareli.  In  Rae  Bareli  itself  the 
assessment  was  for  the  first  time  based  entirely  on  the  corrected  rent- 
rolls,  with  adjustments  for  land  held  at  privileged  rates.  The  methods 
adopted  in  Partabgarh  and  Sultanpur,  which  will  be  found  in  the 
accounts  of  those  Districts,  were  based  partly  on  the  use  of  corrected 
rent-rolls,  and  partly  on  the  selection  of  average  rates  of  rent.  The 
result  was  an  enhancement  of  the  revenue  fixed  in  the  summary  settle- 
ment from  9-5  to  12-4  lakhs.  This  settlement  was  revised  between 
1892  and  1896,  chiefly  by  the  District  officer  in  addition  to  his  own 
duties.  There  was  no  resurvey,  and  the  corrected  rent-rolls  as  usual 
formed  the  basis  of  the  assessment.  The  result  was  an  increase  in 
the  demand  to  15-4  lakhs,  representing  47  per  cent,  of  the  net 
corrected  'assets.'  The  incidence  of  land  revenue  is  about  Rs.  1-3 
per  acre,  and  varies  very  slightly  in  different  parts  of  the  District. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all 
sources  are  given  in  the  table  on  the  next  page,  in  thousands  of  rupees. 

The  District  contains  <jnly  one  municipality,  Rae  Bareli,  and  one 
town  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856.     Local  affairs  outside  of 


32 


RAE   BARELI  DISTRICT 


these  places  are  managed  by  the  District  board,  which  in  1903-4  had 
an  income  of  1-2  lakhs,  chiefly  derived  from  local  rates,  and  an 
expenditure  of  1-3  lakhs,  including  Rs.  61,000  spent  on  roads  and 
buildings. 


1880-1.         1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4- 

Land  res'enue 
Total  revenue 

9,74         12,44 
11,62         17,18 

15,02 
21,05 

15.40 
22,18 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  has  under  him  a  force  of 
3  inspectors,  76  subordinate  ofificers,  and  304  constables,  posted  in 
13  police  stations,  besides  41  municipal  and  town  police,  and  2,159 
rural  and  road  police.  The  District  jail  contained  a  daily  average 
of  448  prisoners  in   1903. 

The  people  of  Rae  Barell  are  moderately  well  educated  compared 
with  their  neighbours,  and  3-2  per  cent.  (6-2  males  and  0-2  females) 
could  read  and  write  in  1901.  Public  schools  increased  in  number 
from  126  in  1880-1  to  166  in  1900-1,  and  the  pupils  from  5,170  to 
7,418.  In  1903-4  there  were  196  such  schools  with  8,886  pupils, 
including  70  girls,  and  35  private  schools  with  464  pupils.  Only  1,000 
pupils  had  advanced  beyond  the  primary  stage.  Three  schools  are 
managed  by  Government  and  iii  by  the  District  and  municipal 
boards.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  was  Rs.  43,000,  of 
which  nearly  Rs.  32,000  was  provided  by  Local  funds  and  Rs.  7,000 
from  fees. 

There  are  eleven  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation 
for  70  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  61,000, 
including  878  in-patients,  and  2,600  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  Rs.  14,000,  chiefly 
met  from  Local  funds. 

About  36,000  persons  were  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4,  giving 
a  proportion  of  35  per  1,000  of  population.  Vaccination  is  compulsory 
only  in  the  municipality  of  Rae  Bareli. 

[W.  C.  Benett,  Clans  of  the  Roy  Bareilly  District;  S.  H.  Fremantle, 
Settk/nent  Report  (1898) ;  H.  R.  Nevill,  District  Gazetteer  (1904).] 

Rae  Bareli  TahsiL — Head-quarters  tahsii  of  Rae  Bareli  District, 
United  Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the  same  name, 
lying  between  26°  4'  and  26°  26'  N.  and  81°  and  81°  25'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  371  square  miles.  Population  increased  from  221,875  in  1891 
to  223,505  in  1901.  There  are  353  villages,  but  only  one  town,  Rae 
Bareli  (population,  15,880),  the  District  and  tahsil  head-quarters. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,24,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  52,000.  This  is  the  most  densely  populated  tahs'il  in 
the  District,  supporting  602  persons  per  square  mile.  It  lies  on  both 
sides  of  the  Sai,  which  flows  in  a  tortuous  channel,  generally  from 


KAEKOT  33 

north  west  to  south-east,  and  receives  numerous  small  streams.  The 
centre  is  composed  of  a  hght  soil,  which,  when  well  manured  and 
watered,  is  exceedingly  fertile.  In  the  north  and  south  a  heavier  clay 
is  found,  producing  chiefly  rice.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation 
was  216  square  miles,  of  which  94  were  irrigated.  Wells  supply  three- 
fourths  of  the  irrigaced  area,  and  tanks  ox  j' hi  Is  most  of  the  remainder. 

Rae  Bareli  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsil  of 
the  same  name  in  the  United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  14'  N.  and 
81°  14'  E.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sai,  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand 
Railway,  and  on  metalled  roads  to  Lucknow,  Fatehpur,  and  Sultanpur. 
Population  (1901),  15,880.  The  town  consists  of  two  portions,  Rae 
Bareli  proper,  and  a  suburb  called  Jahanabad.  The  name  Bareli  is, 
according  to  some  accounts,  derived  from  the  Bhars,  who  are  said 
to  have  founded  it.  Ibrahim  Shah  of  Jaunpur  conquered  Rae  Bareli 
early  in  the  fifteenth  century  and  handed  it  over  to  Shaikhs  and 
Saiyids.  Husain  Shah  changed  the  name  of  the  place  to  Husainabad, 
but  the  alteration  was  never  popular.  Ibrahim  Shah  added  greatly 
to  the  strength  of  the  fort,  using  the  materials  of  older  buildings  which 
were  ready  to  hand.  A  story  relates  that  when  the  fort  was  building 
all  that  was  erected  during  the  day  fell  down  in  the  course  of  the 
ensuing  night.  In  his  perplexit}'  the  king  had  resort  to  a  holy  man 
of  Jaunpur,  Makhdum  Saiyid  Jafari,  who  walked  over  the  ground,  after 
which  no  interruption  occurred  in  the  work.  The  saint's  tomb  stands 
beside  the  gate  of  the  fort.  Ibrahim  also  built  the  Jama  Masjid ;  and 
a  second  great  mosque  was  erected  by  Jahan  Khan,  the  founder  of 
Jahanabad,  in  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahan.  Jahan  Khan's  palace  and 
tomb  still  adorn  the  suburb  named  after  him.  A  handsome  bridge, 
which  crosses  the  Sai,  was  built  by  public  subscription  soon  after 
annexation.  Besides  the  usual  Government  courts  and  buildings,  the 
town  contains  male  and  female  hospitals  and  a  sarai.  Rae  Bareli  has 
been  a  municipality  since  1867.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1901 
the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  26,000  and  Rs.  25,000, 
respectively.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  32,000,  derived  chiefly 
from  octroi  (Rs.  18,000)  and  market  dues  and  rents  (Rs.  7,000);  and 
the  expenditure  was  also  Rs.  32,000.  The  town  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial centre  in  the  District,  and  its  trade  has  increased  considerably 
since  the  opening  of  the  railway  in  1893.  Two  large  markets,  called 
Capperganj  and  Baillieganj,  after  former  Deputy-Commissioners,  absorb 
much  of  the  trade,  the  latter  being  a  bonded  warehouse  within  octroi 
limits.  Cotton  cloth  is  woven  to  some  extent,  and  muslins  of  good 
quality  are  also  produced.  Two  secondary  schools,  six  primary  schools, 
and  a  small  Sanskrit  pathshdla  are  attended  by  more  than  500  pupils. 

Raekot. — Town  in  the  Jagraon  tahstl  of  Ludhiana  District,  Punjab. 
See  Raikot. 


34  RAE  WIND 

Raewind, — Junction  on  the  North-Western  Railway  in  the  District 
and  tahsll  of  Lahore,  Punjab.     See  Raiwind. 

Raghugarh  .  {Rdghogarh). — Mediatized  chiefship  of  the  Central 
India  Agency,  under  the  Resident  at  Gwalior.  The  State  lies  between 
24°  6'  and  24°  34'  N.  and  77°  7'  and  77°  25'  E.,  about  17  miles  south- 
west of  Guna,  in  the  Khichiwara  district  of  Malwa.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  fort  of  Raghugarh,  founded  by  Lai  Singh  Khlchi  in  1677,  and 
called  after  a  statue  of  Vishnu  alleged  to  have  been  dug  up  on  the 
spot.  It  has  an  area  of  about  1 1 2  square  miles,  between  the  Khlchi 
estates  of  Dharnaoda  on  the  north  and  Garha  on  the  south,  and  the 
Sironj  and  Chhabra  parganas  of  Tonk  State  on  the  east  and  west. 
The  territory  is  situated  in  the  Deccan  trap  area  and  is  much  cut  up 
by  small  hills,  but  the  soil  in  the  valleys  is  very  fertile  and  bears 
excellent  crops  of  all  the  ordinary  grains,  and  of  poppy.  The  Parbati 
river,  which  flows  along  the  western  border,  gives  a  perennial  supply  of 
water.  The  flora  and  fauna  are  the  same  as  elsewhere  in  Malwa. 
The  climate  is  temperate,  and  the  annual  rainfall  averages  about 
30  inches. 

Though  this  State  is  now  a  small  one,  considerable  interest  attaches 
to  its  chief  as  the  recognized  head  of  the  KhichI  Chauhans,  once 
a  powerful  branch  of  the  great  clan  to  which  the  famous  Prithwi  Raj, 
the  last  Hindu  ruler  of  Delhi,  belonged.  The  branch  is  represented 
in  Central  India  by  the  chiefs  of  Raghugarh,  Dharnaoda,  Maksudan- 
GARH,  Khilchipur,  and  Garha.  The  Khlchi  section  of  the  clan 
is  descended  from  Aje  Rao,  second  son  of  Manik  Rai  of  Sambhar. 
The  Khichis  appear  to  have  settled  first  in  the  Sind-Sagar  dodl?  in  the 
Punjab,  migrating  south  after  the  defeat  of  Prithwi  Raj  by  Muizz-ud- 
dln  in  1192.  They  then  settled  at  Gagraun,  now  in  the  Jhalawar 
State.  In  1203  Deo  Singh  of  Gagraun  received  a  grant  of  land  from 
the  Delhi  emperor,  which  was  extended  by  further  grants  to  his 
successors,  so  that  by  the  seventeenth  century  the  Khichi  domains 
comprised  most  of  the  country  between  Guna,  Sarangpur,  Shujalpur, 
and  Bhilsa,  the  tract  receiving  the  name  of  KhichJwara  or  'the  land 
of  the  Khichis.'  In  1697  Gagraun  was  taken  from  them  by  Bhim 
Singh  of  Kotah,  and  Bajranggarh  became  their  stronghold,  the  palace 
and  fort  of  Raghugarh  being  built  seven  years  later.  The  fortunes 
of  the  Raghugarh  chiefs  began  to  wane  about  1780,  when  they  were 
harassed  by  Mahadaji  Sindhia,  who  imprisoned  Raja  Balwant  Singh 
and  his  son  Jai  Singh.  The  feud  thus  commenced  lasted  till  181 8, 
being  carried  on  principally  by  a  Khichi  Thakur,  Sher  Singh,  who 
systematically  devastated  the  Khichi  territory  so  as  to  render  it  value- 
less to  Sindhia.  In  1816  Sindhia's  general,  Jean  Baptiste  Filose, 
granted  the  district  of  Maksudangarh,  till  then  a  part  of  this  State, 
to  Berl  Sal,  a  member  of  the  same  family,  whose  descendants  still 


RAGHUGARH  35 

hold  it.  On  the  death  of  Jai  Singh  in  18 18  disputes  arose  as  to 
the  Raghugarh  succession,  which  were  settled  by  the  intervention  of 
the  British  authorities,  who  mediated  an  agreement  between  Sindhia 
and  the  Raghugarh  chief,  by  which  he  received  the  fort  and  town 
of  Raghugarh  and  land  in  the  vicinity,  supposed  then  to  be  worth 
1-4  lakhs  yearly,  with  the  proviso  that  any  revenue  derived  from  these 
lands  exceeding  Rs.  55,000  should  be  paid  over  to  the  Gwalior  Darbar, 
who  on  its  side  was  to  make  good  any  deficiency.  The  State  was 
never  able  to  make  up  the  stipulated  sum;  and  in  1828  the  Gwalior 
Darbar  ceased  its  payments  on  the  ground  that  the  State  could,  if 
under  proper  management,  produce  the  required  minimum.  Disputes 
in  the  family  complicated  matters  still  further;  and  in  1843,  with  the 
consent  and  mediation  of  the  British  Government,  it  was  arranged  that 
the  original  agreement  should  be  replaced  by  separate  agreements  with 
the  principal  members  of  the  family.  In  accordance  with  this,  Bijai 
Singh  received  52  villages  forming  the  Garha  estate,  and  Chhatar  Sal 
32  villages  forming  the  thakiirat  of  Dharnaoda,  while  Ajit  Singh 
continued  at  Raghugarh,  holding  it  under  the  agreement  of  181 8. 
AjIt  Singh  was  succeeded  by  Jai  Mandal  Singh  in  1857.  Bikramajit 
Singh,  who  succeeded  in  1900,  was  deposed  in  1902  for  maladminis- 
tration. The  present  chief  is  Bahadur  Singh,  who  was  adopted  by 
Bikramajit  Singh  from  a  collateral  branch  and  is  still  a  minor,  having 
been  born  in  1891.     He  bears  the  hereditary  title  of  Raja. 

The  population  has  been  :  (1881)  16,920,  (1891)  18,123,  and  (1901) 
19,446.  Hindus  number  13,968,  or  72  per  cent.  ;  and  Animists, 
4,080,  or  21  per  cent,  mostly  Saharias.  The  population  has  increased 
by  7  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade,  and  the  density  is  173  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  language  commonly  spoken  is  the  Rangri 
dialect  of  Rajasthani.  Only  1-5  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are 
literate.  The  population  is  almost  entirely  supported  by  agriculture. 
Of  the  total  area,  42  square  miles,  or  37  per  cent.,  are  under  cultivation, 
of  which  3  square  miles  are  irrigable.  About  23  square  miles  are 
cultivable  but  not  cultivated.  Of  the  cropped  area  2  square  miles  are 
under  poppy,  the  rest  being  sown  with  cereals  and  other  crops.  The 
total  revenue  is  about  Rs.  52,000,  of  which  Rs.  37,000  is  derived  from 
the  land.  Till  forty  years  ago  the  State  had  its  own  silver  coinage, 
but  the  British  rupee  is  now  current.  The  chief  being  a  minor,  the 
State  is  at  present  managed  by  a  superintendent  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  Resident  at  Gwalior. 

The  capital,  Raghugarh,  is  situated  in  24°  27'  N.  and  77°  12'  E. 
Population  (1901),  3,866.  The  chief  feature  of  the  place  is  the  old 
palace-fort,  which  stands  on  a  low  hill  about  1,800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Round  it  lie  the  remains  of  the  city  wall,  which  formerly 
enclosed  a  circuit  of  about  4  miles,   within   which   the   ruins  of   the 


36  RAGHUGARH 

old  town  can  still  be  seen,  the  modern  town  lying  outside  it.  It  has 
a  school,  a  hospital,  and  a  post  office. 

[R.  Burn,  'The  Bajranggarh  Mint  and  Coins,'  Journal,  Asiatic 
Society  of  Bengal,   1897,  part  i.] 

Raghunathpur. — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Man- 
bhum  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  23°  31'  N.  and  86°  40'  E.  Population 
(1901),  4,171.  Raghunathpur  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1888. 
The  income  during  the  decade  ending  1903-4  averaged  Rs.  2,900, 
and  the  expenditure  Rs.  2,450.  In  1903-4  the  income  and  expendi- 
ture were  Rs.  3,000,  the  chief  source  of  income  being  a  tax  on  persons 
(or  property  tax).     Raghunathpur  is  a  centre  of  the  tasar  silk  industry. 

Raghurajnagar  (or  Satna). —  Tahs'il  of  the  Rewah  State,  Central 
India,  lying  between  24°  4'  and  25°  o'  N.  and  80°  48'  and  81°  18'  E., 
with  an  area  of  977  square  miles.  It  is  situated  wholly  on  the  alluvial 
plateau  north  of  the  Kaimur  range,  and  is  watered  by  the  Tons  and  its 
tributaries.  Population  fell  from  154,705  in  1891  to  144,312  in  1901, 
the  density  being  148  persons  per  square  mile.  The  tahsll  contains 
487  villages  and  one  town,  Satna  (population,  7,471),  the  head-quarters. 
The  land  revenue  is  2-5  lakhs. 

Rahimatpur. — Town  in  the  Koregaon  tdluka  of  Satara  District, 
Bombay,  situated  in  17°  36'  N.  and  74°  12'  E.,  17  miles  south-east  of 
Satara  town,  on  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
6,735.  A  weekly  market  is  held  on  Thursday  and  Friday.  Rahimat- 
pur is  a  large  trading  centre.  Bombay  and  English  piece-goods,  twist 
and  silk,  salt,  coco-nuts,  dates,  and  spices  are  imported  ;  raw  sugar, 
turmeric,  earth-nuts,  and  coriander  seed  are  exported.  The  chief 
objects  of  interest  are  a  mosque  and  a  mausoleum.  The  mausoleum 
seems  to  have  been  built  in  honour  of  RanduUah  Khan,  a  distinguished 
officer  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  the  seventh  Bijapur  Sultan,  Muham- 
mad (1626-56).  About  a  hundred  yards  south-east  of  the  mosque  is 
an  elephant  water-lift — a  tower  about  50  feet  high,  with  an  inclined 
plane  on  the  west,  which  supplied  power  for  the  mosque  fountain.  The 
municipality  was  established  in  1853.  During  the  ten  years  ending 
1 90 1  the  income  averaged  Rs.  3,700.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  3,100.     The  town  contains  a  Sub-Judge's  court  and  a  dispensary. 

Rahman  Garh.— Conspicuous  hill-fort,  4,227  feet  high,  in  the 
middle  of  Kolar  District,  Mysore,  situated  in  13°  21'  N.  and  78°  1'  E. 
A  large  boulder  on  the  western  side  is  covered  with  belts  of  a  brown 
colour,  and  from  a  crevice  in  the  side  a  liquid  resembling  blood  is  said 
to  issue  at  the  beginning  of  the  hot  season,  which  kites  and  crows 
eagerly  devour.     The  place  surrendered  to  the  British  in  1791. 

Rahon. — Town  in  the  Nawashahr  tahsll  of  Jullundur  District, 
Punjab,  situated  in  31*'  4'  N.  and  76''  8'  E.  Population  (1901),  8,651. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  before  the  Christian  era  by  one  Raja 


RAHURI   village  37 

Raghab,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Raghupur,  which  is  still  used  by 
Hindu  scholars.  It  was  captured  by  the  Ghorewaha  Raj[xits  in  the 
time  of  Muhammad  of  Ghor,  whose  leader  renamed  it  Rahon  after 
a  lady  called  Raho.  It  is  still  considered  unlucky  to  use  the  name 
Rahon  before  breakfast ;  till  then  it  is  called  Zanana  Shahr  or  '  woman 
town.'  It  was  seized  by  the  Sikh  chief  Tara  Singh,  Ghaiba,  in  1759, 
and  annexed  on  his  death  by  Ranjit  Singh.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  imitation  gold  and  silver  braid  and  cotton  cloth,  and  there  is 
a  considerable  trade  in  sugar.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867. 
The  income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 
averaged  Rs.  11,200.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  10,500,  chiefly 
from  octroi;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  10,700.  The  town  possesses 
an  Anglo-vernacular  m.iddle  school,  maintained  by  the  municipality, 
and  a  Government  dispensary. 

Rahuri  Taluka.  —  Central  tdluka  of  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bom- 
bay, lying  between  19°  15'  and  19°  37'  N.  and  74°  23**  and  74°  51'  E., 
with  an  area  of  501  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Vambori 
(population,  6,191),  and  112  villages,  including  Rahuri  (5,681), 
its  head-quarters.  The  population  in  1901  was  83,494,  compared 
with  64,862  in  1891.  The  increase  was  due  to  the  large  num- 
bers (19,000) 'employed  in  1901  upon  relief  works  opened  during 
famine.  This  raised  the  density  to  167  persons  per  square  mile,  which 
is,  with  the  exception  of  Ahmadnagar  tdluka,  the  highest  in  the  District. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  i-8  lakhs,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  12,000.  Rahuri  forms  part  of  an  extensive  plain  country  drained 
by  the  rivers  Mula  and  Pravara,  tributaries  of  the  Godavari.  The 
south-eastern  boundary  is  a  well-marked  range  of  hills  dividing  Rahuri 
from  the  more  elevated  tdluka  of  Ahmadnagar,  which  forms  the  water- 
shed between  the  Godavari  and  the  BhTma.  The  highest  point,  the 
hill  of  Gorakhnath,  has  an  elevation  of  2,982  feet  above  sea-level,  or 
about  1,200  feet  above  the  level  of  Rahuri.  The  tdluka  is  scantily 
wooded,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  mango  and  tamarind  groves 
on  the  banks  of  rivers  near  villages,  is  entirely  bare  of  trees.  The 
prevailing  soil  is  a  deep  black,  requiring  much  rain  to  enable  it  to  yield 
good  crops.  Towards  the  hills  and  on  the  ridges  between  the  rivers, 
the  soils  being  lighter  and  more  friable  are  .better  adapted  for  the  early 
crops.  Four  miles  of  the  Ojhar  canal  and  1 7  miles  of  the  Lakh  canal 
traverse  the  tdluka.  Early  and  late  crops  are  grown  in  about  equal 
proportions  :  the  early  crops  chiefly  in  the  hill  villages,  and  the  late 
crops  in  the  plains.  The  Dhond-Manmad  chord  railway  traverses  the 
tdluka  from  north  to  south. 

Rahuri  Village.— Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Ahmadnagar  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  i9°23'N.  and  74°  39' E,, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Mula  river,  25  miles  north  of  Ahmadnagar 


38  RAHURI   VILLAGE 

town,  and  3  miles  from  a  station  on  the  Dhond-Manmad  chord 
raihvay.  Population  (1901),  5,681,  including  Khurd  Rahuri  (203). 
Marwari  traders  are  numerous  in  the  town,  which  contains  a  Sub- 
Judge's  court  and  a  dispensary. 

Raibag. — Village  in  Kolhapur  State,  Bombay.     See  Raybag. 

Raichur  Districts — District  in  the  Gulbarga  Division  of  Hydera- 
bad State,  adjoining  Mahbubnagar  and  Gulbarga,  which  bound  it  east 
and  north,  and  the  Madras  Districts  of  Bellary  and  Kurnool  in  the 
south,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river  Tungabhadra.  Before 
the  extensive  changes  made  in  1905,  referred  to  below,  it  lay  between 
15°  50'  and  16°  54'  N.  and  76°  50'  and  78°  15'  E.,  and  had  an  area 
of  3,604  square  vcAt^,  khalsa  lands  covering  2,319  square  miles  and 
the  rest  being  samasthd/is  and  jaglrs.  A  range  of  hills  traverses  the 
Yadglr  taluk  from  west  to  east  for  a  length  of  20  miles,  and  enters 
the  Seram  and  Kodangal  taluks  of  Gulbarga  District 
Physical  -^^  ^^   north-east.      There  are   three   other  ranges, 

d.SD6CtS  . 

one  extending  from  the  north-west  of  Raichur 
towards  Yergara  for  15  miles,  another  in  the  Raichur  and  Manvi  taluks 
10  miles  long,  and  the  third  19  miles  long  in  the  south  of  the  District 
in  the  Raichur  and  Alampur  taluks.  These  really  form  a  single  range, 
extending  for  nearly  60  miles  from  the  north-west  of  Raichur  to  Alam- 
pur, with  two  breaks.  The  general  slope  of  the  country  is  from  the 
north-west  towards  the  south-east. 

The  most  important  river  is  the  Kistna,  which  enters  the  Deodrug 
taluk  and  flows  for  a  distance  of  130  miles  in  a  south-easterly  direction. 
The  Tungabhadra  forms  the  southern  boundary  up  to  the  point  of  its 
confluence  with  the  Kistna  in  the  Alampur  taluk.  The  Bhima  enters 
the  Yadgir  taluk,  and  falls  into  the  Kistna  16  miles  north  of  Raichur. 

The  District  is  occupied  principally  by  Archaean  gneiss,  including, 
near  its  western  boundary,  some  bands  of  crystalline  schists  known  as 
the  Dharwar  series,  which  contain  auriferous  quartz  veins.  At  the 
extreme  east,  the  triangular  area  above  the  confluence  of  the  Kistna 
and  Tungabhadra  is  occupied  by  rocks  of  the  Kurnool  series.  The 
Dharwars  and  the  Kurnools  are  fully  described  in  the  publications  of 
the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  the  former  by  R.  B.  Foote  {Records, 
vols,  xxi,  part  ii,  and  xxii,  part  i),  the  latter  by  W.  King  {Memoirs, 
vol.  viii,  part  i). 

The  most  important  trees  are  teak,  ebony,  hljdsdl  {Pterocarpus  Mar- 
supium),  fialldmaddi  { Termmalia  tomefitosa),  eppa  {Hardwickia  blnata), 
tarvar  {Cassia  auriadata),  mango,  tamarind,  nlm,  and  species  oi  Ficus. 

No  large  game  is  found,  owing  to  the  absence  of  forests ;  but  in  the 
hills  leopards,  bears,  hyenas,  and  wolves   are   met  with  occasionally. 

^  This  article,  except  where  otherwise  stated,  describes  the  District  as  it  stood  before 
the  changes  made  in  1905. 


RAICHUR  DISTRICT 


39 


History. 


Among  game-birds,  partridge  and  quail,  and  near  the  tanks  and  on 
the  rivers  wild  duck,  teal,  and  other  water-fowl,  may  be  seen. 

The  District  is  generally  healthy  from  October  to  the  end  of  May, 
but  during  the  rains  ague  and  fever  prevail.  The  parts  bordering  the 
rivers  are  damp.  The  temperature  in  May  rises  to  iii°,  but  the  nights 
are  cool,  and  in  December  it  falls  to  70°  F.  The  annual  rainfall  during 
the  twenty-one  years  ending  1901  averaged  25-37  inches. 

Before  the  Muhammadan  conquest,  Raichur  was  part  of  the  Warangal 
kingdom,  and  it  became  subject  to  Vijayanagar  when  that  power  was 
established  early  in  the  fourteenth  century.  After 
Muhammad  bin  Tughlak's  death,  it  fell  to  the  Bah- 
manis,  then  to  the  Adil  Shahis  of  Bijapur.  After  the  conquest  of 
Bijapur  by  Aurangzeb,  it  was  united  to  Delhi,  but  was  separated  from 
the  empire  on  the  foundation  of  the  Hyderabad  State.  Under  the 
treaty  of  1853  it  was  assigned  to  the  British,  but  was  restored  to  the 
Nizam  in  i860. 

The  principal  antiquities  are  found  in  or  near  the  fort  of  Raichur, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Gore  Gangaya  Ruddivaru,  the 
minister  of  the  Raja  of  Warangal  between  1294  and  1301.  The 
District  also  contains  the  old  forts  of  Deodrug,  Yadgir,  Alampur, 
and  Malliabad,  besides  numerous  temples  and  mosques. 

The  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  the  District,  including  jdgirs 
and  two  large  samasthd?is,  is  899.  The  population  at  the  last  three 
enumerations  was:  (1881)  398,782,  (1891)  512,455,  ^^  ulation 
and  (1901)  509,249.  The  chief  towns  are  now 
Raichur,  Gadwal,  Koppal,  Mudgal,  Deodrug,  Kallur,  and  Manvi. 
Hindus  form  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  population ;  5  r  per  cent,  of  the 
people  speak  Telugu,  37  per  cent.  Kanarese,  and  9  per  cent.  Urdu. 
The  following  table  shows  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Taluk. 

< 

Number  of 

Population. 

0  m 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1 89 1 
and  IQOI. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 

I 

I 

I 
I 
I 

I 

en 

a; 
be 

> 

Raichur  . 
Yadgir    . 
Alampnr 
Yergara  . 
Manvi     . 
Deodrug 
Jagirs,  &c.       . 

Total 

441 
268 
179 
358 
559 

514 

1,285 

no 

50 
42 

77 
137 
151 
326 

88,741 

36,075 
29,294 

59,463 
69,306 

76,491 
149,879 

201 

134 

163 

166 
124 
148 
116 

+    5-6 
-31.0 
+  10.8 
+     9.1 
+  20-3 
+     2.5 

+       2-9 

)-    '3 

♦J 
0 

3,604 

6 

893 

509,249 

141 

-    0.7 

10,872 

In  1905  Yergara  was  divided  between  the  adjoining  fd/jf^s  of  Manvi, 
Raichur,  and  Deodrug,  and  Yadgir  was  transferred  to  Gulbarga  District. 


40  RAICHUR   DISTRICT 

On  the  other  hand,  Lingsugur,  Gangawati,  Kushtagi,  and  Sindhnur 
were  added  to  Raichnr  from  the  broken-up  Lingsugur  District.  In  its 
present  form  the  District  comprises  eight  ialuks — Raichur,  Lingsugur, 
Manvi,  Alampur,  I  )eodrug,  Gangawati,  Kushtagi,  and  Sindhnur — besides 
the  samasthdns  of  Gadwal  and  Amarchinta,  and  the  two  Jdgir  taluks 
of  Koppal  and  Yelbarga  belonging  to  the  Salar  Jang  family. 

The  most  numerous  caste  in  the  District  is  that  of  the  cultivating 
Kapus,  numbering  72,900,  of  whom  53,300  are  Lingayats.  Almost 
equal  to  them  are  the  hunting  Bedars,  numbering  72,600.  The 
number  of  persons  supported  by  agriculture  is  56  percent,  of  the  total. 
Of  the  276  Christians  in  1901,  237  were  natives. 

Raichur  is  situated  in  the  metamorphic  and  trap  regions,  and  its 
soils    are  composed  of  regar,  inasab,  mihva^  and  reddish  soils.     The 
.  reddish  or  lateritic  soil  is  much  prized,  and  so  are 

also  the  regar  and  niihva,  but  the  masab  is  a  very 
poor  soil  and  needs  water  and  heavy  manuring.  Regar  predominates 
in  the  Raichur,  Manvi,  and  Deodrug  taluks^  where  r-abi  crops  are  exten- 
sively raised,  while  reddish  and  milwa  soils  are  used  for  khai-Jf  crops. 
In  the  reddish  and  mihva  soils  a  moderate  fall  of  12  to  15  inches  of  rain 
is  sufficient  to  mature  the  crop,  while  7-egar  needs  25  to  30  inches. 

The  tenure  of  land  is  x^dSxAy  ryotivdri.  In  1901,  1,670  square  miles 
were  cultivated,  out  of  a  total  area  of  2,319  square  miles  of  khdlsa  land. 
The  remainder  included  127  square  miles  of  cultivable  waste  and 
fallows,  120  of  forest,  and  402  not  available  for  cultivation.  Only 
36  square  miles  were  irrigated. 

The  staple  food-crops  are  y<??^'Jr  and  bdjra,  produced  from  781  and 
141  square  miles  of  land  respectively,  or  47  and  8  per  cent,  of  the  net 
area  cropped.  Cotton  was  grown  on  285  square  miles,  distributed  over 
all  the  taluks,  while  rice  and  oilseeds  covered  33  and  77  square  miles. 

Since  the  settlement  in  1891,  the  value  of  land  has  increased,  and 
almost  the  whole  of  the  available  area  has  been  taken  up,  and  little 
extension  is  now  possible.  No  steps  have  been  taken  to  improve 
cultivation  by  the  introduction  of  new  varieties  of  seed  or  better  agri- 
cultural implements. 

The  cattle  are  of  the  ordinary  kind,  but  are  strong  and  well  suited 
for  deep  ploughing.  There  is  no  special  breed  of  ponies,  sheep,  or 
goats.  In  the  town  of  Raichur,  a  weekly  bazar  is  held,  where  cattle, 
ponies,  and  sheep  are  sold.  At  the  annual  fair  at  Gadwal,  a  large 
trade  is  done  in  cattle.     The  District  contains  numerous  grazing  areas. 

The  total  irrigated  area  is  only  about  36  square  miles,  which  is 
supplied  by  234  tanks  and  4,804  wells,  all  in  good  repair.  In  the 
Yergara  tdli/k,  a  channel  9  miles  long  from  the  Tungabhadra  river 
supplies  most  of  the  tanks.  Estimates  amounting  to  Rs.  60,000  for 
improving  this  channel  are  awaiting  sanction,  and,  when  completed,  it 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  41 

will  irrigate  a  very  large  extent  of  land.  The  largest  tank  is  at  Kanj- 
palli,  2  miles  from  Yergara,  the  dam  of  which  is  2  miles  long  and  about 
40  feet  high. 

A  small  'reserved'  forest,  70  square  miles  in  area,  is  situated  in  the 
Yadgir  tdluk,  and  about  50  square  miles  are  covered  with  protected 
and  unprotected  forests,  making  a  total  of  120  square  miles.  Teak, 
ebony,  rosewood,  bljasal  i^Pterocarpiis  Marsiipiunt),  nalldmaddi  {Ter- 
minalia  tomenfosa),  eppa  {Hardwickia  binata),  sandal-wood,  se7id?'a 
{Acacia  Catechu),  and  bamboos  are  found  in  the  '  reserved '  tract. 

The  most  important  mineral  is  the  auriferous  quartz,  found  in  the 
Manvi  and  Deodrug  taluks,  near  the  villages  of  Topaldodi  and  ^Van- 
dalli,  which  was  worked  by  the  Deccan  Mining  Company.  Operations 
have  recently  diminished  at  Wandalli  and  altogether  stopped  at  Topal- 
dodi. Laminated  limestone  like  the  Shahabad  stone  is  also  found  in 
Yadgir,  and  talc  in  the  Deodrug  taluk. 

There  is  no  important  hand  industry  in  the  District.    Coarse  cotton 

dhotis  and  sdrls  are  woven  everywhere.    In  the  Alampur  taluk  shatrait- 

jis  and  printed  floorcloths  are  manufactured,  while  in 

the  Yadeir  taluk  printed  screens  and  tablecloths  and        Trade  and 

,  .  ,  _  communications, 

furniture  and  wooden  toys  are  made.     Raich ur  town 

is   noted   for   its   gilt    and    coloured    soft   native    slippers,  which  are 

exported   far  and  wide,  and   also   for  its  fancy  earthen  goblets  and 

drinking  vessels. 

Four  cotton-presses,  three  at  Raichur  and  one  at  Yadgir,  employed 
275  hands,  and  pressed  7,426  tons  of  cotton  in  1901,  and  an  oil  and 
another  ginning  and  pressing  factory  are  under  construction.  A  tannery 
at  Raichur  turns  out  500  skins  per  day,  and  employs  60  persons.  The 
skins  and  hides  are  sent  to  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Cawnpore.  Nitre 
and  salt  are  prepared  in  small  quantities  by  lixiviating  saline  earth  ; 
the  salt  is  bitter  and  is  used  in  making  pickles.  There  is  also  a 
distillery  at  Raichur. 

The  principal  exports  consist  of  jo7vdr  and  other  food-grains,  lin- 
seed, castor-seed,  sesamum,  leather  and  hides,  bones  and  horns, 
tarvar  bark,  and  cotton.  The  chief  imports  are  salt  and  salted  fish, 
opium,  coco-nuts,  refined  sugar,  kerosene  oil,  sulphur,  camphor,  spices, 
mill-made  cloth,  yarn,  raw  silk,  and  silk  and  woollen  stuffs. 

Raichur  town  is  a  centre  of  commerce,  and  since  the  opening  of 
the  railway  in  187 1  it  has  grown  in  importance  and  supports  a  large 
commercial  population.  The  trading  castes  consist  of  Baljawars,  Lin- 
gayat  Komatis,  and  Marwaris,  who  also  do  a  large  banking  business. 

The  town  of  Raichur  is  the  junction  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula 
and  the  Madras  Railways,  which  cross  the  District  from  north  to  south 
for  62  miles,  having  seven  railway  stations  in  the  District,  besides 
Raichur. 


42  RAICHUR  DISTRICT 

There  are  altogether  182  miles  of  roads,  of  which  84  miles  are 
gravelled,  and  are  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  department,  the 
others  being  ordinary  fair-weather  roads.  The  latter  lead  from  Raichur 
town  to  Alampur  (60  miles),  to  Deodrug  (34),  and  to  Manvi  (24).  The 
metalled  roads  are  the  Deosugur  road  (13),  Raichur  to  Wandalli  gold- 
mines (43),  the  Yergara  road  (10),  and  the  Raichur-Lingsugur  road 
(18  miles).  Most  of  these  roads  now  serve  as  railway  feeders.  There 
are  32  fords  and  ferries  on  the  Kistna,  the  Tungabhadra,  and  the 
Bhima,  at  some  of  which  boats  are  kept,  while  at  others  coracles  are 
used  for  carrying  people  and  goods  across. 

From  old  records  it  appears  that  this  District  was  the  scene  of  much 
distress  during  1804,  181 9,  1833,  1846,  1856,  and  1877-8.  The  effects 
of  the  famine  of  1846  were  felt  beyond  the  borders; 
but  the  severest  disaster  was  that  of  1877-8,  which 
devastated  many  villages  and  caused  immense  distress  both  in  Raichur 
and  in  the  surrounding  Districts  of  the  Hyderabad  State  and  of  the 
Bombay  and  Madras  Presidencies.  The  kharif  and  rabi  crops  failed 
during  these  two  years  and  grain  could  not  be  obtained.  As  an  indica- 
tion of  distress,  it  is  reported  that  gold  sold  at  Rs.  6  or  Rs.  7  per  tola, 
i.e.  at  one-fourth  its  usual  price,  and  many  people  sold  their  children. 
The  State  spent  large  sums  of  money  on  relief  works  and  poor- 
houses  to  alleviate  the  distress;  but  notwithstanding  this,  many  perished, 
and  numerous  villages  were  depopulated,  while  cattle  died  by  thou- 
sands for  want  of  fodder  and  water.  In  1897  some  distress  prevailed, 
but  timely  rain  in  June  relieved  the  pressure  by  cheapening  the  food- 
grains. 

The  District  is  divided  into  three  subdivisions  :  one  comprising  the 
taluks  of  Lingsugur,  Gangawati,  and  Kushtagi,  under  a  Second  Taluk- 
.  .  dar  ;  the  second,  comprising  the  tdb/ks  of  Sindh- 
nur,  Deodrug,  and  Manvi,  under  a  Third  Talukdar  ; 
and  the  third,  comprising  Raichur  and  Alampur,  under  another  Third 
Talukdar.  The  First  Talukdar  exercises  a  general  supervision  over 
the  work  of  his  subordinates.     Each  tdltik  is  under  a  tahsilddr. 

The  District  civil  court  is  presided  over  by  the  Nazim-i-Dlwdni,  or 
the  District  Civil  Judge,  and  the  tahs'ilddrs  sit  as  subordinate  civil 
courts.  The  Ndzim-i-D'nvd7ii  is  a  joint-magistrate,  exercising  his  magis- 
terial powers  during  the  absence  of  the  First  Talukdar  from  head- 
quarters. The  Second  and  Third  Talukdars  and  the  tahs'ilddrs  exercise 
second  and  third-class  magisterial  powers.  Serious  crime  is  not  heavy 
in  ordinary  years,  but  cattle-thefts  and  dacoities  fluctuate  according  to 
the  degree  of  severity  of  the  season. 

The  revenue  system  of  Malik  Ambar  appears  to  have  been  adopted 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Subsequently  villages 
were  let  on  contract,  after  fixing  the  revenue  according  to  the  nature 


ADMINISTKA  TION  4  3 

of  the  lands,  and  the  contractors  received  \\  annas  per  rupee  as  com- 
mission. The  ryotwdri  system,  with  cash  payments,  was  introduced 
in  1866.  In  1888  the  Deodrug  and  Manvi  taluks  were  surveyed  and 
settled  for  fourteen  years ;  and  the  remaining  taluks  were  settled  in 
1 89 1,  also  for  the  same  period.  From  the  survey  it  was  found  that 
the  cultivated  area  had  increased  by  271  square  miles,  or  19-6  per 
cent.,  and  the  enhancement  of  revenue  was  Rs.  53,821,  or  5-6  per  cent. 
The  average  assessment  on  'dry'  land  is  R.  0-12  (maximum  Rs.  3, 
minimum  R.  0-2),  and  on  'wet'  land  Rs.  5  (maximum  Rs.  12,  mini- 
mum Rs.  2). 

The  land  revenue  and  the  total  revenue  of  the  District  are  given 
below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1881. 

1891.            1901. 

1903. 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue    . 

11,5' 
15,01 

12,23          11,60 
23,34          19,82 

11,94 
22,62 

Owing  to  changes  of  area  made  in  1905,  the  land  revenue  demand  is 
now  about  18-4  lakhs. 

The  District  board,  in  addition  to  its  own  work,  manages  the  Raichur 
municipality  and  also  supervises  the  working  of  the  taluk  boards,  which 
have  been  formed  in  every  taluk  except  Raichur.  Of  the  total  cess, 
five-twelfths  are  set  apart  for  local  and  municipal  works,  yielding 
Rs.  25,000  in  1901.  In  addition,  a  sum  of  Rs.  33,000  was  contributed 
from  other  miscellaneous  sources  to  meet  the  expenditure  in  that  year, 
which  was  Rs.  58,000. 

The  First  Talukdar  is  the  head  of  the  police,  with  a  Superintendent 
iyMohtamim)  as  his  executive  deputy.  Under  the  latter  are  7  inspectors, 
53  subordinate  officers,  398  constables,  and  25  mounted  police,  distri- 
buted among  25  thdnas  and  an  equal  number  of  outposts.  Besides 
the  regular  police,  there  are  1,696  rural  policemen.  The  District  jail 
is  at  Raichur,  and  lock-ups  are  maintained  in  the  five  outlying  taluks. 
The  District  jail  can  accommodate  only  100  convicts,  but  prisoners 
whose  terms  exceed  six  months  are  transferred  to  the  Central  jail  at 
Gulbarga. 

In  1 90 1  the  proportion  of  persons  in  the  District  able  to  read  and 
write  was  2'i  per  cent.  (4-1  males  and  0-15  females).  The  total  num- 
ber of  pupils  under  instruction  in  1881,  1891,  1901,  and  1903  was  269, 
1)255,  2,771,  and  2,679  respectively.  In  1903  there  were  31  primary 
and  2  middle  schools,  and  the  number  of  girls  under  instruction  was 
94.  The  amount  expended  on  education  was  Rs.  16,600,  of  which  the 
State  contributed  Rs.  10,700  and  the  remainder  was  met  by  the  local 
boards.  About  53  per  cent,  of  the  total  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 
The  total  fee  receipts  amounted  to  Rs.  1,119. 

VOL.  XXI.  D 


44  RAICHUR  DISTRICT 

The  District  has  5  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for  14  in- 
patients. The  total  number  of  cases  treated  during  1901  was  30,535 
out-patients  and  124  in-patients,  and  1,153  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  was  Rs.  14,800,  of  which  Rs.  13,500  was  paid  by 
the  State  and  the  balance  from  J^ocal  funds.  There  are  two  dispen- 
saries in  the  two  samasthdns  of  Gadwal  and  Amarchinta  on  the  model 
of  the  State  dispensaries. 

During  1901  five  vaccinators  were  engaged  in  the  work  of  vaccina- 
tion, and  3,096  persons  were  successfully  vaccinated,  or  6-o8  per  1,000 
of  the  population. 

Raichur  Taluk. — Taluk  in  Raichur  District,  Hyderabad  State. 
The  area  in  1901  was  526  square  miles,  including /^T^-fr.?,  and  the  popu- 
lation was  94,695,  compared  with  89,782  in  1891.  It  had  one  town, 
Raichur  (population,  22,165),  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and 
taluk;  and  128  villages,  of  which  18  werejdgir.  In  1905  the  Idluk  was 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  part  of  Yergara.  The  Kistna  river  separates 
it  from  Mahbubnagar  District  in  the  north.  The  land  revenue  in  1901 
was  2-6  lakhs.  The  soils  are  chiefly  alluvial,  regar,  and  sandy.  The 
two  samasthans  of  Gadwal  and  Amarchinta  lie  to  the  east  and  north- 
east of  this  tdhik^  with  populations  of  96,491  and  34,147,  areas  of  about 
864  and  190  square  miles,  and  214  and  68  villages  respectively.  The 
former  contains  one  town,  Gadwal  (population,  10,195). 

Raichur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  taluk  of  the 
same  name  in  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  16°  12'  N.  and  77°  ai'  E. 
Population  (1901),  22,165,  of  whom  16,249  ^^'^re  Hindus,  5,664  Musal- 
mans,  and  186  Christians.  According  to  an  inscription  in  the  fort  on 
a  huge  stone  42  by  3  feet,  it  was  built  by  Gore  Gangaya  Ruddivaru 
in  1294.  The  country  round  Raichur  was  the  battle-ground  of  the 
ancient  Hindu  and  Jain  dynasties,  as  well  as  of  the  Musalman  and 
Hindu  kingdoms  of  Gulbarga  and  Vijayanagar.  After  the  decline 
of  the  Bahmani  power  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it 
formed  part  of  the  Bijapur  kingdom.  Upon  the  subjugation  of  Bijapur 
and  Golconda  by  Aurangzeb,  Raichur  was  garrisoned  by  the  Mughals. 
A  short  distance  from  the  west  gate  of  the  fortress  are  the  remains  of 
a  strongly  built  palace,  now  utilized  as  a  jail.  The  town  is  the  junction 
of  the  Madras  and  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railways,  351  miles 
from  Madras  and  444  miles  from  Bombay.  The  fortifications  form 
a  square  of  large  stones  12  feet  long  by  3  feet  thick,  laid  on  one 
another  without  any  cementing  material.  They  consist  of  two  walls, 
an  inner  and  an  outer,  and  are  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  deep 
ditch,  while  on  the  fourth  or  southern  side  there  is  a  hill.  The  outer 
fortifications  and  the  gateways  were  constructed  by  Ibrahim  Adil  Shah 
about  1549.  The  inner  fort  has  two  gateways  and  the  outer  three. 
Outside  the  eastern  gate  is  an  old  mosque  having  a  single  minaret 


RAIGARH  STATE  45 

80  yards  high  and  10  yards  in  circumference,  with  a  winding  staircase, 
which  was  built  in  1503  during  the  reign  of  Mahmud  Shah  Bahmani. 
A  good  view  of  the  surrounding  country  is  obtained  from  the  top  of 
this  minaret.  The  Jama  Masjid  in  the  town  was  built  in  16 18.  The 
fort  also  contains  an  old  gun  over  20  feet  long.  Raichur  has  three 
cotton-presses,  a  tannery,  and  a  distillery,  and  is  a  rising  commercial 
centre. 

Raidrug. — Taluk  and  town  in  Bellary  District,  Madras.     See  Rava- 

DRUG. 

Raiganj. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Dinajpur 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  25°  37'  N.  and  88° 
9'  E.,  on  the  Kulik  river.  Population  (1901),  901.  Raiganj  is  an 
important  trade  centre,  exporting  a  large  quantity  of  jute. 

Raigarh  State. — Feudatory  State  in  the  Central  Provinces,  lying 
between  21°  42'  and  22°  t^^'  N.  and  82°  57'  and  83°  48'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,486  square  miles.  Bilaspur  and  Sambalpur  Districts  enclose 
it  on  the  west  and  east,  while  the  northern  portion  of  the  State  projects 
into  the  territories  of  Chota  Nagpur.  Along  the  southern  border  flows 
the  Mahanadi  river.  The  head-quarters,  Raigarh  town,  is  a  station 
on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  northern  half  of  the  State  running 
up  to  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau  consists  mainly  of  forest-clad  hills. 
The  Chauwardhal  range  runs  from  west  to  east  across  its  centre,  and 
south  of  this  lie  the  open  plains  of  Raigarh  and  Bargarh  divided  by 
the  Mand,  a  tributary  of  the  Mahanadi.  The  Kelo,  another  affluent, 
passes  the  town  of  Raigarh.  The  ruling  family  are  Raj  Gonds,  who 
say  they  came  originally  from  Wairagarh  in  Chanda,  and  obtained 
some  villages  and  settled  in  this  locality  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Jujhar  Singh,  the  fifth  Raja,  concluded  a  sub- 
sidiary treaty  of  alliance  with  the  East  India  Company  about  1800,  on 
the  annexation  by  the  Marathas  of  Sambalpur,  to  which  Raigarh  had 
hitherto  been  feudatory.  In  1833  his  son  Deonath  Singh  crushed 
a  rebellion  raised  by  the  Raja  of  Bargarh,  and  as  a  reward  obtained 
that  part  of  his  territories  which  now  constitutes  the  Bargarh  pargana. 
He  subsequently  did  good  service  in  the  Mutiny,  and  his  son  was  made 
a  Feudatory  chief  in  1867.  The  present  chief,  Bhiip  Deo  Singh,  was 
born  in  1869  and  installed  in  1894,  without  special  restrictions  as  to 
the  methods  of  his  administration.  He  speaks  English,  and  exercises 
a  personal  control  over  public  business.  The  population  of  the  State 
in  1901  was  174,929,  having  increased  by  4  per  cent,  during  the  pre- 
vious decade.  The  State  contains  one  town,  Raigarh  (population, 
6,764),  and  721  inhabited  villages.  The  density  of  population  is  117 
persons  per  square  mile.  Raigarh  lies  on  the  border-line  dividing 
Chhattlsgarh  and  the  Oriya  country,  80  per  cent,  of  its  residents  speak- 
ing the  Chhattisgarhi  dialect  and  15  per  cent.  Oriya.     Its  population 

D  2 


46  RAIGARH  STATE 

is  mainly  aburiginal,   Kawais  numbering   30,000  and  Gunds   16,000. 
Next  to  these,  Gandas  and  Rawats  are  the  most  numerous  castes. 

Black  soil  is  found  in  small  quantities  towards  the  Bilaspur  border, 
but  the  yellow  rice  land  of  Chhattisgarh  extends  over  most  of  the 
State.  About  470  square  miles,  or  32  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  were 
occupied  for  cultivation  in  1904,  of  which  375  square  miles  were  under 
crop.  About  80  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area  is  under  rice,  and 
next  to  this  the  most  important  crops  are  pulses  (28,000  acres),  til 
(9,000),  and  kodon  (8,000).  The  cropped  area  has  increased  by  1 1  per 
cent,  since  1881.  More  than  1,800  tanks  have  been  constructed  for 
irrigation,  which  supply  water  to  7,000  acres  under  normal  circum- 
stances. About  500  square  miles,  or  a  third  of  the  whole  area,  are 
under  forest.  The  principal  timber  trees  are  sal  {Shorea  robusta),  saj 
{Tenninalia  tomen/osa),  and  bljdsal  {Pterocarpus  Marsupium).  Iron 
ore  and  coal  have  been  found  in  the  State ;  the  former  is  worked  by 
native  methods,  and  agricultural  implements  are  exported  to  the  neigh- 
bouring territories,  Tasar  silk  cloth  of  a  superior  quality  is  made 
at  Raigarh.  Among  the  local  products  may  be  noted  cucumber  seeds, 
which  are  exported  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  main  line  of  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  State,  with 
stations  at  Raigarh,  Naharpali,  Khursia,  and  Jamgaon.  Four  miles 
of  metalled  and  212  miles  of  unmetalled  roads  have  been  constructed. 
The  principal  routes  are  those  from  Raigarh  to  Sarangarh,  Padampur, 
and  Lailanga,  and  from  Khursia  to  Dhabra. 

The  total  revenue  in  1904  was  Rs.  1,50,000,  of  which  Rs.  6  j,ooo 
was  derived  from  land,  Rs.  34,000  from  forests,  and  Rs.  30,000  from 
excise.  A  cadastral  survey  has  been  carried  out,  and  the  system  of 
land  revenue  assessment  is  based  on  that  in  force  in  British  territory. 
The  revenue  is  settled  with  the  headmen  of  villages,  who  are  allowed 
to  retain  a  portion  of  the  '  assets,'  but  have  no  proprietary  rights.  The 
incidence  of  land  revenue  is  less  than  4  annas  per  occupied  acre. 
The  total  expenditure  in  1904  was  Rs.  1,31,000,  the  principal  items 
being  Government  tribute  (Rs.  4,000),  expenses  of  the  ruling  family 
(Rs.  34,000),  administration  in  all  departments  (Rs.  55,000),  and 
public  works  (Rs.  31,000).  The  tribute  is  liable  to  periodical  revision. 
The  expenditure  on  public  works  since  1893,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Engineer  of  the  Chhattisgarh  States  division,  has  amounted  to 
Rs.  1,36,000,  including  the  construction  of  the  roads  already  men- 
tioned, a  number  of  tanks,  various  buildings  for  public  offices  and 
schools,  and  a  residence  for  the  chief  The  educational  institutions 
comprise  24  schools  with  1,786  pupils,  including  English  and  vernacu- 
lar middle  schools  and  two  girls'  schools.  The  expenditure  on  education 
in  1904  was  Rs.  7,800.  In  1901  the  number  of  persons  returned,  as 
literate  was    2,963,  the   proportion  of  males  able  to  read  and   write 


RAIGARH  47 

being  t^-t^  per  cent.  A  dispensary  is  maintained  at  Raigarh  town, 
at  which  37,000  persons  were  treated  in  1904.  A  Political  Agent 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Commissioner,  Chhattlsgarh  Division, 
controls  the  relations  of  the  State  with  Government. 

Raigarh  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  Feudatory  State  of  the 
same  name,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  21°  54'  N.  and  83°  24'  E., 
on  the  Kelo  river,  and  on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  363  miles  from 
Calcutta.  Population  (1901),  6,764.  The  town  contains  an  old  fort 
built  at  the  time  of  the  Maratha  invasions.  Raigarh  is  a  centre  for 
local  trade,  and  is  increasing  in  importance.  The  principal  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  tasar  silk  cloth,  considerable  quantities  of  which 
are  exported.  Glass  bangles  are  also  made.  Raigarh  possesses  an 
English  school,  a  primary  school,  a  girls'  school,  and  a  dispensary. 

Raigarh  (or  '  The  Royal  Fort,'  originally  called  Rai?-i,  and  known 
to  the  early  European  traders  as  '  the  Gibraltar  of  the  East '). — Hill 
fort  in  the  Mahad  tdluka  of  Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  situated 
in  18°  \\'  N.  and  73°  27'  E.,  32  miles  south-west  from  Poona.  It 
stands  on  the  Western  Ghats,  and  was  regarded  in  the  last  century 
as  one  of  the  greatest  strongholds  of  India.  Its  scarped  sides  and 
long  top  form  a  great  wedge-shaped  block,  cut  off  from  the  Western 
Ghats  by  a  deep  valley  about  a  mile  broad  at  the  base  and  2  miles 
acro-ss  from  crest  to  crest.  The  hill-top,  2,851  feet  above  sea-level, 
stretches  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  east  to  west  by  a  mile  from 
north  to  south.  On  the  west,  south,  and  east,  the  hill-sides  are  so 
steep  that,  excepting  the  gateways  in  the  west  and  south  faces,  there 
are  no  artificial  defences.  The  north-west  face  is  protected  by  a  main 
line  of  masonry  and  two  upper  walls  or  portions  of  walls  where  the 
natural  scarp  is  imperfect.  Its  size,  strength,  and  its  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  Deccan  and  with  the  sea  must  from  early  times  have 
made  Raigarh  an  important  fortress.  But  its  time  of  magnificence 
as  the  capital  of  a  great  sovereign  was  from  1664  to  1680,  the  last 
sixteen  years  of  SivajT's  reign. 

In  the  twelfth  century  Rairi  was  the  seat  of  a  family  of  petty 
Maratha  chiefs.  In  the  fourteenth  century  these  chiefs  acknowledged 
the  Vijayanagar  princes  as  their  overlords.  About  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  Ala-ud-din  Shah  Bahmani  II  compelled  the  Rairi 
chief  to  pay  tribute.  In  1479  Rairi  passed  to  the  Nizam  Shahi  Sultans 
of  Ahmadnagar,  and  was  held  by  them  till  1636.  On  the  final  con- 
quest of  Ahmadnagar,  the  Mughals  made  Rairi  over  to  the  Adil  Shahi 
Sultans  of  Bijapur.  Under  the  name  of  Islamgarh,  it  was  then  made 
over  to  the  Sidi  of  Janjira,  and  garrisoned  by  a  body  of  Marathas.  In 
1648  Rairi  fell  into  the  hands  of  SivajT,  who  in  1662,  after  diligent 
search,  chose  the  hill  for  his  capital,  changing  the  name  to  Raigarh, 
The   royal   and   public  buildings  are    said  to   have   numbered   three 


48  RAIGARH 

hundred  stone  houses,  including  palaces,  mansions,  ofifices,  a  mint, 
granaries,  magazines,  quarters  for  a  garrison  of  2,000  men,  a  market 
nearly  a  mile  in  length,  and  a  number  of  rock-cut  and  masonry  cis- 
terns. While  the  hill-top  was  being  covered  with  these  buildings,  care 
was  taken  to  complete  its  defences.  In  1664  Sivajl  enriched  Raigarh 
with  the  plunder  of  Surat,  and  made  it  the  seat  of  his  government. 
In  the  same  year,  after  the  death  of  his  father  Shahji,  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Raja,  and  struck  coins  in  his  own  name.  In  1674  Sivajl 
was  crowned  with  much  splendour  as  an  independent  prince  at 
Raigarh,  and  died  here  six  years  afterwards  in  1680.  A  description 
of  the  coronation,  as  reported  by  an  English  eyewitness,  is  given  by 
Fryer.  In  1690  Raigarh  was  taken  by  Aurangzeb;  but  having  reverted 
to  the  Marathas  during  the  decay  of  the  Muhammadan  power,  it  was 
invested  by  a  British  force  in  April,  181 8,  and  surrendered  after  a 
bombardment  from  the  hill  spur  called  Kal-kai  lasting  fourteen  days. 
A  treasure  of  5  lakhs  in  coin  was  discovered  among  the  ruins  of 
the  fort. 

Raika. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Raikot  {Raekot). — Town  in  the  Jagraon  tahsll  oi  Ludhiana  District, 
Punjab,  situated  in  30°  39''  N.  and  75*^  36'  E.,  27  miles  from  Ludhiana 
town.  Population  (1901),  10,131.  In  the  seventeenth  century  it  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  Rais  of  Raikot,  whose  palaces  are  still  standing ; 
but  it  declined  rapidly  after  their  overthrow,  and  is  now  of  no  com- 
mercial importance.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The 
income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  6,800,  and 
the  expenditure  Rs.  6,500.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  7,700, 
chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  7,400.  Raikot 
possesses  a  vernacular  high  middle  school  maintained  by  the  munici- 
pality, and  a  Government  dispensary. 

Raingarh.  — One  of  the  Simla  Hill  States,  Punjab.    See  Rawain. 

Raipur  District  \ — District  in  the  Chhattisgarh   Division   of  the 

*  In  1906  the  constitution  of  Raipur  District  was  entirely  altered  by  the  formation 
of  the  new  Drug  District,  in  which  the  western  portion  of  Raipur,  with  an  area  of 
3,444  square  miles  and  a  population  of  545,235  persons,  was  included.  This  area 
comprised  the  whole  of  the  Drug  tahsll  and  portions  of  the  Simga  and  Dhamtarl 
iahslls.  At  the  same  time  an  area  of  706  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  99,402 
persons,  was  transferred  to  Raipur  from  Bilaspur,  the  line  of  the  Seonath  and  Maha- 
nadl  rivers  becoming  the  boundary  of  the  new  District.  The  new  Raipur  District  was 
divided  into  the  four  tahsih  of  RAiruR,  Dhamtari,  Mahasamund,  and  Baloda 
Bazar,  the  old  Simga  tahsll  being  abolished,  while  Drug  was  included  in  the  new- 
District  of  that  name.  On  the  transfer  of  Sambalpur  District  to  Bengal,  the  Phuljhar 
zamhiddri,  with  an  area  of  842  square  miles  and  a  population  of  102,135  persons,  was 
added  to  the  Mahasamund  tahsll.  Tlie  area  of  the  reconstituted  Raipur  District  is 
9,831  square  miles,  and  the  population  of  that  area  in  1901  was  1,096,858  persons, 
compared  with  1,125,019  in  1891.  The  decrease  in  population  during  the  decade 
was  2 1  per  cent.     The  density  is  112  persons  per  square  mile.     The  District  contains 


RAIPUR  DISTRICT  49 

Central  Provinces,  lying  between  19°  50'  and  21°  53'  N.  and  81°  25' 
and  83°  38'  E.,  with  an  area  of  11,724  square  miles.  The  District 
occupies  the  southern  portion  of  the  Chhattisgarh  plain,  or  upper  basin 
of  the  Mahanadi,  and  includes  also  tracts  of  the  hilly  country  surround- 
ing it  on  all  sides  except  the  north.  It  was  the  largest  District  in  the 
Province  up  to  1906^  but  since  its  reconstitution  it  has  a  smaller  area 
than  Chanda. 

On  the  north-western  border  a  narrow  strip  of  the  Satpura  range 
enters   the  District,  and  after   a   break   of  open   country   comprised 
in   the   Nandgaon   and  Khairagarh  States  the  hills 
again    appear   on    the   south-west.      On   the   south  Pnysica 

and  west  they  occupy  a  much  larger  area,  stretch- 
ing almost  up  to  the  Mahanadi  and  extending  over  5,000  square  miles 
of  more  or  less  broken  country.     The  greater  part  of  the  hilly  tract 
is  included  in  the  three  groups  of  estates  known  as  the  north-western, 
south-western,  and    south-eastern  zaml/iddris,  the  third   being  much 
the  largest  and  most  important.     The  plain  country,  covering  an  area 
roughly  of  5,000  square  miles,  lies  principally  to  the  north-west  of  the 
Mahanadi,  with  a  few  isolated  tracts  to  the  south.     The  Government 
forests  consist  practically  of  two  large  blocks  in  the  south  and  east 
of  the  District,  but  extensive  areas  in  the  zaimndaris  are  also  covered 
with  jungle.     The  hills  are  generally  of  only  moderate  elevation,  most 
of  the  peaks  having  an  altitude  of  a  little  over  2,000  feet,  while  only 
a  few  rise  above  2,500,  and  one  peak  between  Bindra-Nawagarh  and 
Khariar  reaches  3,235  feet.     The  general  slope  of  the  plain  is  to  the 
north-east,  Nandgaon,   just   beyond   the   western   border,    having   an 
elevation  of  1,011  feet,  and  Bhatapara,  beyond  the  eastern  boundary 
in  Bilaspur,  of  888.     The  two  main  rivers  are  the  Mahanadi  and  the 
Seonath.     The  Mahanadi  flows  in  a  north-easterly  direction  for  about 
125  miles  in  the  District,  its  principal  tributary  being  the  Pairi,  which 
joins  it  at  Rajim.     The  Sondhal,  which  borders  the  Bindra-Nawagarh 
zamviddri  -xcidL  flows  into  the  Pairi,  is  also  a  stream  of  some  importance. 
The  Seonath  enters  the  District  on  the  south-west,  and  flows  north 
and  east  in  a  very  tortuous  course  for  about   125   miles,  until  after 
a  short  bend  into  Bilaspur  it  joins  the  Mahanadi  on  the  border  of  the 
two   Districts.     The    Kharun   river,  which  flows  by   Raipur   town,  is 
a  tributary  of  the  Seonath.     The  general  character  of  the  Mahanadi 
and  the  rivers  in  the  east  of  the  District  is  very  different  from  that 

three  towns — Raipur,  Dhamtari,  and  Arang — and  4,051  inhabited  villages.  It 
includes  ii  zamTiidari  esi^its  with  a  total  area  of  4,899  square  miles,  of  which  2,382 
are  forest.  Outside  the  zamiiidaris,  Government  forest  covers  1,337  square  miles. 
The  approximate  land  revenue  demand  in  1902-3  on  the  area  now  constituting  the 
District  was  6-8o  lakhs.  The  article  refers  almost  throughout  to  Raipur  District 
before  its  reconstitution,  material  not  being  available  for  the  treatment  of  the  new 
area. 


50  RATPUR  DISTRICT 

of  the  Seonath  and  its  tributaries.  The  latter  generally  flow  over 
a  rocky  or  gravelly  bottom,  and  consequently  retain  water  for  the 
whole  or  the  greater  part  of  the  year ;  while  the  beds  of  the  former 
are  wide  wastes  of  sand,  almost  dry  for  more  than  half  the  year,  and 
at  no  time,  except  during  high  flood,  containing  much  water.  The 
open  country  is  an  undulating  plain,  poorly  wooded,  especially  in  the 
black-soil  tracts,  but  thickly  peopled  and  closely  cultivated. 

The  plains  are  occupied  by  Lower  Vindhyan  rocks,  consisting  of 
shales  and  limestones  with  subordinate  sandstones,  resting  upon  thick, 
often  quartzitic,  sandstones,  which  form  low  hillocks  fringing  them  on 
all  sides  except  the  north.  Beyond  these,  the  bordering  hills  are  com- 
posed of  gneiss  and  quartzite,  and  of  sandstone  rocks  intersected  with 
trap  dikes.  The  blue  limestone  crops  out  in  numerous  places  on  the 
surface,  and  is  invariably  found  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers.  The  stratum 
below  the  subsoil  is  a  soft  sandstone  shale,  covered  generally  by  a  layer 
of  laterite  gravel ;  and  in  many  places  the  shale  has  been  converted 
into  a  hard,  vitrified  sandstone,  forming  an  excellent  building  material. 

Teak  occurs  in  the  western  forests  of  the  District,  but  is  never 
abundant.  In  the  east  and  south  the  forest  consists  of  sal  {Shorea 
robusta),  but  it  is  often  of  a  scrubby  character.  With  the  sal  are 
associated  the  usual  species  of  Woodfordta,  I?idigofera,  Casearia, 
PhyUatitlms,  Bauhinia,  Gretvia,  Zizypkus,  Flueggea,  and  other  shrubs 
and  small  trees.  The  remaining  forests  are  of  the  usual  Central 
Provinces  type,  teak  being  associated  with  sdj  {Terminalia  tomentosd), 
lendid  {Lagerstroemia  parviflord)^  karrd  {Cleistanthus  collini/s),  and 
bljdsdl  {Pterocarpus  MarsHpiuni).  Babul  {^Acacia  arabica)  is  very 
common  in  the  open  country.  Malum  {Bassia  lalifolid)  and  mango 
are  plentiful  in  the  south  of  the  District,  but  not  so  common  in  the 
west  and  north,  where  in  places  the  country  is  markedly  bare  of  trees. 
The  heavy  climbers  include  Butea  superba,  Spatholobus  Roxbtirghii, 
and  Millettia  auriculata.  The  herbaceous  vegetation,  consisting  of 
grasses  and  of  species  of  Compositae,  leguininosae,  Acanthaceae,  and 
other  orders,  though  conspicuou.s  during  the  rainy  season,  withers  away 
in  the  hot  weather. 

In  proportion  to  their  extent  the  forests  are  now  only  sparsely 
inhabited  by  game.  Buffalo  and  bison  are  found  in  small  numbers 
in  the  east  and  south-east.  Tigers  and  leopards  are  fairly  common, 
but  deer  of  all  kinds  are  rare,  and  good  heads  are  seldom  obtained. 
Wild  dogs  are  numerous  and  are  very  injurious  to  the  game. 

The  heat  is  especially  great  in  the  summer  months,  on  account  of 
the  red  gravel  soil  and  the  closeness  of  rock  to  the  surface.  Fever  is 
very  prevalent  in  the  autumn,  and  epidemics  of  cholera  have  been 
frequent.  This  may  be  attributed  to  the  universal  preference  of  tank 
to  well  water  for  drinking  purposes. 


HISTORY  5T 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  55  inches.  The  supply  is  fairly  regular, 
but  its  distribution  is  capricious.  It  is  noticeable  that  certain  tracts  of 
the  Simga  iahs'il.,  which  have  been  entirely  denuded  of  forest,  appear  to 
be  especially  liable  to  a  deficient  rainfall. 

Chhattlsgarh  seems  to  have  been  inhabited  in  the  earliest  times  by 
Bhuiyas  and  other  Munda  races  ;  if  so,  they  were  conquered  and  driven 
to  the  hills  by  the  Gonds,  by  whom  the  first  regular 
system  of  government  was  founded.  Traditions 
describe  the  Gond  conquest  of  Bindra-Nawagarh,  and  the  victories  of 
their  heroes  over  the  barbarian  giants.  It  is  impossible  to  say  when 
Raipur  became  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  ancient  Haihaivansi 
dynasty ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  cut  off  from  the  Ratanpur 
kingdom,  and  separately  governed  by  a  younger  branch  of  the  reigning 
family,  about  the  eleventh  century.  Raipur  probably  continued  from 
this  period  to  be  administered  as  a  separate  principality,  in  subordina- 
tion to  the  Ratanpur  kingdom,  by  a  younger  branch  of  the  Haihaivansi 
family ;  but  nothing  is  known  of  the  separate  fortunes  of  the  Raipur 
house  until  shortly  before  the  invasion  of  the  Marathas  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  1741  the  Maratha  general,  Bhaskar  Pant,  while  on  his  way 
to  attack  Bengal,  took  Ratanpur  and  annexed  the  kingdom ;  and  in 
1750  Amar  Singh,  the  representative  of  the  younger  branch  ruling  in 
Raipur,  was  quietly  ousted.  Between  1750  and  1818  the  country  was 
governed  by  the  Marathas,  whose  administration  was  of  the  most 
oppressive  kind,  having  the  sole  end  of  extracting  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  revenue  from  the  people.  Insurrections  were  frequent, 
and  the  eastern  tracts  of  Raipur  were  laid  waste  by  the  incursions  of 
Binjhals  from  the  neighbouring  hills  of  Sonakhan.  Between  1818  and 
1830  the  Nagpur  territories  were  administered  by  the  British  Resident. 
From  1830  to  1853  the  District  was  again  administered  by  Maratha 
STibahs  on  the  system  organized  by  the  British  officers,  and  on  the 
whole  successfully.  In  1853  Chhattlsgarh  became  British  territory  by 
lapse,  and  Bilaspur  was  separated  from  Raipur  and  made  a  separate 
District  in  r86r.  During  the  Mutiny  Chhattlsgarh  was  almost  undis- 
turbed. The  commencement  of  disaffection  on  the  part  of  the  native 
regiment  stationed  at  Raipur  was  promptly  quelled  by  the  three  Euro- 
pean officers,  who  hanged  the  ringleaders  on  parade  with  their  own 
hands. 

Archaeological  remains  are  numerous,  showing  that  the  early  Hindu 
civilization  must  have  extended  over. most  of  the  District.  Those  of 
Arang,  Rajim,  and  Sirpur  are  the  most  important.  There  are  also 
interesting  temples  at  Sihawa,  Chipti,  Deokut,  and  Balod  in  the 
Dhamtari  tahsil,  at  Khalari  and  Narayanpur  in  the  north-east  of  the 
District,  and  at  Deo  Baloda  and  Kunwara  near  Raipur  town.  Some 
Buddhist  remains  have  been  discovered  at  Drug,  Rajim,  Sirpur,  and 


52 


RAIPUR  DISTRICT 


Population. 


Turturia.  The  line  of  one  of  the  most  important  roads  of  ancient 
times  may  be  traced  through  this  part  of  the  country,  leading  from 
near  Bhandak,  formerly  a  large  city,  towards  Ganjam  and  Cuttack. 

The  population  of  the  District  at  the  last  three  enumerations  was 
as  follows:  (1881)  1,405,171  ;  (1891)  1,584,427  ;  and  (1901)  1,440,556. 

Between  i88r  and  1891  the  increase  was  10  per  cent. 

in  the  mdlgiizdri  area,  the  decade  being  generally 
prosperous,  and  24  per  cent,  in  the  zaimnddris,  but  the  latter  figure 
must  be  attributed  partly  to  greater  accuracy  of  enumeration.  In  the 
last  decade  the  loss  of  population  was  9  per  cent.,  the  District  having 
been  severely  affected  in  both  famines.  The  District  contains  three 
towns — Raipur,  DhamtarI,  and  Arang — and  4,051  inhabited  villages. 
Statistics  of  population  of  the  reconstituted  District,  based  on  the 
Census  of  1901,  are  shown  below: — 


Tahstl. 

I 

3 

Si 
< 

Number  of 

c 
0 

1 

<2 

u 

§1 
Is 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

vt 

be 
> 

Raipur    , 
Mahasamund  . 
Baloda  Bazar  . 
Dhamtarl 

District  total 

1,016 
5,284 
1,933 

1,598 

2 

I 

3 

493 
2,042 

975 
541 

4,051 

246,514 

398,075 
264,063 

188,206 

243 

75 

137 
118 

-  2.6 

+  10-5 
-17.1 

-  2.5 

7,254 
,^,831 
3.603 
4,433 

9,831 

1,096,858 

112 

-    2.5 

19,121 

Nearly  88  per  cent,  of  the  population  speak  the  Chhattlsgarhi  dialect 
of  Eastern  Hindi,  6  per  cent.  Oriya,  4  per  cent.  Hindi,  and  rather  less 
than  6  per  cent.  Marathi.  Only  about  8,000  Gonds  are  returned  as 
speaking  their  own  language.  The  Oriya  speakers  live  principally  in 
the  Khariar  zaminddri  a.d]o'mmg  Sambalpur.  In  1901,  90  per  cent,  of 
the  people  were  Hindus  and  8  per  cent.  Animists.  There  were 
rather  less  than  18,000  Muhamimadans,  of  whom  6,000  lived  in  towns. 
Members  of  the  Kablrpanthi  sect  of  Hindus  numbered  162,175,  ^"^ 
the  Satnamis  224,779  persons.  The  Kabirpanthls  are  mainly  Pankas 
or  Gandas  who  have  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  sect,  but  several  other 
castes  also  belong  to  it.  The  main  distinction  of  a  Kablrpanthi  in 
Chhattisgarh  is  that  he  abstains  from  meat  and  liquor.  The  Satnamis 
are  practically  all  Chamars. 

The  most  important  castes  numerically  are  Chamars  (245,000),  form- 
ing 17  per  cent,  of  the  population ;  Gonds  (216,000),  15  per  cent. ;  and 
Ahirs  or  Rawats  (145,000),  10  per  cent.  The  principal  landholding 
castes  are  Brahmans  (26,000),  Kurmis  (66,000),  Banias  (5,000),  Telis 
(232,000),  and  Marathas  (3,000).  The  Brahmans  are  both  Maratha 
and  Chhattlsgarhi.     The  former  are  said  to  have  settled  in  Raipur 


AGRICULTURE  53 

after  the  return  of  Chimnaji   Bhonsla's  expedition  to  Cuttack,  when 
they  obtained  grants  of  land  for  their  maintenance. 

Christians  number  3,499,  inckiding  3,294  natives,  of  whom  the  large 
majority  belong  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  There  are  stations  of  the 
German  Evangelical  Church  at  Raipur  and  Bisrampur,  of  the  American 
Mennonite  Mission  at  Dhamtari,  and  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  at  Raipur.  A  large  number  of  Chamars  have  been  converted 
by  the  Bisrampur  mission. 

In  the  north-west  of  the  mdlgitzdrt  area,  and  round  Dhamda  and 
Deorbija,  lies  a  rich  black-soil  tract,  which  is  well  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  wheat  and  other  spring  crops,  but  owing  . 

to  its  undulating  surface  does  not  lend  itself  readily 
to  embankment,  and  is  in  consequence  relatively  unsuitable  for  rice. 
In  the  Dhamtari,  Balod,  and  'R.^yivcx  parga7ias  the  soil  is  likewise  black, 
but  here  the  country  is  quite  flat,  and  is  therefore  all  embanked.  Rice 
is  the  chief  crop,  and  most  of  the  land  is  double  cropped.  To  the 
east  of  the  Mahanadi  black  soil  is  almost  unknown,  and  yellow  and  red 
soils  prevail ;  the  surface  is  fairly  even.  Ordinarily  the  amount  of  land 
left  fallow  is  very  small,  consisting  of  the  poorest  soil,  for  which  periodi- 
cal resting  fallows  are  required.  Old  fallow  land  was  almost  unknown 
at  the  last  regular  settlement,  though  it  has  increased  in  recent  years. 
Rice  is  manured  to  as  large  a  degree  as  the  cultivator  can  afford,  but 
rarely  any  other  crop.  The  silt  from  the  beds  of  tanks  is  frequently 
dug  up  and  placed  on  the  fields,  and  is  of  considerable  advantage. 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  District,  50  per  cent,  is  included  in  the 
zamlnddri  estates,  20  square  miles  have  been  allotted  on  the  ryotwdri 
system,  106  square  miles  are  held  wholly  or  partially  free  of  revenue, 
and  4,340  acres  have  been  sold  outright  under  the  Waste  Land  Rules. 
The  remainder  is  held  on  the  ordinary  mdlguzdri  tenure.  In  1903-4 
the  classification  showed  1,366  square  miles  of  Government  forest, 
549  square  miles  not  available  for  cultivation,  and  2,440  square  miles 
of  cultivable  waste  other  than  fallow  ^  The  remaining  area,  amounting 
to  5,002  square  miles  or  62  per  cent,  of  the  total  (excluding  Government 
forest),  was  occupied  for  cultivation.  Except  in  the  zamlnddri  estates, 
the  area  of  forest  land  available  for  cultivation  is  small.  The  total 
cropped  area  was  4,759  square  miles,  of  which  713  square  miles  were 
double  cropped.  Rice  is  the  staple  crop  of  the  District,  being  grown 
on  2,022  square  miles.  Its  cultivation  is  conducted  almost  wholly  on 
the  bidsi  system :  that  is,  of  ploughing  up  the  young  plants  when  they 
are  a  few  inches  high.  Kodon  occupies  985  square  miles,  wheat  264, 
the  pulses  urad,  mung,  and  moth  531,  gram  97,  linseed  237,  and  /// 
157   square  miles.     Wheat  is  usually  sown  in  unembanked  black-soil 

^  From  these  statistics  2,366  square  miles  of  waste  land  in  the  zaniTnddris,  which 
have  not  been  cadastrally  surveyed,  are  excluded. 


54  RAIPUK   DISTRICT 

fields,  and  if  the  winter  rains  fail  is  frequently  damaged  by  white  ants. 
Though  the  area  under  linseed  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  total, 
Raipur  is  one  of  the  most  important  Districts  in  the  Province  for 
this  crop. 

The  practice  of  raising  second  crops  in  rice-fields  has  sprung  up 
within  the  last  forty  years,  double  crops  being  grown  on  as  much  as  940 
square  miles  when  the  autumn  rains  are  favourable.  The  methods 
of  cultivation  have  hitherto  been  very  slovenly  and  backward  ;  but 
with  the  rise  in  the  prices  of  agricultural  produce,  an  improvement 
is  being  manifested,  and  the  advantages  of  manure  and  irrigation  have 
begun  to  be  appreciated.  An  experimental  farm  has  been  instituted 
at  Raipur  by  the  Agricultural  department.  During  the  decade  ending 
1904  Rs.  47,000  was  advanced  under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans 
Act  and  19  lakhs  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act.  A  considerable 
proportion  of  this  latter  sum,  however,  consisted  of  grants  and  loans 
to  j/idlguzdrs  on  special  terms  for  the  construction  or  improvement  of 
tanks  in  the  famine  of  1900  and  the  scarcity  of  1903. 

The  cattle  of  the  District  are  small  and  underfed,  and  no  care  is 
exercised  in  breeding.  Animals  imported  from  Xagpur  or  Bastar  are, 
as  far  as  possible,  used  for  spring-crop  cultivation.  Buffaloes  are  kept 
only  by  the  mdlguzdrs  and  better-class  tenants.  They  are  especially 
useful  for  ploughing  the  rice-fields  when  flooded,  carting  grain,  and 
drawing  timber  from  the  forests.  They  are  principally  imported  from 
the  northern  Districts  by  the  caste  of  Basdewas.  Very  few  ponies  are 
kept,  and  they  are  scarcely  bred  at  all.  Landowners  and  tenants  who 
have  carts  for  agriculture  use  them  if  they  have  to  make  a  journey,  and 
others  go  on  foot.  Light  carts  with  trotting  bullocks  from  Nagpur  have 
been  introduced  into  the  Dhamtari  fahsl/,  but  are  not  much  used  as 
yet.  The  number  of  goats  and  sheep  is  not  large  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  District.  The  former  are  kept  for  food,  the  latter  for 
their  wool  used  in  the  manufacture  of  country  blankets.  Members  of 
the  professional  shepherd  caste  are  not  numerous. 

Irrigation  is  not  at  present  a  feature  in  the  agriculture  of  the  District. 
In  a  normal  year,  until  recently,  only  a  little  more  than  30  square  miles 
received  this  aid.  The  statistics  for  1903-4  show  nearly  15  square 
miles  as  irrigated,  of  which  3  were  supplied  from  tanks  and  7  from 
wells.  But  in  a  favourable  season  50  square  miles  can  now  be  irrigated. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  tanks  constructed  during  the  famine  of  1900 
aff"orded  protection  to  an  additional  area  of  about  36  square  miles. 
There  are  now  3,200  tanks  in  the  District,  or  less  than  one  to  each 
village  on  an  average.  The  distribution,  however,  varies  greatly,  the 
number  rising  to  four  and  five  per  village  in  certain  tracts.  Until 
recently  tanks  have  generally  been  constructed  primarily  to  afford 
a  water-supply  to  the  villagers,  and  have  only  been  used  for  irrigation 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  55 

when  it  was  essential  to  save  the  crops  from  complete  failure.  Schemes 
have  been  prepared  by  the  Irrigation  department  for  canals  in  the  tracts 
between  the  MahanadI  and  Kharun,  and  the  Kharun  and  Seonath, 
which  promise  to  yield  substantial  results.  There  are  about  11,000 
irrigation  wells  in  the  District,  most  of  them  temporary,  supplying  on 
an  average  about  an  acre  each,  ^\'ell-irrigation  is  practically  confined 
to  garden  crops  and  sugar-cane. 

The  Government  forests  cover  1,366  square  miles,  or  20  per  cent, 
of  the  District  area,  excluding  the  zamtnddris.  Two  main  types  may  be 
distinguished,  one  consisting  of  sal  {Shorea  robusta), 
and  the  other  of  mixed  forest.  The  sal  forests  con- 
stitute about  a  quarter  of  the  total,  being  situated  in  the  east  and  south. 
There  is  at  present  little  demand  for  produce  from  them,  owing  to  the 
difficulties  of  transport.  Bamboos  are  found  mainly  in  the  sal  forests  ; 
they  are  cut  in  the  Sihawa  range  and  floated  down  the  MahanadI  to 
Dhamtari.  Only  a  few  small  patches  of  teak  forest  exist.  The  mixed 
forest  consists  of  the  usual  species,  saj  {Terminalia  tomentosa)  and 
bijasal  {Pterocarpus  Marsiipium)  being  the  principal  timber  trees. 
Dhdtnan  {Greivia  vestita)  is  found  in  the  sal  forests,  and  is  used  by 
the  Gonds  for  the  manufacture  of  bows  and  spear  handles.  In  1903-4 
the  forest  revenue  amounted  to  Rs.  48,000. 

No  mines  are  worked  at  present.  Iron  ores  are  found  in  abundance 
in  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the  District,  and  some  of  these 
are  very  rich.  A  sample  from  Dhalli  in  the  Dondi-Lohara  zarninddri 
yielded  on  assay  nearly  73  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron.  Copper  and  lead 
ores  have  been  found  at  Chicholi.  Lithographic  stones  of  a  serviceable 
kind  have  been  obtained  from  the  Lower  Vindhyan  rocks.  Red  ochre 
is  found  in  the  Gandai  zarninddri,  and  chalk  in  one  or  two  villages 
near  Dhamda. 

There  are  no  important  industries.      Tasar  silk  is  woven,   but  to 

a  very  much   smaller  extent  than  in  Bilaspur  or  Sambalpur.      Most 

of  the  larger  villages  contain  a  number  of  cotton- 

weavers  belonging  to  the  Panka,  Mehra,  and  Koshta        -iraae  ana 

°    ^  '  '  communications. 

castes,  who  produce  coarse  cloth.     Mill-spun  thread 

has   entirely  supplanted  the  home-spun  article;  and  cloth   woven  in 

Indian   mills  is  rapidly  gaining  in  popularity  at  the  expense  of  that 

woven  locally,  the  former  being  produced  in  the  same  patterns  as  the 

latter  and  being  cheaper.     Ornaments  and  vessels  of  bell-metal  are 

made  at  Drug,  Dhamda,  Nawapara,  and  Raipur,  and  glass  bangles  at 

Simga,  Neora,  and  Kurra.     A  little  iron  is  smelted  by  native  methods 

in  the  Deori  and  Dondi-Lohara  zamtnddris,  but  it  cannot  compete 

with  English  iron.    Raipur  has  one  factory  owned  by  a  CutchI  Muham- 

madan,  which  contains  four  cotton-gins  and  a  mill  for  pressing  linseed 

and  castor  oil. 


56  RAIPUR   DISTRICT 

The  most  important  export  is  rice,  which  goes  to  the  northern  Dis- 
tricts of  the  Central  Provinces,  to  Berar,  Hyderabad,  and  Bombay. 
Wheat,  ///,  and  linseed  are  also  exported.  Til  oilcake  is  sent  to  Berar 
from  the  factory  at  Raipur  town.  Of  forest  products,  teak,  sdl^  and 
bijdsdl  timber  are  exported  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  zaniin- 
ddris.  Lac  is  sent  to  Mirzapur,  and  ?nahud  flowers  occasionally  to 
Nagpur  and  Kamptee  for  the  manufacture  of  liquor.  Myrabolams  are 
exported  to  Bombay.  As  in  other  Districts  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
a  considerable  trade  has  recently  sprung  up  in  the  export  of  dried  meat. 
Sea-salt  from  Bombay  is  generally  used,  though  small  quantities  are 
also  brought  from  Ganjam.  Sugar  comes  principally  from  the  Mau- 
ritius, that  from  Mirzapur  being  slightly  more  expensive.  Gur  or  unre- 
fined sugar  is  chiefly  imported  from  Bengal  and  Bombay,  and  a  small 
amount  is  obtained  from  Bastar.  Cotton  thread  is  received  principally 
from  the  Hinganghat,  Pulgaon,  and  Badnera  mills,  and  cotton  cloth 
from  Cawnpore,  Nagpur,  and  Nandgaon.  English  cloth  and  metals, 
such  as  iron,  brass,  and  copper,  are  also  imported.  Brass  vessels  come 
from  Mirzapur  and  Cuttack,  and  leathern  shoes  from  Cawnpore.  Ex- 
cluding a  European  firm  which  has  an  agency  at  Raipur  town,  the 
grain  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Cutchi  Muhammadans.  Hardware  and 
stationery  are  imported  and  retailed  by  Bhatias,  while  Marwari  Banias 
trade  in  cloth  and  thread,  and  carry  on  business  in  money-lending  and 
exchange.  Baloda  Bazar  near  Simga  has  a  large  weekly  cattle  market. 
The  other  leading  bazars  are  at  Baronda  and  Barekel  in  the  Raipur 
tahsll,  Utai,  Ranitarai,  Arjundah,  and  Gandai  in  Drug,  Kurud  in 
Dhamtarl,  and  Neora  in  Simga. 

The  direct  line  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  passes  through  the 
District,  with  a  length  of  60  miles  and  8  stations  within  its  limits.  From 
Raipur  town  a  branch  narrow-gauge  line  leads  to  DhamtarT,  distant  46 
miles,  and  from  Abhanpur,  a  station  on  this  line,  there  is  also  a  branch 
of  10^  miles  to  Rajim.  The  chief  routes  for  cart  traffic  are  the  Lawan- 
Bhatapara,  Raipur-Khariar,  Tilda-Bemetara,  and  Dhamtarl  roads.  The 
total  length  of  metalled  roads  in  the  District  is  69  miles,  and  of  un- 
metalled  roads  665  miles ;  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  is  Rs.  88,400, 
practically  all  the  roads  being  in  charge  of  the  Public  Works  depart- 
ment. There  are  avenues  of  trees  on  185  miles.  The  zamlnddri 
estates  also  contain  109  miles  of  roads  constructed  from  their  private 
funds. 

Raipur  District  has  suffered  from  failures  of  crops  on  many  occa- 
sions.     Information  about  any  except  the  recent  famines  is  of  the 
.  scantiest,  but  distress  is  recorded  as  having  occurred 

in  the  years  1828-9, 1834-5,  and  1845-6.  In  1868-9 
the  rains  failed  almost  as  completely  as  in  1 899-1 900.  There  was 
severe  distress,  accompanied  by  migration  and  desertion  of  villages. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  5  7 

The  famine  of  1868-9  ^^'^s  followed  by  a  period  of  twenty-five  years 
of  prosperity,  broken  only  by  a  partial  failure  of  the  rice  crop  in  1886. 
In  1895  the  monsoon  failed  prematurely,  and  there  were  no  cold- 
season  rains,  with  the  result  that  both  the  autumn  and  spring  crops 
were  poor.  This  was  followed  in  1896  by  a  complete  cessation  of  the 
rains  at  the  end  of  August,  and  a  total  failure  of  the  rice  crop,  only 
slightly  relieved  by  a  moderate  spring  harvest  on  a  reduced  area. 
Relief  operations  extended  throughout  the  year  1897,  the  numbers  rising 
to  over  100,000  persons,  or  nearly  7  per  cent,  of  the  population,  at 
the  end  of  April ;  and  the  total  expenditure  was  18-5  lakhs.  The  year 
1897  was  succeeded  by  two  moderate  harvests;  and  in  1899  the  mon- 
soon again  completely  failed,  the  total  out-turn  being  only  one-sixth 
of  the  normal.  More  than  700,000  persons,  or  44^  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  were  in  receipt  of  some  form  of  assistance  in  August,«9oo, 
and  the  total  expenditure  was  126-5  lakhs.  In  1902-3  the  rice  crop 
again  failed  partially,  and  distress  occurred  in  certain  areas  of  the 
District.  The  numbers  on  relief  rose  to  60,000  in  April,  1903,  and 
the  total  expenditure  was  about  5  lakhs. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  is  aided  by  four  Assistant  and  Extra- 
Assistant  Commissioners.     For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is 

divided  into  four  iahsUs.  each  of  which  has  a  tahsil-    .  ,    .  . 

,.,,_■       ,  .,       , ,.  .       ,    ,   ,  -,,-       Administration. 
dar  and  a  naw-tahsildar,  while  additional  tansilaars 

have  been  posted  to  Raipur  and  Mahasamund.     The  forests  are  in 

charge  of  an  officer  of  the  Forest  service. 

The  civil  judicial  staff  consists  of  a  District  and  two  Subordinate 
Judges,  and  a  Munsif  for  each  of  the  Raipur,  Baloda  Bazar,  and  Dham- 
tari  tahsils.  The  Divisional  and  Sessions  Judge  of  the  Chhattisgarh 
Division  has  jurisdiction  in  the  District,  and  the  zamlndars  of  Khariar 
and  Fingeshwar  are  entrusted  with  civil  powers.  Of  important  civil 
litigation,  suits  on  mortgage-deeds  with  condition  of  foreclosure  are 
noticeably  frequent.  The  commonest  forms  of  serious  crime  are  cattle- 
theft  and  cattle-poisoning  by  arsenic. 

When  the  country  first  came  temporarily  under  British  administra- 
tion in  181 8,  the  whole  revenue  of  Chhattisgarh  amounted  to 
Rs.  2,90,000.  Under  the  beneficent  rule  of  the  Superintendent, 
Colonel  Agnew,  the  prosperity  of  the  country  rapidly  increased,  and 
the  revenue,  which  was  then  settled  annually,  rose  by  21  per  cent,  in 
eight  years.  On  the  termination  of  this  period,  British  officials  were 
replaced  by  Maratha  Subahs ;  but  the  methods  laid  down  by  Colonel 
Agnew  were  on  the  whole  adhered  to,  and  prosperity  continued.  In 
1868  the  revenue  of  the  District  had  increased  to  3-18  lakhs.  The 
first  long-term  settlement  was  made  in  1868  for  a  period  of  twenty 
years,  and  under  it  the  revenue  was  raised  to  5-52  lakhs,  still,  however, 
giving  an  incidence  per  cultivated  acre  of  only  5  annas  2  pies  for  the 


58 


RAIPUR   DISTRICT 


area  held  in  ordinary  proprietary  right.  The  extreme  lowness  of  the 
assessments  in  Chhattisgarh  may  be  attributed  to  the  patriarchal 
system  of  the  Haihaivansi  kings,  the  absence  of  any  outside  demand 
for  produce,  and  the  payment  of  rents  in  kind,  the  rents  themselves 
being  entirely  free  from  any  economic  influences,  and  being  regarded 
as  contributions  for  the  support  of  the  central  administration.  The 
settlement  of  1868  was  the  first  in  which  the  assessment  was  based  on 
a  regular  survey,  and  at  this  time  also  proprietary  rights  were  conferred. 
During  its  currency  a  great  transformation  took  place  in  the  conditions 
of  agriculture.  The  District  was  brought  within  reach  of  the  railway, 
exports  of  grain  rose  with  a  bound,  the  value  of  land  rapidly  increased, 
and  prices  doubled.  About  two-fifths  of  the  mdlgiizdri  area,  consisting 
of  the  Drug  tahsll,  with  parts  of  the  others,  was  summarily  resettled  in 
t-he  years  1884-7  j  ^•i^d  a  regular  settlement  of  the  rest  of  the  mdlguzdri 
area,  with  a  revision  of  revenue  in  the  zaniinddris,  was  effected  between 
1885  and  1889.  The  term  of  settlement  was  fixed  at  nine  or  ten  years 
in  the  summarily  settled  and  at  twelve  years  in  the  regularly  settled 
tracts,  the  revenue  being  raised  to  8-6 1  lakhs,  or  by  56  per  cent.  The 
average  rental  incidence  per  acre  was  R.  0-10-3  (maximum  R.  0-14-5, 
minimum  R.  0-3-11)  and  the  corresponding  revenue  incidence  was 
R.  0-5-8  (maximum  R.  0-8-4,  minimum  R.  0-2-6).  Preparations  for 
a  fresh  regular  settlement  began  in  1896;  but  owing  to  famine  and 
serious  agricultural  deterioration,  only  the  Drug  tahsll  was  resettled  for 
eight  years,  while  summary  abatements  were  proposed  in  some  of  the 
worst  affected  tracts.     A  fresh  settlement  was  commenced  in  1904. 

The  collections  of  land  and  total  revenue  in  recent  years  are  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1.        1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue  . 
Total  revenue  . 

6,48 
10,34 

8,62 
15,18 

7,68 
12,76 

9>05 

14,98 

Local  affairs  outside  municipal  areas  are  managed  by  a  District 
council  and  six  local  boards,  having  jurisdiction  over  the  four  iahsllsdx\A 
the  eastern  and  western  zamlnddri  estates  respectively.  The  income  of 
the  District  council  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  97,000,  while  the  expenditure 
on  education  was  Rs.  48,000,  on  public  works  Rs.  26,000,  and  on 
medical  relief  Rs.  13,000.  Raipur  and  Dhamtaki  are  municipal 
towns. 

The  force  under  the  District  Superintendent  of  police  consists  of 
737  officers  and  men,  including  a  special  reserve  of  25,  and  8  mounted 
constables,  besides  4,340  watchmen  for  4,051  inhabited  towns  and 
villages.  The  District  possesses  a  second-class  Central  jail,  with 
accommodation   for   911    prisoners,    including   41    female    prisoners. 


RAIPUR    TOWN  59 

The  daily  average  number  of  prisoners  in  1904  was  591.  The  in- 
dustries carried  on  in  the  jail  comprise  cloth -weaving  and  the  manu- 
facture of  mats  from  aloe  fibre. 

In  respect  of  education  Raipur  stands  last  but  two  among  the  Dis- 
tricts of  the  Province.  In  190 1  only  3-7  per  cent,  of  the  male  population 
could  read  and  write,  and  only  929  females  were  returned  as  literate. 
The  percentage  of  children  under  instruction  to  those  of  school-going 
age  is  9.  Statistics  of  the  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  are 
as  follows:  (1880-1)  14,054;  (1890-1)  14,364;  (1900-1)  18,766;  and 
(1903-4)  18,644,  including  2,612  girls.  The  educational  institutions 
comprise  a  high  school  at  Raipur  town,  a  Rajkumar  College  for  the 
sons  of  Feudatory  chiefs  and  zamhtddrs,  three  English  middle  schools, 
four  vernacular  middle  schools,  and  215  primary  schools.  The  ex- 
penditure on  education  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,06,000,  of  which  Rs. 
80,000  was  derived  from  Provincial  and  Local  funds,  and  Rs.  16,000 
from  fees. 

The  District  has  12  dispensaries,  with  accommodtition  for  125  in- 
patients. In  1904  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  162,653,  of  whom 
1,340  were  in-patients,  and  2,134  operations  were  performed.  The 
total  expenditure  was  Rs.  22,000,  chiefly  met  from  Provincial  and 
Local  funds.  Two  leper  asylums,  at  Raipur  town  and  Dhamtari,  are 
supported  by  allotments  from  Local  funds  and  charitable  subscriptions. 
They  contain  195  patients,  and  the  annual  expenditure  is  about 
Rs.  19,000.     Raipur  town  has  a  veterinary  dispensary. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  municipality  of  Raipur.  The 
number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  32  per  1,000 
of  the  District  population. 

[L.  S.  Carey,  Settlement  Report  (1891).  A  District  Gazetteer  is  being 
prepared.] 

Raipur  Tahsil.— T^JtZ/^J/of  the  District  of  the  same  name.  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  20°  56''  and  21°  30'  N.  and  81*'  28'  and 
82°  12'  E.  In  1901  the  area  was  5,802  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion 564,102  persons.  By  the  redistribution  of  areas  consequent  on 
the  formation  of  the  new  Drug  District,  the  constitution  of  the  Raipur 
ta/isi/  was  radically  altered ;  and  it  is  now  a  small  open  plain  lying 
between  the  Mahanadi  and  the  border  of  Drug  District,  thickly  popu- 
lated and  closely  cultivated,  with  an  area  of  1,0 r 6  square  miles.  The 
population  of  this  portion  in  1901  was  246,514,  compared  with  253,058 
in  1 891,  the  density  being  243  persons  per  square  mile.  The  tahsll 
contains  two  towns,  Raipur  (population,  32,114),  the  head-quarters 
of  the  District  and  ta/isli,  and  Arang  (6,499)  5  ^"^^  493  inhabited 
villages.  The  land  revenue  demand  in  1902-3  on  the  area  of  the  new 
tahsll  was  approximately  1-73  lakhs. 

Raipur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  ChhattTsgarh  Division  and  of 

VOL.  XXI.  E 


6o  RAIPUR   TOWN 

the  District  of  the  same  name,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  21°  14' 
N.  and  81°  39'  E.,  on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railv/ay,  513  miles  from 
Calcutta  and  188  miles  from  Nagpur,  in  an  open  plain  about  4  miles 
from  the  Kharun  river.  Raipur  is  the  junction  for  the  branch  narrow- 
gauge  line  to  Rfijim  and  Dhamtarl.  It  is  the  sixth  largest  town  in  the 
Province,  and  had  a  population  in  1901  of  32,114  persons,  the  increase 
during  the  decade  having  been  35  per  cent.  The  population  at 
previous  enumerations  was:  (1872)  19,119,  (1881)  24,946,  and  (1891) 
23)758.  In  1901  there  were  25,492  Hindus,  5,302  Muhammadans, 
and  592  Christians,  of  whom  88  were  Europeans  or  Eurasians. 

Raipur  was  made  the  head-quarters  of  Chhattisgarh  in  18 18.  The 
town  is  believed  to  have  existed  since  the  ninth  century,  the  old  site 
being  to  the  south-west  of  the  present  one  and  extending  to  the  river. 
The  most  ancient  building  is  the  fort,  said  to  have  been  constructed 
in  1460,  on  two  sides  of  which  are  large  tanks,  while  within  it  are 
numerous  temples  of  comparatively  little  interest.  The  unfinished 
Dudhadari  temple  is  probably  unrivalled  as  an  instance  of  modern 
elaborate  carving  in  the  Central  Provinces,  but  it  is  disfigured  by 
sculpture  of  the  most  indecent  type.  A  number  of  fine  tanks  have 
been  constructed.  Raipur  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Commissioner 
and  Divisional  Judge,  Chhattisgarh  Division,  the  Political  Agent  of  the 
Chhattisgarh  Feudatory  States,  an  Inspector  of  Schools,  a  Superin- 
tendent of  Post  Offices,  and  Executive  and  Irrigation  Engineers.  It 
contains  one  of  the  three  Central  jails  in  the  Province.  Raipur  was 
created  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  municipal  receipts  during  the 
decade  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  1,22,000.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  99,000,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi  (Rs.  50,000)  and  water 
rate,  while  conservancy  and  water-supply  constitute  the  principal 
items  of  expenditure,  which  amounted  to  Rs.  89,000.  Half  a  bat- 
talion of  native  infantry  was  stationed  here  until  1902.  The  town  is 
supplied  with  water  from  the  Kharun  river  by  the  Balram  Das  water- 
works, which  were  opened  in  1892  and  cost  3-38  lakhs,  2  lakhs  being 
contributed  by  Raja  Balram  Das  of  Raj-Nandgaon,  after  whom  they 
are  named.  Water  is  drawn  from  an  infiltration  gallery  in  the  river, 
and  pumped  into  a  service  reservoir  in  the  town  120  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  gallery.  The  maintenance  charges  amount  to  Rs.  17,000, 
of  which  Rs.  13,000  is  realized  from  a  water  rate.  Raipur  is  the 
leading  commercial  town  of  Chhattisgarh,  having  supplanted  Raj- 
Nandgaon,  which  for  many  years  occupied  that  position.  The  local 
handicrafts  include  brass-working,  lacquering  on,  wood,  cloth- weaving, 
and  the  manufacture  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments.  In  the  Central 
jail  cotton  cloth  is  woven  and  mats  are  made  from  aloe  fibre.  A  com- 
bined oil-mill  and  cotton-ginning  factory  has  been  opened,  which 
pressed  oil  to  the  value  of  Rs.  90,000  in  1904.     There  are  two  printing 


RAIRAKHOL  6r 

presses,  using  English,  Hindi,  Urdu,  and  Oriya  types.  Among  the 
local  institutions  are  a  museum  constructed  in  1875,  a  leper  asylum 
supported  by  private  contributions,  and  an  enclosed  market-place. 
The  educational  and  medical  institutions  comprise  a  high  school 
with  an  average  attendance  of  98  pupils,  and  a  Rajkumar  College 
for  the  sons  of  Feudatory  chiefs  and  landholders,  besides  several  other 
schools,  four  dispensaries,  and  a  veterinary  dispensary. 

Raipur  Village. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Noa- 
khali  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  23°  2'  N.  and 
90^  47'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dakatia  river.  Population  (190 1), 
3,738.     It  is  a  busy  trading  mart. 

Rairakhol. — Feudatory  State  in  Bengal,  lying  between  20°  56" 
and  21°  24'  N.  and  83°  59'  and  84°  53'  E.,  with  an  area  of  833  square 
miles.  Up  to  1905  political  control  was  exercised  by  the  Central 
Provinces  Administration.  It  lies  to  the  south-east  of  Sambalpur  Dis- 
trict, and  is  bounded  by  the  Bamra  and  Sonpur  States  on  the  north 
and  south.  The  head-quarters  are  at  Rampur,  a  village  of  1,416 
inhabitants,  44  miles  from  Sambalpur  by  road.  The  greater  part 
of  the  State  consists  of  hilly  country  covered  with  dense  forests,  but 
there  are  some  open  tracts  on  the  north  and  south.  Wild  elephants, 
buffalo,  and  bison  are  found  in  the  forests,  and  also,  it  is  said,  a  special 
variety  of  light-coloured  wild  hog.  The  ruling  family  claim  to  be 
Kadambansi  Rajputs,  and  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Bonai  Raj  family. 

The  State  was  formerly  subordinate  to  Bamra,  but  was  freed  from 
its  dependence  and  constituted  one  of  the  Garhjat  cluster  by  the 
Rajas  of  Patna  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  traditions  of  the  ruling 
house  relate  that  there  used  to  be  constant  war  between  Bamra  and 
Rairakhol,  and  on  one  occasion  the  whole  of  the  Rairakhol  family  was 
destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  one  boy  who  was  hidden  by  a  Butka 
Sudh  woman.  She  placed  him  in  a  cradle  supported  on  four  uprights, 
and  when  the  Bamra  Raja's  soldiers  came  to  seek  for  him,  the  Sudhs 
swore,  '  If  we  have  kept  him  either  in  heaven  or  earth,  may  our  God 
destroy  us.'  The  Bamra  people  were  satisfied  with  this  reply  and  the 
child  was  saved,  and  on  coming  to  manhood  he  won  back  his  kingdom. 
In  consequence  of  this  incident,  the  Butka  Sudhs  are  considered  by  the 
Rairakhol  house  as  relations  on  the  mother's  side ;  they  have  several 
villages  allotted  to  them,  and  perform  sacrifices  for  the  ruling  family. 
In  some  of  these  villages  nobody  may  sleep  on  a  cot  or  sit  on  a 
high  chair,  so  as  to  be  between  heaven  and  earth,  in  the  position  in 
which  the  child  was  saved.  The  late  Raja  Bishan  Chandra  Janamuni 
died  in  1900  after  having  occupied  the  gaddi  for  seventy-five  years. 
His  grandson  Raja  Gauro  Chandra  Deo,  then  thirty  years  of  age, 
was  installed  in  the  same  year,  subject  to  certain  conditions,  the  obli- 
gation to  accept  a  Government  Dlwan  during  a  probationary  period 

E  2 


62  RAIRAKHOL 

being  one.  The  relations  of  the  State  with  Government  are  in  charge  of 
a  Political  Agent  who  is  subordinate  to  the  Commissioner  of  Orissa. 
The  population  in  1901  was  26,888,  having  increased  by  32  per  cent, 
during  the  previous  decade.  The  number  of  inhabited  villages  is  319, 
and  the  density  of  population  32  persons  per  square  mile.  Oriya  is  the 
language  of  90  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  the  Oraon  and  Mun- 
dari  dialects  are  spoken  by  a  few  hundred  persons  each.  Chasas  are 
the  most  numerous  caste  in  the  State,  and  next  to  them  Gonds, 
Gandas,  and  Sudhs. 

The  soil  is  generally  light  and  sandy.  A  regular  survey  has  been 
carried  out  in  only  about  half  of  the  total  number  of  villages,  the 
assessments  for  the  smaller  villages  being  made  summarily.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  ascertained,  about  64  square  miles,  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  total 
area,  were  cropped  in  1904.  Rice  occupies  37  square  miles,  and  the 
crops  next  to  this  in  importance  are  til,  urad,  and  kulthl.  There  are 
376  tanks,  from  which  3,400  acres  can  be  irrigated.  About  470  square 
miles  are  covered  with  forest.  Sal  {Shoj-ea  rohustd)  is  the  principal 
timber  tree,  and  a  considerable  revenue  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  sal 
sleepers.  The  rearing  of  tasar  silk-cocoons  in  the  State  forests  is 
a  local  industry,  as  is  also  the  extraction  of  catechu.  There  are 
extensive  deposits  of  iron  ore,  which  are  worked  by  the  Khonds,  a  few 
manufactured  implements  being  delivered  to  the  Raja  as  a  cess.  The 
State  contains  3  miles  of  gravelled  and  35  of  embanked  roads.  The 
principal  routes  are  from  Rampur  to  Sambalpur,  Sonpur,  Bamra,  and 
Cuttack.     Exports  of  produce  are  taken  to  Sambalpur  railway  station. 

The  total  revenue  in  1904  was  Rs.  55,000,  of  which  Rs.  13,000  was 
derived  from  land,  Rs.  13,000  from  forests,  and  Rs.  7,000  from  excise. 
Land  revenue  is  still  partly  paid  in  kind  in  certain  tracts,  while  in 
others,  called  paiki  parganas  and  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  the  State, 
the  cultivators  formerly  lay  under  an  obligation  of  military  service, 
which  has  now  shrunk  to  that  of  escort  duty  to  the  Raja.  In  twelve 
years  since  1893,  Rs.  93,000  has  been  expended  on  public  works  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Engineer  of  the  Chhattlsgarh  States  division- 
Resides  the  roads  already  mentioned,  a  palace  for  the  chiefs  family  and 
State  offices  have  been  constructed  at  Rampur.  The  total  expenditure 
in  1904  was  Rs.  56,000.  The  tribute  paid  to  the  British  Government 
is  Rs.  800,  and  is  liable  to  revision.  The  State  supports  five  primary 
schools,  with  250  pupils,  the  expenditure  being  about  Rs.  1,000. 
At  the  Census  of  1901  only  281  persons  were. shown  as  literate,  all 
in  Oriya.  A  dispensary  has  been  established  at  Rampur,  at  which 
14,000  persons  were  treated  in  1904. 

Rai-Sankli. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Raisen. — Head-quarters  of  the  Nizamat-i-Mashrik  or  eastern  district 
of  Bhopal  State,  Central  India,  situated  in  23°  20'  N.  and  77°  47'  E., 


RAJAHMUNDRY  TALUK  63 

\2\  miles  by  metalled  road  from  Salamatpur  station  on  the  Indian 
Midland  section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population 
{1901),  3,495.  Raisen  always  played  an  important  part  in  the  history 
of  Eastern  Malwa,  especially  during  the  Muhammadan  period.  The 
fort  stands  on  the  northern  end  of  a  spur  of  the  Vindhyas,  the  town 
lying  at  its  foot.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  foundation  of  the  fort,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Hindus,  but  its  name  appears  to  be 
a  corruption  of  Rajavasim  or  the  '  royal  residence.'  The  wall  is  built 
of  massive  sandstone  blocks  and  is  pierced  by  nine  gates.  Inside  are 
numerous  ruins  and  a  few  buildings  in  a  state  of  fair  preservation, 
including  three  Hindu  palaces  and  a  mosque.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
Raisen  was  the  stronghold  of  SilharT,  a  Gahlot  Rajput.  After  his  death 
the  fort  was  held  by  Puran  Mai,  as  guardian  to  Pratap  Singh,  the  infant 
grandson  of  Silharl.  In  1543  Puran  Mai  incurred  the  enmity  of  Sher 
Shah,  and  the  fort  was  attacked.  After  a  prolonged  and  strenuous 
resistance  Puran  Mai  surrendered  on  a  promise  of  honourable  treat- 
ment, but  was  promptly  murdered  and  his  family  sent  into  slavery. 
Raisen  then  became  a  part  of  Shujaat  Khan's  territory,  and  sub- 
sequently under  Akbar  was  the  chief  town  of  a  sarkdr  in  the  Subah  of 
Malwa.  A  British  and  State  post  office  and  a  school  are  maintained 
in  the  town. 

Raisingpur.— Estate  in  Khandesh  District,  Bombay.  See  Mehwas 
Estates. 

Raiwind  {Rdeivind). — Junction  on  the  North-Western  Railway,  in 
the  District  and  tahsll  of  Lahore,  Punjab,  situated  in  31°  15'  N.  and 
74°  16'  E.,  where  the  line  from  Delhi  via  Bhatinda  joins  that  from 
Multan  to  Lahore.  Population  (1901),  1,764.  Before  the  Ferozepore- 
Bhatinda  Railway  was  opened,  it  was  an  important  centre  of  the  local 
trade  in  agricultural  produce ;  and  it  possesses  two  cotton-ginning 
factories  and  a  cotton-press,  which  give  employment  to  203  hands. 

Rajagriha. — Ruins  in  Patna  District,  Bengal.     See  RajgIr. 

Rajahmundry  Subdivision.— Subdivision  of  Godavari  District, 
Madras,  consisting  of  the  Rajahmundry  and  Amalapuram  tdiuks 
and  the  Nagaram  Island, 

Rajahmundry  Taluk.— Inland  tdliik  in  Godavari  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  16°  51'  and  17°  27'  N.  and  81°  36'  and  82°  5'  E.,  along 
the  left  bank  of  the  Godavari  river,  with  an  area  of  350  square  miles. 
The  population  in  1901  was  161,070,  compared  with  145,789  in  1891, 
It  contains  two  towns,  Rajahmundry  (population,  36,408),  the  head- 
quarters, and  DowLAisHWERAM  (10,304);  and  85  villages.  The 
demand  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  Rs.  3,20,000.  Some  tracts  of  very  fertile  black  cotton  soil  occur, 
but  much  of  the  area  is  rocky  and  covered  with  scrub  jungle.  The 
principal  crops  are  rice,  pulses,  tobacco,  and  oilseeds.     At  Korukonda 


64  RAJAHMUNDRY  TALUK 

in  the  north  is  a  large  temple,  which  is  resorted  to  by  a  great  number 
of  pilgrims  throughout  the  year. 

Rajahmundry  Town  {Rdjamahendravarani). — Head-quarters  of 
the  subdivision  and  taluk  of  the  same  name  in  Godavari  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  17°  i'  N.  and  81*^  46'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Godavari,  360  miles  from  Madras  by  the  East  Coast  Railway,  which 
here  crosses  the  river  by  a  girder-bridge  of  56  spans,  with  a  total  length 
of  9,000  feet  between  abutments.  The  population  in  1901  was 
36,408,  of  whom  33,680  were  Hindus,  2,073  Muhammadans,  and  631 
Christians. 

The  founding  of  Rajahmundry  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  either 
the  Orissa  or  the  Chalukyan  kings,  but  it  was  almost  certainly  founded 
by  the  latter.  Being  the  key  to  the  passage  of  the  Godavari,  it  at  once 
became  a  fortress  of  importance.  It  passed  in  turn  to  the  Chola  kings 
and  the  Ganpatis  of  Warangal ;  and  Muhammadan  influence  must  have 
been  felt  early,  as  the  inscription  over  the  gateway  of  the  principal 
mosque  records  its  erection  in  1324.  With  the  decline  of  the  Warangal 
power,  Rajahmundry  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Gajapatis  of 
Orissa.  From  them  in  1470  it  was  wrested  by  Muhammad  H  of  the 
Bahmani  line.  Not  long  afterwards,  however,  the  Raja  of  Orissa  made 
a  determined  attempt  to  regain  the  lost  provinces,  and  Muhammad's 
general  was  besieged  in  Rajahmundry.  He  was  relieved  by  the  Sultan 
in  person,  and  the  latter  remained  three  years  at  Rajahmundry  settling 
the  country.  The  place  was  soon,  however,  reoccupied  by  the  Gaja- 
patis. In  151 2  the  great  Krishna  Deva  of  Vijayanagar  captured  the 
city,  but  restored  it  to  Orissa.  It  was  not  till  1572,  after  two  protracted 
sieges  had  failed,  that  it  yielded  to  the  Muhammadans  under  Rafat 
Khan.  Rajahmundry  was  Bussy's  head-quarters  from  1754  to  1757, 
and  it  was  hither  that  Conflans'  army  retreated  after  its  defeat  at 
Condore.  The  place  was  taken  by  the  English  without  any  difficulty; 
but  after  Forde's  departure  to  attack  Masulipatam,  the  French  recap- 
tured it,  only  to  evacuate  it  almost  immediately.  Portions  of  the  fort 
ramparts  still  remain,  giving  a  picturesque  appearance  to  the  town. 

Rajahmundry  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and  Sessions  Judge, 
the  Superintendent  of  police,  and  the  Civil  Surgeon.  One  of  the  seven 
Central  jails  of  the  Presidency  is  located  here.  It  was  begun  in  1864, 
and  is  constructed  on  the  radiating  principle,  with  accommodation  for 
1,052  criminal  and  thirteen  civil  prisoners.  The  articles  manufactured 
in  it  include  carpets,  coarse  woollen  rugs,  sandals,  and  woodwork.  The 
town  also  contains  a  museum  and  public  garden.  Owing  to  its  favour- 
able position  with  regard  to  the  main  lines  of  communication  in  the 
District,  it  is  an  important  distributing  centre,  and  the  principal  depot 
for  the  timber  floated  down  the  river. 

Rajahmundry  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1866.     The  muni- 


RAJANPUR    TOWN  65 

cipal  income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1903-3 
averaged  Rs.  44,000  and  Rs.  43,000  respectively.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  48,000,  derived  principally  from  the  house  and  land 
taxes  and  tolls.  The  main  items  of  expenditure,  which  amounted 
to  Rs.  53,000,  are  conservancy  and  communications.  A  municipal 
hospital  has  accommodation  for  32  in-patients. 

The  principal  educational  institution  in  the  town  is  the  first-grade 
college.  Established  as  a  Zila  school  in  1853,  college  classes  were 
opened  in  1873  '  ""*  ^^77  't  vvas  raised  to  its  present  grade,  and  in  1904 
had  216  students  in  the  upper  classes.  The  town  also  contains 
a  teachers'  training  college,  with  103  students;  a  practising  school 
attached  to  the  training  college,  with  429  pupils ;  and  a  high  school 
managed  by  the  American  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mission,  with  295 
pupils. 

Rajakhera. — Head-quarters  of  the  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Dholpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  54'  N.  and  78°  11'  E., 
24  miles  north-east  of  Dholpur  town  and  about  the  same  distance 
south-east  of  Agra.  Population  (1901),  6,609.  The  town  is  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Raja  Man  Singh,  Tonwar,  during  his  occupation  of 
the  country  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  to  be  called 
after  him  '  the  village  of  the  Raja.'  The  mud  fort  was  built  by  the  Jat 
Raja  Suraj  Mai  of  Bharatpur,  and  is  still  in  fair  preservation.  The 
town  contains  a  post  office,  a  vernacular  school  attended  by  50  boys, 
and  a  dispensary. 

Rajampet. — Town  in  Cuddapah  District,  Madras.    See  Razampeta. 

Rajanpur  Tahsil. — Subdivision  and  southernmost  tahsil  of  Dera 
Ghazi  Khan  District,  Punjab,  lying  between  28°  25'  and  29°  25'  N. 
and  69°  19'  and  70°  38'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,019  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  Indus  on  the  east  and  south-east,  and  by  in- 
dependent territory  on  the  west.  The  elevation  of  the  Sulaiman 
Hills  in  this  tahsil  diminishes  from  north  to  south,  forming  a  low 
range  with  only  one  prominent  peak,  Giandari  (4,160  feet).  South 
of  this  the  range  turns  westward,  and  the  tahsil  is  intersected  by  hill- 
torrent  beds,  while  the  lowland  along  the  river  is  subject  to  inundation. 
The  population  in  1901  was  93,676,  compared  with  90,225  in  1891. 
It  contains  the  towns  of  Rajanpur  (population,  3,917),  the  head- 
quarters, and  Mithankot  (3,487);  and  179  villages.  The  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  i-i  lakhs. 

Rajanpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  Rajanpur  subdivision  and 
tahsil  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  29°  6'  N.  and 
70°  19'  E.,  about  9  miles  from  the  west  bank  of  the  Indus,  on  the  road 
from  Bannu  to  Jacobabad.  Population  (1901),  3,917.  It  was  founded 
in  1732-3  by  Makhdum  Shaikh  Rajan,  who  ousted  the  original  Nahar 
possessors,  and  made  himself  master  of  their  estates.     Rajanpur  was 


66  RAJANPUR    TOWN 

an  unimportant  village  until  1862,  when  the  town  of  Mithankot  was 
washed  away  by  the  Indus,  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  Assistant 
Commissioner  were  transferred  thence.  It  does  a  considerable  trade 
in  grain  and  cotton  with  Sukkur,  and  in  opium  and  indigo  with 
Amritsar  and  Multan.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1873.  The 
income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  5,400,  and 
the  expenditure  Rs.  5,700.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,100, 
chiefly  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  5,000.  Rajanpur 
has  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school,  maintained  by  the  District 
board,  and  a  dispensary. 

Rajaona. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Monghyr 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  W  N.  and  86°  5'  E.,  2  miles  north- 
west of  Luckeesarai  railway  station.  Population  (1901),  388.  Accord- 
ing to  Cunningham,  Rajaona  is  the  site  of  the  Lo-in-ni-lo  monastery 
visited  by  Hiuen  Tsiang.  Some  fine  Buddhist  sculptures  found  here 
have  been  removed  to  the  Indian  Museum  at  Calcutta. 

[^Archaeological  Si/rvey  of  India,   vol.    i,   pp.    151-6,    and    vol.    xv, 

PP-  i_3-5-] 

Rajapalaiyam. — Town  in  the  Srivilliputtur  td/uk  of  Tinnevelly 
District,  Madras,  situated  in  9°2  7'N.  and  77°  2>2>'  E.,  8  miles  from 
Srivilliputtur  town.  It  is  a  Union,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  25,360, 
of  whom  24,095  are  Hindus,  1,014  Musalmans,  and  251  Christians. 
It  is  mostly  inhabited  by  Razus,  a  class  of  people  who  originally  came 
from  Vijayanagar  and  claim  to  be  Rajputs.  Their  language  is  Telugu, 
and  they  have  many  peculiar  customs.  There  is  also  a  colony  of 
blacksmiths  who  turn  out  good  work,  such  as  iron  safes,  vessels,  &c. 
Most  of  the  Razus  live  by  agriculture,  and  they  also  rear  cattle  which 
are  considered  superior  to  the  ordinary  breeds. 

Rajapur  Taluka.— Central  td/uka  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  16°  30'  and  16°  55'  N.  and  73°  18'  and  73^  52'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  616  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Rajapur  (popula- 
tion, 5,178),  the  head-quarters;  and  181  villages.  The  population  in 
1901  was  153,808,  compared  with  140,941  in  1891.  The  density, 
250  persons  per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The 
demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  96,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  7,000.  The  coast  line  stretches  from  the  Vijayadurg  creek  to  the 
Machkandi  river,  a  distance  of  20  miles.  The  soil  is  poor,  except 
in  the  valleys.  The  principal  passes  across  the  Western  Ghats  are 
the  Anaskura  and  Kajirda.  The  Vijayadurg  creek  has  no  bar,  and  is 
navigable  throughout  its  course  in  the  tdluka.  The  annual  rainfall 
averages  about  131  inches. 

Rajapur  Town  (i). — Head-quarters  of  the  tdliika  of  the  same  name 
in  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  16°  34' N.  and  73°3i'E., 
at  the  head  of  a  tidal  creek,  30  miles  south-by-east  of  Ratnagiri  town 


RAJAPUR    TOWN  67 

and  about  15  miles  from  the  sea.  Population  (1901),  5,178.  Rajapur 
is  the  oldest-looking  and  best  preserved  town  in  the  Konkan ;  its 
streets  are  steep  and  narrow,  and  the  market  paved  and  roofed.  The 
old  English  factory,  a  massive  stone  building  with  an  enclosure  leading 
to  the  creek,  now  used  as  a  Government  office,  gives  the  town  a  special 
interest.  It  is  also  peculiar  as  the  only  Ratnagiri  port  to  which  Arab 
boats  still  trade  direct,  though  vessels  of  any  size  cannot  approach 
within  3  miles  of  the  old  stone  quay.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
Southern  Mahratta  Railway  the  trade  of  Rajapur  has  greatly  declinedt 
In  1903-4  the  exports  amounted  to  i'3  lakhs  and  the  imports  to 
1-6  lakhs.  On  the  south  point  of  the  bay  stands  a  lighthouse,  erected 
in  1873,  the  light  of  which  is  visible  for  9  miles.  Jaitapur,  situated 
II  miles  lower  down,  is  the  outlet  for  sea  traffic  and  the  place  of 
call  for  coasting  steamers.  The  municipality,  established  in  1876,  had 
an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  Rs.  7,500.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,600.  The  water-supply  of  the  town 
is  from  a  lake,  upwards  of  half  a  mile  long,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  250  feet,  containing  about  60,000,000  gallons  of  water,  which  has 
been  formed  by  damming  the  Kodavli  river  at  a  point  3  miles  above 
the  town.  The  present  supply  is  about  39,000  gallons  a  day,  which 
is  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  town,  and  most  of  the  pipes  are  in 
serious  need  of  repair.  The  town  contains  two  Subordinate  Judges' 
courts,  two  dispensaries,  of  which  one  is  private,  and  eight  schools, 
including  one  for  girls. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  Muhammadan  conquest  (131 2),  Rajapur  was 
the  chief  town  of  a  district.  In  1660-1,  and  again  in  1670,  Sivaji 
plundered  the  town,  sacking  the  English  factory.  In  17 13  Rajapur 
was  handed  over  to  Angria.  In  1756  it  was  taken  by  the  Peshwa 
from  Angria;  and  in  18 18  it  came  into  British  possession,  together 
with  the  rest  of  the  Peshwa's  dominions. 

A  hot  spring,  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  is  much  frequented  on 
account  of  its  virtue  in  curing  rheumatic  and  skin  diseases.  About 
a  mile  from  this  spring  is  another  which  flows  at  uncertain  intervals. 
The  flow  lasts  for  periods  varying  from  one  or  two  days  to  three 
months.  It  is  held  in  great  reverence  and  called  a  Ganga.  Immedi- 
ately the  flow  begins,  Hindus  come  from  long  distances  to  bathe  in  it. 
In  the  middle  of  the  town  is  a  temple  of  Vithoba,  where  fairs  are  held 
in  honour  of  the  god  twice  a  year. 

Rajapur  Town  (or  Majhgawan)  (2). — Town  in  the  Mau  tahsil  of 
Banda  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  23'  N.  and  81°  9'  E., 
on  the  bank  of  the  Jumna,  18  miles  north-east  of  KarwI.  Population 
(1901),  5,491.  Rajapur  is  the  name  of  the  town,  and  Majhgawan  that 
of  the  inaitza  or  village  area  within  which  it  is  situated.  According 
to  tradition  the  town  was  founded  by  Tulsi  Das,  the  celebrated  author 


68  RAJAPUR   TOWN 

of  the  vernacular  version  of  the  Ramayana,  and  his  residence  is  still 
shown.  He  is  said  to  have  established  several  peculiar  restrictions, 
which  are  scrupulously  observed ;  no  houses  (except  shrines)  are  built 
of  stone,  and  potters,  barbers,  and  dancing-girls  are  rigorously  excluded. 
The  only  public  buildings  are  the  police  station,  post  office,  school, 
and  dispensary.  Rajapur  was  for  a  time  the  chief  commercial  centre 
of  the  District,  owing  to  its  position  on  the  Jumna;  but  many  of  its 
merchants  have  migrated  to  Karwi,  and  the  place  is  declining.  Besides 
the  export  of  country  produce,  there  is  a  small  ni.anufacture  of  shoes 
and  blankets.     The  school  has  90  pupils. 

Rajauli. — Village  in  the  Nawada  subdivision  qf  Gaya  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  24°  39'  N.  and  85°  30'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dhanarji  river.  Population  (1901),  1,509.  Rajauli  is  a  large  mart, 
and  is  connected  with  the  towns  of  Nawada  and  Bihar  by  a  metalled 
road. 

Rajbari. — Head-quarters  of  the  Goalundo  subdivision  of  Faridpur 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  23°  46'  N.  and 
89°  39'  E.  It  consists  of  a  group  of  villages  with  a  population  (1901) 
of  4,573.  Rajbari  is  a  station  on  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway, 
and  contains  the  usual  public  offices,  the  sub-jail  having  accommoda- 
tion for  22  prisoners. 

Rajgarh  State  (i). — A  mediatized  State  in  Central  India,  under  the 
Bhopal  Agency,  lying  between  23°  27'  and  24°  11'  N.  and  76°  36'  and 
77°  14'  E.,  with  an  area  of  940  square  miles.  It  is  situated  in  the 
section  of  Malwa  called  Umatwara,  after  the  Umat  clan  of  Rajputs 
to  which  the  chiefs  of  Rajgarh  and  Narsinghgarh  belong,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Gwalior  and  Kotah  States,  on  the  south  by  Gwalior 
and  Dewas,  on  the  east  by  Bhopal,  and  on  the  west  by  Khilchipur. 
The  northern  portion  is  much  cut  up  by  hills,  but  the  southern  and 
eastern  districts  lie  on  the  Malwa  plateau.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Parbati,  which  flows  along  the  eastern  border,  and  its  tributary  the 
Newaj,  which  flows  by  the  chief  town.  In  the  southern  and  eastern 
parts  the  country  is  covered  with  Deccan  trap,  but  in  the  hills  along 
the  northern  section  the  Vindhyan  sandstones  are  exposed. 

The  Umat  Rajputs  claim  descent  from  the  Paramara  clan,  who 
held  Malwa  from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  century.  Accounts  of 
their  rise  are  conflicting,  but  they  trace  their  origin  to  Rana  Umaji. 
Later  on  they  entered  Malwa,  their  leader  Sarangsen  settling  at 
first  in  Dhar,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Paramara  clan.  He  subse- 
quently acquired  land  in  the  dodh  between  the  Sind  and  Parbati  rivers, 
and  obtained  the  title  of  Rawat.  Rawat  Krishnajl,  eleventh  in  descent 
from  Sarangsen,  died  in  1583,  and  was  followed  by  Dungar  SinghjI. 
Dungar  Singhji's  eldest  son,  Udaji,  succeeded  and  established  his 
capital   at    Ratanpur.      His  younger  brother,   Dudajl,  held   the   post 


RAJGARH  STATE  69 

of  dlwdn  or  minister  to  his  brother,  a  position  which  was  inherited 
by  his  descendants.  The  two  branches  were  distinguished  as  the 
Udawats  and  Dudawats.  Chhatar  Singh,  who  followed  Udaji,  died 
in  166 1,  his  son  Mohan  Singh  succeeding  as  a  minor,  and  the  State 
being  administered  by  Diwan  Ajab  Singh  of  the  Dudawat  branch.  He 
died  in  1668,  and  was  succeeded  as  minister  by  his  son  Paras  Ram. 
The  new  minister  was  suspected  of  having  designs  on  the  State,  which 
gave  rise  to  endless  disputes.  In  1681  these  differences  became  acute, 
and  a  division  was  effected,  by  which  Paras  Ram  received  the  territory 
that  now  forms  the  Narsinghgarh  State.  In  the  disturbances  caused 
by  the  Maratha  and  Pindari  inroads  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Rajgarh 
and  Narsinghgarh  became  tributary  to  Sindhia  and  Holkar  respectively. 
At  the  settlement  of  Malwa  by  Sir  John  Malcolm  in  1818,  a  treaty  was 
mediated  between  Sindhia  and  the  Rajgarh  chief  Newal  Singh,  by 
which  Talen  and  several  other  villages  were  made  over  to  Sindhia  in 
payment  of  his  claims  for  tribute  against  the  Rawat,  while  a  written 
agreement  was  executed  by  the  chief,  giving  to  the  British  Government 
alone  the  right  to  intervene  in  the  affairs  of  the  State.  Talen  and  the 
other  villages  were,  however,  returned  by  Sindhia  in  1834.  In  1880 
transit  duties  on  salt  were  abolished,  for  which  a  compensatory  payment 
of  Rs.  618-12  is  made  annually  by  the  British  Government,  and  four 
years  later  all  similar  dues  except  those  on  opium  were  done  away 
with,  Banne  Singh,  the  present  chief,  succeeded  in  1902.  He  bears 
the  hereditary  titles  of  His  Highness  and  Raja,  and  is  entitled  to  a 
salute  of  II  guns.     He  was  created  K.C.I.E.  in  1908. 

The  population  of  the  State  was:  (1881)  122,641,  (1891)  119,489, 
and  (1901)  88,376,  giving  a  density  of  94  persons  per  square  mile. 
During  the  last  decade  there  has  been  a  decrease  of  26  per  cent.,  owing 
to  the  severe  famine  of  1899- 1900.  The  State  contains  two  towns, 
Rajgarh  (population,  5,399),  the  capital,  and  Biaora  (5,607) ;  and 
622  villages.  Hindus  number  78,343,  or  89  per  cent. ;  Musalmans, 
4,925,  or  6  per  cent.;  Animists  (chiefly  Bhils),  4>788.  or  5  per  cent. 
The  Malwi  dialect  of  RajasthanI  is  the  most  prevalent.  The  most 
numerous  castes  are  Chamars  (10,000),  Rajputs  (7,800),  Dangis  (3,800), 
and  Gujars  and  Balais  (each  3,000).  Of  the  total  population,  46  per 
cent,  are  supported  by  agriculture  and  2 1  per  cent,  by  general  labour. 

About  234  square  miles,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  are  under 
cultivation,  of  which  17  square  miles  are  irrigable.  Of  the  unculti- 
vated area  88  square  miles  are  cultivable,  336  under  forest,  and  the 
rest  is  waste.  Wheat  occupies  loi  square  miles,  or  43  per  cent,  of 
the  area  under  cultivation,  joivdr  47  square  miles,  maize  35,  cotton 
20,  gram  16,  and  poppy  4. 

The  most  important  articles  of  trade  are  grain  and  opium.  The 
principal  road  is  that  from  Rajgarh  to  Sehore,  57  miles  in  length,  by 


70  RAJGARH  STATE 

which  most  of  the  traffic  passes  to  the  railway.  Other  roads  connect 
Rajgarh  with  Khilchipur  and  Pachor  with  Shujalpur,  giving  a  total  of 
114  miles  of  metalled  roads  in  the  State.  Combined  British  post  and 
telegraph  offices  are  maintained  at  Rajgarh  and  Biaora,  and  a  branch 
post  office  at  Talen. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  divided  into  se.\e.nparganas — 
Biaora,  Karanwas,  Talen,  Kotada,  Kalipith,  Newalganj,  and  Sivagarh — 
each  under  a  tahsllddr.  The  chief  has  full  powers  in  all  revenue,  civil 
judicial,  and  general  administrative  matters.  In  criminal  matters  he 
exercises  the  powers  of  a  Sessions  Court,  but  all  heinous  crimes  are 
tried  by  the  Political  Agent.     The  British  codes  are  followed  generally. 

The  normal  income  from  all  sources  is  4-5  lakhs,  of  which  3'8  lakhs 
are  derived  from  land  revenue,  Rs.  17,000  from  customs  dues  (including 
Rs.  15,000  from  opium),  Rs.  30,000  from  excise,  and  Rs.  39,000  from 
interest  on  Government  securities.  The  lands  alienated  in  j'dglrs  yield 
approximately  Rs.  47,000  annually.  The  total  expenditure  amounts  to 
about  4  lakhs,  the  main  heads  being  general  administration  (Rs.  70,000), 
chief's  establishment  (Rs.  36,000),  police  (Rs.  28,000),  collection  of 
land  revenue  (Rs.  15,000),  tribute  (Rs.  55,600),  and  public  works 
(Rs.  54,000).  The  State  pays  a  tribute  of  Rs.  54,000  to  Sindhia  for 
Talen,  and  Rs.  600  to  the  Rana  of  Jhalawar  for  KalTpIth.  It  also 
receives  a  tdnka  (cash  payment)  of  Rs.  2,335  ^  Y^^^  from  Sindhia. 
The  British  rupee  has  been  legal  tender  since  1896. 

The  land  is  leased  out  to  cultivators  on  a  fixed  assessment,  the 
revenue  being  collected  through  farmers  {fuustdjirs),  who  are  respon- 
sible for  the  amount  assessed  and  receive  a  commission.  No  regular 
settlement  has  been  made.  The  rates  are  fixed  in  accordance  with 
the  quality  of  the  soil,  higher  rates  being  levied  on  irrigated  land.  The 
fertile  lands  in  the  south  and  east  are  assessed  at  Rs.  4-1 2-10  to 
Rs.  1-9-7  per  acre,  and  the  less  productive  area  in  the  hilly  tract  at 
R.  0-12-10  to  R.  0-6-5.  These  rates  give  an  incidence  of  Rs.  3-9-5 
per  acre  on  the  cultivated  area,  and  of  14  annas  per  acre  on  the  total 
area. 

No  regular  army  is  maintained,  but  200  footmen  and  30  sowars  form 
the  chief's  guard.  A  regular  police  force  of  357  men  is  being  organized, 
and  there  is  a  Central  jail  at  Rajgarh  town. 

In  1901,  1-5  per  cent,  of  the  population  were  able  to  read  and  write. 
Three  State  schools  and  eight  private  establishments  contain  280  pupils. 
The  total  cost  of  education  is  Rs.  3,000.  The  two  hospitals  in  the 
State  cost  Rs,  5,000  yearly. 

Rajgarh  Town  (i). — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in 
Central  India,  situated  in  24°  1'  N.  and  76°  44'  E.,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Newaj  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Parbali,  85  miles  by  road  from 
Bhopal,  and  57  from  the  Shujalpur  station  on  the  Ujjain-Bhopal  branch 


RAJGARH  TOWN  71 

of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Population  (1901),  5,399. 
The  town  was  founded  about  1640  by  Rawat  Mohan  Singh,  who  also 
erected  the  battlemented  wall  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  Besides  the 
chiefs  residence,  a  State  guesthouse,  a  school,  a  dispensary,  a  sarai, 
and  British  combined  post  and  telegraph  offices  are  situated  in  the 
town. 

Rajgarh  State  (2). —  Thakurat  in  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central 
India. 

Rajgarh  Town  (2). — Head-quarters  of  a  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
the  State  of  Alwar,  Rajputana,  situated  in  27°  \\'  N.  and  76°  38''  E., 
22  miles  south  of  Alwar  city,  and  about  a  mile  south  of  Rajgarh  station 
on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway.  Population  (1901),  11,008.  It  was 
built  about  1767  by  Pratap  Singh,  the  founder  of  the  Alwar  State,  and 
contains  several  fine  buildings,  notably  the  palace  in  the  fort,  the 
frescoes  in  which  are  curious.  The  town  wall  and  ditch  were  added 
by  Maharao  Raja  Banni  Singh.  The  town  possesses  a  post  office,  an 
Anglo-vernacular  school,  and  a  hospital  with  accommodation  for  8  in- 
patients. A  municipal  committee  looks  after  the  lighting  and  sanitation 
of  the  place,  the  average  income,  derived  mainly  from  octroi,  being 
about  Rs.  7,600  a  year,  and  the  expenditure  somewhat  less.  About 
half  a  mile  to  the  east  are  the  remains  of  the  old  town  of  Rajgarh, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
by  Raja  Bagh  Singh  of  the  Bargujar  clan  of  Rajputs,  and  the  Baghola 
tank  close  to  it  is  attributed  to  the  same  chief.  On  the  embankment 
of  this  tank  General  Cunningham  found  three  life-size  Jain  figures,  all 
standing  upright  and  naked,  and  two  jambs  of  a  highly  ornamented 
doorway  of  a  temple,  besides  numerous  broken  figures,  all  apparently 
Jain.  They  were  said  to  have  been  dug  up  when  the  new  town  was 
being  built.  Situated  on  a  lofty  range  of  hills  some  18  miles  to  the 
west  is  Paranagar,  the  old  capital  of  the  Bargujar  Rajas,  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  holy  temple  of  Nilkanth  Mahadeo,  which  is  the 
most  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  in  this  part  of  the  country.  This 
temple  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  a  Bargujar  Raja,  Ajai  Pal ;  and 
an  inscription  under  a  figure  of  Ganesha  bears  the  date  of  a.d.  953, 
which  was  most  probably  the  date  of  the  construction  of  the  build- 
ing, as  its  general  style  belongs  to  that  period.  In  one  of  the  ruined 
temples  in  the  vicinity  is  a  colossal  Jain  figure  13  ft.  9  in.  high, 
with  a  canopy  of  2\  feet  overhead  which  is  supported  by  two  elephants. 

Rajgarh  Town  (3). — Head-quarters  of  a  lahsil  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Reni  nizdmat  of  the  State  of  Bikaner,  Rajputana,  situated  in 
28°  39'  N.  and  75°  24'  E.,  about  135  miles  east  by  north-east  of 
Bikaner  city.  Population  (1901),  4,136.  The  town  was  built  by 
Maharaja  Gaj  Singh  about  1766,  and  was  named  after  his  son  Raj 
Singh.     It  possesses  an  Anglo-vernacular  school  attended  by  74  boys, 


72  RAJGARH   TOWN 

a  post  office,  and  a  hospital  with  accommodation  for  7  in-patients. 
The  tahsil  contains  187  villages,  and  more  than  36  per  cent,  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Jats.  As  most  of  them  belong  to  the  Puniya  clan,  the 
tract  used  to  be  called  locally  the  Vm\\ydi  pargana.  The  Katli  river 
sometimes  flows  in  the  south  for  a  few  miles. 

Rajgir. — -Ruined  town  in  the  Bihar  subdivision  of  Patna  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  25°  2'  N.  and  85°  26'  E.  Population  (1901),  1,575. 
It  was  identified  by  Dr.  Buchanan-Hamilton  with  Rajagriha,  the  resi- 
dence of  Buddha  and  capital  of  the  ancient  Magadha ;  and  by  General 
Cunningham  with  Kusa-nagara-pura  ('  the  town  of  the  kiis  grass '), 
visited  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  and  called  by  him  Kiu-she-lo-pu-lo.  Rajagriha, 
meaning  '  the  royal  residence,'  was  also  known  as  Giribraja,  '  the  hill 
surrounded ' ;  and  under  this  name  the  capital  of  Jarasandha,  king  of 
Magadha,  is  mentioned  in  both  the  Ramayana  and  the  Mahabharata. 
It  is  also  described  by  Fa  Hian  and  Hiuen  Tsiang,  the  Chinese 
pilgrims,  the  latter  of  whom  gives  an  account  of  the  hot  springs  found 
at  this  place.  The  five  hills  surrounding  the  town,  mentioned  in  the 
Mahabharata  and  in  the  Pali  annals,  have  been  examined  by  General 
Cunningham.  The  first,  Baibhar,  is  identified  with  the  Webhars  moun- 
tain of  the  Pali  annals,  on  the  side  of  which  was  the  famous  Sattapanni 
Cave,  where  the  first  Buddhist  synod  was  held  in  545  b.c.  The  second 
hill,  Ratnagiri,  is  that  called  by  Fa  Hian  'The  Fig-tree  Cave,'  where 
Buddha  meditated  after  his  meals,  and  is  identical  with  the  Rishigiri  of 
the  Mahabharata,  and  the  Pandao  of  the  Pali  annals.  A  paved  zigzag 
road  leads  to  a  small  temple  on  the  summit  of  this  mountain,  which 
is  still  used  by  Jains.  The  third  hill,  Bipula,  is  clearly  the  Wepullo 
of  the  Pali  chronicles  and  the  Chait-yaka  of  the  Mahabharata.  The 
other  two  hills  have  Jain  temples. 

Traces  of  the  outer  wall  around  the  ancient  town  of  Rajagriha  may 
still  be  seen,  about  4f  miles  in  circumference.  The  new  Rajgir  is  about 
two-thirds  of  a  mile  north  of  the  old  town.  According  to  Buddhist 
records,  it  was  built  by  Srenika  or  Bimbasara,  the  father  of  Ajatasatru, 
the  contemporary  of  Buddha.  Dr.  Buchanan-Hamilton  stated  that  the 
town  stood  upon  the  north-west  corner  of  a  fort,  which  is  an  irregular 
pentagon  in  form  and  apparently  of  great  antiquity.  At  the  south-west 
extremity  are  traces  of  a  more  modern  fort,  with  stone  walls,  which 
might  have  been  a  kind  of  citadel.  It  occupies  a  space  of  about 
600  yards.  The  eastern  and  northern  faces  had  no  ditch,  but  there 
is  a  strong  stone  wall  about  18  feet  thick,  with  circular  projections  at 
intervals.  The  eastern  approach  to  Rajagriha  was  protected  by  a  stone 
wall,  20  feet  in  width  and  running  zigzag  up  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
hills.  A  watch-tower  on  the  extreme  eastern  point  of  the  range 
corresponded  with  a  similar  tower  immediately  over  the  town.  One 
tower  still  exists,  and  also  the  foundations  of  the  second  tower.     South 


RAJKOT  STATE  73 

of  the  ancient  town  of  Rajagriha  are  found  inscriptions  on  huge  slabs 
of  stone,  which  form  a  natural  pavement.  So  far  as  is  known,  the 
characters  have  never  been  deciphered. 

\_Archaeological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  i,  pp.  16-34,  and  vol.  viii, 
pp.  85-100.] 

Rajim. — Village  in  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Raipur,  Central  Pro- 
vinces, situated  in  20°  58'  N.  and  8r°  53'  E.,  27  miles  from  Raipur 
town,  on  a  branch  of  the  Raipur-Dhamtari  narrow-gauge  railway.  The 
town  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Mahanadi  at  its  junction 
with  the  Pairi.  Population  (1901),  4,985.  This  figure,  however,  was 
in  excess  of  the  normal  number  of  residents,  as  it  included  visitors 
to  the  fair.  Rajim  contains  a  fine  group  of  temples  dedicated  to 
Vishnu,  the  principal  of  which  is  that  of  Rajivlochan  ('  the  lotus-eyed  ')^ 
which  is  visited  by  all  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Jagannath.  It  is 
a  handsome  building,  59  by  25^  feet,  standing  on  a  platform  8  feet 
high.  Another  temple  of  Kuleshwar  is  situated  on  a  small  island  in 
the  Mahanadi.  A  large  annual  farr  takes  place  at  Rajim,  lasting  for 
about  six  weeks  in  February  and  March.  It  is  principally  a  cattle-fair, 
but  much  tasar  silk  from  Bilaspur  is  also  sold.  Rajim  is  the  centre  of 
a  considerable  amount  of  general  trade,  principally  in  lac  and  myra- 
bolams.     It  has  a  primary  school. 

Rajkot  State. — State  in  the  Kathiawar  Political  Agency,  Bombay, 
lying  between  22°  3'  and  22°  27'  N.  and  70°  46'  and  71°  9'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  282  square  miles.  It  is  an  undulating  country,  with  a  stony 
soil  watered  by  several  streams,  of  which  the  Aji  is  perennial.  The 
climate,  though  hot  in  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  October,  is 
generally  healthy.     The  annual  rainfall  averages  from  20  to  25  inches. 

Rajkot  is  an  offshoot  of  Navanagar.  The  founder  of  the  house  was 
Kunwar  Vibhojl,  younger  son  of  Ajoji,  a  great-grandson  of  Jam  Raval. 
In  1807  the  ruler  executed  the  usual  engagements.  The  family  follows 
the  rule  of  primogeniture  in  matters  of  succession,  and  holds  a  sanad 
authorizing  adoption.  The  chief  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  9  guns,  and 
is  addressed  as  Thakur  Sahib. 

The  population  at  the  last  four  enumerations  was:  (1872)  36,770, 
(1881)  46,540,  (1891)  49,958,  and  (1901)  49,795-  Hindus  number 
40,153,  Musalmans  6,251,  and  Jains  3,352.  The  only  town  is  Rajkot, 
the  capital,  and  there  are  60  villages. 

The  total  area  under  cultivation  is  175  square  miles,  of  which 
14  square  miles  are  irrigated.  There  is  no  uniform  and  fixed  revenue 
system  in  the  State,  for  28  villages  fall  under  the  bhdgbatai  or  share  of 
produce  system  and  3  under  the  vighoti  or  cash  assessment  system. 
The  chief  irrigational  work  is  the  Lalpuri  tank,  which  supplies  3  square 
miles.  Horse-breeding  is  carried  on  in  a  State  paddock,  contain- 
ing 2  stallions  and  30  mares  and  costing  about   Rs.   5,000.     Cattle- 


74  RAJKOT  STATE 

breeding  also  receives  some  attention.  The  common  kinds  of  grain, 
sugar-cane,  and  cotton  are  the  principal  crops.  They  are  exported  from 
Gogha  and  Jodiya,  and  to  a  certain  extent  by  rail  from  Wadhwan.  The 
Jetalsar-Rajkot,  Morvi,  and  Jamnagar  Railways  pass  through  the  State. 
Carts  are  the  chief  means  of  transport,  but  pack-bullocks  and  horses 
are  also  employed.  Cotton  and  woollen  cloth  are  the  principal  manu- 
factures, and  there  is  one  ginning  factory.  Exports,  consisting  chiefly 
of  cotton  yarn,  molasses,  and  hides,  were  valued  at  3  lakhs  in  1903-4 ; 
and  imports,  chiefly  timber,  cotton,  silk,  and  ivory,  at  10  lakhs. 

The  State  ranks  as  a  second-class  State  in  Kathiawar.  The  chief  has 
power  to  try  his  own  subjects  for  capital  offences.  The  estimated  gross 
revenue  is  3  lakhs,  chiefly  derived  from  land  (2  lakhs).  A  tribute  of 
Rs.  21,321  is  paid  jointly  to  the  British  Government  and  the  Nawab 
of  Junagarh.  The  State  contains  3  municipalities,  and  19  schools  with 
a  total  of  1,875  pi^pils,  of  whom  359  are  girls.  It  maintains  an  armed 
police  force  of  153  men,  of  whom  15  are  mounted  (1905).  There  are 
two  dispensaries  affording  relief  annually  to  27,815  patients,  and 
a  travelling  hospital  assistant  is  engaged  to  carry  medical  relief  to 
outlying  villages.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  vaccinated  was 
r,i22. 

Rajkot  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  Kathi- 
awar, Bombay,  situated  in  22°  18'  N.  and  70°  50'  E.,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Bhavnagar-Gondal-Junagarh-Porbandar,  the  Jamnagar,  and  the 
Morvi  Railways.  Population  (1901),  36,151,  including  the  civil  and 
military  stations.  Hindus  number  25,927,  Musalmans  6,637,  ^"^  Jains 
3,071.  Rajkot  is  the  residence  of  the  Agent  to  the  Governor  in 
Kathiawar,  and  contains  several  central  institutions.  Among  these  is 
the  Rajkumar  College,  which  owed  its  inception  to  the  foresight  of 
Colonel  Keatinge,  V.C.,  Political  Agent  from  1863  to  1867,  and  was 
opened  by  Sir  Seymour  FitzGerald,  Governor  of  Bombay,  in  1870,  and 
for  many  years  presided  over  by  the  late  Mr.  Chester  MacNaghten. 
This  institution  provides  a  suitable  education  and  training  not  only  for 
the  sons  of  chiefs  of  Kathiawar  but  also  for  cadets  of  other  States  in 
the  Bombay  Presidency.  The  college  itself  is  a  fine  building  in  the 
Venetian  Gothic  style,  amply  equipped  with  a  gymnasium,  a  racquet 
court,  a  rifle  range,  and  a  cricket  pavilion.  The  Jubilee  Memorial 
Institute,  an  imposing  building  consisting  of  the  Connaught  Hall,  the 
Lang  Library,  and  the  Watson  Museum,  is  situated  in  a  picturesque 
public  garden.  The  RasulkhanjI  Hospital  for  Women  and  Children, 
built  at  the  expense  of  the  Nawab  of  Junagarh,  and  maintained  jointly 
by  the  chiefs  of  Kathiawar,  is  a  well-equipped  institution  in  charge  of 
a  European  lady  doctor.  The  West  Hospital,  built  conjointly  by 
Government  and  the  chiefs  of  Kathiawar,  is  a  fully  equipped  hospital 
in  charge  of  the  Agency  Surgeon,  who  has  at  his  disposal  the  services 


R  A/MA  CHI  75 

of  a  qualified  Assistant  Surgeon  and  a  trained  English  nurse.  The 
Male  Training  College  and  the  Barton  Female  Training  College  are 
also  maintained  by  the  chiefs  of  Kathiawar.  In  the  military  limits 
are  a  church  and  a  clock-tower,  the  latter  built  by  the  late  Jam  of 
Jamnagar,  In  the  civil  station  are  the  lines  of  the  Kathiawar  Agency 
police,  and  the  Rajkot  Central  prison.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the 
Rajkot  State  stud  farm,  and  dairy,  and  two  large  artificial  tanks 
which  supply  Rajkot  with  water  and  also  irrigate  a  few  square  miles  of 
country.  There  is  one  cotton-ginning  factory  in  Rajkot,  but  the  prin- 
cipal trade  is  in  grain  and  a  local  building  stone.  The  river  Aji,  which 
washes  the  walls  of  the  town,  is  spanned  by  two  bridges  and  an 
aqueduct.  The  bridge  used  for  foot  traffic  was  built  by  the  late 
Maharaja  of  Bhaunagar.  The  high  school  was  attended  in  1903-4  by 
293  pupils.  The  Irish  Presbyterian  Mission  has  a  central  station  here. 
The  income  of  the  cantonment  funds  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,714. 

Rajmachi  (or  '  the  royal  terrace '). — An  isolated  double-peaked 
fortified  hill  on  the  main  line  of  the  Western  Ghats,  in  the  Maval 
tdluka  o{  Voondi  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  i8°5o'N.  and  73°24'E., 
about  6  miles  north  of  the  Bor  Pass.  It  can  be  visited  from  Khandala 
or  Lonauli.  From  the  Konkan,  thickly  wooded  at  the  base,  its  sides 
rise  about  2,000  feet  in  steep  rock  slopes  which,  as  they  near  the  crest 
of  the  hill,  grow  gradually  treeless  and  bare.  Above  the  crest  from 
the  flat  hill-top  towers  a  rocky  neck  about  200  feet  high  with  at  either 
end  a  short  fortified  tower-like  head,  the  inner,  Srivardhan  ('  luck's 
increase '),  high  and  pointed,  the  outer,  Manranjan  ('  heart  gladdener '), 
lower  and  flat-topped.  A  tongue  of  land  about  300  yards  broad  joins 
Rajmachi  to  the  rough  plateau  that  runs  along  the  crest  of  the  Ghats 
north  from  Khandala.  Across  this  tongue  of  land,  half  a  mile  from 
the  foot  of  the  central  hill-top,  is  a  strong  stone  wall  1 7  feet  high  and 
8  thick,  with  a  parapet  loopholed  for  musketry,  and  with  bastions  at 
intervals  pierced  for  cannon.  A  wide  stretch  of  tilled  land  within  this 
line  of  wall  ensured  the  garrison  a  full  supply  of  grain,  grass,  and  fuel. 
From  this  upland,  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  neighbouring  heights, 
the  central  hill-top  rises  300  to  400  feet  high,  a  sheer,  black,  over- 
hanging cliff"  crowned  by  a  battlemented  peak,  and  towards  the  west 
strengthened  by  a  double  line  of  encircling  walls.  On  the  crest  of 
the  neck  that  joins  the  two  peaks,  fronting  a  small  temple  of  Bhairav, 
stand  three  old  stone  lamp-pillars  or  dipinals,  and  two  small,  quaintly 
carved  stone  chargers  ready  saddled  and  bridled  for  the  god.  The 
temple,  which  is  little  more  than  a  hut,  has  three  pairs  of  small,  black 
stone  images  of  Bhairav  and  his  wife  Jogeshvari,  presented,  according 
to  tradition,  by  SivajT,  Sahu,  and  Baji  Rao  Peshwa.  Srivardhan,  the 
eastern  and  higher  fort,  less  sheer  to  the  south  than  to  the  north,  is  in 
places  strengthened  by  a  triple  line  of  wall.    On  the  south  side,  through 

VOL.  XXI.  F 


76  RAJ  MAC  HI 

the  ruined  gateway,  is  reached  a  chamber  cut  in  the  rock,  once  used 
as  a  granary  or  storehouse,  and  close  by  is  a  large  rock-cut  reservoir. 
On  the  north,  in  a  narrow  ledge  of  the  steep  cliff,  hollowed  into  the 
hill  and  always  sheltered  from  the  sun,  is  a  cistern  with  an  unfailing 
supply  of  pure  water.  The  inner  fortification,  with  a  few  ruined 
dwellings,  encloses  the  central  peak,  the  gadhi  or  '  stronghold.'  Man- 
ranjan,  the  outer  hill,  less  completely  protected  by  nature,  is  very 
carefully  fortified  with  two  high  strong  lines  of  wall.  The  outer  line, 
running  along  the  crest  of  the  cliff,  encloses  some  cisterns  and  reser- 
voirs of  cut  stone ;  the  inner,  encircling  the  flat  hill-top,  has  within 
it  the  powder  magazine,  a  long,  low,  tomb-like,  roofless  building  of 
very  closely  fitting  cut  stone,  and  close  to  it  the  ruins  of  the  com- 
mandant's house  and  a  cistern.  The  western  wall  commands  the 
delightful  prospect  that  gives  the  fort  its  name.  Below  lies  the  royal 
terrace,  wooded  and  stream-furrowed  to  the  north,  bare  and  well-tilled 
to  the  west,  and  to  the  south  laid  out  in  fields  with  a  small  lake  and 
a  shady  hamlet  of  Koli  huts.  North  and  south,  beyond  the  plateau, 
stretches  the  main  line  of  the  Western  Ghats,  their  sides  rising  from 
deep  evergreen  forests  in  bare  black  cliffs,  to  the  rough,  thinly  wooded, 
part-tilled  terrace  that  extends  eastwards  into  the  Deccan  plain  and 
along  the  crest,  broken  by  wild,  rocky  peaks  and  headlands,  from 
Harischandragarh  50  miles  to  the  north  to  Bhojya  18  miles  to  the 
south.  Westwards  stretch  outlying  spurs  and  ranges  with  deep,  water- 
worn  valleys  and  steep,  well-wooded  sides.  Far  off"  to  the  right  rise 
Mahuli,  Gotaura,  Tungar,  and  the  Salsette  hills  ;  in  front,  beyond  the 
long  flat  backs  of  Matheran  and  Prabal,  lie  the  harbour,  island,  and 
city  of  Bombay ;  and  to  the  left  sweeps  the  long  range  of  hills  that 
passes  by  Nagothna  and  Sagargarh  from  the  Western  Ghats  to  the 
extreme  west  of  Alibag. 

The  first  notice  of  Rajmachi  is  in  1648,  when  it  was  taken  by 
Sivajl.  In  17 13  the  fort  surrendered  to  Angria,  and  was  ceded  by  him 
in  1730  to  the  second  Peshwa  BajT  Rao  (1721-40).  In  1776  the 
impostor  Sadoba,  a  Kanaujia  Brahman  who  called  himself  Sadashiv  Rao 
Bhau,  took  the  greater  part  of  the  Konkan  and  came  to  the  Bor  Pass. 
Here  he  was  opposed  for  a  time,  but  eventually  carried  the  Pass,  and 
received  offers  of  submission  from  Rajmachi.  The  Poona  ministers 
then  occupied  his  attention  with  pretended  overtures  of  submission, 
until  two  of  the  Peshwa's  officers  suddenly  fell  on  him  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Rajmachi,  and  drove  him  and  his  force  to  the  Konkan.  In 
the  last  Maratha  War  of  18 18  the  fort  surrendered  without  resistance. 

Rajmahal  Subdivision. — North-eastern  subdivision  of  the  Santal 
Parganas  District,  Bengal,  lying  between  24°  43'  and  25°  18'  N.  and 
87°  27'  and  87°  57'  E.,  with  an  area  of  741  square  miles.  The  sub- 
division contains  a  narrow  strip  of  alluvial  soil  along  the  banks  of  the 


RAJMAHAL    village  77 

Ganges,  which  forms  its  eastern  boundary,  but  the  greater  part  is  hilly 
country  stretching  southwards  from  Sahibganj.  The  population  in  1901 
was  276,703,  compared  with  276,395  in  1891,  the  density  being  373 
persons  per  square  mile.  It  contains  one  town,  Sahibganj  (population, 
7>558)>  '^"^  important  centre  of  trade;  and  1,292  villages,  of  which 
Rajmahal  is  the  head-quarters.  A  large  part  of  the  Daman-i-koh 
Government  estate  lies  within  the  subdivision. 

Rajmahal  Hills. — Hilly  tract  in  the  Santal  Parganas  District  of 
Bengal,  lying  between  24°  30' and  25°  15' N.  and  87°  21' and  87°49''E., 
and  estimated  to  cover  an  area  of  1,366  square  miles.  The  height 
nowhere  exceeds  2,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the  average  elevation 
is  considerably  less.  Among  the  highest  ridges  are  Mori  and  Sund- 
garsa.  The  narrow  valleys  in  these  hills  belong  to  the  Government 
estate  known  as  the  Daman-i-koh,  which  extends  24  miles  north  and 
south,  with  an  average  width  of  5  miles,  and  is  surrounded  by  hills  on 
every  side.  The  Rajmahal  Hills  were  long  regarded  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Vindhyan  range  of  Central  India ;  but  Mr.  V.  Ball,  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  after  a  detailed  examination  of  these  hills,  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  they  form  an  isolated  group,  the  north-eastern 
extremity  of  which  constitutes  the  turning-point  of  the  Ganges.  The 
Rajmahal  Hills  consist  of  overflowing  basaltic  trap  of  comparatively 
recent  date,  resting  upon  coal  measures  and  metamorphic  rocks  of 
gneissose  character,  forming  part  of  the  Lower  Gondwana  system. 
The  hills  leave  only  a  narrow  passage  between  their  northern  flank 
and  the  Ganges  channel ;  and  in  Mughal  times  this  pass,  known  as 
Teliagakhi,  was  of  great  strategic  importance,  and  was  defended  by 
a  large  stone  fort,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  loop- 
line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway  follows  this  route.  The  hills  are 
inhabited  by  the  Paharia  races,  who  are  described  in  the  article  on  the 
Santal  Parganas.  A  peculiar  feature  of  these  hills  is  the  chain  of 
level  plateaux  which  are  found  upon  the  crests  of  the  ridges.  Upon 
these  small  plateaux  the  Paharias  have  built  their  houses ;  and  they 
are  cultivated  with  the  ordinary  plains  crops,  millets,  sargi/Ja  {Gnizotia 
oleifera),  pulses  and  even  rice  covering  the  hill-tops,  while  mangoes, 
jack-fruit  trees,  and  palm  trees  thrive  luxuriantly.  'I'he  approach  from 
the  plains  below  to  each  plateau  is  jealously  guarded  by  a  steep  ladder 
of  boulders.  The  slopes  of  the  hills  yield  large  quantities  of  bamboos 
and  firewood,  and  spiked  millet  is  grown  in  patches  everywhere. 
A  large  trade  has  recently  sprung  up  in  sabai  grass  {Ischaemum  angusti- 
folium),  which  is  grown  in  the  hills  near  Sahibganj,  where  it  is  baled 
and  dispatched  by  rail  to  the  paper-mills  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Calcutta. 

Rajmahal  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  the  Santal  Parganas  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  3'  N. 

F  2 


7S  RAJMAHAL    VILLAGE 

and  87'^  50'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges.  Rajmahal  is  now 
a  mere  collection  of  mud  huts,  interspersed  with  a  few  respectable 
houses.  The  ruins  of  the  old  Muhammadan  city,  buried  in  rank 
jungle,  extend  for  about  4  miles  to  the  west  of  the  modern  village. 
After  his  return  from  the  conquest  of  Orissa  in  1592,  Man  Singh, 
Akbar's  Rajput  general,  selected  Rajmahal  (formerly  Agmahal)  as  the 
capital  of  Bengal  on  account  of  its  central  position  with  respect  to  that 
Province  and  to  Bihar,  and  because  it  commanded  the  Ganges  and 
the  pass  of  Teliagarhi.  The  chief  antiquities  of  Rajmahal  are  the 
Jama  Masjid  of  Man  Singh,  the  palaces  of  Sultan  Shuja  and  Mir 
Kasim  Ali,  Nawab  of  Bengal,  the  Phulbari  or  flower  garden,  and 
numerous  mosques  and  monuments.  In  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  Dr.  Buchanan-Hamilton  estimated  that  the  town  con- 
tained from  25,000  to  30,000  persons.  In  the  Census  of  1901  the 
population  was  returned  at  2,047.  It^  i860,  when  the  loop-line  of  the 
East  Indian  Railway  was  opened  to  Rajmahal,  an  arm  of  the  Ganges 
ran  immediately  under  the  station,  forming  a  navigable  channel  for 
steamers  and  boats  of  all  sizes.  In  1863-4  the  river  abandoned  this 
channel,  leaving  an  alluvial  bank  in  its  place.  Rajmahal  was  till  1879 
3  miles  distant  from  the  main  stream  of  the  Ganges,  and  could  be 
approached  by  large  boats  only  during  the  rains.  In  that  year  the 
Ganges  returned  to  its  old  bed,  but  in  1882  it  showed  indications 
of  again  deserting  it.  In  consequence  of  these  changes  the  bulk  of 
trade  has  been  transferred  to  Sahibganj,  though  Rajmahal  still  retains 
the  local  traffic  across  the  Ganges  with  Malda  District. 

Rajnagar  Town. — Head-quarters  of  a  pargana  of  the  same  name 
in  the  State  of  Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  25°  4'  N.  and  73°  52'  E., 
about  36  miles  north  by  north-east  of  Udaipur  city,  and  about  a  mile 
to  the  west  of  the  lake  called  Raj  Samand.  Population  (1901),  2,311. 
The  town  was  founded  by,  and  named  after,  Rana  Raj  Singh  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  contains  a  primary  school 
attended  by  about  30  boys,  and  the  marble  quarries  in  the  neighbour- 
hood are  famous. 

Rajnagar  Village  (or  Nagar). — Village  in  the  head-quarters  sub- 
division of  Birbhum  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  23^57'  N.  and  87° 
19'  E.  Population  (1901),  3,845,  Rajnagar  was  the  capital  of  the 
Hindu  princes  of  Birbhum  prior  to  the  conquest  of  Bengal  by  the 
Muhammadans  in  1203.  In  1244  it  was  plundered  by  the  Oriyas. 
The  site  is  now  covered  with  crumbling  houses,  mouldering  mosques, 
and  weed-choked  tanks ;  the  ancestral  palace  of  its  Rajas  has  fallen 
into  ruins.  North  of  the  town  and  buried  in  dense  jungle  are  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  mud  fort,  said  to  have  been  built  in  the 
eighteenth  century  as  a  defence  against  the  Marathas.  The  famous 
Nagar  wall  or  entrenchment,  extending  in  an  irregular  and  broken  line 


RAJPIPLA  79 

around  the  town  for  a  distance  of  32  miles,  is  now  rapidly  decaying. 
The  ghats  or  gateways  have  long  ceased  to  be  capable  of  defence,  and 
many  parts  of  the  wall  have  been  washed  almost  level  with  the  ground 
by  the  annual  rains.     The  place  is  locally  famous  for  its  mangoes. 

^Archaeological  Sun^ey  Reports,  vol.  viii,  pp.  146-7.] 

Raj-Nandgaon  State. — Native  State  in  the  Central  Provinces.  See 
Nandgaon. 

Raj-Nandgaon  Town. — Capital  of  the  Nandgaon  Feudatory  State, 
Central  Provinces,  situated  in  21°  5'  N.  and  81°  3'  E.,  with  a  station 
on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  666  miles  from  Bombay.  Population 
(1901),  11,094.  The  large  group  of  buildings  forming  the  Raja's 
palace  covers  more  than  five  acres  of  land,  surrounded  by  a  garden 
with  a  maze.  Another  large  and  handsome  garden  contains  a  guest- 
house for  European  visitors  and  a  menagerie.  The  affairs  of  the  town 
are  managed  by  a  municipal  committee,  whose  receipts  average  about 
Rs.  33,000.  The  water-supply  is  obtained  from  the  Seonath  river, 
2\  miles  distant.  Filtration  wells  have  been  sunk  in  the  river,  and 
water  is  pumped  into  a  service  reservoir  in  the  town.  The  works  were 
opened  in  1894  and  cost  i'25  lakhs.  Raj-Nandgaon  is  the  centre  of 
trade  for  the  surrounding  area.  The  principal  exports  are  grain  and 
oilseeds.  The  Bengal-Nagpur  Spinning  and  Weaving  Mills  were 
opened  in  1894,  with  a  capital  of  6  lakhs,  a  large  portion  of  which  was 
contributed  by  the  chief.  They  contain  208  looms  and  15,176  spindles, 
employ  1,112  operatives,  and  produced  34,975  cwt.  of  yarn  and  7,468 
cwt.  of  cloth  in  1904.  A  cotton-ginning  factory  is  under  construction. 
A  station  of  the  American  Pentecostal  Mission  has  been  established  in 
the  town.  Raj-Nandgaon  possesses  an  English  middle  school  with 
88  pupils,  a  girls'  school,  three  other  schools,  and  a  dispensary. 

Rajpar. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Rajpara  (i). — Petty  State  in  the  Gohelwar  Prant,  Kathiawar, 
Bombay.     See  Kathiawar. 

Rajpara  (2).— Petty  State  in  the  Halar  Prant,  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 
See  Kathiawar. 

Rajpipla. — State  in  the  Political  Agency  of  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay, 
lying  between  21°  23''  and  21°  59'  N.  and  73°  5'  and  74°  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,517^  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Nar- 
bada  river  and  the  Mehwasi  estates  of  Rewa  Kantha ;  on  the  east  by 
the  Mehwasi  estates  of  the  District  of  Khandesh ;  on  the  south  by  the 
State  of  Baroda  and  Surat  District ;  and  on  the  west  by  Broach 
District.  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  is  42  miles,  and  its 
extreme  breadth  from  east  to  west  60  miles. 

Two-thirds  of  the  State  are  occupied  by  a  continuation  of  the 
Satpura  range,  known  as  the  Rajpipla  hills,  nowhere  exceeding  3,000 
feet  in  height  above  the  sea,  which  form  the  watershed  between  the 


8o  RAJPIPLA 

Narbada  and  Tapti  rivers.  Towards  the  west  the  hills  gradually 
subside  into  gentle  undulations.  The  principal  rivers  of  Rajpipla  are 
the  Narbada,  skirting  the  territory  north  and  west  for  nearly  a  hundred 
miles ;  and  the  Karjan,  which  rises  in  the  hills  of  the  Nanchal /rt^^<7;?a, 
and,  flowing  north  into  the  Narbada,  divides  the  State  into  two  equal 
portions.  The  signs  of  disturbance  in  the  lines  of  trap  and  the  great 
number  of  dikes  seem  to  show  that  Rajpipla  was,  during  the  time 
when  trap  rocks  were  poured  out,  a  great  centre  of  volcanic  action. 
Except  in  the  rich  western  lands,  the  whole  of  the  State  is  covered  with 
trees,  the  chief  being  teak,  black-wood,  and  khair.  The  climate  is 
exceedingly  unhealthy,  malarial  fever  being  prevalent  from  September 
to  February.     The  rainfall  in  1903-4  was  46  inches. 

The  family  of  the  Rajpipla  chief  is  said  to  derive  its  origin  from  one 
Chokarana,  son  of  Saidawat,  Raja  of  Ujjain,  a  Rajput  of  the  Paramara 
tribe,  who,  having  quarrelled  with  his  father,  left  his  own  country  and 
established  himself  in  the  village  of  Pipla,  in  the  most  inaccessible  part 
of  the  hills  to  the  west  of  the  modern  town  of  Nandod.  The  only 
daughter  of  Chokarana  married  Moker  or  Mokheraj,  a  Rajput  of  the 
Gohel  tribe,  who  resided  in  the  island  of  Premgar  or  Piram  in  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay.  Mokheraj  had  by  her  two  sons,  Dungarjl  and  Gemar- 
singhjl.  The  former  founded  Bhaunagar  and  the  latter  succeeded 
Chokarana.  Since  that  time  (about  1470)  the  Gohel  dynasty  has  ruled 
in  Rajpipla.  The  Musalman  kings  of  Ahmadabad  had  before  this 
taken  an  agreement  from  the  Raja  to  furnish  1,000  foot-soldiers  and 
300  horsemen ;  and  the  agreement  remained  in  force  until  Akbar  took 
Gujarat  in  1573,  when  he  imposed  a  tribute  of  Rs.  35,550  on  the 
country  in  lieu  of  the  contingent.  This  was  paid  until  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Aurangzeb  (1707),  when,  the  imperial  authority  declining, 
the  payments  became  irregular,  and,  if  opportunity  favoured,  were 
altogether  evaded.  Subsequent  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Muhammadan 
authority,  Damajl  Gaikwar,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
succeeded  in  securing  a  half-share  of  four  of  the  most  fertile  sub- 
divisions of  the  territory.  These  were  afterwards  released  at  the  cost 
of  an  annual  payment  of  Rs.  40,000  to  the  Gaikwar,  and  this  sum  later 
on  was  raised  to  Rs.  92,000.  Such  rapid  and  frequent  encroachments 
on  the  State  and  internal  quarrels  led  to  the  intervention  of  the  British 
Government.  About  the  close  of  182 1,  of  two  disputants,  the  rightful 
claimant  Verisaljl  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  British.  Under  the 
settlement  made  in  1823  the  State  pays  an  annual  tribute  of  Rs.  50,001 
to  the  Gaikwar,  on  the  understanding  that  a  remission  shall  be  granted 
in  seasons  of  natural  calamity.  The  State,  owing  to  mismanagement, 
was  placed  in  the  year  1884  under  the  joint  administration  of  an  officer 
of  the  British  Government  and  the  Raja.  From  1887  to  1897  the 
administration  was  entrusted  solely  to   a   British  officer.     The  chief, 


RAjPiPLA  8 1 

who  bears  the  title  of  Maharana,  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  i  r  guns  and 
holds  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption.  The  succession  follows  the  rule 
of  primogeniture. 

The  population  at  the  last  four  enumerations  was:  (1872)  120,036, 
(1881)  114,756,  (1891)  171,771,  and  (1901)  117,175,  the  decrease 
during  the  last  decade  being  due  to  the  great  famine  of  1899- 1900.  The 
population  is  distributed  between  one  town,  Nandod,  the  capital  of  the 
State,  and  651  villages,  the  density  being  77  persons  per  square  mile. 
Hindus  number  94,865,  Musalmans  5,636,  and  Animists  16,075.  The 
latter  are  chiefly  Bhils. 

Of  the  total  area  ^t^  per  cent,  is  cultivable,  and  243  square  miles 
were  actually  cultivated  in  1903-4.  Cotton  is  the  most  important 
crop,  occupying  53  square  miles  :  while  joivdr  occupied  43,  hdjra  29, 
rice  25,  and  kodra  20  square  miles.  In  the  rich  alluvial  soil  in  the 
north  and  north-west  and  in  the  favoured  patches  in  the  west,  tur, 
castor-oil,  millet,  cotton,  gram,  and  rice  are  grown.  Experiments  for 
introducing  Egyptian  cotton  are  in  progress.  Among  the  hills  and 
forests,  where  Bhils  are  the  only  husbandmen,  the  chief  crops  are  tur^ 
coarse  rice,  kodra,  hanfi,  and  bavta.  The  four  last  are  the  BhTls'  chief 
diet,  though,  unless  three  or  four  times  washed,  the  kodra  is  slightly 
poisonous,  causing  giddiness  and  faintness.  Almost  all  hill  crops  are 
grown  in  scattered  foresc  clearings.  The  tract  covered  by  forests 
is  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  area,  including  409  square  miles  of 
'  reserved  '  forest.  In  the  south  there  are  valuable  teak  forests.  Car- 
nelian  mines  are  worked  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  near  Ratanpur,  a  village 
about  14  miles  from  the  city  of  Broach,  where  the  Marathas  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Mughals  in  1705.  Iron  of  good  quality  used  to  be 
manufactured  in  the  same  locality,  and  akik  stones  are  exported  to 
Cambay  for  the  manufacture  of  agate  work.  A  soft  stone  found  in 
a  village  in  the  Vadia  taluka  is  fashioned  into  grindstones  and  mortars 
for  export.  The  .State  contains  two  cotton-ginning  factories.  The 
Bhils  and  other  forest  tribes  make  bamboo  matting  and  baskets  for 
sale ;  otherwise  there  are  no  industries  of  any  description.  The  chief 
article  of  trade  is  teak  from  the  forests.  Mahud  and  sesamum  are 
largely  exported,  and  nearly  all  the  cotton  grown  in  the  State  is  sent  to 
Bombay.  A  railway,  constructed  at  a  cost  of  13  lakhs,  and  opened  in 
1899,  connects  Nandod  with  Ankles var.  Its  total  length  in  1903-4 
was  235  miles,  and  it  yielded  a  net  profit  of  Rs.  11,641.  In  1899-1902 
the  State  suffered  severely  from  famine,  due  to  short  rainfall  and  the 
ravages  of  rats.  Nearly  9  lakhs  was  spent  on  famine  relief  on  this 
occasion. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  lands  of  the  State  are  distributed  in 
parganas,  each  under  a  thdHaddr,  with  considerable  revenue,  police, 
and   magisterial   powers.      The    chief   has    power   to   try,    for   capital 


82  RAJPIPLA 

offences,  without  the  permission  of  the  Political  Agent,  any  person 
except  British  subjects.  The  income  of  the  State  in  1903-4  was  8-7 
lakhs,  including  receipts  from  land,  forests,  and  excise.  More  than 
Rs.  70,000  is  annually  spent  on  public  works.  The  forms  of  assess- 
ment levied  are  the  hoe  {koddlt),  or  the  billhook  (ddfardt)  cess  (vary- 
ing from  8  annas  to  2  rupees) ;  a  plough  tax  {hdlbandi),  levied  on  each 
plough  (varying  according  to  the  status  of  the  cultivator  from  Rs.  5  to 
Rs.  19) ;  and  bighotis,  or  acre  rates  (ranging  from  4^  annas  to  Rs.  25). 
Of  the  total  area,  437  square  miles  have  been  surveyed.  There  is 
a  municipality  at  Nandod  under  State  management.  The  chief  main- 
tains a  miUtary  force  of  in  men,  horse  and  foot,  and  239  police.  The 
State  contained  in  1903-4  one  high  school  and  81  primary  schools,  of 
which  5  were  for  girls.  The  boys'  schools  were  attended  by  3,417 
pupils  and  the  girls'  schools  by  607.  One  hospital  and  five  dispen- 
saries and  the  Nandod  jail  infirmary  cost  Rs.  16,000,  and  treated 
38,100  patients  in  1903-4.  In  the  same  year  3,280  persons  were 
vaccinated.     Nandod  contains  a  veterinary  hospital. 

Rajpur  State. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Rajpur  Town  (i). — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  the 
District  of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  situated  in  22°  26'  N. 
and  88°  25'  E.,  11  miles  south  of  Calcutta.  Population  (1901),  10,713. 
Rajpur  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1876.  The  income  during 
the  decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  8,400,  and  the  expenditure 
Rs.  8,200.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  10,000,  half  of  which  was 
derived  from  a  tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax) ;  and  the  expenditure 
was  Rs.  12,000. 

Rajpur  Town  (2). — Town  in  Dehra  Dun  District,  United  Provinces, 
situated  in  30°  24'  N.  and  78°  6'  E.,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  on 
the  main  road  to  Mussoorie,  7  miles  from  that  place  and  7  miles 
from  Dehra.  Population  (1901),  2,900.  The  place  is  chiefly  of  im- 
portance as  a  stage  on  the  journey  to  Mussoorie,  and  it  is  administered 
under  Act  XX  of  1856.  Pure  drinking-water  is  supplied  through  pipes 
from  the  mountains.  There  are  three  hotels,  a  police  station,  a  post 
office,  and  a  dispensary.  In  1902  a  small  glass  factory  was  opened 
here.  Glass  is  made  from  quartz,  limestone,  and  soda,  the  two  first 
materials  being  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  Four  European  work- 
men and  forty-four  natives  were  employed  in  1903. 

Rajpura. — Head-quarters  tahsll  of  the  Pinjaur  nizdmat,  Patiala 
State,  Punjab,  lying  between  30°  22''  and  30°  36'  N.  and  76°  33"  and 
76°  49'  E.,  with  an  area  of  141  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  55,117,  compared  with  59,607  in  1891.  The  /«/w/ contains  146 
villages,  of  which  Rajpura  is  the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  i'9  lakhs. 

Rajputana  ('  the  country  of  the  Rajputs'  ;  also  called  Rajasthan  or 


RAJPUTANA  83 

Rajwara,  '  the  abode  of  the  princes '). — In  the  administrative  nomen- 
clature of  the  Indian  Empire,  Rajputana  is  the  name  of  a  great  terri- 
torial circle  which  includes  eighteen  Native  States  and  two  chiefships, 
together  with  the  small  British  Province  of  Ajmer-Merwara. 

These  territories  lie  between  23°  3'  and  30°  12''  N.  and  69°  30'  and 
78°  17'  E.,  with  a  total  area  of  about  130,462  square  miles.  Included 
in  the  latter  figure  are  the  areas  of  Ajmer-Merwara  (2,711  square 
miles),  which,  being  British  territory,  has,  for  Census  and  Gazetteer 
purposes,  been  treated  as  a  separate  Province  ;  the  two  detached 
districts  of  Gangapur  (about  26  square  miles)  and  Nandwas  (about  36 
square  miles),  which  belong  respectively  to  the  Gwalior  and  Indore 
Darbars,  but,  being  surrounded  by  the  Udaipur  State,  form  an  integral 
part  of  Rajputana  ;  and,  lastly,  about  210  square  miles  of  disputed 
lands.  On  the  other  hand,  the  areas  of  lands  held  by  chiefs  of  Rajput- 
ana outside  the  territorial  limits  have  been  excluded,  notably  the  three 
Tonic  districts  in  Central  India  (about  1,439  square  miles). 

As  traced  on  the  map,  Rajputana  is  an  irregular  rhomb,  its  salient 
angles  to  the  north,  west,  south,  and  east  respectively  being  joined  by 
the  extreme  outer  boundary  lines  of  the  States  of  Bikaner,  Jaisalmer, 
Banswara,  and  Dholpur. 

It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  province  of  Sind  ;  on  the  north- 
west by  the  Punjab  State  of  Bahawalpur  ;  and  on  the  north  and 
north-east  by  the  Punjab.  Its  eastern  frontier  marches,  first  with  the 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  and  next  with  Gwalior,  while  its 
southern  boundary  runs  across  the  central  region  of  India  in  an  irregu- 
lar zigzag  line,  separating  it  from  a  number  of  other  Native  States  in 
Central  India  and  the  Bombay  Presidency,  and  marking  off  generally 
the  northern  extension  of  that  great  belt  of  territory  subject,  directly  or 
indirectly,  to  the  Maratha  powers — Sindhia,  Holkar,  and  the  Gaikwar 
of  Baroda. 

It  m»ay  be  useful  to  give  roughly  the  geographical  position  of  the 
several  States  within  this  area.  Jaisalmer,  Jodhpur  (or  Marwar),  and 
Bikaner  form  a  homogeneous  group  in  the  west  and  north,  while 
a  tract  called  Shekhawati  (subject  to  Jaipur)  and  Alwar  are  in  the 
north-east.  Jaipur,  Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  Karauli,  Bundi,  Kotah,  and 
Jhalawar  may  be  grouped  together  as  the  eastern  and  south-eastern 
States.  Those  in  the  south  are  Partabgarh,  Banswara,  Dungarpur,  and 
Udaipur  (or  Mewar),  with  Sirohi  in  the  south-west.  In  the  centre  lie 
the  British  Province  of  Ajmer-Merwara,  the  Kishangarh  State,  the  chief- 
ships  of  Shahpura  and  Lawa,  and  parts  of  Tonk.  The  last  State  con- 
sists of  six  isolated  districts  (three  of  which  are,  as  already  stated,  in 
Central  India),  and  cannot  be  said  to  fall  into  any  one  of  these  rough 
geographical  groups. 

The  Aravalli   Hills  intersect  the  country  almost  from  end  to  end 


84  RAJPUTANA 

by  a  line  running  nearly  north-east  and  south-west,  and  about  three- 
fifths  of  Rajputana  lie  north-west  of  this  line,  leaving  two-fifths  on  the 
south-east.     The  heights  of  Mount  Abu  are  close  to 
asoec^s  ^^  south-western   extremity  of  the  range,  while  its 

north-eastern  end  may  be  said  to  terminate  near 
Khetri  in  the  Shekhawati  country,  though  detached  hills  are  traceable 
almost  as  far  as  Delhi. 

There  are  thus  two  main  divisions  :  namely,  that  north-west,  and 
that  south-east,  of  the  Aravallis.  The  former  stretches  from  Sind  on 
the  west,  northward  along  the  southern  Punjab  frontier  to  near  Delhi 
on  the  north-east.  As  a  whole,  this  tract  is  sandy,  ill-watered,  and 
unproductive,  but  improves  gradually  from  a  mere  desert  in  the  far 
west  and  north-west  to  comparatively  fertile  and  habitable  lands  to- 
wards the  north-east.  The  '  great  desert,'  forming  the  whole  of  the 
Rajputana-Sind  frontier,  extends  from  the  edge  of  the  Rann  of  Cutch 
beyond  the  Luni  river  northward  ;  and  between  it  and  what  has  been 
called  the  '  little  desert '  on  the  east  is  a  zone  of  less  absolutely  sterile 
country,  consisting  of  rocky  land  cut  up  by  limestone  ridges,  which  to 
some  degree  protect  it  from  the  desert  sands.  The  *  little  desert '  runs 
up  from  the  Luni  river  between  Jaisalmer  and  Jodhpur  into  the 
northern  wastes.  The  character  of  this  region  is  the  same  everywhere. 
It  is  covered  by  sand-hills,  shaped  generally  in  long  straight  ridges, 
which  seldom  meet,  but  run  in  parallel  lines,  separated  by  short  and 
fairly  regular  intervals,  resembling  the  ripple-marks  on  a  sea-shore  upon 
a  magnified  scale.  Some  of  these  ridges  may  be  two  miles  long, 
varying  from  50  to  100  feet,  or  even  more,  in  height;  their  sides  are 
scored  by  water,  and  at  a  distance  they  look  like  substantial  low  hills. 
Their  summits  are  blown  into  wave-like  curves  by  the  action  of  the 
periodical  westerly  winds ;  they  are  sparsely  clothed  with  stunted 
shrubs  and  tufts  of  coarse  grass  in  the  dry  season,  while  the  light  rains 
cover  them  with  vegetation.  The  villages  within  the  desert,  though 
always  known  by  local  names,  cannot  be  reckoned  as  fixed  habitations, 
for  their  permanence  depends  entirely  on  the  supply  of  water  in  the 
wells,  which  is  constantly  failing  or  turning  brackish  ;  and  as  soon  as 
the  water  gives  out,  the  village  must  shift.  A  little  water  is  collected 
in  small  tanks  or  pools,  which  become  dry  before  the  stress  of  the  heat 
begins,  and  in  places  there  are  long  marshes  impregnated  with  salt. 
This  is  the  character,  with  more  or  less  variation,  of  the  whole  north 
and  north-west  of  Rajputana.  The  cultivation  is  everywhere  poor  and 
precarious,  though  certain  parts  have  a  better  soil  than  others,  and 
some  tracts  are  comparatively  productive.  Along  the  base  of  the 
Aravalli  range  from  Abu  north-east  towards  Ajmer,  the  submontane 
region  lying  immediately  under  the  abrupt  northern  slopes  and  absorb- 
ing their  drainage  is  well  cultivated,  where  it  is  not  covered  by  jungle, 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  85 

up  to  the  Luni  ;  but  north-west  of  this  river  the  surface  streams  are 
mere  rain  gutters,  the  water  in  the  wells  sinks  lower  and  lower,  and 
the  cultivation  becomes  poorer  and  more  patchy  as  the  scanty  loam 
shades  off  into  the  sandy  waste.  As  the  Aravallis  approach  Ajmer, 
the  continuous  chain  breaks  up  into  separate  hills  and  sets  of  hills. 
Here  is  the  midland  country  of  Rajputana,  with  the  city  of  Ajmer 
standing  among  the  scattered  hills  upon  the  highest  level  of  an  open 
table-land,  which  spreads  eastward  towards  Jaipur  and  slopes  by 
degrees  to  all  points  of  the  compass.  From  Ajmer  the  Aravallis  trend 
north-eastward,  never  reuniting  into  a  chain  but  still  serving  to  divide 
roughly,  though  less  distinctly,  the  sandy  country  on  the  north  and 
west  from  the  kindlier  soil  on  the  south  and  east. 

The  second  main  division  of  Rajputana,  south-east  of  the  Aravallis, 
contains  the  higher  and  more  fertile  regions.  It  may  be  defined  by 
a  line  starting  from  near  Abu  and  sweeping  round  first  south-eastward, 
and  then  eastward,  along  the  northern  frontiers  of  Gujarat  and  Malwa. 
Where  it  meets  Gwalior,  it  turns  northward,  and  eventually  runs  along 
the  Chambal  until  that  river  enters  the  United  Provinces  ;  it  then  skirts 
the  British  possessions  in  the  basin  of  the  Jumna  as  it  goes  north  past 
Agra  and  Muttra  up  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Delhi.  In  contrast  to 
the  sandy  plains  which  are  the  uniform  feature,  more  or  less  modified, 
of  the  north-west,  this  south-eastern  division  has  a  very  diversified 
character.  It  contains  extensive  hill  ranges  and  long  stretches  of  rocky 
wold  and  woodland ;  it  is  traversed  by  considerable  rivers,  and  in  many 
parts  there  are  wide  vales,  fertile  table-lands,  and  great  breadths  of 
excellent  soil.  Behind  the  loftiest  and  most  clearly  defined  section 
of  the  Aravallis,  which  runs  between  Abu  and  Ajmer,  lies  the  Udaipur 
(Mewar)  country,  occupying  all  the  eastern  flank  of  the  range,  at  a  level 
800  or  900  feet  higher  than  the  plains  on  the  west.  And  whereas  the 
descent  of  the  western  slopes  is  abrupt  towards  Marwar,  on  the  eastern 
or  Mewar  side  the  land  falls  very  gradually  as  it  recedes  from  the  long 
parallel  ridges  which  mark  the  water-parting,  through  a  country  full  of 
high  hills  and  deep  gullies,  much  broken  up  by  irregular  rocky  emi- 
nences, until  it  spreads  out  and  settles  down  into  the  open  champaign  of 
the  centre  of  Udaipur.  Towards  the  south-western  corner  of  that  State, 
the  broken  country  behind  the  Aravallis  is  prolonged  farthest  into  the 
interior ;  and  the  outskirts  of  the  main  range  do  not  subside  into  level 
tracts,  but  become  a  confused  network  of  outlying  hills  and  valleys, 
covered  for  the  most  part  with  jungle.  This  is  the  peculiar  region 
known  as  the  Hilly  Tracts  of  Mewar.  All  the  south-east  of  Rajputana 
is  watered  by  the  drainage  of  the  Vindhyas,  carried  north-eastward  by 
the  Banas  and  Chambal  rivers.  To  the  north  of  the  town  of  Jhalra- 
patan,  the  country  rises  by  a  very  distinct  slope  to  the  level  of  a 
remarkable  plateau  called  the   Pathar,  upon   which  lies  a  good  deal 


86  RAJPUTANA 

of  the  territory  of  the  Kotah  and  Bundi  States.  The  surface  of  this 
table-land  is  very  diversified,  consisting  of  wide  uplands,  more  or  less 
stony,  broad  depressions,  or  level  spaces  containing  deep  black  culti- 
vable soil  between  hills  with  rugged  and  irregular  summits,  sometimes 
barren  and  sometimes  covered  with  vegetation.  To  the  east  the  plateau 
falls  very  gradually  to  the  Gwalior  country  and  the  catchment  of  the 
Betwa  river ;  and  to  the  north-east  there  is  a  very  rugged  region  along 
the  frontier  line  of  the  Chambal  in  the  Karauli  State,  while  farther 
northward  the  country  smooths  down  and  opens  out  towards  the 
Bharatpur  territory,  whose  flat  plains  belong  to  the  alluvial  basin  of  the 
Jumna. 

Of  mountains  and  hill  ranges,  the  Aravallis  are  by  far  the  most 
important.  Mount  Abu  belongs  by  position  to  these  hills,  and  its 
principal  peak,  5,650  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  highest  point  between 
the  Himalayas  and  the  Nllgiris.  The  other  ranges,  though  numerous, 
are  comparatively  insignificant.  The  cities  of  Alwar  and  Jaipur  lie 
among  groups  of  hills  more  or  less  connected ;  and  in  the  Bharatpur 
State  is  a  range  of  some  local  importance,  the  highest  peak  being 
AlTpur,  1,357  feet  above  sea-level.  South  of  these  are  the  Karauli 
hills,  whose  greatest  height  nowhere  exceeds  1,600  feet;  and  to  the 
south-west  is  a  low  but  very  well-defined  range,  running  from  Mandal- 
garh  in  Udaipur  north-east  across  the  Bundi  territory  to  near  Indar- 
garh  in  Kotab.  These  hills  present  a  clear  scarp  for  about  25  miles  on 
their  south-eastern  face,  and  give  very  few  openings  for  roads,  the  best 
pass  being  that  in  which  lies  the  town  of  Bundi,  whence  they  are  called 
the  Bundi  hills.  The  Mukandwara  range  runs  across  the  south- 
western districts  of  Kotah  from  the  Chambal  to  beyond  Jhalrapatan, 
and  has  a  curious  double  formation  of  two  separate  ridges.  No  other 
definite  ranges  are  worth  mention  ;  but  it  will  be  understood  that  the 
whole  of  Rajputana,  excepting  only  the  sandy  deserts,  is  studded  with 
occasional  hills  and  isolated  crags,  and  even  so  far  as  the  south-west  of 
the  Jodhpur  State,  near  Barmer,  there  are  two  which  exceed  2,000  feet. 
All  the  southern  States  are  more  or  less  hilly,  especially  Banswara, 
Dungarpur,  and  the  southernmost  tracts  of  Mewar. 

In  the  north-western  division  of  Rajputana  the  only  river  of  any 
consequence  is  the  Luni,  which  rises  in  the  Pushkar  valley  close  to 
Ajmer  and  flows  west  by  south-west  for  about  200  miles  into  the  Rann 
of  Cutch.  The  Ghaggar  once  flowed  through  the  northern  part  of  the 
Bikaner  State,  but  now  rarely  reaches  more  than  a  mile  or  two  west  of 
the  town  of  Hanumangarh.  Its  water  is,  however,  utilized  for  irrigation 
purposes  by  means  of  two  canals,  which  were  constructed  in  1897  at 
the  joint  expense  of  the  Government  of  India  and  the  Bikaner  Darbar. 
The  south-eastern  division  has  a  river  system  of  importance.  The 
Chambal  is  by  far  the  largest  river  in  Rajputana,  flowing  through  the 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  87 

Province  for  about  one-third  of  its  course,  and  forming  its  boundary  for 
another  third.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Kali  Sind,  the  Par- 
BATi,  and  the  Banas.  The  last,  which  is  next  in  importance  to  the 
Chambal,  is  throughout  its  length  of  300  miles  a  river  of  Rajputana. 
It  rises  in  the  Aravallis  near  the  fort  of  Kiimbhalgarh,  and  collects  all 
the  drainage  of  the  south-eastern  slopes  of  those  hills,  as  well  as  of  the 
Mewar  plateau  ;  its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Berach,  Kothari,  Khari, 
Mashi,  Dhil,  and  Morel.  Farther  to  the  north  is  the  Banganga, 
which,  rising  in  Jaipur,  flows  generally  east  through  Bharatpur  and 
Dholpur  into  the  District  of  Agra,  where,  after  a  course  of  about 
235  miles,  it  joins  the  Jumna.  The  Mahi,  a  considerable  river  in 
Gujarat,  runs  for  some  distance  through  Banswara  and  along  the  border 
of  Dungarpur  in  the  extreme  south,  but  it  neither  begins  nor  ends 
within  Rajputana. 

There  are  no  natural  fresh-water  lakes,  the  only  considerable  basin 
being  the  well-known  salt  lake  at  Sambhar.  There  are,  however, 
numerous  artificial  sheets  of  water,  many  of  which  are  large,  throughout 
the  eastern  half  of  the  Province,  more  particularly  in  the  Jaipur  State. 
The  oldest  and  most  famous  are,  however,  to  be  found  in  Mewar : 
namely,  the  Dhebar  Lake,  the  Raj  Samand  at  Kankroli,  and  the 
Pichola  lake  at  Udaipur  city. 

Rajputana  may  be  divided  into  two  geological  regions :  namely,  the 
eastern  half  including  the  Aravallis,  and  the  western  half.  The  Aravalli 
range,  as  it  exists  at  present,  is  but  the  wreck  of  what  must  have  been 
in  former  days  a  lofty  chain  of  mountains,  reduced  to  its  present  dimen- 
sions by  subaerial  denudation  ;  and  its  upheaval  dates  back  to  very 
early  geological  times,  when  the  sandstones  of  the  Vindhyan  system, 
the  age  of  which  is  not  clearly  established  but  is  probably  not  later 
than  Lower  Palaeozoic,  were  being  deposited.  The  older  rocks  com- 
posing it  are  all  of  crystalline  types,  like  the  transition  or  Dharwar 
series  of  Southern  India,  and  comprise  gneisses  and  schists,  with  bands 
of  crystalline  limestone,  slates,  and  quartzites.  These  have  been 
divided  into  two  systems,  of  which  the  lower,  known  as  the  Aravalli 
system,  includes  the  gneisses,  schists,  and  most  of  the  slates.  All  these 
rocks  have  been  greatly  crushed  and  disturbed,  and  are  thrown  into 
sharp  folds  running  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  trend  of  the  range ; 
they  are  traversed  by  numerous  dikes  of  intrusive  granite,  as  well  as  of 
basic  igneous  rock.  Of  the  gneiss  but  little  is  known,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  older  than  the  transition  series  occurs  in  the  range.  Cal- 
careous bands  are  of  common  occurrence  among  the  schists,  and,  where 
they  are  in  contact  with  veins  of  intrusive  granite,  have  been  altered 
into  a  pure  white  crystalline  marble,  which  is  extensively  quarried  in 
several  localities.  The  most  famous  of  these  quarries  are  at  Makrana. 
The  slates  at  the  northern  end  of  the  range  are  largely  used  for  roofing 


88  RAJPUTANA 

purposes,  and  the  copper  and  cobalt  mines  of  Khetri  are  situated  in 
the  AravaUi  schists,  but  have  not  been  worked  for  many  years.  Over 
the  schists  and  slates  just  described  comes  a  series  of  slates,  limestones, 
and  quartzites,  known  as  the  Delhi  system.  The  lower  portion,  con- 
sisting of  slates  and  limestones,  was  formerly  known  as  the  Raialo 
group,  and  the  upper  portion  (quartzites)  is  called  the  Alwar  group ; 
the  latter,  however,  frequently  overlaps  the  former  and  rests  directly 
on  the  AravaUi  schists  and  slates.  In  the  Bayana  hills  in  Bharatpur 
the  Alwar  group  has  been  divided  as  follows  : — - 

(5)  Wer  quartzites  and  conglomerates. 

(4)  Damdama  quartzites  and  conglomerates. 

(3)  Bayana  white  quartzite  and  conglomerates. 

(2)  Badalgarh  quartzite  and  shale. 

(i)  Nithahar  quartzite  and  bedded  trap. 
These  groups  are  all  separated  by  slight  unconformities  of  denuda- 
tion and  overlap,  but  the  distinctions  appear  to  be  quite  local.  All  the 
groups  vary  much  in  thickness,  and  are  completely  superseded  near 
Nithahar  by  the  Wer  quartzites,  which  rest  directly  on  the  schists. 
Copper  has  been  mined  in  the  quartzites  at  Singhana  near  Khetri,  and 
lead  at  the  Taragarh  hill  close  to  Ajmer  city.  Vindhyan  rocks  of  both 
the  lower  and  upper  divisions  of  that  system  are  found  east  of  the 
AravaUi  range,  their  north-western  limit  being  a  line  of  hills  running 
from  Fatehpur  Sikri  south-west  to  near  Chitor,  and  then  south  and 
south-east.  The  lower  division  consists  of  conglomerates  at  the  base, 
formed  of  pebbles  derived  from  the  quartzites  and  schists,  followed  by 
red  shales,  sandstones,  and  limestones,  while  the  upper  division  con- 
tains red  false-bedded  and  ripple-marked  sandstones,  with  bands  of 
pebbles,  and  forms  a  plateau  extending  east  beyond  the  limits  of 
Rajputana.  The  only  rocks  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Aravallis  that 
are  of  later  date  than  the  Vindhyans  are  of  igneous  origin,  belonging  to 
the  great  outburst  of  Deccan  trap  which  covers  so  large  a  portion  of 
Central  India.  They  are  found  in  the  extreme  south-east,  south  of 
a  line  drawn  from  Nimach  to  Jhalrapatan,  and  conceal  all  the  older 
formations  beneath  them. 

West  of  the  Aravallis  are  a  few  outliers  of  Lower  Vindhyan  rocks, 
resting  unconformably  upon  the  transition  quartzites  and  slates,  while 
in  the  low  country  to  the  north-west  are  large  expanses  of  sandstones 
which  are  considered  to  belong  to  the  Upper  portion  of  this  system. 
In  the  Jodhpur  State  numerous  bare  rocky  hills  rise  from  among  the 
sand-dunes,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  volcanic  rocks,  rhyolites, 
and  granites.  The  rhyoHtes,  called  the  Mallani  series  from  the  district 
in  which  they  were  first  found,  are  poured  out  upon  an  ancient  land- 
surface  formed  of  the  AravaUi  schists,  but  actual  contacts  between  the 
two  are  very  rare.     They  are  pierced  by  dikes  and  bosses  of  granite  of 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS.  89 

two  varieties,  one  containing  hornblende  but  no  mica  (Sivvana  granite), 
and  the  other  both  hornblende  and  mica  (Jalor  granite),  and  are  also 
traversed  by  numerous  basic  igneous  rocks  having  the  composition  of 
olivine,  dolerite,  or  diabase.  In  the  desert  a  sequence  of  rocks  newer 
than  the  Vindhyans  is  found.  The  oldest  are  boulder  beds  of  glacial 
origin  occurring  at  Bap  in  Jaisalmer,  where  they  rest  on  Vindhyan 
limestones,  and  they  are  considered  to  represent  the  Talcher  beds  at 
the  base  of  the  Gondwana  system.  A  similar  boulder  bed  occurs  at 
Pokaran  in  Jodhpur,  also  resting  upon  a  glaciated  surface  of  older  rock ; 
but  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  relations  of  this  bed  to  the  Vindhyan 
sandstones,  and  it  may  be  older  than  Talcher. 

Farther  to  the  west,  in  Jaisalmer  territory,  is  a  series  of  Jurassic 
rocks  divided  into  the  following  five  groups : — 

(5)  Abur  group. — Sandstones,  shales,  and  fossiliferous  limestones  ; 
the  latter  are  buff-coloured,  but  weather  red,  and  abound  in  yellow 
ammonites. 

(4)  Parihar  group. — Soft,  white  felspathic  sandstones,  weathering 
into  a  clean,  sugary  sand,  and  largely  composed  of  fragments  of 
transparent  quartz. 

(3)  Bidesar  group. — Purplish  and  reddish  sandstones,  with  thin 
layers  of  black  vitreous  ferruginous  sandstone. 

(2)  Jaisalmer  group. — Thick  bands  of  compact  buff  and  light  brown 
limestone,  interstratified  with  grey,  brown,  and  blackish  sandstone,  with 
some  conglomerate. 

(i)  Lathi  (or  Barmer  ?)  group. — White,  grey,  and  brown  sandstones, 
interstratified  with  numerous  bands  of  hard  black  and  brown  ferruginous 
sandstones  and  grit.  Towards  the  base  are  some  soft  argillaceous  sand- 
stones streaked  and  blotched  with  purple.  Fragmentary  plant  remains 
and  pieces  of  dicotyledonous  wood  have  been  found. 

At  Barmer  in  Jodhpur,  there  are  some  patches  of  sandstone  and 
conglomerates,  resting  upon  the  Mallani  lava-flows  and  considered  to 
represent  the  Lathi  group  ;  but  they  are  quite  isolated  and  their  position 
in  the  series  is  somewhat  doubtful.  To  the  north-west  of  Jaisalmer 
town,  and  near  Gajner  in  Bikaner,  there  is  a  considerable  area  of  Lower 
Tertiary  (Nummulitic)  rocks.  The  deep  wells  that  are  necessary  for 
reaching  water  in  this  desert  also  reveal  their  presence  beneath  the 
sand,  and  in  some  of  these  wells  near  Bikaner  coal  has  been  discovered 
interstratified  with  the  NummuUtic  beds  \  Layers  of  unctuous  clay 
or  fuller's  earth  are  also  found  at  several  localities  in  this  formation, 
and  the  clay  is  exported  under  the  name  of  multdni  mitti.  The  more 
recent  deposits  of  the  Rajputana  desert  consist  of  calcareous  conglo- 
merates, which  are  found  in  the  larger  river  basins  and  denote  a  period 
when  the  flow  of  water  was  much  greater  than  at  present ;  blown  sand, 
'  Records,  Geological  Survey  of  India,  vol.  xxx,  pait  iii  (1S97),  pp.  izj-j. 


90  RAJPUTANA 

and  calcareous  limestone  or  kankar.  The  sand-dunes  are  all  of  the 
transverse  type  :  Le.  they  have  their  longer  axes  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  south-west  wind.  The  sand  contains  large 
quantities  of  the  calcareous  casts  of  foraminifera,  and  it  is  by  the  solu- 
tion of  these  that  the  beds  of  kankar  are  formed.  The  sand  also 
contains  salt,  which  is  leached  out  by  occasional  rains  and  collects  in 
depressions  as  at  Pachbhadra  in  Jodhpur  and  the  Sambhar  Lake. 

The  most  prominent  constituent  of  the  vegetation  of  Rajputana  is 
the  scrub  jungle  which  shows  forth,  rather  than  conceals,  the  arid  naked- 
ness of  the  land.  The  scrub  consists  largely  of  species  of  Capparis, 
Ztzyphus,  Taifiarix,  Grezvia,  with  such  plants  as  Buchanania  latifolia, 
Cassia  auriculata,  Woodfordia  floribiinda,  Casearia  tomentosa,  Diospyros 
iiiofitana,  Calotropis  procera,  and  Clerodendron  phlomoides.  West  of 
the  Aravalli  Hills  two  cactaceous  looking  spurges,  Euphorbia  Royleana 
and  E.  7ieriifolia,  are  common,  but  less  so  east  of  that  range.  Towards 
the  western  frontier  occur  Tecoma  tindulata  and  Acacia  Jacqueinoniii, 
and  plants  which  are  characteristic  of  the  arid  regions,  such  as  Tamarix 
articidata  and  Myricaria  germanica.  Balanites  Roxbiirghii,  Balsanio- 
dendron  Mukul,  and  Alhagi  viaiirorum  are  also  very  common  in  ^Vestern 
Rajputana.  Farther  west  the  scrub  becomes  more  and  more  stunted, 
spiny,  and  ferocious  in  its  aspect,  until  it  merges  into  the  desert  tracts 
of  Sind.  Trees  form  quite  a  secondary  feature  of  the  vegetation  amidst 
the  ubiquitous  scrub.  Among  the  more  common  indigenous  trees, 
which  grow  both  east  and  west  of  the  Aravallis,  are  Sterciilia  urens, 
Prosopis  spicigera,  Dichrostachys  cinerea,  Acacia  leiicophloea,  Anogeissus 
pendula,  and  Cordia  Roihii,  although  in  Western  Rajputana  the  term 
'  tree '  applied  to  some  of  these  is  rather  a  courteous  acknowledgement 
of  their  descent  than  an  indication  of  their  size.  The  trees  found  more 
or  less  sparingly  on  the  Aravallis  and  in  Eastern  Rajputana  are  Bombax 
inalabaricum,  Semecarpus  Anacardium,  Erythrina  suberosa,  Bauhinia 
purpurea,  Gmelina  arborea,  Boswellia  thurifera,  Butea  frondosa,  Ter- 
minalia  tomentosa,  and  T.  Arjuna.  In  W^estern  Rajputana,  in  addition 
to  those  mentioned  as  occurring  all  over  the  region,  are  found  Salva- 
dora  persica  and  Acacia  rupestris.  Among  the  introduced  or  cultivated 
trees,  the  more  common  are  Parkinsonia  aculeata,  several  figs  such  as 
Ficus  glonierata,  virgata,  religiosa,  and  bengalensis,  Acacia  farnesiana 
and  A.  arabica,  Melia  Azadirachta,  and  the  mulberry,  tamarind,  mango, 
pomegranate,  peach,  custard-apple,  and  guava.  Climbing  plants  are 
exemplified  by  two  species  of  Cocculus,  Cissampelos  Pareira,  Mimosa 
rubricaulis,  Vitis  carnosa,  and  V.  latifolia.  The  herbaceous  ^'egetation 
is  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  year  a  dormant  quantity,  but  during 
the  brief  rainy  season,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  it  springs 
to  light.  It  consists  of  species  of  the  following  orders  : — Legujnifiosae, 
Compositae,  Acatithaceae,  Boragitiaceae,  Malvaceae,  dire.      Growing  in 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  91 

water  are  to  be  found  Vallisnena,  Uiria/laria,  and  Potamogeton  ;  and, 
among  grasses,  Andropogon,  Anthisteria,  and  Cenchrus.  The  lower 
slopes  of  the  Aravallis  show  generally  the  same  vegetation  which  the 
low  hills  to  the  east  and  the  plains  to  the  west  exhibit ;  but  higher 
up,  in  a  moister  atmosphere,  there  are  found  some  species  which  could 
not  exist  in  the  dry  hot  plains.  Among  these  are  Aerides,  Rosa  Lyeliii, 
Ginxniinia  heierophylla,  Carissa  Canxudas,  Pongainia  glabra,  Sterculia 
colomia,  Mallotus  phi/ippinensis,  and  Dendrocalamus  strictits.  A  few 
ferns  also  occur  on  the  range,  such  as  Adiantum  axudatiiin,  A.  lunu- 
/aiuin,  Cheilanthes  farinosa,  Nephrodium  molle,  N.  cicularium,  and 
Actiniopteris  radiata. 

There  are  no  wild  animals  peculiar  to  Rajputana.  Lions  must  have 
been  numerous  about  a  hundred  years  ago,  for  Colonel  Tod  writes  that 
Maharao  Raja  Bishan  Singh  of  Biindi,  who  died  in  182 1,  'had  slain 
upwards  of  one  hundred  lions  with  his  own  hand,  besides  many  tigers.' 
Moreover,  five  lions  were  shot  in  Rajputana  as  recently  as  1872 :  namely, 
four  near  Jaswantpura  in  the  south  of  Jodhpur,  and  a  full-grown  female 
on  the  western  slope  of  Abu ;  and  these  are  believed  to  have  been  the 
last  of  their  kind  in  Rajputana.  There  are  still  a  fair  number  of 
tigers,  chiefly  in  the  Aravalli  Hills  and  in  parts  of  Alwar,  Bundi,  Jaipur, 
Karauli,  Kotah,  Sirohi,  and  Udaipur,  while  an  occasional  tiger  is  met 
with  in  every  other  State  except  Bikaner,  Jaisalmer,  and  Kishangarh. 
Leopards  are  common,  and  the  sloth  bear  {Meliirsus  tirsinus)  is  found 
in  the  Aravallis  and  in  other  hills  and  forests,  mainly  in  the  south  and 
south-east.  Of  deer,  the  sdinbar  {Cervus  tmicolor)  is  met  with  in  the 
same  localities  as  the  tiger  and  bear,  though  in  greater  abundance,  while 
the  ch'ital  {C.  axis)  frequents  some  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills 
in  Bundi,  Kotah,  Sirohi,  Udaipur,  «S:c.  Antelope  and  gazelle  are 
numerous  in  the  plains,  as  also  are  nilgai  {Boselaphus  tragocamelus) 
in  parts.  Small  game,  such  as  snipe,  quail,  partridge,  wild  duck,  and 
hare,  can  generally  be  obtained  everywhere  except  in  the  desert.  In 
the  western  States  there  are  large  numbers  of  the  great  Indian  and 
of  the  lesser  bustard,  as  well  as  several  species  of  sand-grouse  including 
the  imperial,  for  which  Bikaner  is  particularly  famous. 

In  the  summer  the  heat,  except  in  the  high  hills,  is  great  everywhere, 
and  in  the  west  and  north-west  very  great.  Hot  winds  and  dust-storms 
are  experienced  more  or  less  throughout  the  country,  and  in  the  sandy 
half-desert  tracts  are  as  violent  as  in  any  part  of  India,  while  in  the 
southern  parts  they  are  tempered  by  hills,  verdure,  and  water.  In 
the  winter  the  climate  of  the  north,  especially  on  the  Bikaner  border, 
where  there  is  sometimes  hard  frost  at  night,  is  much  colder  than  in 
the  southern  States  ;  and  from  the  great  dryness  of  the  atmosphere 
in  these  inland  areas  the  change  of  temperature  between  day  and 
night  is  sudden,  excessive,  and  very   trying.      The  heat,  thrown  off 

VOL.  XXI.  G 


92 


RAJPUTANA 


rapidly  by  the  sandy  soil,  passes  freely  through  the  dry  air,  so  that 
at  night  water  may  freeze  in  a  tent  where  the  thermometer  marked 
90°  during  part  of  the  day.  The  following  table  gives  the  average 
mean  temperature  (in  degrees  F.)  and  the  diurnal  range  at  selected 
observatories  during  certain  months  : — 


Observatory. 

January. 

May. 

July. 

November. 

Mean. 

Diurnal 
range. 

Mean. 

Diurnal 
range. 

Mean. 

Diurnal 
range. 

Mean. 

Diurnal 
range. 

BTkaner 
Jodhpur 
Jaipur 
Mount  Abu 

604 
62-1 

60-9 

58-7 

22.3 
269 

25-5 
15-3 

95-0 
94.0 

QI.8 
79-5 

24.4 
26.1 

28.7 

17-3 

91.9 

90-0 
85.6 

70-6 

18.I 

17.9 

15-5 

9-5 

72-3 
74.6 
70.1 
66-1 

25-4 
31-4 
30.8 

157     ; 

These  figures  are  for  periods  varying  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-five 
years  ending  with  1901,  except  in  the  case  of  Jodhpur,  where  they  are 
for  only  five  years. 

The  rainfall  is  very  unequally  distributed  throughout  Rajputana. 
The  western  portion  comes  very  near  the  limits  of  that  part  of  Asia 
which  belongs  to  the  rainless  areas  of  the  world,  though  even  on 
this  side  the  south-west  winds  bring  annually  a  little  rain  from  the 
Indian  Ocean.  In  Jaisalmer  and  parts  of  Jodhpur  and  Bikaner,  the 
annual  fall  averages  scarcely  more  than  6  or  7  inches,  as  the  rain-clouds 
have  to  pass  extensive  heated  sandy  tracts  before  reaching  these  plains, 
and  are  emptied  of  much  of  their  moisture  upon  the  high  ranges  in 
Kathiawar  and  the  nearer  slopes  of  the  Aravallis.  In  the  south-west, 
which  is  more  directly  reached,  and  with  less  intermediate  evaporation, 
by  the  periodical  rains,  the  fall  is  much  more  copious,  and  at  Abu  has 
on  more  than  one  occasion  exceeded  100  inches,  namely  in  1875,  1881, 
1892,  and  1893.  But,  except  in  these  south-west  highlands  of  the 
Aravallis,  the  rain  is  most  abundant  in  the  south-east  of  Rajputana. 
Along  the  southern  States,  from  Banswara  to  Jhalawar  and  Kotah,  the 
land  gets  not  only  the  rains  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  sweep  up 
the  valleys  of  the  Narbada  and  Mahi  rivers  across  Malwa  to  the  coun- 
tries about  the  Chambal,  but  also  the  remains  of  the  moisture  which 
comes  up  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  in  the  south-east ;  and  this  supply 
occasionally  reaches  all  Mewar.  In  this  part  of  the  country,  if  the  south- 
west rains  fail  early,  those  from  the  south-east  usually  come  to  the  rescue 
later  in  the  season  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  northern  part  of  Rajputana 
gets  a  scanty  share  of  the  winter  rains  of  Northern  India,  while  the 
southern  part  usually  gets  none  at  all,  beyond  a  few  gentle  showers  about 
Christmas.  In  the  central  tract,  about  Ajmer  and  towards  Jaipur,  the 
periodical  supply  of  rain  is  very  variable.  If  the  eastern  winds  are  strong, 
they  bring  good  rains  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  whereas  if  the  south-west 
monsoon  prevails,  the  rain  is  comparatively  late  and  light.     Sometimes 


HISTORY 


93 


a  good  supply  comes  in  from  both  seas,  and  then  the  fall  is  larger  than  in 
the  eastern  tract ;  but  it  is  usually  much  less.  In  the  far  north  of  Rajput- 
ana  the  wind  must  be  very  strong,  and  the  clouds  very  full,  to  bring 
any  appreciable  supply  from  either  direction.  It  may  be  said  shortly 
that  from  Bikaner  and  Jaisalmer  in  the  north-west  to  Banswara  in  the 
south,  and  Kotah  and  Jhalawar  in  the  south-east,  there  is  a  very  gradu- 
ally increasing  rainfall  from  about  6  to  40  inches,  the  amount  increasing 
very  rapidly  after  the  x'\ravallis  have  been  crossed.  The  subjoined  table 
gives  the  average  annual  rainfall  (in  inches)  at  five  representative  stations 
during  the  twenty-five  years  ending  1901  : — 


&> 

j: 

W 

.a 

u 

^^  u 

Station. 

3 

fe. 

J? 

c 

3 

^ 

B 

■§ 

2S 
0  >^ 

s 

< 

0.84 

1— > 

1—1 

< 

0. 

0 

0 

0 

G 

^0 

Bikaner     . 

0-.S7 

0-23 

0.20 

0-12 

3.26 

i-n 

1. 00 

0.08 

0-08 

0-16 

11.06 

Jodhpur    , 

0-26 

0.15 

0-02 

o-o6 

0-44 

1.42 

.V89 

4.80 

1-67 

0-2  1 

O-I  I 

0-1. T 

13.18 

Udaipur    . 

O-IO 

0-12 

0.07 

0-I2 

o-.sg 

3-7« 

6.77 

7.68 

4.81 

0-37 

0.19 

0.17 

^4-77 

Jaipur 

0.58 

0.24 

0-31 

0-12 

0.64 

2.41 

8.D6 

8.46 

.^•39 

0-29 

o.i8 

0.26 

24-941 

Mount  Abu 

0-34 

0.30 

0.13 

O.IC 

0.97 

5-^4 

22.17 

19.23 

9.66 

o-6o 

0-29 

0.23 

59.26 

To  this  it  may  be  added  that  the  annual  rainfall  in  the  three  eastern 
States  (Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  and  Karauli)  varies  between  24  and  29 
inches,  in  Kotah  and  Jhalawar  between  31  and  37  inches,  and  at  the 
town  of  Banswara  is  about  40  inches.  The  greatest  fall  recorded  in 
any  one  year  was  over  130  inches  at  Mount  Abu  in  1893,  while  in  1899 
not  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  was  registered  at  the  rain-gauge  stations 
of  Khabha  and  Ramgarh  in  the  west  of  the  Jaisalmer  State. 

Earthquakes  are  not  uncommon  at  Abu  and,  being  accompanied 
with  much  rumbling  noise,  are  somewhat  alarming,  but  during  recent 
years  at  any  rate  they  have  done  no  harm.  In  years  of  excessive  rain- 
fall, the  rivers  sometimes  cause  damage  and  loss  of  life.  For  example, 
in  1875  the  Banas  rose  in  high  flood  and,  in  its  passage  past  Tonk  town, 
is  said  to  have  swept  away  villages  and  buildings  far  above  the  highest 
water-mark.  Again,  the  Banganga  river,  till  it  was  brought  under  control 
in  1895  by  means  of  several  irrigation  works  constructed  by  the  Bharat- 
pur Darbar,  has  been  responsible  for  much  damage,  not  only  in  that 
State  but  in  the  adjoining  District  of  Agra,  notably  in  1873,  when 
villages  were  literally  swept  away  by  the  floods,  and  Bharatpur  city 
itself  was  saved  with  great  difficulty,  and  again  in  1884  and  1885. 

The  early  history  of  the  country  now  called  Rajputana  is,  like  that 
of  other  parts  of  India,  somewhat  obscure,  and  the  materials  for  its 
reconstruction   are   scanty.      The    discovery    of  two 
rock-inscriptions   of    Asoka   (about    250    B.C.)    near 
Bairat  in  the  Jaipur  State  seems  to  show  that  his  dominions  extended 
westwards  to,  at  any  rate,  this  part  of  the  country.      In  the  second 

G  2 


94  RAJPUTANA 

centur)'  b.c.  the  Bactrian  Greeks  came  down  from  the  north  and  north- 
west ;  and  among  their  conquests  are  mentioned  the  old  city  of  Nagari 
(called  Madhyamika)  near  Chitor,  and  the  country  round  and  about 
the  Kah  Sind  river,  while  the  coins  of  two  of  their  kings,  Apollodotus 
and  Menander,  have  been  found  in  the  Udaipur  State. 

From  the  second  to  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  the  Sakas  or  Scythians 
were  powerful,  especially  in  the  south  and  south-west ;  and  an  inscription 
(dated  about  150)  at  Girnar  mentions  a  famous  chief,  Rudradaman,  as 
ruler  of  Maru  (Marwar)  and  the  country  round  the  Sabarmati,  &c.  The 
Gupta  dynasty  of  Magadha  ruled  over  parts  of  the  Province  from  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century, 
when  it  was  overthrown  by  the  White  Huns  under  their  Raja  Tora- 
mana.  In  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century,  Harshavardhana,  a 
Rajput  of  the  ^^aisha  or  Bais  clan,  ruled  at  Thanesar  and  Kanauj,  and 
conquered  the  country  as  far  south  as  the  Narbada,  including,  of  course, 
a  great  deal  of  Rajputana.  At  the  time  of  the  visit  of  the  Chinese 
pilgrim,  Hiuen  Tsiang  (629-45),  Rajputana  fell  within  four  main  divi- 
sions which  were  then  called  Gurjjara  (Bikaner,  the  western  States,  and 
part  of  Shekhawati),  Vadari  (the  southern  and  some  of  the  central 
States),  Bairat  (Jaipur,  Alwar,  and  a  portion  of  Tonk),  and  Muttra  (the 
three  eastern  States  of  Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  and  Karauli).  Included  in 
the  kingdom  of  Ujjain  were  Kotah,  Jhalawar,  and  some  of  the  outlying 
districts  of  Tonk. 

Between  the  seventh  and  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century 
several  Rajput  dynasties  arose.  The  Gahlots  (or,  as  they  are  now 
called,  the  Sesodias)  migrated  from  Gujarat  and  occupied  the  south- 
western portion  of  Mewar,  their  earliest  inscription  in  Rajputana  being 
dated  646.  Next  came  the  Parihars,  who  began  to  rule  at  Mandor  in 
Jodhpur  a  few  years  later ;  and  they  were  followed  in  the  eighth  century 
by  the  Chauhans  and  the  Bhatis,  who  settled  down  respectively  at 
Sambhar  and  in  Jaisalmer.  Lastly,  in  the  tenth  century  the  Paramaras 
and  the  Solankis  began  to  be  powerful  in  the  south-west.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that,  of  these  Rajput  clans,  only  three  are  now 
represented  by  ruling  chiefs  of  Rajputana,  namely  the  Sesodias,  Bhatis, 
and  Chauhans  ;  and  of  these  three,  only  the  first  two  are  still  to  be 
found  in  their  original  settlements,  the  Chauhans.  having  moved 
gradually  south-west  and  south-east  to  Sirohi,  Bundi,  and  Kotah.  Of 
the  other  Rajput  clans  now  represented  among  the  chiefs  of  Rajputana, 
the  Jadons  obtained  a  footing  in  Karauli  about  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century,  though  they  had  lived  in  the  vicinity  for  a  very 
long  time;  the  Kachwahas  came  to  Jaipur  from  Gwalior  about  1128; 
the  Rathors  from  Kanauj  settled  in  Marwar  in  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  ;  and  the  Jhala  State  of  Jhalawar  did  not  come  into 
existence  till  1838. 


HISTORY  95 

The  first  j\[usalnian  invasions  (1001-26)  found  Rajput  dynasties 
seated  in  all  the  chief  cities  of  Northern  India  (Lahore,  Delhi, 
Kanauj),  but  the  march  of  Mahmud's  victorious  army  across  Rajputana, 
though  it  temporarily  overcame  the  Solankis,  left  no  permanent  impres- 
sion on  the  clans.  The  latter  were,  however,  seriously  weakened  by 
the  feuds  between  the  Solankis  and  the  Chauhans,  and  between  the 
latter  and  the  Rathors  of  Kanauj,  which  give  such  a  romantic  colour 
to  the  traditions  of  the  concluding  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  Never- 
theless, when  Muhammad  Ghorl  began  his  invasions,  the  Chauhans 
fought  hard  before  they  were  driven  out  of  Delhi  and  Ajmer  in  1193, 
and  Kanauj  was  not  taken  till  the  following  year.  Kutb-ud-din 
garrisoned  Ajmer,  and  the  Musalmans  appear  gradually  to  have 
overawed,  if  they  did  not  entirely  reduce,  the  open  country.  They 
secured  the  natural  outlets  of  Rajputana  towards  Gujarat  on  the  south- 
west, and  the  Jumna  on  the  north-east ;  and  the  effect  was  probably 
to  press  back  the  clans  into  the  outlying  districts,  where  a  more 
difificult  and  less  inviting  country  afforded  a  second  line  of  defence 
against  the  foreigner — a  line  which  they  have  held  successfully  up  to 
the  present  day. 

Indeed,  setting  aside  for  the  present  the  two  Jat  States  of  Bharat- 
pur  and  Dholpur  and  the  Muhammadan  principality  of  Tonk,  Rajputana 
may  be  described  as  the  region  within  which  the  pure-blooded  Rajput 
clans  have  maintained  their  independence  under  their  own  chieftains, 
and  have  kept  together  their  primitive  societies  ever  since  their 
principal  dynasties  in  Northern  India  were  cast  down  and  swept 
away  by  the  Musalman  irruptions.  The  process  by  which  the  Rajput 
clans  were  gradually  shut  up  within  the  natural  barrier  of  difficult 
country,  which  still  more  or  less  marks  off  their  possessions,  continued 
with  varying  fortune,  their  frontiers  now  receding,  now  again  advancing 
a  little,  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
the  rich  southern  province  of  Malwa  was  annexed  to  the  Delhi  empire ; 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Ala-ud-din  KhiljT  finally 
subdued  the  Rajput  dynasties  in  Gujarat,  which  also  became  an  im- 
perial province.  At  the  same  time  he  reduced  Ranthambhor,  a 
famous  fortress  of  the  eastern  marches,  and  sacked  Chitor,  the  capital 
of  the  Sesodias.  But,  although  the  early  Delhi  sovereigns  constantly 
pierced  the  country  by  rapid  invasions,  plundering  and  slaying,  they 
made  no  serious  impression  on  the  independence  of  the  chiefs.  The 
fortresses,  great  circumvallations  on  the  broad  tops  of  scarped  hills, 
were  desperately  defended  and,  when  taken,  were  hard  to  keep.  There 
was  no  firm  foothold  for  the  Musalmans  in  the  heart  of  the  country, 
though  the  Rajput  territories  were  encircled  by  incessant  war  and 
often  rent  by  internal  dissensions.  The  line  of  communication  between 
Delhi  and  Gujarat  by  Ajmer  seems  indeed  to  have  been  usually  open 


96  RAjrUTANA 

to  the  imperial  armies  ;  and  the  Rajputs  lost  for  a  time  most  of  the 
great  forts  which  commanded  their  eastern  and  most  exposed  frontier, 
and  appear  to  have  been  slowly  driven  inward  from  this  side.  Yet  no 
territorial  annexations  were  very  firmly  held  by  the  imperial  governors 
from  Delhi  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Chitor  was  very  soon  regained 
and  the  other  strongholds  changed  hands  frequently. 

When,  however,  the  Tughlak  dynasty  went  to  pieces  about  the  close 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  had  been  finally  swept  away  by  Timur's 
sack  of  Delhi,  two  independent  Musalman  kingdoms  were  set  up  in 
Gujarat  and  Malwa,  These  powers  proved  more  formidable  to  the 
Rajputs  than  the  unwieldy  empire  had  been,  and  throughout  the 
fifteenth  century  there  was  incessant  war  between  them.  For  a  short 
interval,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  came  a  brilliant 
revival  of  Rajput  strength.  The  last  Afghan  dynasty  at  Delhi  was 
breaking  up  in  the  usual  high  tide  of  rebellion,  and  Malwa  and 
Gujarat  were  at  war  with  each  other,  when  there  arose  the  famous 
Rana  Sangram  Singh  (Sanga)  of  Mewar,  chief  of  the  Sesodias.  His 
talents  and  valour  once  more  enlarged  the  borders  of  the  Rajputs,  and 
obtained  for  them  something  like  predominance  in  Central  India. 
Aided  by  Medini  Rao,  chief  of  Chanderi,  he  fought  with  distinguished 
success  against  both  Malwa  and  Gujarat.  In  1519  he  captured 
Mahmud  II  ;  and  in  1526,  in  alliance  with  Gujarat,  he  totally  subdued 
the  Malwa  state,  and  annexed  to  his  own  dominions  all  the  eastern 
provinces  of  that  kingdom,  and  recovered  the  strong  places  of  the 
eastern  marches,  such  as  Ranthambhor  and  Khandhar.  The  power 
of  the  Rajputs  was  now  at  its  zenith,  for  Rana  Sanga  was  no  longer 
the  chief  of  a  clan  but  the  king  of  a  country.  The  Rajput  revival  was, 
however,  as  short-lived  as  it  was  brilliant. 

In  the  year  when  Malwa  was  subdued,  and  one  month  before  its 
capital  surrendered,  the  emperor  Babar  took  Delhi  and  extinguished 
the  Pathan  dynasty,  so  that  Rana  Sanga  had  only  just  got  rid  of  his 
ancient  enemy  in  the  south,  when  a  new  and  greater  danger  threatened 
him  from  the  north.  He  marched,  however,  towards  Bayana,  which 
he  took  from  the  imperial  garrison  placed  there,  and  Babar  pushed 
down  to  meet  him.  At  Khanua  in  Bharatpur,  in  March,  1527, 
the  Rana,  at  the  head  of  all  the  chivalry  of  the  clans,  encountered 
Babar's  army  and  was  defeated  after  a  furious  conflict,  in  which  fell 
Hasan  Khan,  the  powerful  chief  of  the  Mewati  country,  and  many 
Rajputs  of  note.  In  this  way  the  great  Hindu  confederacy  was  hope- 
lessly shattered ;  Rana  Sanga  died  in  the  same  year,  covered  with 
wounds  and  glory,  and  the  brief  splendour  of  united  Rajasthan  waned 
rapidly.  In  1534  Bahadur  Shah  of  Gujarat  took  Chitor,  and  recovered 
almost  all  the  provinces  which  the  Rana  had  won  from  Malwa ;  and 
the  power  and  predominance  of  the  Sesodia  clan  were  transferred  to 


HISTORY  97 

the  Rathors  of  the  west,  where  Maldeo,  chief  of  Jodhpiir,  had  become 
the  strongest  of  all  the  Rajput  rulers.  The  struggle  which  began  soon 
after  Babar's  death,  between  Humayun  and  the  Pathan  Sher  Shah,  had 
relaxed  the  pressure  of  the  Delhi  power  upon  the  clans  from  this  side, 
and  Maldeo  greatly  increased  in  wealth  and  territory.  In  1544  he  was 
attacked  by  Sher  Shah  in  great  force,  but  gave  him  such  a  bloody 
reception  near  Ajmer  that  the  Pathan  abandoned  further  advance  into 
the  Rathor  country,  and  turned  southward  through  Mewar  into  Bundel- 
khand,  where  he  was  killed  before  the  fort  of  Kalinjar.  It  is  clear  that 
the  victory  at  Khanua  extinguished  the  last  chance  which  the  Rajputs 
ever  had  of  regaining  their  ancient  dominions  in  the  rich  plains  of 
India.  It  was  fatal  to  them,  not  only  because  it  broke  the  war-power 
of  their  one  able  leader,  but  because  it  enabled  the  victor  to  lay  out  the 
foundations  of  the  Mughal  empire.  A  firmly  consolidated  government 
surrounding  Rajputana  necessarily  put  an  end  to  the  expansion,  and 
gradually  to  the  independence,  of  the  clans ;  and  thus  the  death  of 
Humayun  in   1556  marks  a  decisive  era  in  their  history. 

The  emperor  Akbar,  shortly  after  his  accession,  attacked  Maldeo, 
the  Rathor  chief,  recovered  from  him  Ajmer  and  several  'other  impor- 
tant places,  and  forced  him  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty.  He  then 
undertook  to  settle  the  whole  region  systematically.  Chitor  was  again 
besieged  and  taken,  with  the  usual  grand _;f;m/^  of  a  sortie  and  massacre 
of  the  defenders.  Udaipur  was  occupied,  and  though  the  Sesodias 
did  not  formally  submit,  they  were  reduced  to  guerrilla  warfare  in  the 
Aravallis.  In  the  east,  the  chief  of  the  Kachwahas  at  Amber  had 
entered  the  imperial  service,  while  the  Chauhans  of  Bundi  were  over- 
awed or  conciliated.  They  surrendered  the  fort  of  Ranthambhor,  the 
key  to  their  country,  and  were  brought  with  the  rest  within  the  pale  of 
the  empire.  Akbar  took  to  wife  the  daughters  of  two  great  Rajput 
houses  ;  he  gave  the  chiefs  or  their  brethren  high  rank  in  his  armies, 
sent  them  with  their  contingents  to  command  on  distant  frontiers,  and 
succeeded  in  enlisting  the  Rajputs  generally  (save  the  Sesodias)  not 
only  as  tributaries  but  as  adherents.  After  him  JahangTr  made  Ajmer 
his  head-quarters,  whence  he  intended  -to  march  in  person  against  the 
Sesodias  who  had  defeated  his  generals  in  Mewar ;  and  here  at  last  he 
received,  in  1614,  the  submission  of  Rana  Amar  Singh  of  Udaipur, 
who,  however,  did  not  present  himself  in  person.  But  though  the 
Ranas  never  attended  the  Mughal  court,  they  sent  henceforward  their 
regular  contingent  to  the  imperial  army,  and  the  ties  of  political  associa- 
tion were  drawn  closer  in  several  ways.  The  Rajput  chiefs  constantly 
entered  the  imperial  service  as  governors  and  generals  (there  are  said 
to  have  been  at  one  time  forty-seven  Rajput  mounted  contingents),  and 
the  headlong  charges  of  their  cavalry  became  famous  in  the  wars  of  the 
empire.     Both  Jahangir  and  Shah  Jahan  were  sons  of  Rajput  mothers, 


98  RAJPUTANA 

and  the  latter  in  exile  was  protected  at  Udaipur  up  to  the  time  of  his 
accession.  Their  kinship  with  the  clans  helped  these  two  emperors 
greatly  in  their  contests  for  the  throne,  while  the  strain  of  Hindu  blood 
softened  their  fanaticism  and  mitigated  their  foreign  contempt  for  the 
natives  of  India. 

\\'hen  Shah  Jahan  grew  old  and  feeble,  the  Rajput  chiefs  took  their 
full  share  in  the  war  between  his  sons  for  the  throne,  siding  mostly 
with  Dara,  their  kinsman  by  the  mother's  side  ;  and  Raja  Jaswant 
Singh  of  Jodhpur  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter  in  1658  at  Fateh- 
abad,  near  Ujjain,  in  attempting  to  stop  Aurangzeb's  march  upon  Agra. 
Aurangzeb  employed  the  Rajputs  in  distant  wars,  and  their  contingents 
did  duty  at  his  capital,  but  he  was  too  bigoted  to  retain  undiminished 
the  hold  on  them  acquired  by  Akbar.  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign 
he  made  bitter,  though  unsuccessful,  war  upon  the  Sesodias  and 
devastated  parts  of  Rajputana ;  but  he  was  verj'  roughly  handled  by 
the  united  Rathors  and  Sesodias,  and  he  had  thoroughly  alienated  the 
clans  before  he  died.  Thus,  whereas  up  to  the  reign  of  Akbar  the 
Rajput  clans  had  maintained  their  political  freedom,  though  within 
territorial  limits  that  were  always  changing,  from  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century  we  may  regard  their  chiefs  as  having  become  feudatories 
or  tributaries  of  the  empire  ;  and,  if  Aurangzeb's  impotent  invasion  be 
excepted,  it  may  be  affirmed  that  from  Akbar's  settlement  of  Rajputana 
up  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Rajput  clans  did  all 
their  serious  warfare  under  the  imperial  banner  in  foreign  wars,  or  in 
the  battles  between  competitors  for  the  throne. 

A\'hen  Aurangzeb  died,  they  took  sides  as  usual.  Shah  Alam  Baha- 
dur, the  son  of  a  Rajput  mother,  was  largely  indebted  for  his  success 
to  the  swords  of  his  kinsmen  ;  and  the  obligations  of  allegiance, 
tribute,  and  military  service  to  the  empire  were  undoubtedly  recognized 
as  defining  the  political  status  of  the  chief  so  long  as  an  emperor 
existed  who  could  exact  them.  After  the  death  of  Aurangzeb,  the 
Rajputs  attempted  the  formation  of  an  independent  league  for  their 
own  defence,  in  the  shape  of  a  triple  alliance  between  the  three  leading 
clans,  the  Sesodia,  Rathor,  and  Kachwaha ;  and  this  compact  was 
renewed  when  Nadir  Shah  threw  all  Northern  India  into  confusion. 
But  the  treaty  contained  a  stipulation  that,  in  the  succession  to  the 
Rathor  and  Kachwaha  chiefships,  the  sons  of  a  Sesodia  princess  should 
have  preference  over  all  others  :  and  this  attempt  to  set  aside  the  rights 
of  primogeniture  was  the  fruitful  source  of  disputes  which  soon  split  up 
the  federation.  In  the  rising  storm  which  was  to  wreck  the  empire,  the 
chiefs  of  Jodhpur  and  Jaipur  held  their  own,  and  indeed  increased 
their  territories  in  the  general  tumult,  until  the  wasting  spread  of  the 
Maratha  freebooters  brought  in  a  flood  of  anarchy  that  threatened 
every  political  structure  in  India.     The  whole  period  of  151  years  from 


HISTORY  99 

Akbar's  accession  to  Aurangzeb's  death  was  occupied  by  four  long  and 
strong  reigns,  and  for  a  century  and  a  half  the  Mughal  was  fairly 
India's  master.  Then  came  the  ruinous  crash  of  an  overgrown  cen- 
tralized empire  whose  spoils  were  fought  over  by  Afghans,  Sikhs,  Jats, 
revolted  viceroys,  and  rebellious  military  adventurers.  The  two  Saiyids 
governed  the  empire  under  the  name  of  Farrukh  Siyar  ;  Jodhpur  was 
invaded,  and  the  Rathor  chief  was  forced  to  give  a  daughter  to  the 
titular  emperor.  He  leagued  with  the  Saiyids  until  they  w^ere  murdered, 
when,  in  the  tumult  that  followed,  he  seized  Ajmer  in  1721. 

About  thirty  years  later,  there  were  disputes  regarding  the  succession 
to  the  Jodhpur  chiefship,  and  one  of  the  claimants  called  in  the  Ma- 
rathas,  who  got  possession  of  Ajmer  about  1756  ;  and  from  this  time 
Rajputana  became  involved  in  the  general  disorganization  of  India. 
The  primitive  constitution  of  the  clans  rendered  them  quite  unfit  to 
resist  the  professional  armies  of  Marathas  and  Pathans,  and  their  tribal 
system  was  giving  way,  or  at  best  transforming  itself  into  a  disjointed 
military  feudalism.  About  this  period,  a  successful  leader  of  the  Jat 
tribe  took  advantage  of  the  dissolution  of  the  imperial  government  to 
seize  territories  close  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna  and  to  set  up 
a  dominion.  He  built  fortresses  and  annexed  districts,  partly  from  the 
empire  and  partly  from  his  Rajput  neighbours,  and  his  acquisitions 
were  consolidated  under  his  successors  until  they  developed  into  the 
present  Bharatpur  State.  The  Rajput  States  very  nearly  went  down 
with  the  sinking  empire.  The  utter  weakness  of  some  of  the  chiefs 
and  the  general  disorder  following  the  disappearance  of  a  paramount 
authority  in  India  dislocated  the  tribal  sovereignties  and  encouraged 
the  building  of  strongholds  against  predatory  bands,  the  rallying  of 
parties  round  petty  leaders,  and  all  the  general  symptoms  of  civil  con- 
fusion. From  dismemberment  among  rival  adventurers  the  States  were 
rescued  by  the  appearance  of  the  British  on  the  political  stage  of 
Northern  India.  In  1803  all  Rajputana,  except  the  remote  States  in 
the  north  and  north-west,  had  been  virtually  brought  under  by  the 
Marathas,  who  exacted  tribute,  annexed  territory,  and  extorted  sub- 
sidies. Sindhia  and  Holkar  were  deliberately  exhausting  the  country, 
lacerating  it  by  ravages  or  bleeding  it  scientifically  by  relentless  tax- 
gatherers  ;  while  the  lands  had  been  desolated  by  thirty  years  of  in- 
cessant war. 

Under  this  treatment  the  whole  group  of  ancient  chieftainships  was 
verging  towards  collapse,  when  Lord  Wellesley  struck  in  for  the  British 
interest.  The  victories  of  Generals  Lake  and  Wellesley  permanently 
crippled  Sindhia's  power  in  Northern  India,  and  forced  him  to  loosen 
his  hold  on  the  Rajputana  States  in  the  east  and  north-east,  with  two ' 
of  which  the  British  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  against  the  Marathas.  In 
'  Bharatpur  in  September  and  Alwar  in  November,  1803. 


100  RAJPUTANA 

1804  Holkar  marched  through  the  heart  of  Rajputana,  attempted  the 
fort  of  Ajmer,  and  threatened  our  ally,  the  Maharaja  of  Jaipur. 
Colonel  Monson  went  against  him  and  was  enticed  to  follow  him 
southward  beyond  Kotah,  when  the  Marathas  suddenly  turned  on  the 
English  commander  and  hunted  him  back  to  Agra.  Then  Holkar  was, 
in  his  turn,  driven  off  by  Lord  Lake,  who  smote  him  blow  on  blow  ; 
but  Lake  himself  failed  signally  in  the  dash  which  he  made  against  the 
fort  of  Bharatpur,  where  Llolkar  had  taken  refuge  under  protection  of 
the  Jat  chief,  who  broke  his  treaty  with  the  British  and  openly  suc- 
coured their  enemy.  The  fort  was  afterwards  surrendered,  a  fresh 
treaty  being  concluded  ;  and  Holkar  was  pursued  across  the  Sutlej  and 
compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  which  stripped  him  of  some  of  his  annexa- 
tions in  Rajputana. 

Upon  Lord  Wellesley's  departure  from  Lidia  policy  changed,  and 
the  chiefs  of  Rajputana  and  Central  India  were  left  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  The  consequence  was  that  the  great  predatory  leaders 
plundered  at  their  ease  the  States  thus  abandoned  to  them,  and 
became  arrogant  and  aggressive  towards  the  British  power.  This 
lasted  for  about  ten  years,  and  Rajputana  was  desolated  during  the 
interval ;  the  roving  bands  increased  and  multiplied  all  over  the 
country  into  Pindari  hordes,  until  in  18 14  Amir  Khan  was  living  at 
free  quarters  in  the  heart  of  the  Rajput  States,  with  a  compact  army 
estimated  at  30,000  horse  and  foot  and  a  strong  force  of  artillery.  He 
had  seized  some  o  the  finest  districts  in  the  east,  and  he  governed 
them  with  no  better  civil  institution  than  a  marauding  and  mutinous 
force.  The  States  of  Jodhpur  and  Jaipur  had  brought  themselves  to 
the  brink  of  extinction  by  the  famous  feud  between  the  two  chiefs  for 
the  hand  of  a  princess  of  Udaipur  ;  while  the  plundering  Marathas 
and  Pathans  encouraged  and  strenuously  aided  them  to  ruin  each 
other  until  the  dispute  was  compromised  upon  the  basis  of  poisoning 
the  girl. 

In  181 1  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,  Resident  at  Delhi,  reported  that  the 
minor  chiefs  urgently  pressed  for  British  intervention,  on  the  ground 
that  they  had  a  right  to  the  protection  of  the  paramount  power,  whose 
obvious  business  it  was  to  maintain  order  ;  but  it  was  not  till  181 7  that 
the  Marquis  of  Hastings  was  able  to  carry  into  action  his  plan  for 
breaking  up  the  Pindari  camps,  extinguishing  the  predatory  system, 
and  making  political  arrangements  that  should  effectually  prevent  its 
revival.  Lawless  banditti  were  to  be  put  down ;  the  general  scramble 
for  territory  was  to  be  ended  by  recognizing  lawful  governments  once 
for  all,  and  fixing  their  possessions,  and  by  according  to  each  recog- 
nized State  British  protection  and  territorial  guarantee,  upon  condition 
of  acknowledging  our  right  of  arbitration  and  general  supremacy  in 
external  disputes  and  political  relations.     Upon  this  basis  overtures  for 


HISTORY  TOT 

negotiations  were  made  to  all  the  Rajput  States,  and  in  1817  the 
British  armies  took  the  field  against  the  Pindaris.  Amir  Khan  dis- 
banded his  troops,  and  signed  a  treaty  which  confirmed  him  in 
possession  of  certain  districts  held  in  grant,  and  by  which  he  gave  up 
other  lands  forcibly  seized  from  the  Rajputs.  His  territories,  thus 
marked  off  and  made  over,  constitute  the  existing  State  of  Tonk. 

Of  the  Rajput  States  (excluding  Alwar,  whose  treaty,  as  already 
mentioned,  is  dated  November,  1803),  the  first  to  conclude  treaties 
were  Karauli  (in  November)  and  Kotah  (in  December,  1817);  and  by 
the  end  of  1818  similar  engagements  had  been  entered  into  with  all' 
the  other  States,  with  clauses  settling  the  payment  of  Maratha  tributes 
and  other  financial  charges.  There  was  a  great  restoration  of  plundered 
districts  and  rectification  of  boundaries.  Sindhia  gave  up  Ajmer  to 
the  British,  and  the  pressure  of  the  Maratha  powers  upon  Rajputana 
was  permanently  withdrav/n. 

Since  then  the  political  history  of  Rajputana  has  been  comparatively 
uneventful.  In  1825  a  serious  disturbance  over  the  succession  to  the 
chiefship  of  Bharatpur  caused  great  excitement,  not  only  locally,  but 
in  the  surrounding  States,  some  of  them  even  secretly  taking  sides  in 
the  quarrel  which  threatened  to  spread  into  war.  Accordingly,  with 
the  object  of  preserving  the  public  peace,  the  British  Government 
determined  to  displace  a  usurper  and  to  maintain  the  rightful  chief ; 
and  Bharatpur  was  stormed  and  taken  by  British  troops  on  Jan- 
uary 18,  1826.  In  1835  the  prolonged  misgovernment  of  Jaipur  cul- 
minated in  serious  disturbances  which  the  British  Government  had  to 
compose;  and  in  1839  a  force  marched  to  Jodhpur  to  put  down  and 
conciliate  the  disputes  between  the  chief  and  his  nobles  which  dis- 
ordered the  country.  The  State  of  Kotah  had  been  saved  from  ruin 
and  raised  to  prosperity  by  Zalim  Singh,  who,  though  nominally 
minister,  really  ruled  the  country  for  fifty  years  ;  and  the  treaty  of  181 7 
had  vested  the  administration  of  the  State  in  Zalim  Singh  and  his 
descendants.  But  this  arrangement  naturally  led  to  quarrels  between 
the  latter  and  the  heirs  of  the  titular  chief,  wherefore  in  1838  a  part  of 
the  Kotah  territory  was  marked  off  as  a  separate  State,  under  the  name 
of  Jhalawar,  for  the  direct  descendants  of  Zalim  Singh,  a  Rajput  of  the 
Jhala  clan.  On  the  deposition  in  1896  of  the  late  chief  of  Jhalawar, 
there  were  found  to  be  no  direct  descendants  of  Zalim  Singh  ;  and  the 
Government  of  India  accordingly  decided  that  part  of  the  territory 
which  had  been  made  over  in  1838  should  be  restored  to  Kotah,  and 
that  the  remaining  districts  should  be  formed  into  a  new  State  for  the 
descendants  of  the  family  to  which  Zalim  Singh  belonged.  This  dis- 
tribution of  territory  came  into  effect  in  1899. 

^  Except  Sirohi,  whose  treaty  is  dated  September,  1S23;  and,  of  course,  Jhalawar, 
which  did  not  come  into  existence  till  1838. 


I02  RAJPUTANA 

When  the  Mutiny  of  the  Bengal  army  began  in  May,  1857,  there 
were  no  European  soldiers  in  Rajputana,  except  a  few  invalids  recruit- 
ing their  health  on  Mount  Abu.  Naslrabad  was  garrisoned  by  sepoys 
of  the  Company's  forces ;  and  four  local  contingents,  raised  and  com- 
manded by  British  officers  but  mainly  paid  from  the  revenues  of 
certain  States,  were  stationed  at  Deoli,  Beawar,  Erinpura,  and  Kher- 
wara.  The  chiefs  of  Rajputana  were  called  upon  by  the  Governor- 
General's  Agent  (General  George  Lawrence)  to  preserve  peace  within 
their  borders  and  collect  their  musters ;  and  in  June  the  troops  of 
Bharatpur,  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  and  Alwar  were  co-operating  in  the  field 
with  the  endeavours  of  the  British  Government  to  maintain  order  in 
British  Districts  and  to  disperse  the  mutineers.  But  these  levies, 
however  useful  as  auxiliaries,  were  not  strong  enough  to  take  the 
offensive  against  the  regular  regiments  of  the  mutineers.  Moreover, 
the  interior  condition  of  several  of  the  States  was  critical :  their  terri- 
tory, where  it  bordered  upon  the  country  which  was  the  focus  of  the 
Mutiny,  was  overrun  with  disbanded  soldiers  ;  the  fidelity  of  their  own 
mercenary  troops  was  questionable,  and  their  predatory  and  criminal 
tribes  soon  began  to  harass  the  country-side.  In  this  .same  month 
(May,  1857)  the  artillery  and  infantry  mutinied  at  Naslrabad;  the 
Kotah  Contingent  was  summoned  from  Deoli  to  Agra,  where  it  joined 
the  Nlmach  mutineers  in  July  ;  and  the  Jodhpur  Legion  at  Erinpura 
broke  away  in  August.  The  Merwara  Battalion  and  the  Mewar  Bhil 
Corps,  recruited  for  the  most  part  from  the  indigenous  tribes  of  Mers. 
and  BhTls  respectively,  were  the  only  native  troops  in  all  Rajputana 
who  stood  by  their  British  officers.  In  the  important  centre  of  Ajmer, 
General  Lawrence  maintained  authority  with  the  aid  of  a  detachment 
of  European  troops  from  Deesa,  of  the  Merwara  Battalion,  and  of  the 
Jodhpur  forces  ;  but  throughout  the  country  at  large,  from  the  confines 
of  Agra  to  Sind  and  Gujarat,  the  States  were  left  to  their  own  re- 
sources, and  their  conduct  and  attitude  were  generally  very  good.  In 
Jaipur  tranquillity  was  preserved ;  the  Bikaner  chief  continued  to 
render  valuable  assistance  to  British  officers  in  the  neighbouring 
Di.stricts  of  the  Punjab,  and  the  central  States  kept  orderly  rule.  In 
the  western  part  of  Jodhpur  some  trouble  was  caused  by  the  rebellion 
or  contumacy  of  Thakurs,  especially  of  the  Thakur  of  Awa,  who  had 
taken  into  his  service  a  body  of  the  mutinied  Jodhpur  Legion  ;  but  the 
ruling  chief  continued  most  loyal.  Towards  the  south,  the  territory  of 
^[ewar  was  considerably  disturbed  by  the  confusion  which  followed 
the  mutinies  at  Nlmach,  by  the  continual  incursions  of  rebel  parties, 
and  by  some  political  mismanagement  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  this  tract  of 
country  remained  comparatively  quiet,  and  the  Maharana  hospitably 
sheltered  several  European  families  that  had  been  forced  to  flee  from 
Nimach.     The   Haraoti  chiefs  of  Kotah,    Bundi,  and  Jhalawar  kept 


HISTORY  103 

their  States  in  hand,  and  sent  forces  which  took  charge  of  Nimach  for 
some  six  weeks  during  the  early  days  when  the  odds  were  heaviest 
against  the  British  in  Northern  India.  After  the  fall  of  Delhi  this 
period  of  suspense  ended  ;  and  the  States  could  afford  to  look  less  to 
the  cjuestion  of  their  own  existence  in  the  event  of  general  anarchy, 
and  more  to  the  duty  of  assisting  the  British  detachments.  Jaipur  at 
once  joined  heartily  in  the  exertions  of  Government  to  pacify  the 
country.  In  Jodhpur  the  chief  had  his  hands  full  of  work  with  his 
own  unruly  feudatories,  and  the  British  assisted  him  in  reducing  them. 
In  Kotah  the  troops  were  profoundly  disaffected  and  beyond  the 
control  of  the  chief ;  they  murdered  the  Political  Agent  and  broke  into 
open  revolt.  The  adjoining  chief  of  Bundi  gave  practically  no  aid, 
partly  through  clannish  and  political  jealousies  of  Kotah  ;  but  the 
Maharaja  of  Karauli,  who  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  active 
adherence  to  the  British  side  throughout  1857,  sent  troops  to  the  aid 
of  his  relative,  the  Kotah  chief,  when  he  was  besieged  in  his  own  fort 
by  his  mutineers,  and  held  the  town  until  it  was  taken  by  assault  by 
a  British  force  in  March,  1858,  an  event  that  marked  the  extinction  of 
armed  rebellion  in  Rajputana. 

The  year  1862  was  notable  for  the  grant  to  every  ruling  chief  in  the 
Province  of  a  sanad  guaranteeing  to  him  (and  his  successors)  the  right 
of  adoption  in  the  event  of  failure  of  natural  heirs ;  and  this  was 
followed  by  a  series  of  treaties  or  agreements  relating  to  the  mutual 
extradition  of  persons  charged  with  heinous  offences,  and  providing  for 
the  suppression  of  the  manufacture  of  salt  and  the  abolition  of  the  levy 
of  all  transit-duty  on  that  commodity.  During  the  last  forty  years 
great  progress  has  been  made.  The  country  has  been  opened  out  by 
railways  and  roads,  and  life  and  property  are  more  secure.  Regular 
courts  of  justice,  schools,  colleges,  hospitals,  and  well-managed  jails 
have  been  established  ;  the  system  of  land  revenue  administration  has 
been  improved,  petty  and  vexatious  cesses  have  been  generally  abo- 
lished, and,  in  several  States,  regular  settlements,  on  the  lines  of  those 
in  British  India,  have  been  introduced. 

Rajputana  abounds  in  objects  of  antiquarian  interest,  but  hitherto 
very  little  has  been  done  to  survey,  describe,  or  preserve  these  links 
with  the  past. 

The  earliest  remains  are  the  rock-inscriptions  of  the  great  Mauryan 
king,  Asoka,  discovered  at  Bairat  in  Jaipur ;  the  ruins  of  some 
Buddhist  monasteries  at  the  same  place  ;  and  two  stiipas  and  a  frag- 
mentary inscription  of  the  third  century  B.  c.  at  Negari  near  Chitor. 
At  Kholvi  in  the  Jhalawar  State  is  a  series  of  rock-cut  temples,  interest- 
ing as  being  probably  the  most  modern  group  of  Buddhist  caves  in 
India;   they  are  beheved  to  date  from  a.  d.  700  to  900. 

Of  Jain  structures,  the  most  famous  are  the  two  well-known  temples 


I04  RAJPUT  AN  A 

at  Delwara  near  Abu,  of  the  eleventh  and  thirteenth  century  respec- 
tively, and  the  Kirtti  Stambh,  or  '  tower  of  fame,'  of  about  the  same 
age  at  Chitor,  which  have  just  been  repaired  under  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  Government  of  India,  The  oldest  Jain  temples  are,  how- 
ever, those  near  Sohagpura  in  Partabgarh,  at  Kalinjara  in  Banswara, 
and  at  one  or  two  places  in  Jaisalmer  and  Sirohi,  while  remains  exist 
at  Ahar  near  Udaipur,  and  at  Rajgarh  and  Paranagar  in  Alwar. 

Among  the  earliest  specimens  of  Hindu  architecture  must  be  men- 
tioned the  stone  pillar  at  Bayana  with  an  inscription  dated  a.  D.  372  ; 
the  remains  of  the  chaori  or  hall  at  Mukandwara,  of  the  fifth  century  ; 
and  the  ruined  temples  at  Chandravati  near  Jhalrapatan,  of  the 
seventh  century.  Noteworthy  examples  of  military  architecture  are  the 
forts  of  Chitor  and  Kumbhalgarh  in  Udaipur  ;  Ranthambhor  in  Jaipur ; 
Jalor  and  Jodhpur  in  Marwar  ;  Birsilpur  in  Jaisalmer,  said  to  have 
been  built  in  the  second  century ;  Vasantgarh  in  Sirohi ;  Bijaigarh  in 
Bharatpur ;  Tahangarh  in  Karauli ;  and  Gagraun  in  Kotah.  The 
most  exquisitely  carved  temples  are  to  be  found  in  the  Udaipur  State 
at  BaroUi  and  at  Nagda  near  the  capital,  the  former  of  the  ninth  or 
tenth,  and  the  latter  of  the  eleventh  century.  Another  celebrated 
building  is  the  Jai  Stambh  or  '  tower  of  victory '  at  Chitor,  built  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  Muhammadans  have  left  a  few  memorials  in  the  shape  of 
mosques  and  tombs,  chiefly  in  Jodhpur  and  Alwar ;  but  they  are  of 
little  interest.  The  earliest  appears  to  be  a  mosque  at  Jalor,  attributed 
to  Ala-ud-din  Khilji. 

Rajputana  is  made  up  of  eighteen  States  and  two  chiefships,  and  the 
population  at  each  of  the  three  enumerations  was  :  (1881)  10,100,542, 
Population.  ^^^^^^  12,220,343,  and  (1901)  9,723,301.  In- 
cluded in  the  figures  for  1891  and  1901  are  the 
inhabitants^  of  small  tracts  belonging  to  the  Central  India  chiefs  of 
Gwalior  and  Indore,  but  geographically  situated  in  Mewar  ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  population-  of  Tonic's  three  districts  in  Central 
India  has  been  excluded  throughout.  Further,  it  is  necessary  to  men- 
tion that  the  Census  of  1901  was  the  first  complete  one  ever  taken  in 
the  Province.  At  the  two  earlier  enumerations  the  Girasias  of  the 
Bhakar,  a  wild  tract  in  Sirohi,  and  the  Bhils  of  Mewar,  Banswara,  and 
Dungarpur  were  not  regularly  counted,  but  their  number  was  roughly 
estimated  from  information  given  by  the  illiterate  headmen  of  their 
villages  ;  and  these  estimates  have  been  included  in  the  figures  for 
1881  and  1 89 1.  In  some  cases  the  headman  gave  what  he  believed  to 
be  the  number  of  huts  in  his  village  (when  four  persons,  two  of  each 
sex,  were  allowed  to  each  hut),  while  at  other  times  he  made  a  guess 

'  18,118  in  1891  and  11,407  in  1901. 

'•'  167,850  in  18S1 ;  181,135  ill  1891 ;  and  129,871  in  1901. 


POPULATION  105 

at  the  total  population,  and  his  figures  were  duly  entered.  This  course 
was  rendered  necessary  by  the  extreme  aversion  displayed  by  these  shy 
and  timid  tribes  to  the  counting  of  men  and  houses.  The  wildest 
stories  were  in  circulation  as  to  the  objects  of  the  Census.  Some 
of  the  Bhils  thought  that  the  Government  of  India  were  in  search  of 
young  men  for  employment  in  a  foreign  war,  or  that  the  idea  was  to 
raise  new  taxes  ;  while,  in  1891,  others  feared  that  they  were  going  to 
be  seized  and  thrown  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  into  a  large  artificial 
lake  then  being  constructed  at  Udaipur. 

Consequently,  the  Bhils  and  Girasias  were  left  unenumerated,  and 
the  census  figures  for  i88i  and  1891  must  be  considered  as  only 
approximate.  But,  such  as  they  are,  they  show  an  increase  in  popula- 
tion during  that  decade  of  nearly  2 1  per  cent.,  compared  with  about 
9  per  cent,  for  the  whole  of  India;  while  between  1891  and  1901  there 
was  a  decrease  of  nearly  2\  million  inhabitants,  or  about  20  per  cent. 
The  decade  preceding  the  Census  of  1891  was  one  of  prosperity  and 
steady  growth,  but  the  apparent  increase  in  population  was  probably 
due,  to  some  extent,  to  improved  methods  of  enumeration.  Between 
1891  and  1 90 1  the  country  suffered  from  a  succession  of  seasons  of 
deficient  or  ill-distributed  rainfall ;  and  though  it  did  not  perhaps  lose 
as  heavily  as  the  census  figures  suggest,  the  loss  was  undoubtedly  very 
great,  and  the  main  cause  was  the  disastrous  famine  of  1 899-1 900  and 
its  indirect  results,  lower  birth-rate  and  increased  emigration.  Fever 
epidemics  broke  out  in  1892,  1899,  and  1900,  the  most  virulent  of  all 
being  that  following  the  heavy  rainfall  of  August  and  September,  1900, 
which  was  aided  in  its  ravages  by  the  impaired  vitality  of  the  people. 
Vital  statistics  scarcely  exist ;  but  the  general  consensus  of  opinion 
appears  to  be  that  the  mortality  from  fever  between  August,  1900,  and 
February,  1901,  exceeded  that  caused  by  want  of  food  in  the  period 
during  which  famine  conditions  prevailed.  A  reference  to  the  last  column 
of  the  table  on  the  next  page  will  show  that  the  only  States  in  which 
an  increase  in  population  occurred  were  Alwar  and  KarauU,  and  that 
the  decrease  was  greatest  in  Bundi,  Dungarpur,  Jaisalmer,  Jhalawar, 
Partabgarh,  and  Udaipur,  and  least  in  Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  and  Jaipur. 
Alwar  has  benefited  for  some  years  by  a  careful  and  wise  administration, 
and  the  famine  was  less  severely  felt  there  and  in  the  three  eastern 
States  (Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  and  Karauli)  than  in  other  parts  of 
Rajputana.  In  considering  the  figures  for  Dungarpur  and  Udaipur, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  population  in  1891  included 
a  large  estimated  (probably  over-estimated)  number  of  Bhils  ;  but  at 
the  same  time  there  is  no  doubt  that  both  States  lost  very  heavily  in 
the  famine.  The  figures  for  Jhalawar  require  a  word  of  explanation. 
As  mentioned  above,  this  State  was  remodelled  in  1899,  and  when  the 
Census  of  1901   had  been  taken,  an  attempt  was  made  to  work  out 


io6 


RAJPUTANA 


Distribution  of  Population  in  iqci 


Name  of  State  or  chiefship. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Number  of 

Total 
population. 

Is. 
81 

85 
69 

59 

Percentage  of  varia- 
tion in  population 
between  i8qi 
and  igoi.         j 

c 
■s 

0 
H 

14 

I 
1 

I 

17 

27 

I 

5 

I, 
> 

Udaipur* 
Bansvvara 
Dungarpur    . 
Partabgarh     . 

Total,  Mewar  Residency 

Jodhpur 

Jaisalmer 

Sirohi    .... 

Total,   Western     States 
Residency  . 

Jaipur   .... 

Kishangarh    . 

Lawa    .... 

Total,  Jaipur  Residency 

Biindi    .... 

Tonk  t . 

Shahpura 

Total,     Haraoti-Tonk 
Agency 

Bharatpur 

Dholpur 

Karauli 

Total,    Eastern      States 
Agency    . 

Kotah    .... 
Jhalawar 

Total,  Kotah  -  Jhalawar 
Agency     . 

Bikaner 

Alwar    .... 

Grand  total . 

I2.-753 
1,946 

1,447 
886 

6,069 
1,286 

631 

412 

1,030,212 

165.350 

100,103 

52,025 

-44.7 
-21.8 

-39-5 
-40.9 

17,032 

34.963 

i6,c62 

1,964 

8,398 

1,347,690 

79 

-42.1 

4,030 

471 

408 

1,935.565 

73,370 

154.544 

55 
4i 
7* 

41 

171 
106 
141 

167 

77 
129 

105 

95 

316 

235 
126 

241 

96 
III 

98 

25 
264 

-23-4 
-36.6 
-19 

52,989 

33 

38 
3 

41 

4.909 

2,163,479 

-23-6 

15,579 

858 

19 

5.735 
218 

6 

2,658,666 

90,970 

2,671 

-  5-9 

-27-5 
-20.5 

16,456 

5,959 

2,752,307 

-  6.7 

2,220 
1,114 

405 

2 
2 
1 

817 

542 
132 

171,227 

143.330 

42,676 

-42.1 

-28 

-32-9 

3,739 

5 

7 
3 

I 

1,491 

357,233 

-36 

1,982 

1,155 
1,242 

1,295 
540 
436 

626,665 

270,973 
156,786 

—  2-1 

-  3-2 

+     O-l 

4,379 

11 

4 
2 

6 

9 

7 

§128 

2,271 

1,054,424 

—     2-1 

5,684 
810 

2,609 
408 

544,879 
90,175 

—  24.2 

-40-3 

6,494 

23,311 
3,141 

3,017 

635,054 

—  26.9 

2,101 
1,755 

584,627 

828,487 

-29.7 
+    7-9 

^127,541 

29,901 

9.723,301 

76 

—  20 

*  Including  small  tracts  belonging  to  Central  India  chiefs — 62  sq'aare  miles, 
39  villages,  and  11,407  inhabitants. 

t  Rajputana  districts  only. 

J  This  is  the  area  of  the  several  States  and  chiefships  in  1901,  excluding  about 
210  square  miles  of  disputed  lands. 

§  The  town  of  Sambhar  is  under  the  joint  jurisdiction  of  Jaipur  and  Jodhpur,  and 
has  been  counted  only  once  in  the  grand  total. 


POPULATION  T07 

from  the  old  census  papers  the  population  in  1891.  This  was  reported 
to  be  151,097,  which  meant  a  loss  during  the  succeeding  ten  years 
of  40  per  cent,  of  the  people ;  but  some  mistake  appears  to  have  been 
made  in  the  calculation,  for  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  State, 
which  was  under  British  management  from  1896  to  1899,  and  in 
which  the  famine  was  not  severely  felt,  while  the  relief  measures  and 
administration  generally  were  satisfactory,  lost  so  heavily. 

The  128  towns  contained  288,696  occupied  houses  and  1,410,192 
inhabitants,  or  nearly  5  persons  per  house ;  and  the  urban  population 
was  thus  14-5  per  cent,  of  the  total,  compared  with  10  per  cent,  for 
India  as  a  whole.  The  principal  towns  are  the  cities  of  Jaipur  (popu- 
lation, 160,167),  the  sixteenth  largest  in  India;  Jodhpur  (79,109); 
Alwar  (56,771);  BIkaner  (53,075);  Udaipur  (45,976);  Bharatpur 
(43,601) ;  ToNK  (38,759);  and  Kotah  (33,657),  all  capitals  of  States 
and  all  (except  Udaipur)  municipalities. 

The  rural  population  numbered  8,313,109,  distributed  in  29,901 
villages  containing  1,622,787  occupied  houses,  thus  giving  about 
54  houses  per  village  and  slightly  more  than  5  persons  per  house. 
The  average  population  of  a  village  is  278,  varying  from  335  in  the 
western  States,  where  scarcity  of  water  and  insecurity  of  life  have 
compelled  people  to  gather  together  in  certain  localities,  to  153  in  the 
southern  States,  which  contain  a  large  Bhil  population  living  in  small 
hamlets  scattered  over  an  extensive  area  of  wild  country.  These  BhIl 
hamlets  are  called  pals,  and  consist  of  a  number  of  huts  built  on 
separate  hillocks  at  some  distance  from  each  other ;  elsewhere  the 
villages  are  usually  compact  collections  of  buildings. 

Rajputana  supports,  on  an  average,  76  persons  per  square  mile : 
namely,  35  in  the  sandy  plains  of  the  west,  79  in  the  more  fertile  but 
broken  and  forest-clad  country  of  the  south,  and  165  in  the  eastern 
division,  which  is  watered  by  several  rivers  and  has  a  fair  rainfall  and 
a  good  soil.  The  most  densely  populated  State  is  Bharatpur,  bordering 
on  the  Jumna,  with  316  persons  per  square  mile;  and  the  lowest 
density  (in  all  India),  4-|  per  square  mile,  is  recorded  in  the  almost 
rainless  regions  of  Jaisalmer.  Within  the  States,  the  density  in  the 
several  districts  varies  considerably;  thus  in  Jodhpur,  it  is  100  per 
square  mile  in  the  north-east,  and  10  in  the  west;  in  Jaipur,  332  in 
the  north-east,  and  92  in  the  south-west ;  and  in  Alwar,  430  in  the 
east,  and  166  in  the  south-west.  Throughout  Rajputana  the  relation 
between  rainfall  and  population  seems  to  be  singularly  close. 

Of  the  total  population  in  1901,  97-6  per  cent,  had  been  born  in 
Rajputana,  and  immigrants  from  other  parts  of  India  (chiefly  the 
Punjab,  the  United  Provinces,  Central  India,  Ajmer-Merwara,  and 
the  Bombay  Presidency)  numbered  233,718.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
number  of  persons  born  in  Rajputana  but  enumerated  elsewhere  in 

VOL.  XXI.  H 


io8  RAJPUTANA 

India  was  900,224,  so  that,  in  this  interchange  of  population,  there 
was  a  net  loss  to  Rajputana  of  666,506  persons.  But  in  the  western 
States  emigration  is  an  annual  event,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the 
season,  as  there  is  practically  but  one  harvest,  the  kharif,  and  as  soon 
as  it  is  gathered  in  September  or  October  large  numbers  of  people 
leave  every  year  to  find  employment  in  Sind,  Bahawalpur,  and  else- 
where, usually  returning  shortly  before  the  rains  are  expected  to  break. 
Moreover,  the  recent  famine  caused  more  than  the  usual  amount  of 
emigration.  Lastly,  the  traders  known  as  Marwaris,  who  were  born 
in  Rajputana  and  have  their  homes  and  families  there,  play  an 
important  part  in  the  commerce  of  India ;  and  there  is  hardly  a  town 
where  the  '  thrifty  denizen  of  the  sands  of  Western  and  Northern  Raj- 
putana has  not  found  his  way  to  fortune,  from  the  petty  grocer's  shop 
in  a  Deccan  village  to  the  most  extensive  banking  and  broking  con- 
nexion in  the  commercial  capitals  of  both  east  and  west  India.' 

No  vital  statistics  are  recorded  for  Rajputana  as  a  whole ;  but  the 
registration  of  births  and  deaths  was,  in  1904,  attempted  in  ten  entire 
States  and  one  chiefship,  having  a  total  area  of  53,178  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  3,051,555,  and  at  the  capitals  of  six  other  States 
and  two  small  towns  which  together  contain  330,660  inhabitants. 
The  mortality  statistics  are  believed  to  be  more  accurate  than  those 
of  births,  but,  except  perhaps  in  some  of  the  larger  towns,  both  sets 
of  figures  are  unreliable. 

The  principal  diseases  treated  in  the  hospitals  are  malarial  affections, 
ulcers  and  abscesses,  diseases  of  the  skin  or  eye,  respiratory  and 
rheumatic  affections,  diseases  of  the  ear,  and  diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 
Malarial  and  splenic  affections  account  for  more  than  18  per  cent, 
of  the  cases,  and  the  variations  in  the  different  States  or  divisions  are 
hardly  worth  noting,  though  perhaps  the  large  proportion  in  the  dry 
climate  of  Bikaner  and  the  smaller  in  the  more  moist  eastern  States 
are  rather  contrary  to  the  general  opinion.  Ulcers  and  abscesses 
account  for  nearly  12  per  cent.,  and  seem  most  prevalent  in  the  centre 
and  east,  while  diseases  of  the  skin  (also  about  12  per  cent.)  are 
especially  frequent  in  the  western  States,  possibly  owing  to  the  want 
of  water  for  cleansing  purposes.  Diseases  of  the  eye  are  admitted 
in  largest  numbers  in  the  centre,  east,  and  south,  while  respiratory 
affections  are  less  frequent  in  the  west  than  elsewhere.  Cholera  and 
small-pox  visitations  occur  periodically ;  but  as  regards  the  latter,  the 
effects  of  vaccination  are  everywhere  becoming  apparent,  and  those 
who  most  oppose  the  operation  are  not  unfrequently  convinced,  when 
too  late,  by  the  fate  of  their  own  children  and  the  escape  of  those 
of  their  neighbours,  of  their  error  in  neglecting  vaccination. 

Plague  is  believed  to  have  made  its  first  appearance  in  Rajputana 
in  1836.     It  broke  out  with  great  virulence  at  Pali,  a  town  of  Jodhpur, 


POPULATION  T09 

about  the  middle  of  July,  and  extended  thence  to  Jodhpur  city,  Sojat, 
and  several  other  places  in  Marwar,  as  well  as  to  a  few  villages  in  the 
Udaipur  State;  and  it  appears  to  have  finally  disappeared  at  the 
beginning  of  the  hot  season  of  1837.  The  fact  that  the  disease  first 
started  among  the  cloth-stampers  of  Pali  led  to  the  supposition  that 
it  was  imported  in  silks  from  China.  An  interesting  account  of  the 
outbreak,  and  of  the  measures  taken  to  combat  it  and  prevent  its 
spread,  will  be  found  at  pp.  148-69  of  the  General  Medical  History  of 
Rdjputdna^.  The  present  epidemic  started  in  Bombay  in  1896,  but, 
excluding  a  few  cases  discovered  at  railway  stations,  did  not  extend 
to  Rajputana  till  November,  1897,  when  it  appeared  in  five  villages 
of  Sirohi  and  lasted  till  April,  1898.  Between  October,  1896,  and  the 
end  of  March,  1905,  there  have  been  37,845  seizures  and  31,980 
deaths  in  Rajputana.  No  cases  have  been  reported  from  Bundi, 
Dungarpur,  Jaisalmer,  and  Lawa,  while  Kishangarh  shows  but  one 
and  Bikaner  three.  Two-thirds  of  the  deaths  have  occurred  in  x'Vlwar, 
Jaipur,  and  Mewar,  but  the  percentage  of  deaths  to  total  population 
is  highest  in  Partabgarh  and  Shahpura. 

Of  the  total  population  in  1901,  more  than  52  per  cent,  were  males, 
or,  put  in  another  way,  for  every  1,000  males  there  were  905  females, 
compared  with  963  for  the  whole  of  India ;  and  in  each  of  the  four 
main  religions  this  excess  of  males  was  observable,  except  among  the 
Jains,  where  females  slightly  predominated.  Various  theories  have 
been  advanced  to  explain  the  difference  in  the  proportion  of  the  sexes ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  due,  at  any  rate  to  any 
appreciable  extent,  to  female  infanticide,  though  this  practice  was  once 
very  prevalent  in  Rajputana.  An  examination  of  the  census  statistics 
shows  that  between  the  ages  of  one  and  two  there  were  more  female 
than  male  infants,  even  among  the  Hindus,  and  that  females  exceeded 
males  among  the  Musalmans  up  to  the  age  of  four,  and  among  the 
Jains  and  Animists  up  to  five. 

Dealing  next  with  the  population  according  to  civil  condition,  it  is 
found  that  48  per  cent,  of  the  males  were  unmarried,  43  married,  and 
9  widowed,  and  that  the  similar  figures  for  females  were  30,  50,  and 
20  respectively.  The  relatively  low  proportion  of  spinsters  and  the 
high  proportion  of  widows  are  results  of  the  custom  which  enforces 
the  early  marriage  of  girls  and  discourages  the  remarriage  of  widows. 

Infant  marriages  still  prevail  to  some  extent,  but  are  less  common 
than  they  used  to  be,  and  this  is  largely  attributable  to  the  efforts 
of  the  Walterkrit  Rajputra  Hitkarini  Sabha.  This  committee  is  named 
after  the  late  Colonel  Walter,  who  was  the  Governor-General's  Agent 
in  Rajputana  in  1888.  On  previous  occasions  attempts  had  been 
made  to  settle  the  question  of  marriage  expenses  with  a  view  to 
1  By  Colonel  T.  H.  Hendley,  I.M.S.  Calcutta,  1900). 

H  3 


no  RAJPUTANA 

suppress  infanticide  among  the  Rajputs,  but  they  failed  because  no 
uniform    rule   was    ever   adopted   for   the   whole   country.      In    1888 
Colonel   Walter   convened   a   general   meeting   of   representatives   of 
almost  all  the  States  to  check  these  expenses.     The  co-operation  of 
the  chiefs  having  been  previously  secured,  the  committee  had  no  great 
difficulty  in  drawing  up  a  set  of  rules  for  the  regulation  of  marriage 
and  funeral  expenses,  the  ages  at  which  marriages  should  be  contracted, 
and  other  cognate  matters.     These  rules,  which  were  passed  unani- 
mously and  widely  distributed  in  the  various  States,  where  local  com- 
mittees of  influential  officials  were  appointed  by  the  Darbars  to  see 
to   their  proper  observance,  laid  down  the  maximum   proportion   of 
a  man's  income  that  might  be  expended  on  (a)  his  own  or  his  eldest 
son's  marriage,  and  (Jj)  that  of  other  relatives,  together  with  the  size 
of  the  wedding  party  and  the    tydg  or   largess    to    Charans,   Bhats, 
Dholis,  and  others.     It  was  also  laid  down  that  no  expenditure  should 
be  incurred  on  betrothals,  and  the  minimum  age  at  marriage  was  fixed 
at  18  for  a  boy  and  14  for  a  girl.     It  was  subsequently  ruled  that  no 
girl  should  remain  unmarried  after  the  age  of  20,  and  that  no  second 
marriage  should  take  place  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  wife,  unless 
she  had  no  offspring  or  was  afflicted  with  an  incurable  disease.     These 
rules  apply  primarily  to  Rajputs  and  Charans,  but  have  been  adopted 
by  several   other   castes.     The  Walterkrit   Sabha   meets   annually  at 
Ajmer  in  the  spring,  when  the  reports  of  the  local  committees  are 
discussed,  the  year's  work  examined,  and  a  printed  report  is  published. 
That  for  1905  shows  that,  in  that  year,  of  4,418  Rajput  and  Charan 
marriages  reported,  the  age  limits  were  infringed  in  only  87  cases  and 
the  rule  as  to  expenditure  in  only  54  cases. 

Widow  marriage  is  permitted  by  all  castes  except  Brahmans,  Rajputs, 
Khattrls,  Charans,  Kayasths,  and  some  of  the  Mahajan  classes.  As 
a  rule  no  Brahmans  or  priests  officiaite,  and  the  ceremonies  are  for  the 
most  part  restricted  to  the  new  husband  giving  the  woman  bracelets 
and  clothes  and  taking  her  into  his  house.  The  custody  of  the 
children  by  the  first  marriage  remains  with  the  deceased  husband's 
family,  and  the  widow  forfeits  all  share  in  the  latter's  estate.  Among 
many  of  the  lower  castes  (for  example,  the  Bhils  and  Chamars)  the 
widow  is  expected  to  marry  her  late  husband's  younger  brother ;  and 
if  she  is  unwilling  to  do  so,  and  marries  some  other  man,  the  latter 
has  to  pay  compensation  to  the  younger  brother. 

The  rules  which  in  theory  govern  the  custom  of  polygamy  are  well 
known ;  but  in  practice,  except  among  the  wealthy  sections  of  the 
community  and  the  BhTl  tribes,  a  second  wife  is  rarely  taken  unless 
the  first  is  barren  or  bears  only  female  children,  or  suffers  from  some 
incurable  disease.  The  custom  just  referred  to,  by  which  the  widow 
contracts   a   second  marriage  with   her   deceased  husband's   younger 


I 


POPULATION  III 

brother,  leads  in  many  cases  to  a  man  having  more  than  one  wife,  and 
the  Bhils  usually  have  two  wives.  At  the  Census  of  1901  there  were 
in  Rajputana,  among  all  religions  taken  together,  1,046  wives  to  every 
1,000  husbands;  and  the  statistics  show  that  polygamy  is  far  more 
common  among  the  Jains,  Hindus,  and  Animists  than  among  the 
Musalmans,  and  that  it  is  most  prevalent  in  the  western  States.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  must  have  been  many  married  men  who  were 
temporarily  absent  from  their  homes  and  had  left  their  wives  behind 
them. 

The  principal  language  is  Rajasthani,  which  is  spoken  by  no  less 
than  7,035,093  persons,  or  more  than  72  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. Omitting  minor  local  differences,  there  are  at  least  sixteen  real 
dialects,  which  fall  into  four  main  groups  ;  namely,  Marwari,  Jaipur!, 
Mewati,  and  Malwi.  By  far  the  most  important  is  Marwari,  which 
has  its  home  in  Western  Rajputana,  is  spoken  by  4,276,514  inhabitants, 
and  has  representatives  all  over  India.  It  has  many  varieties,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  the  Thali  of  the  desert,  the  Mewarl  of  Udaipur 
State,  the  Bagri  of  north-east  Bikaner,  and  the  Shekhawati  of  north- 
west Jaipur.  Jaipur!  may  be  taken  as  representing  the  dialects  of 
Eastern  and  South-Eastern  Rajputana,  of  which  it  and  Haraoti  are 
the  chief;  it  is  spoken  by  2,118,767  of  the  inhabitants.  Mewati  (or 
Bighota)  is  the  dialect  of  RajasthanI  which  most  nearly  approaches 
Western  Hindi,  and  in  Alwar  merges  into  Braj  Bhasha ;  it  is  the 
language  of  478,756  persons,  living  almost  entirely  in  Alwar  and 
Bharatpur,  the  country  of  the  Meos.  The  head-quarters  of  Malwi  are 
in  the  Malwa  country,  and  it  is  spoken  by  over  160,000  persons,  chiefly 
in  Jhalawar,  Kotah,  and  Partabgarh.  ^Vhen  mixed  with  Marwari  forms, 
it  is  called  RangrI  and  is  spoken  by  Rajputs.  Among  other  languages 
common  in  Rajputana  are  two  dialects  of  ^\'estern  Hindi,  namely  Braj 
Bhasha  and  Hindustani  (i.e.  Urdu);  and  there  are,  of  course,  several 
Bhil  dialects  in  the  south,  all  based  on  Gujarat!,  but  forming  a  con- 
necting link  between  it  and  Rajasthani. 

Among  castes  and  tribes,  the  most  numerous  are  the  Brahmans, 
Jats,  Mahajans,  Chamars,  Rajputs,  M!nas,  Gujars,  Bhils,  Malis,  and 
Balais. 

The  Brahmans  number  1,012,396  or  10-4  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion. They  are  found  everywhere,  but  are  proportionately  strongest 
in  Jaipur  (over  13  per  cent.),  Karauli,  Dholpur,  and  Bikaner.  Their 
principal  divisions  are  Daima,  Gaur,  Kanaujia,  Paliwal,  Purohit,  Push- 
karna,  Saraswat  (Sarsut),  and  Srimal ;  and  their  chief  occupations  are 
priestly  duties,  trade.  State  or  private  service,  and  agriculture.  Many 
of  them  hold  land  rent  free. 

The  Jats  (845,909,  or  8-7  per  cent,  of  the  population)  were  very 
widely  established  all  over  North-Western  Rajputana  when  the   now 


112  RAJPUTANA 

dominant  clans  began  to  rule  in  those  parts,  and  without  doubt  this 
tract  was  one  of  their  most  ancient  habitations.  At  the  present  time 
they  outnumber  every  other  caste  in  Bikaner,  Kishangarh,  and  Jodhpur, 
and  they  are  regarded  as  the  best  cultivators  in  the  country.  Socially, 
they  stand  at  the  head  of  the  widow-marrying  castes,  and  in  Bharatpur 
and  Dholpur  they  are  politically  important,  as  the  chiefs  of  those 
States  are  Jats.  In  Bikaner  the  headman  of  the  Godara  sept  has 
the  privilege  of  making  the  tilak  or  mark  of  inauguration  on  the  fore- 
head of  each  new  chief  of  that  State,  in  accordance  with  a  promise 
made  b}-  Rao  Bika  when  he  took  parts  of  the  countr)-  from  them  in 
the  fifteenth  century. 

The  Mahajans  or  Banias  (754,317,  or  7-8  per  cent,  of  the  population) 
are  for  the  most  part  traders  and  bankers,  some  having  business  con- 
nexions all  over  India,  while  not  a  few  are  in  State  service.  They 
are  distributed  throughout  the  country,  but  are  proportionately  most 
numerous  in  Sirohi,  where  they  form  12-2  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
and  Partabgarh  (about  11  per  cent.).  The  principal  caste  units  are 
Agarwal,  Oswal,  Mahesrl,  Khandelwal,  Saraogl,  and  Porwal. 

The  Chamars  number  688,023,  or  7  per  cent,  of  the  population  ; 
they  are  curriers,  tanners,  day-labourers,  and  village  menials,  and  many 
are  agriculturists.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  charma- 
kdra,  a  'worker  in  leather,'  and  they  claim  a  Brahmanical  origin. 
The  story  runs  that  five  Brahman  brothers  were  cooking  their  food  on 
the  roadside,  when  a  cow  came  and  died  close  to  the  spot.  After 
some  discussion,  the  youngest  brother  offered  to  remove  the  carcass, 
and  when  he  had  done  so  his  brethren  excommunicated  him ;  and 
since  then  it  has  been  the  business  of  his  descendants  to  remove  the 
carcasses  of  cattle.  The  Chamars  are  more  numerous  than  any  other 
caste  in  the  States  of  Bharatpur;  Dholpur,  Kotah,  and  Tonk.  In 
BIkaner  a  member  of  this  caste  founded  a  sect  about  1830  which 
is  called  after  him,  Lalgir,  and  numbers  high-caste  men  among  its 
adherents  ;  a  brief  account  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  that  State. 

The  Rajputs  number  620,229,  *^''  ^-4  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
According  to  tradition  there  are  two  branches  of  this  tribe,  the  Suraj- 
bansi  or  Solar  race,  and  the  Chandrabansi  or  Lunar  race.  To  these 
must  be  added  the  Agnikula  or  Fire  group.  Surajbansi  Rajputs  claim 
descent  from  Ikshwaku,  son  of  the  Manu  ^'aivaswat,  who  was  the  son 
of  Vaivaswat,  the  sun.  Ikshwaku  is  said  to  have  been  born  from  the 
nostril  of  the  Manu  as  he  happened  to  sneeze.  The  principal  clans 
of  the  Solar  group  are  the  Sesodia,  Rathor,  and  Kachwaha,  of  which 
the  chiefs  of  Udaipur,  Jodhpur,  and  Jaipur  are  the  respective  heads. 

The  Lunar  race  affect  to  be  descended  from  the  moon,  to  whom 
they  trace  their  line  through  Budha  or  Mercury,  the  son  of  Soma. 
The  principal  clans  are  the  Jadon  and  its  branch,  the  Bhati,  represented 


rOPULATION  113 

by  the  chiefs  of  KarauU  and  Jaisahiier  respectively  ;  the  Tonwar,  which 
once  ruled  in  Delhi  :  and  the  Jadeja,  to  which  the  rulers  of  Cutch  and 
Navanagar  in  the  Bombay  Presidency  belong. 

The  Agnikulas  or  Fire  tribes  are  supposed  to  have  been  brought 
into  existence  by  a  special  act  of  creation  of  comparatively  recent 
mythological  date.  The  earth  was  overrun  by  demons,  the  sacred 
books  were  held  in  contempt,  and  there  was  none  on  whom  the  devout 
could  call  for  help  in  their  troubles.  Viswamitra,  once  a  Kshattriya, 
who  had  raised  himself  to  be  a  Brahman,  moved  the  gods  to  assemble 
on  Abu  ;  four  images  of  dTibh  grass  were  thrown  into  the  fire  fountain, 
and  called  into  life  by  appropriate  incantations.  From  these  sprang 
the  four  clans  :  the  Paramara  or  Ponwar,  the  Chaluk  or  Solanki,  the 
Parihar,  and  the  Chauhan.  The  chiefs  of  Bundi,  Kotah,  and  Sirohi 
belong  to  the  last  named. 

Of  the  various  Rajput  clans  enumerated  in  1901,  the  Rathor  stood 
first  with  122,160;  the  Kachwaha  second  with  100,186;  and  the 
Chauhan  third  with  86,460.  Then  followed  the  Jadon  clan  (74,666), 
the  Sesodia  (51,366),  the  Ponwar  (43,435),  the  Solanki  (18,949),  and 
the  Parihar  (9,448).  The  Rajputs  are,  of  course,  the  aristocracy  of 
the  country,  and  as  such  hold  the  land  to  a  very  large  extent,  either 
as  receivers  of  rent  or  as  cultivators.  By  reason  of  their  position  as 
integral  families  of  pure  descent,  as  a  landed  nobility,  and  as  the 
kinsmen  of  ruling  chiefs,  they  are  also  the  aristocracy  of  India  ;  and 
their  social  prestige  may  be  measured  by  observing  that  there  is  hardly 
a  tribe  or  clan  (as  distinguished  from  a  caste)  in  all  India  which  does 
not  claim  descent  from,  or  irregular  connexion  with,  one  of  these 
Rajput  stocks.  The  Rajput  proper  is  very  proud  of  his  warlike  reputa- 
tion, and  most  punctilious  on  points  of  etiquette.  The  tradition  of 
common  ancestry  has  preserved  among  them  the  feeling  which  permits 
a  poor  Rajput  yeoman  to  hold  himself  as  good  a  gentleman  as  the 
most  powerful  landowner  of  his  own  clan,  and  superior  to  any  high 
official  of  the  professional  classes.  But,  as  a  race,  they  are  inclined  to 
live  too  much  on  the  past  and  to  consider  any  occupation  other  than 
that  of  arms  or  government  as  derogatory  to  their  dignity ;  and  the 
result  is  that  those  who  do  not  hold  land  have  rather  dropped  behind 
in  the  modern  struggle  for  existence,  where  book-learning  counts  for 
more  than  strength  of  arm.  As  cultivators,  they  are  lazy  and  indiffer- 
ent, and  prefer  pastoral  to  agricultural  pursuits;  they  look  upon  all 
manual  labour  as  humiliating,  and  none  but  the  poorest  classes  will 
themselves  follow  the  plough.  Excluding  the  34,445  who  are  Musal- 
mans  (mostly  in  the  western  States),  the  Rajputs  are  orthodox  Hindus, 
and  worship  the  divinities  favoured  by  the  sect  to  which  they  happen 
to  belong.  Their  marriage  customs  are  strictly  exogamous,  a  marriage 
within  the  clan  being  regarded  as  incestuous,  and  in  this  way  each 


114  KAJPUTANA 

clan  depends  on  others  for  its  wives.  But  running  through  the  entire 
series  of  septs  are  to  be  found  the  usages  of  isogamy  and  hypergamy, 
which  exercise  a  profound  influence  on  their  society.  The  men  of 
the  higher  sept  can  take  their  wives  from  a  lower,  but  a  corresponding 
privilege  is  denied  to  the  women  ;  the  result  is  a  surplus  of  women  in 
the  higher  septs,  and  competition  for  husbands  sets  in,  leading  to  the 
payment  of  a  high  price  for  bridegrooms,  and  enormously  increasing 
the  expense  of  getting  a  daughter  married.  It  was  partly  to  remedy 
this  state  of  affairs  that  the  Walterkrit  Sabha,  already  mentioned,  was 
started. 

The  Minas  number  477,129,  or  nearly  5  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
being  proportionately  strongest  in  Karauli  and  Bundi.  There  are 
numerous  clans,  of  which  one  (the  Osara)  contains  the  asH  or  unmixed 
stock,  but  has  very  few  members ;  the  others  are  of  mixed  blood, 
claiming  irregular  descent  from  Rajputs,  Brahmans,  Gujars,  &c.  The 
Minas  are  among  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Rajputana,  and  were 
formerly  the  rulers  of  much  of  the  country  now  called  Jaipur.  They 
were  dispossessed  by  the  Kachwaha  Rajputs  about  the  beginning  of 
the  twelfth  century,  and  for  some  time  after  it  was  the  custom  for  one 
of  their  number  to  mark  the  tika  on  the  forehead  of  each  new  chief  of 
Amber.  In  Jaipur  and  Alwar  they  are  divided  into  two  main  classes, 
namely  zaminddri  and  chankiddri,  which  do  not  intermarry.  The 
former  are  steady  and  well-behaved  cultivators  (and  are  found  also  in 
the  three  eastern  States,  Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  and  Karauli),  while  the 
latter  were,  and  to  some  extent  still  are,  famous  as  marauders.  In 
Bundi  State  and  in  the  rugged  country  round  Jahazpur  and  Deoli, 
which  is  called  the  Kherar  and  belongs  to  Bundi,  Jaipur,  and  Udaipur, 
are  found  the  Parihar  Minas,  who  claim  descent  from  the  Parihar 
Rajputs  of  Mandor.  They  are  a  fine  athletic  race,  formerly  notorious 
as  savage  and  daring  robbers ;  but  they  have  settled  down  to  a  great 
extent,  and  the  infantry  portion  of  the  42  nd  (Ueoli)  Regiment  (or  the 
Mina  Battalion,  as  it  was  called  from  1857  to  i860)  has  for  many  years 
been  largely  composed  of  them.  Nearly  97  per  cent,  of  the  Minas  of 
Rajputana  are  Hindus  ;  but  among  them,  in  the  south  and  south-east 
of  Jodhpur,  is  a  sept  called  Dhedia  which,  though  large  in  numbers,  is 
low  in  social  standing,  chiefly  because  its  members  eat  the  flesh  of 
cows. 

The  Gujars  (462,739)  are  mostly  cattle  breeders  and  dealers  and 
agriculturists.  They  are  a  stalwart  race,  very  similar  to  the  Jats,  with 
whom  they  can  eat  and  drink,  although  they  occupy  a  slightly  lower 
social  position.  They  were  formerly  noted  cattle-lifters  in  Dholpur 
and  Karauli,  but  now  give  little  trouble.  There  are  two  main  endoga- 
mous  divisions  of  Gujars,  namely  Laur  and  Khari ;  and  in  Bharatpur 
the  former  has  the  privilege  of  furnishing  nurses  for  the  ruling  family. 


POPULATION  115 

The  Bhils  are  described  in  a  separate  article.  In  1901  they  num- 
bered 339,786,  or  about  3^  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  They 
are  found  in  every  State  except  Alwar,  Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  Karauli, 
and  the  petty  chiefship  of  Lawa,  but  are  most  numerous  in  their  early 
home  in  the  south. 

An  account  of  the  Meos  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  Mew  at.  In 
1901  the  tribe  numbered  168,596,  nearly  98  per  cent,  of  whom  were  in 
Alwar  and  Bharatpur. 

Taking  the  population  by  religions,  Hindus  in  1901  numbered 
8,089,513,  or  more  than  83  per  cent.;  Musalmans,  924,656,  or  9^ 
per  cent. ;  Animists,  360,543,  or  about  3I  per  cent.  ;  Jains,  342,595,  or 
3^  per  cent. ;  Christians,  2,84c  ;  and  '  others  '  (such  as  Sikhs,  Aryas, 
Parsis,  Brahmos,  and  Jews),  3,154. 

Hindus  predominate  in  every  State  except  Banswara.  In  Karauli 
they  form  nearly  94  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  in  Dholpur, 
Bundi,  Jaipur,  and  Shahpura  over  90.  The  lowest  proportions  are 
found  in  the  south,  namely  :  Partabgarh  (61),  Dungarpur  (56),  and 
Banswara  (under  31  per  cent.).  No  attempt  was  made  at  the  last 
Census  to  record  the  numerous  sects  of  Hindus,  but  an  account  of  the 
Dadupanthis  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  Naraina,  a  town  in  Jaipur 
State  which  is  their  head-quarters. 

Of  the  Musalmans,  over  97  per  cent,  belong  to  the  Sunni  sect,  more 
than  2  to  the  Shiah,  and  the  rest  (4,735  persons)  to  the  Wahhabi  sect. 
Those  of  indigenous  origin  still  retain  their  ancient  Hindu  customs  and 
ideas.  The  local  saints  and  deities  are  regularly  worshipped,  the 
Brahman  officiates  at  all  family  ceremonials  side  by  side  with  the 
Musalman  priest,  and  if  in  matters  of  creed  they  are  Muhanmiadans  in 
matters  of  form  they  are  Hindus. 

The  Animists  are  found  in  eleven  States,  and  are  mostly  Bhils  and 
Girasias  residing  in  the  wild  tracts  in  the  south.  They  share  the  usual 
belief  that  man  is  surrounded  by  a  ghostly  company  of  powers,  ele- 
ments, and  tendencies,  some  of  whom  dwell  in  trees,  rivers,  or  rocks, 
while  others  preside  over  cholera,  small-pox,  or  cattle  diseases,  and 
all  require  to  be  diligently  propitiated  by  means  of  offerings  and 
ceremonies,  in  which  magic  and  witchcraft  play  an  important  part. 

The  main  Jain  sects  are  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Digambara, 
whose  images  are  unclothed,  whose  ascetics  go  naked,  and  who  assert 
that  women  cannot  attain  salvation  ;  and  the  Swetambara,  who  hold 
the  opposite  view  regarding  women,  and  whose  images  are  clothed  in 
white.  An  offshoot  from  the  latter,  known  as  Dhundia,  carries  to 
an  extreme  the  doctrine  of  the  preservation  of  animal  life,  and  worships 
gurus  instead  of  idols.  In  1901  more  than  32  per  cent,  of  the  Jains 
returned  their  sect  as  Digambara,  45  as  Swetambara,  and  the  rest  as 
Dhundia. 


ii6  RAJPUT  AN  A 

The  Christians  (2,840)  are  made  up  of  969  Europeans  and  allied 
races,  503  Eurasians,  and  1,368  natives.  They  have  increased  by 
^2i  per  cent,  since  1891,  namely  by  21  per  cent,  among  Europeans 
and  Eurasians,  and  more  than  in  per  cent,  among  the  natives.  The 
latter  figure  is  due  chiefly  to  missionary  enterprise,  which  received 
a  great  impetus  during  the  famine  of  1 899-1 900,  when  the  various 
societies  opened  refuges  for  orphans  and  other  destitute  persons.  Of 
the  1,368  native  Christians  enumerated  in  1901,  40  per  cent,  were 
Presbyterians,  20  per  cent.  Roman  Catholics,  a  further  20  per  cent. 
Methodists,  and  10  per  cent,  belonged  to  the  Church  of  England. 
The  largest  Christian  community  is  to  be  found  in  Jaipur,  where  the 
United  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Mission  has  had  a  branch  since  1866, 
and  where  there  are  important  railway  centres  at  Bandikui  and  Phalera. 
Next  comes  Sirohi  with  its  railway  population  at  Abu  Road,  and  a 
number  of  Europeans  at  Mount  Abu ;  and  then,  in  order,  follow 
Kotah,  Udaipur,  Jodhpur,  Alwar,  Bharatpur,  and  Bikaner.  The  Scot- 
tish mission  above  mentioned  has  had  branches  at  the  city  of  Udaipur 
since  1877,  ^^  Alwar  since  1880,  at  Jodhpur  since  1885,  and  at  Kotah 
since  1889,  while  the  Church  Missionary  Society  has  been  represented 
at  the  cantonment  of  Kherwara  since  i88i,and  at  Bharatpur  since  1902. 

With  the  exception  of  Sirohi  State,  Rajputana  is  included  in  the 
Anglican  see  of  the  Bishop  of  Nagpur,  and  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Prefecture  of  Rajputana,  which  was  established  in  1891  and  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  Capuchin  Fathers  of  Paris,  the  Prefect  Apostolic 
having  his  head-quarters  at  Agra.  Sirohi  State  forms  part  of  the 
Anglican  diocese,  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  archdiocese,  of  Bombay. 

More  than  56  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  in  1901  returned 
some  form  of  agriculture  as  their  principal  means  of  subsistence ;  more 
than  51  per  cent,  were  either  landlords  or  tenants,  nearly  5  per  cent, 
were  field-labourers,  and  0-2  per  cent,  were  growers  of  special  products, 
rent  collectors,  &c.  In  addition  to  these,  about  223,000  persons  (or 
a  further  2\  per  cent.),  who  mentioned  some  other  employment  as  the 
chief  source  of  their  livelihood,  were  also  partially  agriculturists ;  and 
5^  per  cent,  more,  who  were  shown  under  the  head  of  general 
labourers,  were  doubtless  to  some  extent  supported  by  work  in  the 
fields.  In  Dholpur  over  74  per  cent.,  and  in  Bikaner  71  per  cent., 
of  the  population  are  entirely  dependent  on  agriculture,  while  the 
lowest  ratios  (32  and  33  per  cent.)  are  found  in  Sirohi  and  Lawa. 
More  than  18  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  including  dependents, 
are  maintained  by  the  preparation  and  supply  of  material  substances  ; 
and  of  these,  rather  less  than  one-third  find  a  livelihood  by  the  pro- 
vision of  food  and  drink,  nearly  one-fourth  by  working  and  dealing 
in  textile  fabrics  and  dress,  while  about  one-eighth  are  engaged  in  the 
leather  industry.     Personal  and  domestic  services  provide  employment 


POPULA  TION  1 1 7 

for  about  4^  per  cent.,  and  commerce  for  2^  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

The  majority  of  the  people  have  three  meals  a  day  :  namely,  the  first 
in  the  early  morning  before  going  to  work,  the  second  at  midday,  and 
the  third  any  time  after  sunset.  The  morning  meal  consists  either  of 
the  remains  of  the  previous  evening's  chapdtis,  or  of  a  kind  of  porridge 
{rabri)  of  the  flour  of  maize,  bdjra,  or  Jowdr,  coarsely  pounded  and 
boiled  overnight  in  diluted  buttermilk.  The  midday  and  evening 
meals  usually  consist  of  chapaiis,  pulse,  and  vegetables,  washed  down 
with  milk  or  water.  The  chapdtis  or  unleavened  cakes  are  made  of 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  bdjra,  or  j'oivdr,  according  to  the  means  of  the 
consumer.  A  favourite  dish  of  the  more  substantial  farmers  in  the 
north  and  west  is  pounded  bdjra  mixed  with  moth  in  the  proportion  of 
four  to  one,  boiled  in  water,  and  im.proved  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
clarified  butter  or  fresh  oil.  Animal  food  is  not  in  general  use,  though 
most  Rajputs  and  some  of  the  other  Hindu  castes  eat  it  when  they  can 
afford  it.  The  flesh  of  goats  and  wild  hog  is  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Rajputs,  while  that  of  sheep  or  fowls  is  considered  inferior  in  both 
flavour  and  nutriment.  Speaking  generally,  rice  is  a  luxury,  and  sugar, 
sweetmeats,  &c.,  are  consumed  only  on  festive  occasions. 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  about  the  dress  of  the  peoi)le.  The 
poorer  Hindu  males  wear  a  turban  of  sorts,  a  dhoti  or  loin-cloth,  a 
short  jacket  reaching  to  the  waist,  and  sometimes  a  sheet  over  the 
shoulders  which  can  be  used  as  a  wrap  for  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 
Those  of  the  higher  and  middle  classes  wear  either  dhoti  or  trousers, 
a  shirt  (kitrtd),  a  long  coat  {angarkhd),  and  a  cloth  round  the  waist. 
The  richer  men  wear  a  long  coat,  called  achkan  and  often  very  hand- 
some, in  place  of,  or  in  addition  to,  the  angarkhd,  and  the  use  of  a 
kerchief  {nimdl)  round  the  neck  or  over  the  turban  is  popular  in  some 
States.  There  is  but  little  difference  in  dress  between  Hindus  and 
Muhammadans  ;  the  latter  almost  always  wear  trousers,  and  button 
their  coats  to  the  left  instead  of  to  the  right  like  Hindus  and  Europeans. 
The  dress  of  a  Hindu  female  consists  of  a  coloured  skirt,  a  half-sleeved 
bodice,  and  a  sheet  or  veil  taken  over  the  head  and  round  the  body. 
jMusalman  women  wear  trousers  {paijcvnas),  a  long  bodice  more  like 
a  shirt,  and  the  usual  veil ;  some  of  them  wear  skirts  over  their  trousers, 
or  a  skirt  and  coat  sewn  as  one  garment  and  called  tilak.  The  wilder 
Bhils  are  scantily  clad,  their  apparel  generally  consisting  of  a  dirty  rag 
round  the  head  and  a  waistcloth  of  limited  length ;  their  women-folk 
dress  like  the  poorer  Hindus,  but  wear  a  number  of  brass  bangles  and 
rings  on  their  arms  and  legs. 

Except  where  building  stone  is  plentiful,  the  houses  of  the  people 
are  generally  of  mud  or  unburnt  bricks  ;  some  have  flat  nmd  roofs 
supported   on   wooden   beams,  while  others  have  sloping  roofs  of  ill- 


ii8  RAJPUT  AN  A 

baked  tiles.  The  majority  are  low  and  badly  ventilated,  and  usually  of 
the  same  pattern,  namely  a  quadrangular  enclosure  with  rooms  ranged 
round  the  sides.  In  the  desert  tracts  the  poorer  classes  have  to  be 
content  with  beehive-shaped  huts,  made  from  roots  and  grass,  and 
usually  surrounded  by  a  thorn  fence,  which  serves  as  a  protection 
against  the  sand-drifts  and  hot  winds  as  well  as  a  cattle-pen.  The 
Bhils  build  their  own  huts,  thatching  them  with  straw  and  leaves,  and 
in  rare  cases  with  tiles,  while  the  walls  consist  of  interwoven  bamboos, 
or  mud  and  loose  stones. 

Hindus  cremate  their  dead  as  a  rule  ;  but  infants  who  die  before 
they  are  weaned,  and  Sanyasis,  Gosains,  Bishnois,  and  Naths  are 
buried.  Again,  some  of  the  low  castes,  such  as  the  Chamars,  Kolis, 
and  Regars,  bury  when  they  cannot  afford  to  burn.  The  Bhils  almost 
invariably  burn  their  dead ;  but  the  first  victim  of  an  outbreak  of  small- 
pox is  buried,  and  if,  within  a  certain  time,  no  one  else  in  the  village 
dies  of  the  disease,  the  body  is  disinterred  and  burnt.  The  Musalmans 
always  practise  inhumation. 

Apart  from  cricket,  football,  lawn  tennis,  and  racquets,  which  are 
played  at  the  capitals  of  some  of  the  States,  the  chief  games  of  the 
younger  generation  are  marbles,  blindman's-buff,  hide-and-seek,  top- 
spinning,  and  games  like  hockey,  tip-cat,  prisoner's  base,  &c.  Kite- 
flying is  practised  by  both  children  and  adults ;  and  the  indoor  amuse- 
ments are  chess,  cards,  and  a  kind  of  backgammon  played  with  cowries 
and  dice.  The  wealthier  Rajputs  are  fond  of  horse  exercise,  and  many 
of  them  are  in  the  front  rank  as  horsemen  and  polo-players.  The  Bhils 
are  no  mean  archers,  and  in  their  own  peculiar  way  get  a  certain 
amount  of  sport  yearly.  But  for  the  adult  rural  population  as  a  whole 
there  are  few  amusements  or  relaxations  ;  they  meet  on  the  hatai  or 
platform,  to  smoke  and  discuss  the  weather  and  crops,  and  the 
monotony  of  their  daily  life  is  varied  only  by  an  occasional  marriage 
or  the  celebration  of  one  of  the  annual  festivals. 

The  more  important  Hindu  festivals  are  the  Hoh  and  the  Ganger  in 
March  ;  the  Tij  or  third  of  Sawan,  being  the  anniversary  of  the  day  on 
which  Parbati  was,  after  long  austerities,  reunited  to  Siva,  in  July ;  the 
Janmashtml,  or  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Krishna,  in  August;  the 
Dasahra  in  September  or  October ;  and  the  Dewali  in  the  following 
month.  The  chief  Muhammadan  festivals  are  the  Muharram,  the  two 
Ids,  and  the  Shab-i-barat. 

Among  some  of  the  higher  and  middle  classes  of  the  Hindus,  it  is 
customary  when  a  child  is  born  to  send  for  the  family  priest  or 
astrologer,  who,  after  making  certain  calculations,  announces  the  initial 
letter  of  the  name  to  be  given  to  the  infant.  Children  are  usually 
called  after  some  god  or  goddess,  or  the  day  of  the  week  on  which  they 
were  born,  or  some  jewel  or  ferocious  animal,  or  are  given  a  name 


A  GRIC  UL  TURE  1 1 9 

suggestive  of  power,  physical  or  political.     The  name  of  a  man's  father 

is  never  added  to  his  own,  whether  in  addressing  him  by  speech  or 

letter,  but  the  name  of  his   caste  or  gotra  is   sometimes  prefixed  or 

suffixed :  e.  g.  Kothari  Hanwant  Chand  and  Bachh  Raj  Bhandari.     The 

distinctive  feature  in  the  names  of  those  belonging  to  the  higher  Hindu 

castes  is  that  the  suffixes  are  generally  indicative  of  the  subdivision  to 

which  they  belong.     Thus,  among  the  Brahmans,  the  name  will  often 

end    with    Deo,    Shankar,   Ram,   Das,  &c. ;   among    the     Kshattriyas 

almost  always  with  Singh  ;  and  among  the  Vaisyas  with  Mai,  Chand, 

Lai,  &c.     The  Sudras,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  have  only  one  name, 

a  diminutive  of  that  of  a  higher  class,  such  as  Bheria  (Bhairon  Lai), 

Chhatria  (Chhatar  Bhuj),  and  Uda  (Udai  Ram).     The  most  common 

suffixes  used  in  the  names  of  places  are  : —  -ptcr,  -pura,  -khera,  -war, 

-7i>ara,-nagar,-ner,  and  -oli,  all  meaning  'town,'  'village,'  'hamlet,'  or 

'habitation';  -garh  ('fort');  and  -me7-  ('hill'). 

Excluding   Sirohi  State   and   the  comparatively  fertile  portions  of 

Marwar  found  along  the  banks  of  the  Luni  river  and  its  tributaries, 

the  country  to  the  west,  north,  and  north-west  of  the       .     ,     , 

ARriculttirc 
Aravalli  Hills,  comprising   the   whole  of  Jaisalmer, 

Bikaner,  and  Shekhawati,  and  most  of  Jodhpur,  is  a  vast  sandy 
tract.  Water  is  far  from  the  surface  and  scarce  ;  and  irrigation  is,  in 
most  parts,  impracticable,  for  not  only  is  the  supply  of  water  too  scanty 
to  admit  of  its  being  used  for  this  purpose,  but  the  depth  of  the  wells 
usually  exceeds  75  feet,  the  maximum  at  which  well-irrigation  has 
been  found  profitable.  The  Luni  occasionally  overflows  and,  on  the 
subsidence  of  its  waters,  an  alluvial  deposit  remains,  which  yields  good 
crops  of  wheat,  and  there  are  tracts  in  Jodhpur  and  Bikaner  where 
artificial  irrigation  is  possible ;  but,  speaking  generally,  the  people  have 
to  depend  for  their  supply  of  grain  almost  entirely  on  the  crops  sown  in 
the  rainy  season,  which,  in  this  part  of  the  country,  is  of  very  uncertain 
character.  When  rain  does  fall,  it  sinks  into  the  sandy  soil  and  does 
not  flow  off  the  surface,  so  that  a  very  small  rainfall  suffices  for  the 
crops.  In  the  eastern  half  of  Rajputana,  the  agricultural  conditions 
are  very  different.  The  rainfall  is  heavier  and  more  regular ;  every 
variety  of  soil  is  found,  from  the  light  sand  of  the  west  to  the  richest 
alluvial  loam,  and  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  black  mould  which 
produce  excellent  crops  of  wheat  and  barley  without  artificial  irriga- 
tion. Further,  water  is  generally  near  the  surface,  and  wells  are  very 
numerous ;  there  are  several  considerable  rivers  and  streams,  and  a 
large  number  of  tanks.  It  follows,  then,  that,  except  in  a  very  few 
parts,  two  crops  a  year  are  the  rule  and  not  the  exception. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  crops  :  those  cultivated  during  the  rainy 
season  are  called  kharif  or  sdwnu  or  siali/,  while  the  cold-season  crops 
are  known  as  rabi  or  t{?mlu. 


T20  RAJPUT  AN  A 

The  system  of  agriculture  is  everywhere  very  simple,  and  the  imple- 
ments in  use  are  of  the  rudest  description.  For  the  rains  crops,  ploughing 
operations  commence  with  the  first  good  fall  of  rain,  and  the  land 
is  ploughed  from  once  to  three  times  according  to  the  stiffness  of 
the  soil.  In  the  western  half  of  Rajputana,  a  camel  or  a  pair  of 
bullocks  is  yoked  to  the  plough,  but  sometimes  donkeys  or  buffaloes 
are  used.  The  camels  of  the  desert  walk  swiftly,  and  the  ploughs  are 
of  very  trifling  weight ;  consequently  each  cultivator  is  able  to  put  a 
large  extent  of  ground  under  crop.  It  is  estimated  that,  in  the  light 
sandy  soil,  a  man  with  a  camel  or  a  pair  of  good  bullocks  can  plough 
from  two  to  three  acres  a  day.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  by  means  of 
a  drill  or  bamboo  tube  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  plough,  but  some- 
times, especially  in  the  case  of  til,  broadcast.  In  the  cultivation  of  the 
rabi  crops  more  trouble  is  taken.  The  land  receives  several  ploughings 
transverse  to  each  other,  and  is  harrowed  and  levelled  in  order  to 
retain  the  moisture.  When  the  seed  has  been  sown  and  the  crops 
begin  to  sprout,  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  weeding ;  thorn 
fences  are  erected  to  keep  out  cattle  and  hog  ;  scarecrows  are  set  up 
to  frighten  away  the  birds,  and  persons  are  engaged  to  keep  watch  and 
are  provided  with  slings  or  a  noisy  instrument,  called  thali,  in  the 
western  States. 

In  the  south  of  Rajputana  a  peculiar  mode  of  cultivation  is  practised 
by  the  Bhlls ;  it  is  called  wdlar  or  walra,  and  resembles  the  jhum  of 
Assam  and  the  kumri  of  the  Western  Ghats.  It  consists  of  cutting 
down  a  patch  of  forest  and  burning  the  trees  on  the  ground  in  order 
to  clear  room  for  a  field,  which  is  manured  by  the  ashes.  After  a  year 
or  two,  the  soil  is  exhausted  and  another  felling  takes  place.  The 
system,  which  is,  of  course,  most  destructive  to  the  forests,  has  been 
prohibited  in  Dungarpur  and  Sirohi. 

The  principal  rains  crops  are  hajra  {Fetinisefum  typhoideuni)  or  spiked 
millet,  and  Jowar  {Sorghii7?i  vulgare)  or  great  millet.  The  former  is 
sown  as  early  as  possible,  even  in  May  if  rain  falls  in  that  month,  and 
takes  about  three  months  to  ripen  ;  it  is  the  chief  crop  in  the  western 
and  northern  States,  and  also  in  Alwar,  Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  Karauli, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Jaipur.  Jowdr  requires  a  stiffer  soil  and  more 
rain,  and  is  sown  later  ;  it  is  the  most  common  crop  in  Bundi,  Jhalawar, 
Kotah,  Tonk,  and  parts  of  Partabgarh  and  Udaipur.  Other  khai-Jf 
crops  are  maize  or  Indian  corn,  the  food  of  the  masses  in  the  south  ; 
moth  and  mfutg,  both  species  of  the  kidney  bean  ;  cotton  ;  and  a  coarse 
kind  of  rice.  The  cultivation  of  the  latter  is  practically  confined  to 
Banswara,  Dungarpur,  and  parts  of  Jaipur,  Karauli,  and  Kotah.  Of 
these  crops,  the  only  ones  that  usually  require  manure  or  artificial 
irrigation  are  maize  and  cotton.  The  principal  rabi  crops  are  wheat, 
barley,   gram  or  chick-pea,   sugar-cane,   poppy,    tobacco,  sa?i   (Indian 


AGRICULTURE  t2i 

hemp),  and  indigo.  They  require  either  constant  irrigation  or  one 
of  the  best  natural  soils,  and  are  therefore  to  be  found  chiefly  in  the 
favoured  eastern  half  of  the  country.  The  oilseeds  consist  of  ///  i^Sesa- 
mtim  indicuni)  in  the  rainy  season,  and  mustard,  rape,  linseed,  and  castor 
in  the  cold  season.  Of  these,  til  is  by  far  the  most  important ;  it  is 
usually  grown  by  itself,  but  is  sometimes  mixed  \<\'Cn  joivdr  or  cotton. 

Manure  is  hardly  used  at  all  in  the  desert  tracts  in  the  west  and 
north,  and  elsewhere  is  applied  chiefly  to  irrigated  lands,  where  the 
more  valuable  crops  such  as  wheat,  barley,  poppy,  sugar-cane,  and 
tobacco  are  grown,  or  to  gardens.  It  consists  of  the  dung  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats,  night-soil,  village  sweepings,  deciduous  leaves,  jungle- 
plants,  &:c.  ;  and  of  these,  the  dung  of  sheep  and  goats  is  preferred  as 
being  the  most  powerful.  Bone  manure  is  used  to  a  small  extent  in 
Kishangarh,  but  is  not  altogether  acceptable.  The  practice  of  penning 
sheep  and  goats  on  the  fields  for  a  few  days  is  common  everywhere. 

Among  the  cultivated  fruits  are  the  apricot,  custard-apple,  guava, 
mango,  mulberry,  orange,  peach,  plantain,  plum,  pomegranate,  pum- 
melo,  tamarind,  and  several  varieties  of  fig,  lime,  and  melon.  Many 
kinds  of  vegetables  are  grown  for  household  use  or  for  sale,  such  as 
artichoke,  beet,  cabbage,  carrot,  cauliflower,  celery,  egg-plant,  onion, 
parsnip,  potato,  radish,  spinach,  tomato,  turnip,  yam,  and  several  of 
the  gourd  and  cucumber  family. 

Of  improvement  in  agricultural  practice  there  is  very  little  to  record. 
In  a  few  of  the  States  the  seed  is  carefully  selected,  and  cases  are 
known  of  experiments  with  Egyptian  cotton,  American  maize,  and 
Turkish  tobacco ;  but  as  a  whole  the  cultivators  are  very  conservative. 

The  majority  of  the  States  advance  money  for  the  construction  or 
repairs  of  wells  and  tanks,  and  for  the  purchase  of  seed,  bullocks,  and 
agricultural  implements.  In  some  cases  these  loans  are  free  of  interest, 
and  in  others  a  rate  varying  from  6  to  1 2  per  cent,  per  annum  is  charged. 
In  adverse  seasons  takdvi  advances  are  given  freely  throughout  Rajput- 
ana,  and  in  1 899-1900  they  amounted  to  more  than  24  lakhs. 

Except  in  parts  of  the  north-east  and  east,  where  the  recent  famines 
and  scarcities  were  less  severely  felt  than  elsewhere,  the  cultivators  are 
generally  in  debt,  and  many  of  them  are  heavily  involved.  This  state 
of  affairs  is  due  partly  to  their  own  extravagance  and  imprudence  or 
to  debts  they  have  inherited,  partly  to  bad  seasons,  and  partly  to  the 
grasping  methods  of  the  bohrd  or  professional  money-lender.  In  several 
States  the  majority  of  the  cultivators  are  entirely  in  the  hands  of  their 
bohrds  and  depend  on  them  for  everything.  The  rate  of  interest  varies 
from  18  to  36  per  cent,  yearly  ;  and  the  profits  of  the  money-lender  are 
swelled  by  charging  compound  interest,  by  making  loans  in  bajra  or 
joivdr  and  insisting  on  a  similar  quantity  of  wlieat  in  repayment,  and 
in  various  other  ways. 


122 


RAIPUTANA 


Agricultural  statistics  exist  for  the  whole  of  one  State  (Bharatpur)  and 
for  portions  of  nine  others,  but  they  are  available  only  for  the  last  few 
years,  and  cannot  be  considered  as  altogether  reliable.  The  table  below 
is  for  the  year  1903-4.  The  figures  in  the  third  column  relate,  for  the 
most  part,  to  khaha  lands  only,  i.e.  those  paying  full  revenue  to  the 
State  ;  while  the  figures  in  the  fourth  column  are  obtained  by  deducting 
from  them  the  areas  occupied  by  forests,  towns,  villages,  rivers,  &c., 
or  otherwise  not  available  for  cultivation.  The  differences  between 
the  figures  in  the  last  two  columns  represent  the  area  cropped  more 
than  once. 


Area  (in  square  miles). 

.\rea  (in  square  miles) 
cropped.               | 

State. 

Total  area 

(in  square 

miles). 

For  which 

Available 

returns 

for  culti- 

Total. 

Net. 

exist. 

vation. 

Alwar 

3,141 

2,751 

1,733 

1,505 

1,431 

Bharatpnr  . 

1,982 

1,982 

1,598 

1,492 

1,278 

Bikaner 

23,311 

6,539 

6,420 

933 

933 

Dholpnr 

1,155 

900 

5.35 

405 

400 

Jaipur 

15.579 

3,548 

2,587 

1,304 

T,247 

Jhalawar     . 

810 

55S 

400 

126 

116 

Jodhpur 

34,963 

4,320 

3,532 

1,012 

1,012 

Kishangarh 

858 

199 

153 

162 

153 

Kotah 

5.684 

4.778 

3,233 

1,353 

1,315 

Tonk  (in  Rajpntana)  . 
Total 

1. 114 

602 

503 

250 

239 

88,597 

26,177 

20,694 

8,542 

8,124 

Thus  returns  exist  for  26,177  square  miles,  or  about  one-fifth  of  the 
whole ;  and  of  this  area  nearly  four-fifths  are  available  for  cultivation. 
The  net  area  cropped  was  8,124  square  miles,  or  31  per  cent,  of  the 
area  for  which  returns  exist  and  40  per  cent,  of  the  area  available  for 
cultivation.  Turning  to  individual  States,  the  highest  percentages  of 
area  cropped  to  that  available  for  cultivation  are  found  in  Kishangarh, 
where  the  entire  cultivable  area  is  said  to  have  been  under  crop,  Alwar 
(82),  Bharatpur  (80),  and  Dholpur  (74)  ;  and  the  lowest  percentage  in 
Bikaner  (between  14  and  15). 

The  table  on  the  next  page  gives  the  areas  under  principal  crops  in 
T 903-4,  and  shows  that,  of  the  total  cultivated  area,  bdjra  occupied 
22  per  cent.,  Jowdr  about  16,  wheat  nearly  9,  and  gram  over  7  per 
cent. 

These  tables,  though  incomplete  and  imperfectly  reliable,  give  an 
approximate  guide  to  the  conditions  in  the  remaining  four-fifths  of 
Rajputana.  Taking  the  States  mentioned  in  the  tables,  it  is  doubtless 
the  case  that  the  rest  of  Jodhpur  is,  on  the  whole,  less  fertile  and  less 
cultivated  than  the  4,320  square  miles  for  which  returns  exist,  and  that 
the  large  sandy  district  of  Shekhawati  (in  Jaipur)  is,  as  regards  pro- 


AGRICULTURE 


12 


ductiveness  and  quality  of  soil,  far  inferior  to  the  rest  of  that  State  and 
more  resembles  Bikaner.  Yet,  with  these  exceptions,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  extent  of  cultivation  mjaglr  and  w//(7/f  lands,  held 
revenue  free  or  at  reduced  rates,  is  probably  much  the  same  as  in  the 
k/idlsa  area.  Again,  turning  to  the  States  whose  names  do  not  appear 
in  the  table,  Jaisalmer  is  no  doubt  a  more  sterile  country  than  even 
its  immediate  neighbours  to  the  east  and  north-east,  but  the  central 
and  south-eastern  districts  of  Udaipur,  the  greater  part  of  Partabgarh, 
and  the  southern  half  of  Bundi  will  hold  their  own  against  any  tract 
in  Rajputana ;  they  are  extensively  cultivated  and  yield  all  the  valuable 
spring  crops,  including  poppy. 


1 

Area  (in  square  miles)  under 

0, 

State. 

.2 

■a 

d            g 

5? 

>^ 

0 

^^ 

168 

1       a 

1 

'^" 

1 

0) 

1 

Alvvar  .     . 

•       437 

41       72 

137 

37 

60 

25 

Bharatpur 

314 

247 

76     193 

106 

66 

68 

I 

... 

Bikaner     . 

222 

II 

4        25 

18 

21 

Dholpur    . 

. !   176 

38 

21         19 

16 

30 

... 

Jaipur  .     . 

•     271 

160 

114        66 

207 

53 

93 

52 

4 

Jhalawar  . 

I 

68 

12 

7 

I 

3 

8 

II 

8 

Jodhpur    . 

430 

151 

81 

18 

23 

66 

ir 

8 

Kishangarh    . 

17 

40 

5 

7 

25 

17 

II 

23 

... 

Kotah  .     . 

4 

.S«i 

359  1   197 

20 

68 

33 

41 

42 

Tonk  (in  Raj 

putana) 

7 
1,^79 

9' 

39        16 

1 1 

23 

12 

16 

6 

Tola 

I. -355 

752      620 

564 

354 

326 

177 

60 

The  main  wealth  of  the  desert  lands  of  the  west  and  north  consists 
in  the  vast  herds  of  camels,  horned  cattle,  and  sheep  which  roam  over 
the  sandy  wastes  and  thrive  admirably  in  the  dry  climate. 

Camels  are  looked  on  rather  as  members  of  the  family  than  as  dumb 
animals ;  they  plough  and  harrow  the  ground,  bring  home  the  harve.st, 
carry  wood  and  water,  and  are  both  ridden  and  driven.  Their  milk  is 
used  both  as  an  article  of  diet  and  as  a  medicine ;  a  fair  profit  is  made 
from  the  sale  of  their  wool,  and,  when  they  die,  their  skin  is  made  into 
jars  for  holding  g/il  and  oil.  The  riding  camels  bred  in  these  parts  are 
probably  superior  to  any  others  in  India,  and  the  best  of  them  will 
cover  from  80  to  100  miles  in  a  night  when  emergency  demands  speed. 
The  price  varies  from  Rs.  150  to  Rs.  300.  The  Jaisalmer  camels  are 
famed  for  their  easy  paces  and  hardiness,  and  can  go  long  distances 
without  food  or  water,  subsisting  for  days  on  a  little  unrefined  sugar 
and  alum,  which  are  carried  in  the  saddle-bags.  The  best  of  this  breed 
are  smaller  and  finer  in  the  head  and  neck  than  the  ordinary  camel. 
The  camels  of  Jodhpur  and  Bikaner  are  larger  and  stronger  than  those 
of  Jaisalmer,  and  are  often  very  swift. 

VOL.  XXI.  I 


1 24  RAJPUTANA 

The  bullocks  of  Nagaur,  a  district  of  Jodhpur,  where  they  are  chiefly 
bred,  are  famous  throughout  Northern  India,  and  are  sold  at  all  the 
principal  fairs.  They  are  noted  for  their  size,  and  their  massive  horns 
and  humps  ;  a  pair  sometimes  fetches  Rs.  300,  but  the  average  price  is 
Rs.  150.  The  cows  of  all  the  sandy  tracts  (especially  Mallani  and 
Sanchor  in  Jodhpur,  and  Pugal  in  Bikaner)  are  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  ;  they  sell  for  Rs.  40  to  Rs.  200,  and  give  from  five  to  ten  seers 
of  milk  a  day,  but  they  require  cleanliness  and  good  food,  and  have  to 
be  carefully  tended  when  away  from  their  native  pastures. 

Goats  and  sheep  are  reared  in  large  numbers  in  the  west  and  north  ; 
the  former  supply  the  greater  part  of  the  animal  food  of  the  country, 
and  their  milk  is  in  general  use  as  an  article  of  diet,  especially  in  the 
desert.  Sheep  are  kept  principally  for  their  wool,  but  are  exported  in 
large  numbers  ;  those  of  western  Bikaner  are  said  to  be  among  the  largest 
in  India,  while  those  of  Jodhpur  and  Jaisalmer,  though  small,  fatten 
excellently,  and,  when  well  fed,  yield  mutton  second  to  none. 

The  horses  of  Mallani  and  Jalor  (two  districts  of  Marwar)  are  re- 
nowned for  their  hardiness  and  ease  of  pace ;  they  grow  to  a  good 
height  and,  though  light-boned,  will  carry  plenty  of  weight  and  cover 
long  distances  without  food  or  water. 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the  country  there  is  nothing  remarkable  about 
the  live-stock,  but  efforts  are  being  made  by  several  Darbars  to  improve 
the  breed  of  cattle  by  importing  bulls  from  Hissar  and  Nagaur. 

The  principal  fairs  are  held  at  Pushkar,  in  Ajmer,  in  October  or 
November,  and  at  Tilwara,  near  Balotra  in  Jodhpur,  in  March ;  horse 
and  cattle  fairs  are  also  held  at  Alwar,  Bharatpur,  and  Dholpur.  There 
is  an  important  fair  at  Parbatsar  in  Jodhpur  in  September,  at  which 
many  bullocks  change  hands,  and  smaller  cattle  or  camel  fairs  are  held 
at  several  places  in  Bikaner. 

The  chief  sources  of  irrigation  are  wells,  tanks  or  reservoirs,  and 
canals.  Statistics  are  available  for  the  area  dealt  with  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding tables,  and  are  set  forth  below.  Of  the  total  area  cropped  in 
1903-4,  1,486  square  miles,  or  more  than  17  per  cent.,  were  irrigated  : 
namely,  three-fourths  from  wells  and  one-eighth  from  tanks  and  canals. 
The  percentages  of  area  irrigated  to  total  area  cropped  varied  from  45 
in  Kishangarh,  38  in  Dholpur,  and  33  in  Jaipur,  to  8  in  Kotah,  where 
artificial  irrigation  is  in  many  parts  unnecessary,  and  2  in  Bikaner, 
where  it  is  more  or  less  impracticable  except  in  the  north.  In  the 
rest  of  Rajputana,  excluding  Jaisalmer,  it  is  reported  that  from  one- 
sixth  to  one-fourth  of  the  cultivated  area  is  usually  irrigated,  the  higher 
percentages  being  found  in  Sirohi  and  Udaipur. 

The  States  which  are  best  protected  by  irrigation  are  Jaipur,  Bharat- 
pur, Kishangarh,  Alwar,  Kotah,  and  the  chiefship  of  Shahpura. 

In  Jaipur  much  has  been  done  since  1868  in  the  construction  of 


AGRICULTURE 


125 


tanks,  reservoirs,  and  canals.  In  the  khalsa  area  alone  there  are 
200  irrigation  works  under  the  management  of  the  Public  Works 
department;  they  have  cost  more  than  66  lakhs  up  to  1904,  and 
brought  in  a  gross  revenue  of  nearly  59  lakhs.  Bharatpur  State  has 
spent  10  lakhs  since  1895,  ^"<i  "^^  possesses  164  irrigation  works, 
which  are  kept  in  good  order  by  its  Public  Works  department.  The 
more  important  canals  outside  these  two  States  are  the  Ghaggar  canals 
ill  Bikaner,  the  Parbati  canal  in  Kotah,  and  those  connected  with  the 
Jaswant  Sagar  near  Bilara  in  Jodhpur.  Since  the  famine  of  1899-1900 
increased  attention  has  been  paid  in  almost  every  State  to  the  subject 
of  irrigation.  In  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  Irriga- 
tion Commission  of  1901-3,  investigations  have  been  undertaken  in 
the  greater  part  of  Rajputana  at  the  expense  of  the  Government  of 
India  and  under  the  supervision  of  British  engineers,  with  the  object 
of  drawing  up  projects  for  utilizing  to  the  best  advantage  all  available 
sources  of  water-supply. 


Area  (in  square  miles) 

irrigated  from 

Total  area 

State. 

(in  square 

miles) 

Canals. 

Tanks. 

Wells. 

Other 

sources. 

irrigated. 

Alwar     , 

... 

36 

168 

8 

212 

Bharatpur 

7 

189 

98 

294 

Bikaner    . 

16 

4 

20 

Dholpnr  . 

... 

8 

140 

6 

154 

Jaipur 

45 

20 

342 

29 

436 

Jhalavvar 

I 

17 

18 

Jodhpur . 

8 

4 

III 

27 

150 

Kishangarh 

... 

.30 

38 

5 

73 

Kotah     . 

II 

3 

87 

3 

104 

Tonk  (in  Rajputana) 
Total 

... 

I 

23 

I 

25 

87 

103 

i,H5 

181 

1,486 

Wells  are  the  mainstay  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  as  also  of 
Sirohi  and  parts  of  Jodhpur.  Their  number  is  roughly  estimated  at 
300,000 ;  and  they  are,  almost  without  exception,  the  property  of 
individual  cultivators,  the  Darbars  merely  encouraging  their  construc- 
tion by  a  system  of  agricultural  advances  known  as  fakavi,  or  by  liberal 
rules  in  the  matter  of  land  revenue  assessment.  The  cost  varies  from 
a  few  rupees  for  a  temporary  well,  to  about  Rs,  1,500  for  a  deep  and 
permanent  structure.  Except  in  Sirohi  and  parts  of  Jodhpur,  Kotah, 
and  Udaipur,  where  the  Persian  wheel  is  used,  the  water  is  lifted  by 
means  of  leathern  buckets  drawn  up  with  a  rope  and  pulley  by  bul- 
locks moving  down  an  inclined  plane.  In  the  case  of  shallow  wells, 
a  contrivance  known  as  dhenkll  is  everywhere  popular.  It  is  similar  to 
the  shadoof  employed  in  Egypt,  and  consists  of  a  stout  rod,  balanced 
on  a  vertical  post,  with  a  heavy  weight  at  one  end  and  a   leathern 

I  2 


126 


RAJPUTANA 


bucket  or  earthen  pot  suspended  by  a  rope  to  the  other.  The  worker 
dips  the  bucket  or  pot  into  the  water,  and,  aided  by  the  counterpoising 
weight,  empties  it  into  a  hole  from  which  a  channel  conducts  the  water 
to  the  lands  to  be  irrigated.  Water  is  sometimes  lifted  from  streams 
in  the  same  way. 

Wages  vary  greatly  according  to  locality,  but  have  increased  every- 
where during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  landless  day  labourer  now 
receives  from  two  to  four  annas  daily,  instead  of 
„„,'  .^^^  '  from  one  to  two  annas  in  former  tmies,  while  the 
monthly  wage  of  domestic  servants  has  risen  20  or 
25  per  cent.  As  regards  agricultural  labour,  the  system  of  payment  in 
kind  is  common  ;  and  the  village  artisans  and  servants,  such  as  carpen- 
ters, potters,  blacksmiths,  workers  in  leather,  and  barbers,  are  almost 
always  remunerated  in  this  way.  In  some  States  the  cultivators 
employ  labourers  for  a  particular  harvest,  and  give  them  two  or  three 
rupees  a  month  in  addition  to  food  and  clothes,  or  a  share  of  the 
produce  ;  and  in  such  cases  these  helps  are  usually  of  the  same  caste 
as  their  employers,  so  that  they  may  eat  together  and  thus  economize 
food.  The  wages  of  skilled  labour  have,  as  elsewhere,  risen  consider- 
ably in  consequence  of  the  extension  of  railways  and  industries,  and  the 
general  rise  in  prices. 

The  table  below  shows  the  average  price  of  the  staple  food-grains 
(and  of  salt)  in  seers  per  rupee  during  the  twenty-eight  years  ending 
1900,  excluding  years  of  acute  famine.  The  figures  opposite  the 
eastern  division  represent  the  average  prices  in  the  Alwar,  Bharatpur, 
Dholpur,  Jaipur,  Karauli,  and  Udaipur  States,  while  those  opposite  the 
western  division  relate  to  Bikaner,  Jaisalmer,  and  Jodhpur. 


Selected  staples. 

Wheat.              Barley. 

Jowar. 

Bajra. 

Maize. 

sail. 

Natural 

divisions. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years.               Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

0 

00 
1 

CO 

1 

00 

00 

d 

1 

1 

14 
II 

12 

00 

22 
20 

21 

\ 

23 
21 

22 

0 
0 
o> 

1 

00 

21 

18 

20 

k 

00 

21 
21 

d 
t 
00 

22 
19 

21 

1 

00 

21 
16 

20 

6 
00 

oc 

19 
17 

18 

g 

1 

oc 
oc 

19 

17 

19 

i 

1 

1 

18 
14 

1 

00 

20 

1 

00 

00 

23 
20 

d 

1 
1 

21 
16 

19 

! 

00 
22 

45 
28 

I 

i 

12 
15 

13 

M 

II 
12 

Eastern 
Western    . 

Rajputana 

15 
14 

16 

^3 

15 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  prices  of  all  grains  have  risen  since  1890, 
and  this  was  due  to  a  series  of  indifferent  seasons.  The  importance  of 
railways  as  levellers  of  prices  cannot  be  overestimated  ;  in  the  famine 
of  1868-9,  when  there  was  no  railway,  grain  sold  for  less  than  4  seers 


FORESTS  127 

per  rupee,  whereas  in   the  recent  famine  of  1899-1900  prices   were 
never  higher  than  7  or  8  seers. 

The  material  condition  of  the  urban  population  is  generally  satis- 
factory, and  the  standard  of  living  is  considerably  higher  than  it  was 
thirty  or  forty  years  ago.  The  middle-class  clerk  has  sufficient  income 
to  dress  well,  diet  himself  liberally,  and  give  his  sons  an  English 
education ;  his  house  is  comfortably,  if  simply,  furnished,  and  he  can 
generally  afford  to  keep  a  personal  servant.  In  rural  areas,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  has  been  little  change  in  the  style  of  living,  and  in 
some  States  there  has  been  a  perceptible  falling  off  owing  to  recent 
adverse  seasons.  It  is  only  by  the  exercise  of  thrift  and  frugality  that 
the  people  can  hold  their  own.  The  cultivators,  as  a  whole,  are  in- 
differently housed  and  poorly  clad,  and  their  food,  if  sufficient,  consists 
usually  of  inferior  grains.  The  condition  of  the  ordinary  labourer 
shows  some  improvement,  in  consequence  of  the  increase  in  wages  and 
the  extension  of  public  works. 

There  are  no  large  timber  forests  in  Rajputana,  but  the  woodlands 
are  extensive  upon  the  south-western  Aravallis  and  throughout  the  hilly 
tracts  adjoining,  where  the  rainfall  is  good.  Mount 
Abu  is  well  wooded  from  summit  to  skirts  and 
possesses  several  valuable  kinds  of  timber;  and  from  Abu  north-east- 
ward the  western  slopes  of  the  range  are  still  well  clothed  with  trees 
and  bushes  up  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Merwara.  Below  the  hills  on 
this  western  side  runs  a  belt  of  jungle,  sometimes  spreading  out  along 
the  river  beds  for  some  distance  into  the  plain.  All  vegetation,  how- 
ever, rapidly  decreases  in  the  direction  of  the  Luni ;  and  beyond  that 
river,  Marvvar,  Bikaner,  and  Jaisalmer  have  scarcely  any  trees  at  all, 
except  a  few  plantations  close  to  villages  or  towns.  In  the  west  and 
south  of  Mewar  the  forests  stretch  for  miles,  covering  the  hills 
with  scrub  jungle  and  the  valleys  with  thickets  ;  while  the  southern- 
most States  of  Banswara,  Dungarpur,  and  Partabgarh  are,  in  proportion 
to  their  size,  the  best  wooded  of  any  in  Rajputana.  Here  teak  and 
other  valuable  timber  trees  would  thrive  well  if  the  jungles  were  not 
periodically  ruined  by  the  Bhils,  who  burn  them  down  for  the  purposes 
of  sport  or  agriculture  almost  unchecked.  In  Bundi  and  Kotah,  and 
in  parts  of  Jaipur,  Alwar,  and  Karauli,  the  woodlands  are  considerable, 
but  they  contain  very  little  valuable  timber.  Elsewhere  in  Rajputana 
there  are  only  fuel  and  fodder  reserves. 

The  principal  trees  found  in  the  forest  are  dhdk  {Buiea  frondosa), 
dhdman  {Grewia piiosa),  dhao  {Anogeissus penduld), gol  {Odina  Wodier), 
jdmun  {Eugefiia  Jambolana),  karayia  (Sterculia  urens),sdlar  {Boswellia 
thuri/era),  semal  {Bombax  malabaricuiii)^  tendu  [Diospyros  tomeniosd)^ 
and  iim  {Saccopetalum  foinen(osuin).  Teak  is  found  sparingly  and 
seldom  attains  any  size  ;  the  mango,  iiuihud  {BassUi  latifoiia),  and   the 


128  RAJPUTANA 

small  bamboo  are  common.  The  minor  forest  produce  consists  of 
grass,  firewood,  bamboos,  fruits,  honey,  lac,  gum,  &c. 

In  some  States  right-holders  get  forest  produce  free  or  at  reduced 
rates  ;  and  in  years  of  scarcity  the  forests  are  usually  thrown  open  to 
the  people  for  grazing,  grass-cutting,  and  the  collection  of  fruits, 
tubers,  &c. 

The  area  under  the  management  of  the  Forest  departments  of  the 
various  States  cannot  be  given.  Indeed,  in  many  of  the  States  there  is 
no  real  Forest  department,  the  staff  being  chiefly  engaged  in  guarding 
game-preserves  or  providing  forage  and  fuel  for  Raj  establishments ; 
but  in  Alwar,  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  Kotah,  and  Sirohi  the  forest  area 
amounts  to  about  2,800  square  miles,  and  efforts  are  made  to  work 
the  forests  on  proper  lines.  The  forest  revenue  in  these  five  States, 
excluding  the  value  of  grass,  wood,  &c.,  taken  free  by  right-holders  or 
supplied  for  the  requirements  of  the  Darbar,  is  about  2-5  lakhs,  and 
the  expenditure  nearly  1-5  lakhs. 

The  most  important  mineral  now  being  worked  is  coal  at  Palana  in 
Bikaner.  It  is  of  Tertiary  age,  and  was  discovered  in  1896  in  associa- 
tion with  Nummulitic  rocks.  Mining  operations 
inesand  ^oxt  started  in  1898,  and  the  colliery  was  connected 
with  the  Jodhpur-Blkaner  Railway  by  a  branch  line, 
ten  miles  long,  in  the  following  year.  The  output  has  risen  from 
about  500  tons  in  1898  to  over  44,000  tons  in  1904.  The  coal  is  of 
inferior  quality,  but  when  mixed  with  the  Bengal  variety  is  found 
satisfactory,  and  is  largely  used  on  the  Jodhpur-Blkaner  Railway  and 
by  the  Public  Works  department  of  the  State ;  attempts  are  being 
made  to  manufacture  briquettes.  The  colliery  gives  employment  to 
about   100  labourers. 

^^'hat  Colonel  Tod  called  the  tin  mines  of  Mewar,  once  very  pro- 
ductive and  yielding  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  silver,  are  probably 
the  lead  and  zinc  mines  of  the  village  of  Jawar,  16  miles  south  of 
Udaipur  city.  They  are  said  to  have  been  worked  till  181 2,  when, 
in  consequence  of  a  famine,  the  village  was  depopulated.  Prospecting 
operations,  undertaken  in  1872,  showed  but  a  very  small  proportion 
of  silver  in  two  specimens  of  galena,  namely,  about  io-|  ounces  to 
a  ton  of  lead  ;  and  the  mines  have  since  been  untouched.  There  are 
old  lead-workings  in  the  Thana  Ghazi  district  of  Alwar,  and  the  remains 
of  zinc  furnaces  at  Sojat  in  Jodhpur. 

Copper  is  found  in  several  States,  and  was  formerly  smelted  in 
considerable  quantities.  The  most  important  mines  are  at  Khetri 
and  SiNGHANA  in  Jaipur,  and  they  must  have  produced  copper  for 
a  long  period.  Some  of  the  hills  are  honeycombed  with  old  excava- 
tions ;  and  the  heaps  of  slag  from  the  furnaces  have  accumulated,  in 
the  course  of  time,  until  they  now  form  a  range  of  hillocks  several 


MINES  AND   MINERALS  129 

hundred  feet  in  length,  and  from  30  to  60  feet  high.  The  ores  are 
copper  pyrites,  and  some  carbonates  also  occur  ;  considerable  quantities 
of  blue  vitriol  (copper  sulphate),  alum,  and  copperas  (iron  sulphate) 
were  formerly  manufactured  from  decomposed  slates  and  refuse.  At 
Dariba,  the  chief  mine  in  Alwar,  the  ores  are  also  copper  pyrites,  but 
are  mixed  with  arsenical  iron,  and  occur  irregularly  disseminated 
through  the  black  slates,  only  a  few  specks  and  stains  being  seen 
in  the  quartzites.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  industry  is  diminishing 
owing  to  the  importation  of  copper  from  Europe,  and  the  mine  is 
practically  abandoned. 

Iron  ores  are  pretty  generally  distributed  throughout  the  country, 
but  the  most  noteworthy  deposits  are  found  in  Jaipur,  Alwar,  and 
Udaipur.  In  the  first  of  these  States,  the  mines  at  Karwar  have  long 
been  abandoned,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  the  scarcity  of  fuel ;  but 
in  the  south-west  of  Alwar,  the  eastern  half  of  Udaipur,  and  in  parts 
of  Kotah,  the  ores  are  worked  on  a  small  scale  to  supply  native 
furnaces. 

Cobalt  has  long  been  known  as  occurring  in  the  mines  near  Khetri, 
in  association  with  nickel  and  copper  ores.  It  has  been  compared  to 
a  fine  grey  sand  having  the  appearance  of  iron  filings,  and  is  found  in 
minute  crystals  belonging  to  the  isometric  system,  mixed  with  copper 
and  iron  pyrites.  Under  the  name  of  sehta,  it  is  exported  to  Jaipur, 
Delhi,  and  other  places,  and  is  used  by  Indian  jewellers  for  producing 
a  blue  enamel. 

The  rocks  of  Rajputana  are  rich  in  good  building  materials.  The 
ordinary  quartzite  of  the  Aravallis  is  well  adapted  for  many  purposes ; 
the  more  schistose  beds  are  employed  as  flagstones  or  for  roofing,  and 
slates  are  found  in  the  Alwar  and  Bundi  hills. 

Limestone  is  abundant  in  several  parts,  and  is  used  both  for  building 
and  for  burning  into  lime.  Two  local  forms  of  it  stand  pre-eminent 
among  the  ornamental  stones  of  India  for  their  beauty  :  namely,  the 
Raialo  group,  quarried  at  Raialo  (Raiala)  in  Jaipur,  at  Jhiri  in  Alwar, 
and  at  Makrana  in  Jodhpur ;  and  the  Jaisalmer  limestone.  The 
former  is  a  fine-grained  crystalline  marble,  the  best  being  pure  white 
in  colour,  while  others  are  grey,  pink,  or  variegated.  The  famous  Taj 
at  Agra  was  built  mainly  of  white  Makrana  marble,  and  it  is  proposed 
to  use  the  same  stone  in  the  construction  of  the  Victoria  Memorial 
Hall  at  Calcutta.  The  Jaisalmer  variety  is  of  far  later  geological  age  ; 
it  is  even-grained,  compact,  of  a  buff  or  light  brown  colour,  and  is 
admirably  adapted  for  fine  carving.  It  takes  a  fair  polish,  and  was 
at  one  time  used  for  lithographic  blocks. 

Sandstone  is  plentiful  almost  everywhere,  varying  greatly  in  texture 
and  colour.  The  most  famous  quarries  are  at  Bansi  Paharpur  in 
Bharatpur  State ;  they  have  furnished  materials  for  the  most  celebrated 


130  RAJPUT  AN  A 

monuments  of  the  Mughal  dynasty  at  Agra,  Delhi,  and  Fatehpur  Sikri, 
as  well  as  for  the  beautiful  palaces  at  Dig.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  this  stone  :  namely,  a  very  fine-grained  yellowish  white ;  and  a  dark 
red,  speckled  with  yellow  or  white  spots.  The  quarries  give  employ- 
ment to  450  labourers,  and  the  out-turn  is  about  14,000  tons  a  year. 
Excellent  red  sandstone  comes  from  Dalmera  in  Bikaner,  from  Dholpur, 
and  from  several  places  in  Jodhpur,  where  also  the  brown,  pink,  and 
yellow  varieties  are  found. 

Beds  of  unctuous  clay  or  fuller's  earth  are  found  in  parts  of  Bikaner 
and  the  two  western  States  from  5  to  8  feet  below  the  surface ;  the 
clay  is  used  locally  as  a  hair-wash  or  for  dyeing  cloth,  and  is  exported 
in  considerable  quantities  to  Sind  and  the  Punjab  under  the  name  of 
multdni  mitti. 

Large  deposits  of  gypsum  occur  in  the  vicinity  of  Nagaur  and  at 
other  places  in  Jodhpur ;  the  mineral  is  used  as  cement  for  the 
interiors  of  houses,  and  the  yearly  output  is  about  5,000  tons. 

Of  pigments,  a  black  mineral  paint,  discovered  in  Kishangarh  in 
1886,  has  been  successfully  tried  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  and  Jodhpur- 
Bikaner  Railways,  and  on  steamers. 

The  only  precious  or  semi-precious  stones  at  present  worked  are  the 
garnets,  which  occur  in  the  mica  schists  of  the  Rajmahal  hills  in  Jaipur, 
near  Sarwar  in  Kishangarh,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  Bhilwara  district 
of  Udaipur.  Beryl  was  once  worked  on  a  large  scale  near  Toda  Rai 
Singh  in  Jaipur,  and  turquoises  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  the 
same  locality.  Rock-crystal  is  occasionally  met  with,  but  of  no  market- 
able value. 

The  salt  sources  of  Rajputana  are  celebrated.  Under  agreements 
entered  into  with  the  various  Darbars  in,  or  soon  after,  1879,  the  local 
manufacture  of  salt  has  ceased  in  every  State  except  Bikaner,  Jaisalmer, 
Jodhpur,  and  Kotah.  In  the  first  two  States,  a  small  amount,  limited 
to  about  360  tons  in  Bikaner  and  180  in  Jaisalmer,  is  manufactured 
at  Lunkaransar  (Bikaner)  and  Kanod  (Jaisalmer) ;  but  the  salt  is  of 
inferior  quality.  Similarly,  the  Jodhpur  and  Kotah  Darbars  are  per- 
mitted to  manufacture  small  quantities  of  kha}-i  or  earth-salt  for  indus- 
trial purposes.  With  these  exceptions,  the  manufacture  is  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Government  of  India ;  and  the  chief  salt  sources  are 
the  Sambhar  Lake,  leased  by  the  Jaipur  and  Jodhpur  States  in 
1869-70,  the  depressions  at  Didvvana,  Pachbhadra,  Phalodi,  and 
the  Luni  tract,  leased  by  Jodhpur  in  1879,  and  the  lake  at  Kachor 
Rewassa,  leased  by  Jaipur  in  1879.  The  only  sources  now  worked 
are  the  first  three  mentioned  immediately  above,  and  they  are  under 
the  charge  of  the  Northern  India  Salt  Revenue  department.  During 
the  five  years  ending  1903,  the  yearly  out-turn  averaged  about  164,000 
tons,  worth  about  9  lakhs ;    during  the  same  period  the  yearly  sales 


ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  131 

have  averaged  nearly   170,000  tons,  and  the  annual  net  revenue  has 
been  more  than  iii  lakhs  (say,  £743,000). 

In   manufactures   Rajputana  has  no  speciality,  unless  the   making 
of  salt  be  included  under  this  head.     The  more  important  industries 
are  the  weaving  of  muslin,  the  dyeing  and  stamping 
of  cotton  cloths,  the  manufacture   of  carpets,  rugs,  ,^  *.^ 

and  other  woollen  fabrics,  enamelling,  pottery,  and 
work  in  ivory,  lac,  brass,  steel,  stone,  &c. 

The  weaving  of  coarse  cotton  cloths  for  local  use  is  carried  on  in 
almost  every  village,  and  cotton  rugs  {darts)  are  made  in  a  few  places. 
Among  muslins  the  foremost  place  is  held  by  those  of  Kotah,  where 
the  charming  art  of  dyeing  the  thinnest  net  with  a  different  colour  on 
each  surface  is  still  sometimes  practised.  The  dyeing  and  stamping 
of  cotton  cloths  is  carried  on  largely  in  several  States,  particularly  at 
Sanganer  in  Jaipur.  The  chintzes  are  printed  in  colours  by  hand 
blocks,  but  the  industry  is  decaying  owing  to  machine  competition. 
The  patterns  on  dark  green  and  light  yellow  cloths  are  frequently 
stamped  with  gold  or  silver  leaf.  Tie-dyeing  (called  chmidri  bandish) 
is  practised  chiefly  in  Jaipur  and  Kotah.  The  process  consists  of 
knotting  up  with  thread  any  portion  of  the  cloth  which  is  to  escape 
being  dyed.  For  each  of  the  many  colours  required  to  produce  an 
elaborate  design,  a  separate  knotting  is  required,  and,  though  the 
labour  involved  is  great,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  is  done 
is  marvellous. 

Fine  wool  is  obtained  from  Bikaner,  Jodhpur,  and  Shekhawati,  and 
is  much  prized  for  carpet-weaving.  The  principal  woollen  manufactures 
are  carpets,  rugs,  shawls,  and  blankets,  especially  famous  in  Bikaner. 
Felt  rugs,  saddle-cloths,  capes,  &c.,  are  made  at  Malpura  in  Jaipur, 
and  at  several  places  in  Jodhpur  and  Tonk. 

For  enamelling  on  gold,  Jaipur  is  acknowledged  to  be  pre-eminent, 
and  some  work  is  done  on  silver  and  copper.  The  enamel  is  of  the 
kind  termed  '■  champleve^  i.e.  the  outline  is  formed  by  the  plate  itself, 
while  the  colours  are  placed  in  depressions  hollowed  out  of  the  metal. 
The  red  colour  is  the  most  difficult  to  apply,  and  for  this  hue  Jaipur 
is  famous.  The  quasi-enamelling  of  Partabgarh,  where  the  article 
itself  is  of  glass,  is  also  interesting. 

The  best  pottery  is  produced  in  Jaipur,  and  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  for  which  Delhi  has  long  been  noted.  The  vessels  are  formed 
in  moulds  and,  after  union  of  the  separate  parts,  are  coated  with 
powdered  white  felspar  mixed  with  starch,  and  are  then  painted.  The 
ware  is  next  dipped  in  a  transparent  glaze  of  glass,  and  when  dry 
goes  to  the  kiln,  where  only  one  baking  is  required.  At  Indargarh  in 
Kotah  painted  pottery  is  made,  the  colour  being  applied  after  the 
pottery  has  been  fired. 


132  RAJPUT  AN  A 

Ivory-turning  is  carried  on  to  a  small  extent  in  Alwar,  Bikaner, 
Jodhpur,  and  Udaipur,  the  articles  manufactured  being  mostly  bangles, 
chessmen,  &c.  At  Etavvah  (in  Kotah)  boxes  and  powder-flasks  are 
veneered  with  horn,  ivory,  and  mother-of-pearl  set  in  lac ;  while  fly- 
whisks  and  fans  made  of  ivory  or  sandal-wood  are  curiosities  produced 
at  Bharatpur.  The  fibres  are  beautifully  interwoven  and,  in  good 
specimens,  are  almost  as  fine  as  ordinary  horsehair. 

Work  in  lac  is  practically  confined  to  such  small  articles  as  toys, 
bangles,  and  stools,  and  is  carried  on  in  most  of  the  States.  In 
Bikaner  lac,  or  some  similar  varnish,  is  applied  to  skin  oil-flasks 
{kuppls),  and  in  Shahpura  lac  is  used  in  the  ornamentation  of  shields 
and  tables. 

Brass  and  copper  utensils  of  daily  use  are  manufactured  every- 
where. The  brass-work  of  Jaipur,  which  is  especially  artistic,  takes 
the  form  of  tea-tables,  salvers,  Ganges  water-pots,  and  miniature  repro- 
ductions of  bullocks,  camels,  carts,  deer,  elephants,  &c. 

Sword-blades,  daggers,  knives,  &c.,  are  manufactured  in  Jhalawar, 
Sirohi,  and  Udaipur,  and,  in  the  second  of  these  States,  are  often  inlaid 
with  gold  or  silver  wire. 

The  carving  of  small  articles  and  models  in  stone  is  practised 
chiefly  in  Alwar,  Bharatpur,  Jaipur,  Jaisalmer,  and  Jodhpur.  Among 
other  industries  may  be  mentioned  the  manufacture  of  ornamental 
saddlery  and  camel-trappings,  leathern  jars  for  ghi  and  oil,  and  silver 
table-ornaments. 

There  is  only  one  spinning  and  weaving  mill  in  Rajputana,  at 
Kishangarh.  It  was  opened  in  1897  and  now  employs  about  500 
hands  daily  :  there  are  over  10,000  spindles,  and  the  out-turn  in  1904 
exceeded  685  tons  of  yarn.  Of  cotton-presses  there  are  sixteen,  half  of 
which  belong  to  private  individuals.  Jaipur  ov/ns  three,  Kishangarh 
two,  and  Udaipur,  Bundi,  and  Shahpura  own  one  each.  These  eight 
presses  employ  from  700  to  1,200  hands  daily  during  the  working 
season,  and  in  1903-4  about  32,000  bales  (of  400  lb.  each)  were 
pressed. 

Of  the  trade  of  Rajputana  in  olden  days  very  little  is  known.     The 

principal   marts   were    Bhilwara  in  Udaipur,   Churu   and    Rajgarh  in 

Bikaner,  Malpura  in  Jaipur,  and  Pali  in  Jodhpur  ; 

^nTr^d^^       and   they  formed  the  connecting  link  between  the 

sea-coast  and  Northern  India.     The  productions  of 

India,  Kashmir,  and  China  were  exchanged  for  those  of  Europe,  Africa, 

Persia,  and  Arabia.     Caravans  from  the  ports  of  Cutch  and  Gujarat 

brought  ivory,  rhinoceros'    hides,  copper,  dates,    gum   arabic,   borax, 

coco-nuts,  broadcloths,  sandal-wood,  drugs,  dyes,  spices,  coffee,  &c.,  and 

took  away  chintzes,  dried  fruits,  sugar,  opium,  silks,  muslins,  shawls, 

dyed    blankets,  arms,  and  salt.      The  guardians  of  the  merchandise 


COMMUNICATIONS  133 

were  almost  invariably  Charans,  and  the  most  desperate  outlaw  seldom 
dared  commit  any  outrage  on  caravans  under  the  safeguard  of  these 
men,  the  bards  of  the  Rajputs.  If  not  strong  enough  to  defend  their 
convoy  with  sword  and  shield,  they  would  threaten  to  kill  themselves, 
and  would  proceed  by  degrees  from  a  mere  gash  in  the  flesh  to  a 
death-wound ;  or  if  one  victim  was  insufficient^  a  number  of  women 
and  children  would  be  sacrificed  and  the  marauders  declared  re- 
sponsible for  their  blood.  The  chief  exports  of  local  production  were 
salt,  wool,  ghl,  animals,  opium,  and  dyed  cloths,  while  the  imports 
included  wheat,  rice,  sugar,  fruits,  silks,  iron,  tobacco,  &c.  The 
through  trade  was  considerable,  but  was  hampered  by  the  system  of 
levying  transit  and  other  dues,  known  as  rahddri,  mapa,  daldli,  chutigi, 
&c.  At  the  present  time,  except  in  four  or  five  of  the  less  important 
States,  transit  duties  have  either  been  abolished  altogether,  or  are 
levied  only  on  opium,  spirits,  or  intoxicating  drugs  ;  but  import  and 
export  duties  are  still  in  force  in  most  of  the  States. 

The  chief  exports  now  are  salt,  wool  and  woollen  fabrics,  raw  cotton, 
oilseeds,  opium,  ghi,  marble  and  sandstone,  hides,  printed  cloths, 
camels,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats ;  and  the  main  imports  include  food- 
grains,  English  and  Indian  cotton  goods,  sugar,  tobacco,  metals, 
timber,  and  kerosene  oil.  The  bulk  of  the  trade  is  carried  by  rail, 
but  no  complete  statistics  are  available. 

The  principal  trade  centres  are  the  capitals  of  the  various  States, 
and  also  the  towns  of  Baran,  Bhilwara,  Churu,  Dig,  Jhunjhunu,  Merta, 
Nagaur,  Pali,  Sambhar,  and  Sikar.  The  head-quarters  of  banking  and 
exchange  operations  may  be  said  to  be  Jaipur,  the  largest  and  richest 
city  of  Rajputana,  though  the  principal  firms  of  Malwa  and  of  the 
northern  cities  of  British  India  have  agencies  in  most  of  the  towns. 
The  employment  of  capital  is,  however,  becoming  less  productive  since 
the  peculiar  sources  of  profit  formerly  open  have  been  disappearing. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  large  commercial  specula- 
tions had  more  the  character  of  military  enterprises  than  of  industrial 
ventures,  when  the  great  banking  firms  remitted  goods  or  specie 
under  armed  bands  in  their  own  pay,  and  when  loans  were  made  at 
heavy  interest  for  the  payment  of  armies  or  the  maintenance  of  a 
government.  Now,  railways  and  telegraphs  are  gradually  levelling 
profits  on  exchange  and  transport  of  goods,  while  the  greater  pros- 
perity and  stability  of  the  States,  under  the  wing  of  the  Empire,  render 
them  more  and  more  independent  of  the  financing  bankers. 

The   total   length  of  railways  in    Rajputana,  including  the  British 

District  of  Ajmer-Merwara,  has  increased  from  652  miles  in  1881,  943 

in  i8qi,  and  i.^SQ  in  iQoi,  to  i,S76  miles  in  1906.  „ 

r^r  u  -1  ?u  .       (,\.    Communications. 

Of  the  miles  now  open,  739  are  the  property  01  the 

British  Government,  and  the  rest  are  owned  by  various  Native  States  ; 


134  RAJPUTANA 

and,  with  the  exception  of  48  miles,  the  entire  length  is  on  the  metre- 
gauge  system. 

The  oldest  and  most  important  line,  the  Rajputana-Malwa,  belongs 
to  Government,  and  has  a  total  length  in  Rajputana  of  about  720  miles. 
Starting  from  Ahmadabad,  it  enters  the  country  near  Abu  Road  in  the 
south-west,  and  runs  north-east  to  Bandikui,  whence  one  branch  goes 
to  Agra  and  another  to  Delhi.  It  also  has  branches  from  Ajmer  south 
to  Nimach  and  from  Phalera  north-east  to  Rewari.  With  the  exception 
of  the  chord  last  mentioned,  which  is  a  recent  extension,  the  line  was 
constructed  between  1874  and  1881 ;  it  has  been  worked  on  behalf 
of  Government  by  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway 
Company  since  1885,  and  the  lease  has  just  been  renewed. 

The  only  other  Government  line  in  the  Province  is  the  Indian  Mid- 
land section  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  Railway,  which  runs  for 
about  19  miles  through  the  Dholpur  State  between  Agra  and  Gwalior; 
it  is  on  the  broad  gauge,  and  was  opened  for  traffic  in  1878. 

Of  lines  owned  by  Native  States,  by  far  the  most  important  is  the 
Jodhpur-Bikaner  Railway,  the  property  of  these  two  Darbars,  and 
worked  by  a  special  staff  employed  by  them.  Its  length  in  Rajputana 
is  700  miles,  455  belonging  to  Jodhpur  and  245  to  Bikaner  ;  and  124 
additional  miles,  situated  in  British  territory,  are  under  the  same 
management.  The  line  starts  from  Marwar  junction  on  the  Rajputana- 
Malwa  system,  and  runs  noi"th-west  for  44  miles  till  it  reaches  the  Luni 
river,  whence  there  are  two  branches,  one  almost  due  west  to  Hyder- 
abad (Sind),  where  it  meets  the  North-Western  Railway,  and  the  other 
generally  north-by-north-east  past  Jodhpur,  Merta  Road,  and  Bikaner 
to  Bhatinda  in  the  Punjab.  From  Merta  Road  another  branch  runs 
east,  joining  the  Rajputana-Malwa  line  at  Kuchawan  Road,  not  far 
from  the  Sambhar  Lake.  The  Jodhpur-Bikaner  Railway  has  been 
constructed  gradually  between  1881  and  1902,  and  the  total  capital 
outlay  of  the  two  States  to  the  end  of  1904  was  about  173  lakhs ;  in  the 
year  last  mentioned  the  net  receipts  exceeded  13^  lakhs,  thus  yielding 
a  return  of  nearly  8  per  cent,  on  the  capital  outlay. 

The  remaining  lines  are  the  Udaipur-Chitor,  a  portion  of  the  Bina- 
Guna-Baran,  and  the  Jaipur-Sawai  Madhopur  Railways.  Of  these,  the 
first  connects  the  towns  after  which  it  is  named,  is  67  miles  in  length, 
and  is  the  property  of  the  Udaipur  Darbar,  by  which  it  was  constructed 
between  1895  and  1899,  and  by  which  it  has  been  worked  since  1898. 
The  capital  expenditure  up  to  the  end  of  1904  was  nearly  21  lakhs, 
and  the  net  profits  average  about  5  per  cent. 

In  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Province,  the  Kotah  Darbar  owns  the 
last  29  miles  of  the  Bina-Guna-Baran  (broad  gauge)  line,  which  was 
opened  for  traffic  in  1899,  and  has  since  been  worked  by  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway.      The  section   within  Kotah  territory  has 


COMMUNICA  TTONS  r  3  5 

cost  more  than  17  lakhs,  but  the  net  profits  average  only  about 
\\  per  cent.  The  line  also  runs  for  22  miles  through  the  Chhabra 
district  of  Tonk,  but  this  portion  is  now  owned  by  the  Gwalior 
State. 

A  metre-gauge  line  is  now  being  constructed  by  the  Jaipur  Darbar 
between  its  capital  and  Sawai  Madhopur,  a  distance  of  73  miles.  The 
first  40  miles  as  far  as  Nawai  have  recently  been  opened  for  traffic. 

Another  line  which  is  under  construction  and  should  greatly  benefit 
the  south-eastern  States  is  that  between  Nagda  in  Gwalior  and  Muttra. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  benefits  which  the  railway 
has  conferred  on  the  inhabitants,  particularly  during  periods  of  famine. 
Without  it,  thousands  of  persons  and  cattle  would  have  died  in  1899- 
1900.  It  has  had  the  effect  of  levelling  and  steadying  prices,  and 
preventing  local  distress  from  disorganizing  rural  economy,  and  has 
brought  about  the  general  advancement  of  material  prosperity  by 
stimulating  the  cultivation  of  marketable  produce.  As  for  the  influ- 
ence which  railways  have  exercised  on  the  habits  of  the  people,  it 
may  be  said  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  relax  slightly  the  observance 
of  caste  restrictions,  and  to  introduce  a  good  deal  of  Hindustani  and 
a  sprinkling  of  English  words  into  everyday  use. 

The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  about  1,190  miles,  and  of 
unmetalled  roads  2,360  miles  ;  of  these,  250  miles  are  maintained  by 
the  British  Government,  and  the  rest  by  the  various  States  and 
chiefships.  The  use  of  roads  for  through  communication  has  declined 
since  the  introduction  of  the  railway.  The  first  great  road  constructed 
in  the  country  was  that  between  Agra  and  Deesa,  running  for  about 
360  miles  through  the  States  of  Bharatpur,  Jaipur,  Kishangarh, 
Jodhpur,  and  Sirohi.  It  was  constructed  between  1865  and  1875, 
partly  at  the  cost  of  the  States  concerned,  and  partly  from  Imperial 
funds,  and,  except  for  the  last  28  miles,  was  metalled  throughout ; 
but  it  has  now  been  superseded  by  the  railway,  and  is  kept  up  merely 
as  a  fair-weather  communication.  Another  important  road  built  about 
the  same  time  was  that  connecting  Naslrabad  and  Nimach ;  but  the 
Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  now  runs  close  to  and  parallel  with  it,  and  it 
is  rarely  used.  The  chief  metalled  roads  at  present  maintained  by 
Government  are  those  between  NasTrabad  and  Deoli,  passing  through 
parts  of  Jaipur  and  Kishangarh,  and  between  Mount  Abu  and  Abu 
Road  in  Sirohi.  The  States  with  the  greatest  lengths  of  metalled  roads 
are  Jaipur  (292  miles),  Bharatpur  (165  miles),  Kotah  (143  miles),  and 
Udaipur  (142  miles). 

The  country  carts  vary  greatly  in  size,  but  all  are  of  old-fashioned 
type.  In  some  cases  the  bottom  of  the  cart  is  level,  while  in  others 
it  is  curved,  the  back  part  being  nearer  to  the  ground  in  order  to 
facilitate  unloading.     The  wheels  are  seldom  tired.     In  some  of  the 


136 


RAJPUTANA 


towns  ekkas  and  tongas  are  used  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers, 
and  the  upper  classes  occasionally  keep  bullock-carriages  called  raths 
or  bailis.     In  the  desert  tracts  the  people  travel  on  camels. 

With  the  exception  of  Dholpur,  which  is  included  for  postal  purposes 
in  the  Postmaster-Generalship  of  the  United  Provinces,  and  certain 
States  which  have  postal  arrangements  of  their  own,  the  Province  forms 
a  circle  in  the  charge  of  a  Deputy-Postmaster-General.  The  following 
statistics  show  the  advance  in  business  in  Rajputana  since  1 880-1. 
The  statement  includes  figures  for  Dholpur  except  when  it  is  otherwise 
stated,  but  not  those  of  Darbar  post  offices  in  States  which  have  their 
own  postal  arrangements  : — 


1880-1. 

1 890- 1. 

1900-1. 

1902-3. 

Number  of  post  offices 

*85 

225 

305 

343 

Number  of  letter  boxes 

*44 

*i3i 

227 

249 

Number  of  miles  of  postal 

communication 

*2,072 

*3,66i 

4,797 

5>3ii 

Total     number    of    postal 

articles  delivered  : — 

Letters 

*3,o67,o96 

4,670,784 

5,656,474 

6,044,490 

Postcards    . 

*i72,394 

2,099,360 

4,850,693 

5,797,338 

Packets 

*3i,9ii 

134,2.^9 

•1-251,195 

t33o,'557 

Newspapers 

*i6,078 

346,088 

t 275,900 

+  403,111 

Parce  s         .         .         . 

*42,522 

56,599 

84,523 

97,741 

Value   of   stamps    sold    to 

!      the  public  .         .         Rs. 

*7S,909 

*2,i7,594 

2,28,818 

2,09,922 

Value      of      money-orders 

i      issued      .         .         .     Rs. 

♦12,45,500 

♦35,60,710 

66,23,911 

50,54,753 

(  Total    amount    of    savings 

bank  deposits          .    Rs, 

i 

... 

*7,54,3oS 

10,13,299 

12,24,583 

*  These  figures  exclude  statistics  for  Dholpur  which  are  included  in  the  figures  for  the  United 
Provinces.  t  Includes  unregistered  newspapers. 

J  Registered  as  newspapers  in  the  Post  Office. 


The  States  which,  besides  possessing  British  post  offices,  have 
a  local  postal  system  of  their  own  are  Bundi,  Dholpur,  Dungarpur, 
Jaipur,  Kishangarh,  Shahpura,  and  Udaipur.  The  primary  object  of 
this  local  service  is  the  transmission  of  official  correspondence  ;  but 
the  public  are  usually  permitted  to  send  letters  either  on  payment 
of  a  small  fee,  or,  in  Bundi,  Jaipur,  and  Kishangarh,  by  affixing  the 
necessary  local  postage-stamp. 

Rajputana  has  been  subject  to  famine  from  the  earliest  times  of 
which  we  have  any  tradition.  Colonel  Tod  called 
it  the  grand  natural  disease  of  the  western  regions, 
and  a  Marwarl  proverb  tells  us  to  expect  one  lean  year  in  three,  one 
famine  year  in  eight. 

The  cause  of  scarcity  or  famine  is  the  failure  of  the  south-western 
monsoon ;  adverse  weather  conditions,  such  as  hail  and  frost,  or  visita- 
tions of  locusts,  have  frequently  done  much  damage,  but  they  seldom 


Famine. 


FAMINE  137 

cause  more  than  a  partial  failure  of  crops,  and  this  failure  is  usually 
confined  to  certain  districts. 

Famines  may  be  classified  thus  according  to  their  intensity  :  ankdl 
(grain  famine) ;  jalkdl  (scarcity  of  water) ;  trinkdl  (fodder  famine)  ;  and 
trikdl  (scarcity  of  grain,  water,  and  fodder).  The  tracts  most  liable 
to  famine  are  the  desert  regions  of  Bikaner,  Jaisalmer,  and  Jodhpur, 
situated  outside  the  regular  course  of  both  the  south-western  and  north- 
eastern monsoons.  Here  there  are  no  forests  and  no  perennial  rivers ; 
the  depth  of  water  from  the  surface  exceeds  the  practical  limit  of  well- 
irrigation  ;  and  the  rainfall  is  scanty,  irregular,  and  at  times  so  fitful 
that  the  village  folk  say  that  one  horn  of  the  cow  lies  within,  and  the 
other  without,  the  rainy  zone.  The  best-protected  States  are  found 
along  the  eastern  frontier  from  Alwar  in  the  north  to  Jhalawar  in  the 
south  ;  the  rainfall  here  is  good  and  fairly  regular,  and  facilities  for 
artificial  irrigation  are  abundant. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  famine  the  kharlf  is  the  more  important 
harvest,  as  the  people  depend  on  it  for  their  food  supply  and  fodder. 
The  money  value  of  the  rabi  or  spring  harvest  is,  however,  generally 
greater  than  that  of  the  khar'tf;  and  hence  it  is  often  said  that  the 
people  look  to  the  autumn  crop  for  their  food  supply,  and  to  the  spring 
crop  to  pay  their  revenue  and  the  village  money-lender,  on  whom  they 
usually  depend  for  everything.  A  late,  or  even  a  deficient,  rainfall 
would  not  necessarily  entail  distress,  though  the  yield  of  the  kharlf 
would  probably  be  below  the  average  ;  it  might  be  followed  by  an 
abundant  rabi.  On  the  other  hand,  absolute  failure  of  rain  between 
June  and  November  would  not  only  mean  no  autumn  crops,  but  cer- 
tain loss  to  the  spring  harvest  as  well. 

When  the  rains  fail,  the  regular  danger  signals  of  distress  are  a  rise 
in  prices,  and  a  contraction  of  charity  and  credit,  indicated  respectively 
by  the  influx  of  paupers  into  towns  and  an  enhancement  of  the  rate  of 
interest.  Other  symptoms  are  a  feverish  activity  in  the  grain  trade,  an 
increase  in  petty  crime,  and  an  unusual  stream  of  emigration  of  the 
people  accompanied  by  their  flocks  and  herds  in  search  of  pasturage. 

Of  the  famines  which  occurred  prior  to  1812  there  is  hardly  any 
record  save  tradition.  Colonel  Tod  mentions  one  in  the  eleventh 
century  as  having  lasted  for  twelve  years ;  and  the  Mewar  chronicles 
contain  an  eloquent  account  of  the  visitation  of  166 1-2,  when  the  con- 
struction of  the  dam  of  the  Raj  Samand  lake  at  Kankroli,  the  oldest 
known  famine  relief  work  in  the  country,  was  commenced.  We  are 
told  that  July,  August,  and  September  passed  without  a  drop  of  rain  ; 
'  the  world  was  in  despair,  and  people  went  mad  with  hunger.  Things 
unknown  as  food  were  eaten.  The  husband  abandoned  the  wife,  the 
wife  the  husband — parents  sold  their  children — time  increased  the  evil; 
it  spread  far  and  wide :  even  the  insects  died,  they  had  nothing  to  feed 


138  RAJPUTANA 

on.  Those  who  procured  food  to-day  ate  twice  what  nature  required. 
.  .  .  The  ministers  of  rebgion  forgot  their  duties ;  there  was  no  longer 
distinction  of  caste,  and  the  Sudra  and  Brahman  were  undistinguish- 
able.  .  .  .  All  was  lost  in  hunger ;  fruits,  flowers,  every  vegetable  thing, 
even  trees  were  stripped  of  their  bark,  to  appease  the  cravings  of 
hunger:  nay,  man  ate  man!'  The  years  1746,  1755,  ^783-5,  and 
1803-4  are  all  mentioned  as  periods  of  scarcity,  but  no  details  are  avail- 
able. In  1804,  however,  Kotah  escaped,  and  the  regent  Zalim  Singh 
was  able  to  fill  the  State  coffers  by  selling  grain  to  the  rest  of  the 
country  at  about  8  seers  per  rupee. 

The  famine  of  181 2-3  is  described  as  rivalling  that  of  1661  in  the 
havoc  it  caused ;  the  crops  failed  completely  and  the  price  of  grain  is 
said  to  have  risen  to  3  seers  per  rupee.  The  mortality  among  human 
beings  was  appalling,  and  in  certain  States  three-fourths  of  the  cattle 
perished. 

For  the  next  fifty-five  years  there  was  no  general  famine  in  Rajputana; 
but  there  were  periods  of  recurring  scarcity  in  parts,  notably  in  the 
south  and  west  in  1833-4  and  1848-9,  in  the  north  and  east  in  1837-8, 
and  in  the  east,  particularly  in  Alwar,  in  1 860-1. 

The  main  stress  of  the  calamity  of  1868-9  ^^'^^^  felt  in  the  northern, 
central,  and  western  tracts,  excluding  Jaisalmer,  which  is  said  to  have 
occupied  the  extreme  western  limit  of  the  famine  area ;  but  every  State 
was  more  or  less  affected.  The  rains  of  1868  came  late,  fell  lightly, 
and  practically  stopped  in  August;  the  result  was  a  triple  famine  {trikdl). 
The  people  emigrated  in  enormous  numbers  with  their  flocks  and  herds, 
but  as  most  of  the  surrounding  Provinces  were  themselves  in  distress, 
the  emigrants  became  aimless  wanderers  and  died  in  thousands.  Sub- 
sequently, cholera  broke  out  and  found  an  easy  prey  in  the  half-starved 
lower  classes.  The  area  cultivated  for  the  rabi  was  only  half  of  the 
normal,  and  the  heavy  prolonged  winter  rains  prevented  more  than  half 
of  the  crops  sown  from  reaching  maturity.  Large  numbers  of  people 
returned  to  their  villages  in  May,  1869,  in  the  belief  that  the  rains 
would  be  early,  but  the  monsoon  did  not  break  till  the  middle  of  July, 
and  in  the  interval  thousands  died.  Owing  to  want  of  cattle,  the  land 
was  sown  with  extreme  difficulty,  and  the  ploughing  was  done  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  men  and  women.  The  autumn  harvest,  however, 
promised  well,  and  the  crops  were  developing  satisfactorily,  when  locusts 
appeared  in  unprecedented  numbers  and,  where  the  country  was  sandy, 
ate  up  everything.  To  crown  all,  the  heavy  rains  of  September  and 
October  were  followed  by  a  virulent  outbreak  of  fever  and,  in  the  end, 
the  autumn  crop  was  but  one-eighth  of  the  normal.  There  are  no 
materials  for  estimating  either  the  total  cost  of  this  famine  or  the  num- 
bers who  were  relieved.  The  Maharana  of  Udaipur  is  said  to  have 
spent  about  five  lakhs  in  direct  relief ;  the  expenditure  in  Jaipur  appears 


FAMINE  r39 

to  have  been  nearly  as  great,  and  others  mentioned  as  conspicuous  for 
their  charities  or  liberal  policy  were  the  chiefs  of  Jhalawar,  Kishangarh, 
and  Sirohi.  Some  idea  of  the  scarcity  of  forage  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  in  Marvvar  wheat  was  at  one  time  being  sold  at  6,  and 
grass  at  5^  seers  per  rupee,  while  in  Haraoti  the  prices  of  grain  and 
grass  were  the  same,  weight  for  weight.  This  dearth  of  fodder,  coupled 
with  the  scarcity  of  water,  caused  heavy  mortality  among  the  live-stock, 
and  it  was  estimated  that  75  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  died  or  were  sold 
out  of  the  country.  Grain  was  imported  by  camels  from  Sind  and 
Gujarat,  and  by  carts  along  the  Agra-Ajmer  road.  The  latter  com- 
munication had  just  been  completed,  but  there  was  no  railway  line 
nearer  than  Agra  on  the  east  and  Ahmadabad  to  the  south.  As  the 
Governor-General's  Agent  wrote  at  the  time,  had  not  the  East  Indian 
and  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railways  been  in  working 
order,  grain  would  not  have  been  procurable  for  money,  and  central 
Rajputana  would  have  been  abandoned  to  the  vultures  and  the  wolves. 
Even  as  it  was,  the  mortality  was  terrible  ;  it  was  estimated  that  both 
Bikaner  and  Jodhpur  lost  one-third  of  their  population,  and  generally 
throughout  the  country  the  people  died  by  thousands  and  lay  unburied 
by  the  waysides. 

In  1877  the  rains  were  very  late,  and  there  was  considerable  distress 
in  Alwar,  Bharatpur,  and  Dholpur.  The  autumn  crop  failed  almost 
completely ;  there  was  great  scarcity  of  fodder,  and  more  than  200,000 
persons  emigrated.  Alwar  is  said  to  have  lost  by  deaths  and  emigration 
one-tenth  of  its  population,  and  Dholpur  25,000  persons.  Relief 
measures  were  started  late  and  were  on  the  whole  inadequate. 
Advances  were  given  to  the  extent  of  about  a  lakh,  but  the  expenditure 
on  relief  works  is  only  available  for  Alwar,  namely  Rs.  31,000.  In 
this  year  also  there  was  a  severe  grass  famine  in  Jaipur  and  Jodhpur, 
which  caused  heavy  mortality  among  the  cattle. 

The  year  1891-2  was  one  of  severe  scarcity  in  Bikaner,  Jaisalmer, 
Jodhpur,  and  Kishangarh,  and  is  noticeable  as  having  been  the  first 
occasion  on  which  the  provisions  of  the  Famine  Code  for  Native  States 
were  carried  out  in  practice.  The  maximum  number  on  relief  works 
on  any  one  day  was  never  very  large  (about  15,000),  owing  to  emigra- 
tion, the  self-reliance  of  the  people,  the  comparatively  liberal  exercise 
of  private  charity,  and  the  peculiar  relations  obtaining  between  the 
cultivators  and  the  village  bankers.  Fodder  was  at  famine  prices  and 
often  not  available,  but,  owing  to  imports  by  railway,  food-grains  were 
plentiful,  selling  at  less  than  20  per  cent,  above  normal  rates.  The 
four  States  above  mentioned  spent  between  them  about  3  lakhs  on 
relief  works,  and  Rs.  44,000  on  gratuitous  relief.  Advances  to  cultiva- 
tors amounted  to  about  Rs.  34,000,  revenue  was  suspended  to  the 
extent  of  more  than  2  lakhs,  and  remitted  in  the  case  of  5I  lakhs  more. 

VOL.  XXI.  K 


I40  RAJPUT  AN  A 

A  weak  monsoon  in  1895  caused  some  distress  in  the  north  and 
west  and  a  great  dearth  of  fodder  in  Alwar.  In  the  following  year  the 
rainfall  was  either  deficient  or  unevenly  distributed,  and  there  was 
famine  in  Bikaner  and  Dholpur,  and  scarcity  in  Bharatpur,  Jaisalmer, 
Jodhpur,  and  Tonk.  The  total  direct  expenditure  on  relief  in  these 
six  States  exceeded  9  lakhs,  and  there  were  large  remissions  and  sus- 
pensions of  land  revenue. 

An  indifferent  season  in  1898  was  followed  by  the  great  famine  of 
1899.  The  monsoon  failed  everywhere;  the  rains  crops  were  entirely 
lost  over  all  but  a  very  limited  area  in  the  east  and  south-east,  and 
there  was  no  grass  except  along  the  base  of  the  Aravallis  and  in  the 
hilly  tracts  in  the  south.  The  early  withdrawal  of  the  monsoon  currents 
had  an  equally  disastrous  effect  on  the  rabi  sowings ;  the  area  com- 
manded by  artificial  irrigation  had  shrunk  to  a  fraction  of  the  normal, 
as  the  tanks  were  dry  and  the  wells  had  largely  failed.  The  situation 
was  intensified  by  the  natural  check  put  upon  emigration  by  a  failure 
of  crops  and  fodder  in  most  of  the  neighbouring  territories,  which 
tradition  had  taught  the  hardy  desert  cultivators  to  look  upon  as  an 
unfailing  refuge  in  times  of  trouble.  Thousands  emigrated  at  the  first 
sign  of  drought,  but  many  returned  hopeless  and  helpless  as  early  as 
October,  and  their  reports  went  far  to  deter  others  from  joining  in  the 
great  trek.  Relief  measures  were  started  on  a  scale  never  before 
attempted  in  Rajputana,  and  were  continued  till  October,  1900.  The 
high-water  mark  was  reached  in  June,  1900,  when  there  were  more  than 
53,000  persons  in  receipt  of  relief  of  one  kind  or  another.  Altogether 
about  146  million  units '  were  relieved  at  a  cost  of  nearly  104  lakhs;  in 
addition,  a  sum  of  24  lakhs  was  received  from  the  Indian  Famine 
Charitable  Relief  Fund,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  was  spent  in  pro- 
viding additional  comforts,  maintaining  orphans,  establishing  depots 
for  the  relief  of  returning  emigrants,  and  generally  in  giving  the  people 
a  fresh  start  in  life.  Loans  and  advances  amounted  to  more  than 
24  lakhs,  revenue  was  remitted  to  the  extent  of  28  lakhs,  and  sus- 
pended in  the  case  of  48  lakhs.  There  was  also  much  private  charity 
by  missionaries  and  other  benevolent  persons  or  bodies,  the  amount  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  even  approximately.  The  Govern- 
ment of  India  assisted  the  Darbars  with  loans  of  nearly  63^  lakhs,  and 
placed  at  their  disposal  the  services  of  engineers  with  experience  in 
irrigation  works,  and  officers  of  the  Indian  Army  to  assist  in  supervising 
the  administration  of  relief.  An  epidemic  of  cholera  between  April 
and  June,  1900,  caused  terrible  loss  of  life,  and  the  Bhils  of  the 
southern  States  are  known  to  have  died  in  large  numbers  from  this 
disease  and  from  starvation.  The  difficulty  of  saving  these  aboriginal 
people  in  spite  of  themselves  was  enormous.  While  ready  to  accept 
'  A  unit  means  one  jjcrsou  relieved  lor  one  day. 


FAMINE  14, 

any  gratuitous  relief  offered  in  money  or  food,  they  had  an  ahiiost  in- 
vincible repugnance  to  earning  a  day's  wage  on  the  famine  works.  The 
last  four  months  of  1900  were  marked  by  an  exceedingly  virulent  out- 
break of  fever,  which  is  said  to  have  caused  more  deaths  than  want  of 
food  in  the  period  during  which  famine  conditions  prevailed.  To  this 
famine  of  1899- 1900,  and  to  the  epidemics  of  cholera  and  malarial 
fever  which  respectively  accompanied  and  followed  it,  must  be  ascribed 
almost  entirely  the  large  decrease  in  population  since  the  Census  of 
1 89 1.  This  famine  is  also  remarkable  for  having  brought  to  notice  the 
great  advance  made  by  the  chiefs  of  Rajputana  generally  in  recognizing 
their  responsibilities  to  their  people  and  in  adopting  measures  to  give 
that  feeling  practical  expression. 

The  crops  harvested  in  the  autumn  of  1900  and  the  succeeding 
spring  were  good ;  but  this  brief  spell  of  prosperity  came  to  an  end 
with  the  monsoon  of  1901,  which  was  weak  and  ceased  earl}-.  Fodder 
and  pasturage  were  sufficient,  and  there  was  no  cause  for  anxiety  on  the 
score  of  water-supply  except  in  the  south  ;  but  both  the  kharifoi  igoi  and 
the  rabi  oi  1902,  besides  being  poor  owing  to  want  of  rain,  were  much 
damaged  by  rats  and  locusts.  The  period  of  distress  extended  from 
November,  1901,  to  October,  1902  ;  and  the  revival  of  the  monsoon  at 
the  end  of  August,  1902,  after  an  unusually  prolonged  break,  narrowly 
saved  the  whole  country  from  disaster.  Famine  conditions  prevailed 
in  Banswara,  Dungarpur,  Kishangarh,  and  the  Hilly  Tracts  of  Mewar, 
and  scarcity  in  parts  of  Jaipur,  Partabgarh,  Tonk,  Udaipur,  and  the 
three  western  States.  Altogether  about  nine  million  units  were  relieved 
on  works  or  in  poorhouses,  at  a  cost  of  about  8^  lakhs,  remissions  and 
suspensions  of  land  revenue  were  granted  to  the  extent  of  14^  lakhs, 
and  Rs.  88,000  was  advanced  to  agriculturists. 

The  succeeding  seasons  were  favourable ;  but  the  deficient  rainfall  of 
1905  caused  considerable  distress  in  parts,  particularly  in  the  east,  and 
relief  measures  were  again  found  necessary  in  ten  States. 

The  chief  steps  taken  to  secure  protection  from  the  extreme  effects  of 
famine  and  drought  have  been  the  opening  up  of  the  country  b)'  means 
of  railways  and  roads,  the  construction  of  numerous  irrigation  works, 
and  the  grant  of  advances  for  the  sinking  of  new  wells  or  the  deepening 
of  old  ones.  All  these  measures  have  of  late  been  receiving  the 
increased  attention  of  the  Darbars.  But  in  the  vast  desert  tracts  in  the 
west  and  north,  where  water  is  always  scarce,  where  artificial  irrigation 
is  out  of  the  question,  and  where  the  crops  depend  solely  on  the  rain- 
fall, the  greatest  safeguard  against  famine  consists  in  the  migratory 
habits  of  the  people.  The  traditional  custom  of  the  inhabitants  is  to 
emigrate  with  their  flocks  and  herds  on  the  first  sign  of  scarcity,  before 
the  grass  withers  and  the  scanty  sources  of  water-supply  dry  up. 
Moreover,    the   people  are   by  nature   and    necessity   self-reliant  and 

K  2 


142  RAJPUTANA 

indifferent,  if  not  opposed,  to  assistance  from  the  State  coffers,  and 
many  of  them  consider  it  so  derogatory  to  be  seen  earning  wages  on 
rehef  works  in  their  own  country  that  they  prefer  migration.  As  an 
instance,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  Jaisalmer  in  1891-2  relief  works 
started  by  the  Darbar  had  to  be  finished  by  contract,  as  the  people 
preferred  to  find  employment  in  Sind.  It  would  seem  then  that  in 
these  tracts,  where  there  is  but  one  crop  a  year,  emigration  must  con- 
tinue to  be  the  accustomed  remedy. 

The  Government  of  India  is  represented  in  Rajputana  by  a  Political 
officer  styled  the  Agent  to  the  Governor-General,  who  is  also  the  Chief 
.  .  .  Commissioner  of  the  small  British  Province  of  Ajmer- 
Merwara.  He  has  three  or  more  Assistants,  two  of 
whom  are  always  officers  of  the  Political  department,  and  a  native 
Attache.  Other  members  of  his  staff  are  the  Residency  Surgeon  and 
Chief  Medical  Officer,  and  the  Superintending  Engineer  and  Secretary 
in  the  Public  Works  department.  Subordinate  to  the  Governor- 
General's  Agent  are  three  Residents  and  five  Political  Agents,  who  are 
accredited  to  the  various  States  forming  the  Rajputana  Agency ; 
and  in  the  south-west  of  Udaipur  State  the  commandant  and  second 
in  command  of  the  Mewar  Bhil  Corps  are,  subject  to  the  general 
control  of  the  Resident,  respectively  PoUtical  Superintendent  and 
Assistant  Political  Superintendent  of  the  Hilly  Tracts  of  Mewar. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  officers  who  have  held  the  substantive 
appointment  of  Agent  to  the  Governor-General : — Colonel  A.  Lockett 
(1832);  Major  N.  Alves  (1834);  Colonel  J.  Sutherland  (1841); 
Colonel  J.  Low  (1848);  Colonel  G.  Lawrence  (1852  and  1857); 
Colonel  Sir  H.  Lawrence  (1853);  Colonel  E.  K.  Elliot  (1864); 
Colonel  ^V.  F.  Eden  (1865) ;  Colonel  R.  H.  Keatinge  (1867) ;  Colonel 
Sir  L.  Pelly  (1874);  Sir  A.  C.  Lyall  (1874)  ;  Colonel  Sir  E.  Bradford 
(1878);  Colonel  C.  K.  M.  Walter  (1887);  Colonel  G.  H.  Trevor 
(1890);  Sir  R.  J.  Crosthwaite  (1895) ;  Sir  A.  Martindale  (1898) ;  and 
Mr.  E.  G.  Colvin  (1905). 

The  actual  administrative  organization  of  the  different  States  varies 
considerably ;  but,  speaking  generally,  the  central  authority  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  chief  himself  and,  when  he  has  a  turn  for  government, 
his  superintendence  is  felt  everywhere.  He  is  usually  assisted  by  a 
Council  or  a  body  of  ministerial  officers  called  the  Mahakma  khds,  or 
by  a  Diwan  or  Kamdar.  The  officials  in  the  districts  are  variously 
termed  hakims^  tahsllddrs,  iidzims,  and  ziladdrs,  and,  as  a  rule,  they 
perform  both  revenue  and  judicial  duties. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  Rajputana  Agency  is  made  up  of 
eighteen  States  and  two  chiefshipsS  which  constitute  eight  Political 

'  There  is  a  distinction  between  a  .State  and  a  chiefship.  In  Rajputana  the  ruler  of 
a  Slate  bears  the  title  ot  His  Highness,  while  the  ruler  of  a  chiefship  does  not.    Again, 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE  143 

Charges— three  Residencies  and  five  Agencies — under  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  Governor-General's  Agent.  The  Mewar  Residency 
comprises  the  States  of  Udaipur,  Banswara,  DOngarpur,  and  Partab- 
garh  ;  the  Western  Rajputana  States  Residency  comprises  Jodh- 
pur,  Jaisalmer,  and  Sirohi ;  and  the  Jaipur  Residency  comprises  the 
States  of  Jaipur  and  Kishangarh  and  the  chiefship  of  Lawa.  The  five 
Agencies  are  the  Haraoti  and  Tonk  Agency  (Bundi,  Tonk,  and 
the  Shahpura  chiefship),  the  Eastern  Rajputana  States  Agency 
(Bharatpur,  Dholpur,  and  Karauli),  the  Kotah-Jhalawar  Agency, 
the  Bikaner  Agency,  and  the  Alwar  Agency.  The  average  area  of 
a  Political  Charge  is  about  16,000  square  miles,  and  the  average 
population  nearly  a  million  and  a  quarter. 

The  various  districts  and  subdivisions  of  the  States  are  usually  called 
hi/kumats,  tahsl/s,  nizamats,  zilas,  ox  parganas,  and  altogether  number 
about  220. 

In  former  times  there  was,  properly  speaking,  neither  any  written 
law  emanating  from  the  head  of  the  State,  nor  any  system  of  permanent 
and  regularly  constituted  courts  of  justice.  Ofifices 
combining  important  judicial  and  revenue  functions  Legislation  and 
were  openly  leased  out  at  a  fixed  annual  rental,  the 
lessee  reimbursing  himself  by  fines  and  often  by  legal  exactions. 
When  the  public  outcry  against  his  acts  became  general,  he  would  be 
imprisoned  till  he  disgorged  a  part  of  the  money  squeezed  from  the 
unhappy  people ;  but,  having  paid,  he  was  frequently  re-employed. 
In  criminal  cases  the  tendency  of  sentences  was  towards  excessive 
leniency  rather  than  severity ;  or,  as  Colonel  Tod  has  put  it,  '  justice 
was  tempered  with  mercy,  if  not  benumbed  by  apathy.'  Crimes  of 
a  grave  nature  were  apt  to  be  condoned  by  nominal  imprisonment 
and  heavy  fine,  while  offences  against  religion  or  caste  were  dealt  with 
rigorously.  Capital  punishments  were  rarely  inflicted ;  and,  in  cases 
of  murder,  the  common  sentence  would  be  fine,  corporal  punishment, 
imprisonment,  confiscation  of  property,  or  banishment.  The  indige- 
nous judiciary  of  the  country,  for  the  settlement  of  all  civil  and  a  good 
many  criminal  cases,  was  the  panchdyat,  or  jury  of  arbitration.  Each 
town  and  village  had  its  assessors  of  justice,  elected  by  their  fellow 
citizens  and  serving  as  long  as  they  conducted  themselves  impartially 
in  disentangling  the  intricacies  of  the  complaints  preferred  to  them. 
A  person  tried  by  pa?ichdyat  might  appeal  to  the  chief  of  the  State, 
who  could  reverse  the  decision,  but  rarely  did  so.  Another  form  of 
trial  was  by  ordeal,  especially  when  the  court  of  arbitration  had  failed 
to  arrive  at  a  decision.     The  accused  would  be  required  to  put  his 

the  Government  of  India  has  entered  into  formal  treaties  with  the  States,  while  its 
relations  with  tlie  chiefships  are  regulated  by  some  less  formal  document,  such  as 
a  sanad. 


T44  RAJPUTANA 

arm  into  boiling  water  or  oil,  or  have  a  red-hot  iron  placed  on  his  hand, 
a  leaf  of  the  sacred  fig-tree  being  first  bound  on  it.  If  he  was  scalded 
by  the  liquid  or  burnt  by  the  iron,  he  was  guilty ;  but  if  he  was  unhurt, 
the  miracle  would  be  received  in  testimony  of  his  innocence,  and 
he  was  not  only  released  but  generally  received  presents.  Such  trials 
were  not  infrequent,  and  culprits,  aided  by  art  or  the  collusion  of 
those  who  had  the  conduct  of  the  ordeal,  sometimes  escaped. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  olden  days,  and  even  as  recently  as 
1867  law  and  system  hardly  existed  in  any  State.  The  judges  were 
without  training  and  experience  ;  their  retention  of  office  depended  on 
the  capricious  will  and  pleasure  of  the  chief;  they  were  swayed  and 
influenced  by  the  favourites  of  the  hour,  and  their  decisions  were  liable 
to  be  upset  without  cause  or  reason.  Less  than  thirty  years  ago  the 
criminal  courts  of  more  than  one  State  were  described  as  mere  engines 
of  oppression,  showing  a  determination  to  make  a  profit  out  of  crime 
rather  than  an  honest  desire  to  inflict  a  deterrent  punishment. 

Since  then,  however,  great  progress  has  been  made.  Some  of  the 
States  have  their  own  Codes  and  Acts,  based  largely  on  those  of  British 
India,  while  in  the  others  British  procedure  and  laws  are  generally 
followed.  Every  State  has  a  number  of  regular  civil  and  criminal 
courts,  ranging  from  those  of  the  district  officers  to  the  final  appellate 
authority.  Except  in  the  chiefships  of  Shahpura  and  Lawa,  where 
cases  of  heinous  crime  are  disposed  of  in  accordance  with  the  advice 
of  the  Political  officer,  and  in  States  temporarily  under  management, 
where  certain  sentences  require  the  confirmation  of  either  the  local 
Political  authority  or  the  Governor-General's  Agent,  the  chief  alone 
has  the  power  of  life  or  death. 

Two  kinds  of  courts,  more  or  less  peculiar  to  Rajputana,  deserve 
mention  ;  they  are  the  Courts  of  Vakils  and  the  Border  Courts. 

The  former  are  five  in  number :  namely,  four  lower  courts  at  Deoli, 
Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  and  Udaipur ;  and  an  upper  court  at  Abu.  They 
were  established  about  1844,  with  the  special  object  of  securing  justice 
to  travellers  and  others  who  had  suffered  injury  in  territories  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  their  own  chiefs,  and  they  take  cognizance  only  of 
offences  against  person  and  property  which  cannot  be  dealt  with  by 
any  single  State. 

The  lower  courts  are  under  the  guidance  respectively  of  the  Political 
Agent,  Haraoti  and  Tonk,  and  the  Residents  at  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  and 
Udaipur,  and  are  composed  of  the  Vakils  in  attendance  on  these 
officers.  They  are  simply  courts  of  equity,  awarding  both  punishment 
to  offenders  and  redress  to  the  injured  ;  and,  though  far  from  perfect, 
they  are  well  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  country.  Their 
judgements  are  based  on  the  principle  that  the  State  in  which  an 
offence  is  committed  is  primarily  responsible,  and  ultimately  the  State 


LEGISLATION  AND  JUSTICE  145 

into  which  the  offenders  are  followed  in  hot  pursuit  or  in  which  they 
are  proved  to  reside  or  to  which  the  stolen  property  is  traced.  The 
number  of  cases  decided  yearly  during  the  decade  ending  1901 
averaged  no,  and  109  were  disposed  of  in  1904-5.  The  upper  court 
is  composed  of  the  Vakils  attendant  on  the  Agent  to  the  Governor- 
General,  and  is  usually  presided  over  by  one  of  his  Assistants.  Its 
duties  are  almost  entirely  appellate ;  but  sentences  of  the  lower  courts 
exceeding  five  years'  imprisonment,  or  awards  for  compensation  ex- 
ceeding Rs.  5,000,  require  its  confirmation.  The  yearly  number  of 
appeals  disposed  of  varies  from  20  to  30. 

The  Border  Courts  are  somewhat  similar  to,  but  rougher  than,  those 
just  described,  and  are  intended  for  a  very  rude  state  of  society  where 
tribal  quarrels,  affrays  in  the  jungle,  the  lifting  of  women  and  cattle, 
and  all  the  blood-feuds  and  reprisals  thus  generated  have  to  be 
adjusted.  They  are  held  on  the  borders  between  the  southern  States 
of  Rajputana  and  the  adjoining  States  of  Gujarat  and  Central  India, 
and  usually  consist  of  the  British  officers  in  political  charge  of  the 
States  concerned.  No  appeal  lies  against  decisions  in  which  both 
officers  concur ;  but  when  they  differ,  the  cases  are  referred  to  the 
Agent  to  the  Governor-General  for  Rajputana,  whose  orders  are  final. 
The  courts  were  established  with  the  special  object  of  providing 
a  tribunal  by  which  speedy  justice  might  be  dispensed  to  the  Bhlls 
and  Girasias  of  this  wild  tract ;  after  hearing  the  evidence,  they  either 
dismiss  the  case  or  award  compensation  to  the  complainant,  and  there 
is  little  or  no  attempt  at  direct  punishment  of  offenders. 

Among  courts  established  by  the  Governor-General-in-Council  with 
the  consent  of  the  Darbars  concerned  may  be  mentioned  that  of  the 
magistrate  of  Abu,  described  in  the  article  on  that  place ;  those  at 
the  salt  sources  of  Sambhar,  Dldwana,  and  Pachbhadra  ;  and  those 
connected  with  the  railway.  The  salt  source  courts  at  Sambhar  and 
Dldwana  are  for  certain  purposes  included  in  Ajmer  District,  and  the 
presiding  officers  are  Assistant  Commissioners  of  the  Northern  India 
Salt  Revenue  department,  having  first-class  magisterial  powers  in  the 
case  of  Sambhar  and  second-class  powers  in  that  of  Dldwana.  The 
Assistant  Commissioner  at  Pachbhadra  is  a  second-class  magistrate, 
subordinate  to  the  Resident  at  Jodhpur,  who  is  both  District  Magis- 
trate and  Sessions  Judge,  while  the  Governor-General's  Agent  is  the 
High  Court. 

For  lands  occupied  by  the  Indian  Midland  Railway  there  is  a  special 
magistrate  with  first-class  powers  and  a  Judge  of  Small  Causes,  while 
for  such  portions  as  lie  within  Dholpur  or  Kotah  limits  the  Political 
officers  accredited  to  these  States  are  District  Magistrates,  Courts  of 
Session,  and  District  Judges,  and  the  Governor-General's  Agent  is  the 
High  Court.     Similarly,  the  Rajputana-Malwii  Railway  has  its  first  and 


146  RAJPUT  AN  A 

second-class  magistrates  and  courts  of  Small  Causes ;  the  Residents  at 
Jodhpur  aiid  Jaipur  and  the  Political  Agents  at  Alwar  and  Bharatpur 
are  District  Magistrates  and  Judges  for  such  portions  of  the  railway  as 
lie  within  the  States  to  which  they  are  accredited ;  the  Commissioner 
of  Ajmer-Merwara  is  Sessions  Judge  for  the  whole  of  the  railway  in 
Rajputana,  and  the  Governor-General's  Agent  is  the  High  Court. 

Lastly,  the  three  Residents,  the  five  Political  Agents,  and  the  First 
Assistant  to  the  Agent  to  the  Governor-General  are  all  Justices  of  the 
Peace  for  Rajputana. 

The  main  sources  of  revenue  in  former  times  were  the  land  tax  and 
the  transit  and  customs  duties,  but  the  amount  realized  cannot  be 
ascertained.  The  lead,  zinc,  and  copper  mines  of 
Udaipur  are  said  to  have  yielded  three  lakhs  yearly, 
and  the  salt  sources  in  Jodhpur  brought  in  an  annual  revenue  of  from 
seven  to  eight  lakhs.  Besides  these  items,  numerous  petty  and  vexa- 
tious imposts  were  levied  in  connexion  with  almost  every  conceivable 
subject.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  taxes  on  the  occasion  of 
births  and  marriages,  on  cattle,  houses,  and  ploughs,  on  the  sale  of 
spirits,  opium,  and  tobacco,  or  for  the  provision  of  buffaloes  to  be 
sacrificed  at  the  Dasahra  festival.  A  long  list  is  given  by  both  Colonel 
Tod  and  Sir  John  Malcolm. 

The  revenue  of  the  States  of  Rajputana  was  estimated  in  1867  at 
about  235  lakhs,  of  which  nearly  two-thirds  was  derived  from  the  land. 
At  the  present  time  it  amounts,  in  an  ordinary  year,  to  about  321  lakhs. 
The  income  of  those  holding  on  privileged  tenures,  such  as  the  jaglr- 
ddrs  and  mudjiddrs,  is  not  ascertainable,  but  is  known  to  be  large. 
The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  :  land  revenue,  including  tribute  from 
I'dglrddrs,  185  lakhs;  customs  duties,  47  lakhs;  salt,  including  pay- 
ments by  Government  under  the  various  treaties  and  agreements, 
30  lakhs ;  and  railways,  24  lakhs.  The  remainder  is  derived  from 
court  fees,  fines,  stamps,  cotton-presses,  excise,  forests,  mines  and 
quarries,  &c.  The  total  expenditure  in  an  ordinary  year  is  about 
274  lakhs,  the  main  items  being,  approximately,  in  lakhs:  army  and 
police,  64  ;  civil  and  judicial  staff,  40 ;  public  works,  32 ;  privy  purse, 
palace,  and  household,  30 ;  tribute  to  Government,  including  contribu- 
tion to  certain  local  corps,  15^;  and  railways,  11^.  The  expenditure 
in  connexion  with  stables,  elephants,  camels,  and  cattle  is  considerable, 
but  details  are  not  available.  Among  minor  items  may  be  mentioned  the 
medical  department,  about  4^  lakhs  ;  and  education,  nearly  3^  lakhs. 

Almost  every  State  in  Rajputana  has  at  one  time  or  another  coined 
money ;  but  except  in  the  case  of  Mewar,  the  ruler  of  which  is  said  to 
have  coined  as  far  back  as  the  eighth  century,  all  the  mints  date  from 
the  decline  of  the  Muhammadan  power. 

'J'he  Native  Coinage  Act,   IX  of  1876,  empowered   the  Governor- 


I 


LAND   REVENUE  147 

General-in-Council  to  declare  coins  of  Native  States  of  the  same  fine- 
ness and  weight  as  British  coins  to  be,  subject  to  certain  conditions, 
a  legal  tender  in  British  India,  and  authorized  Native  States  to  send 
their  metal  to  the  mints  of  the  Government  of  India  for  coinage.  The 
only  States  throughout  India  which  availed  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunity afforded  by  this  Act  were  Alwar  in  1877  and  Bikaner  in  1893. 
They  called  in  their  silver  coins,  and  dispatched  them  to  Government 
mints,  whence  they  were  reissued  as  rupees  which  bore  on  the  reverse 
the  name  of  the  State  and  the  name  and  title  of  the  chief,  and  which 
were  legal  tender  in  British  India.  Shortly  afterwards  (in  1893),  the 
Government  mints  were  closed  to  the  unrestricted  coinage  of  silver, 
and  the  exchange  value  of  all  the  other  Native  States'  rupees  depre- 
ciated. It  was  decided  that  the  provisions  of  the  Native  Coinage  Act 
were  not  applicable  to  the  new  condition  of  affairs ;  but  the  Govern- 
ment of  India  agreed  to  purchase  the  existing  rupees  of  Native  States 
at  their  average  market  value,  and  to  supply  British  rupees  in  their 
place,  and  eight  States  have  taken  advantage  of  this  offer,  which 
involves  cessation  of  the  privilege  of  minting.  There  are  now  only 
seven  States  (Bundi,  Jaipur,  Jaisalmer,  Kishangarh,  Tonk,  and  Udaipur) 
and  one  chiefship  (Shahpura)  which  have  their  own  coinage,  and  the 
majority  of  these  propose  converting  it  into  British  currency  as  soon 
as  their  finances  or  the  rate  of  exchange  permit. 

The  land  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups  :  namely,  that  under 
the  direct  management  of  the  Darbar,  called  khdha ;  and  that  held  by 
grantees,  whether  individuals  or  religious  institutions, 
and  known  as  jdgir,  indm,  bhum,  mudfi,  sdsan,  dhar-         revenue 
mdda,   Szc.     The  proportion  of  territory  under  the 
direct  fiscal  and  administrative  control  of  the  chief  varies  widely  in 
different  States.     In  Jodhpur  it  is  about  one-seventh  of  the  total  area, 
in  Udaipur  one-fourth,  and  in  Jaipur  two-fifths ;  whereas  in  Kotah  it 
forms  three-fourths,  and  in  Alwar  and  Bharatpur  seven-eighths.    Where 
the  clan  organization  is  strongest  and  most  coherent,  the  chiefs  personal 
dominion  is  smallest,  while  it  is  largest  where  he  is,  or  has  lately  been, 
an  active  and  acquisitive  ruler. 

In  the  khdha  territory  the  Darbar  is  the  universal  landlord  ;  the 
superior  and  final  right  of  ownership  is  vested  in  it,  but  many  of  the 
cultivators  also  hold  a  subordinate  proprietary  right  as  long  as  they  pay 
the  State  demand.  Except  in  Alwar  and  Dholpur  and  parts  of  Bikaner 
and  Jhalawar,  where  the  system  is  zn?m7iddri  ox  something  akm  to  it,  the 
Darbar  deals  directly  with  the  cultivator,  though  in  parts  the  headman 
of  a  village  sometimes  contracts  for  a  fixed  payment  for  a  short  term 
of  years.  The  cultivating  tenures  of  the  peasantry  at  large  are  not 
easy  to  define  accurately,  though  their  general  nature  is  much  the  same 
throughout  Rajputana ;   but  they  may  be  broadly  divided  into  fakkd 


148  RAJPUTANA 

and  kachchd.  Those  holding  on  the  pnhka  tenure  may  be  said  to 
possess  occupancy  rights,  which  descend  from  father  to  son  and  may 
(generally  with,  but  sometimes  without,  the  sanction  of  the  Darbar)  be 
transferred  by  sale  or  mortgage.  Those  holding  on  the  kachchd  tenure 
are  little  better  than  tenants-at-will ;  the  land  is  simply  leased  to  them 
for  cultivation,  and  can  be  resumed  at  any  time,  but  in  practice  they 
are  seldom  ejected. 

In  former  times  the  word  jdgir  was  applied  only  to  estates  held  by 
Rajputs  on  condition  of  military  service.  ^\i&  jdgirddr  \s2i'?,  the  Thakur 
or  lord  who  held  by  grant  {paitd)  of  his  chief,  and  performed  service 
with  specified  quotas  at  home  and  abroad.  The  grant  was  for  the  life 
of  the  holder,  with  inheritance  for  his  offspring  in  lineal  descent,  or 
adoption  with  the  sanction  of  the  chief,  and  resumable  for  crime  or 
incapacity ;  this  reversion  and  power  of  resumption  were  marked  by 
the  usual  ceremonies,  on  each  lapse  of  the  grantee,  of  sequestration 
{zabti\  of  relief  (nazardnd),  and  of  homage  and  investiture  of  the 
heir.  At  the  present  time,  lands  granted  in  recognition  of  service  or 
as  a  mark  of  the  chief's  personal  favour  are  all  classed  disjdglr,  though 
the  grantees  may  be  Mahajans,  Kayasths,  &:c.  The  jdglrddrs  may 
therefore  be  classed  as  Rajput  and  non-Rajput ;  and  as  regards  the 
latter  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  they  usually  pay  no  tribute  or  rent,  but 
have  to  attend  on  the  chief  when  called  on.  The  duties  and  obliga- 
tions of  the  Rajput  nobles  and  Thakurs  and  the  conditions  on  which 
they  hold  vary  considerably,  and  are  mentioned  in  the  separate  articles 
on  the  different  States.  .Some  pay  a  fixed  sum  yearly  as  quit-rent  or 
tribute,  and  have  also  to  supply  a  certain  number  of  horsemen  or  foot- 
soldiers  for  the  public  service.  Others  either  pay  tribute  or  provide 
armed  men,  or,  in  lieu  of  the  latter  obligation,  make  a  cash  payment. 
At  every  succession  to  an  estate,  the  heir  is  bound  to  do  homage  to 
his  chief  and  to  pay  a  considerable  fee,  these  acts  being  essential  to 
entry  into  legal  possession  of  his  inheritance.  He  also  pays  some 
customary  dues  of  a  feudal  nature,  such  as  on  the  accession  of  a  chief, 
and  is  bound  to  personal  attendance  at  certain  periods  and  occasions. 
Disobedience  to  a  lawful  summons  or  order,  or  the  commission  of  a 
grave  political  offence,  involves  sequestration  or  confiscation,  but  the 
latter  course  is  rarely  resorted  to.  Jag'ir  estates  cannot  be  sold,  but 
mortgages  are  not  uncommon,  though  they  cannot  be  foreclosed ; 
adoptions  are  allowed  with  the  sanction  of  the  Darbar. 

Those  holding  on  the  hhu7n  tenure  are  called  hhumids,  and  are 
mostly  Rajputs  ;  they  usually  pay  a  small  quit-rent,  but  no  fee  on 
succession.  They  perform  certain  services,  such  as  watch  and  ward, 
escort  of  treasure,  &c. ;  and  provided  they  do  not  neglect  their  duties, 
they  hold  for  ever. 

The  other  tenures  mentioned   above,   namely,  inom,  mudfi,  sdsan, 


MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE  149 

dhar77idda.,  See,  may  be  grouped  together.  Lands  are  granted  there- 
under to  Rajputs  for  maintenance,  to  officials  in  lieu  of  salary,  and  to 
Brahmans,  Charans,  &c.,  in  charity ;  they  are  usually  rent-free,  and  are 
sometimes  given  for  a  single  life  only.  Grants  to  temples,  however, 
are  given  practically  in  perpetuity,  but  the  lands  cannot  be  sold. 

Private  rights  in  land  are  hardly  recognized  in  Rajputana ;  and  the 
payments  made  by  the  cultivators  are,  therefore,  technically  classed 
as  revenue,  and  rents  in  the  ordinary  significance  of  the  term  scarcely 
exist.  In  former  times  the  revenue  was  taken  in  kind,  and  the  share 
paid  varied  considerably  in  every  State  for  almost  every  crop  and  for 
particular  castes.  In  some  cases  the  share  would  be  one-eleventh,  and 
in  others  as  much  as  one-half  of  the  gross  produce.  Several  methods 
of  realization  prevailed,  but  the  most  common  were  />a/ai  (also  called 
/dfd)  or  actual  division  of  the  produce,  and  ka7ikut  or  division  by  con- 
jectural estimate  of  the  crop  on  the  ground.  This  system,  though  still 
in  force  in  some  of  the  States,  particularly  in  the/i^r  villages  belonging 
to  the  Thakurs  and  others,  is  losing  ground,  and  cash  payments  are 
now  more  common.  The  rates  vary  according  to  the  class  of  the  soil, 
the  distance  of  the  field  from  the  village,  the  caste  of  the  cultivator, 
the  kind  of  crop  grown,  the  policy  of  the  State,  &c.  They  range  from 
i-|  annas  per  acre  of  the  worst  land  to  Rs.  15  or  Rs.  20  per  acre  of 
the  best  irrigated  land.  In  suburbs  where  fruit  and  garden-crops  are 
grown  the  rate  rises  to  Rs.  35  and  Rs.  40,  and  some  of  the  betel-leaf 
plantations  pay  as  much  as  Rs.  70  per  acre. 

Regular  settlements  have  been  made  in  Alwar  (1899- 1900),  Bharat- 
pur  (1900),  Bikaner  (1894),  Dholpur  (1892),  Jhalawar  (1884),  Kotah 
(1877-86),  Tonk  (1890-2),  and  parts  of  Jodhpur  (1894-6)  and  Udaipur 
(1885-93)  ;  and  settlements  are  now  in  progress  in  Banswara,  Dungar- 
pur,  and  Partabgarh. 

Poppy  is  grown  in  several  parts  of  Rajputana,  notably  in  Udaipur, 
Kotah,    Jhalawar,  and    the    Nimbahera  district   of  Tonk.     The  area 
ordinarilv  under  cultivation  with  poppy  is  about  100 
square  miles,  but  used  to  be  considerably  greater.  revenue. 

The  States,  as  a  rule,  levy  export,  import,  and  transit 
duties,  as  well  as  licence  fees  for  the  sale  of  the  drug.  The  Govern- 
ment of  India  does  not  interfere  with  production  or  consumption  in 
the  States,  but  no  opium  may  pass  into  British  territory  for  export 
or  consumption  without  payment  of  duty.  The  opium  is  prepared  for 
export  in  balls,  and  is  packed  in  chests  (of  140  lb.  each)  or  in  half- 
chests.  The  Government  duty  is  at  present  Rs.  600  per  chest  for 
export  by  sea,  and  Rs.  700  if  intended  for  local  consumption  in  India 
outside  Rajputana.  For  the  weighment  of  the  opium,  the  levy  of  this 
duty,  and  the  issue  of  the  necessary  passes,  depots  are  maintained  at 
Chitor  in  the  Udaipur  State,  and  at  Baran  in  Kotah,  the  latter  having 


I50  RAJPUTANA 

been  opened  in  June,  1904.  The  number  of  chests  passing  yearly 
through  the  scales  at  Chitor  averages  about  4,400,  while  at  Baran 
during  the  nine  months  ending  March,  1905,  nearly  1,100  chests  were 
weighed.  In  addition,  some  of  the  Rajputana  opium  goes  to  the 
scales  at  Indore  and  Ujjain  in  Central  India. 

The  salt  revenue  of  the  States  is  considerable,  amounting  to  about 
30  lakhs  a  year,  of  which  nearly  five-sixths  are  payments  made  by  the 
Government  of  India  under  various  treaties  and  agreements.  The 
States  of  Bikaner  and  Jaisalmer  still  make  a  small  quantity  of  edible 
salt  for  local  consumption,  and  at  certain  petty  works  in  Jodhpur  and 
Kotah  the  manufacture  of  khdri  or  earth-salt  for  industrial  purposes 
is  permitted  up  to  22,000  maunds.  Elsewhere,  the  manufacture  of 
salt  by  any  agency  other  than  that  of  the  British  Government  is  abso- 
lutely prohibited,  and  all  taxes  and  duties  have  been  abolished  by  the 
Darbars.  The  amount  paid  by  the  Government  is  made  up  of  rent  for 
the  lease  of  the  various  salt  sources,  royalty  on  sales  exceeding  a  certain 
amount,  and  compensation  for  the  suppression  of  manufacture  and  the 
abolition  of  duties.  In  addition,  over  37,000  maunds  of  salt  are  delivered 
yearly  to  various  Darbars  free  of  all  charges,  225,000  maunds  are  made 
over  to  Jodhpur  free  of  duty,  and  20,000  maunds  to  Bikaner  at  half 
the  full  rate  of  duty.  The  sources  now  worked  by  Government  are 
at  Sambhar,  Didwana,  and  Pachbhadra,  and  during  the  five  years 
ending  1902-3  they  yielded  18  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  salt 
produced  in  India. 

The  excise  revenue  is  derived  from  liquor  and  intoxicating  drugs, 
and  is  estimated  at  about  4  lakhs  a  year.  In  the  case  of  liquor  the 
system  in  general  force  is  one  of  farming,  the  right  of  manufacture  and 
sale  being  put  up  to  auction  and  sold  to  the  highest  bidder  for  a  year 
or  a  term  of  years.  In  some  States  the  stills  are  inspected  by  certain 
officials,  but  as  a  rule  there  is  no  Excise  department  and  no  supervision. 
Country  liquor  is  prepared  by  distillation  from  the  inahud  flower, 
molasses,  and  other  forms  of  unrefined  sugar  ;  very  little  foreign  liquor 
is  consumed.  The  drugs  in  use  are  those  derived  from  the  hemp  plant, 
such  as  ganja,  bhafig,  and  charas ;  and  the  right  to  sell  them  is  also  put 
up  to  auction. 

The  net  average  stamp  revenue  varies  between  4  and  5  lakhs,  of 
which  about  three-fourths  is  said  to  be  derived  from  judicial,  and  the 
remainder  from  non-judicial  stamps. 

Rajputana  cannot  be  said  to  contain  any  municipalities  in  the  true 

sense  of  the  term,  that  is  to  say,  towns  possessed  of  corporate  privileges 

of  local  government ;  but  municipal  committees  have 

Local  and         been  constituted  in  30  cities  and  towns.    The  elective 
municipal.  ^  .        ,,    ,  ,         1    • 

system  does  not  exist,  all  the  members  being  nomi- 
nated by  the  Darbar  concerned  or,  in  the  case  of  the  Alju  municipality, 


I 


PUBLIC  WORKS  151 

by  the  Governor-General's  Agent.  The  principal  duties  of  the  various 
committees  are  connected  with  conservancy  and  lighting,  the  settlement 
of  petty  disputes  relating  to  easements,  and  the  prevention  of  encroach- 
ments on  public  thoroughfares ;  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  towns 
under  municipal  administration  has  certainly  been  improved.  The 
total  expenditure  of  these  municipalities  amounts  to  about  3  lakhs 
a  year,  which  is  derived  chiefly  from  a  town  tax  or  octroi  on  imports, 
or  a  conservancy  cess,  or  from  contributions  from  the  State  treasury. 

The  Rajputana  circle  of  the  Imperial  Public  Works  department  was 
formed  in  1863  under  a  Superintending  Engineer,  who  is  also  Secretary 
to  the  Agent  to  the  Governor-General  and  to  the 
Chief  Commissioner,  Ajmer-Merwara.  Of  the  two 
divisions  forming  this  circle,  one  has  its  head-quarters  at  Ajmer  and  the 
other  at  Mount  Abu.  The  work  of  the  former,  as  far  as  the  Native 
States  are  concerned,  is  practically  confined  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
road  between  Nasirabad  and  Deoli,  which  traverses  the  southern  half 
of  Kishangarh  and  the  extreme  south-western  portion  of  Jaipur.  The 
Mount  Abu  division,  on  the  other  hand,  has  constructed  and  still  main- 
tains almost  all  the  metalled,  and  nearly  half  of  the  unmetalled,  roads 
in  Sirohi  State,  and  is  responsible  for  the  upkeep  of  the  numerous 
Government  buildings  at  Abu  and  at  the  cantonments  of  Erinpura, 
Kherwara,  Kotra,  and  Deesa,  the  last  of  which  lies  in  the  Bombay 
Presidency. 

Each  Native  State  has  a  Public  Works  department  of  some  kind. 
In  the  smaller  and  poorer  States  will  be  found  a  single  overseer,  while 
in  most  of  the  larger  or  more  important  ones  the  head  of  the  depart- 
ment is  a  British  officer,  usually  lent  by  the  Government  of  India,  with 
a  regular  staff  of  one  or  more  Assistant  Engineers,  besides  supervisors 
and  overseers  as  in  British  India.  The  expenditure  on  roads,  buildings, 
and  irrigation  works  in  a  normal  year  averages  about  32  lakhs,  and  the 
amount  spent  by  an  individual  State  varies  from  Rs.  2,000  or  Rs.  3,000 
to  7  lakhs. 

The  more  important  works  carried  out  since  1881  have  been  the 
railways  in  Jodhpur,  Bikaner,  Udaipur,  and  Jaipur ;  numerous  irrigation 
projects,  particularly  in  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  Kishangarh,  Bharatpur,  Alwar, 
and  Kotah ;  a  scheme  for  the  supply  of  water  at  Jodhpur,  and  the 
extension  of  the  gas-  and  water-works  at  Jaipur.  Among  bridges,  those 
over  the  Banas  near  Isarda  in  Jaipur,  over  the  A\'estern  Banas  near 
Abu  Road  in  Sirohi,  and  the  pontoon-bridge  across  the  Chambal  at 
Kotah  are  deserving  of  mention.  The  most  noteworthy  buildings 
erected  during  recent  years  are  :— the  Albert  Hall,  the  Lansdowne 
Hospital,  and  the  additions  to  the  Mayo  Hospital  at  Jaipur ;  the  Resi- 
dency, the  Jubilee  offices,  the  Ratanada  palace,  and  the  Imperial  Service 
cavalry  lines  at  Jodhpur;  the  Victoria  Hall  and  Lansdowne  Hospital 


152  RAJPUT  AN  A 

at  Udaipur ;  the  Ganga  Niwas  or  audience-hall,  the  new  palace  (Lal- 
garh),  and  the  courts  and  offices  at  Bikaner ;  the  Victoria  Hospital  at 
Bharatpur  and  the  palaces  at  Sewar  in  the  same  State  ;  the  public 
offices  at  Dholpur ;  and  the  new  palaces  at  Alwar  and  Kotah.  Many 
of  these  buildings  were  designed  by  Colonel  Sir  Swinton  Jacob,  who 
was  for  many  years  the  successful  head  of  the  Public  Works  department 
of  Jaipur  State. 

The  military  forces  in  Rajputana  may  be  grouped  under  four  heads  : 
namely,  regiments  or  corps  of  the  Indian  army,  Imperial  Service  troops, 
local    service    troops     maintained    by    the    various 
Darbars,  and  volunteers. 

Rajputana  lies  within  the  Mhow  division  of  the  Western  Command 
of  the  Indian  army,  and  contains  three  cantonments  (Erinpura,  Kher- 
wara,  and  Kotra)  and  the  sanitarium  of  Abu.  The  total  strength  of 
the  Indian  army  stationed  in  territory  belonging  to  the  States  of  Raj- 
putana is  about  1,700,  of  whom  about  70  are  men  from  various  British 
regiments  and  batteries  sent  up  to  Abu  for  change  of  air.  The  remainder 
is  supplied  by  the  43rd  (Erinpura)  Regiment  (see  the  article  on  Erin- 
pura) ;  the  Mewar  Bhil  Corps  (see  the  articles  on  Kherwara  and 
Kotra)  ;  the  42nd  (Deoli)  Regiment,  which  furnishes  small  detachments 
at  the  Jaipur  Residency  and  the  Kotah  Agency ;  and  the  44th  Merwara 
Infantry,  which  sends  a  small  guard  to  the  Salt  department  treasury  at 
Sambhar. 

The  Imperial  Service  troops  are  the  contributions  of  certain  States 
towards  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  They  have  been  raised  since 
1888-9,  ^re  under  the  control  of  the  Darbars  furnishing  them,  and 
are  commanded  by  native  officers,  subject  to  the  supervision  of  British 
inspecting  officers  who  are  responsible  to  the  Foreign  Department  of 
the  Government  of  India.  Alwar  supplies  a  regiment  of  cavalry  and 
one  of  infantry,  Bharatpur  a  regiment  of  infantry  and  a  transport  corps, 
Bikaner  a  camel  corps,  Jaipur  a  transport  corps,  and  Jodhpur  two  regi- 
ments of  cavalry.  The  total  force  numbers  over  5,000  fighting  men, 
possesses  more  than  900  carts  and  1,800  ponies  or  mules,  and  costs 
the  States  about  17  lakhs  annually  to  maintain.  The  troops  are,  in 
times  of  peace,  usefully  employed  locally  and  have  served  with  credit 
in  several  campaigns:  namely,  Chitral  (1895),  Tirah  (1897-8),  China 
(1900-1),  and  Somaliland  (1903-4). 

The  local  forces  maintained  by  Darbars  number  about  42,000  of  all 
arms— cavalry,  6,000;  artillerymen,  2,500;  and  infantry,  33,500 — and 
cost  about  35  lakhs  yearly.  These  troops  are  locally  divided  into  regu- 
lars and  irregulars  ;  and  while  the  latter  are  of  no  military  value  what- 
ever, the  regulars  contain  much  capital  material,  and  are  not  unacquainted 
with  drill  and  discipline.  The  force  is  employed  in  various  ways  :  it 
furnishes  guards  and  escorts,  performs  police  duties,  garrisons  forts, 


POLICE  AND  JAILS  153 

drives  game  for  the  chief,  &c.  In  the  matter  of  ordnance,  the  States 
possess  about  1,400  guns  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  of  which  900  are  said 
to  be  serviceable.  Besides  the  local  force  just  described,  there  are  the 
feudal  quotas  furnished  by  jdglrddrs  ;  their  number  is  considerable,  and 
the  men  are  employed  as  official  messengers,  postal  escorts,  police,  &c. 

The  2nd  Battalion  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway 
Volunteers  has  its  head-quarters  at  Ajmer.  The  number  of  members 
residing  in  the  Native  States  of  Rajputana  is  about  250,  and  they  are 
found  chiefly  at  Abu  Road,  Bandikui,  Mount  Abu,  and  Phalera. 

Police  duties  in  the  khdlsa  area  are  performed  partly  by  a  regular 
police  force  and  partly  by  the  irregular  troops  maintained  by  the  Dar- 
bars,  while  almost  every  village  has  its  chaukiddr  or 
watchman.     In  they'J^/V  estates  which  form  such  a  0  ice  and 

large  part  of  the  country,  the  duty  of  protecting  traffic, 
preventing  heinous  crimes,  &c.,  devolves  on  ih.e  jdglrddrs,  but  no  details 
of  the  force  they  keep  up  are  available.  The  regular  police  maintained 
by  Darbars  numbers  about  11,000  men  and  costs  12  lakhs  a  year. 
The  village  watchmen  are  usually  remunerated  by  allotments  of  land 
and  also  get  certain  perquisites  from  the  cultivators.  Several  criminal 
tribes,  such  as  the  Baoris  or  Moghias,  the  Minas,  the  Kanjars,  and  the 
Sansias,  are  under  surveillance,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  induce 
them  to  settle  down  to  agricultural  pursuits,  but  with  no  marked  success. 

The  conditions  under  which  prisoners  live  have  been  greatly  amelio- 
rated during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years.  Formerly,  civil  and  criminal 
offenders  and  lunatics  were  huddled  together  indiscriminately,  and  taken 
out  to  beg  their  bread  in  the  streets;  and  it  was  only  in  1884  that  the 
system  of  recovering  the  cost  of  their  food  from  prisoners  was  abolished 
everywhere.  In  almost  all  the  jails  the  use  of  the  iron  bel  chain,  which 
passed  through  the  fetters  of  a  long  row  of  prisoners,  was  universal,  and 
was  abandoned  as  recently  as  1888.  In  some  States  the  convicts  were 
•  chained  up  like  dogs  in  the  open  plain,  unprovided  with  kennels ' ;  but 
the  great  evil  was  overcrowding,  which  was  the  cause  of  much  sickness 
and  mortality.  Since  those  times,  there  has  been  great  progress  in  jail 
management.  Ventilation,  diet,  clothing,  discipline,  and  general  sanitary 
condition  have  all  been  improved  ;  there  is  less  overcrowding,  and  some 
of  the  Central  jails  are  as  well  managed  and  as  healthy  as  any  in  British 
territory.  The  condition  of  the  prisons  and  lock-ups  in  the  districts  is, 
however,  not  so  satisfactory.  Each  State  and  chiefship  (except  Lawa) 
has  a  jail  at  its  capital,  and  Jaipur  has  two,  the  second  being  known 
as  the  District  jail.  There  are  thus  twenty  jails,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  under  the  medical  charge  of  the  Residency  or  Agency  Surgeon, 
and  are  annually  inspected  by  the  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  Rajputana. 
These  jails  contain  accommodation  for  5,380  inmates  (4)8o7  males 
and  573  females),  and  cost  the  Darbars  from  2^  to  2^  lakhs  a  year  to 


154 


RAJPUTANA 


maintain.     Complete  statistics  are  available  only  from  1896,  and  are 
given  in  the  table  below : — 


1896. 

1901. 

1904. 

Number  of  jails 

Accommodation 

Average  daily  population 

(a)  Male 

(b)  Female 

Mortality  per  1,000          .... 

4.764 
4.792 
4,506 
286 
28.17 

20 
5,327 
5,619 
5.343 
276 
41.47 

20 

5.380 

4,729 

4.450 

279 

17.76 

Education. 


The  principal  causes  of  sickness  are  malarial  fever  and  splenic  and 
respiratory  affections.  The  jail  manufactures  consist  of  cotton  and 
woollen  cloths,  rugs,  carpets,  blankets,  dusters,  paper,  matting,  &c. 
The  carpets  and  woollen  cloths  made  in  the  Bikaner  jail  are  famous 
and  find  a  ready  sale. 

Besides  the  jails  above  mentioned,  there  are  smaller  prisons  and 
lock-ups  at  the  head-quarters  of  almost  every  district ;  but  particulars 
regarding  them  are  not  available,  except  that  they  are  intended  for 
persons  sentenced  to  short  terms  of  imprisonment. 

Only  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  the  Darbars  took  little  or  no  interest 
in  education.  The  Thakurs  and  chiefs,  as  a  rule,  considered  reading 
and  writing  as  beneath  their  dignity  and  as  arts 
which  they  paid  their  servants  to  perform  for  them  \ 
and  there  was  a  general  feeling  among  Rajputs  that  learning  and 
knowledge  should  in  a  great  measure  be  restricted  to  Brahmans  and 
Mahajans.  Schools  existed  everywhere  ;  but  they  were  all  of  the  in- 
digenous type,  such  as  Hindu  pathsdlas  and  Musalman  maktabs^  in 
which  reading,  writing,  and  a  litde  simple  arithmetic  were  taught. 
Classes  were  held  in  the  open  air  on  the  shady  side  of  the  street,  or 
on  the  steps  of  the  village  temple,  or  in  some  veranda ;  and  the  entire 
school  equipment  often  consisted  only  of  a  white  board,  a  piece  of 
wood  for  a  pen,  and  charcoal  water  for  ink.  These  indigenous  institu- 
tions have  held  their  own,  and  are  still  much  appreciated,  especially 
by  the  trading  castes,  who  are  generally  content  with  a  little  knowledge 
of  the  vernacular,  and  the  native  system  of  arithmetic  and  accounts  for 
their  sons  ;  if  a  slight  acquaintance  with  English  is  sometimes  thought 
desirable,  it  is  because  telegrams  play  an  important  part  in  business 
in  these  days. 

The  first  public  institutions  were  established  at  Alwar  in  1842,  at 
Jaipur  in  1845,  and  at  Bharatpur  in  1858;  and  the  other  Darbars 
followed  suit  between  1863  and  1870.  Shortly  afterwards,  schools 
were  opened  in  the  districts,  the  teaching  of  English  became  common 
at  the  capitals  of  most  of  the  States,  and  female  education  received 
attention.  It  is  unfortunately  not  possible  to  show  the  gradual  pro- 
gress made  in  Rajputana  as  a  whole  by  giving  statistics   for  certain 


Inrperial  Gazetteer  of  India 


WITH 

Scale  =  1:  4000.000  or  631  Miles  to  am  Inch 


lAo 


Native  States  coloured  yellow 
Railwaj^s  opened  and  in  construction  ■ 
Canals  . 


R        K^™^"  ^i^  \  A  ' 


uii^ur 


Jardarsbahr 


Chnru       i 


SaiMm.  1         iohsccn. 
.  ,     *       o       Jhnnitainii.  i    Sin^haiia 


oZadrvuTi 


TJdaipur<^ 


Slkaxc 


Kliaiidela  , 


SAMajdhopnr  i 


^ScOil:. 


Hodall 

Kishanparli  °   1 1 

t"^  \        ErozpttE  JWrka 


'<j4/'i(/;i      A    U  W  /A    R      'jKaniHUo 


AnrarolHojnijarft  Miaruidaarli 
^  /      6xz2C      jZajchmoTujarh-    Kunher         ^X> 

mtchoofoji     .  /         ri       i     '        Raiffadii   .JJAegarhS 


J  0  JlAT^oIoBr**-. 


EDUCATION  155 

years,  because  complete  returns  are  available  for  only  some  of  the 
States  ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  progress  has  been  great. 
The  number  of  schools  and  scholars  has  increased  largely,  the  standard 
of  education  and  the  qualifications  of  the  teachers  are  higher,  and  the 
successes  achieved  at  university  examinations  have  been  considerable. 

Omitting  the  private  indigenous  schools,  which  are  known  to  be 
numerous  but  send  in  no  returns,  except  in  Jaipur,  the  educational 
institutions  at  the  end  of  March,  1905,  numbered  altogether  647, 
of  which  510  were  maintained  by  the  several  Darbars,  103  by  private 
individuals,  caste  communities,  &c.,  and  34  by  missionary  societies. 
They  consist  of  four  colleges,  86  secondary  schools,  545  primary 
schools,  including  53  for  girls,  and  12  special  schools.  The  number 
on  the  rolls  of  these  647  institutions  in  1905  was  37,670,  and  the  daily 
average  attendance  during  1904-5  was  28,130.  The  total  amount 
spent  by  the  Darbars  on  education  is  about  3^  lakhs  yearly,  and  to 
this  sum  must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  schools  maintained  by  private 
individuals,  &c.  In  some  of  the  States  a  small  school-cess  is  levied ; 
but,  speaking  generally,  education  is  free,  fees  being  the  exception. 

The  Arts  colleges,  two  in  number,  are  at  Jaipur  and  Jodhpur,  and 
were  attended  during  1904-5  by  96  students.  The  Jaipur  institution 
dates  from  1873,  and  the  other  was  established  in  1893.  Both  are 
first-grade  colleges  afifiliated  to  the  Allahabad  University,  and  have 
between  them,  up  to  the  present  time,  passed  4  students  for  the  degree 
of  M.A,,  75  for  that  of  B.A.,  and  180  in  the  Intermediate  or  First 
Arts  examination. 

The  only  colleges  for  the  cultivation  of  the  Oriental  classics  are  at 
Jaipur.  The  Sanskrit  college  imparts  instruction  in  that  language  up 
,  to  the  highest  standard,  while  the  Oriental  college  prepares  students 
for  the  Persian-Arabic  title  examinations  of  the  Punjab  University. 

The  86  secondary  schools  are  attended  by  11,540  boys,  and  are 
divided  into  high  and  middle  schools.  In  the  former  English  is 
taught  up  to  the  standard  of  the  entrance  and  school  final  examina- 
tions, while  in  the  latter  either  English  or  the  vernacular  is  taught. 

The  primary  schools  for  boys  number  492,  and  are  of  two  kinds, 
upper  and  lower.  The  daily  average  attendance  during  1904-5  was 
17,308.  The  course  of  instruction  is  simple,  but  in  some  of  the  upper 
schools  a  little  English  is  taught. 

Schools  for  girls  were  first  established  about  1866  in  Bharatpur, 
Jaipur,  and  Udaipur  :  they  numbered  53  in  1905,  and  were  attended 
by  2,225  pi^ipils.  Female  education  has  made  little  headway,  as  social 
customs  hinder  its  growth.  The  subjects  taught  are  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic  in  Hindi,  and  needlework. 

The  special  schools  include  a  school  of  arts  at  Jaipur,  established  in 
1868  and  attended  during   1904  by  96  students  :    a  normal  school  : 

VOL.  XXI.  L 


'56 


RAJPUTANA 


and   other   institutions    in   which  painting,  carpet-weaving,   surveying, 
telegraphy,  &c.,  are  taught. 

The  only  institutions  for  Europeans  and  Eurasians  are  the  Lawrence 
school  at  Abu,  which,  however,  is  open  only  to  the  children  of  soldiers ; 
the  high  school,  also  at  Abu,  which  is  under  private  management  but 
receives  a  grant-in-aid  from  Government ;  and  a  small  primary  school 
at  Abu  Road,  maintained  by  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  authorities 
for  the  benefit  of  the  children  of  their  European  and  Eurasian  em- 
ployes. Including  80  children  at  the  Lawrence  school,  these  three 
institutions  were  attended  during  1904-5  by  about  190  boys  and  girls. 

Lastly,  mention  must  be  made  of  the  Mayo  College,  which  was 
established  for  the  education  of  the  chiefs  and  nobles  of  Rajputana. 
An  account  of  it  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  Ajmer  City. 

The  table  below  relates  to  the  year  1901,  and  shows  that  in  Rajpu- 
tana 62  males  and  2  females  out  of  1,000  of  either  sex  could  read 
and  write.  The  Sirohi  State,  owing  to  its  comparatively  large  Euro- 
pean, Eurasian,  and  Pars!  communities  at  Abu  (the  head-quarters  of  the 
Local  Government  and  a  sanitarium  for  British  troops)  and  Abu  Road, 
heads  the  list  for  both  sexes.  According  to  religion,  71  per  cent,  of 
the  Christians,  67  per  cent,  of  the  Parsis,  and  24  per  cent,  of  the 
Jains  were  literate  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  Hindus  and  Musalmans, 
who  form  the  great  majority  of  the  population,  the  proportions  sink  to 
2-7  and  2-4  per  cent,  respectively.  Similar  figures  for  1891  are  not 
available,  as  this  information  was  not  recorded  at  that  Census. 


Number  of  persons  per  1,000 

able  to  read  and  write. 

State  or  chiefship. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

Sirohi 

124 

6 

68 

Jodhpur . 

100 

3 

.';4 

Shahpura 

98 

4 

53 

Kishangaih 

84 

4 

46 

Partabgarh 

83 

I 

42 

Udaipur  . 

74 

2 

40 

Jhalawar 

64 

2 

34 

Tonk 

62 

2 

33 

Dfingarpur 

65 

I 

33 

Jaisalmer 

54 

I 

29 

Bharatpur 

52 

I 

28 

Alwar      . 

.51 

I 

27 

Bikaner   . 

47 

2 

25 

Jaipur     . 

47 

I 

25 

Bundi 

46 

1 

24 

Karauli  . 

41 

2 

22 

Banswara 

43 

I 

22 

Lawa 

29 

3 

16 

Kotah     . 

28 

I 

15 

Dholpur . 

• 

26 

I 

J4 

Tutal 

62 

2 

33 

MEDICAL 


157 


Dispensaries  appear  to  have  been  first  opened  about  fifty-five   or 
sixty   years   ago.      The    earliest    report    on   them    mentions    nine   as 
existing  in  1855,  and  this  number  increased  to  58 
m  187 1.    The  following  table  shows  the  subsequent 
progress  : — 


1881. 

1891. 

IQOf. 

1904. 

Number   of   hospitals    and    dis- 

pensaries        .... 

74 

128 

178 

178 

Accommodation  for  in-patients  . 

459 

855 

1,388 

1,480 

Total  cases  treated 

263,684 

674,870 

1,139,742 

':"  7,999 

Average  daily  number  of — 

(«)  In-patients 

408 

623 

990 

723 

((5)  Out-patients 

2,720 

6,372 

9,170 

7,290 

Number  of  operations  performed 

15,832 

45,078 

59>02  2 

57,068 

Expenditure  on — 

(a)  Establishment   .         .    Rs. 

46,000 

95,916 

1,69,989 

1,79,521 

{J))  Medicine,  diet,  &c.    .    Rs. 

19.500 

78,604 

1,52,932 

1,33,588 

Of  the  total  of  178  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  168  are  maintained 
by  the  Darbars  or,  in  a  few  cases,  by  the  more  enlightened  Thakurs, 
8  by  the  Government  of  India,  and  2  partly  by  Government  and 
partly  from  private  subscriptions.  Included  in  these  are  seven  hos- 
pitals (with  191  beds)  exclusively  for  females.  In  addition,  there  are 
four  railway  and  two  mission  hospitals,  in  which  nearly  96,000  cases 
were  treated  and  1,000  operations  were  performed  in  1904,  as  well  as 
the  Imperial  Service  regimental  hospitals  from  which  no  returns  are 
received.  The  total  annual  expenditure  of  the  States  of  Rajputana  on 
medical  institutions,  including  allowances  to  Residency  and  Agency 
Surgeons,  is  about  4  lakhs. 

In  ten  of  the  States  small  lunatic  asylums  are  maintained  ;  elsewhere 
dangerous  lunatics  are  usually  kept  in  the  jails.  The  number  treated 
in  1904  was  151.  At  the  Census  of  1901,  967  persons  (591  males  and 
376  females)  were  returned  as  insane;  the  chief  causes  of  the  malady 
are  said  to  be  mental  strain  and  intemperance. 

Inoculation  by  indigenous  methods  was  at  one  time  widely  practised, 
but  is  now  disappearing  with  the  spread  of  vaccination.  The  Bhils  are 
said  to  have  inoculated  from  time  immemorial  under  the  name  of 
kanat,  the  operation  being  performed  with  a  needle  and  a  grain  of  dust 
dipped  into  the  pock  of  a  small-pox  case. 

Vaccination  appears  to  have  been  introduced  on  a  small  scale  about 
1855-6,  when  1,740  persons  submitted  to  the  operation,  and  the  num- 
ber increased  to  53,000  in  1871.  Since  then,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
table  on  next  page,  there  has  been  great  progress.  Vaccination  is,  on 
the  whole,  not  unpopular,  and  has  done  much  to  lessen  the  virulence 
and  fatality  of  outbreaks  of  small-pox.  Lymph  is  kept  up  throughout 
the  year  in  most  of  the  important  States  by  arm-to-arm  vaccination  in 

L  z 


158 


RAJPUTANA 


selected  places  during  the  hot  season,  and  humanized  lymph  is  gener- 
ally used.     Bufiiilo  calf  lymph  is  largely  employed  in  several  States. 


1881. 

1891-2. 

1901-2. 

1904-5.    1 

. — 1 

Number  of  vaccinators  employed 

72 

192 

185 

170 

Number  of  persons  vaccinated     . 

94,566 

233,390 

255,907 

286,628 

Number  of  successful  operations  . 

85,403 

228,425 

251,816 

282,749 

Ratio   per    i,ooo   of  population 

1 

successfully  vaccinated    . 

9 

20 

26 

29  , 

Total  expenditure        .         .     Rs. 

9,892 

24,558 

25,720 

24,226 

Cost  per  successful  case      .    Rs. 

O-I-IO 

o-i-S 

0-1-8 

0-1-4 

The  system  of  selling  quinine  in  pice  packets  at  post  offices  was 
introduced  in  1894.  These  packets  were  at  first  supplied  to  post- 
masters by  the  Residency  and  Agency  Surgeons,  but  since  1902  have 
been  obtained  direct  from  the  Superintendent  of  the  Allgarh  jail.  In 
1904-5  more  than  50,525  packets  of  7-grain  doses  were  sold. 

The  operations  of  the  Great  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India  have 
extended  to  parts  of  Rajputana,  and  the  entire  country  was  surveyed 
topographically   by    the    Survey   of    India    between 
Surveys.  ^g^^  ^^^  ^g^^      j^^  ^^^  majority  of  the  States  cadas- 

tral surveys  have  been  carried  out  during  the  last  fifty  years,  and  in 
a  few  others  they  are  now  in  progress.  Most  of  the  surveys  are  con- 
fined to  the  khdha  or  revenue-paying  area,  and  the  agency  employed 
is  not  infrequently  foreign. 

\Rajpiitdna  Agency  Administration  Reports,  annually  from  1865-6. — 
Rdjpt/tdna  Gazetteer,  vols,  i-iii  (1879-80,  under  re\\?,\ox\).— Report  on 
the  Famine  in  the  Native  States  of  Rajputana  in  1899-1900.— C///^^ 
and  Leading  Families  of  Rdjputdna  (igo;^).— Census  Reports  (1891 
and  1901).—].  Tod:  Annals  and  Antiquities  of  Rajasthan,  vol.  i 
(1829)  and  vol.  ii  (1832).— J.  Tod  :  Travels  in  Western  India  (1839). 
—J.  Malcolm:  Memoir  of  Central  India  (1832).— J.  Sutherland: 
Relations  subsisting  between  the  British  Government  in  India  and  the 
different  Native  States  (1837).— G.  B.  Malleson  :  Native  States  of 
India  (1875). — C.  U.  Aitchison  :  Treaties,  Fngage?uents,  a?td  Sa?iads, 
vol.  iii  (1892,  under  revision).— W.  W.  Webb  :  Currencies  of  the  Hindu 
States  of  Rdjputdna  (1893).— T.  H.  Hendley  :  General  Medical  History 
of  Rdjp7itdna  ( 1 900).— F.  Ashton  :  The  Salt  Industry  of  Rdjputdna  ;  see 
Journal  of  Indian  Art  afid  Industry,  vol.  ix,  January,  1901.] 

Rajputana  States  Agency,  Eastern.— ^^^  Eastern  Rajputana 
States  Agency. 

Rajputana  States  Residency,  Western.— .9^'^  Western  Raj- 
putana States  Residency. 

Rajshahi  Division.— Division  or  Commissionership  of  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  extending  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Himalayas  and 


RAJSHAHI  DIVISION 


159 


lying  between  23°  49'  and  if  o'  N.  and  87°  46'  and  89°  53'  E.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Assam  and  the  Dacca  Division,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  sub-province  of  Bihar.  The  Division  was  formerly  part 
of  Bengal  and  then  included  the  District  of  Darjeeling  ;  but  in  1905 
it  was  transferred  to  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  with  the  addition  of 
Malda  District,  while  Darjeeling  was  transferred  to  the  Bhagalpur 
Division  of  Bengal.  The  head-quarters  of  the  Commissioner  are  at 
Jalpaiguri.  The  Division  includes  seven  Districts  with  area,  popu- 
lation, and  revenue  as  shown  below  : — 


District. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Population, 
1901. 

Current  demand  in 

IQ03-4  for  land 

revenue  and  cesses, 

in  thousands 

of  rupees. 

Rajshahi 

Dinajpur 

Jalpaiguri 

Malda    . 

Rangpur 

Bogra 

Pabna     . 

Total 

2,593 
3,946 
2,962 
1,899 
3,493 
1,359 
1,839 

1,462,407 

1,567,080 

787,380 

884,030 

2,154,181 

854.533 
1,420,461 

12,22 

16,87 

9,08 

5>03 

13,16 

6,05 

5,21 

18,091 

9,130,072 

67,62 

The  population  increased  from  7,955,087  in  1872  to  8,280,893  '^^ 
1881,  and  to  8,609,007  in  1891.  The  density  of  population  is  505 
persons  per  square  mile,  as  compared  with  474  for  the  whole  of 
Bengal.  Of  the  total,  62-4  per  cent,  are  Muhammadans  and  36-3  per 
cent.  Hindus.  The  small  remainder  consists  of  Animists  (103,633), 
Buddhists  (6,352),  and  Christians  (4,448,  including  3,494  natives). 
About  half  the  Hindus  are  the  aboriginal  Rajbansis  and  Kochs,  and 
the  great  majority  of  the  local  Muhammadans  are  the  descendants 
of  converts  from  these  tribes. 

The  northern  part  of  the  Division  consists  of  a  strip  of  submontane 
country,  in  Jalpaiguri,  running  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas.  This 
tract  contains  large  and  valuable  forests,  and  the  conditions  are  also 
very  favourable  to  the  growth  of  tea  ;  the  area  under  this  crop  in 
Jalpaiguri  was  121  square  miles  in  1903,  and  the  out-turn  in  that 
year  amounted  to  nearly  37  million  pounds.  The  remainder  of  the 
Division  forms  part  of  the  great  Gangetic  plain.  The  surface  con- 
sists of  recent  alluvium,  except  in  portions  of  Malda,  Rajshahi,  Dinaj- 
pur, and  Bogra,  which  belong  to  an  older  and  more  elevated  alluvial 
formation  known  as  the  Barind.  More  than  half  of  the  tobacco  crop 
of  Bengal  is  produced  in  Jalpaiguri  and  Rangpur,  and  jute  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  south-east  of  the  Division,  while  the  rice  of 
Dinajpur  is  well-known.  The  Division  contains  18  towns  and  31.303 
villages.     The  largest  towns  arc   Sirajganj  (population,   23,114)  and 


i6o  RAJSHAHI  DIVISION 

Rampur  Boalia  (21,589).  The  chief  place  of  commefcial  impor- 
tance is  the  jute  mart  of  Sirajganj.  A  considerable  amount  of  trade 
also  passes  through  Sara,  where  the  northern  section  of  the  Eastern 
Bengal  State  Railway  meets  the  Padma,  or  main  stream  of  the  Ganges ; 
Saidpur  is  the  head-quarters  of  this  section.  Gaur  and  Pandua  were 
capitals  of  the  early  Muhammadan  rulers  of  Bengal  and  contain  ruins 
of  great  interest ;  DevIkot,  Ghoraghat,  Mahasthan,  and  Sherpur 
also  possessed  some  importance  under  Muhammadan  rule,  and  many 
traditions  of  earlier  times  are  associated  with  the  ruins  at  these 
places ;  but  with  these  exceptions  the  Division  contains  few  places  of 
historical  interest. 

Rajshahi  District  (the  '  royal  territory  '). — District  in  the  south- 
western corner  of  the  Rajshahi  Division,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam, 
lying  between  24°  7'  and  25°  3'  N.  and  88°  18'  and  89°  21'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  2,593  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Dinajpur 
and  Bogra  Districts ;  on  the  east  by  Bogra  and  Pabna ;  on  the  south 
and  south-west  by  the  Padma,  or  main  stream  of  the  Ganges,  which 
separates  it  from  Nadia  and  Murshidabad ;  and  on  the  west  by  Malda. 

The    District  is  composed  of  three    entirely    distinct    tracts.      The 

north-western  portion,  bordering  on  Malda  and  Dinajpur,  is  elevated 

and  undulating,  with  a  stiff  red  clay  or  quasi-laterite 

Physical         ^^-j     ^^^gj-g  j-,Qt  cultivated,  it  is  covered  with  brush- 

•  wood,  interspersed  with  large  trees,  the   remains  of 

an  extensive    forest.      Along   the    bank   of  the  Padma  or  Ganges  is 

a  comparatively  high  and  well-drained  tract  of  sandy  soil,  while  the 

central  and  eastern  thdnas  are  a  swampy  depression,  waterlogged  and 

abounding    in  marshes  ;  the  rivers  that  once  drained  this  tract  have 

been  cut  in  half  by  the  Padma  and    their  mouths  have  silted  up. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Padma,  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  District,  and  of  the  Mahananda,  which  runs  for 
a  short  distance  along  its  western  border,  the  river  system  is  a  net- 
work of  moribund  streams  and  watercourses,  some  of  which  are 
connected  with  the  Padma  and  others  with  the  Brahmaputra.  The 
Baral  is  an  offshoot  of  the  Padma,  which  eventually  mingles  its 
waters  with  those  of  the  Atrai ;  its  upper  channels  have  silted  up, 
and  from  December  to  June  there  is  now  scarcely  any  current.  The 
Narad  was  formerly  another  important  branch  of  the  Padma,  but 
its  channel  is  now  practically  dry  even  during  the  rains.  The  chief 
representatives  of  the  Brahmaputra  system  are  the  Atrai  and  the 
Jamuna.  The  former  is  navigable  throughout  the  year  by  small 
cargo  boats,  the  latter  only  in  the  rains.  Another  river,  whose  lower 
reaches  are  usually  passable  by  country  boats,  is  the  Baranai,  which 
flows  in  an  easterly  direction  through  the  subdivision  of  Nator. 
The    District    slopes    slightly    from    west    to    east :    its    drainage  is 


RAJSHAHI  DISTRICT  i6i 

carried  off  not  by  rivers,  but  through  a  chain  of  marshes  and  swamps. 
The  largest  of  these  is  the  Chalan  Bil,  into  which  the  overflow  from 
all  the  others  sooner  or  later  finds  its  way,  to  be  passed  on  eventually, 
through  an  outlet  at  its  south-eastern  corner,  into  the  Brahmaputra. 

The  greater  part  of  the  District  is  covered  with  recent  alluvium,  con- 
sisting of  sandy  clay  and  sand  along  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and 
elsewhere  of  fine  silt  consolidating  into  clay.  The  Barind,  however, 
belongs  to  an  older  alluvial  formation ;  it  is  composed  of  massive 
argillaceous  beds  of  a  rather  pale  reddish-brown  hue,  often  weathering 
yellowish,  in  which  are  disseminated  kankar  and  pisolitic  ferruginous 
concretions. 

Where  the  ground  is  not  occupied  by  the  usual  crops  of  North 
Bengal,  it  is  covered  with  an  abundant  natural  vegetation.  Old  river- 
beds, ponds  and  marshes,  and  streams  with  a  sluggish  current  have 
a  copious  vegetation  of  Vallisneria  and  other  plants.  Land  subject  to 
inundation  has  usually  a  covering  of  Tamarix  and  reedy  grasses,  and 
where  the  ground  is  marshy  Rosa  ittvolucrata  is  plentiful.  Few  trees 
are  found  on  these  inundated  lands  ;  the  most  plentiful  and  largest  is 
the  hidjal  {Barringionia  acutangula).  There  are  no  forests  ;  and  even 
on  the  higher  ground  the  trees  are  few  and  stunted,  and  the  surface 
is  covered  by  grasses,  such  as  Imperata  artmdinacea  and  Andropogon 
aciculatus.  Among  trees  the  most  conspicuous  is  the  red  cotton-tree 
or  setnal  {Bombax  malabaricum) ;  the  sissu  {Da/bergia  Sissoo)  and  the 
mango  occur  as  planted  or  sometimes  self-sown  species.  The  villages 
are  generally  buried  in  thickets  of  semi-spontaneous  and  more  or  less 
useful  trees. 

Tigers  are  occasionally  found  in  the  Barind  and  in  the  country 
south  of  the  Chalan  Bll,  but  they  are  nowhere  common.  Leopards 
have  greatly  diminished  in  numbers  in  recent  years.  Fish  abound  in 
all  the  rivers,  and  the  annual  value  of  the  Padma  fisheries  alone  has 
been  estimated  at  2  lakhs. 

Mean  temperature  increases  from  63°  in  January  to  85°  in  April, 
May,  and  June.  It  is  about  83°  during  the  monsoon  months,  falling 
to  72°  in  November  and  65°  in  December.  The  highest  average  maxi- 
mum is  96°  in  April,  and  the  lowest  average  minimum  51°  in  January. 
The  annual  rainfall  averages  57  inches,  of  w-hich  6-2  fall  in  May,  lo-i 
in  June,  11-7  in  July,  10-4  in  August,  and  10-4  in  September. 

The  earthquake  of  1897  was  very  severely  felt,  especially  in  the  east 
of  the  District.  Only  15  deaths  were  reported,  but  great  damage  was 
caused  to  property,  and  the  total  loss  to  Government  alone  was 
estimated  at  i^  lakhs.  Earth  fissures  occurred  in  many  places,  the 
roads  were  badly  cracked,  and  the  crops  damaged  by  surface  sub- 
sidences. 

Rajshahi  must  originally  have  formed  part  of  the  old  kingdom   of 


1 62  RAJSHAHI  DISTRICT 

PuNDRA  or  Paundravardhana,  the  country  of  the  Pods,  whose  capital 
was  at  Mahasthan.  Under  the  Sen  kings  this  was  known  as  the 
Barendra  Bhumi,  a  name  which  still  survives  in  the 
Barind  tract  already  referred  to.  Rajshahi  presents 
an  example  of  the  process  by  which  a  native  zamlnddri  has  been 
moulded  into  a  British  District.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  it 
was  granted  by  the  Muhammadans  to  Ramjiban,  the  founder  of  the 
Nator  family.  In  1728  the  zamlnddri  of  Rajshahi  extended  from 
Bhagalpur  on  the  west  to  Dacca  on  the  east,  and  included  a  large 
subdivision  called  Nij  Chakla  Rajshahi,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Padma,  which  stretched  across  Murshidabad  and  Nadia  as  far  as  the 
frontiers  of  Birbhum  and  Burdwan.  Rajshahi  thus  comprised  an  area 
of  13,000  square  miles,  and  paid  a  revenue  of  27  lakhs.  Unfortunately, 
however,  for  the  Nator  family,  the  estate  fell  under  the  management 
of  a  woman,  the  celebrated  Rani  Bhawani,  whose  charitable  grants  of 
rent-free  land  permanently  impoverished  her  ancestral  possessions. 
After  some  years  of  direct  management  by  Government  officers,  the 
Rani's  adopted  son  was  permitted  in  1790  to  engage  for  the  whole 
District  at  a  permanent  assessment  of  23  lakhs ;  but  the  strict  regula- 
tions which  were  then  introduced  for  the  recovery  of  revenue  arrears 
by  sale  of  the  defaulter's  estate  were  constantly  called  into  requisition 
against  the  Raja,  and  parcel  after  parcel  of  his  hereditary  property 
was  sold. 

Meanwhile  another  chain  of  circumstances  was  tending  to  dissolve 
the  integrity  of  the  original  District.  At  first  an  attempt  was  made  to 
administer  justice  through  a  single  Collector-Judge  and  Magistrate  with 
two  assistants,  one  stationed  at  Muradbagh,  near  Murshidabad,  and 
the  other  at  the  local  capital  of  Nator.  In  1793,  however,  a  general 
redistribution  of  Bengal  into  Districts  was  made,  and  the  extensive 
tract  lying  south  of  the  Padma  was  taken  from  the  parent  District  and 
divided  among  the  adjoining  jurisdictions  of  Murshidabad,  Nadia,  and 
Jessore.  The  prevalence  of  crime  in  the  remoter  parts  of  the  District 
rendered  further  reductions  necessary;  and  in  18 13  the  present  Dis- 
trict of  Malda  \\as  constituted  out  of  a  neglected  tract  in  the  west, 
towards  which  Rajshahi,  Dinajpur,  and  Purnea  all  contributed  their 
share;  Bogra  was  formed  in  a  similar  manner  in  182 1,  and  Pabna  in 
1832;  and  thus  Rajshahi  District  assumed  its  present  proportions. 

The  population  of  the  present  area  increased  from  1,423,592  in  1872 

to  1,450,776  in  1881,  but  fell  to  1,439,634  in  1891.     It  rose  again  to 

_       ,  ^.  1,462,407  in  iQoi,  but  the  growth  since  1872  is  little 

Population.        '-r     '-r  «         7     '  „r.  ,  -,  ■  .  I  , 

more  than  2  per  cent.     Rajshahi  is  one  of  the  most 

feverish  Districts  in  Bengal,  the  unhealthiest  portion  being  the  central 

and   eastern   tract   of  waterlogged   country  which   has   already   been 

described.     This  area  is  notoriously  malarious,  and  the  mortality  from 


POPULATION 


163 


fever  has  consistently  been  among  the  highest  recorded  in  Bengal. 
The  prevailing  disease  is  malarial  fever ;  but  cholera  and  dysentery  also 
claim  their  victims. 

The  chief  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901  are  shown  below  : — 


Subdivision. 


Rampiir  Boalia . 
Naogaon  , 
Nator 

District  total 


t 

Number  of 

rt 

cr-tfj 

tii  a; 

0) 

I 

H 

TZ 

< 

> 

910 

I 

2,271 

867 

2,346 

816 

I 
2 

1,727 

2,593 

6,344 

u 

IS 


56.^936  620 
476,072  549 
422,399  j  518 


1,462,407   I   564 


".=  ^  -    . 

4)         _   C-  - 

WC  goc  O 

«  0.2  -  O' 
<j"C  3  s  = 


-  1-3 

+    I2-I 

-  4.8 


16 


O   ttt   B  . 
S  O   11 


24,297 
20,211 
17,732 


62,240 


The  two  towns  are  Rampuk  Boalia,  the  headquarters,  and  Nator. 
The  density  would  be  far  greater  but  for  the  fact  that  the  District 
contains  a  large  portion  of  the  Barind  and  numerous  marshes  and 
lakes,  including  the  Chalan  Bll.  In  a  belt  of  country  running  from 
north  to  south  through  the  centre  of  the  District  the  population  is  as 
dense  as  in  almost  any  part  of  North  Bengal.  For  the  net  increase 
the  north  of  the  District  is  entirely  responsible.  In  the  Barind  the 
population  has  increased  since  1872  by  25-6  per  cent.,  and  in  the 
^dnj'a-gvomng  thanas  (Naogaon  and  Panchupur)  by  59*3  per  cent., 
while  in  the  decadent  southern  and  central  thdnas  there  has  been 
a  decrease  of  12-8  per  cent.  There  has  been  an  extension  of  immi- 
gration to  the  Barind  on  the  part  of  aboriginal  Santals,  Mundas,  and 
Oraons,  who  are  encouraged  to  break  down  and  clear  the  jungle  by 
the  zam'uiddrs.  They  are  allowed  to  occupy  waste  land  rent  free  for 
three  or  four  )ears  ;  and  they  then  move  on,  leaving  the  fields  they 
have  brought  under  cultivation  to  be  occupied  by  the  less  hardy  Hindu 
ryots,  who  would  shrink  from  undertaking  on  their  own  account  the 
irksome  task  of  reclamation.  There  has  been  a  considerable  drift  of 
population  within  the  District  from  the  unhealthy  waterlogged  tract 
to  the  healthier  and  more  prosperous  thdnas  in  the  Naogaon  sub- 
division. During  the  cold  season  numerous  /a/Xv'-bearers,  earth- 
workers,  and  field-labourers  visit  the  District,  and  their  presence  at 
the  time  of  the  Census  caused  a  large  excess  of  males  over  females. 
The  dialect  known  as  Northern  Bengali  is  the  vernacular  of  the 
District.  Muhammadans  number  1,135,202,  or  77-6  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  a  proportion  exceeded  only  in  the  neighbouring  District 
of  Bogra.  Hindus  (325,111)  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  re- 
mainder. 

The    majority  of  the    INiuhauunadans  are  Shaikhs,   and    there   can 


164 


RAJ  SHAH  I  DISTRICT 


be  little  doubt  that  the  majority  of  these,  together  with  the  functional 
groups  of  Jolahas  (18,000)  and  Kulus  (15,000),  are  descendants  of 
converts  from  the  Chandal  and  Koch  communities,  which  are,  after 
the  Kaibarttas  (66,000),  still  the  most  numerous  Hindu  castes  in  the 
District.  Of  the  total  population,  73  per  cent,  are  supported  by  agri- 
culture, 12-7  per  cent,  by  industry,  5-5  by  unskilled  labour,  and  only 
0-5  and  1-5  per  cent,  by  commerce  and  the  professions  respectively. 

A  Presbyterian  mission  began  work  in  1862  and  maintains  a  hospital 
and  dispensary,  an  orphanage,  and  schools.  The  number  of  native 
Christians  is  309. 

In  the  Barind  the  only  crop  grown  is  winter  rice ;  but  the  grey  sandy 

soil  of  the  Gangetic  thdnas  supports  a  variety  of  crops,  and  the  black 

loam   which   is   found   elsewhere   is  also   extremely 

Agriculture.      ^q^^[\q^     jn  the  two  thdnas  of  Naogaon  and  Panchu- 

pur  the  land  is  somewhat  higher  and  the  drainage  less  obstructed 
than  in  the  rest  of  the  tract. 

The  chief  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  reproduced  below, 
areas  being  in  square  miles :— 


Subdivision. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Rampur  Boalia    . 

Naogaon 
Nator 

Total 

910 

867 
816 

599 

574 
539 

32 

31 
29 

2,593 

1,712 

92 

Rice  is  everywhere  the  staple  crop,  being  grown  on  1,458  square 
miles  or  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  net  cropped  area.  The  early  rice 
is  sown  broadcast  on  comparatively  high  lands  at  the  time  of  the  spring 
showers,  and  is  reaped  from  July  to  September.  The  better  kinds  of 
winter  rice  are  first  sown  in  nurseries,  whence  the  seedlings  are  after- 
wards transplanted  to  low  lands;  this  crop  is  harvested  in  November 
and  December.  The  coarser  varieties  of  long-stemmed  rice  are  sown 
in  the  beds  of  marshes  and  in  very  low-lying  land ;  the  stem  grows  with 
the  rising  of  the  water,  and  the  grain  reaches  maturity  about  the  end 
of  December.  The  winter  crop  forms  about  7  7  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
and  the  autumn  crop  about  18^  per  cent.;  while  the  spring  crop  grown 
on  marsh  lands  contributes  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  total 
out-turn.  Various  pulses  (215-6  square  miles)  and  oilseeds  (149  square 
miles)  are  raised,  chiefly  from  the  autumn  rice-fields  during  the  cold 
season.  In  addition,  wheat  (97  square  miles),  barley,  oats,  tobacco, 
sugar  cane,  and  maize  are  grown  to  some  extent.  Of  the  non-food 
crops,  jute  (131  square  miles)  is  the  most  important.  Betel-leaf  is 
e.xported  to  North  Bengal  and  Calcutta.     Indigo  and  mulberry  used 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  165 

to  be  grown  largely ;  but  the  former  has  entirely  disappeared,  while  the 
latter  has  for  many  years  been  declining,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of 
silkworm  epidemics.  In  order  to  revive  the  silk  industry,  a  sericultural 
school  has  been  opened  at  Rampur  Boalia,  which  supplies  the  Bengal 
Silk  Committee  with  trained  sericultural  overseers  and  also  trains 
rearers'  sons  in  the  microscopical  examination  of  seed.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  gdnja  is  carried  on  in  a  small  tract  of  76  square  miles  in  the 
Naogaon  and  Panchupur  thanas,  which  supplies  not  merely  the  needs 
of  the  whole  of  Bengal,  but  also  those  of  Assam  and  of  a  part  of  the 
United  Provinces  ;  some  is  also  exported  to  Native  States,  and  a  small 
quantity  is  shipped  to  London,  whence  it  is  passed  on  to  the  West 
Indies.  The  area  cultivated  varies  from  year  to  year,  the  average  being 
812  acres  with  a  normal  out-turn  of  6,952  maunds.  The  maximum 
area  w'hich  may  be  cultivated  in  any  year  is  at  present  fixed  by  the 
Government  of  India  at  976  acres,  but  this  limit  is  subject  to  periodical 
revision. 

Little  waste  land  now  remains  except  in  the  Barind,  where  it  is 
rapidly  being  reclaimed.  Scarcely  any  use  is  made  of  the  Land  Im- 
provement and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts,  but  in  1897  advances  were 
made  to  the  extent  of  Rs.  19,000. 

The  local  cattle  are  poor,  probably  on  account  of  the  deficiency  of 
pasture  and  the  absence  of  any  attempts  to  improve  the  breed.     Two' 
very  old  fairs  are  held  at  Khetur  and  Manda.     These  are  attended 
by  from  25,000  to  28,000  persons,  and  take  place  in  October  and  April 
respectively. 

Owing  to  the  copious  and  regular  rainfall  and  the  annual  rise  of  the 
rivers  in  the  rainy  season,  artificial  irrigation  is  rarely  necessary,  but 
it  is  occasionally  practised  on  a  small  scale  from  the  nearest  tank  or 
watercourse. 

Cotton-weaving  is  a  decadent  industry,  but  it  still  gives  employment 
to  over  2,000  persons  ;  cotton  cloths  are  printed  and  dyed  at  Rampur 
Boalia.  Copper,  brass,  and  bell-metal  utensils  are 
produced  at  Kalam  and  Budhpara  in  the  Nator  communications. 
subdivision,  and  pottery  for  domestic  use  and  brick 
rings  for  earthen  wells  are  also  manufactured  in  the  former  village. 
Reed  mats  are  made  at  Naogaon  for  local  consumption.  Silk  is  the 
most  important  industry  of  Rajshahi,  as  well  as  of  the  neighbouring 
Districts  of  Murshidabad  and  Malda,  and  silk-spinning  and  weaving 
have  been  carried  on  in  the  District  for  centuries.  The  East  India 
Company  established  a  factory  at  Rajshahi  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  in  1832  the  Company  had  two  factories,  each  the  seat  of  a  Com- 
mercial Resident ;  the  Residency  at  Rampur  Boalia  was  subsequently 
purchased  by  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Watson  &  Co.  The  out-turn  of  the 
several  filatures  was  formerly  as  much  as  400,000  lb.  of  raw  silk,  valued 


1 66  RAJSHAHI  DISTRICT 

at  37  lakhs;  but  the  average  production  for  the  three  years  ending 
1 899-1 900  was  only  96,684  lb.,  valued  at  8-2  lakhs,  and  in  1903-4 
the  quantity  manufactured  fell  to  67,790  lb.  The  bulk  of  the  silk  is 
exported  to  Europe,  where  it  commands  a  ready  sale  at  prices  some- 
what lower  than  silk  from  continental  worms  ;  it  is  used  largely  in 
the  manufacture  of  silk  hats.  Some  of  the  native  spun  silk  is  woven 
into  a  coarse  cloth,  called  matkd,  for  local  use.  In  1901  there  were 
three  European  silk  factories — at  Sarda,  Kajla,  and  Sarail — each 
possessing  subordinate  filatures ;  and  the  industry  supported  over 
41,000  persons. 

The  bulk  of  the  trade  is  with  Calcutta,  the  chief  exports  being  jute, 
rice,  pulses,  silk,  and  gdnja,  and  the  chief  imports  European  piece-goods, 
salt,  sugar,  and  kerosene  oil.  The  principal  marts  are  Sultanganj, 
GoDAGARi,  Rampur  Boalia,  and  Charghat  on  the  Padma ;  Chang- 
dhupail  and  Gurudaspur  on  the  Baral ;  Kallganj  on  one  of  the  feeders 
of  the  Chalan  Bil ;  Prasadpur  on  the  Atrai ;  and  Naogaon  on  the 
Jamuna.  At  Lakshmanhati  an  extensive  business  is  done  in  the  sale 
and  hire  of  sugar-cane  mills  and  evaporating  pans. 

The  northern  section  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  intersects 
the  District  from  north  to  south.  Including  747  miles  of  village  roads, 
the  District  contains  (1904)  1,299  niiles  of  roads,  of  which  42  miles 
are  metalled.  The  most  important  are  those  leading  from  Rampur 
Boalia  northward  to  Naohata,  via  Baya,  eastward  via  Nator  to  Bogra, 
and  south-east  to  Pabna,  north-westwards  to  Malda  through  Godagari, 
and  northward  from  Godagari  to  Dinajpur. 

Road  traffic  is  gradually  increasing  as  the  natural  watercourses  silt 
up ;  but  the  rivers  still  provide  the  chief  means  of  communication, 
especially  during  the  rains,  when  there  are  few  villages  in  the  north 
and  east  of  the  District  which  cannot  be  approached  by  water.  The 
daily  steamer  services  which  ply  from  Goalundo  up  the  Padma  stop 
at  Charghat,  Rampur  Boalia,  and  Godagari  for  passengers  and  cargo, 
and  a  branch  service  up  the  Mahananda  river  connects  Godagari  with 
]\lalda. 

The  famine  of  1874  caused  some  distress,  which  was,  however, 
relieved  by  the  import  of  grain.  Relief  works  were  again  necessary 
in  1897,  but  only  on  a  small  scale. 

For  general  administrative  purposes,  the  District  is  divided  into  three 

subdivisions,  with  head-quarters  at  Rampur   Boalia,  Naogaon,  and 

.  ,    .  .        .         Nator.      Rampur    Boalia   was   formerly   the   head- 
Admimstration.  ^  r  .u      t^-   ••  n  r    1       t^-      - 

quarters  01  the  Division  as  well  as  of  the   District, 

but  in  1888  the  Commissioner's  winter  head-quarters  were  transferred 
to  the  more  accessible  station  of  Jalpaiguri.  The  staff  subordinate 
to  the  District  Magistrate-Collector  consists  of  an  Assistant  Magistrate- 
Collector,  five  Deputy-Magistrate-Collecturs,  two  of  whom  are  in  charge 


ADMTNISTRA  TION 


167 


of  the  subdivisions  of  Naogaon  and  Nator,  the  others  being  stationed 
at  head-quarters,  and  four  Sub-Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors,  two  of 
whom  are  stationed  at  Nator  and  two  at  Naogaon. 

For  civil  work  there  are  the  courts  of  the  District  and  Sessions 
Judge,  who  is  also  Judge  of  Malda,  a  Sub-Judge  and  four  Munsifs, 
two  being  stationed  at  Nator  and  one  at  each  of  the  other  subdivisional 
head-quarters.  The  criminal  courts  include  those  of  the  Sessions 
Judge,  District  Magistrate,  and  the  Assistant,  Deputy,  and  Sub-Deputy 
Magistrates.  The  majority  of  the  cases  before  the  courts  arise  out 
of  disputes  about  land. 

An  account  of  the  land  revenue  history  has  been  included  in  the 
paragraph  on  the  general  history  of  the  District.  The  current  demand 
in  1903-4  was  10-26  lakhs,  payable  by  1,639  estates,  of  which  1,592, 
with  a  demand  of  iciS  lakhs,  were  permanently  settled,  20  small 
estates  were  temporarily  settled,  and  27  were  managed  direct  by 
Government.  The  average  revenue  per  cultivated  acre  is  R.  0-13-11, 
or  rather  above  the  average  of  R.  0-13-2  per  acre  for  the  whole  of 
Bengal.  The  revenue  represents  about  28  per  cent,  of  the  rental  of 
the  District.  Rent  rates  vary  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  9  per  acre,  the  higher 
figure  being  paid  for  mulberry,  sugar-cane,  ganja,  and  garden  lands. 

The  following  table  shows  the  collections  of  land  revenue  and  total 
revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

i8go-i. 

IQOO-I. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue     . 
Total  revenue     . 

9,25 
12,96 

9>04 
13,72 

10,26 
16,22 

10,12 
16,46 

Outside  the  municipalities  of  Rampur  Boalia  and  Nator,  local 
affairs  "are  managed  by  the  District  board,  with  a  subordinate  local 
board  in  each  subdivision.  In  1903-4  the  income  of  the  District  board 
was  Rs.  1,71,000,  of  which  Rs.  90,000  was  derived  from  rates;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  1,64,000,  including  Rs.  79,000  spent  on  public 
works  and  Rs.  44,000  on  education. 

The  District  contains  20  thdjias  or  police  stations  and  2  outposts. 
The  force  under  the  District  Superintendent  consisted  in  1903  of  3 
inspectors,  38  sub-inspectors,  30  head  constables,  and  402  constables. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  was  a  rural  police  force  of  3,444  chaukldars. 
and  319  daffadars.  A  Central  jail  at  Rampur  Boalia  has  accommo- 
dation for  872  prisoners,  and  sub-jails  at  the  other  subdivisions  for  30. 

Rajshahi  is  backward  in  educational  matters,  only  4-3  per  cent,  of 
the  population  (8  males  and  0-4  females)  being  able  to  read  and  write 
in  1 90 1.     The  total  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  increased  from 
14,227  in   1892-3  to  21,423  in  1900-1,  while  22,581  boys  and   1,481 
girls  were  at  school  in  1903-4,  being  respectively  20-2  and  1-3  per  cent. 


i68  RAJSHAHI  DISTRICT 

of  those  of  school-going  age.  The  number  of  educational  institutions, 
public  and  private,  in  that  year  was  719,  including  an  Arts  college, 
35  secondary  schools,  and  664  primary  schools.  The  expenditure  on 
education  was  1-73  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  19,000  was  met  from  Provincial 
funds,  Rs.  41,000  from  District  funds,  Rs.  1,300  from  municipal  funds, 
and  Rs.  70,000  from  fees.  The  chief  educational  institutions  are  in 
Rampur  Boalia,  including  the  Rajshahi  College  and  the  sericultural 
school. 

In  1903  the  District  contained  17  dispensaries,  of  which  4  had 
accommodation  for  64  in-patients.  At  these  the  cases  of  103,000  out- 
patients and  748  in-patients  were  treated  during  the  year,  and  3,038 
operations  were  performed.  The  expenditure  was  Rs.  40,000,  of  which 
Rs,  1,500  was  met  from  Government  contributions,  Rs.  14,000  from 
Local  and  Rs.  7,000  from  municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  12,000  from  sub- 
scriptions. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  within  the  municipalities  of  Rampur 
Boalia  and  Nator.  The  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in 
1903-4  was  52,000,  representing  36  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[Sir  W.  W.  Hunter,  Statistical  Accoimt  of  Bengal,  vol.  viii  (1877).] 

Rajula.— Town  in  the  State  of  Bhaunagar,  Kathiawar,  Bombay, 
situated  in  21°  3'  N.  and  71°  30'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,150. 
Rajula  has  for  many  years  been  a  centre  of  local  trade,  and  its  build- 
ing stone  is  largely  used  in  the  State.  About  8  miles  north-east  of  the 
town  is  the  striking  hill  of  Babariadhar,  crowned  by  a  rude  stone  fort, 
which  half  a  century  ago  was  a  favourite  haunt  of  lions.  The  exports 
consist  chiefly  of  cotton  and  building- stone,  and  the  imports  of  grain, 
timber,  and  piece-goods. 

Rajura. — Taluk  in  Adilabad  District,  Hyderabad  State,  with  an 
area  of  595  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901,  including  yao^T/-^, 
was  24,807,  compared  with  25,677  in  1891,  the  decrease  being  due  to 
emigration  to  more  favoured  parts  of  Sirpur  and  Adilabad.  The  taluk 
contains  128  villages,  of  which  29  are  y<7§-7/-,  and  Rajura  (population, 
2,213)  is  the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  in  1901  was  Rs.  38,200. 
Rajura  is  very  thinly  populated,  containing  extensive  areas  of  cultiv- 
able waste  and  forest. 

Rakhabh  Dev. — Walled  village  in  the  Magra  zila  of  the  State  of 
Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  24°  5'  N.  and  73°  42'  E.,  in  the  midst 
of  hills,  about  40  miles  south  of  Udaipur  city,  and  10  miles  north-east 
of  the  cantonment  of  Kherwara.  Population  (1901),  2,174.  A  small 
school  here,  originally  started  for  the  benefit  of  the  Bhils,  is  attended 
by  about  40  boys,  half  of  whom  are  of  this  tribe.  Serpentine  of  a  dull 
green  colour  is  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  worked  into  efifigies 
and  vessels  of  domestic  use,  which  are  sold  to  the  numerous  pilgrims 
who  visit  the  place.     The  famous  Jain  temple,  sacred  to  Adinath  or 


I 


RAMAGIRI  169 

Rakhabhnath,  is  annually  visited  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all 
parts  of  Rajputana  and  Gujarat.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  age 
of  this  building,  but  three  inscriptions  mention  that  it  was  repaired  in 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  principal  image  is  of  black 
marble  and  is  in  a  sitting  posture  about  three  feet  in  height ;  it  is  said 
to  have  been  brought  from  Gujarat  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Hindus,  as  well  as  Jains,  worship  the  divinity,  the  former 
regarding  him  as  one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu  and  the  latter  as 
one  of  the  twenty-four  Tirthankars  or  hierarchs  of  Jainism.  The  Bhils 
call  him  Kalajl,  from  the  colour  of  the  image,  and  have  great  faith  in 
him.  Another  name  is  Kesaryajl,  from  the  saffron  {kesa?-)  with  which 
pilgrims  besmear  the  idol.  Every  votary  is  entitled  to  wash  off  the 
paste  applied  by  a  previous  worshipper,  and  in  this  way  saffron  worth 
thousands  of  rupees  is  offered  to  the  god  annually. 
[Itidian  Antiquary,  vol.  i.] 

Rakhshan. — River  in  Baluchistan,  rising  near  Shireza,  a  point  close 
to  the  eastern  junction  of  the  Central  Makran  and  Siahan  ranges. 
It  traverses  Panjgur,  on  the  west  of  which  it  is  joined  by  the  Gwargo 
stream.  It  then  turns  northward,  and  joining  the  Mashkel  river  from 
Persia  in  27°  10'  N.  and  63°  27'  E.,  bursts  through  the  Siahan  range  by 
the  fine  defiles  of  Tank-i-Grawag  and  Tank-i-Zurrati,  and  runs  under  the 
latter  name  along  the  western  side  of  Kharan  to  the  Hamun-i-Mashkel. 
Its  total  length  is  258  miles.  Water  from  the  Rakhshan  is  used  for 
irrigation  in  Nag-i-Kalat,  Panjgur,  and  Dehgwar  in  Kharan. 

Ramachandrapuram  Taluk. —  Taluk  in  the  delta  of  Godavari 
District,  Madras,  lying  between  16°  41'  and  17°  3'  N.  and  81°  49'  and 
82°  13'  E.,  with  an  area  of  296  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  220,356,  compared  with  198,596  in  1901.  It  contains  one  town, 
Mandapet.\  (population,  8,380),  and  117  villages,  Ramachandrapuram 
being  the  head-quarters.  The  demand  on  account  of  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  11,60,000.  The  taluk  is  the  most 
densely  populated  and  the  richest  in  the  District.  Its  soil  is  classed 
almost  entirely  as  alluvial,  and  it  is  irrigated  by  numerous  canals.  The 
little  French  Settlement  of  Yanam  is  situated  within  it ;  while  Koti- 
palli  and  Draksharama,  two  of  its  villages,  are  well-known  places  of 
pilgrimage. 

Ramagiri.— Agency  fdluk  in  the  west  of  Ganjam  District,  Madras, 
with  an  area  of  1,191  square  miles.  The  population,  consisting  mostly 
of  Savaras,  was  74,393  in  1901,  compared  with  64,143  in  1891.  They 
live  in  542  villages.  No  land  revenue  is  realized,  except  a  nazardna  of 
Rs.  593  paid  by  the  zammddrs  of  Peddakimedi  and  Surangi  and  four 
patros  (headmen).  The  head-quarters  are  at  Ramagiri-Udayagiri,  which 
is  connected  with  Berhampur  by  a  good  road.  Ramagiri  is  the  most 
sparsely  populated   taluk  in  the   District  and    the  worst   in   point  ot 


lyo  RAMAGTRl 

climate.  Timber  and  other  hill  produce  are  exported,  but  the  supply 
of  good  sal  trees  in  accessible  positions  is  very  limited.  Excellent 
oranges  are  grown.  The  western  part  of  the  tdlnk  is  very  mountainous 
and  difficult  of  access. 

Ramallakota  (literally,  'diamond  fort'). — Tdbik  of  Kurnool  Dis- 
trict, Madras,  lying  between  15°  18'  and  15°  55'  N.  and  77"  36'  and 
78°  10'  E.,  with  an  area  of  846  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  142,855,  compared  with  124,971  in  1891.  Musalmans  are  more 
numerous  than  in  any  other  taluk  of  the  District ;  half  of  them  are 
residents  of  Kurnool  town.  The  density  is  169  persons  per  square 
mile,  compared  with  the  District  average  of  115.  It  contains  one 
town,  Kurnool  (a  municipality  with  a  population  of  25,376,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  tdlnk  and  District),  and  106  villages  (inclusive  of  7 
'whole  mams'').  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  2,66,000.  On  the  north  the  Tungabhadra  forms  the 
boundary,  separating  it  from  the  Nizam's  Dominions.  The  only  other 
river  is  the  Hindri,  which,  with  its  tributaries  the  Dhone  Vagu  and 
Hukri,  drains  the  whole  tdlnk  and  ultimately  falls  into  the  Tungabhadra 
at  Kurnool.  The  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  takes  off  from  the 
Tungabhadra  at  Sunkesula  in  this  tdhik  and  is  led  along  the  northern 
portion  of  it,  irrigating  about  3,300  acres.  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
28  inches,  about  three-fourths  of  which  is  received  during  the  south- 
west monsoon.  Most  of  the  taluk  is  covered  with  black  cotton  soil. 
It  contains  65  square  miles  of  '  reserved '  forests,  almost  the  whole  of 
which  is  on  the  Erramalas. 

Ramanadapuram. — Subdivision,  zatmnddri  fahsil,  estate,  and  town 
in  Madura  District,  Madras.     See  Ramnad. 

Ramandrug. — Sanitarium  of  Bellary,  situated  in  15°  8'  N.  and 
"76°  30'  E.,  within  the  limits  of  the  Native  State  of  Sandur,  attached 
to  the  Madras  Presidency.  Criminal  jurisdiction  has  been  made  over 
by  the  Raja  to  the  Madras  Government  (with  certain  restrictions),  and 
affairs  within  it  are  controlled  by  the  Collector  of  Bellary.  The 
sanitarium  consists  of  a  small  plateau,  li  miles  long  by  half  a  mile 
wide,  on  the  top  of  the  southern  of  the  two  ranges  of  hill  which  enclose 
the  valley  of  Sandur.  It  is  3,256  feet  above  the  sea  and  about  1,400  feet 
above  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  On  all  sides  the  ground  falls  sharply 
away  ;  and  this  characteristic,  though  it  affords  numerous  excellent  views 
into  the  Sandur  valley  on  the  one  side  and  over  the  western  taluks  of 
Bellary  as  far  as  the  Tungabhadra  on  the  other,  gives  the  place  a 
cramped  air  which  the  various  paths  cut  along  the  hill-sides  do  not 
serve  to  remove.  The  place  is  called  after  the  village  and  fort  of  the 
same  name  which  stand  at  the  southern  end  of  the  plateau.  Remains 
of  the  old  defences,  in  the  shape  of  a  considerable  wall  of  enormous 
blocks  of  stone,  are  still  visible.     Local  tradition  says  they  were  built 


RAMBHA  1 7 1 

by,  and  named  after,  a  poligdr  called  Komara  Rama,  who  is  still  a 
popular  hero,  A  favourite  play  in  Sandur  is  one  in  which  his  step- 
mother treats  him  as  Potiphar's  wife  did  Joseph,  but  in  which  his 
innocence  is  ultimately  established.  The  buildings  on  the  plateau 
include  barracks,  a  hospital,  «S:c.,  built  in  1855  and  designed  to  accom- 
modate about  70  soldiers ;  and  some  fifteen  bungalows  belonging  to 
various  residents  of  Bellary.  Two  carriage  roads  run  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  station.  There  are  several  mineral  springs  in  it.  A 
short  distance  down  the  cliff  on  the  southern  side  is  a  cave  leading 
into  a  passage,  which  has  been  followed  a  great  distance  into  the  hill. 
The  annual  rainfall  averages  39  inches,  and  the  temperature  is  12° 
cooler  than  that  of  Bellary.  The  mean  for  April  and  May  is  about 
80°,  and  the  highest  figure  on  record  in  the  hottest  months  is  87°  in 
the  shade.  During  the  south-west  monsoon  the  chilly  fogs  which  wrap 
the  place  about  from  sunset  to  10  a.m.,  and  often  later,  make  fires 
almost  a  necessity. 

Three  roads  lead  to  the  station :  one  from  Bavihalli,  a  village  on  the 
road  between  Sandur  and  Hospet ;  a  second  from  Hospet ;  and  the 
third  from  Narayanadevarakeri.  They  are  all  practicable  for  carts. 
The  first  was  the  usual  route  from  Bellary  before  the  railway  line  was 
extended  to  Hospet.  The  second  road,  that  from  Hospet,  is  now  the 
usual  route,  the  distance  from  the  railway  station  being  14  miles. 
Europeans  reside  in  the  station  only  in  the  hotter  months  from  March 
to  June.  A  sub-magistrate  is  stationed  here  during  this  period.  For 
the  rest  of  the  year  the  place  is  deserted,  except  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  village  of  Ramandrug. 

Ramanka. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Ramas.— Petty  State  in  MahI  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Ramayampet. — Former  taluk  in  Medak  District,  Hyderabad  State, 
with  an  area  of  403  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901,  including 
jdglrs,  was  75,364,  compared  with  73,217  in  1891.  The  land  revenue 
in  190 1  was  2-8  lakhs.  In  1905  the  taluk  was  split  up,  and  its  villages 
transferred  to  the  Medak  taluk  of  this  District  and  the  Kamareddipet 
taluk  of  Nizamabad. 

Rambha. — Village  in  the  Ganjam  tahsil  of  Ganjam  District,  Madras, 
situated  in  19°  31"  N.  and  85°  Y  E.,  on  the  trunk  road  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Chilka  Lake.  Population  (1901),  4,028.  While  Ganjam  was 
still  the  head-quarters  of  the  District  and  contained  a  garrison,  Rambha 
was  a  favourite  resort  of  the  Europeans  who  lived  there ;  and  a  large 
two-storeyed  house,  built  by  a  former  Collector  in  1792  and  now 
belonging  to  the  Raja  of  Kallikota,  stands  in  a  beautiful  situation 
overlooking  the  Chilka  Lake.  The  chief  trade  consists  in  the  impor- 
tation of  large  quantities  of  rice  from  Orissa  by  boats  across  the  lake 
and  the  exportation  of  prawns  to  Rangoon. 

VOL.  XXI.  M 


172  KAMBRAI 

Rambrai. — Petty  State  in  the  Khasi  Hills,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam.  The  population  in  1901  was  2,697,  ^^^  the  gross  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  600.  The  principal  products  are  rice,  millet,  cotton, 
and  maize. 

Ramdiirg  State.— State  under  the  Political  Agent  of  Kolhapur  and 
the  Southern  Maratha  Jagirs,  Bombay,  with  an  area  of  169  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Torgal  subdivision  of  Kolhapur 
State ;  on  the  south  by  Nargund  in  Dharwar  District ;  on  the  east 
by  the  Badami  tdluka  of  Bijapur  District ;  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Navalgund  tdluka  of  Dharwar  District.  The  population  in  1901  was 
37,848,  dwelling  in  2  towns,  of  which  the  larger  is  Ramdurg  (popu- 
lation, 9,452),  the  head-quarters,  <ind  37  villages.  Hindus  number 
35,072  and  Muhammadans  2,716. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  country  is  that  of  a  plain  surrounded 
by  undulating  lands  and  occasionally  intersected  by  ranges  of  hills. 
The  prevailing  soil  is  rich  black.  The  Malprabha  river  flows  through 
the  State,  and  is  utilized  for  irrigation.  The  staple  crops  are  wheal, 
^xnm,  Joivdr,  and  cotton.  Coarse  cotton  cloth  is  the  principal  manu- 
facture. The  climate  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Deccan  generally,  the 
heat  from  March  to  May  being  oppressive. 

Nargund  and  Ramdurg,  two  strong  forts  in  the  Kanarese-speaking 
country,  were  occupied  by  the  Marathas  in  their  early  struggles  ;  and, 
by  favour  of  the  Peshwas,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Ramdurg  family 
were  placed  in  charge  of  them.  About  1753  the  estates  yielded 
2\  lakhs  and  were  required  to  furnish  a  contingent  of  350  horsemen. 
They  were  held  on  these  terms  until  1778,  when  the  country  was 
brought  under  subjection  by  Haidar  All.  In  1784  Tipu  Sultan  made 
further  demands.  These  were  resisted,  and,  in  consequence,  the  fort 
of  Ramdurg  was  blockaded  by  I'ipu.  After  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
Venkat  Rao  of  Nargund  surrendered,  and,  in  violation  of  the  terms 
of  capitulation,  was  carried  off  a  prisoner  with  his  whole  family  into 
Mysore.  On  the  fall  of  Seringapatam  in  1799  Venkat  Rao  was 
released,  and  the  Peshwa  restored  to  him  Nargund  and  lands  yielding 
i^  lakhs,  and  granted  to  Ram  Rao  the  fort  of  Ramdurg,  with  lands 
yielding  Rs.  26,000.  The  two  branches  of  the  family  continued  to 
enjoy  their  respective  States  till  1810,  when  the  Peshwa  made  a  new 
division  of  the  lands,  in  equal  shares,  between  Venkat  Rao  and 
Narayan  Rao,  the  sons  of  Ram  Rao.  On  the  fall  of  the  Peshwa  in 
1818,  the  estates  were  continued  to  these  two  chiefs  by  an  engagement. 
Nargund  subsequently  lapsed,  and  is  now  included  in  the  Navalgund 
tdluka  of  Dharwar  District. 

The  chief,  who  is  a  Konkanasth  Brahman,  ranks  as  a  first-class 
Sardar  in  the  Southern  Maratha  Country,  and  has  power  to  try  his 
own    subjects  for  capital    offences.     He  enjoys  a  revenue  of  nearly 


RAMES  WAR  AM  1 7  3 

2  lakhs.  The  family  of  the  chief  hold  a  sanad  authorizing  adoption, 
and  follow  the  rule  of  primogeniture.  There  are  two  nmnicipalities, 
with  an  aggregate  income  in  1903-4  of  Rs.  6,280.  In  the  same  year 
the  police  force  numbered  80,  and  the  only  jail  had  a  daily  average  of 
31  prisoners.  The  State  contained  17  schools  in  1903-4,  with  1,059 
pupils.  Two  dispensaries  were  attended  by  about  11,000  patients  in 
the  same  year,  and  nearly  900  persons  were  vaccinated. 

Ramdurg  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  Ramdurg,  Bombay, 
situated  in  15°  5'  N.  and  75°  2'  E.  Population  (1901),  9,452.  The 
forts  of  Ramdurg  and  Nargund  are  said  to  have  been  built  by  Sivaji. 
Hand-woven  cloth  is  exported  from  the  town,  which  is  administered  as 
a  municipality  with  an  income  in  1903-4  of  Rs.  4,000.  It  contains 
a  dispensary. 

Rameswaram. — Town  in  Madura  District,  Madras,  situated  in 
9°  17'  N.  and  79°  19'  E.,  on  the  island  of  Pamban.  Population  (1901), 
6,632.  It  contains  one  of  the  most  venerated  Hindu  shrines  in  India, 
which  was  founded,  according  to  tradition,  by  Rama  himself  as  a  thank- 
offering  for  his  success  in  his  expedition  against  Ravana,  the  ten-headed 
king  of  Ceylon,  who  had  carried  off  his  wife,  Sita.  For  centuries  the 
temple  has  been  the  resort  of  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
India ;  and  until  recently  they  had  to  traverse  on  foot  the  inhospitable 
wastes  of  the  Ramnad  estate  which  separated  it  from  the  nearest 
railway  station  at  Madura.  The  pilgrimage  is  now  rendered  easy  by 
the  railway  which  has  lately  been  built  from  that  place  to  Mandapam, 
a  point  on  the  mainland  facing  the  town  of  Pamban,  8  miles  from 
Rameswaram. 

The  great  temple  stands  on  slightly  rising  ground  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  island.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangular 
enclosure,  650  feet  broad  by  about  1,000  feet  long,  and  is  entered  by 
a  gateway  surmounted  by  a  gopuram  or  tower  100  feet  high.  The 
oldest  portion  is  built  of  a  dark  and  hard  limestone,  traditionally  said 
to  have  been  brought  from  Ceylon,  while  the  more  modern  parts  are 
constructed  of  a  friable  sandstone  quarried  in  the  island  itself.  The 
inwiix  prnkdnxm  or  corridor  is  ascribed  to  the  piety  of  an  early  Madura 
Naik,  while  the  outer  iiiantapani  was  the  work  of  two  of  the  Ranmad 
chiefs  or  Setupatis,  with  the  history  of  whose  line,  as  the  '  lords  of 
the  causeway '  leading  from  the  mainland  to  Pamban  Island  and  the 
protectors  of  the  pilgrims,  the  history  of  the  temple  has  for  centuries 
been  intimately  connected. 

Mr.  Fergusson,  in  his  History  of  Indian  Architecture,  thus  describes 
the  building  : — 

'  If  it  were  proposed  to  select  one  temple  which  should  exhibit  all 
the  beauties  of  llie  Dravidian  style  in  their  greatest  perfection  and  at 
the  same  time  exemplify  all  ils  characteristic  defects  of  design,  the 

M  2 


1 7  4  RAMES  WAR  AM 

choice  would  almost  invariably  fall  upon  that  at  Rameswaram.  In  no 
other  temple  has  the  same  amount  of  patient  industry  been  exhibited 
as  here ;  and  in  none  unfortunately  has  that  labour  been  so  thrown 
away,  for  want  of  a  design  appropriate  to  its  display.  It  is  not  that 
this  temple  has  grown  by  successive  increments  ;  it  was  begun  and 
finished  on  a  previously  settled  plan,  as  regularly  and  undeviatingly 
carried  out  as  Tanjore,  but  on  a  principle  so  diametrically  opposed  to 
it  that,  while  the  temple  at  Tanjore  produces  an  effect  greater  than 
is  due  to  its  mass  or  detail,  this  one,  with  double  its  dimensions  and 
ten  times  its  elaboration,  produces  no  effect  externally,  and  internally 
can  only  be  seen  in  detail,  so  that  the  parts  hardly  in  any  instance 
aid  one  another  in  producing  the  effect  aimed  at. 

'  Externally,  the  temple  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  20  feet  in  height  with 
iovLx  gopitrams,  one  on  each  face,  which  have  this  peculiarity,  that  they 
alone,  of  all  those  I  know  in  India,  are  built  wholly  of  stone  from  the 
base  to  the  summit.  The  western  one  alone,  however,  is  finished. 
Those  on  the  north  and  south  are  hardly  higher  than  the  wall  in  which 
they  stand,  and  are  consequently  called  the  ruined  gateways.  Partly 
from  their  form,  but  more  from  the  solidity  of  their  construction, 
nothing  but  an  earthquake  could  well  damage  them.  They  have  never 
been  raised  higher,  and  their  progress  was  probably  stopped  in  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century,  when  Muhammadans,  Marathas,  and 
other  foreign  invaders  checked  the  prosperity  of  the  land,  and  destroyed 
the  wealth  of  the  priesthood.  The  eastern  fagade  has  two  entrances 
and  two  gopurams.  The  glory  of  the  temple,  however,  is  in  its  corri- 
dors. These  extend  to  a  total  length  of  nearly  4,000  feet.  Their 
breadth  varies  from  20  feet  to  30  feet  of  free  floor  space,  and  their 
height  is  apparently  about  30  feet  from  the  floor  to  the  centre  of  the 
roof.  Each  pillar  or  pier  is  compound,  and  richer  and  more  elaborate 
in  design  than  those  of  the  Parvati  porch  at  Chidambaram,  and 
certainly  more  modern  in  date. 

'  None  of  our  English  cathedrals  is  more  than  500  feet  long,  and 
even  the  nave  of  St.  Peter's  is  only  600  feet  from  the  door  to  the  apse. 
Here  the  side  corridors  are  700  feet  long,  and  open  into  transverse 
galleries  as  rich  in  detail  as  themselves.  These,  with  the  varied  devices 
and  modes  of  lighting,  produce  an  effect  that  is  not  equalled  certainly 
anywhere  in  India.  The  side  corridors  are  generally  free  from  figure 
sculpture,  and  consequently  from  much  of  the  vulgarity  of  the  age 
to  which  they  belong,  and,  though  narrower,  produce  a  more  pleasing 
effect.  The  central  corridor  leading  from  the  sanctuary  is  adorned 
on  one  side  by  portraits  of  the  Rajas  of  Ramnad  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and,  opposite  them,  of  their  secretaries.  Even  they,  however, 
would  be  tolerable,  were  it  not  that  within  the  last  few  years  they  have 
been  painted  with  a  vulgarity  that  is  inconceivable  on  the  part  of  the 
descendants  of  those  who  built  this  fane.  Not  only  these,  but  the  whole 
of  the  architecture  has  first  been  dosed  with  repeated  coats  of  white- 
wash, so  as  to  take  off  all  the  sharpness  of  detail,  and  then  painted 
with  blue,  green,  red,  and  yellow  washes,  so  as  to  disfigure  and  destroy 
its  effect  to  an  extent  that  must  be  seen  to  be  believed. 

'The  age  of  this  temple  is  hardly  doubtful.  From  first  to  last  its 
style,  excepting  the  old  vimana,  is   so   uniform   and   unaltered   that 


RAMGARH  175 

its  erection  could  hardly  have  lasted  during  a  hundred  years ;  and  if 
this  is  so,  it  must  have  been  during  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
the  Raninad  Rajas  were  at  the  height  of  their  independence  and 
prosperity,  and  when  their  ally  or  master,  Tirumala  Naik,  was  erecting 
buildings  in  the  same  identical  style  at  Madura.  It  may  have  been 
commenced  fifty  years  earlier  (1550),  and  the  erection  of  its  gopurams 
may  have  extended  into  the  eighteenth  century ;  but  these  seem  the 
possible  limits  of  deviation.' 

Ramganga,  East. — River  of  the  United  Provinces,  a  tributary 
of  the  Sarda. 

Ramganga,  West  (also  known  as  Ruhut  or  Ruput  in  its  upper 
courses). — River  of  the  United  Provinces,  which  rises  in  Garhwal  Dis- 
trict (30°  5' N.,  79°  12' E.)  in  the  hills  some  distance  south 'of  the 
snowy  range  of  the  Himalayas.  It  flows  for  about  90  miles  with  a  very 
rapid  fall,  first  through  Garhwal,  then  through  Kumaun,  and  after 
again  entering  Garhwal  debouches  on  the  plains  near  the  Kalagarh 
fort,  south  of  the  peak  of  the  same  name,  in  Bijnor  District.  It  is  now 
a  large  river,  and  15  miles  lower  down  receives  on  its  right  bank  the 
Khoh,  which  also  rises  in  Garhwal.  Both  these  streams  are  liable  to 
sudden  floods  owing  to  heavy  rain  in  their  upper  courses.  Their  beds 
abound  in  quicksands,  and  their  channels  are  shifting.  The  Ramganga 
passes  south-east,  through  Moradabad  District  and  the  Rampur  State, 
into  Bareilly,  after  which  it  flows  south  between  Budaun  and  Shah- 
jahanpur,  and  then,  crossing  the  last-mentioned  District,  flows  through 
the  eastern  tahsll  of  Farrukhabad  and  part  of  HardoT,  falling  into  the 
Ganges  a  little  above  Kanauj,  after  a  total  course  of  about  370  miles. 
Throughout  its  course  in  the  plains  it  receives  many  small  streams 
from  the  Tarai,  and  a  few  larger  tributaries  whose  sources  are  in  the 
Himalayas.  The  KosI  in  Moradabad,  the  Dojora,  formed  by  the 
Kichha  or  West  Bahgul,  Dhakra,  and  Bhakra  rivers  in  Bareilly,  and 
the  Deoha  or  Garra  in  Shahjahanpur  are  the  most  important  of  these. 
During  its  whole  course  in  the  plains  the  Ramganga  flows  in  a  shifting 
and  uncertain  bed.  It  changed  its  channel  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  so  as  to  run  into  the  Dojora  and  pass  Bareilly 
city;  in  the  rains  of  187 1  it  returned  to  its  former  course  ten  miles 
distant,  but  has  once  more  begun  to  approach  the  city.  During  floods 
it  spreads  out  widely  on  either  side,  and  carves  out  new  channels  for 
itself,  often  destroying  the  fertility  of  the  land  with  a  layer  of  sand. 
It  is  little  used  for  irrigation. 

Ramgarh. — Old  District  of  Bengal,  stretching  on  the  north-west 
as  far  as  Sherghati  in  Gaya  and  including  on  the  east  the  Chakai 
pargana  of  Monghyr  and  the  zamindari  raj  of  Panchet,  and  on  the 
south-west  and  south  the  present  District  of  Palamau,  while  RanchI 
owed  a  loose  allegiance  as  a  tributary  estate  administered  by  its  own 
chief.     This  unwieldy  District  was  broken  up  after  the  Kol  insurrection 


^J6  RAMGARH 

in  183T-2,  parts  of  it  going  to  Gaya,  Monghyr,  Manl:)hum,  and  Lohar- 
daga  (now  Ranch!),  while  the  rest  was  formed  into  the  modern. 
District  of  Hazaribagh. 

Ramgarh  State. —  Thakurdt  in  the  Bhopal  Agency,  Central  India. 

Ramgarh  Hill. — Hill  in  the  Surguja  State,  Central  Provinces, 
situated  in  22°  53'  N.  and  82°  55'  E.  It  consists  of  a  rectangular 
mass  of  sandstone  rising  abruptly  from  the  plain,  about  12  miles  west 
of  Lakshmanpur  village.  It  is  ascended  from  the  northern  side  by 
a  path  which  follows  the  ridge  of  an  outlying  spur  nearly  as  far  as 
the  base  of  the  main  rock.  Here,  at  a  height  of  2,600  feet,  is  an 
ancient  stone  gateway,  on  the  lintel  of  which  is  sculptured  an  image 
of  Ganesh.  A  little  to  the  west,  but  at  the  same  level,  a  constant 
stream  of  pure  water  wells  out,  in  a  natural  grotto,  from  a  fissure  in 
the  massive  bed  of  sandstone.  A  second  gateway  crowns  the  most 
difficult  part  of  the  ascent.  Colonel  Dalton  considered  this  to  be  the 
best  executed  and  most  beautiful  architectural  relic  in  the  entire  region, 
which  abounds  in  remains  indicating  a  previous  occupation  of  the 
country  by  some  race  more  highly  civilized  than  its  present  inhabi- 
tants. Though  the  origin  of  these  gateways  is  unknown,  the  second 
is  unquestionably  the  more  modern  work,  and  belongs  to  that  descrip- 
tion of  Hindu  architecture  which  bears  most  resemblance  to  the 
Saracenic.  On  the  hill  are  several  rock  caves  ariTJ  the  remains  of 
several  temples  made  of  enormous  blocks  of  stone.  One  of  the  most 
striking  features  is  the  singular  tunnel  in  the  northern  face  of  the  rock, 
known  as  the  HathTpol,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  is  so  large  that 
an  elephant  can  pass  through  it.  Its  formation  is  supposed  to  be  due 
to  the  trickling  of  water  through  crevices  in  the  sandstone,  and  it 
bears  no  trace  of  human  workmanship.  It  is  about  150  feet  long  and 
20  feet  in  height  by  32  in  breadth.  In  the  valley  on  which  this  tunnel 
opens  are  two  caves  with  inscriptions  dating  back  to  the  second 
century  B.C.  One  of  them,  the  Joglmara  cave,  has  traces  on  its  roof 
of  wall  paintings  2,000  years  old  ;  and  the  other,  the  Sitabenga  cave, 
is  believed  to  have  been  used  as  a  hall  in  which  plays  were  acted 
and  poems  recited. 

\ Archaeological  Survey  Reports,   vol.  xi,  pp.   41-5  ;  and    Report  of 
Archaeological  Surveyor,  Bengal  Circle,  for  1903-4.] 

Ramgarh  Town  (i). — Town  belonging  to  the  STkar  chiefship  in 
the  Shekhawati  nizamat  of  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in 
28°  10'  N.  and  74°  59'  E.,  about  103  miles  north-west  of  Jaipur  city. 
Population  (1901),  11,023.  The  town,  which  is  handsomely  built  and 
neatly  fortified,  possesses  a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office,  and 
many  palatial  edifices  belonging  to  wealthy  bankers.  Some  of  these 
bankers  maintain  6  primary  schools,  attended  in  1904  by  342  boys, 
and  there  are  also  4  indigenous  schools. 


RAMNAD   ESTATE  177 

Ramgarh  Town  (2).— Head-quarters  of  a  fahsll  o{  the  same  name 
in  the  State  of  Ahvar,  Rajputana,  situated  in  27°  35'  N,  and  76°  49'  E., 
about  13  miles  east  of  Alwar  city.  Population  (1901),  5,179.  The 
town  possesses  a  post  office,  a  vernacular  school,  and  a  hospital  with 
accommodation  for  6  in-patients.  A  municipal  committee  attends  to 
the  sanitation  and  lighting  of  the  place,  the  average  income,  chiefly 
derived  from  octroi,  and  expenditure  being  about  Rs,  1,900  yearly. 
The  original  settlers  are  said  to  have  been  Chamars,  and  the  place  was 
called  Bhojpur  after  their  leader,  Bhoja.  A  Naruka  Rajput,  Padam 
Singh,  received  the  village  m  jagir  from  Jaipur  about  1746,  made  it 
prosperous,  and  built  a  fort  ;  but  his  son,  Sarup  Singh,  came  into 
collision  with  Pratap  Singh,  the  first  chief  of  Alwar,  and  was  cruelly 
murdered,  the  town  and  tahsil  passing  into  the  possession  of  Alwar 
in  1777.  Ramgarh  is  one  of  the  central  tahslh  of  the  State,  and  is 
situated  in  Mew  at.  It  is  made  up  of  the  head-quarters  town  and  119 
villages  ;  and  of  the  total  population  of  54,043,  nearly  60  per  cent,  are 
Musalmans. 

Ramjibanpur. — Town  in  the  Ghatal  subdivision  of  Midnapore 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  22°  50''  N.  and  87°  37'  E.  Population 
(1901),  10,264.  Bell-metal  ware  is  manufactured,  but  the  weaving 
industry  which  formerly  flourished  has  been  killed  by  the  importation 
of  European  piece-goods.  Ramjibanpur  was  constituted  a  municipality 
in  1876.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the  decade  ending 
1 90 1-2  averaged  Rs.  2,800  and  Rs.  2,700  respectively.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  3,550,  two-thirds  of  which  was  derived  from  a  tax  on 
persons  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  3,600. 

Ramnad  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Madura  District,  Madras, 
consisting  of  the-  Ramnad  and  Sivaganga  estates.  The  former  of 
these  is  subdivided  for  purposes  of  administration  into  the  zami7iddri 
tahstls  of  Ramnad,  Tiruvadanai,  Paramagudi,  Tiruchuli,  and  Muduku- 
lattur ;  while  Sivaganga,  Tiruppattur,  and  Tiruppuvanam  are  comprised 
in  the  latter. 

Ramnad  Estate. — A  permanently  settled  zamtndari  estate  in  the 
south  and  east  of  Madura  District,  Madras,  lying  between  9*  6'  and 
10°  6'  N.  and  77°  56'  and  79°  19'  E.,  consisting  of  the  five  zajn'mdari 
tahslh  of  Ramnad,  Tiruvadanai,  Paramagudi,  Tiruchuli,  and  Muduku- 
lattur,  with  an  area  of  2,104  square  miles.  Population  (1901X  7-3.886. 
It  includes  the  whole  of  the  sea-coast  of  the  District.  The  peshkash 
(including  cesses)  payable  to  Government  by  the  estate  in  1903-4  was 
3|  lakhs. 

Regarding  the  early  history  of  the  estate  legends  are  plentiful  but 
facts  are  few.  Its  chiefs  are  the  titular  heads  of  the  numerous  caste  of 
the  Maravans,  and  bear  the  title  of  Setupati,  or  'lord  of  the  causeway.' 
This  causeway  is  the  ridge  of  rock  which  used  to  connect  the  tongue 


178  RAMNAD   ESTATE 

of  the  mainland  running  out  into  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  with  the  island  of 
Pamban.  Pamban  Island  contains  the  holy  temple  of  Rameswaram  ; 
and  tradition  has  it  that  when  Rama  crossed  to  the  island  from  Ceylon 
by  way  of  Adam's  Bridge  and  founded  the  temple  as  a  thank-offering 
for  his  victory  over  Ravana,  he  also  appointed  the  first  Setupati  to 
protect  the  pilgrims  who  should  traverse  the  causeway  to  visit  it.  The 
chiefs  of  Ramnad  appear  to  have  undoubtedly  borne  the  title  as  far 
back  as  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries ;  and  in  the  early  years 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  formally  conferred  by  one  of  the  Naik 
kings  of  Madura  on  the  head  of  the  Maravans,  from  whom  the  present 
owners  of  the  estate  are  descended. 

Of  the  earlier  chiefs,  Raghunatha  Kilavan  (1673-1708)  is  perhaps  the 
best  known.  It  was  he  who  moved  the  capital  of  the  country  from 
Pogalur,  the  ancient  family  seat,  to  its  present  site  10  miles  farther 
east  at  Ramnad,  which  he  fortified.  About  1725  a  usurper  became 
Setupati ;  but  he  treated  his  vassals  so  harshly  that  one  of  them  joined 
the  legitimate  heir  and,  with  the  help  of  the  Raja  of  Tanjore,  attacked 
and  defeated  him.  The  country  was  divided  by  the  victors,  the  Raja 
of  Tanjore  annexing  that  part  of  it  which  lay  north  of  the  Pambar 
river.  The  rebellious  vassal  took  the  more  valuable  two-fifths  of  the 
remainder,  and  founded  there  the  line  of  the  present  zamhidars  of 
Sivaganga,  while  the  other  three-fifths,  the  present  Ramnad  estates, 
went  to  the  lawful  heir.  Throughout  the  Carnatic  Wars  the  troops 
of  Ramnad  frequently  figure  on  one  side  or  the  other.  In  1795  the 
Setupati  was  deposed  by  the  British  for  insubordination  and  misrule, 
and  died  a  state  prisoner.  The  estate  was  formed  into  a  zamhiddri  in 
1803,  a  permanent  sanad  (title-deed)  being  granted  to  the  deposed 
chief's  sister.  The  rule  of  her  successors  has  been,  in  the  main  one 
long  chronicle  of  mismanagement,  litigation,  and  debt.  The  last  Raja 
of  Ramnad  succeeded  in  1873  as  a  minor,  and  the  estate  was  accord- 
ingly managed  for  the  next  sixteen  years  by  the  Court  of  Wards. 
During  this  period  8|:  lakhs  was  spent  on  repairs  to  irrigation  works, 
14  lakhs  of  debt  was  cleared  off,  and  the  estate  was  handed  over  to  its 
owner  in  1889,  in  good  order,  with  a  revenue  which  had  been  increased 
from  5  to  9  lakhs,  and  with  a  cash  balance  of  3!  lakhs.  Within  the 
next  five  years  the  Raja  had  spent  this  balance,  incurred  further  debts 
of  over  30  lakhs,  and  pledged  the  best  portions  of  the  estate  to  his 
creditors.  The  zamtnddri  is  now  managed  by  trustees  for  the  creditors 
and  the  present  proprietor,  who  is  a  minor. 

The  Ramnad  estate  is  perhaps  the  most  desolate  and  uninviting  area 
of  its  size  in  the  Presidency.  Almost  dead  level  throughout,  and  for 
the  most  part  infertile,  the  coast  is  lined  with  blown  sand  and  brackish 
swamps,  diversified  only  by  stunted  scrub  and  palmyra  palms.  It  has 
only  two  fair  roads  (those  from  Madura  to  Ramnad  and  to  Tiruchuli) ; 


RAMNAD    TOWN  179 

its  irrigation  works  depend  upon  the  capricious  rivers  Vaigai  and 
Gundar,  and  are  often  in  the  last  state  of  disrepair  and  neglect ;  and 
except  Ramnad  and  Rameswaram,  already  referred  to,  it  contains 
no  town  of  interest  or  importance.  Its  chief  port,  Kilakarai,  is  in 
a  declining  state,  and  two  others  of  its  principal  towns,  Kamudi  and 
Abiramam,  have  advanced  but  little  for  many  years.  Paramagudi,  on 
the  road  to  Madura,  has  some  reputation  for  hand- painted  cloths ; 
but  the  only  flourishing  town  in  the  estate  is  Aruppukkottai  on  the 
western  border,  which  derives  much  of  its  prosperity  from  trade  with 
the  neighbouring  District  of  Tinnevelly. 

The  South  Indian  Railway  has  recently  been  carried  from  Madura 
through  Ramnad  to  Mandapam,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  tongue  of 
mainland  which  runs  out  to  meet  Pamban  Island.  Projects  for  carry- 
ing it  over  the  remains  of  the  old  causeway  on  to  the  island,  and  for 
cutting  a  ship  canal  through  the  island  and  establishing  a  port  for 
ocean-going  vessels  near  by,  are  now  under  consideration,  and  if  carried 
out  will  greatly  increase  the  prosperity  of  this  portion  of  the  zamlnddri. 
Pamban  and  the  other  smaller  coral  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  are 
even  at  present  the  pleasantest  portions  of  the  estate,  and  are  noted  for 
their  turtles  and  oysters. 

Ramnad  Tahsil. — Zaminddri  tahsll  in  the  subdivision  and  estate 
of  the  same  name  in  Madura  District,  Madras.  The  population  in 
1901  was  112,851,  compared  with  107,601  in  1891.  It  contains  three 
towns,  Ramnad  (population,  14,546),  the  head-quarters  ;  Kilakarai 
(11,078),  a  decaying  seaport  on  the  coast ;  and  Rameswaram  (6,632), 
which  stands  on  the  island  of  Pamban  and  is  noted  for  its  beautiful 
temple.  The  tahsll  is  an  unlovely  tract,  consisting  for  the  most  part 
of  poor  sandy  or  saline  soils,  covered  with  little  growth  beyond  stunted 
scrub  and  palmyra  palms.  The  sea-breezes,  however,  suffice  to  keep 
it  cooler  than  most  of  the  rest  of  the  District. 

Ramnad  Town  {Rdtnafidtha-puram,  '  the  town  of  Ramanatha '). — 
Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision,  zamtnddri,  and  tahsil  of  the  same 
name  in  Madura  District,  Madras,  situated  in  9°  22'  N.  and  78°  51'  E., 
with  a  station  on  the  Madura-Pamban  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
14,546.  The  town  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  divisional  officer  and 
of  an  Assistant  Superintendent  of  police,  and  contains  a  church 
belonging  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  two 
Roman  Catholic  places  of  worship.  It  is  also  the  residence  of  the 
Raja  of  Ramnad,  whose  palace,  a  large  rambling  building,  stands  at 
the  end  of  the  chief  street.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  ugly  and  uninterest- 
ing country,  and  its  redeeming  point  is  its  climate,  which  is  never  very 
hot  and  is  generally  tempered  by  a  breeze  from  the  sea.  The  town 
was  taken  by  General  Smith  in  1772,  and  was  under  military  occupation 
in  1792.     The  fortifications,  now  destroyed,  consisted  of  a  wall  27  feet 


i8o  RAMNAD    TOWN 

high  and  5  feet  thick,  surrounded  by  a  fosse.  Tn  the  centre  was  the 
palace  of  the  chiefs. 

Ramnagar  Tahsil. — Tahsll  of  the  Revvah  State,  Central  India, 
lying  between  23°  12''  and  24°  23'  N.  and  80°  36'  and  82°  16'  E.,  south 
of  the  Kaimur  range,  with  an  area  of  2,775  square  miles.  The  country 
consists  of  a  medley  of  hill  and  valley  with  but  little  land  suitable  for 
cultivation,  except  in  the  bed  of  the  Son  river,  which  traverses  the 
north-western  corner.  The  population  was  202,153  in  1891,  and 
221,980  in  1 90 1,  giving  the  low  density  of  80  persons  per  square  mile. 
There  are  949  villages,  the  head-quarters  being  at  Ramnagar.  The 
land  revenue  is  Rs.  86,000.     There  are  no  good  roads  in  this  tract. 

Ramnagar  Village  (i). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same 
name  in  Rewah  State,  Central  India,  situated  in  24°  12'  N.  and  81° 
12''  E.  Population  (1901),  2,621.  The  village  contains  a  school  and  a 
dispensary,  and  is  connected  by  an  unmetalled  road,  15  miles  in  length, 
with  Govindgarh,  whence  a  metalled  road  leads  to  Rewah  town. 

Ramnagar  To^vn  (i). — Town  in  the  Wazirabad  /^A^?/ of  Gujranwala 
District,  Punjab,  situated  in  32°  20'  N.  and  73*^  48'  E.,  on  the  Sialkot- 
Multan  road,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Chenab,  26  miles  west  of  Gujran- 
wala  town.  Population  (1901),  7,121.  The  town,  originally  known  as 
Rasulnagar,  was  founded  by  Nur  Muhammad,  a  Chatha  chieftain,  who 
possessed  great  power  in  the  Punjab  during  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  ;  and  it  rapidly  grew  to  importance  under  his  family. 
In  1795  i*^  ^^'^^  stormed  by  Ranjit  Singh,  after  a  gallant  resistance 
by  Ghulam  Muhammad,  the  reigning  Chatha  chief,  and  received  from 
the  Sikhs  its  new  name  of  Ramnagar.  Several  fine  buildings,  erected 
during  the  Chatha  supremacy,  still  remain.  In  1848,  during  the 
second  Sikh  War,  Lord  Gough  first  encountered  the  Sikh  troops  of 
Sher  Singh  near  Ramnagar.  Akalgarh,  on  the  North-Western  Railway, 
is  5  miles  off.  The  diversion  of  through  trade  caused  by  the  opening 
of  the  Sind-Sagar  Railway  is  ruining  its  trade,  and  its  manufacture  of 
leathern  vessels  is  now  extinct.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867. 
The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  7,000, 
and  the  expenditure  Rs.  6,900.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,900, 
chiefly  from  octroi  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  7,400.  The  town 
has  a  vernacular  middle  school,  maintained  by  the  municipality,  and 
a  Government  dispensary. 

Ramnagar  Town  (3). — Town  in  the  Chandaull  tahsll  of  Benares 
District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  16'  N.  and  83°  2'  E.,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ganges  nearly  opposite  Benares  city.  Population 
(1901),  10,882.  The  town  owes  its  importance  to  its  selection  by 
Raja  Balwant  Singh  of  Benares  as  his  residence.  He  built  a  massive 
fort  rising  directly  from  the  river  bank,  which  is  still  the  palace  of  his 
descendants.     His  successor,  Chet  Singh,  constructed  a  beautiful  tank 


< 


RAM  PA  i8i 

and  a  fine  temple  richly  adorned  with  carved  stone.  Two  broad  and 
well-kept  roads,  crossing  at  right  angles  from  the  centre  of  the  town, 
are  lined  with  masonry  shops  and  a  few  ornamental  private  buildings. 
The  rest  of  the  town  consists  of  the  usual  mud  houses.  Ramnagar  is 
administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,500. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  grain ;  and  riding-whips,  wickerwork 
stools,  and  chairs  are  largely  made.  The  public  buildings  include 
a  school. 

Ramnagar  Village  (2). — Village  in  the  Aonla  tahsll  o{  Bareilly  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  22'  N.  and  79°  8'  E.,  8  miles  north 
of  Aonla.  The  place  is  celebrated  for  the  ruins  in  its  neighbourhood. 
A  vast  mound  rises  on  the  north  of  the  village,  with  a  circumference 
of  about  2i\  miles,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  Ahlchhattra  and  is 
identified  with  the  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Panchala  and  the 
place  visited  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  in  the  seventh  century.  In  one  portion 
of  the  mound  a  conical  heap  of  brick  towers  68  feet  above  the  plain, 
crowned  by  the  ruins  of  a  Hindu  temple.  Large  quantities  of  stone 
carvings,  Buddhist  railings,  and  ornamental  bricks  have  been  found 
in  various  parts  of  these  mounds,  and  a  series  of  coins  bearing  inscrip- 
tions which  may  be  dated  approximately  in  the  first  or  second  century 
B.C.  The  kings  who  struck  them  have  been  conjecturally  identified 
with  the  Sunga  dynasty  mentioned  in  the  Puranas. 

[Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey  Reports,  vol.  i,  p.  255  ;  Coiyis  of 
Ancient  India,  p.  79  ;  \ .  A.  Smith,  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal, 
1897,  p.  303;  Progress  Report,  Epigraphical  Branch,  North- Western 
Provinces  and  Oudh,  1891-2.] 

Rampa. — A  hilly  tract  in  the  Agency  of  Godavari  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  17°  19'  and  17°  49'  N.  and  81°  32'  and  81°  58'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  about  800  square  miles.  Commencing  about  20  miles  from 
Rajahmundry,  the  country  presents  a  succession  of  hills  from  2,000 
to  4,000  feet  high,  extending  back  from  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Godavari  almost  to  the  Sileru  river.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  little 
village  of  Rampa,  and  was  originally  held  as  a  fdgtr  by  the  mansabdars 
of  that  place.  In  1858,  owing  to  the  unpopularity  of  the  mansabdar, 
disturbances  broke  out  which  lasted  till  1862.  A  police  force  was  then 
recruited  among  the  hillmen.  In  1879  the  Scheduled  Districts  Act 
was  extended  to  this  tract  ;  and  in  the  same  year  there  took  place 
a  second  rising  called  the  Rampa  rebellion,  which  involved  the 
employment  of  troops.  It  was  not  finally  quelled  till  1881,  when 
the  leader  Chendrayya  was  killed.  The  mansabdar  had  been  deported 
early  in  1880,  and  a  settlement  made  with  most  of  the  muttahddrs  in 
1879.  These  latter  still  hold  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  paying 
a  light  tribute  {kattubadi).  The  most  important  of  them  are  the 
muttahdars  of  Yellamuru  and  Musarimilli  :    the  former  in   particular 


i82  RAMPA 

is  much  looked  up  to  by  the  hillmen  of  the  surrounding  tracts.  The 
Rampa  hill  country  is  now  almost  entirely  included  in  the  minor  tdbik 
of  Chodavaram.  It  contains  extensive  forests;  but  the  shifting  culti- 
vation {podu)  practised  throughout  this  region,  to  which  the  Forest  Act 
is  not  applied,  is  very  destructive.  This  practice  involves  burning 
down  the  forests,  the  crop  being  raised  among  the  ashes.  There  are 
only  two  roads,  one  14  and  the  other  19  miles  long.  A  strong  police 
force  is  maintained  at  Chodavaram,  and  a  smaller  body  at  Kota.  Both 
stations  are  stockaded.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  hill  Reddis. 
The  chief  products  are  bamboos  and  tamarinds. 

Rampal.— Village  in  the  Munshiganj  subdivision  of  Dacca  District, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  23°  33'  N.  and  90°  30'  E. 
Population  (1901),  519.  The  site  of  the  old  capital  of  Bikrampur  is 
pointed  out  near  the  large  tank  called  Rampal-dlghi,  which  is  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  long  by  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad ;  to  the  north  of 
this  tank  is  the  Ballal-bari,  or  palace  of  Ballal  Sen,  the  remains  of 
which  consist  of  a  quadrangular  mound  of  earth  3,000  square  feet  in 
area  surrounded  by  a  moat  200  feet  wide.  Foundations  and  remains 
of  other  buildings  are  found  for  miles  around,  and  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  a  cultivator  ploughed  up  in  the  neighbourhood 
a  diamond  worth  Rs.  70,000.  Inside  the  Ballal-bari  is  a  deep  excava- 
tion called  Agnikunda,  where  tradition  says  the  last  prince  of  Bikram- 
pur and  his  family  burned  themselves  at  the  approach  of  the  Musal- 
mans.  Close  to  the  Ballal-bari  stands  a  much  venerated  tomb  of  one 
Baba  Adam  or  Adam  Shahld. 

[Cunningham,  Archaeological  Survey  of  India  Reports^  vol.  xv, 
pp.  132-5.] 

Rampardar.— Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Rampur  State. — Native  State  in  Rohilkhand,  under  the  political 

superintendence  of  the  Government  of  the  United  Provinces,  lying 

between  28°  25'  and  29°  10'  N.  and  78°  52'  and  79°  26'  E.,  with  an 

area  of  893  square  miles.     It  resembles  a  wedge  in  shape,  vvith  the 

apex  pointing  south.    On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  Nain!  Tal  District; 

on  the  east  by  Bareilly  ;  on  the  south  by  Budaun  ;  and  on  the  west  by 

Moradabad.      Rampur   State  is  a  level,  fertile  tract   of  country,  the 

northern  portion  of  which  resembles  the  damp  Tarai 

sne^ts  ^^^^^  ^yi"g  farther  north.    It  is  crossed  by  many  small 

streams,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Kosi  and  Nahal. 

The  Ramganga,  which  flows  from  north-west  to  south-east  across  the 

southern  part  of  the  State,  ultimately  receives  all  the  drainage. 

The  whole  State  lies  in  the  area  occupied  by  alluvium,  and  no  rocky 
or  stony  formation  occurs  in  any  part. 

The  flora  is  that  of  the  damp  submontane  tract.  There  is  not  much 
jungle,  except  in  the  north.      Bamboos   flourish  everywhere,  and  the 


RAM  PUR   STATE  1S3 

country  is  dotted  with  groves  of  rnango-trees.     There  are  many  groves 
of  ber  {ZizypIiHs  Jujiibd). 

Leopards  are  not  uncommon,  and  tigers  have  frequently  been  killed 
along  the  northern  frontier.  Game  is  fairly  abundant.  Hog,  antelope, 
nilgai,  hares,  partridges,  quail,  wild  duck,  florican,  and  small  sand- 
grouse  are  found  more  or  less  throughout  the  territory ;  but  snipe  are 
scarce.  Rampur  is  celebrated  for  its  breed  of  hounds,  originally 
introduced  from  Southern  India.  They  are  generally  of  a  grey  colour, 
with  a  smooth  coat,  and  larger  than  English  greyhounds.  An  improved 
variety  is  now  obtained  by  crossing  with  English  greyhounds,  and  the 
animals  so  bred  are  easier  to  train  than  the  pure  breed. 

Regular  meteorological  records  have  been  kept  for  only  a  few  years. 
The  climate  resembles  that  of  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  Bareilly, 
MoRADABAD,  and  the  submontane  portion  of  NainI  Tal.  The  north 
is  very  malarious. 

The  early  history  of  the  State  is  that  of  Rohilkhand.  Two  Rohilla 
brothers,  Shah  Alam  and  Husain  Khan,  came  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  to  seek  service  under  the  Mughal 
emperor.  The  son  of  the  first  of  these,  Daud  Khan, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Maratha  wars  and  received  a  grant  of  land 
near  Budaun.  His  adopted  son,  AlT  Muhammad,  obtained  the  title 
of  Nawab  and  a  grant  of  the  greater  part  of  Rohilkhand  in  17 19. 
Having  offended  the  Subahddr  of  Oudh,  Safdar  Jang,  who  was  jealous 
of  his  rapid  rise  to  power,  All  Muhammad  was  compelled  to  surrender  all 
his  possessions  in  1745  and  was  kept  a  close  prisoner  at  Delhi  for  six 
months,  after  which  he  was  released  and  appointed  governor  of  the 
Mughal  province  of  Sirhind,  where  he  remained  for  a  year.  But  taking 
advantage  of  the  confusion  consequent  on  the  invasion  of  Ahmad  Shah 
Durrani,  he  regained  supremacy  over  Rohilkhand  in  1 748,  and  eventually 
obtained  a  confirmation  of  this  territory  from  the  emperor,  Ahmad  Shah 
Bahadur.  After  the  death  of  Ah  Muhammad  his  estates  were  divided 
among  his  sons,  and  theyJ^^r  of  Rampur  Kotera  fell  to  Faiz-uUah  Khan, 
the  younger  son.  On  the  incursion  of  the  Marathas,  the  Rohilla  chiefs 
applied  for  aid  to  the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh.  This  was  granted  on 
promise  of  a  payment  of  40  lakhs.  The  Rohillas,  however,  failed  to 
fulfil  their  pecuniary  obligations  ;  and  the  Nawab  Wazir  obtained  from 
Warren  Hastings  the  use  of  a  British  army,  which  defeated  the  Rohillas 
and  brought  Rohilkhand  under  the  direct  rule  of  Oudh.  An  exception, 
hoAvever,  was  made  in  the  case  of  Faiz-ullah  Khan,  who  was  permitted 
to  retain  the  estate  or  jdgir  of  Rampur  on  condition  of  military  service. 
This  obligation  was  afterwards  commuted  for  a  cash  payment  of  15  lakhs. 
On  the  death  of  Faiz-ullah  Khan  in  1793  dissensions  broke  out  in  the 
family,  the  eldest  son  was  murdered,  and  the  estate  usurped  by  a  younger 
son.     As  it  was  held  under  British  guarantee,  the  aid  of  British  troops 


.1 

3S 


i84 


RAMPUR  STATE 


was  given  to  the  Nawab  of  Oudh  in  ejecting  the  usurper  and  instalUng 
Ahmad  Ah  Khan,  son  of  the  murdered  chieftain. 

On  the  cession  of  Rohilkhand  to  the  British  Government  in  iSoi, 
the  family  were  conlirmed  in  their  possesssions.  For  his  unswerving 
loyalty  during  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  Muhammad  Yusuf  All  Khan,  Nawab 
of  Rampur,  received  a  grant  of  land,  then  assessed  at  1-3  lakhs,  in 
addition  to  other  honours  and  an  increase  of  guns  in  his  salute.  He 
was  succeeded  in  1864  by  his  son,  Nawab  Muhammad  Kalb  All  Khan, 
G. C.S.I. ,  CLE.,  who,  at  the  Imperial  Assemblage  at  Delhi,  received 
a  standard  and  an  addition  for  life  of  two  guns  to  his  salute,  the 
ordinary  salute  of  the  chiefship  being  13  guns.  Sir  Kalb  Ali  Khan  died 
in  1887  and  was  succeeded  by  Mushtak  All,  who  only  survived  for  two 
years.  The  present  Nawab,  Hamid  Ali  Khan  Bahadur,  was  a  minor 
at  his  accession ;  and  the  aftairs  of  the  State  were  administered  by  a 
Council  of  Regency  till  1896,  when  the  Nawab  was  invested  with  full 
powers.  He  holds  the  honorary  rank  of  Major  in  His  Majesty's  army, 
and  was  created  G.CI.E.  in  1908. 

Rampur  contains  6  towns  and  1,120  villages.  Population  increased 
from  1872  to  1 89 1,  but  fell  in  the  next  decade  owing  to  unfavourable 
seasons.  The  numbers  at  the  four  enumerations  were 
*  as  follows  :  (1872)  507,004,  (1881)  541,914,  (1891) 
551,249,  and  (1901)  533,212.  There  are  five  tahsi/s — the  HuzuR 
or  head-quarters,  Shahabad,  Milak,  Bilaspur,  and  Suar.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  first  are  at  Rampur  city,  the  capital  of  the  State;  and 
of  the  others  at  places  which  give  their  names  to  the  tahsils.  The 
following  table  gives  the  chief  statistics  of  population  in  1901  : — 


2'ahsU. 


u 
S     ■ 


Huzur     . 
Shahabad 
Milak     . 
Bilaspur 
Suar 

Slate  total 


176 
166 

■56 
204 
191 


893 


Number  of 

wi 

tf] 

u 

c 

U 

^ 

tS 

0 

^ 

H 

> 

u     . 

J)    oj 

c 

C.— 

0 

g^ 

CS 

■5   i 

d 

S.  rt 

D. 

3  y 

0 

o-S" 

0. 

0  " 

a, 

^       i)  I         o 

Sifl 

-w  w  ti  c 

^■Z  3   5;  C 

a-     - 


244 
197 
201 

223 

255 


178,333 
82,716 

94,046 

73,450 
104,667 


.=^33,2 1 2 


',013 
498 
603 
360 

648 


599 


-  3-3 


u 


1-3  5 

c  g  CS  < 

3  S  "J 
o. 


10,072 


Hindus  form  55  per  cent,  of  the  total  and  Musalmans  45  per  cent. — 
a  much  higher  proportion  than  in  any  District  of  the  United  Provinces. 
The  density  of  population  is  high  in  the  centre  of  the  State,  but 
decreases  in  the  north  and  south.  The  Hindustani  dialect  of  Western 
Hindi  is  the  language  in  ordinary  use. 

Among  Hindus  the  most  numerous  castes  are  :  Chamars  (tanners 
and  cultivators),  40,000  \  Lodhas  (cultivators),  34,000  ;  Kurmis  (culti- 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS 


185 


vators),  25,000;  Mails  (market-gardeners),  20,000;  Brahmans,  16,000; 
and  Ahirs  (graziers  and  cultivators),  14,000.  Muhammadans  include 
Pathans  or  Rohillas,  49,000  ;  Turks  (cultivators),  33,000 ;  Julahas 
(weavers),  25,000 ;  and  Shaikhs,  24,000.  As  is  usual  in  the  sub- 
montane tract,  Banjaras  (8,000)  are  fairly  numerous.  Agriculture 
supports  61  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  cotton-weaving  3-5  per  cent. 

Out  of  440  native  Christians  enumerated  in  1901,  386  were  Metho- 
dists.    There  are  no  missions  in  the  State. 

The  north  of  the  State  is  composed  of  heavy  clay  and  chiefly 
produces  rice.  Towards  the  centre  and  south  a  rich  loam  is  found, 
in  which  a  great   variety   of  crops   can   be   grown.  .     . 

The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  given 
below,  in  square  miles : — 


2'ahsil.                       Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Huzur          .          .          .            176 
Shahabatl    .         .         .           166 
Milak          ...           156 
Bilaspur     .         .         .           204 
Suar  ,        .        .         .           lyi 

i3> 
no 

i'5 

69 

114 

8 
8 

24 

-.■- 

14 

25 

28 

15 
39 
36 

Tulal           893 

539 

91 

143 

Maize  is  the  crop  most  largely  grown,  covering  125  square  miles. 
Wheat  (103  square  miles)  and  rice  (98)  are  also  important  staples,  and 
sugar-cane  was  grown  on  28  square  miles.  Cultivation  is  spreading, 
but  reliable  statistics  are  not  available  to  indicate  the  variations  in  the 
area  under  different  crops. 

The  cattle  and  ponies  bred  locally  are  very  inferior.  Ponies  are, 
however,  largely  imported  by  the  Banjaras,  who  use  them  as  pack- 
animals.     Mule-breeding  has  recently  been  introduced. 

A  system  of  damming  small  streams  to  provide  water  for  irrigation 
had  long  been  in  force  in  the  State.  It  was  wasteful  and  unscientific, 
and  has  now  been  replaced  by  a  regular  system  of  small  canals,  the 
chief  of  which  are  taken  from  the  Bahalla  and  Kosi  rivers.  Masonry 
dams  have  been  thrown  across  these  two  rivers,  and  others  are  con- 
templated. Almost  the  whole  area  north  of  the  Ramganga  is  protected 
by  canals.  The  area  irrigated  varies  according  to  the  season  from  about 
50  to  150  square  miles. 

The  most  important  industry  is  the  weaving  of  cotton  cloth,  which  is 
carried  on  in  many  places.     A  very  fine  cotton  damask,  called  khes^ 
which  is  produced  at  Rampur  city,  is  not  surpassed 
in  any  part  of  India.      Ornamental   pottery  is  also  communiwtions. 
made,  consisting  of  a  red  earthen  body  overlaid  with 
opaque  enamel,  which  is  coloured  dark  blue  or  turquoise.     E.\cellent 


i86  RAM  PUR   STATE 

sword-blades  and  other  articles  of  steel  are  made,  and  matchlocks  and 
guns  were  formerly  turned  out.  Minor  industries  include  sugar-refining 
and  the  manufacture  of  papier-mache  and  lacquer  goods. 

The  State  exports  sugar,  rice,  and  hides,  and  imports  piece-goods, 
metals,  and  salt.  Goats  are  also  imported  in  large  numbers  for  food. 
Rampur  was  once  noted  for  its  trade  in  horses  and  elephants,  but  this 
has  declined. 

The  main  line  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway  crosses  the 
State  from  south-east  to  north-west.  No  kankar  is  found,  and  com- 
munications by  road  were  defective,  but  have  been  much  improved. 
Kankar  is  now  imported  and  mixed  with  stone  brought  from  the 
Bhabar.  About  33  miles  of  metalled  roads  are  maintained  in  and  near 
Rampur  city  by  the  State,  and  the  British  Government  repairs  two 
metalled  roads,  one  passing  from  Moradabad  to  Bareilly  and  the  other 
towards  Naini  Tal.  There  are  also  223  miles  of  unmetalled  roads. 
Avenues  of  trees  are  kept  up  on  196  miles. 

Generally  speaking  the  State  has  suffered  little  from  famine.  A 
severe  visitation  is  recorded  in  18 13,  when  corpses  were  daily  seen 
in  the  streets.  In  1877  famine  would  have  been 
severely  felt,  but  relief  works  were  opened  and  alms 
were  freely  given  to  the  aged  and  infirm.  In  1896  extensive  public 
works  were  started,  and  a  large  quantity  of  grain  was  purchased  and 
sold  by  the  State  below  market  rates. 

The  Commissioner  of  the  Bareilly  Division  is  Political  Agent  to 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  United  Provinces  for  Rampur.  Since 
.  .  .  the  present  Nawab  was  invested  with  full  powers,  the 
services  of  a  native  official  of  the  United  Provinces 
have  been  lent  to  the  State.  This  officer  is  called  the  Minister,  or 
Maddr-ui-mahdvi,  and  various  departments  are  controlled  by  him  sub- 
ject to  the  direction  of  the  Nawab.  The  principal  executive  officials 
are  the  chief  secretary,  the  home  secretary,  the  legal  remembrancer, 
and  the  Dlivdn-i-sadr. 

In  1902  a  legislative  committee  was  formed,  consisting  of  members 
of  the  ruling  family,  officials,  and  leading  residents  in  Rampur  city. 
The  Minister  presides  over  the  committee,  and  the  regulations  framed 
are  published  for  criticism.  Codes  dealing  with  rent  and  revenue  law 
had  been  issued  previously,  and  the  chief  measures  so  far  dealt  with 
by  the  committee  have  been  concerned  with  the  municipality  of 
Rampur  and  registration. 

Each  tahs'il  is  in  charge  of  a  tahsl/dar,  who  has  jurisdiction  in  rent, 
revenue,  and  civil  cases,  and  is  also  a  magistrate  with  powers  corre- 
sponding to  those  of  a  magistrate  of  the  second  class  in  British  territory. 
Appeals  in  rent  and  revenue  cases  lie  to  the  Nazim.  Jurisdiction  in 
civil  cases  is  limited  to  suits  relating  to  movable  property  not  exceed- 


AD  MINIS  TRA  TION 


187 


ing  Rs.  1,000.  Suits  up  to  Rs.  10,000  are  heard  by  the  Mufti  D'lwaiii 
or  civil  court  at  Rampur.  More  important  cases  and  appeals  in  civil 
suits  from  the  orders  of  tahsllddrs  and  the  Mufti  Dhvdni  are  de- 
cided by  the  District  Judge.  There  is  also  a  Court  of  Small  Causes  at 
Rampur.  Magisterial  powers  are  vested  in  a  bench  and  in  several 
special  magistrates.  The  Chief  Magistrate  has  powers  of  imprison- 
ment up  to  three  years,  the  Sessions  Judge  up  to  five  years,  the 
Minister  up  to  ten  years,  while  sentences  of  life  imprisonment  or  death 
require  the  sanction  of  the  Nawab.  Appeals  from  the  orders  of  subor- 
dinate magistrates  lie  to  the  court  of  the  Chief  Magistrate  and  then  to 
the  Sessions  Judge.  All  cases,  whether  civil,  criminal,  or  revenue,  are 
further  appealable  to  the  Minister,  and  finally  to  the  Nawab. 

The  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  of  the  State  for  a  series  of 
years  is  shown  below,  in  thousands  of  rupees : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 

i5,.58 
15,87 

30,67 

18,36 
34,33 

19,19 

35,38 

Apart  from  land  revenue,  the  chief  items  in  1903-4  were:  interest 
on  Government  promissory  notes  (6-2  lakhs),  cesses  (2-4  lakhs),  mis- 
cellaneous (2-5  lakhs),  and  irrigation  (Rs.  49,000).  The  expenditure 
included :  privy  purse  (4  lakhs),  public  works  (5  lakhs),  army  (4-6 
lakhs),  pensions  (3-4  lakhs),  land  administration  (r'6  lakhs),  and  police 
(i-6  lakhs). 

Property  in  land  is  not  recognized  in  the  greater  part  of  the  State. 
The  rights  of  landholders  in  the  area  ceded  by  the  British  after  the 
Mutiny  were  maintained;  but  in  the  case  of  28  villages  out  of  146,  the 
proprietary  right  has  since  been  purchased  by  the  State.  There  is  thus 
no  distinction  between  rent  and  land  revenue,  except  in  the  remaining 
ceded  villages.  Collections  are  made  through  lessees  or  farmers,  who 
receive  leases  for  ten  years  or  even  longer.  Leases  are  sold  by  auction ; 
but  the  improvement  of  records  and  the  establishment  of  a  settlement 
department  have  materially  facilitated  the  fixing  of  suitable  amounts. 
Lessees  are  liable  to  a  penalty  in  case  of  a  decrease  in  cultivation. 
The  cultivators  acquire  occupancy  rights  as  in  the  Province  of  Agra 
(^see  United  Provinces),  but  after  a  period  of  sixteen  years  instead  of 
twelve.  The  minimum  term  for  new  tenants  has  been  fixed  at  five 
years.     A  complete  survey  of  the  State  was  made  in  1890. 

Liquor  is  made  within  the  State  by  licensed  contractors,  to  whom 
the  right  of  manufacture  and  vend  is  sold  by  public  auction,  the 
receipts  in  1903-4  being  Rs.  41,000.  Opium  is  sold  to  the  State  by 
the  British  Government  at  cost  price  up  to  14^  cwt.  annually,  and  at 
the  rate  fixed  for  sale  to  licensed  vendors  in  Moradabad  District  for 

VOL.  XXI.  N 


t88  ram  pur  state 

any  amount  in  excess  of  \\\  cwt.  It  is  retailed  at  the  rates  prevalent 
in  adjacent  British  Districts.  The  right  to  sell  hemp  drugs  is  farmed 
by  auction.  Charas  is  imported  direct  from  the  Punjab  and  bhang 
from  the  United  Provinces.  The  profit  on  opium  and  drugs  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  18,000.  Other  items  of  miscellaneous  revenue  in- 
cluded chaiiklddri  cess  (Rs.  65,000),  stamps  (Rs.  41,000),  salt  and 
saltpetre  (Rs.  15,000),  tax  on  sugar-mills  (Rs.  8,000),  and  registration 
(Rs.  9,000). 

The  only  town  under  municipal  administration  is  Rampur  City. 
The  municipal  commissioners  are  elected. 

Public  works  are  in  charge  of  a  European  Chief  Engineer,  formerly 
in  British  service.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  at  Rampur  city. 
Substantial  offices  have  been  constructed  at  the  tahsil  head-quarters, 
and  the  roads,  bridges,  and  canals  are  well  maintained. 

The  State  maintains  three  squadrons  of  cavalry,  of  which  two 
squadrons  (317  strong)  are  Imperial  Service  Lancers.  The  local 
forces  include   1,900   infantry,    and    206   artillery  with  23  guns. 

The  police  force  is  organized  on  the  system  in  the  United  Provinces. 
The  Superintendent  has  an  Assistant,  and  a  force  of  2  inspectors, 
lOT  subordinate  officers,  and  409  constables,  distributed  in  12  police 
stations  and  7  outposts.  There  are  also  149  municipal  and  road 
police,  and  1,281  village  police.  In  1904  the  jail  contained  a  daily 
average  of  494  prisoners. 

The  State  is  backward  as  regards  literacy,  and  in  1901  only  1-4  per 
cent,  of  the  population  (2-5  males  and  o-i  females)  could  read  and 
write.  During  the  last  few  years,  however,  considerable  attention  has 
been  devoted  to  education.  The  number  of  schools  increased  from 
10  with  316  pupils  in  1 880-1  to  104  with  3,741  pupils  in  1 900-1.  By 
1903-4  the  number  of  schools  had  further  risen  to  128,  with  4,424 
pupils,  of  whom  150  were  girls,  in  addition  to  20  private  schools 
attended  by  850  pupils.  A  celebrated  Arabic  college,  with  400 
students,  which  is  maintained  by  the  State,  attracts  students  from  all 
parts  of  India  and  even  from  Central  Asia.  The  principal  school  for 
English  education  at  Rampur  city  has  332  pupils.  There  is  also  an 
industrial  school  at  Rampur.  Of  the  total  number  of  pupils,  only 
777  are  in  secondary  classes.  The  expenditure  on  education  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  53,000,  of  which  Rs.  18,000  was  derived  from  a 
special  cess. 

There  are  15  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for 
200  in-patients.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  186,000, 
including  951  in-patients,  and  3,616  operations  were  performed.  The 
expenditure,  including  the  cost  of  sanitation,  amounted  to  Rs.  47,000. 
Hospitals  exist  for  treatment  by  both  European  and  indigenous 
methods. 


RAMPUR    TOWN  189 

About  11,000  persons  were  vaccinated  in  1903-4,  showing  a  pro- 
portion of  21  per  1,000  of  population.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  in 
Ranipur  city. 

{State  Gazetteer,  1883  (under  revision);  Annual  Administration 
Reports.^ 

Rampur  City. — Capital  of  the  State  of  Rampur,  United  Provinces, 
situated  in  28°  49'  N.  and  79°  2'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kosi  or 
Kosilla,  on  a  road  from  Moradabad  to  Bareilly  and  on  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway,  851  miles  by  rail  from  Calcutta  and  1,070  from 
Bombay,  Population  is  increasing  slowly  but  steadily.  The  numbers  at 
the  three  enumerations  were  as  follows  :  (1881)  74,250,  (1891)  76,733, 
and  (1901)  78,758.  In  1901  the  population  included  58,870  Musalmans 
and  17,371  Hindus.  Rampur  first  became  of  notice  as  the  residence 
of  Faiz-ullah  Khan,  younger  son  of  All  Muhammad.  For  a  time  it 
bore  the  name  Mustafabad.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  broad,  dense,  bamboo 
hedge,  about  six  miles  in  circumference,  which  was  formerly  pierced 
by  only  eight  openings  and  formed  a  strong  defence.  Within  recent 
years  clearings  have  been  made  in  two  places.  In  the  centre  of  the 
city  stands  the  new  fort,  surrounded  by  a  wall  5,000  feet  in  circuit. 
It  is  built  entirely  of  brick  and  is  entered  by  two  lofty  gateways.  The 
interior  of  the  fort  is  a  large  open  space,  containing  palaces  and  other 
buildings.  A  fine  library  contains  an  exceptionally  valuable  collection 
of  manuscripts.  West  of  the  fort  are  the  public  offices,  in  an  impos- 
ing range  of  buildings  completed  in  1892.  The  large  Jama  Masjid  was 
built  by  Nawab  Kalb  All  Khan  at  a  cost  of  3  lakhs.  Other  buildings 
for  the  use  of  the  Nawab  and  his  family  include  the  Khas  Bagh  palace, 
the  Khusru  Bagh  palace,  and  commodious  stables  for  horses,  camels, 
and  elephants.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  jail,  police  station, 
high  school,  tahsl/i,  and  male  and  female  dispensaries.  Houses  are 
maintained  for  the  European  officials  outside  the  city,  and  the  canton- 
ments lie  beyond  these. 

Municipal  administration  was  introduced  in  1890.  Up  to  1903  the 
only  income  raised  by  specific  taxation  consisted  of  a  tax  for  watch  and 
ward,  which  brought  in  about  Rs.  4,000  or  Rs.  5,000.  Octroi  has  now 
been  introduced.  In  1903-4  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  6r,ooo,  including 
public  works  (Rs.  20,000),  con.servancy  (Rs.  18,000),  and  lighting 
(Rs.  13,000).  The  city  produces  pottery,  damask,  sword-blades,  and 
cutlery,  and  is  the  chief  trading  centre  in  the  State.  It  is  also  the  chief 
educational  centre,  and  contains  43  schools  with  2,254  pupils.  The 
principal  institutions  are  the  high  school,  where  English  education  is 
provided,  a  technical  school  with  100  pupils,  and  an  Arabic  college. 
There  are  five  girls'  schools  with   130  pupils. 

Rampur  Town  (i).— Capital  of  the  Bashahr  State,  Punjab,  situated 
in  31"  27'  N.  and  77°  40'  E.      Population  (1901),  1,157.     It  stands  at 

N   2 


190  RAMPUR    TOWN 

the  base  of  a  loft)-  mountain,  overhanging  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej, 
138  feet  above  the  stream,  and  3,300  feet  above  sea-level.  Cliffs 
surround  the  town  and  confine  the  air,  so  that  during  summer  the 
radiation  from  the  rocks  renders  the  heat  intolerable.  The  houses  rise 
in  tiers,  and  many  of  them  being  built  of  stone  suffered  seriously  from 
the  earthquake  in  1905.  The  town  is  famous  for  its  fine  shawls,  the 
well-known  Rampur  chadars.  The  Raja's  palace,  at  the  north-east 
comer  of  the  town,  consists  of  several  buildings  with  carved  wooden 
balconies  exhibiting  traces  of  Chinese  style.  The  Gurkhas  did  much 
damage  to  the  town  and  its  trade  during  the  period  of  their  supremacy, 
but  it  has  recovered  under  British  protection.  The  Raja  resides  at 
Rampur  during  the  winter,  and  retires  to  the  cooler  station  of  Sarahan 
for  the  hottest  months. 

Rampur  Town  (2). — Town  in  the  Deoband  tahsll  of  Saharanpur 
District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  29°  48'  N.  and  77°  28'  E.,  on 
the  old  road  from  Saharanpur  to  Delhi.  Population  (1901),  7,945,  the 
number  of  Hindus  and  Musalmans  being  about  equal.  The  town  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  one  Raja  Ram,  and  according  to 
tradition  it  was  captured  by  Salar  Masud.  There  is  a  fine  modern 
Jain  temple,  and  also  a  tomb  of  a  Muhammadan  saint.  Shaikh  Ibrahim, 
near  which  a  religious  fair  is  held  in  June.  The  town  is  administered 
under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,000.  There  is 
some  trade  in  grain,  and  the  town  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
glass  bangles. 

Rampura  State  (i). — Petty  State  in  Mah!  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Rampura  State  (2). — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Rampura. — Old  name  of  a  district  and  town  of  the  Tonk  State, 
Rajputana.     See  Aligarh. 

Rampura. — Site  of  a  celebrated  Jain  temple  in  Jodhpur  State, 
Rajputana.     See  Ranapur. 

Rampura-Bhanpura. — District  of  the  Indore  State,  Central  India, 
made  by  combining  the  old  zilas  of  Rampura  and  Bhanpura.  Though 
consisting  of  several  detached  blocks  of  territory,  the  district  lies 
generally  between  23°  54'  and  25°  Y  N.  and  74°  57'  and  76°  36''  E., 
with  an  area  of  2,123  square  miles.  The  southern  sections  lie  in  the 
undulating  Mahva  plateau  region  ;  but  north  of  Rampura  the  district 
enters  the  hilly  tract  formed  by  the  arm  of  the  Vindhyas  which  strikes 
across  east  and  west  from  Chitor  towards  Chanderl  and  forms  the 
border  of  the  table-land  known  as  the  Pathar. 

The  numerous  remains  scattered  through  this  district  point  to  its 
having  been  of  much  importance  in  former  times.  From  the  seventh 
to  the  ninth  century  it  offered  an  asylum  to  the  Buddhists,  then  fallen 
on  evil  days.  At  Dhamnar  and  Poladongar,  and  at  Kholvi  and  other 
places  close  by,  are  the  remains  of  their  caves,  both  chaitya  halls  and 


RAM  PUR  A    TOWN  191 

vihdras,  all  of  late  date,  excavated  in  the  laterite  hills  which  rise 
abruptly  from  the  plateau  in  this  region.  From  the  ninth  to  the  four- 
teenth century  it  was  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Paramara  Rajputs, 
to  whose  rule  the  remains  of  numerous  Jain  temples  testify.  An 
inscription  belonging  to  this  dynasty  was  lately  discovered  at  Mori 
village.  In  the  fifteenth  century  it  fell  to  the  Muhammadan  dynasty 
of  Malwa,  passing  in  the  last  years  of  their  rule  to  the  chiefs  of 
Udaipur.  Under  Akbar  the  district  lay  partly  in  the  Subah  of  Malwa 
and  partly  in  that  of  Ajmer.  The  Chandra wat  Thakurs,  who  claim 
descent  from  Chandra,  second  son  of  Rahup,  Rana  of  Udaipur,  settled 
at  Antrl,  which  was  granted  to  Sheo  Singh  Chandrawat  by  Dilawar 
Khan  of  Malwa  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  gradually  acquired  the 
surrounding  country  from  the  Bhils.  To  this  day  the  head  of  the 
family,  on  his  succession,  receives  the  t'lka  from  the  hand  of  a  Bhil 
descendant  of  the  founder  of  Rampura.  These  Thakurs,  though 
virtually  independent,  appear  to  have  recognized  to  some  extent  the 
suzerainty  of  Udaipur,  to  which  State  the  District  certainly  belonged 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1729  it  was  given  to  Madho  Singh, 
second  son  of  Sawai  Jai  Singh  of  Jaipur,  from  whom  it  passed  to 
Holkar  about  1752.  The  district  was  intimately  associated  with  the 
fortunes  of  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar,  who  practically  made  Rampura  his 
capital  instead  of  Maheshwar. 

The  population  decreased  from  285,825  in  1891  to  156,021  in  1901, 
the  density  in  the  latter  year  being  73  persons  per  square  mile.  The 
district  contains  four  towns,  Rampura  (population,  8,273),  Bhanpura 
(4,639),  Manasa  (4,589)>  Sunel  (3,655),  with  Garot  (3,456),  the 
head-quarters  ;  and  868  other  villages.  For  administrative  purposes  it 
is  divided  into  ten  parganas,  with  head-quarters  at  Garot,  Bhanpura, 
Chandwasa,  Zirapur,  Manasa,  Nandwai,  Narayangarh,  Rampura,  Sunel, 
and  Talen-lataheri.  The  district  is  in  charge  of  a  Subah,  subordinate 
to  whom  are  naib-subahs  at  Rampura  and  Bhanpura,  and  ainins  in  the 
remaining /ar^a/m^-.     The  total  revenue  is  6-9  lakhs. 

The  district  is  traversed  by  the  metalled  road  from  Nimach  to 
Manasa,  where  it  meets  a  branch  road  from  Piplia  to  Manasa  and  con- 
tinues to  Rampura  and  Jhalrapatan  in  Rajputana.  Other  roads  are 
in  course  of  construction ;  and  the  new  Nagda-Muttra  branch  of 
the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  Indian  Railway  will  pass  through 
Shamgarh,  6  miles  from  Garot. 

Rampura  Town. — Town  in  the  Rampura-Bhanpura  district  of 
Indore  State,  Central  India,  situated  in  24°  28'  N.  and  75°  27'  E., 
1,300  feet  above  sea-level,  at  the  foot  of  the  branch  of  the  Vindhyan 
range  which  strikes  across  from  west  to  east,  north  of  Nimach.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  8,273.  Rampura  derives  its  name  from  a  Bhil  chief, 
Rama,  who  was  killed  by  Thakur  Sheu  Singh,  Chandrawat  (jf  Antri, 


192  RAM  PUR  A    TOWN 

in  the  fifteenth  century.  As  a  sign  of  their  former  sovereignty,  the 
descendants  of  Rama  still  affix  the  tlka  to  the  forehead  of  the  chief  of 
the  Chandrawat  family.  As  the  town  stands  at  present,  it  is  entirely 
Muhammadan,  the  wall  and  principal  buildings  being  constructed 
in  the  Muhammadan  style.  The  town  long  belonged  to  the  chiefs 
of  Udaipur,  but  was  seized  in  1567  by  Akbar's  general,  Asaf  Khan, 
and  was  made  the  chief  town  of  the  sarkdr  of  Chitor  in  the  Subah  of 
Ajmer.  During  the  Maratha  period  it  fell  to  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar, 
who  made  it  one  of  his  chief  places  of  residence.  The  Chandrawat 
Thakurs,  who  were  the  original  holders,  gave  much  trouble,  until  they 
were  subdued  by  force  and  later  on  received  a  jagir  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, where  they  still  reside.  The  town  was  formerly  famous  for  its 
silver-work  and  manufacture  of  swords.  Besides  the  district  offices, 
it  contains  a  State  post  office,  a  jail,  a  police  station,  a  school,  and 
a  dispensary. 

Rampur  Boalia  Subdivision.  —  Head-quarters  subdivision  of 
Rajshahi  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  24°  7' 
and  24°  43'  N.  and  88°  18'  and  88°  58'  E.,  with  an  area  of  910  square 
miles.  The  subdivision  consists  of  three  portions.  To  the  north-west 
is  the  Barind,  an  elevated  and  undulating  country  ;  along  the  Padma, 
which  bounds  it  on  the  south,  is  a  comparatively  high  and  well-drained 
tract  of  sandy  soil ;  and  to  the  east  the  land  is  swampy  and  water- 
logged. The  population  was  563,936  in  1901,  compared  with  571,578 
in  1 89 1,  the  density  being  620  persons  per  square  mile.  It  contains 
one  town,  Rampur  Boalia  (population,  21,589),  the  head-quarters; 
and  2,271  villages.  The  chief  centres  of  commerce  are  Godagari, 
Rampur  Boalia,  and  Charghat  on  the  Padma,  which  conduct  a  thriving 
river  trade.     A  large  annual  fair  is  held  at  Khf:tur. 

Rampur  Boalia  Town.  —  Head-quarters  of  Rajshahi  District, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  24°  22'  N.  and  88°  36'  E.,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Padma.  Population  (1901),  21,589,  of  whom 
51  per  cent,  are  Hindus,  48  per  cent.  Musalmans,  and  1  per  cent. 
Christians.  Rampur  Boalia  has  long  been  an  important  centre  of  the 
silk  industry.  It  was  first  selected  by  the  Dutch  in  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  for  the  establishment  of  a  fltctory,  and  was 
subsequently  for  many  years  the  head-quarters  of  an  English  Com- 
mercial Residency.  The  seat  of  administration  was  transferred  here 
from  Nator  in  1825.  The  town  is  of  modern  growth,  and  is  built 
for  the  most  part  on  river  alluvium.  It  was  formerly  liable  to  en- 
croachment by  the  Padma  and  suffered  severely  from  inundations, 
from  which  it  is  now  protected  by  an  embankment  running  along 
the  river  bank  for  6  miles.  In  recent  years  the  river  has  receded 
from  the  town,  and  the  considerable  trade  which  it  formerly  enjoyed 
has    declined ;    it    has   also    suffered  from  the    deca\-  of   the    Bengal 


RAM  REE  ISLAND  193 

indigo  industry.  Rampur  Boalia  was  constituted  a  municipality  in 
1876.  The  municipal  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901-2 
averaged  Rs.  37,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  31,000.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  53,000,  of  which  Rs.  12,000  was  derived  from  a 
tax  on  persons  (or  property  tax),  Rs.  6,000  from  a  conservancy  rate, 
and  Rs.  7,000  from  a  tax  on  vehicles,  while  Rs.  13,000  represented 
a  grant  received  for  medical  purposes.  The  expenditure  in  the  same 
year  was  Rs.  50,000.  There  is  a  Central  jail,  with  accommodation 
for  872  prisoners  ;  the  chief  jail  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
mustard-  and  castor-oils,  twine,  darls^  and  utensils  of  wood  and 
bamboo.  The  Rajshahi  College  is  a  first-class  Government  college 
teaching  up  to  the  M.A.  standard,  with  a  collegiate  school,  Oriental 
classes,  and  a  law  department.  It  possesses  endowments  to  the  ex- 
tent of  Rs.  10,000,  in  addition  to  which  the  Oriental  classes  are 
maintained  from  the  Mohsin  fund.  Boarding-houses  attached  to  the 
college  accommodate  150  students.  A  sericultural  school  was  opened 
in  1897,  where  practical  training  is  given  to  sericultural  overseers 
and  the  sons  of  silkworm-rearers. 

Rampur  Hat  Subdivision.— Northern  subdivision  of  Birbhura 
District,  Bengal,  lying  between  23°  52'  and  24°  35'  N.  and  87°  35' 
and  88°  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  645  square  miles.  The  subdivision 
is  a  long  and  somewhat  narrow  tract,  running  up  between  Murshid- 
abad  District  and  the  Santal  Parganas.  It  possesses  a  fertile  soil, 
except  to  the  west,  where  there  is  a  rolling  country  with  tracts  unfit 
for  cultivation,  and  in  the  Murarai  thdna  to  the  north,  where  the 
land  is  comparatively  infertile  and  there  is  a  large  proportion  of 
uncultivable  waste.  The  population  in  1901  was  366,352,  compared 
with  328,025  in  1891,  the  density  being  568  persons  per  square 
mile.  It  contains  1,336  villages,  of  which  Rampur  Hat  is  the  head- 
quarters ;  but  no  town. 

Rampur  Hat  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the 
same  name  in  Birbhum  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  24°  10'  N.  and 
87°  47'  E.,  on  the  East  Indian  Railway,  136  miles  from  Howrah. 
Population  (1901),  3,908.  A  great  part  of  the  trade  of  the  Santal 
Parganas  passes  through  the  village.  It  contains  the  usual  public 
offices;  the  sub-jail  has  accommodation  for  r8  prisoners. 

Ramree  Island  ( Yan-bye). — Island  off  the  coast  of  Arakan,  in 
Kyaukpyu  District,  Lower  Burma,  lying  between  18°  43'  and  19°  38' 
N.  and  93°  30'  and  93°  56'  E.  It  is  about  50  miles  in  length,  arid 
at  its  broadest  part  about  20  in  breadth.  The  town  of  Kyaukpyu, 
the  head-quarters  of  the  District,  is  built  at  the  northern  end.  The 
island  lies  parallel  with  the  general  line  of  the  coast,  namely,  north-west 
and  south-east,  and  is  traversed  by  a  range  of  hills  bearing  generally  in 
the  same  direction.     The  population  is  composed  chiefly  of  Arakanese. 


194  RAMREE    TOWNSHIP 

Ramree  Township  (Burmese,  Yanbye). — Township  of  Kyaukpyu 
District,  Lower  Burma,  lying  between  i8°  43'  and  19°  22'  N.  and 
93*^  40'  and  94°  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  449  square  miles.  It  comprises 
the  south-eastern  half  of  the  island  of  Ramree.  The  head-quarters 
are  at  Ramree  (population,  2,540),  near  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island. 
In  1901  it  contained  247  villages  and  46,058  inhabitants,  or  about 
1,600  less  than  in  1891.  A  good  deal  of  it  is  covered  with  low  hills. 
The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Buddhists.  In  1903-4  the  area 
cultivated  was  55  square  miles,  paying  Rs.  52,000  land  revenue. 

Ramsanehighat.  —  South-eastern  tahsil  of  Bara  Banki  District, 
United  Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Daryabad,  Surajpur, 
Rudaull,  Basorhi,  and  Mawai  Maholara,  and  lying  between  26°  35' 
and  27°  2'  N.  and  81**  21'  and  81*^  52'  E.,  with  an  area  of  585  square 
miles.  Population  increased  from  377,527  in  1891  to  387,670  in 
1 90 1.  There  are  616  villages  and  three  towns,  RudaulI  (population, 
11,708)  and  Darvabad  (5,928)  being  the  largest.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  6,35,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  99,000. 
The  density  of  population,  662  persons  per  square  mile,  is  about  the 
District  average.  The  tahsil  stretches  from  the  Gogra  on  the  north- 
east to  the  Gumtl  on  the  south,  the  central  portion  being  drained  by 
the  Kalyani,  a  tributary  of  the  Gumti.  It  contains  a  number  oS.jhils 
or  swamps,  and  drains  have  recently  been  made  to  improve  water- 
logged areas.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was  400  square 
miles,  of  which  144  were  irrigated.  Tanks  or  swamps  supply  about 
twice  as  large  an  area  as  wells. 

Ram  Talao  (or  Sunabdev). — Hot  springs  in  the  Shahada  tdluka 
of  West  Khandesh  District,  Bombay,  4  miles  west  of  Unabdev, 
in  a  narrow  gorge  formed  by  two  low  projecting  spurs  of  the  Satpura 
Hills,  and  evidently  supplied  from  the  same  source  as  Unabdev.  In 
the  woodland,  2  miles  from  the  village  of  ^^'ardi,  close  to  Sunabdev, 
are  traces  of  a  large  weir  of  great  thickness  and  strength,  which,  used 
to  dam  the  hot  water  and  form  the  Ram  Talao.  The  water  wells  from 
the  ground  in  one  or  two  places  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°,  and 
seems  to  have  no  healing  power.  The  bricks  of  the  embankment  are 
very  large  and  strong,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long  and  from  2  to 
4  inches  thick.  It  is  said  that  a  Musalman,  in  the  pay  of  the  owner 
of  the  village,  who  was  in  charge  of  Wardi,  used  the  bricks  in  building 
a  step-well.  But  from  the  day  the  well  was  opened  a  curse  from  the 
offended  deity  of  the  spring  fell  on  the  villagers.  They  were  stricken 
with  guinea-worm  and  fled  from  the  village.  After  a  time  the  village  was 
again  peopled,  and  the  bricks  were  used  in  building  a  village  office  or 
chdvdi.  No  sooner  was  the  office  finished  than  the  curse  returned. 
Fever  and  dysentery  broke  out,  and  in  two  years  the  village  was  once 
more  empty  and  has  never  since  been  inhabited.     The  new  village 


RAMTEK   TOWN  i95 

of  Wardi  lies  outside  the  walls  of  the  old  village,  where  it  is  believed 
the  offended  deity  of  the  pond  still  angrily  guards  what  is  left  of  his 
ancient  bricks. 

Ramtek  Tahsil.  —  Northern  tahs'd  of  Nagpur  District,  Central 
Provinces,  lying  between  21°  5'  and  21^  44'  N.  and  78°  55'  and 
79°  35'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,129  square  miles.  The  population  in 
1901  was  156,663,  compared  with  157,150  in  1891.  The  density  is 
139  persons  per  square  mile.  The  tahsil  conXsixwi,  two  towns,  Ramtek 
(population,  8,732),  the  head-quarters,  and  Khapa  (7,615);  and  451 
inhabited  villages.  Excluding  343  square  miles  of  Government  forest, 
77  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The 
cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was  544  square  miles.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  2,27,000,  and  for  cesses 
Rs.  23,000.  The  tahsil  contains  a  belt  of  hill  and  jungle  at  the  foot 
of  the  Satpura  range  to  the  north,  and  in  the  south  lie  two  fertile  plains 
producing  wheat  and  cotton  respectively,  which  are  divided  by  the 
Pench  river. 

Ramtek  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name, 
Nagpur  District,  Central  Provinces,  situated  in  21°  24'  N.  and 
79°  20'  E.,  24  miles  north-east  of  Nagpur  city  by  road  and  13  miles 
from  Salwa  railway  station.  Population  (1901),  8,732.  The  town  lies 
round  the  foot  of  a  detached  hill  forming  the  western  extremity  of  the 
small  Ambagarh  range.  As  is  shown  by  its  name  ('the  hill  of  Rama  ' 
or  Vishnu),  it  is  a  sacred  place  of  the  Hindus.  On  the  hill,  standing 
about  500  feet  above  the  town,  are  a  number  of  temples,  which,  owing 
to  their  many  coats  of  whitewash,  can  be  seen  gleaming  in  the  sun  from 
a  long  distance.  The  principal  temple  is  that  of  Ram  Chandra, 
standing  above  the  others  in  the  inner  citadel,  which  is  protected  by 
two  lines  of  walls,  both  of  recent  origin,  while  a  third  line  runs  round 
the  Ambala  tank  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  The  tank  is  lined  throughout 
with  stone  revetments  and  steps ;  it  is  said  to  be  very  deep,  and  fish 
abound  in  it.  From  the  west  end  of  the  tank  a  long  flight  of  steps 
leads  up  the  hill,  at  the  opposite  end  of  which  another  flight  descends 
to  the  town  of  Ramtek.  About  27  tanks  in  all  have  been  constructed 
round  the  town.  Ramtek  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1867. 
The  municipal  receipts  during  the  decade  ending  1901  aveiaged 
Rs.  8,400.  In  1903-4  the  receipts  were  Rs.  10,000,  derived  mainly 
from  octroi.  A  large  religious  fair  is  held  here  in  December  and 
a  smaller  one  in  March.  The  December  fair  lasts  for  a  fortnight, 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  traffic  in  cloth  and  utensils  takes  place, 
dealers  coming  from  Jubbulpore  and  Mandla.  A  large  area  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  is  covered  with  betel-vine  gardens.  The  variety 
called  kapuri  is  chiefly  grown,  and  is  much  esteemed  locally.  The 
importance  of  the  town  is  now  increasing,  owing  to  the  manganese 


196  RAMTEK   TOWN 

mines  which  are  worked  in  the  tract  adjoining  it.  A  weekly  cattle  market 
is  held.  The  educational  institutions  comprise  an  English  middle, 
girls',  and  branch  schools,  and  a  dispensary  has  also  been  established. 

Ranaghat  Subdivision.  —  Southern  subdivision  of  Nadia  Dis- 
trict, Bengal,  lying  between  22°  53'  and  23°  20'  N.  and  88°  20'  and 
88°  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of  427  square  miles.  The  subdivision  is 
a  deltaic  tract,  bounded  on  the  south-west  by  the  Bhagirathi  ;  it 
contains  much  jungle  and  numerous  marshes  and  backwaters,  and  the 
whole  tract  is  malarious  and  unhealthy.  The  population  declined 
from  230,036  in  1891  to  217,077  in  1901,  the  density  in  the  latter 
year  being  508  persons  per  square  mile ;  the  decrease  (5-63  per  cent.) 
was  due  to  the  prevalence  of  malarial  affections.  The  subdivision 
contains  four  towns,  Ranaghat  (population,  8,744),  the  head-quarters, 
Santipur  (26,898),  Chakdaha  (5,482),  and  Birnagar  (3,124);  and 
568  villages. 

Ranaghat  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same 
name  in  Nadia  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  23°  1  \'  N.  and  88°  34'  E.,  on 
the  Churni  river.  Population  (1901),  8,744.  Ranaghat  is  an  important 
station  on  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  and  a  terminus  of  the 
light  railway  which  runs  to  Krishnagar.  Ranaghat  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1864.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the 
decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  9,000.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  13,000,  including  Rs.  6,000  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons  and 
lands,  and  Rs.  4,000  from  a  conservancy  rate  ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  12,000.  The  town  contains  the  usual  public  ofifices  ;  the  sub-jail 
has  accommodation  for  12  prisoners.  Ranaghat  is  an  important  trade 
centre,  and  the  head-quarters  of  a  Medical  Mission  started  in  1893. 
Several  dispensaries  are  maintained  here  and  at  out-stations,  and  are 
very  largely  attended. 

Ranahu. — Town  in  the  Khipro  tdluka  of  Thar  and  Parkar  District, 
Sind,  situated  in  20°  55'  N.  and  69°  52'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,187. 
It  is  a  place  of  no  importance,  possesses  no  trade,  and,  in  consequence 
of  successive  famines,  a  decreasing  population. 

Ranapur  (or  Rampura). — Site  of  a  celebrated  Jain  temple  in  the 
Desuri  district  of  the  State  of  Jodhpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  25°  7'  N. 
and  73°  28'  E.,  about  88  miles  south-east  of  Jodhpur  city,  and  about 
14  miles  east  by  south-east  of  Falna  station  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa 
Railway.  The  temple  was  built  in  the  time  of  Rana  Kumbha  of 
Mewar  (fifteenth  century),  in  a  lonely  and  deserted  glen  running  into 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Aravallis,  and  is  still  nearly  perfect.  It 
is  most  complicated  and  extensive  in  design,  covering  a  platform 
measuring  200  by  225  feet,  exclusive  of  the  projections  on  each  face. 
In  the  centre  stands  the  great  shrine,  not,  however,  occupied  as  usual 
by  one  cell  but  by  four,  in  each  of  which  is  placed  a  statue  of  Adinath, 


RANCH!  DISTRICT  197 

the  first  of  the  Jain  saints.  On  a  second  storey  are  four  similar  niches 
opening  on  the  terraced  roofs  of  the  building.  Near  the  four  angles 
of  the  court  are  four  smaller  shrines,  and  around  them,  or  on  each 
side  of  them,  are  20  domes  supported  by  about  420  columns.  The 
central  dome  in  each  group  is  three  storeys  in  height  and  towers  over 
the  others  ;  and  that  facing  the  principal  entrance  is  supported  by  the 
very  unusual  number  of  16  columns  and  is  36  feet  in  diameter,  the 
others  being  only  24  feet.  Light  is  admitted  to  the  building  by  four 
uncovered  courts,  and  the  whole  is  surrounded  by  a  range  of  cells, 
each  of  which  has  a  pyramidal  roof  Internally  the  forest  of  columns 
produces  endless  variety  of  perspective  with  play  of  light  and  shade. 
A  wonderful  effect  also  results  from  the  number  of  cells  which,  besides 
being  of  varied  form,  are  more  or  less  adorned  with  carvings. 

'The  immense  number  of  parts  in  the  building  and  their  general 
smallness  prevent  its  laying  claim  to  anything  like  architectural 
grandeur  ;  but  their  variety,  their  beauty  of  detail — no  two  pillars  in 
the  whole  building  being  exactly  alike — the  grace  with  which  they  are 
arranged,  the  tasteful  admixture  of  domes  of  different  heights  with  flat 
ceilings,  and  the  mode  in  which  the  light  is  introduced,  combine  to 
produce  an  excellent  effect.' 

Imbedded  in  a  pillar  at  the  entrance  to  the  temple  is  a  marble  slab 
with  an  inscription  recording  the  rulers  of  Mewar  from  Bapa  Rawal 
to  Rana  Kumbha. 

[J.  Fergusson,  History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture^  pp.  240-2 
(1899).] 

Ranasan. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Ranch!  District. — District  in  the  Chota  Nagpur  Division  of 
Bengal,  lying  between  22°  20'  and  23°  43'  N.  and  84°  o'  and  85°  54'  E. 
It  is  the  largest  District  in  Bengal,  having  an  area  of  7,128  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Districts  of  Palamau  and 
Hazaribagh  ;  on  the  east  by  Manbhum  ;  on  the  south  by  Singhbhum 
and  the  Tributary  State  of  Gangpur ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Jashpur 
and  Surguja  States  and  Palamau  District. 

The  District  consists  broadly  of  two  plateaux,  the  higher  of  which, 

on  its  northern  and  western  sides,  has  an  elevation  of  about  2,000  feet 

and  covers  about  two-thirds  of  its  area,  while   the  . 

PiivsicRl 
lower    plateau    lies    on    the    extreme    eastern    and  aspects. 

southern  borders  and  has  only  half  this  elevation. 

The  ghats  or  passes  which  connect  the  two  are  for  the  most  part  steep 

and  rugged,  and  are  covered  with  a  fair  growth  of  timber.      In  the 

north-western  corner  of  the  District  are  situated  several   lofty  ranges 

of  hills,  some  of  them  with  level  tops,  locally  called  pats^  a  few  having 

an  area  of  several  square  miles,  but  sparsely  inhabited  and  with  very 

little  cultivation.     The  highest  point  in  the  District  is  the  Saru  hill. 


198  RANCH!  DISTRICT 

about  20  miles  west  of  the  town  of  Lohardaga,  which  rises  to  3,615 
feet  above  sea-level.  ^Vith  the  exception  of  the  hills  in  the  north-west 
and  of  a  lofty  range  which  divides  the  main  portion  of  the  lower 
plateau  from  the  secluded  valley  of  Sonapet  in  the  south-eastern  corner 
of  the  District,  the  plateaux  themselves  are  flat  and  undulating,  with 
numerous  small  hills.  The  District  possesses  varied  beauties  of 
scenery,  especially  in  the  west  and  south,  where  bare  and  rugged  rocks 
alternate  with  richly  wooded  hills  enclosing  secluded  and  peaceful 
valleys.  Not  least  among  the  scenic  features  are  the  various  waterfalls, 
any  of  which  would  in  a  Western  country  be  regarded  as  worthy  of 
a  visit  even  from  a  distance.  The  finest  is  the  Hundrughagh  on  the 
Subarnarekha  river  about  30  miles  east  of  RanchI  town  ;  but  several 
others  are  hardly  inferior,  e.g.  the  Dasamghagh  near  Bundu,  two 
Peruaghaghs  (one  in  Kochedega  and  one  in  the  Basia  thdna),  so  called 
because  of  the  hundreds  of  wild  pigeons  which  nest  in  the  crevices  of 
the  rocks  round  about  all  these  falls,  and  the  beautiful  though  almost 
unknown  fall  of  the  Sankh  river  (known  as  the  Sadnlghagh  from  the 
adjacent  village  of  SadnT  Kona),  where  it  drops  from  the  lofty  Rajdera 
plateau  on  its  way  to  the  plains  of  Barwe  below.  The  river  system 
is  complex,  and  the  various  watersheds  scatter  their  rivers  in  widely 
divergent  directions.  Near  the  village  of  Nagra,  12  miles  west  and 
south-west  of  Ranch!  town,  rise  the  Subarnarekha  (the  'golden  line 
or  thread')  and  the  South  Koel  (a  very  common  name  for  rivers  in 
Chota  Nagpur,  but  apparently  without  any  specific  meaning)  ;  the 
former  on  the  south  side  and  the  latter  on  the  north.  The  Subar- 
narekha, of  which  the  chief  affluents  in  this  District  are  the  Kokro,  the 
KanchI,  and  the  Karkarl,  flows  at  first  in  a  north-easterly  direction, 
passes  the  town  of  Ranch!  at  a  distance  of  about  2  miles,  and  eventually 
running  due  east  flows  through  a  narrow  and  picturesque  valley  along 
the  Hazaribagh  border  into  the  District  of  Manbhum.  The  South 
Koel,  on  the  other  hand,  starting  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  runs 
near  Lohardaga,  and  turning  south  again,  flows  across  the  District  from 
north-west  to  south-east  into  Gangpur  State  and  there  joins  the  Sankh, 
which,  rising  in  the  extreme  west  of  the  District,  also  runs  south-east, 
the  united  stream  being  known  as  the  Brahmani.  Within  almost 
a  few  yards  of  the  Sankh  rises  another  Koel,  known  as  the  North 
Koel ;  but  this  stream  flows  to  the  north  and  eventually,  after  traversing 
Palamau  District,  joins  the  Son  under  the  plateau  of  Rohtas.  None 
of  these  rivers  contains  more  than  a  few  inches  of  water  during  the  dry 
season ;  but  in  the  rains  they  come  down  in  sudden  and  violent  freshes, 
which  for  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  even  days,  render  them  wellnigh 
impassable.  Lakes  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence,  the  explanation 
being  that  the  granite  which  forms  the  chief  geological  feature  of  the 
District  is  soft  and  soon  worn  away. 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  199 

The  creological  formations  are  the  Archaean  and  the  Gondwana. 
Of  the  latter,  all  that  is  included  within  the  District  is  a  small  strip 
along  the  southern  edge  of  the  Karanpura  coal-fields.  The  rock 
occupying  by  far  the  greatest  area  is  gneiss  of  the  kind  known  as 
Bengal  gneiss,  which  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of  its  com- 
ponent crystalline  rocks.  The  south  of  the  District  includes  a  portion 
of  the  auriferous  schists  of  Chota  Nagpur.  These  form  a  highly 
altered  sedimentary  and  volcanic  series,  consisting  of  quartzites,  quartz- 
itic  sandstones,  slates  of  various  kinds,  sometimes  shaly,  hornblendic, 
mica,  talcose,  and  chloritic  schists.  Like  the  Dharwar  schists  of 
Southern  India,  which  they  resemble,  they  are  traversed  by  auriferous 
quartz  veins.  A  gigantic  intrusion  of  igneous  basic  diorite  runs  through 
the  schists  from  east  to  west,  forming  a  lofty  range  of  hills  which 
culminate  in  the  peak  of  Dalma  in  Manbhum,  whence  the  name 
Dalma  trap  has  been  derived.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  this  intrusion 
the  schists  are  more  metamorphosed  and  contain  a  larger  infusion 
of  gold^ 

The  narrower  valleys  are  often  terraced  for  rice  cultivation,  and  the 
rice-fields  and  their  margins  abound  in  marsh  and  water  plants.  The 
surface  of  the  plateau  land  between  the  valleys,  where  level,  is  often 
bare  and  rocky,  but  where  undulating,  is  usually  clothed  with  a  dense 
scrub  jungle,  in  which  Dendrocalamus  strictus  is  prominent.  The  steep 
slopes  of  the  ghats  are  covered  with  a  dense  forest  mixed  with  climbers. 
Sal  {Shorea  robusta)  is  gregarious ;  among  the  other  noteworthy  trees 
are  species  of  Buchanania,  Semecarpus,  Terminalia,  Cedrela,  Cassia, 
Butea,  Bauhifiia,  Acacia,  and  Adina,  which  these  forests  share  with  the 
similar  forests  on  the  Lower  Himalayan  slopes.  Mixed  with  these, 
however,  are  a  number  of  characteristically  Central  India  trees  and 
shrubs,  such  as  Cochlospermum,  Soymida,  Boswellia,  Hardtuickia,  and 
Bassia,  which  do  not  cross  the  Gangetic  plain.  One  of  the  features 
of  the  upper  edge  of  the  ghats  is  a  dwarf  palm.  Phoenix  acauHs ; 
striking  too  is  the  wealth  of  scarlet  blossom  in  the  hot  season  pro- 
duced by  the  abundance  of  Butea  frotidosa  and  B.  superba,  and  the 
mass  of  white  flowers  along  the  ghats  in  November  displayed  by  the 
convolvulaceous  climber  Parana patticulata.  The  jungles  also  contain 
a  large  variety  of  tree  and  ground  orchids. 

The  Indian  bison  {gaur)  is  probably  extinct  as  an  inhabitant  of  the 
District,  but  a  wanderer  from  Gangpur  State  or  Palamau  may  occa- 
sionally even  now  be  encountered  near  the  boundary.  Tigers,  leopards, 
hyenas,  bears,  and  an  occasional  wolf  are  to  be  found  in  all  jungly  and 
mountainous  parts,  while  sdmbar  {Cervus  t(nicolor),  ni/gai  {Boseiaphus 
tragoca7nelns\  antelope,  chltal  or  spotted  deer,  and  the  little  kotra  or 

'  The  gold-bearing  rocks  of  Chota  Nagpur  have  been  described  by  S.  M.  Maclaren 
in  Records,  Geological  Stirvey  of  India,  vol.  xxxi,  pt.  ii. 


200  RANCH!  DISTRICT 

barking-deer    {Cennilus    ynuntjac')    arc    common    in    all    the    larger 
jungles. 

The  temperature  is  moderate,  except  during  the  hot  months  of  April, 
May,  and  June,  when  the  westerly  winds  from  Central  India  cause  high 
temperature  with  low  humidity.  The  mean  temperature  increases  from 
76°  in  March  to  85°  in  April  and  88°  in  May,  the  mean  maximum 
from  88°  in  March  to  100°  in  May,  and  the  mean  minimum  from  63° 
to  76°.  During  these  months  humidity  is  lower  in  Chota  Nagpur  than 
in  any  other  part  of  Bengal,  falling  in  RanchI  to  43  per  cent,  in  AFarch, 
During  the  cold  season  the  mean  temperature  is  63°  and  the  mean 
minimum  51°.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  52  inches,  of  which 
8-1  inches  fall  in  June,  i-^-d  in  July,  13-7  in  August,  and  8-8  in 
September. 

The  history  of  Chota  Nagpur  divides  itself  into  four  well-marked 
periods.  During  the  first  the  country  was  in  the  undisturbed  possession 
of  the  Munda  and  Oraon  races,  who  m.ay  be  pre- 
sumed to  have  reclaimed  it  from  a  state  of  unculti- 
vated forest;  it  was  at  that  time  called  Jharkand  or  the  'forest  tract.' 
The  second  period  embraces  the  subjection  of  the  aboriginal  village 
communities  to  the  chiefs  of  the  Nagbansi  family.  The  birth  at 
Sutiamba,  near  Pithauria,  10  miles  north  of  Ranch!  town,  of  the  first 
of  this  race,  Phani  Mukuta  Rai,  the  son  of  the  Brahman's  daughter 
Paratl  and  the  snake  god,  Pundarlka  Nag,  is  a  well-known  incident  of 
mythology.  Whatever  the  real  origin  of  the  family,  it  is  certain  that 
at  some  unknown  time  the  aborigines  of  Chota  Nagpur,  either  by 
voluntary  submission  or  by  force  of  arms,  came  under  the  sway  of  the 
Nagbansi  Rajas,  and  so  continued  until  they  in  turn  became  subject  to 
the  Musalman  rulers  of  Upper  India.  This  event,  which  may  be  taken 
as  inaugurating  the  third  period  in  the  history  of  Chota  Nagpur,  took 
place  in  the  year  1585,  when  Akbar  sent  a  force  which  subdued  the 
Raja  of  Kokrah,  or  Chota  Nagpur  proper,  then  celebrated  for  the 
diamonds  found  in  its  rivers ;  the  name  still  survives  as  that  of  the 
most  important  pargana  of  Ranch!  District.  Musalman  rule  appears 
for  a  long  time  to  have  been  of  a  nominal  description,  consisting  of  an 
occasional  raid  by  a  Muhammadan  force  from  South  Bihar  and  the 
carrying  off  of  a  small  tribute,  usually  in  the  shape  of  a  few  diamonds 
from  the  Sankh  river.  Jahang!r  sent  a  large  force  under  Ibrahim 
Khan,  governor  of  Bihar,  and  carried  the  forty-fifth  Kokrah  chief, 
Durjan  Sal,  captive  to  Delhi  and  thence  to  Gwalior,  where  he  was 
detained  for  twelve  years.  He  was  eventually  reinstated  at  Kokrah 
with  a  fixed  tribute  ;  and  it  would  appear  that  the  relations  thus 
formed  continued  on  a  more  settled  basis  until  the  depredations  of 
the  Marathas  in  the  eighteenth  century  led,  with  other  causes,  to  the 
cession  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  country  to  the  British  in  1765,     A  settle- 


HISTORY  20 1 

ment  was  arrived  at  with  the  Nagbansi  Maharaja  in  1772  ;  hut  after 
a  trial  of  administration  in  which  he  was  found  wanting,  the  country 
now   included    in    RanchI    District   was,   along   with    other   adjoining 
territories,  placed  under  the  charge  of  the  Magistrate  of  Ranigarh  in 
Hazaribagh  District.     This  was  in  i8t6  or  181 7.     Meanwhile  the  gulf 
between  the  foreign  landlords  and  their  despised  aboriginal  tenants 
had  begun  to  make  itself  felt.     A  large  proportion  of  the  country  had 
passed  from  the  head   family,  either  by   way  of  maintenance  grants 
{khorposh)  to  younger  branches  or  of  service  grants  {Jdgtr)  to  Brahmans 
and  others,  many  of  whom  had  no  sympathy  with  the  aborigines  and 
only  sought  to  wring  from  them  as  much  as  possible.     The  result  was 
a  seething  discontent  among  the  Mundas  and  Oraons,  which  manifested 
itself  in  successive  risings  in  the  years  181 1,  1820,  and  1831.     In  the 
last  year  the  revolt  assumed  very  serious  proportions,  and  was  not  sup- 
pressed without  some  fighting  and  the  aid  of  three  columns  of  troops, 
including  a  strong  body  of  cavalry.     It  had  long  become  apparent  that 
the  control  from  Ramgarh,  which  was  situated  outside  the  southern 
plateau  and  in  reality  formed  part  of  a  more  northern  administrative 
system,  was  ineffective;  and  in  1833  Chota  Nagpur  proper  with  Dhal- 
bhum  was  formed    into   a   separate   province,   known  as   the   South- 
^^^estern  Frontier  Agency,  and  placed  in  the  immediate  charge  of  an 
Agent  to  the  Governor-General  aided  by  a  Senior  and  Junior  Assistant, 
the   position    of  the   former   corresponding  closely  with   that    of  the 
present    Deputy-Commissioner   of  Ranchi.      In    1854  the   system    of 
government   was   again   altered,  and   Chota   Nagpur  was   constituted 
a  non-regulation  province  under  a  Commissioner.     In  the  Mutiny  of 
1857  the  head  branch  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  family  held  firm,  though 
the  Ramgarh  Battalion  at  Ranch!  mutinied  and  several  of  the  inferior 
branches  of  the  Nagbansis  seceded.     Chief  among  these  in   Ranchi 
District  was  the  zamviddr  of  Barkagarh,  whose  property  was  confiscated 
and  now  forms  a  valuable  Government  estate.     The  subsequent  history 
of  the  District  has  been  uneventful,  with  the  exception  of  periodical 
manifestations  of  the  discontent  of  the  Munda  population  in  the  south 
and  south-east.     This  was  fanned  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century  by  the  self-interested  agitation  of  so-called  sarddrs 
or  leaders,  whose  chief  object  has  been  to  make  a  living  for  themselves 
at  the  expense  of  the  people,  and  also  by  the  misrepresentations  of 
a  certain  section  of  the  German  missionaries.     It  culminated  in  a  small 
rising  in  1899  under  one  Birsa  Munda,  who  set  himself  up  as  a  God- 
sent  leader  with   miraculous   powers.     The  movement  was,  however, 
wanting  in  dash  and  cohesion,  and  was  suppressed  without  difficulty 
by  the  local  authorities,  the  ringleader  being  captured,  and  ending  his 
days   from   cholera    in    the    Ranch!   jail.      When    the   South-Western 
Frontier  Agency  was  established  in  1833,  the  District,  which  was  then 


202 


RANCH!  DISTRICT 


known  as  Lohardaga,  included  the  present  District  of  Palamau  and 
had  its  head-quarters  at  Lohardaga,  45  miles  west  of  Ranchl.  In  1840 
the  head-quarters  were  transferred  to  their  present  site,  and  in  1892  the 
subdivision  of  Palamau  with  the  Tori  pargana  was  formed  into  a 
separate  District. 

Doisanagar,  which  lies  about  40  miles  to  the  west  and  south  01 
Ranchi,  contains  the  ruins  of  the  palaces  built  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
eighteenth  century  by  Maharaja  Ram  Sahi  Deo  and  his  brother  the 
Kuar  Gokhal  Nath  Sahi  Deo,  and  also  of  some  half-dozen  temples 
erected  for  the  worship  of  Mahadeo  and  Ganesh.  The  stronghold  of 
the  former  Raja  of  Jashpur,  one  of  the  old  chiefs  brought  into  sub- 
jection by  the  Mughals,  is  situated  about  2  miles  north  of  Getalsud  in 
the  Jashpur  pargana.  The  only  other  relic  worthy  of  note  is  the 
temple  at  Chutia,  on  the  eastern  outskirts  of  the  town  of  Ranch!. 
Chokahatu,  or  'the  place  of  mourning,'  is  a  village  in  the  south-west 
of  the  District  famous  for  its  large  burial-ground,  which  is  used  by 
both  Muhammadans  and  Mundas. 

The  recorded  population  of  the  present  area  rose  from  813,328  in 

1872   to  1,058,169  in  1881,  to  1,128,885  in   1891,  and   to  1,187,925 

T,       ,  ,.  in  1 90 1.     The  large  apparent  increase  in  the  first 

Population.        ,      ^,  1      •  .,        ,        ,     •  r      • 

decade  may  be  m  part  attributed  to  the  imperfections 

of  the  first  Census.     The  subsequent  growth  would  have  been  greater 

but  for  the  drain  of  cooly  recruiting  for  the  tea  and  other  industries, 

coupled  with  a  year  of  sharp  scarcity  just  before  the  Census  of  1901. 

The  more  jungly  tracts  are  very  malarious,  but   on   the  whole   the 

climate  compares  favourably  with  that  of  other  parts  of  Bengal.     The 

principal  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901  are  shown  below: — 


Subdivision. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Number  of 

c 
.2 

u 
0  n 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

vt 

c 

e2 

i 

1 
> 

Ranch! 
Gumla 

District  total 

3,506 
3,622 

3 

I 

2,016 
1,157 

753,2.^6 
434,689 

215 

120 

+  3-1 
+   9.1 

24,845 

7,686 

7,128 

4 

3,173 

1,187,925 

167 

+  5-2 

32,531 

Note.— In  1905  a  new  subdivision,  Khunti,  with  an  area  of  1,140  square  miles,  was  con- 
stituted, and  the  area  of  the  Ranchl  subdivision  was  reduced  to  2,360  square  miles.  The 
population  of  the  Ranchi  and  Khunti  subdivisions  is  527,829  and  225,407  respectively. 

The  four  towns  are  Ranch!  the  present,  and  Lohardaga  the 
former  head-quarters,  Bundu,  and  Palkot.  The  density  of  population 
declines  steadily  from  the  north-east  to  the  west  and  south-west ;  the 
greatest  growth  has  taken  place  along  the  south  of  the  District. 
Emigration  has  for  many  years  been  very  active.  In  1897,  4,096 
coolies  were  dispatched  to  the  Assam  tea  gardens,  in  1898,  4,329,  and 


POPULATION  203 

in  1899,  3,2443  in  1900,  owing  to  a  failure  of  the  crops,  the  number 
rose  to  6,307;  but  since  then  it  has  fallen  to  2,750  in  1901,  and  to 
1,799  ij^  1902.  The  recent  diminution  is  due  in  part  to  the  very  much 
closer  supervision  over  the  operations  of  the  recruiters  provided  by 
recent  legislation. 

There  is  also  a  large  but  unrecorded  exodus  to  the  tea  gardens  of 
Darjeeling  and  the  Duars,  which  are  worked  with  free  labour,  and  to 
the  coal-mines  of  Manbhum  and  Burdwan  ;  during  the  winter  months 
many  visit  the  Districts  of  Bengal  proper  to  seek  employment  on  earth- 
work and  in  harvesting  the  crops.  The  total  number  of  emigrants  at 
the  time  of  the  Census  of  1901  was  no  less  than  275,000,  of  whom 
92,000  were  in  Assam  and  80,000  in  Jalpaigurl  District.  Hindi  is 
spoken  by  42^  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The  dialect  most  in  vogue 
is  a  variety  of  Bhojpurl  known  as  Nagpuria,  which  has  borrowed  some 
of  its  grammatical  forms  from  the  adjoining  Chhattisgarhi  dialect. 
Languages  of  the  Munda  family  are  spoken  by  30  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  the  most  common  being  Mundarl,  which  is  the  speech  of 
299,000  persons,  and  Kharia,  which  is  spoken  by  50,000.  Kurukh  or 
Oraon,  a  Dravidian  language,  was  returned  at  the  Census  as  the  parent 
tongue  of  rather  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  population  ;  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  many  of  the  Oraons  have  abandoned  their  tribal  language  in 
favour  of  a  debased  form  of  Hindi.  Hindus  number  474,540  persons 
(or  40  per  cent,  of  the  total) ;  Animists,  546,415  (46  per  cent.);  Musal- 
mans,  41,972  (3^  per  cent.);  and  Christians,  124,958  (io|  per  cent.). 
Animism  is  the  religion,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  of  the  aboriginal 
tribes ;  but  many  such  persons  now  claim  to  be  Hindus,  and  the  native 
Christians  of  Ranchi  District  have  come  almost  entirely  from  their 
ranks. 

Of  aboriginal  tribes,  the  most  numerous  are  the  Oraons  (279,000), 
MuNDAS  (236,000),  and  Kharias  (41,000).  The  Oraons  are  found 
chiefly  along  the  north  and  west,  the  Mundas  in  the  east,  and  the 
Kharias  in  the  south-west  of  the  District.  Among  the  Hindu  castes, 
Kurmis  (49,000)  and  Ahirs  (Goalas)  and  Lobars  (each  37,000)  are 
most  largely  represented ;  the  last  named  probably  include  a  large 
number  of  aboriginal  blacksmiths.  Agriculture  supports  79  per  cent. 
of  the  population,  industries  11  per  cent.,  commerce  0-6  per  cent.,  and 
the  professions  1-2  per  cent. 

Christians  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  Bengal  District,  and 
in  fact  number  five-elevenths  of  the  whole  Christian  population  of 
Bengal  and  Eastern  Bengal.  Missionary  effort  commenced  shortly 
before  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  converts  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  Oraons  (61,000),  Mundas  (52,000),  and  Kharias 
(10,000).  The  German  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mission  w-as  established 
in  Ranchi  in  1845,  and  was  originally  known  as  Gossner's  Mission. 

VOL    XXI.  o 


>04 


RANCHI  DISTRICT 


An  unfortunate  disagreement  subsequently  took  place;  and  in  1869  it 
was  split  up  into  two  sections,  the  one  enrolling  itself  under  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  other  retaining  the  name  of 
Gossner's  Mission.  The  progress  made  during  recent  years  has  been 
remarkable,  the  number  of  converts  having  increased  from  19,000  in 
1891  to  three  times  that  number  in  1901.  The  Mission  now  possesses 
10  stations  in  the  District;  and  the  workers  include  21  European 
missionaries,  19  native  pastors,  and  515  catechists,  teachers,  &c.  The 
Church  of  England  Mission,  which  had  its  origin  from  the  split  in 
Gossner's  Mission,  had  in  1901  a  community  of  13,000,  compared  with 
10,000  in  1 89 1.  The  Roman  Catholic  Mission  is  an  offshoot  from 
a  mission  founded  at  Singhbhum  in  1869,  which  was  extended  to 
Ranch!  in  1874.  It  has  now  11  stations  in  the  District,  and  its  con- 
verts in  1 90 1  numbered  54,000,  or  about  three-fifths  of  the  total 
number  of  Roman  Catholics  in  Bengal  and  Eastern  Bengal.  The 
Dublin  University  Mission,  which  commenced  work  at  Hazaribagh  in 
1892,  opened  a  branch  at  RanchI  in  1901. 

The  greater  part  of  the  District  is  an  undulating  table-land,  but 
towards  the  west  and  south  the  surface  becomes  more  broken  ;  the  hills 
are  steeper,  and  the  valleys  are  replaced  by  ravines 
where  no  crops  can  be  grown.  Cultivable  land 
ordinarily  falls  into  two  main  classes  :  don  or  levelled  and  embanked 
lowlands,  subdivided  according  to  the  amount  of  moisture  which  they 
naturally  retain ;  and  tdnr  or  uplands,  which  include  alike  the  bdri  or 
homestead  lands  round  the  village  sites  and  the  stony  and  infertile 
lands  on  the  higher  ground.  Generally  speaking,  the  low  embanked 
lands  are  entirely  devoted  to  rice,  while  on  the  uplands  rice  is  also 
grown,  but  in  company  with  a  variety  of  other  crops. 

The  chief  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown  below,  areab 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Agriculture. 


Subdivision. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Cultivable 

waste. 

Forests. 

Ranch! 
Gumla 

Total 

3.506 
3,622 

1,254 
915 

537 
659 

2 

7,128 

2,169 

1,196 

2 

Note.— In  1905  a  new  subdivision,  with  head-quarters  at  Khunti,  was  con- 
stituted from  a  portion  of  the  Ranchi  subdivision.  The  areas  of  the  Rancht 
and  Khunti  subdivisions  are  2,366  and  1,140  square  miles  respectively. 

The  chief  staple  is  rice,  grown  on  1,914  square  miles,  the  upland 
rice  being  invariably  sown  broadcast,  while  the  lowland  rice  is  either 
sown  broadcast  or  transplanted.  Other  important  cereals  are  gondii  or 
the  small  millet  {Panicum  miliare)  and  niarud ;  pulses,  especially  urd, 
and  oilseeds,  chiefly  sargnja  and  mustard,  are  also  extensively  grown. 


AGRICULTURE  205 

The  bhadoi  harvest,  reaped  in  August  and  September,  includes  the 
upland  rice  crops,  millets,  and  pulses ;  and  the  kharif,  reaped  in  the 
latter  part  of  November,  December,  and  January,  includes  the  whole  of 
the  rice  crops  on  the  embanked  lands,  sargttja,  and  one  of  the  varieties 
of  urd  pulse.  Though  in  area  there  is  apparently  not  much  difference 
between  these  harvests,  the  latter  is  by  far  the  more  important  of  the 
tW'O  owing  to  the  weight  of  rice  taken  off  the  doji  lands.  The  rabi 
harvest  in  February  is  relatively  very  small,  the  only  important  crops 
being  rahar  {Cajanus  indicus)  and  sarson.  Tea  was  at  one  time  some- 
what extensively  cultivated,  but  the  soil  and  the  rainfall  do  not  appear 
to  be  suited  to  the  production  of  the  finer  varieties,  and  the  industry  has 
of  late  years  sensibly  declined.  In  1903  there  were  21  gardens  with 
2,256  acres  under  tea  and  an  out-turn  of  306,000  lb.  Market-gardening 
is  carried  on  to  a  small  extent  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  large  towns 
by  immigrant  Koiris  from  Bihar. 

The  low  land  most  suitable  for  embanked  rice  cultivation  has  already 
been  taken  up,  and  as  the  cost  of  levelling  and  embanking  the  higher 
ground  is  considerable,  the  extension  of  cultivation  proceeds  but  slowly. 
The  native  cultivator  employs  primitive  methods  and  displays  no 
interest  in  the  introduction  of  improvements.  In  Government  estates 
experiments  have  been  made  with  improved  seeds,  especially  of  the 
potato  plant,  and  on  the  Getalsud  tea  estate  some  tdnr  land  has  been 
put  under  the  sisal  aloe  and  experiments  in  fibre  extraction  are 'being 
made.  The  construction  of  tanks  for  irrigation  purposes  by  erecting 
dams  across  the  slopes,  though  they  would  be  cheap  and  effective,  has 
been  but  little  resorted  to,  except  at  Kolebira  and  in  a  few  villages 
in  Government  estates.  Cow-dung  is  used  for  manuring  lowland  rice, 
and  ashes  for  the  fertilization  of  the  uplands,  especially  for  cotton. 
In  the  lean  years  1897  and  1900  advances  of  Rs.  20,000  were  made 
under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act,  and  of  Rs.  1,43,000  under 
the  Agriculturists'  Loans  x\ct. 

No  good  cattle  are  bred.  Pigs  and  fowls  are  largely  kept  by  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants,  especially  in  the  remoter  parts  and  on  the  higher 
plateaux. 

Extensive  jungles  under  private  ownership  exist  in  the  north-west 
and  south,  but  the  only  Government  forest  is  a  small  Reserve  covering 
2  square  miles  near  Ranch!  town. 

The  Sonapet  area  in  the  south-east  corner  of  the  District,  which  is 
almost  entirely  surrounded  by  the  Dalma  trap,  has  long  been  known  to 
contain  gold ;  but,  from  the  recent  investigations  of  experts,  it  appears 
very  doubtful  whether  its  extraction  either  from  the  alluvium  or  from 
any  of  the  quartz  veins  can  ever  prove  remunerative.  Iron  ore  of  an 
inferior  quality  abounds  throughout  the  District,  and  is  smelted  by  the 
old  native  process  and  used  for  tiie  nianufaclure  of  agricultural  iniple- 

O  2 


2o6  RANCH!  DISTRICT 

merits,  &c.  In  the  south-east  of  the  Taniar  pargana  a  soft  kind  of 
steatite  allied  to  soapstone  is  dug  out  of  small  mines  and  converted  into 
various  domestic  utensils.  The  mines  go  down  in  a  slanting  direction, 
and  in  one  or  two  instances  a  depth  of  about  150  feet  has  been  reached. 
The  harder  and  tougher  kinds  of  trap  make  good  road-metal,  while  the 
softer  and  more  workable  forms  of  granite  are  of  easy  access  and  are 
much  used  for  the  construction  of  piers  and  foundations  of  bridges  and 
other  buildings.  Mica  is  found  in  several  localities,  especially  near 
Lohardaga  and  elsewhere  in  the  north  of  the  District,  but  not  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  or  of  a  quality  good  enough  to  make  it  worth  mining. 

The  chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  shellac.     The  lac  insect  is 

bred   chiefly   on  the   kusum   {Schleichem   trijuga)   and  palds   {Butea 

frondosd)  trees,  and  shellac  is  manufactured  at  some 

«;^„t;«„o    half-dozen  factories,  the  largest  being  at  Ranchi  and 

communications.  >  o  p 

Bundu.  Brass  and  bell-metal  articles  are  manu- 
factured at  Lohardaga,  and  coarse  cotton  cloths  are  woven  throughout 
the  District. 

The  chief  exports  are  rice,  oilseeds,  hides,  lac,  and  tea.  Myrabolams 
{Terniina/ia  Chebula)  are  also  extensively  exported.  The  chief  imports 
are  wheat,  tobacco,  sugar,  gtir,  salt,  piece-goods,  blankets,  and  kerosene 
oil.  The  principal  places  of  trade  are  Ranchi,  Lohardaga,  Bundu, 
Palkot,  and  Gobindpur.  In  the  w'est  of  the  District,  owing  to  the 
frequent  ghats  with  only  bridle-paths  across  them,  the  articles  of  com- 
merce are  carried  by  strings  of  pack-bullocks,  of  which  great  numbers 
may  be  met  after  the  crop-cutting  season,  passing  in  or  out  of  Barwe  to 
trade  either  in  Ranchi  or  in  the  Jashpur  and  Surguja  States. 

No  railways  enter  the  District,  and  practically  the  whole  of  the 
external  trade  is  carried  along  the  cart-road  which  connects  Ranchi 
town  with  Purulia  on  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  This  road,  and 
those  to  Chaibasa  and  Hazaribagh,  with  an  aggregate  length  in  the 
District  of  about  100  miles,  are  maintained  by  Government.  There 
are  also  919  miles  of  road  (including  170  miles  of  village  tracks)  main- 
tained by  the  District  board.  The  most  important  of  these  are  a 
gravelled  road,  52  miles  in  length,  connecting  Ranchi  with  Lohardaga, 
and  unmetalled  roads  from  Ranchi  to  Biindu  and  Tamar,  Palkot,  Bero, 
and  Kurdeg,  and  Sesai,  whence  one  branch  runs  to  Lohardaga  and 
another  through  Gumla.  There  is  a  ferry  over  the  Koel  river,  where 
it  crosses  the  road  to  the  new  subdivisional  head-quarters  at  Gumla, 
but  as  a  rule  ferries  are  little  used,  as  the  rivers,  when  not  easily 
fordable,  become  furious  hill  torrents  which  it  is  dangerous  to  cross. 

The  District  was  affected  by  the  famine  of  1874,  and  the  harvests 

.  were  very  deficient  in  1891,  1895,  1896,  and  1899  ; 

but  it  was  only  on  the  last  two  occasions  that  relief 

operations  were  found  necessary.     In  1897  the  test  works  at  first  failed 


ADMTXISTRATTON  207 

to  attract  labour,  and  it  was  hoped  for  a  time  that  the  people  would 
be  able  to  surmount  their  trouble  without  help  from  Government.  Dis- 
tress subsequently  manifested  itself  in  the  centre  of  the  District,  but 
relief  operations  were  at  once  undertaken  and  the  acute  stage  was  of 
very  short  duration.  Altogether  52,710  persons  found  employment  in 
relief  works,  and  gratuitous  relief  was  given  to  153,200  persons,  the 
expenditure  from  public  funds  being  Rs.  18,000.  The  District  was, 
however,  never  officially  declared  affected,  and  relief  operations  were 
carried  on  only  for  a  few  months  on  a  small  scale.  In  1900  relief 
works  were  opened  in  ample  time  :  the  attendance  on  them  was  far 
higher  than  in  the  previous  famine  :  and  the  distress  that  would  other- 
wise have  ensued  was  thus  to  a  great  extent  averted.  The  area  affected 
was  3,052  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  493,000  persons: 
and  in  all,  1,134,287  persons  (in  terms  of  one  day)  received  relief  in 
return  for  work  and  516,400  persons  gratuitously,  the  expenditure  from 
public  funds  being  23  lakhs.  The  distress  was  most  acute  in  the  centre 
and  west  of  the  District,  but,  as  far  as  is  known,  there  were  no  deaths 
from  starvation. 

In  1902  the  District  was  divided  into  two  subdivisions  with  head- 
quarters at  RanchI  and  Gumla,  and  in  1905  a  third  subdivision  was 

formed  with  head-quarters  at  Khunti.     The  staff  at     .  ,    .  . 

,       ,.  ,       T^  ^  Administration, 

head-quarters   subordinate   to   the    Deputy-Commis- 
sioner consists  of  a  Joint  and  five  Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors,  while 
the  Gumla  subdivision  is  in  charge  of  a  Joint,  and  the  Khunti  sub- 
division of  a  Deputy- Magistrate-Collector. 

The  chief  court  of  the  District,  both  civil  and  criminal,  is  that  of  the 
Judicial  Commissioner,  who  is  the  District  and  Sessions  Judge.  The 
Deputy-Commissioner  has  special  powers  under  section  34  of  the  Code 
of  Criminal  Procedure  to  try  all  cases  not  punishable  with  death.  The 
civil  courts  include  those  of  the  Deputy-Collectors  who  try  all  original 
rent  suits,  of  two  Munsifs  at  Ranch!  and  Gumla  who  have  also  the 
powers  of  a  Deputy-Collector  for  the  trial  of  rent  suits,  and  of  a  special 
Subordinate  Judge  for  the  combined  Districts  of  Hazaribagh  and 
RanchI.  The  most  common  crimes  are  burglaries  and  those  which 
arise  from  disputes  about  land  ;  the  latter  are  very  frequent  owing  to 
the  unsettled  nature  of  rights  and  areas,  the  ignorance  of  the  common 
people,  and  the  greed  of  indifferent  and  petty  landlords.  Murders  are 
unusually  frequent,  as  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  are  heavy  drinkers, 
believe  in  witchcraft,  and  have  small  regard  for  life. 

The  country  was  originally  in  the  sole  possession  of  the  aboriginal 
settlers,  whose  villages  were  divided  into  groups  or  paras  each  under 
its  tridnki  or  chief.  These  chiefs  were  subsequently  brought  under  the 
domination  of  the  Nagbansi  Rajas,  who  became  Hinduized  and  by 
degrees  lost  sympathy  with  their  despised  non-Hindu  subjects.     The 


2o8  RANCH!  DT STRICT 

Maharajas  in  course  of  time  made  large  grants  of  land  for  the  main- 
tenance of  their  relatives,  military  supporters,  and  political  or  domestic 
favourites,  who  fell  into  financial  difficulties  and  admitted  the  dikku 
or  alien  adventurer  to  prey  upon  the  land.     To  one  or  other  of  these 
stages  belong  all  the  tenures  of  the  District.     They  are  very  numerous, 
but  can  be  generally  classified  under  four  heads :  the  Raj  or  Chota 
Nagpur  estate ;    tenures  dependent   on  the   Maharajas   and  held   by 
subordinate  Rajas  ;  maintenance  and  service  tenures  ;  and  cultivating 
tenures.     The  second  and  third  classes  of  tenures  are  held  on  a  system 
of  succession    peculiar   to   Chota   Nagpur,  known  as  putra-pt(t7-ddik, 
which  renders  them  liable  to  resumption  in  case  of  failure  of  male  heirs 
to  the  original  grantee.     As  the  Chota  Nagpur  Raj  follows  the  custom 
of  primogeniture,  maintenance  grants  are  given  to  the  near  relatives  of 
the  Maharaja.     The  chief  service  grants  are  :  bdraik,  given  for  military 
service  and  the  upkeep  of  a  militia ;  bhuiyd,  a  similar  tenure  found  in 
the  south-w^est  of  the  District ;  ohdur,  for  work  done  as  diwdn ;  ghdtwdl, 
for  keeping  safe  the  passes  ;  and  a  variety  of  revenue-free  grants,  brdhm- 
offar  or  grants  to  Brahmans,  and  dehotiar  or  lands  set  apart  for  the 
service  of  idols.     Cultivating  tenures  may  be  classified  as  privileged 
holdings,  ordinary  ryoti  land  known  as  rajhas,  and  proprietors'  private 
land  or  manjhihas.     The  privileged  holdings  are  those  which  were  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  aboriginal  settlers  before  the  advent  of  the  Hindu 
landlords  and  the  importation  of  cultivators  alien  to  the  village.     They 
include  b/ii/hihari,  W\X\\  the  cognate  tenures  known  as  bhutkhetd  (land 
set  aside  for  support   of  devil   propitiation),   ddlikatdri,  pahnai,  and 
mahati.    The  last  two  are  lands  held  by  the  pa/m  and  7>idhafo,  the  village 
priest  and  headman.     In  some  parts  the  privileged  lands  of  the  old 
settlers  are  known  as  khtintkhatti,  and  include  i\\e  pahn  khunt,  mutidd 
khunf,  and  the  mdhafo  khunt.     The  mundd  is  the  village  chief  respon- 
sible for  the  payment  of  the  khuntkhatti  rents  to  the  manki  of  the  circle 
of  the  villages,  while  the  mdhato,  a  later  importation,  is  the  headman 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Hindu  landlord,  whose  interests  he  guards 
by  assisting  in  the  reaHzation  of  the  rent  of  the  rajhas  and  cultivation  of 
the  fnafijhihas  lands.     These  latter  include  bethkhetd,  or  land  set  aside 
for  the  provision  of  labour  for  cultivation  of  the  remaining  private  lands. 
As  in  other  parts  of  Bengal,  attempts  to  add  to  private  lands  are  con- 
stantly made  ;   but  the  tendency  received  a  salutary  check  from  the 
demarcation,  mapping,  and  registering  of  blndnhari  and  private  lands 
under  the  Chota  Nagpur  Tenures  Act  of  1869.     By  the  original  custom 
of  the  country,  now  gradually  passing  away,  rent  was  as  a  rule  assessed 
only  on  the  low  lands  or  dons.     On  an  average  of  ten  villages  in  the 
Government  estates  in  1897,  the  rates  per  acre  for  low  lands  were  found 
to  range  between  Rs.  T-2-3  and  Rs.  2-1-6,  and  for  high  lands  between 
\\  and  4  annas.    These  rates  are  very  much  lower  than  those  prevalent 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


209 


in  zamtnddri  villages,  where  Rs.  8  to  Rs.  10  is  often  charged  for  an  acre 
of  first-class  low  land.  The  uplands,  when  not  paying  cash  rent,  are 
usually  liable  to  the  payment  of  produce  rent  known  as  rukiondf,  which 
varies  a  good  deal  in  different  parts,  and  the  cultivators  are  liable  to 
give  a  certain  amount  of  free  labour  (^beth  begdr)  to  the  landlord. 

The  following  table  shows  the  collections  of  land  revenue  and  total 
revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1.* 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue  . 
Total  revenue  . 

95 
4.91 

1,06 
7,14 

48 
5.93 

52 
6,61 

*  The  diminution  in  the  receipts  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Palamau  was  formed 
into  a  separate  District  in  1892. 

Outside  the  municipalities  of  Ranch!  andLoHARDAOA,  local  affairs  are 
managed  by  the  District  board.  In  1903-4  its  income  was  Rs.  1,04,000, 
including  Rs.  39,000  derived  from  rates ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  1,09,000,  the  chief  items  being  Rs.  50,000  spent  on  public  works 
and  Rs.  39,000  on  education. 

The  District  contains  16  police  stations  or  thdnas  and  16  outposts. 
In  1903  the  force  subordinate  to  the  District  Superintendent  consisted 
of  3  inspectors,  t^t^  sub-inspectors,  42  head  constables,  and  352  con- 
stables ;  there  was,  in  addition,  a  rural  police  force  of  24  daffaddrs  and 
2,442  chauklddrs.  The  District  jail  at  Ranch!  has  accommodation  for 
217  prisoners,  and  a  subsidiary  jail  at  Gumla  for  21. 

Education  is  backward,  only  2-7  per  cent,  of  the  population  (5-1  males 
and  0-5  females)  being  able  to  read  and  write  in  1901.  Great  progress 
is  now  being  made,  and  the  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  rose 
from  12,569  in  1892-3  to  19,132  in  1900-1.  In  1903-4,  19,074  boys 
and  2,514  girls  were  at  school,  being  respectively  22-0  and  2-7  per  cent, 
of  the  children  of  school-going  age.  There  were  in  that  year  857  schools, 
including  15  secondary,  825  primary,  and  17  special  schools.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  the  District  schools,  the  German  Evangelistic 
Lutheran  Mission  high  school,  the  first-grade  training  school,  the 
Government  industrial  school,  and  the  blind  school,  all  in  RanchI  town. 
The  expenditure  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,55,000,  of  which  Rs.  19,000  was 
derived  from  Provincial  revenues,  Rs.  38,000  from  District  funds, 
Rs.  700  from  municipal  funds,  Rs.  22,000  from  fees,  and  Rs.  75,000 
from  other  sources. 

The  District  contains  6  dispensaries,  of  which  3  possess  accommo- 
dation for  49  in-patients.  The  cases  of  18,348  out-patients  and  369 
in-patients  were  treated  in  1903,  and  768  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  was  Rs.  18,000,  of  which  Rs.  1,100  was  contributed 
by  Government,  Rs.  1,000  by  District  funds,  Rs.  5,000  by  Local  funds, 
Rs.  3,000  by  municipal  funds,  and  Rs.  9,000  by  subscriptions.     The 


2ro  RANCH!  DISTRICT 

principal  institution  is  the  RanchI  dispensary.     A  small  leper  asylum 
at  Lohardaga  is  conducted  by  the  German  mission. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  municipal  areas,  but  good  progress 
is  being  made  throughout  the  District,  and  in  1903-4  the  number  of 
persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  43,000,  or  37-3  per  1,000  of  the 
population. 

[vSir  W.  W.  Hunter,  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal,  vol.  xvi  (1877); 
F.  A.  Slacke,  Report  oti  the  Settlement  of  the  Estate  of  the  Maharaja  of 
Chota  Ndgpur  (Calcutta,  1886)  ;  B.  C.  Basu,  Report  on  the  Agriculture 
of  the  District  of  Lohardaga  (Calcutta,  1890) ;  Papers  relating  to  the 
Chotd  Ndgpur  Agrarian  Disputes  (Calcutta,  1890);  E.  H.  \\'hitley, 
Notes  on  the  Dialect  of  Lohardaga  (Calcutta,  1896);  F.  B.  Bradley- 
Birt,  Chotd  Ndgpur  (1903).] 

Ranch!  Subdivision. —  Head-quarters  subdivision  of  the  Bengal 
District  of  the  same  name,  lying  between  22°  21'  and  23°  43'  N.  and 
84°  o'  and  85°  54'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,366  square  miles.  The  sub- 
division consists  of  an  elevated  undulating  table-land,  where  permanent 
cultivation  is  almost  confined  to  the  terraces  cut  in  the  slopes  of  the 
depressions  which  lie  between  the  ridges.  The  population  in  1901 
was  753,236,  compared  with  730,642  in  1891,  the  density  being  215 
persons  per  square  mile.  In  1901  it  comprised  3,506  square  miles; 
but  owing  to  the  formation  of  the  Khunti  subdivision  in  1905,  the 
area  was  reduced  to  2,366  square  miles  with  a  population  of  527,829 
and  a  density  of  223  persons  per  square  mile.  The  subdivision  con- 
tains two  towns,.  Ranch!  (population,  25,970),  the  head-quarters,  and 
Lohardaga  (6,123);  ^""^  "^A^l  villages. 

Ranch!  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same  name 
and  also  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  Division,  Bengal,  situated  in  23° 
23'  N.  and  85°  20''  E.,  on  the  Chota  Nagpur  plateau,  about  2,100 
feet  above  sea-level.  Population  (1901),  25,970  (including  2,844 
within  cantonment  boundaries),  of  whom  12,968  were  Hindus,  7,547 
Musalmans,  3,640  Christians,  and  1,807  Animists.  RanchI  is  a  station 
of  the  Lucknow  division  of  the  Eastern  Command,  and  the  wing  of 
a  native  infantry  regiment  is  stationed  in  the  cantonments  (formerly 
known  as  Dorunda  cantonments),  which  lie  2  miles  to  the  south  of  the 
town.  It  is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  Volunteer 
Mounted  Rifles,  of  the  Superintending  Engineer  of  the  Western  Circle, 
and  of  the  Executive  Engineer  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  Division.  It  is 
connected  by  good  metalled  roads  with  Puriilia,  Hazaribagh,  and 
Chaibasa,  and  is  a  large  trade  centre.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  Christian, 
missionary  enterprise  in  Bengal,  and  is  the  head-quarters  of  three 
important  missions  {see  RanchI  District).  RanchI  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1869.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending 
1901-2    averaged    Rs.  23,000,  and   the  expenditure   Rs.   22,000.     In 


RANDER  2ti 

1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  35,000,  mainly  derived  from  a  tax  on 
houses  and  lands  and  a  conservancy  rate ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  32,000.  The  natural  drainage  of  the  town  is  excellent,  and  plenty 
of  good  water  can  be  obtained  from  wells.  The  town  contains  the 
usual  public  buildings;  the  District  jail  has  accommodation  for  217 
prisoners,  who  are  employed  on  the  manufacture  of  oil  and  of  rope 
from  aloe  fibre.  The  most  important  schools  are  the  District  school, 
with  338  pupils  on  its  rolls  in  1902;  the  German  Evangelistic  Lutheran 
Mission  high  school,  intended  chiefly  for  the  education  of  Christian 
converts,  with  230  pupils ;  the  first-grade  school  for  vernacular  teachers, 
with  22  pupils;  the  Government  industrial  school,  and  the  blind  school. 
In  the  industrial  school  the  pupils,  who  in  1902  numbered  50,  receive 
stipends  varying  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  3  per  month,  and  are  taught  carpen- 
tering and  blacksmiths'  work,  &:c.,  together  with  a  certain  amount  of 
reading,  writing,  free-hand  drawing,  elementary  arithmetic,  and  practical 
geometry.  The  course  of  instruction  at  the  blind  school,  which  had 
20  pupils,  includes  reading  by  means  of  raised  type  representing  letters, 
cane-work,  newdr  weaving,  and  mat-making.  It  is  proposed  to  build 
a  large  asylum  for  European  and  Eurasian  lunatics  from  Northern 
India  at  Ranchi. 

Rander. — Town  in  the  Chorasi  tdhika  of  Surat  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  21°  13'  N.  and  72°  48'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tapti, 
2  miles  above  Surat  city.  Population  {1901),  10,478,  including  suburb. 
Rander  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  places  in  Southern  Gujarat. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  a  place  of  importance  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  when  Broach  was  the  chief  seat  of  commerce 
in  Western  India.  AlbirunT  (1031)  gives  Rander  (Rahanjhour)  and 
Broach  as  dual  capitals  of  South  Gujarat.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century  a  colony  of  Arab  merchants  and  sailors  is  stated  to 
have  attacked  and  expelled  the  Jains,  at  that  time  ruling  at  Rander, 
and  to  have  converted  their  temples  into  mosques.  Under  the  name 
of  Nayatas,  the  Rander  Arabs  traded  to  distant  countries.  In  15 14 
the  traveller  Barbosa  described  Rander  as  a  rich  and  agreeable  place 
of  the  Moors  (Nayatas),  possessing  very  large  and  fine  ships,  and 
trading  with  Malacca,  Bengal,  Tawasery  (Tennasserim),  Pegu,  Mar- 
taban,  and  Sumatra,  in  all  sorts  of  spices,  drugs,  silk,  musk,  benzoin, 
and  porcelain.  In  1530  the  Portuguese,  after  sacking  Surat,  took 
Rander.  With  the  growing  importance  of  Surat,  Rander  declined  in 
prosperity,  and,  by  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  became  a  port 
dependent  on  Surat.  At  present,  Bohras  of  the  Sunni  sect  carry  on 
trade  westwards  with  Mauritius,  and  eastwards  with  Rangoon,  Moul- 
mein,  Siam,  and  Singapore.  By  the  opening  of  the  Tapti  bridge  in 
1877  Rander  was  closely  connected  with  Surat  city.  The  municipality, 
established  in  1868,  had  an  average  income  of  about  Rs.  20,000  during 


2  12  RANDER 

the  decade  ending  1901  ;  in  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  23,000. 
The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  an  English  school  with  47  pupils,  and 
6  vernacular  schools,  5  for  boys  with  517  pupils  and  one  for  girls  with  95. 

Randhia. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Rangamati  ToAvn. — Ancient  town  in  the  Berhampore  subdivision 
of  Murshidabad  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  24°  i'  N.  and  88°  11'  E., 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bhagirathi,  6  miles  south  of  Berhampore. 
Population  (1901),  400.  The  clay  here  rises  into  bluffs  40  feet  high, 
which  form  the  only  elevated  ground  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  are 
very  conspicuous  from  the  river.  Few  remains  have  been  found  except 
pottery  and  the  traces  of  buildings,  tanks,  and  wells  ;  but  Rangarnati  is 
rich  in  traditional  history.  The  legend  respecting  the  origin  of  the 
name,  which  means  '  red  earth,'  is  that  Bibhishana,  brother  of  Ravana, 
being  invited  to  a  feast  by  a  poor  Brahman  at  Rangamati,  rained  gold 
on  the  ground  as  a  token  of  gratitude.  By  others  the  miracle  is  referred 
to  Bhu  Deb,  who  through  the  power  of  his  austerities  rained  gold. 
Rangamati  has  been  identified  by  Mr.  Beveridge  with  the  city  of  Kama 
Suvarna,  the  capital  of  the  old  kingdom  of  the  same  name  visited  by 
the  Chinese  pilgrim  Hiuen  Tsiang  about  a.d.  639.  It  may  also  have 
been  the  site  of  the  chief  of  the  monasteries  mentioned  by  Hiuen 
Tsiang  as  Lo-to-wei-chi-seng-kia-lan,  a  phonetic  rendering  of  the  Sanskrit 
Radaviti  sanghdrdma. 

After  the  Muhammadan  conquest  in  1203,  Rangamati  (according  to 
Mr.  Long)  formed  one  of  the  tenfai/Jddris  into  which  Bengal  was  then 
divided.  Its  Hindu  zaminddr  was  a  considerable  person,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  the  great  piinyd  at  Motijhll  in  1767  he  received  a  khilat 
worth  Rs.  7,278,  or  as  much  as  the  zaminddr  of  Nadia.  The  site  of 
Rangamati  was  at  one  time  selected  in  preference  to  Berhampore  as 
a  healthy  spot  for  the  erection  of  barracks.  The  East  India  Company 
formerly  had  a  silk  factory  here.  All  that  is  now  left  of  this  ancient  town 
is  a  bungalow  and  a  silk  filature  belonging  to  the  Bengal  Silk  Company. 

[H.  Beveridge,  'The  Site  of  Kama  '$iW\^xx\2i^  Journal  of  the  Asiatic 
Society,  Bengal,  vol.  Ixii,  pt.  i.  No.  4  ;  Capt.  Wilford,  Asiatic  Researches, 
vol.  ix,  p.  39  ;  and  Capt.  Eayard,  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  Bengal, 
vol.  xxii.] 

Rangamati  Village. — Head-quarters  of  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  22°  39'  N.  and  92°  12'  E.,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Karnaphuli  river.  Population  (1901),  1,627.  Ranga- 
mati contains  a  high  school  and  hospital.  It  is  the  residence  of  the 
Chakma  chief.     The  London  Baptist  Mission  has  a  branch  here. 

Rangamatia  Village.— Small  village  in  the  east  of  Goalpara 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  26°  19'  N.  and  90' 
36'  E.  It  was  for  many  years  the  frontier  outpost  of  the  Muham- 
madans,  the  country  farther  east  being  occupied  by  the  Ahoms. 


RANGOON  CITY  213 

Rangia. — Village  in  the  Gauhati  subdivision  of  Kamrup  District, 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  26°  27'  N.  and  91°  37'  E.,  on 
the  bank  of  the  Baralia  river,  23  miles  north  of  Gauhati  town.  The 
public  buildings  include  a  dispensary.  Most  of  the  trade  is  in  the 
hands  of  Marwari  merchants  known  as  Kayahs.  The  principal  imports 
are  cotton  piece-goods,  grain  and  pulse,  kerosene  and  other  oils,  and 
salt ;  the  chief  exports  are  rice  and  silk  cloth.  All  sorts  of  country 
produce  are  procurable  in  the  village  market. 

Rangna  Fort  (or  Prasidhagarh). — A  favourite  fort  of  Sivaji,  situated 
on  a  flat-topped  hill  in  the  Kolhapur  State,  Bombay,  about  55  miles 
south-west  of  Kolhapur  city.  The  hill  is  steep  on  three  sides,  with  an 
easy  ascent  on  the  north.  The  top  is  girt  by  a  wall  of  rough  blocks, 
leaving  three  pathways  down  the  hill.  The  fort  is  4,750  feet  from  east 
to  west,  by  2,240  feet  from  north  to  south.  It  was  taken  in  1659  by 
Sivaji  and  repaired,  and  has  since  remained  in  Maratha  hands,  but 
was  dismantled  in  1844  by  order  of  the  British. 

Rangoon  City. — Capital  of  Burma  and  head-quarters  of  the  Local 
Government,  situated  in  r6°  46'  N.  and  96°  ii'  E.,  on  both  sides  of 
the  Hlaing  or  Rangoon  river  at  its  point  of  junction  .    . 

with  the  Pegu  and  Pazundaung  streams,  21  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  greater  part  of  the  city — the  town  proper,  with  its  main 
suburbs  of  Kemmendine  and  Pazundaung — lies  along  the  left  or  northern 
bank  of  the  river,  which  at  this  point,  after  a  southerly  course  through 
level  paddy-fields  and  along  the  city's  western  side,  turns  towards  the 
east  for  a  mile  or  so  before  bending  southwards  to  the  Gulf  of  Martaban. 
Behind  the  array  of  wharves  and  warehouses  that  line  the  northern 
bank  rise  the  buildings  of  the  mercantile  and  business  quarter,  and 
thence  the  ground  slopes  upwards  through  a  wooded  cantonment  to  the 
foot  of  the  slight  eminence  from  which  the  great  golden  Shwedagon 
pagoda  looks  down  upon  the  town  and  harbour.  On  the  south  bank  of 
the  Rangoon  river  are  the  suburbs  of  Dala,  Kamakasit,  Kanaungto, 
and  Seikgyi,  a  narrow  strip  of  dockyard  premises  and  native  huts  on  the 
fringe  of  a  vast  expanse  of  typical  delta  paddy-fields.  These  mark  the 
southern  limit  of  the  city.  To  the  west  the  boundary  is  the  western 
bank  of  the  Hlaing  ;  to  the  east  the  Pazundaung  and  Pegu  streams  hem 
the  city  in  ;  to  the  north  the  municipal  boundary  runs  through  the 
slightly  undulating  wooded  country  into  which  the  European  quarter  is 
gradually  spreading. 

The  population  of  the  city  at  each  of  the  last  four  enumerations  was 
as  follows  :  (1872)  98,745,(1881)  134,176,(1891)  180,324,  and  (1901) 
234,881.     After  the  three  Presidency  towns  and  the 
cities  of  Hyderabad  and  Lucknow,  Rangoon  is  the 
most  populous  city  in  the  Indian  Empire.     Its  rate  of  growth  is,  as  the 
census  figures  show,  considerable.     The  actual  increase  between  1891 


214  RANGOON  CITY 

and  1901  (54,557)  was  little  less  than  that  of  Madras,  a  city  of  more 

than  double  its  population,  while  the  growth  between  1872  and  1901 

(136,136)  is  exceeded  only  by  that  of  Calcutta  among  all  Indian  cities. 

A  large  portion  of  the  increase  is  due  to  immigration  from  India.     The 

number  of  persons  born  in  India  resident  in  the  city  was  65,910  in  1891 

and  117,713  in  1901  (of  whom  only  16  per  cent,  were  women).    Nearly 

two-thirds  of  these  foreigners  came  from  Madras,  and  about  one-fifth 

from  Bengal.     The  Chinese  colony  has  increased  from  8,029  •"  ^^9^ 

to  ir,oi8  in  1901.     Of  the  population  in  1901,  83,631,  or  more  than 

one-third,  were  Buddhists,  but  the  Hindu  aggregate  (82,994)  was  almost 

as  large.    Musalmans  numbered  43,012,  and  Christians  16,930,  of  whom 

about  one-half  were  Europeans  and  Eurasians,  the  number  of  native 

Christians  being  8,179.     The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

and  the  American  Baptist  Mission  labour  in  the  city.     The  Wesleyans, 

Presbyterians,  and  other  Protestant  denominations  are  also  represented, 

and  there  is  a  large  Roman  Catholic  mission. 

Rangoon  has  been  the  administrative  head-quarters  of  the  Province 

ever  since  the  second  Burmese  War  added  Pegu  to  the  Indian  Empire. 

It  was  never,  however,  a  royal  capital,  and  its  impor- 
History.  '  .,'  \        "     I  /  , 

tance   as   a   mercantile   centre   is   or    comparatively 

recent  development. 

According  to  Taking  tradition,  the  first  village  on  the  site  of  modern 
Rangoon  was  founded  about  585  B.C.  by  two  brothers,  Pu  and  Ta  Paw, 
who  had  received  some  of  Gautama's  hairs  from  the  Buddha  himself, 
and,  acting  on  his  instructions,  enshrined  them  in  the  famous  Shwe- 
dagon  pagoda.  Punnarika,  who  reigned  in  Pegu  from  a.  d.  746  to  761, 
is  said  to  have  refounded  the  town,  and  called  it  Aramana,  and  it  was 
not  till  later  that  it  regained  its  original  name  of  Dagon.  The  Talaing 
records  relate  how  it  was  occupied  by  the  Burmans  in  1413  ;  how 
Byanyakin,  the  son  of  Razadirit,  was  appointed  governor  ;  and  how 
Shinsawbu,  his  sister,  in  whose  memory  a  national  festival  is  celebrated 
each  year,  built  herself  a  palace  here  in  1460.  After  this,  however, 
the  town  gradually  sank  into  a  collection  of  huts.  Dala,  now  a  suburb 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hlaing,  and  Syriam  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Pegu  river,  are  repeatedly  noticed  ;  but  of  Dagon  little  or  nothing 
is  said. 

In  the  wars  between  the  sovereigns  of  Burma  and  Pegu,  Dagon 
frequently  changed  hands;  and  when  in  1753  Alaungpaya  (Alompra) 
drove  out  the  Talaing  garrison  of  Ava  (then  the  Burmese  capital),  and 
eventually  conquered  the  Talaing  dominions,  he  came  down  to  Dagon 
and  repaired  the  great  pagoda.  Alaungpaya  for  the  most  part  rebuilt 
the  town,  gave  it  the  name  of  Yan  Kon  ('  the  end  of  the  war ')  or 
Rangoon,  which  it  has  ever  since  borne,  and  made  it  the  seat  of 
a  viceroy.     Until  1790  it  was  the  scene  of  incessant  struggles  between 


HISTORY  215 

the  Burmans  and  Peguans.     In  that  year  the  place  was  captured  by 
the  latter,  but  the  rising  was  speedily  quelled  by  Bodawpaya. 

About  this  period  the  East  India  Company  obtained  leave  to 
establish  a  factory  in  Rangoon,  and  the  British  colours  were  hoisted 
over  it.  In  1794  differences  arose  in  Arakan  and  Chittagong  between 
the  East  India  Company  and  the  Burmese  government,  and  in  the 
following  year  Captain  Symes  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Ava,  one  of 
the  results  of  his  mission  being  the  appointment  of  a  British  Resident 
at  Rangoon  in  1798.     Symes  thus  describes  Rangoon  as  he  saw  it  :— 

'  It  stretches  along  the  bank  of  the  river  about  a  mile,  and  is  not 
more  than  a  third  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  city  or  myo  is  a  square 
surrounded  by  a  high  stockade,  and  on  the  north  side  it  is  further 
strengthened  by  an  indifferent  fosse,  across  which  a  wooden  bridge 
is  thrown.  In  this  face  there  are  two  gates,  in  each  of  the  others  only 
one.  On  the  south  side,  towards  the  north,  there  are  a  number  of 
huts  and  three  wharves  with  cranes  for  landing  goods.  A  battery 
of  12  cannon  (six-  and  nine-pounders)  raised  on  the  bank  commands 
the  river,  but  the  guns  and  carriages  are  in  such  a  wretched  condition 
that  they  could  do  but  little  execution.  The  streets  of  the  town  are 
narrow  and  much  inferior  to  those  of  Pegu,  but  clean  and  well  paved. 
The  houses  are  raised  on  posts  from  the  ground.  All  the  officers  of 
the  government,  the  most  opulent  merchants,  and  persons  of  con- 
sideration live  within  the  fort ;  shipwrights  and  persons  of  inferior  rank 
inhabit  the  suburbs.' 

In  the  first  Burmese  War  (1824)  Rangoon  was  taken  by  the  British. 
During  the  early  part  of  the  campaign  strenuous  efforts  were  made  by 
the  Burmans  to  recapture  it ;  but  it  was  occupied,  though  not  without 
heavy  losses  from  sickness,  as  well  as  from  casualties  in  action,  till 
1827,  when  it  was  evacuated  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Yandabo.  In  1840  the  appearance  of  Rangoon  was  described 
as  suggestive  of  meanness  and  poverty.  In  1841  king  Konbaung  Min, 
better  known  as  prince  Tharrawaddy,  ordered  the  town  and  stockade 
to  be  removed  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  inland  to  the  site  of  Okka- 
laba,  and  to  be  called  by  that  name.  The  royal  order  was  to  a  certain 
extent  obeyed,  the  principal  buildings  and  government  offices  were 
placed  in  the  new  town,  and  were  there  when  the  British  force  landed 
and  captured  Rangoon  in  April,  1852,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  second 
Burmese  War.  From  this  time  onwards  the  place  has  remained  in 
possession  of  the  British,  its  history  being  one  of  marvellous  develop- 
ment, but,  with  one  or  two  exceptions  (such,  for  instance,  as  a  riot  that 
occurred  in  June,  1893),  devoid  of  striking  incidents.  The  city  was 
separated  from  Hanthawaddy  District,  of  which  it  formed  part,  in 
1879. 

The  principal  pagodas  are  the  Shwedagon  to  the  north-east  of  the 
cantonment,  said  to  contain  the  relics  of  no  less  than  four  Buddhas, 


2i6  RANGOON  CITY 

namely,  the  water-strainer  of  Krakuchanda,  the  staff  of  Kasyapa,  the 

bathing  robe  of  Konagamana,  and  eight  hairs  of  Gautama;  the  Sule 

pagoda,  a  more  ancient  but  less  pretentious  shrine  in  the  centre  of  the 

business  quarter;  and  the  Botataung  pagoda  on  the  river  face  in  the 

south-east  of  the  town. 

Rangoon  is  famous  for  its  carvers  in  wood  and  ivory,  and  for  the 

beauty  of  its  silver-work,  which  mostly  takes  the  shape  of  embossed 

,    ,        .  bowls.     An  art  exhibition  is  held  annually,  and  is  no 

Industries.         ,     ,      ,    ,   •  ■       , 

doubt  helpmg  to  stimulate  an  interest  in  art  among 

native  workers.     Many  beautiful  specimens  of  wood-carving  are  to  be 

found  in  the  shrine  of  the  Shwedagon  pagoda. 

The  factories  are  for  the  most  part  concerned  with  the  preparation  of 
the  three  principal  exports  :  rice,  timber,  and  oil.  Of  rice-mills,  where 
the  paddy  brought  from  the  surrounding  rural  areas  is  husked  and 
otherwise  prepared  for  the  market,  there  are  about  fifty,  and  of  saw- 
mills about  twenty.  The  petroleum  refinery  deals  with  the  produce 
of  the  earth-oil  wells  of  the  dry  zone  of  Upper  Burma.  The  total 
number  of  factories  in  1904  was  99. 

About  five-sixths  of  the  maritime  trade  of  Burma  passes  through 

Rangoon,  and  a  history  of  the  commerce  of  the  Province  is  very  little 

more  than  a  history  of  the   progress  of  this  single 
Commerce.  r--        t^  1  •  t  r   ^ 

port,     bince  Rangoon  became  an  integral  part  01  the 

British  dominions,  its  trade  has  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.     In 

1856-7  the  value  aggregated  only  a  crore.     By  1881-2  this  figure  had 

risen  to  ii  crores,  and  by  1891-2  to  19  crores.     In  1901-2,  in  spite  of 

a  more  stringent  tariff  than  in  the  past,  it  had  mounted  up  to  close  on 

26  crores,  while  1903-4  showed  a  further  advance  of  nearly  6  crores 

on  the  figures  for  the  previous  year.     Under  practically  all  the  main 

heads  of  import  and  export  the  growth  has  been  steady.     Imports  of 

cotton  piece-goods,  which  in  188 1-2  were  valued  at  6|  lakhs,  were 

valued  at  nearly  15  lakhs  in  190 1-2.     Provisions  have  risen  in  value 

from  3  to  II  lakhs  within  the  same  period,  coal  from  i  to  3^  lakhs, 

tobacco  from  2  to  4  lakhs,  spices  from  2\  to  4^  lakhs.     Among  exports 

the  development  has  been  even  more  marked.     The  staple  produce 

of  the  country  is  rice.     The  value  of  exports  in  this  single  commodity 

amounted  in  190 1-2  to  9^  crores,  compared  with  6  crores  in  189 1-2 

and  2>\  crores  in  1881-2.     Next  in  importance  comes  teak  timber,  with 

a  growth  in  value  from  22  lakhs  in  1881-2  to  91  lakhs  in  1901-2, 

followed  by  oil,  which  has  risen  from  2  lakhs  in  the  former  year  to  81 

in   the   latter.     Cutch   is   the  only   important  export   that  has  shown 

a  falling  off  in  recent  years. 

The  following  table  shows,  in  thousands  of  rupees,  the  actual  figures 

of  imports  and  exports  (excluding  Government  stores  and  treasure)  for 

the  three  years  selected,  and  for  1903-4: — 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


2\1 


1881-2. 

1891-2. 

1901-2. 

1903-4. 

Imports  . 

Exports  . 

5,66,96 

5,65,83 

11.32,79 

10,13,58 
9,04,20 

11,16,69 
14,66,17 

14,24,68 
17,54,56  1 

Total 

19,17,78 

25,82,86 

31,79.24 

During  the  same  period  the  customs  revenue  rose  from  44  lakhs  in 
1881-2  to  60  lakhs  in  1891-2,  to  91  lakhs  in  1901-2,  and  finally  to 
over  a  crore  in  1903-4.  Owing  to  the  increasing  employment  of 
vessels  of  large  burden,  the  number  of  ocean-going  steamers  entering 
Rangoon  has  not  risen  to  an  extent  proportionate  to  the  growth  in 
trade  and  tonnage,  the  figures  for  188 1-2  being  931  vessels  with  an 
aggregate  capacity  of  655,000  tons,  while  those  for  1903-4  were  1,190 
vessels  with  a  capacity  of  2,005,000. 

Rangoon  has  entered  upon  an  era  of  prosperity  which  shows  no 
immediate  prospect  of  waning.  The  port  is  administered  by  a  Port 
Trust  constituted  under  the  Rangoon  Port  Act,  1905,  which  supervises 
the  buoying  and  lighting  of  the  river,  and  provides  and  maintains 
wharf  and  warehouse  accommodation.  The  receipts  of  the  Trust  in 
1903-4  aggregated  nearly  18  lakhs.  Rangoon  is  the  terminus  of  all 
the  lines  of  railway  in  the  Province.  Starting  from  Phayre  Street 
station,  the  lines  to  Prome  and  Bassein  pass  westwards  between  the 
municipality  and  the  cantonment,  and  thence  northwards  through 
the  suburb  of  Kemmendine.  There  are  frequent  local  trains  along 
this  section  of  the  railway,  and  several  stations  within  the  limits  of  the 
city.  The  main  line  to  Mandalay  and  Upper  Burma  runs  generally 
eastwards  from  the  terminus  through  the  suburb  of  Pazundaung,  and, 
skirting  the  mills  that  line  the  Pazundaung  creek,  passes  north-east- 
wards into  Hanthawaddy  District.  There  are  80  miles  of  roads  within 
city  limits,  of  which  about  60  are  metalled.  A  steam  tramway  runs 
east  and  west  through  the  heart  of  the  business  quarter,  as  well  as 
northwards  as  far  as  the  Shwedagon  pagoda.  It  is  now  being 
electrified.  A  raihvay  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  city  is  used  for 
bringing  the  earth  required  for  the  reclamation  of  the  low-lying  swampy 
area  near  the  banks  of  the  river. 

Rangoon  city  consists  of  the  municipality,  the  cantonment,  and  the 

port.     For  the  purposes  of  judicial  and  general   administration   it  is 

.  a  District  of  Lower  Burma,  in  charge  of  a  Deputy-    .  ,    .  .  ^    ^. 
„  .    .  ,      .    -,^.      .      ^.     .  °  J     ,  Administration. 

Commissioner  who  is  District  Magistrate,  and  who  is 

assisted  by  a  Cantonment  Magistrate,  two  subdivisional   magistrates, 

and  other  officials.     The  Chief  Court  sits  in  Rangoon.     It  is  a  Court 

of  Session  for  the  trial  of  sessions  cases  in  the  city,  and  hears  appeals 

from  the  District  Magistrate.    There  is  a  bench  of  honorary  magistrates 

consisting  of  twenty-three  members.    On  the  civil  side,  the  Chief  Court 


2i8  RANGOON  CITY 

disposes  of  original  civil  cases  and  of  civil  appeals.  Petty  civil  cases 
are  disposed  of  in  the  Small  Cause  Court,  in  ^vhich  two  judges  sit. 
There  is  a  good  deal  of  crime  in  the  city.  The  Indo-Burman  com- 
munity is  addicted  to  theft,  and  acts  of  violence  are  not  uncommon, 
while  the  proximity  of  the  port  appears  to  make  the  temptation  to 
smuggle  irresistible  to  certain  classes. 

The  administration  of  the  Rangoon  Town  Lands  is  at  present  con- 
ducted under  the  provisions  of  the  Lower  Burma  Town  and  Village 
Lands  Act  of  i8g8.  Since  1890  the  Town  Lands  have  been  managed 
by  a  special  Deputy-Commissioner,  under  the  control  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Pegu  and  the  Financial  Commissioner.  For  revenue 
purposes  the  whole  area  comprising  the  Town  Lands  is  divided  into 
eight  circles.  The  revenue  collections  in  the  District  approximately 
average  Rs.  31,900,  the  whole  of  which  is  credited  to  Imperial  funds. 
The  ground  rents,  together  with  premiums  and  the  sale  proceeds  from 
lands  and  building  sites,  averaging  in  the  past  rather  more  than  3  lakhs, 
are  credited  to  a  special  revenue  head,  from  which  a  contribution  of 
Rs.  1,85,000,  diminishing  each  year  by  Rs.  25,000  till  extinguished  in 
1908-9,  is  paid  to  the  Rangoon  municipality  to  be  expended  on  works 
of  utility.  The  balance  is  used  to  finance  a  scheme  for  reclaiming  and 
laying  out  on  sanitary  lines  the  low-lying  areas  of  the  city.  A  few  acres 
of  rice  land  are  assessed  at  Rs.  2  an  acre,  but  other  lands  ordinarily 
pay  a  land  revenue  rate  of  Rs.  3  an  acre.  The  revision  of  the  rate  is 
under  consideration.  Other  sources  of  non-municipal  revenue  within 
city  limits,  besides  customs  and  land  rate,  are  excise  and  income  tax. 
The  former  brought  in  about  14  lakhs,  and  the  latter  (which  has  been 
in  force  in  Rangoon  since  1888)  more  than  6^  lakhs  in  1903-4. 

The  Rangoon  municipality  covers  an  area  of  about  31  square  miles, 
with  a  population  in  1901  (inclusive  of  the  residents  of  the  port)  of 
221,160.  It  was  constituted  on  July  31,  1874.  The  committee  con- 
sists of  25  members,  of  whom  19  are  elected  by  the  ratepayers  and 
6  are  nominated  by  Government.  Various  taxes  are  levied  at  a  per- 
centage on  the  annual  value  of  lands  and  buildings  within  municipal 
limits :  namely,  the  8  per  cent,  tax  for  general  purposes,  the  7  per  cent, 
scavenging  tax,  the  4  per  cent,  water  tax,  and  the  i  per  cent,  lighting 
tax.  The  scavenging  tax  is  charged  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent,  in  areas 
not  served  by  the  municipal  drainage  system.  As  elsewhere,  market 
tolls  are  a  fruitful  source  of  municipal  income  in  Rangoon. 

During  the  ten  years  ending  1900  the  ordinary  income  of  the  munici- 
pality (excluding  special  loans)  averaged  17  lakhs,  and  the  ordinary  ex- 
penditure 15  lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  ordinary  income  was  24  lakhs,  the 
principal  sources  being  14  lakhs  from  rates,  and  3  lakhs  from  markets 
and  slaughter-houses.  The  gross  income  in  1903-4  was  46I  lakhs, 
including  a  loan  of  15  lakhs.     The  ordinary  expenditure  during  that 


n 


ADMIXISTRA  TION  2 1 9 

year  was  21  lakhs,  and  the  gross  expenditure  55  lakhs.  Of  this  total 
public  works  and  conservancy  absorbed  3^  lakhs  each,  water-supply 
23  lakhs,  and  hospitals  and  education  about  a  lakh  each. 

The  cantonment  lies  to  the  north  of  the  city.  It  formerly  comprised 
most  of  the  European  residential  quarter ;  but  building  operations  have 
now  been  extended  outside  its  limits,  mainly  in  the  direction  of  what 
is  known  as  the  Royal  Lake,  an  artificial  stretch  of  water  lying  to  the 
north-east  of  the  city,  and  the  cantonment  boundary  itself  is  now  being 
curtailed.  The  population  in  1901  was  13,721.  There  is  a  canton- 
ment fund  administered  by  the  cantonment  conuuittee.  Its  income 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  84,000,  derived  largely  from  house  and  conservancy 
rates.  The  expenditure  amounted  to  Rs.  82,000,  devoted  in  the  main 
to  conservancy  and  police. 

The  city  is  at  present  lit  with  oil  lamps,  but  electric  lighting  will 
probably  be  introduced  at  an  early  date. 

The  drainage  system  consists  of  gravitating  sewers  which  receive  the 
sewage  from  house  connexions  and  carry  it  to  ejectors.  These  dis- 
charge their  contents  automatically  into  a  main  sewer,  through  which 
all  the  night-soil  and  sullage  water  are  forced  into  an  outfall  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  immediately  to  the  south-west  of  Monkey  Point 
Battery  to  the  east  of  the  city.  This  system  has  been  working  since 
1889  with  most  satisfactory  results.  The  water-supply  for  Rangoon 
has  till  recently  been  drawn  from  an  artificial  reservoir  about  5  miles 
from  the  city,  called  the  Victoria  Lake,  from  which  water  is  carried 
by  a  main  pipe  to  the  city  and  supplied  at  low  pressure.  A\'ater  is 
also  pumped  up  to  a  high-level  reservoir  on  the  Shwedagon  pagoda 
platform  about  100  feet  above  Rangoon,  whence  it  is  supplied  to  the 
city  by  gravitation.  This  arrangement  has  provided  drinking-water 
to  the  city  for  the  past  twenty  years  \  but  the  supply  having  been  found 
insufficient,  a  large  reservoir  lake  has  been  constructed  at  Hlawga, 
about  10  miles  beyond  the  Victoria  Lake,  which  is  calculated  to  supply 
all  requirements  for  an  indefinite  period. 

The  city  contains  several  handsome  buildings.  Among  the  most 
conspicuous  are  the  new  Government  House  to  the  north-west  of  the 
cantonment  area,  the  Secretariat  buildings  to  the  east  of  the  business 
quarter,  and  the  District  court  buildings  facing  the  river  in  the  centre 
of  the  city.  The  new  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  which  is  approaching 
completion,  promises  to  be  a  very  handsome  structure.  The  Jubilee 
Hall,  at  a  corner  of  the  brigade  parade  ground  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  cantonment,  is  one  of  the  more  recent  additions  to  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  city.  It  is  used  for  public  meetings  and  for  recreation 
purposes.  The  town  hall,  in  which  the  municipal  offices  are  located, 
adjoins  the  Sule  pagoda  in  the  business  quarter.  The  Rangoon 
College,  the  General  Hospital,  and  the  Anglican  cathedral  are  grouped 

VOL.  XXI.  p 


220  RANGOON  CITY 

together  and  merit  notice.  A  new  hospital,  a  Provincial  Museum, 
new  currency  buildings,  and  a  Chief  Court  are  being  constructed. 
There  are  several  public  squares  and  gardens,  and  a  picturesque  park 
(Dalhousie  Park)  surrounds  the  Royal  Lake  referred  to  above. 

Rangoon  is  garrisoned  by  British  and  Native  infantry  and  by  two 
companies  of  artillery.     There  are  three  volunteer  corps. 

Before  June,  1899,  the  Rangoon  police  were  under  the  orders  of 
the  Inspector-General  of  Police,  but  a  Commissioner  has  now  been 
appointed  for  Rangoon  and  the  police  placed  directly  under  his  charge. 
For  police  purposes  the  city  is  divided  into  three  subdivisions,  each 
in  charge  of  a  Superintendent.  There  are  10  police  stations  and 
10  outposts.  The  total  strength  of  the  force  under  the  orders  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Police  and  the  Superintendents  is  14  inspectors, 
9  head  constables,  57  sergeants,  and  727  native  constables,  besides 
17  European  constables  and  one  European  sergeant. 

Rangoon  has  a  large  Central  jail  with  accommodation  for  2,518 
native  and  80  European  prisoners,  in  charge  of  a  whole-time  Super- 
intendent, who  is  an  officer  of  the  Indian  Medical  Service.  The 
principal  industries  carried  on  in  it  are  carpentry,  wood-carving,  coach- 
building,  weaving,  wheat-grinding,  and  printing.  A  considerable  portion 
of  the  printing  work  for  Government  is  carried  out  by  the  jail  branch 
of  the  Government  Press. 

The  following  are  the  chief  educational   institutions  in   Rangoon : 

the  Rangoon   College   and   Collegiate   School,    established    in    1874, 

„,        .  administered   by   the    Educational    Syndicate    from 

Education.  -,„^         j      i        1    •  j  ^-     i 

1886,  and   placed   ni    1904   and   1902    respectively 

under  the  direct  control  of  Government ;  the  Diocesan  Boys'  School, 

founded  in  1864,  for  the  education  of  Europeans  ;  the  Baptist  College, 

opened  in  1872  as  a  secondary  school,  and  in   1894  affiliated  to  the 

Calcutta  University;   St.  John's  College  (S. P.G.),   founded  in   1864, 

and  affiliated  as  a  high  school  to  the  Calcutta  University  ;  St.  John's 

Convent  School  for  girls,  started  in  1861  ;  the  Lutheran  Mission  School 

for  Tamil  children,  opened  in  1878  ;  and  St.  Paul's  (Roman  Catholic 

boys')  school,  opened  in   1861. 

In  1903-4  there  were  27  secondary  schools,  110  primary  schools, 
206  elementary  (private)  schools,  and  19  training  and  special  schools. 
The  number  of  pupils  in  registered  schools  and  in  the  two  collegiate 
establishments  Avas  8,031  in  1891,  13,514  in  1901,  and  17,166  in 
1903-4  (including  4,123  females).  The  expenditure  on  education  in 
1903-4  was  borne  as  follows  :  Provincial  funds,  Rs.  90,700  ;  municipal 
funds,  Rs.  71,500;  fees,  Rs.  2,04,300;  and  subscriptions,  Rs.  11,500. 

The  chief  epidemic  and  contagious  diseases  prevalent  in  the  city 
are  small-pox,  cholera,  and  enteric  fever.  Small-pox  appears  to  be  intro- 
duced annually  from  the  neighbouring  Districts,  where  it  is  always  rife. 


RANGOON  RIVER  221 

Cholera  is  endemic  along  the  banks  of  the  river  and  creeks,  and  is,  no 
doubt,  closely  related   to  an  impure  drinking-water  m  h- 

supply.     Enteric  fever  occurs  sporadically  throughout 
the  city  and  suburbs.     It  is  probably  due  to  defective  drainage  and 
defective  water-connexions.     Since  1905  plague  has  been  epidemic. 

The  most  important  medical  institutions  are  the  Rangoon  General 
Hospital  and  the  Dufferin  Hospital,  a  new  and  handsome  building 
recently  erected  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  city.  In  connexion 
with  the  General  Hospital,  there  are  a  contagious  diseases  hospital 
and  an  out-door  dispensary  at  Pazundaung.  A  lunatic  asylum  is 
situated  close  to  the  Central  jail,  in  charge  of  a  commissioned  Medical 
officer,  and  a  leper  asylum  is  maintained  outside  the  city. 

[Capt.  M.  Lloyd,  District  Gazetteer  (1868).] 

Rangoon  River. — River  of  Burma  on  the  left  bank  of  which  stands 
Rangoon  city.  It  rises  about  150  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  city 
in  Prome  District,  not  far  from  a  piece  of  water  known  as  the  Inma 
Lake,  through  which  it  flows,  and  pursues  a  south-easterly  course  down 
the  centre  of  the  narrow  strip  of  lowland  in  Prome,  Tharrawaddy,  and 
Hanthawaddy  Districts,  which  separates  the  Rangoon-Prome  Railway 
from  the  channel  of  the  Irrawaddy.  In  the  north  it  is  known  as  the 
Myilmaka,  and  is  divided  from  the  Irrawaddy  by  a  low  but  fairly 
well-defined  watershed.  The  Myitmaka  is  an  important  waterway  in 
Tharrawaddy  District.  Fed  by  the  streams  from  the  Pegu  Yoma  in 
the  east,  it  is  the  main  outlet  for  the  timber  which  is  extracted  from  the 
forests  of  this  range.  The  most  important  village  on  its  banks  in  this 
area  is  Sanywe,  where  there  is  a  forest  revenue  station.  Farther  south 
the  river  is  known  as  the  Hlaing,  and  on  this  portion  steam  traffic  of 
light  draught  is  practicable.  The  Hlaing  is  connected  by  various  side 
creeks  with  the  Irrawaddy,  the  last  of  which  above  Rangoon  city  is  the 
Panhlaing,  which  joins  it  almost  opposite  the  western  suburb  of  Kem- 
mendine.  From  thence  onwards  the  waterway  is  known  as  the  Rangoon 
river.  The  stream,  on  which  ocean  steamers  can  ride  at  their  moorings, 
separates  the  city  proper  and  the  cantonment  of  Rangoon  from  the 
dockyard  suburb  of  Dala,  which  lies  on  the  right  bank,  close  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Twante  Canal.  After  skirting  the  western  edge  of 
Rangoon  city,  the  river  bends  to  the  east  and  meets  the  waters  of  the 
Pazundaung  creek  and  the  Pegu  River  to  the  east  of  the  city,  imme- 
diately above  a  shoal  known  as  the  Hastings.  Thence  its  course  is 
south-easterly,  and  it  flows  eventually  into  the  Gulf  of  Martaban  be- 
tween Elephant  Point  and  the  Eastern  Grove  lighthouse.  Ocean 
steamers  can  go  up  the  river  as  far  as  Rangoon,  but  no  higher.  Skilled 
pilotage  is  required  for  the  navigation  of  the  2 1  miles  that  lie  between 
Rangoon  and  the  sea,  but  the  difficulties  of  the  river  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  those  of  the  Hooghly. 

p  2 


222  RANG  PUR   DISTRICT 

Rangpur  District. — District  in  the  Rajshahi  Division  of  Eastern 
Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  25°  3'  and  26°  19'  N.  and  88°  44' 
and  89°  53'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,493  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Jalpaigurl  District  and  the  State  of  Cooch  Behar ; 
on  the  east  by  the  Brahmaputra  river, which  separates  it  from  Goalpara, 
the  Garo  Hills,  and  Mymensingh  ;  on  the  south  by  Bogra ;  and  on  the 
west  by  Dinajpur  and  Jalpaigurl. 

Rangpur  is  one  vast  alluvial  plain,  without  natural  elevations  of  any 
kind.    Towards  the  east,  the  wide  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra  is  annually 
laid  under  water  during  the  rainy  season ;  and  the 
asD^^ct^f  remainder  of  the  District  is  traversed  by  a  network 

of  streams,  which  frequently  break  through  their 
sandy  banks  and  plough  for  themselves  new  channels  over  the  fields. 
These  river  changes  have  left  their  traces  in  the  numerous  stagnant 
pools  or  marshes  which  dot  the  whole  face  of  the  country,  but  do  not 
spread  into  wide  expanses  as  in  the  lower  delta.  The  general  inclina- 
tion of  the  surface  is  from  north-west  to  south-east,  as  indicated  by  the 
flow  of  the  rivers.  The  Brahmaputra  practically  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  for  a  distance  of  80  miles,  but  some  sand-flats  on  its  farther 
bank  also  belong  to  Rangpur.  Though  only  skirting  the  eastern 
frontier,  its  mighty  stream  exercises  a  great  influence  over  the  District 
by  the  fertilizing  effect  of  its  inundations,  and  also  by  its  diluviating 
action.  The  principal  tributaries  of  the  Brahmaputra  on  its  western 
bank,  within  Rangpur,  are  the  TIsta,  Dharla,  Sankos,  and  Dudhkuniar. 
The  Tista  receives  numerous  small  tributary  streams  from  the  north- 
west and  throws  off  many  offshoots,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
the  Ghaghat,  which  meanders  through  the  centre  of  the  District  for 
114  miles.  The  Ghaghat  was  formerly  an  important  branch  of  the 
Tista,  and,  previous  to  the  change  in  the  course  of  that  river  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  an  important  channel  of  communication,  pass- 
ing by  Rangpur  town.  The  residents'  bungalows,  the  Company's 
factories,  and  the  old  capital,  Mahiganj,  stretched  along  its  banks. 
The  opening  from  the  Tista  has  now,  however,  nearly  silted  up,  and 
the  Ghaghat  has  deserted  its  old  bed. 

The  Karatoya,  the  most  important  river  in  the  west,  forms  for  some 
distance  the  boundary  with  Dinajpur.  In  its  course  through  Rangpur, 
it  receives  two  tributaries  from  the  east,  both  of  greater  volume  than 
itself,  the  Sarbamangala  and  Jabunesvvarl.  The  Dharla  marks  for  a 
few  miles  the  boundar)'  with  Cooch  Behar,  and  then  turns  south 
and  enters  the  District,  which  it  traverses  in  a  tortuous  south-easterly 
course  for  55  miles  before  it  falls  into  the  Brahmaputra.  The  bed 
of  this  river  is  sandy  and  the  current  rapid,  and  numerous  shallow  and 
shifting  sands  render  navigation  extremely  difficult.  The  only  other 
rivers  deserving  mention  are  the  Manas  and  Gujaria  ;  but  the  District 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS  223 

is  everywhere  seamed  by  small  streams  and  watercourses,  many  of 
which  are  navigable  by  small  craft  in  the  rainy  season.  There  are 
numerous  stagnant  marshes,  some  of  them  in  inconvenient  proximity 
to  Rangpur  town,  forming  a  source  of  unhealthiness.  These  marshes 
are  gradually  silting  up,  a  process  which  was  accelerated,  in  some 
instances,  by  the  upheaval  of  their  beds  during  the  earthquake  of  1897. 

The  surface  is  covered  with  alluvium,  the  soil  being  a  mixture  of  clay 
and  sand  deposited  by  the  great  rivers  which  drain  the  Himalayan 
region.  For  the  most  part  this  is  of  the  recent  alluvial  type  known 
as  pali,  but  a  strip  of  hard  red  clay  in  the  south-west  forms  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Barind  and  contains  nodules  of  katikar.  This  old 
alluvium  is  known  as  kheydr. 

Where  the  ground  is  not  occupied  by  the  usual  crops  of  Northern 
Bengal,  it  is  covered  with  abundant  natural  vegetation.  Old  river-beds, 
ponds  and  marshes,  and  streams  with  a  sluggish  current  have  a  copious 
vegetation  of  Vallisneria  and  other  plants.  Land  subject  to  inundation 
has  usually  a  covering  of  Tamarix  and  reedy  grasses  ;  and  in  some 
parts,  where  the  ground  is  more  or  less  marshy,  Rosa  involucrata  is 
plentiful.  Few  trees  occur  on  these  inundated  lands ;  the  most  plenti- 
ful and  largest  is  Barringtofiia  acutangu/a.  The  District  contains  no 
forests ;  and  even  on  the  higher  ground  the  tree  vegetation  is  sparse, 
the  individuals  rather  stunted  as  a  rule,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the 
surface  is  covered  with  grasses,  the  commonest  of  these  being  Imperata 
arufidinacea  and  Andropogon  aciculatus.  Among  the  trees  the  most 
conspicuous  are  varieties  of  Ficus  and  the  red  cotton-tree  {Boml>ax  mala- 
baricuni).  The  sissu  i^Dalbergia  Sissoo),  the  mango,  the  areca  palm 
{Areca  Catechu),  jack  {Artocarpus  ifitegrifo/ia),  bamboo,  plantain, 
species  of  Citrus,  bakiil  {Mimiisops  Ekngi),  ndgestvar  {Mesua  ferrea), 
and  jd??i  {Eugenia  Jambolana)  occur  as  planted  or  sometimes  self-sown 
species.  The  villages  are  generally  embedded  in  thickets  or  shrubberies 
of  semi-spontaneous  and  more  or  less  useful  trees.  The  tejpdt  {Laurus 
Cassia)  is  grown  for  its  aromatic  leaves  which  are  exported  as  a  con- 
diment, and  pineapples  are  common. 

Leopards  and  wild  hog  are  still  met  with,  especially  in  the  alluvial 
islands  of  the  Brahmaputra  ;  but  tigers,  which  were  formerly  numerous, 
have  disappeared  before  the  spread  of  cultivation. 

In  the  cold-season  months  northerly  or  north-easterly  wnnds  from 
the  Himalayan  region  prevail,  and  the  temperature  is  comparatively 
low,  the  mean  minimum  falling  to  49°  in  January.  The  highest  mean 
maximum  temperature  is  91°  in  April.  Rainfall  commences  early, 
with  4  inches  in  x\pril  and  11  in  May,  and  is  heavy,  the  average  fall 
for  the  year  being  82  inches,  of  which  19^  inches  occur  in  June,  15  in 
July,  12  in  August,  13  in  September,  and  5  in  October. 

The  earthquake   of  1897  was  very  severely   felt   in   Rangpur.     Not 


224  RANGPUR    DISTRICT 

only  did  it  destroy  buildings  and  cause  damage  estimated  at  30  lakhs, 
but  by  upheaving  the  beds  of  rivers  it  effected  serious  alterations  in  the 
drainage  of  the  country.  Rangpur  town,  for  instance,  was  seriously 
affected  by  the  raising  of  the  beds  of  its  drainage  channels,  and  the 
public  buildings  and  masonry  houses  were  entirely  or  partially  wrecked. 
Moreover,  the  earth  opened  in  fissures,  from  which  torrents  of  mud 
and  water  poured  on  to  the  fields,  causing  widespread  de.struction  of 
the  standing  crops  and  rendering  the  lands  uncultivable.  Consider- 
able subsidences  also  occurred,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Gaibanda,  where  marshes  were  formed. 

The  District  is  liable  to  inundation  ;  but  no  notable  disaster  has 
occurred  since  the  great  flood  of  1787,  which  not  only  caused  terrible 
loss  of  life  and  widespread  destruction  of  crops,  resulting  in  famine, 
but  by  forcing  the  Tista  to  change  its  course,  completely  altered  the 
hydrography  of  the  District.  In  the  same  disastrous  year  a  cyclone 
swept  over  the  stricken  country ;  hundreds  of  trees  were  blown  down 
or  torn  up  by  the  roots ;  the  houses  of  the  Europeans  were  almost  all 
unroofed,  and  there  was  scarcely  a  thatched  house  left  standing. 

According  to  the  Mahabharata,  Rangpur  formed  the  western  outpost 
of  the  ancient  Hindu  kingdom  of  Kamarupa,  or  Pragjyotisha,  which 

extended  westwards  as  far  as    the    Karatoya   river. 

The  capital  was  generally  much  farther  east ;  but 
the  great  Raja  Bhagadatta,  whose  defeat  is  recorded  in  the  epic,  is 
said  to  have  built  a  country  residence  at  Rangpur,  which  is  locally 
interpreted  to  mean  the  'abode  of  pleasure.'  Local  traditions  have 
preserved  the  names  of  three  dynasties  that  ruled  over  this  tract  of 
country  prior  to  the  fifteenth  century.  The  earliest  of  these  is 
associated  with  the  name  of  Prithu  Raja,  the  extensive  ruins  of  whose 
capital  are  still  pointed  out  at  Bhitargarh  in  Jalpaigurl  District. 
Next  came  a  dynasty  of  four  kings,  whose  family  name  of  Pal  recurs 
in  other  parts  of  Bengal  and  also  in  Assam  ;  and  lastly  a  dynasty  of 
three  Khen  kings — Niladhwaj,  Chakradhwaj,  and  Nilambar — the  first 
of  whom  founded  Kamatapur  in  Cooch  Behar.  Raja  Nilambar  is 
said  to  have  been  a  great  monarch  ;  but  about  1498  he  came  into 
collision  with  Ala-ud-din  Husain,  the  Afghan  king  of  Gaur,  who  took 
his  capital  by  stratagem,  and  carried  him  away  prisoner  in  an  iron 
cage.  The  Muhamniadans,  however,  did  not  retain  their  hold  upon 
the  country.  A  period  of  anarchy  ensued ;  among  the  wild  tribes 
which  then  overran  Rangpur,  the  Koch  came  to  the  front  and  their 
chief,  Biswa  Singh,  founded  the  dynasty  which  still  exists  in  Coocii 
Behar,  and  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  the  article  on  that  State. 
As  soon  as  the  Mughal  emperors  had  established  their  supremacy  in 
Bengal,  their  viceroys  began  to  push  their  north-eastern  frontier  across 
the  Brahmaputra.     By  1603  the  Muhamniadans  were  firmly  established 


HISTORY  225 

at  Rangamati  in  Goalpara ;.  but  Rangpur  proper  was  not  completely 
subjugated  until  1661,  though  it  had  been  nominally  annexed  to  the 
Mughal  empire  in  1584.  In  the  extreme  north  the  Cooch  Behar  Rajas 
were  able  to  offer  such  a  resolute  resistance  that  in  1711  they  obtained 
a  favourable  compromise,  in  accordance  with  which  they  paid  tribute 
as  zavnndars  for  the  parganas  of  Boda,  Patgram,  and  Purbabhag,  but 
retained  their  independence  in  Cooch  Behar  proper. 

When  the  East  India  Company  acquired  the  financial  administration 
of  Bengal  in  1765,  the  province  of  Rangpur,  as  it  was  then  called,  was 
a  frontier  tract  bordering  on  Nepal,  Bhutan,  Assam,  and  Cooch  Behar, 
and  included  the  District  of  Rangamati,  east  of  the  Brahmaputra,  as 
well  as  a  great  part  of  the  present  District  of  JalpaigurT.  Its  enormous 
area,  and  the  weakness  of  the  administrative  staff,  prevented  the  Col- 
lector from  preserving  order  in  the  remote  corners  of  his  District, 
which  thus  became  the  secure  refuges  of  banditti.  The  early  records 
of  Rangpur  and  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Bengal  are  full  of  complaints 
on  this  head,  and  of  encounters  between  detachments  of  sepoys  and 
armed  bands  of  dacoits.  In  1772  the  banditti,  reinforced  by  disbanded 
troops  from  the  native  armies,  and  by  the  peasants  ruined  in  the  famine 
of  1770,  were  plundering  and  burning  villages  in  bodies  of  fifty  thou- 
sand. A  small  British  force  sent  against  them  received  a  check ;  and 
in  1773  Captain  Thomas,  the  leader  of  another  party,  was  cut  off, 
and  four  battalions  had  to  be  employed.  In  the  year  1789  the  Collector 
conducted  a  regular  campaign  against  these  disturbers  of  the  peace, 
who  had  fled  to  the  great  forest  of  Baikuntpur,  now  in  JalpaigurT. 
There  he  blockaded  them  with  a  force  of  200  barkanddz  and  compelled 
them  to  surrender,  and  no  less  than  549  robbers  were  brought  to  trial. 
At  first  the  British  continued  the  Muhammadan  practice  of  farming  out 
the  land  revenue  to  contractors  ;  but  in  1783  the  exactions  of  a  notori- 
ous farmer,  Raja  Devi  Singh  of  Dinajpur,  drove  the  Rangpur  cultivators 
into  open  rebellion,  and  the  Government  was  induced  to  invite  the 
zaniinddrs  to  enter  into  direct  engagements  for  the  revenue. 

In  recent  times  Rangpur  has  had  no  history  beyond  the  recital  of 
administrative  changes.  The  tract  east  of  the  Brahmaputra  was  formed 
into  the  District  of  Goalpara  in  1822,  and  in  1826  was  transferred  to 
the  province  of  Assam.  Three  northern  pargajias  now  constitute  part 
of  the  District  of  JalpaigurT,  and  a  considerable  area  in  the  south  has 
been  transferred  to  Bogra.  One  large  estate,  known  as  the  Patiladaha 
estate,  is  situated  partly  in  Rangpur  and  partly  in  Mymensingh  District; 
it  pays  revenue  into  the  Rangpur  treasury,  but  the  greater  portion  is 
under  the  criminal  supervision  of  the  Magistrate  of  Mymensingh. 

On  the  east  bank  of  the  Karatoya  at  Kamatapur,  about  30  miles 
south  of  Rangpur,  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  fort,  which  according  to 
tradition  was  built  by   Nilambar,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  Khen 


22fi 


RANGPUR    DISTRICT 


Rajas.  It  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  is  enclosed 
by  a  lofty  earthen  rampart  and  moat.  Close  by  is  a  dargah  or  Muham- 
madan  shrine,  which  is  said  to  have  been  erected  over  the  staff  of  the 
Muhammadan  saint  Ismail  GhazI,  governor  of  Ghoraghat,  who  is  famed 
for  having  forcibly  converted  the  neighbouring  za/inudars  to  Islam.  A 
few  miles  south  of  Dimla  are  the  remains  of  a  fortified  city,  which  retains 
the  name  of  Dharma  Pal.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  parallelo- 
gram, rather  less  than  a  mile  from  north  to  south  and  three-quarters  of 
a  mile  from  east  to  west,  and  is  surrounded  by  raised  ramparts  of  earth 
and  ditches.  Tradition  connects  these  ruins  with  the  Pal  Rajas.  A 
brick  temple  of  Sarbamangala,  250  years  old,  stands  2^  miles  east  of 
the  Gobindganj  police  station  ;  the  battles  described  in  the  Ramayana, 
Mahabharata,  and  other  Hindu  works  are  depicted  on  the  walls. 

There  has  been  no  real  increase  in  the  population  since  1872,  and  no 
other  part  of  Bengal  shows  so  little  progress  in  this  respect.  Owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  malarial  fever,  the  inhabitants  decreased 
from  2,153,686  in  1872  to  2,097,964  in  1881,  and  to 
2,065,464  in  1 89 1.  Since  1891  the  lost  ground  has  been  recovered, 
and  though  this  is  mainly  due  to  immigration,  there  has  undoubtedly 
been  a  great  improvement  in  public  health.  The  principal  diseases  are 
malarial  fevers,  small-pox,  and  cholera.  Goitre  and  elephantiasis  are 
also  common.  Insanity  is  prevalent,  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of 
persons  of  Koch  origin  who  are  especially  subject  to  this  infirmity.    ■ 

The  chief  statistics  of  the  Census  of  1901  are  shown  below: — 


Population. 


Subdivision. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Number  of 

Population. 

V      . 
CO 

§E 

if 

1.1 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween i8qi 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

tfl 

a 
> 

Rangpur    . 
Nilphamari 
Kurigram  . 
Gaibanda  . 

District  total 

1,141 
648 
942 
762 

I 

3 

I 
I 

6 

1,897 

370 

1,518 

1,427 

658,291 
461,314 

514.392 
520,184 

2,154,181 

577 
712 

546 
683 

+     1.8 
+    3-0 
+    1-3 
+  12.2 

25,153 
19,361 
15,011 
14,299 

3.493 

5,212 

617 

+   4-3 

73,824 

The  principal  towns  are  Rangpur  and  Saidpur.  Thanks  to  its 
very  fertile  soil,  Rangpur,  in  spite  of  its  long-continued  unhealthiness, 
has  still  a  far  denser  population  than  most  of  the  surrounding  Districts. 
The  only  parts  where  there  are  less  than  500  persons  per  square 
mile  are  the  two  unhealthy  and  ill-drained  t/ianas  of  Pirganj  and 
Mitapukur  in  the  south-central  part  of  the  District,  and  Allpur  on 
the  eastern  boundary,  which  includes  in  its  area  the  bed  and  sandy 
islands  of  the  Brahmaputra.  The  densest  population  is  found  in  the 
north-west,  in  the  Nilphamari  subdivision,  where  jute  cultivation  and 
trade  are  carried  on    very    extensively.      The   immigrants   consist   of 


AGRICULTURE 


22' 


temporary  labourers  from  Bihar  and  the  United  Provinces,  and  more 
permanent  settlers  from  Dacca,  Pabna,  and  Nadia.  The  result  of 
the  large  temporary  immigration  is  a  remarkable  preponderance  of  the 
male  population,  which  exceeds  the  number  of  females  by  8-5  per  cent. 
The  language  spoken  is  the  dialect  of  Bengali  known  as  Rangpuri  or 
Rajbansl.  Muhammadans  number  1,371,430,  or  nearly  64  per  cent, 
of  the  total;  and  Hindus  776,646,  or  36  per  cent.  The  former  are 
much  the  more  prolific,  and  have  steadily  increased  from  61  per  cent, 
in   1 88 1  to  their  present  proportion. 

The  Aryan  castes  are  very  poorly  represented.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
Hindu  population  are  Rajbansis,  a  caste  of  mixed  origin,  partly  descended 
from  Mongoloid  Kochs,  and  partly  of  Dravidian  stock  ;  many  Baishnabs 
have  been  recruited  from  this  caste.  Members  of  the  great  aboriginal 
castes  of  Eastern  Bengal,  Chandal  and  Kaibartta,  are  also  numerous.  Of 
the  Musalmans,  92  per  cent,  call  themselves  Shaikhs  and  nearly  all 
the  rest  Nasyas  (converted  Rajbansis);  all  are  probably  descendants 
of  converts  from  the  aboriginal  Hindu  castes.  Of  the  total  population, 
85  per  cent,  are  supported  by  agriculture,  6  per  cent,  by  industry,  and 
I  per  cent,  by  one  or  other  of  the  professions ;  while  earthwork 
and  general  labour  employ  nearly  4  per  cent.  The  proportion  of 
agriculturists  far  exceeds  the  general  average  for  Bengal,  while  the 
industrial  population  is  only  half. 

The  Christians  number  453,  of  whom  92  are  native  Christians,  and 
are  chiefly  railway  employes  in  Saidpur  town,  most  of  whom  belong  to 
the  Anglican  communion  or  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  A  Baptist 
mission  at  Rangpur  has  made  some  60  converts. 

The  soil  is  remarkably  fertile,  being  generally  a  sandy  loam  deposited 
by  the  rivers  when  in  flood.  In  the  north  there  are  extensive  sandy 
plains,  the  remains  of  old  watercourses,  especially  of  a  •  i* 
the  numerous  old  beds  of  the  Tista,  admirably  suited 
to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  for  which  the  District  is  noted,  A  strip 
of  hard  red  clay  in  the  west,  which  is  part  of  the  Barind,  is  favourable 
for  the  cultivation  of  fine  qualities  of  winter  rice  and  sugar-cane. 

The  chief  agricultural  statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown  below,  areas 
being  in  square  miles  : — 


Subdivision. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Rangpur 
Nilphamari  . 
Kurigrain 
Gaibanda 

Total 

1,141 
648 
942 
762 

763 

.     444 
404 

304 

141 
95 

139 
94 

3,493 

1. 91 5 

469 

No  less  than  1,222  square  miles,  or  64  per  cent,  of  the  net  cultivated 


2  28  RANG  PUR   DISTRICT 

area,  are  twice  cropped.  The  principal  staples  are  rice,  jute,  rape  and 
mustard,  and  tobacco.  By  far  the  most  extensive  crop  is  rice,  which 
occupies  88  per  cent,  of  the  net  cropped  area.  More  than  three-quarters 
of  the  crop  is  harvested  in  the  winter,  and  the  rest  in  the  autumn.  The 
early  rice  is  grown  principally  on  high  lands,  but  one  variety  thrives  on 
low  marshy  soil.  The  light  alluvial  soils  are  admirably  suited  to  jute 
cultivation,  and  Rangpur  yields  an  eighth  of  the  whole  output  of 
Bengal,  being  second  only  to  Mymensingh.  Tobacco,  another  speciality 
of  the  District,  thrives  best  on  the  sandy  lands  along  the  banks  of  the 
Tista  river.  Rape  and  mustard  are  also  grown  largely  in  Rangpur,  and 
are  especially  common  on  the  islands  in  the  Brahmaputra.  Potatoes 
are  coming  into  favour. 

During  the  past  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  considerable  spread 
of  cultivation  by  the  reclamation  of  waste  and  silted-up  marshy  lands, 
and  there  is  now  little  room  for  further  extension.  The  progress  of  jute 
cultivation  has  been  extraordinary,  and  to  some  extent  this  has  been  at 
the  expense  of  rice.  There  is  little  or  no  irrigation,  which  is  rendered 
unnecessary  by  the  copious  and  regular  rainfall.  Owing  to  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  and  the  prosperity  of  the  people,  little  use  has  been  made  of 
the  Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts  ;  but  in  1897-8, 
a  year  of  poor  crops,  Rs.  3,400  was  advanced  under  the  latter  Act. 

The  country-bred  cattle  are  poor,  and  animals  from  Upper  India 
are  purchased  in  large  numbers  at  the  Darwani  fair.  Buffaloes,  though 
small,  are  largely  reared  and  are  exported  in  considerable  numbers  to 
Assam.  Very  little  pasturage  is  left  except  in  the  river  islands,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  feed  the  cattle,  especially  during  the  rains. 

Indigenous  manufactures  are  insignificant  and   decaying.      Cotton 

carpets  and  cloth,  gunny  cloth,  and  rough  silk  {endi)  are  woven  on 

a  small  scale,  and  a  few  brass-ware  and  bell-metal 

communications   '^^^'^^i^^  ^•'^  manufactured.     There  are  jute  presses 
at    DoMAR   and    Saidpur,    and    railway   workshops 
at  the  latter  place. 

The  trade  is  now  almost  entirely  carried  by  rail.  The  chief  imports 
are  cotton  piece-goods,  salt,  kerosene  oil,  coal,  and  rice ;  and  the  chief 
exports  are  jute,  tobacco,  mustard,  unrefined  sugar,  and  rice.  The 
centres  of  the  jute  export  business  are  Domar,  Darwani,  Saidpur,  and 
Rangpur  town.  'I'obacco  is  bought  by  the  Arakanese  and  exported  to 
Burma,  where  it  is  manufactured  into  cigars.  Rice  is  imported  chiefly 
from  the  neighbouring  Districts  of  Dinajpur  and  Bogra,  and  exported 
to  Calcutta ;  coal  is  imported  from  Burdwan  and  Manbhum,  and  some 
tobacco  goes  to  the  neighbouring  Districts  ;  but  the  rest  of  the  trade 
is  with  Calcutta.  The  merchants  are  for  the  most  part  Europeans, 
Marwaris,  and  Sahas.  The  brokers  are  local  Muhammadans,  with 
a  sprinkling  of  Rajbansis. 


ADMINISTRA  TTON  229 

Few  Districts  are  better  provided  with  railway  communication,  which 
has  been  rapidly  extended  within  recent  years.  The  northern  branch 
of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  intersects  the  west  of  the  District 
from  south  to  north.  From  the  Parvatlpur  station,  on  this  line,  the 
Assam  line  strikes  eastward,  passing  through  Rangpur  town  and 
crossing  the  Tlsta  and  Dharla  rivers  by  large  bridges.  In  1901  this 
line  had  its  terminus  at  Gitaldaha  in  Cooch  Behar,  but  it  has  since 
been  extended  to  Dhubri  in  Assam  ;  a  branch  line  starts  from  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tista  and  runs  to  Kurigram.  The  Bengal-Duars  Railway 
starts  from  the  Lalmanir  Hat  station  on  the  Assam  line,  and,  after 
traversing  the  north  of  the  District,  meets  the  Eastern  Bengal  State 
Railway  at  Jalpaiguri.  Finally,  a  branch  line,  called  the  Brahmaputra- 
Sultanpur  Branch  Railway,  from  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway  at 
Santahar  traverses  the  Gaibanda  subdivision  to  Phulcharl,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Brahmaputra.  A  new  line  from  Kaunia  to  Bonarpara,  on 
the  Brahmaputra-Sultanpur  Branch  Railway,  has  been  recently  sanc- 
tioned. In  1903-4  the  total  length  of  roads  was  2,477  i^iles,  but  of 
these  only  14  miles  were  metalled.  They  are  maintained  by  the  District 
board,  with  occasional  help  from  Provincial  revenues  for  the  upkeep 
of  feeder  roads  for  the  railways.  The  principal  roads  are  those  to  Bogra, 
Dinajpur,  Jalpaiguri,  Cooch  Behar,  Dhubri,  Chilmari,  and  Phulcharl. 

The  steamers  of  the  India  General  and  the  Rivers  Steam  Navigation 
Companies,  which  ply  up  and  down  the  Brahmaputra,  stop  at  four 
stations  within  the  District.  The  Tista  and  Dharla  are  navigable 
throughout  the  year,  and  most  of  the  other  rivers  during  the  rainy 
season,  by  ordinary  native  trading  boats  and  dug-outs.  There  are 
146  public  ferries,  yielding  an  income  of  Rs.  48,000  per  annum  to 
the  District  board,  as  well  as  numerous  private  ferries. 

The  famine  which  followed  the  storm  and  cyclone  of  the  disastrous 
year  1787  is  said  to   have  carried   off   one-sixth   of   the  population. 
Since  that  date  no  severe  famine  has  visited  the  Dis- 
trict, though  in  1874  some  relief  was  necessary. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  four  sub- 
divisions, with  head-quarters  at   Rangpur,  Nilph.amari,  Kurigram, 
and  Gaibanda.   The  staff  at  head-quarters  comprises, 
in  addition  to  the  Magistrate-Collector,  four  Deputy-         ^'^^^^  ra  ion. 
Magistrate-Collectors,  while  each  of  the  other  subdivisions  is  in  charge 
of  a  Deputy-Magistrate-Collector. 

I'here  are  in  all  14  criminal  courts  (including  those  of  honorary 
magistrates)  and  9  civil  courts  :  namely,  those  of  the  District  and 
Sessions  Judge,  Subordinate  Judge,  and  two  Munsifs  at  Rangpur  town, 
two  at  Kurigram,  two  at  Gaibanda,  and  two  at  Nilphamari.  Offences 
against  marriage  and  the  abduction  of  girls  are  very  common,  and 
cases  of  arson  and   petty  burglary  are  also  numerous. 


2^o  RANGPUR   DISTRICT 

The  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  its  boundaries  render  it 
difficult  to  trace  the  early  revenue  history  of  the  present  Uistrict.  In 
1740  the  land  revenue  was  3-4  lakhs ;  and  by  1764,  the  year  preceding 
the  British  occupation,  it  had  risen  to  5-1  lakhs,  the  actual  collections 
being  4-9  lakhs.  In  1765,  the  first  year  of  British  administration,  no 
less  than  9-1  lakhs  was  realized.  The  revenues  were  then  farmed,  and 
it  was  not  until  1778  that  the  za?n'inddrs  were  admitted  to  settlement. 
The  District  was  permanently  settled  in  1793  for  8<2  lakhs. 

The  current  land  revenue  demand  for  1903-4  was  lo-i  lakhs,  of 
which  all  but  Rs.  4,000  was  due  from  permanently  settled  estates.  The 
increase  since  1793  is  due  to  the  resumption  and  assessment  of  lands 
held  free  of  revenue  under  invalid  titles.  At  the  time  of  the  Permanent 
Settlement  the  District  comprised  only  75  estates  ;  these  have  increased 
to  659  by  partitions,  resumptions,  and  transfers  from  other  Districts. 
The  revenue  is  collected  with  extreme  punctuality.  Its  incidence  is 
light,  as  it  is  only  equivalent  to  R.  0-12-2  per  cultivated  acre,  or  to 
one-fifth  of  the  zain'inddrs'  rent-rolls.  The  jot  (holding)  is  here  occa- 
sionally a  very  big  tenure,  especially  in  the  east  of  the  District,  where 
the  biggest /(^/^J?-  has  a  rent-roll  of  Rs.  80,000.  Chukdni  is  the  name 
of  an  under-tenure  subleased  from  z.jotddr,  the  actual  cultivator  below 
the  chaukdfiiddr  being  generally  an  ddhidr,  who  pays  half  the  crop  as 
rent.  Lpanchakl  is  the  name  of  a  tenure  granted  for  charitable  or 
religious  purposes  at  a  quit-rent  in  perpetuity  ;  the  77iajkuri  is  a  similar 
tenure,  but  liable  to  enhancement  of  rent.  The  average  rates  of  rent 
paid  by  actual  cultivators  to  their  immediate  landlords  vary  from  Rs.  3-6 
to  Rs.  6  an  acre ;  higher  rents  are  paid  for  good  loam  lands  and  lower 
for  hard  clays.  The  great  majority  of  the  ryots  possess  occupancy 
rights,  and  the  number  who  hold  either  at  fixed  rents  or  without  a  right 
of  occupancy  is  very  small. 

The  following  table  shows  the  collections  of  land  revenue  and  total 
revenue  (principal  heads  only),  in  thousands  of  rupees : — 


Land  revenue 
Total  revenue 


1880-1.     ^    1890-1. 

1 


10,19  10,15 

17,22     I     18,16 


1 900- 1.         1903-4. 


10,15    ;     9,83 
20,17    I    20,68 


Outside  the  Rangpur  municipality  local  affairs  are  managed  by 
the  District  board,  with  a  local  board  at  each  of  the  subdivisions. 
In  1903-4  the  income  of  the  District  board  was  Rs.  3,41,000,  of 
which  Rs.  1,23,000  was  derived  from  rates;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  2,82,000,  including  Rs.  1,83,000  spent  on  public  works,  and  Rs. 
60,000  on  education. 

The  District  contains  17  thdnas  or  police  stations  and  9  outposts. 
In   1903  the  force  under  the  control  of  the   District  Superintendent 


RANG  FUR    TOWN  231 

numbered  4  inspectors,  44  sub-inspeclors,  34  head  constables,  and 
387  constables.  In  addition,  the  village  police  numbered  441  daffaddrs 
and  4,655  chaukiddrs.  The  District  jail  has  accommodation  for  263 
prisoners,  and  the  subsidiary  jails  at  the  subdivisional  head-quarters 
for  53. 

Education  is  very  backward,  and  in  1901  only  3-4  per  cent,  of  the 
population  (6  males  and  0-2  females)  could  read  and  write.  A  con- 
siderable advance  has,  however,  been  made  in  recent  years,  the  total 
number  of  pupils  under  instruction  having  increased  from  about  17,000 
in  1883  to  22,875  "1  1892-3  and  to  31,001  in  1900-1,  while  37,576 
boys  and  1,742  girls  were  at  school  in  1903-4,  being  respectively  22-2 
and  i-i  per  cent,  of  those  of  school-going  age.  The  number  of  educa- 
tional institutions,  public  and  private,  in  that  year  was  1,227,  including 
64  secondary  and  1,131  primary  schools.  The  expenditure  on  educa- 
tion was  2  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  22,000  was  met  from  Provincial  funds, 
Rs.  54,000  from  District  funds,  Rs.  1,000  from  municipal  funds,  and 
Rs.  95,000  from  fees.  The  most  important  educational  institution  is 
the  technical  school  in  Rangpur  town. 

Rangpur  is  well  provided  with  medical  relief,  as  it  contains  25  chari- 
table dispensaries,  of  which  7  have  accommodation  for  102  in-patients. 
The  number  of  cases  treated  in  1903  comprised  1,257  in-patients  and 
163,000  out-patients,  and  3,411  operations  were  performed.  The  ex- 
penditure was  Rs.  50,000,  of  which  Rs.  8,000  was  met  from  Government 
contributions,  Rs.  6,000  from  Local  funds,  Rs.  3,000  from  municipal 
funds,  and  Rs.  12,000  from  subscriptions. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  Rangpur  town.  In  the  rest  of 
the  District  77,000  successful  operations  were  performed  in  1903-4, 
representing  36  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

[Martin,  Eastern  India,  vol.  iii  (1838) ;  Further  Notes  on  the  Rangpur 
Records  (Calcutta,  1876);  and  Sir  W.  W .  Hunter,  Statistical  Account  0/ 
Bengal,  vol.  vii  (1876).] 

Rangpur  Subdivision. — Head-quarters  subdivision  of  Rangpur 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  lying  between  25°  18'  and  26° 
16'  N.  and  88°  56'  and  89°  31'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,141  square  miles. 
The  subdivision  is  mainly  an  alluvial  tract,  drained  on  the  extreme 
west  by  the  Karatoya  and  intersected  by  the  Ghaghat,  a  small  tortuous 
river,  on  either  side  of  which  are  swamps  and  many  channels  clogged 
with  vegetation.  The  population  in  1901  was  658,291,  compared  with 
646,388  in  189 1.  It  contains  one  town,  Rangpur  (po|)ulation,  15,960), 
the  head-quarters,  and  1,897  villages,  and  has  a  density  of  577  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  subdivision  is  unhealthy,  and  two  of  its  thanas, 
Mahlganj  and  Mitapukur,  have  lost  population  since  1891  and  still 
more  since   1872. 

Rangpur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  of  the  same  name 


232  RANG  PUR    TOWN 

in  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  25*^  45"  N.  and  89°  15'  E. 
Population  (1901),  15,960.  The  name  of  Rangpur  (the  'abode  of 
bliss ')  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  legend  that  Raja  Bhagadatta,  who 
took  part  in  the  war  of  the  Mahabharata,  possessed  a  country  residence 
here.  Rangpur  was  captured  by  the  Afghan  king  Ala-ud-dln  Husain, 
who  ruled  at  Gaur  from  1493  to  15 19.  It  is  an  unhealthy  place,  and 
suffered  severely  in  the  earthquake  of  1897,  when  nearly  all  its  build- 
ings were  wrecked.  Rangpur  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1869. 
The  municipal  income  during  the  decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged 
Rs.  31,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  26,000.  In  1903-4  the  income 
was  Rs.  53,000,  of  which  Rs.  9,000  was  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons 
(or  property  tax),  Rs.  8,000  from  a  conservancy  rate,  and  Rs.  9,000 
from  a  tax  on  vehicles  ;  the  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  59,000. 
Two  channels  have  been  dug  to  drain  the  marshes  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  town,  but  one  of  them  was  rendered  useless  by  the  earth- 
quake of  1897.  The  town  contains  the  usual  public  offices.  The 
District  jail  has  accommodation  for  263  prisoners.  The  principal  jail 
industries  carried  on  are  oil-pressing,  J?^r-^/-pounding,  string-  and  rope- 
making,  bamboo  and  cane-work,  cloth-weaving,  carpentry,  paddy-husking, 
and  wheat  and  pulse-grinding.  The  Rangpur  District  school  was 
founded  in  1832  by  the  local  zaml?iddrs,  and  was  taken  over  by 
Government  in  1862  ;  there  were  385  pupils  in  1901.  The  Tajhat 
estate  maintains  a  high  school,  for  which  a  good  building  has  recently 
been  erected.  A  technical  school,  known  as  the  Bayley-Gobind  Lai 
Technical  Institute,  was  founded  in  1889,  and  is  affiliated  to  the  Sibpur 
Engineering  College;  it  has  loi  pupils  on  its  rolls. 

Ranibagh. — Village  in  the  Outer  Himalayas,  Naini  Tal  District, 
United  Provinces.     See  Kathgodam. 

Ranibennur  Taluka. — South-easternmost  tdluka  of  Dharwar  Dis- 
trict, Bombay,  lying  between  14°  24'  and  14°  48'  N.  and  75°  27'  and 
75°  49'  E.,  with  an  area  of  405  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  104,274,  compared  with  92,978  in  1891.  The  density,  257  persons 
per  square  mile,  slightly  exceeds  the  District  average.  There  are  three 
towns,  RanIbennur  (population,  14,851),  the  head-quarters,  Bv.adgi 
(6,659),  ^"d  TuMiNKATTi  (6,341);  and  116  villages.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-78  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  13,000. 
The  country  is  generally  flat,  with  a  low  range  on  the  north  and  a  group 
of  hills  in  the  east,  and  is  well  supplied  with  water.  The  prevailing 
soil  is  black  in  the  low-lying  parts  and  red  on  the  hills  and  uplands. 
Important  protective  irrigation  works  have  been  constructed  at  Asundi 
and  Medleri.  The  capital  outlay  to  the  end  of  1903-4  on  these  tanks 
was  1-6  lakhs,  and  they  supplied  341  acres  in  that  year. 

Ranibennur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same 
name  in  Dharwar  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  14°  37'  N.  and  75°  38'  E., 


RANIKHET  233 

on  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway,  and  on  the  road  from  Poona  to 
Madras.  Population  (1901),  14,851.  A  municipality  was  established 
in  1858,  the  average  receipts  during  the  decade  ending  1901  being 
Rs.  7,900.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  9,400.  This  is  a  thriving 
town,  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  silken  and  cotton  fabrics,  and 
having  a  considerable  trade  in  raw  cotton.  In  1800,  while  in  pursuit 
of  the  Maratha  freebooter  Dhundia  Wagh,  Colonel  Wellesley  (after- 
wards the  Duke  of  Wellington),  being  fired  on  by  the  garrison,  attacked 
and  captured  the  town.  In  181 8  a  party  of  General  Munro's  force 
occupied  Ranlbennur.  In  February  and  August  the  local  shepherds 
visit  Choi  Maradi,  or  '  scorpion  hill,'  2  miles  south  of  the  town,  to 
worship  Bir  Deo,  an  incarnation  of  Siva.  While  the  god  is  present 
on  the  hill  the  scorpions,  it  is  said,  do  not  sting.  The  town  contains 
a  dispensary  and  7  schools,  including  a  municipal  middle  school. 

Ranigam. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Raniganj. — Town  in  the  Asansol  subdivision  of  Burdwan  District, 
Bengal,  situated  in  23°  36'  N.  and  87°  6'  E.,  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Damodar  river.  Population  (1901),  15,841.  The  town,  which  has 
a  station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway  and  was  the  head-quarters  of 
the  subdivision  until  1906,  owes  its  importance  to  the  development 
of  the  coal  industry  and  is  one  of  the  busiest  places  in  Bengal.  Exten- 
sive potteries  give  employment  to  1,500  hands,  the  value  of  the  out-turn 
in  1903-4  being  estimated  at  6-45  lakhs.  Paper-mills  employ  nearly 
800  hands,  and  2,884  tons  of  paper  valued  at  8-65  lakhs  were  manu- 
factured in  1903-4;  3  oil-mills  are  also  at  work.  There  is  a  consider- 
able trade  in  rice  and  oil.  Raniganj  was  constituted  a  municipality 
in  1876.  The  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901-2  averaged 
Rs.  19,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  16,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was 
Rs.  22,000,  of  which  Rs.  12,000  was  derived  from  a  tax  on  houses  and 
lands;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  20,100.  A  Wesleyan  Methodist 
mission  maintains  a  leper  asylum,  an  orphanage,  and  day  schools. 

Ranijula. — Hill  in  the  Jashpur  State,  Central  Provinces,  situated 
in  23°  o'  N.  and  83°  36'  E.,  rising  to  a  height  of  3,527  feet  above 
sea-level. 

Ranikhet.— Military  sanitarium  in  the  District  and  tahs'il  of  Al- 
mora.  United  Provinces,  situated  in  29°  38'  N.  and  79°  26'  E.,  at  the 
junction  of  cart-roads  leading  to  the  foot  of  the  hills  at  Kathgodam  (49 
miles)  and  Ramnagar(56  miles).  Population  in  summer  (1900),  7,705, 
including  2,236  Europeans,  and  in  winter  (1901)  3,153.  The  canton- 
ment is  situated  on  two  ridges,  Ranikhet  proper,  elevation  5,983  feet  ; 
and  Chaubattia,  elevation  6,942  feet.  It  is  occupied  by  British  troops 
throughout  the  summer,  and  the  accommodation  is  being  enlarged. 
A  dispensary  is  maintained  here.  It  was  at  one  time  proposed  to 
move  the  head-quarters  of  the  Government  of  India  from  Simla  to 


234  RANIKHET 

Ranikhet.  The  income  and  expenditure  of  the  cantonment  fund 
averaged  Ks.  21,000  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901.  In  1903-4 
the  income  was  Rs.  29,000  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  33,000.  An  excel- 
lent system  of  water-works  has  recently  been  carried  out. 

Ranipet  Subdivision.  —  Subdivision  of  North  Arcot  District, 
Madras,  consisting  of  the  taluks  of  Walajapet  and  Chandragiri  and 
tlie  zannnddri  tahs'ils  of  Kalahasti  and  Karvetnagar. 

Ranipet  Town  ('  queen's  town '). — Town  in  the  Walajapet  Idluk 
of  North  Arcot  District,  Madras,  situated  in  12°  56'  N.  and  79^  20'  E., 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Palar  river.  Population  (1901),  7,607.  The 
place  comprises  the  European  quarters  of  Arcot,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  about  the  year  17 13  by  Saadat-ullah  Khan,  in  honour 
of  the  youthful  widow  of  Desing  Raja  of  Gingee,  who  committed  satl 
when  her  husband  was  slain  by  Saadat-ullah's  forces.  The  place 
was  of  no  importance  till  it  became  a  British  cantonment,  when  it  was 
made  a  large  cavalry  station  and  rapidly  extended.  It  is  now  the 
head-quarters  of  the  divisional  officer.  The  Roman  Catholics  and 
the  American  Mission  have  churches  in  the  town.  There  is  a  large 
dispensary  ;  and  every  Friday  a  fair  is  held  on  the  old  parade  ground 
north  of  the  town,  where  a  larger  number  of  cattle  are  sold  than  in 
any  other  market  in  the  District.  The  Naulakh  Bagh  or  '  nine-lakh 
garden '  of  mangoes  and  other  trees,  planted  by  one  of  the  early 
Nawabs  of  Arcot,  is  near  the  town. 

Ranipura. — Petty  State  in  MahI  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Rann  of  Cutch. — Salt  waste  in  Bombay.     See  Cutch,  Rann  of. 

Ranpur. — One  of  the  Tributary  States  of  Orissa,  Bengal,  lying 
between  19°  54'  and  20°  12'  N.  and  85°  8'  and  85°  28'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  203  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north,  east,  and  south 
by  Purl  District,  and  on  the  west  by  the  State  of  Nayagarh.  The 
south-west  is  a  region  of  forest-clad  and  almost  entirely  uninhabited 
hills,  which  wall  in  its  whole  western  side,  except  at  a  single  point, 
where  a  pass  leads  into  the  adjoining  State  of  Nayagarh.  To  the 
north  and  east  there  are  extensive  fertile  and  populous  valleys.  The 
State  claims  to  be  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Orissa  Tributary  States, 
and  its  long  list  of  chiefs  covers  a  period  of  over  3,600  years.  It  is  the 
only  State  whose  ruler  refrains  from  pretensions  to  an  Aryan  ancestry ; 
and  in  1814,  in  response  to  an  inquiry  addressed  to  all  the  chiefs,  the 
Raja  was  not  ashamed  to  own  his  Khond  origin.  The  State  yields  an 
estimated  revenue  of  Rs.  54,000,  and  pays  a  tribute  of  Rs.  1,401  to  the 
British  Government.  The  population  increased  from  40,115  in  1891 
to  46,075  in  1901.  The  number  of  villages  is  261,  and  the  density 
is  227  persons  per  square  mile.  Hindus  number  45,762,  by  far  the 
most  numerous  caste  being  the  Chasas  (14,000).  The  capital  of  the 
State  is  14  miles  from  the  Kalupara  Ghat  station  of  the  East  Coast 


RANTHAMBHOR  235 

section  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  and  about  10  miles  from  the 
Madras  trunk  road,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  feeder  road  partly 
bridged  and  metalled.  The  State  maintains  a  middle  English  school, 
3  upper  primary  and  38  lower  primary  schools,  and  a  dispensary. 

Ranpur. — Town  in  the  Dhandhuka  taluka  of  Ahmadabad  Dis- 
trict, Bombay,  situated  in  22°  21'  N.  and  71°  43''  E.,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Bhadar  river,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Goma.  Population 
(1901),  6,423.  On  the  raised  strip  of  land  between  the  two  rivers 
is  an  old  fort,  partly  in  ruins.  Ranpur  was  founded  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  by  Ranajl  Gohil,  a  Rajput  chief- 
tain, the  ancestor  of  the  Bhaunagar  family.  Here  his  father  SekajT 
had  settled,  and  named  the  place  Sejakpur  ;  but  the  son,  having 
strengthened  Sejakpur  with  a  fort,  called  it  Ranpur.  Some  time  in 
the  fifteenth  century  the  ruling  chief  embraced  the  Muhammadan 
religion  and  founded  the  family  of  the  present  Ranpur  Molesalams. 
About  1640  Azam  Khan  built  the  fort  of  Shahapur,  whose  ruins  still 
ornament  the  town.  In  the  eighteenth  century  Ranpur  passed  to  the 
Gaikwar,  and  from  him  to  the  British  in  1802.  Ranpur  is  a  station 
on  the  Bhavnagar-Gondal  Railway.  The  municipality,  established  in 
1889,  had  an  average  income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  of  about 
Rs.  6,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  amounted  to  Rs.  6,800.  The  town 
contains  a  dispensary  and  three  schools,  of  which  one  is  an  English 
middle  school  with  33  pupils,  and  two  are  vernacular,  one  for  boys  and 
one  for  girls,  attended  respectively  by  317  and  125  pupils. 

Ranthambhor  {Ranastambhapura,  or  '  the  place  of  the  pillar  of 
war  '). — Famous  fort  in  the  Sawai  Madhopur  nizdmat  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  State  of  Jaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  2'  N.  and 
76°  28'  E.,  on  an  isolated  rock  1,578  feet  above  sea-level,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  massive  wall  strengthened  by  towers  and  bastions. 
Within  the  enclosure  are  the  remains  of  a  palace,  a  mosque  with  the 
tomb  of  a  Muhammadan  saint,  and  barracks  for  the  garrison.  The 
place  is  said  to  have  been  held  by  a  branch  of  the  Jadon  Rajputs 
till  they  were  expelled  by  the  famous  Prithwi  Raj  in  the  twelfth  century, 
when  the  Chauhan  Rajputs  took  possession.  Altamsh,  the  third  king 
of  the  Slave  dynasty,  seized  the  fort  in  1226,  but  held  it  only  for  a 
time.  In  1290  or  1291  Jalal-ud-dln  Khilji,  and  in  1300  an  army  sent 
by  Ala-ud-dln,  both  besieged  the  place  without  success.  Ala-ud-dln 
then  proceeded  in  person  against  the  fort,  and  eventually  took  it  in 
1 30 1,  putting  the  Raja,  Hamir  Deo  Chauhan,  and  the  garrison  to 
the  sword.  It  was  subsequently  wrested  from  the  sovereign  of  Delhi, 
perhaps  during  the  distractions  consequent  on  the  invasion  of  Timur 
at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  1516  is  mentioned 
as  belonging  to  Malwa.  Shortly  afterwards  it  was  taken  by  Rana 
Sangram  Singh  of  Mewar,  but  it  was  made  over  to  the  emperor  Babar 

VOL.  XXI.  Q 


2  36  J?  A  NTHAMBHOR 

in  1528.  About  twenty-five  years  later  its  Musalman  governor  sur- 
rendered it  to  the  chief  of  Bundi,  and  it  passed  into  the  possession 
of  Akbar  about  1569.  Accounts  differ  as  to  the  manner  in  which  this 
came  about.  According  to  the  Musalman  historians,  the  emperor 
besieged  it  in  person  and  took  it  in  a  month  ;  but  the  Bundi  bards  say 
that  the  siege  was  ineffectual,  and  that  he  obtained  by  stratagem  what 
he  had  failed  to  secure  by  force  of  arms.  In  Akbar's  reign  Rantham- 
bhor  became  the  first  sarkdr  or  division  in  the  province  of  Ajmer,  and 
consisted  of  no  less  than  eighty-three  inahdls  or  fiefs,  in  which  were 
included  not  only  Kotah  and  Bundi  and  their  dependencies,  but  most 
of  the  territory  now  constituting  the  State  of  Jaipur.  On  the  decay 
of  the  Mughal  empire,  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  fort  was  made  over  by  its  governor  to  the  Jaipur  chief,  to  whom  it 
now  belongs, 

Rapri. — Village  in  the  Shikohabad  tahsll  of  MainpurT  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  58'  N.  and  78°  36'  E.,  in  the  Jumna 
ravines,  44  miles  south-west  of  Mainpurl  tow^n.  Population  (1901), 
900.  The  importance  of  RaprI  lies  in  its  past  history.  Local  tradi- 
tion ascribes  its  foundation  to  Rao  Zorawar  Sen,  also  known  as  Rapar 
Sen,  whose  descendant  fell  in  battle  against  Muhammad  Ghori  in 
A.  D.  1 1 94.  Mosques,  tombs,  wells,  and  reservoirs  mark  its  former 
greatness  ;  and  several  inscriptions  found  among  the  ruins  have  thrown 
much  light  on  the  local  history.  The  most  important  of  these  dates 
from  the  reign  of  Ala-ud-din  Khilji.  Many  buildings  were  erected 
by  Sher  Shah  and  Jahanglr ;  and  traces  of  the  gate  of  one  of  the  royal 
residences  still  exist,  indicating  that  Rapri  must  at  one  time  have  been 
a  large  and  prosperous  town.  Rapri  has  always  been  important  as 
commanding  one  of  the  crossings  of  the  Jumna  ;  and  a  bridge  of  boats 
is  maintained  here,  forming  one  of  the  main  routes  to  the  cattle  fair  at 
Batesar  in  Agra  District,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United 
Provinces. 

Rapti  [identified  by  Lassen  with  the  Solomatis  of  Arrian  =  Skt. 
Sardvatl ;  by  Pargiter  with  the  Saddrilra  ('  ever-flowing  ')  of  the  epics  ; 
also  called  Irdvati  ('  refreshing ')]. — River  which  rises  in  the  lower 
ranges  of  Nepal  (27°  49"  N.,  82°  44'  E.),  and  joins  the  Gogra  in 
Gorakhpur  District  of  the  United  Provinces.  Its  course  is  first  south 
and  then  north-Avest  and  west,  after  which  it  again  turns  south  and 
crosses  the  border  of  Oudh  in  Bahraich  District.  It  then  flows  south- 
east or  south  through  Bahraich,  Gonda,  Bast!,  and  Gorakhpur  Dis- 
tricts, with  a  total  course  of  about  400  miles.  Its  wide  bed  is  confined 
within  high  banks,  but  the  actual  channel  shifts  considerably.  Floods 
are  not  uncommon,  but  do  little  damage,  if  they  subside  in  time  for 
spring  crops  to  be  sown,  as  the  silt  deposited  acts  as  a  fertilizer.  The 
feeders  of  this  river  are  chiefly  small  rivers  rising  in  the  tarai  north 


RARIPUR  237 

of  its  course,  the  largest  being  the  Dhamela,  joined  by  the  CihfinghT, 
and  the  Rohini,  in  Gorakhpur.  In  Gonda  and  BastI  an  old  bed  of  the 
river,  called  the  Burhi  RaptT,  some  miles  north  of  its  present  course, 
brings  down  a  considerable  amount  of  water  in  the  rains.  The 
Bakhira  Lake  in  BastI  District  and  the  Chilua  lake  in  Gorakhpur 
drain  into  it.  The  Rapt!  is  navigable  for  small  boats  as  high  as 
Bhinga  in  Bahraich,  and  for  large  boats  to  the  town  of  Gorakhpur, 
which  stands  near  its  banks.  Much  timber  and  grain  from  Nepal  and 
the  British  Districts  which  it  traverses  are  carried  down  into  the  Gogra, 
and  thence  into  the  Ganges  ;  but  the  trafific  has  fallen  off  since  the 
extension  of  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway.  The  Rapti 
is  rarely  used  for  irrigation. 

Rapur. —  Tdhik  in  the  south-west  of  Nellore  District,  Madras,  lying 
between  14°  7'  and  14°  31'  N.  and  79°  21'  and  79°  51'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  596  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  70,130,  com- 
pared with  61,311  in  1891.  The  tdiuk  contains  112  villages,  of  which 
Rapur  is  the  head-quarters.  The  demand  on  account  of  land  revenue 
and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  1,55,000.  The  Velikonda 
range  forms  the  western  boundary  ;  and  Penchalakonda  (3,635  feet), 
one  of  the  peaks  in  this,  is  the  highest  point  in  the  District.  There 
are  also  some  scattered  hills.  The  Kandleru  and  Venkatagiri  rivers, 
which  rise  in  the  Velikondas,  drain  the  taluk.  The  former  runs 
through  the  centre  and  empties  itself  into  the  Kistnapatam  backwater 
after  passing  through  Gudur.  It  is  navigable  up  to  25  miles  from  the 
sea  at  all  seasons  by  boats  drawing  not  more  than  4  or  5  feet.  The 
tdbik  possesses  many  '  reserved '  forests,  but  they  mostly  contain  very 
poor  growth.  The  soil  is  black  and  loamy  in  parts,  but  there  is  much 
sterile  stony  land.  Wells  are  deep  and  costly,  and  irrigation  is  mostly 
from  rainfed  tanks.  The  Tungabhadra-Penner  irrigation  project, 
which  is  now  under  investigation,  would  command  a  good  deal  of 
the  tdiuk.  Cholam,  rdgi,  cambu,  rice,  tobacco,  and  chillies  are  the 
principal  crops.  Timber  and  tanning  and  dyeing  barks  are  the  chief 
natural  products. 

Rarh. — Ancient  name  of  a  portion  of  Bengal,  west  of  the  Bhagl- 
rathi  river.  This  was  one  of  the  four  divisions  created  by  king  Ballal 
Sen,  the  others  being  Barendra  between  the  Mahananda  and  Karatoya 
rivers,  Bagri  or  South  Bengal,  and  Banga  or  East  Bengal.  Rarh 
corresponded  roughly  with  the  kingdom  of  Karna  Suvarna,  and  with 
the  modern  Districts  of  Burdwan,  Bankura,  western  Murshidabad, 
and  Hooghly. 

Rasipur. — Town  in  the  District  and  tdiuk  of  Salem,  Madras, 
situated  in  11°  28'  N.  and  78°  11'  E.,  in  the  fertile  valley  between 
the  Bodamalais  and  the  Kollaimalais.  Population  (1901),  11,512. 
Silk   and   cotton  cloths  are  extensively  woven  here,    and  large   iron 

Q  2 


238  RASIPUR 

boilers  for  the  manufacture  of  jaggery  (coarse  sugar)  and  brass   and 
bell-metal  vessels  of  all  kinds  are  made. 

Rasra  Tahsil.— Western  tahsll  of  Ballia  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  parga?ias  of  Lakhnesar,  Sikandarpur  (West),  Kopachit 
(West),  and  Bhadaon,  and  lying  between  25°  46' and  26°  11'  N.  and 
83°  38'  and  84°  3'  E.,  with  an  area  of  433  square  miles.  Population 
fell  from  307,645  in  1891  to  288,226  in  1901,  the  decrease  being  the 
most  considerable  in  the  District.  There  are  697  villages  and  two 
towns,  including  Rasra  (population,  9,896),  the  taJtsil  head-quarters. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,97,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  54,000.  The  density  of  population,  666  persons  per  square 
mile,  is  the  lowest  in  the  District.  The  tahsil  stretches  from  the  Gogra 
on  the  north  to  the  Chhot!  Sarju  on  the  south,  and  is  also  drained  by 
the  BudhT  or  Lakhra,  a  small  stream.  Sugar-cane  and  rice  are  more 
largely  grown  here  than  in  other  parts  of  the  District.  The  area  under 
cultivation  in  1903-4  was  270  square  miles,  of  which  167  were  irrigated. 
Wells  supply  about  four-fifths  of  the  irrigated  area,  and  tanks  and 
streams  most  of  the  remainder. 

Rasra  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
Ballia  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  51'  N.  and  83°  52'  E., 
on  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway.  Population  (1901),  9,896. 
Rasra  is  a  thriving,  well-laid-out  town,  and  is  commercially  the  most 
important  place  in  the  District.  It  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sengar 
Rajputs,  and  contains  a  large  tank  surrounded  by  a  grove  sacred  to 
Nath  Baba,  their  patron  saint.  Near  the  tank  are  some  scores  of 
earthen  mounds  which  are  memorials  of  satis.  Rasra  is  administered 
under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,400.  Sugar, 
hides,  and  carbonate  of  soda  are  exported,  and  cotton  cloth,  iron, 
and  spices  are  imported  for  local  distribution.  During  the  rains  a 
good  deal  of  traffic  passes  by  the  Chhot!  Sarju.  The  town  contains 
a  dispensary,  and  a  school  with  about  80  pupils. 

Ratangarh. — Head-quarters  of  a  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Sujangarh  iiizamat  of  the  State  of  Blkaner,  Rajputana,  situated  in 
28°  5'  N.  and  74°  37'  E.,  about  80  miles  almost  due  east  of  Bikaner 
city,  and  10  miles  from  the  Shekhawati  border.  Population  (1901), 
1 1,744.  The  town  was  founded  on  the  site  of  a  village  named  Kolasar 
by  Maharaja  Surat  Singh  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  was 
improved  by  his  successor,  Ratan  Singh,  who  gave  it  his  name.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  stone  wall  and  possesses  a  small  fort,  a  neatly  laid  out 
and  broad  bazar,  some  fine  houses  (the  property  of  wealthy  Mahajans), 
a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office,  a  vernacular  school  attended 
by  70  boys,  and  a  hospital  with  accommodation  for  7  in-patients. 

Ratanmal. —  Thakurdt  in  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central  India. 

Ratanpur. — Town  in  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Bilaspur,  Central 


RATH  TOWN  239 

Provinces,  situated  in  22°  17'  N.  and  82°  11' E.,  16  miles  north  of 
Bilaspur  town  by  road.  It  lies  in  a  hollow  below  some  hills.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  5,479.  Ratanpur  was  for  many  centuries  the  capital  of 
Chhattisgarh  under  the  Haihaivansi  dynasty,  its  foundation  being 
assigned  to  king  P.atnadeva  in  the  tenth  century.  Ruins  cover  about 
15  square  miles,  consisting  of  numerous  tanks  and  temples  scattered 
among  groves  of  mango-trees.  There  are  about  300  tanks,  most  of 
them  very  small,  and  filled  with  stagnant,  greenish  water,  and  several 
hundred  temples,  none  of  which,  however,  possesses  any  archaeological 
importance.  Many  sail  monuments  to  the  queens  of  the  Haihaivansi 
dynasty  also  remain.  Ratanpur  is  a  decaying  town,  the  proximity  of 
Bilaspur  having  deprived  it  of  any  commercial  importance.  It  pos- 
sesses a  certain  amount  of  trade  in  lac,  and  vessels  of  bell-metal  and 
glass  bangles  are  manufactured.  Its  distinctive  element  is  a  large 
section  of  lettered  Brahmans,  the  hereditary  holders  of  rent-free 
villages,  who  are  the  interpreters  of  the  sacred  writings  and  the 
ministers  of  religious  ceremonies  for  a  great  portion  of  Chhattisgarh. 
The  climate  is  unhealthy,  and  the  inhabitants  are  afflicted  with  goitre 
and  other  swellings  on  the  body.  The  town  contains  a  vernacular 
middle  school,  with  branch  schools. 

Ratanpur  Dhamanka. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Ratesh. — A  fief  of  the  Keonthal  State,  Punjab,  situated  in  31°  3'  N. 
and  77^25'  E.,  with  an  area  of  12  square  miles.  The  population  in 
1901  was  449,  and  the  revenue  is  about  Rs.  625.  The  present  chief, 
Thakur  Hira  Singh,  exercises  full  powers,  but  sentences  of  death 
require  the  confirmation  of  the  Superintendent,  Simla  Hill  States. 

Rath  Tahsil.^North-western  tahsll  of  HamTrpur  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Jalalpur  and  Rath,  and  lying 
between  25°  28'  and  25°  56'  N.  and  79°  21'  and  79°  55'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  574  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  126,920  in  1891  to 
^25,731  in  X901,  the  decrease  being  the  smallest  in  the  District. 
There  are  179  villages  and  one  town,  Rath  (population,  11,424),  the 
tahsll  head-quarters.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1904-5  was 
Rs.  2,64,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  44,000.  The  density  of  population, 
219  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the  highest  in  the  District.  The  tahsil 
is  enclosed  on  the  west  by  the  Dhasan,  on  the  north  by  the  Betwa,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Birma.  The  centre  contains  rich  black  soil  ;  but 
the  north-east  includes  some  of  the  poorest  land  in  the  District,  and 
ravines  occupy  a  large  area.  In  1903-4  only  2  square  miles  were 
irrigated,  out  of  329  square  miles  under  cultivation.  It  is  proposed  to 
irrigate  this  tahsll  by  a  canal  from  the  Dhasan. 

Rath  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsll  of  the  same  name  in 
Hamlrpur  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  36'  N.  and 
79°  34'  E.,  50  miles  south-west  of  Hamirpur  town.     Population  (i  901), 


240  RATH   TOWN 

11,424.  The  early  history  of  the  place  is  uncertain.  It  stands  on 
a  site  which  is  evidently  of  great  antiquity ;  but  the  ]\Iusahnans  who 
occupied  it  early  destroyed  most  of  the  Hindu  buildings.  Rath  con- 
tains several  mosques,  temples,  and  tanks  adorned  with  extensive 
ghats,  the  finest  lake  being  called  Sagar  Tal.  There  are  ruins  of  two 
Musalman  tombs  which  were  built,  probably  about  the  fourteenth 
century,  from  fragments  of  Hindu  temples,  and  also  remains  of  two 
forts  built  by  Bundela  chiefs  late  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  town 
is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about 
Rs.  3,000.  It  is  the  most  important  mart  in  the  District,  and  deals 
in  grain,  cotton,  and  sugar.  There  are  small  industries  in  weaving, 
dyeing,  and  saltpetre  manufacture :  but  trade  is  decreasing.  The 
town  contains  a  branch  of  the  American  Mission,  a  dispensary,  and  a 
school  with  189  pupils. 

Rathedaung. — Township  of  Akyab  District,  Lower  Burma,  lying 
between  20°  15'  and  21°  27'  N.  and  92°  25'  and  92°  52"  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,269  square  miles.  The  population  was  92,933  in  1891,  and 
113,098  in  1901.  It  comprises  the  whole  of  the  valley  of  the  Mayu 
river,  lies  for  the  most  part  low,  and  is  the  most  populous  and  growing 
township  in  the  District.  There  are  545  villages ;  and  the  head-quarters 
are  at  Rathedaung  (population,  1,189),  o'"*  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Mayu  river.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  237  square  miles, 
paying  Rs.  3,67,000  land  revenue.  The  township  was  s[)lit  up  in  1906 
into  Rathedaung  and  Buthidaung.  The  reduced  charge  has  an  area 
of  506  square  miles  and  a  population  (1901)  of  ^2>iZo'^- 

Ratlam  State. — A  mediatized  State  in  the  Malwa  Agency  of 
Central  India.  The  territory,  which  lies  between  23°  6'  and  23°  33'  N. 
and  74°  31'  and  75°  17'  E.,  is  inextricably  intermingled  with  that  of 
Sailana,  and  boundaries  are  in  consequence  not  clearly  definable. 
Generally  speaking,  the  State  touches  the  territories  of  Jaora  and 
Partabgarh  (in  Rajputana)  on  the  north ;  Gwalior  on  the  east ;  Dhar 
and  Kushalgarh  (in  Rajputana)  and  parts  of  Indore  on  the  south ;  and 
Kushalgarh  and  Banswara  (in  Rajputana)  on  the  west.  It  has  an  area 
of  902  square  miles,  of  which  501  have  been  alienated  iw  jdgirs  and 
other  grants,  only  401  square  miles,  or  44  per  cent.,  being  khdlsa  or 
directly  held  by  the  State.  Besides  this,  60  villages,  with  an  approxi- 
mate area  of  228  square  miles,  are  held  by  the  Rao  of  Kushalgarh  in 
Rajputana,  for  which  a  tdfika  of  Rs.  600  is  paid  to  the  Ratlam  Darbar. 

The  name  is  popularly  said  to  be  derived  from  that  of  Ratan  Singh, 
the  founder.  This  is,  however,  a  mistake,  as  Ratlam  was  already  in 
existence  before  Ratan  Singh  obtained  it,  and  is  mentioned  by  Abul 
Fazl  in  the  Ain-i-Akbar'i  as  one  of  the  mahdls  in  the  Ujjain  sarkdr 
of  the  Malwa  Subah. 

The  State  lies  geologicall)-  in   the  Deccun   trap  area,  and   the  soil 


RATLAM  STATE  241 

is  formed  chiefly  of  the  constituents  common  to  this  formation,  basalt 
predominating,  together  with  the  black  soil  which  always  accompanies 
it.  An  outcrop  of  Vindhyan  sandstone  occurs  close  to  Ratlam  town, 
and  is  quarried  for  building  purposes. 

The  Rajas  are  Rathor  Rajputs  of  the  Jodhpur  house,  being  descended 
from  Raja  Udai  Singh  (1584-95),  one  of  whose  great-grandsons,  Ratan 
Singh,  founded  the  house  of  Ratlam.  The  date  of  Ratan  Singh's 
birth  is  uncertain,  but  occurred  about  161 8.  The  popular  tradition 
which  accounts  for  the  rise  in  favour  of  Ratan  Singh  with  the  emperor 
Shah  Jahan  tells  how,  when  armed  only  with  a  katdr  (dagger),  he 
encountered  and  slew  an  infuriated  elephant  which  was  causing  havoc 
in  the  streets  of  Delhi.  This  deed  was  witnessed  by  the  emperor,  who, 
in  reward,  granted  Ratan  Singh  B.Jdgir  worth  53  lakhs.  In  sober  fact, 
however,  this  Jdg'ir  appears  to  have  been  awarded  for  good  service 
against  the  Usbegs  at  Kandahar  and  the  Persians  in  Khorasan  in 
165 1-2.  Ratan  Singh  was  at  the  same  time  made  a  commander  of 
3,000,  and  granted  the  usual  insignia  of  royalty  and  title  of  Maharaja. 
About  six  years  after  assuming  charge  of  ihtjdglr,  he  was  called  upon 
to  join  Raja  Jaswant  Singh  of  Jodhpur,  who  was  marching  to  oppose 
Aurangzeb  and  Murad.  In  the  battle  fought  at  Dharmatpur  close  to 
Ujjain,  in  1658,  Ratan  Singh  was  killed.  Dharmatpur  has  since  been 
known  as  Fatehabad,  and  is  now  a  junction  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa 
Railway.  Ratan  Singh's  cenotaph  stands  near  the  village.  As  a  result 
of  this  action,  the  fortunes  of  the  family  declined  and  they  lost  much 
territory.  About  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Raja  Chhatarsal,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Ratan  Singh,  the  State  became  split  up  into  three  portions. 
Kesho  Das,  a  nephew  of  Chhatarsal,  obtained  possession  of  Sitamau, 
Chhatarsal's  eldest  son  Kesri  Singh  succeeding  to  Ratlam,  and  Pratap 
Singh,  a  younger  son  of  Chhatarsal,  obtaining  Raotl.  Dissensions 
arising  later  on,  the  emperor  intervened  and  upheld  the  claim  of  Man 
Singh,  Kesri  Singh's  son,  to  the  State.  Man  Singh  then  conferred  the 
jdgir  of  Raoti  on  his  brother  Jai  Singh,  who  founded  the  Sailana 
State.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  country  was  overrun  by  the 
Marathas,  and  Raja  Padam  Singh  became  tributary  to  Sindhia. 
Further  incursions  by  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar  made  punctual  payment 
of  Sindhia's  tribute  impossible,  and  Bapu  Sindhia,  who  had  been  sent 
to  enforce  its  payment,  ravaged  the  State.  Raja  Parvat  Singh,  driven 
to  desperation,  determined  to  resort  to  arms,  and  inflicted  a  severe 
defeat  on  Sindhia.  Subsequent  bloodshed  was  averted  by  the  inter- 
vention of  Sir  John  Malcolm,  who  in  1819  mediated  on  behalf  of  the 
State,  and  guaranteed  the  payment  of  the  tribute  of  Rs.  46,000  due  to 
Sindhia,  on  which  that  chief  agreed  not  to  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  internal  management  of  Ratlam.  This  tribute  is  now  paid  to  the 
British  Government  under  the  treaty  made  with  Sindhia  in  i860.    Raja 


242 


RATLAM  STATE 


Balwant  Singh  was  on  the  gaddi  during  the  Mutiny,  when  he  rendered 
conspicuous  services,  in  recognition  of  which  his  successor  received 
a  khilat  and  the  thanks  of  Government.  The  late  chief,  Ranjit  Singh, 
succeeded  in  1864  as  a  minor,  the  State  remaining  under  superinten- 
dence till  1880.  By  careful  management  the  10  lakhs  of  debt  with 
which  the  State  had  been  burdened  was  paid  off,  and  6  lakhs  in 
addition  was  spent  in  improvements.  In  1864  an  arrangement  was 
made  for  the  cession,  free  of  compensation,  of  all  land  required  by 
railways.  In  1881  all  transit  dues  on  salt  were  abolished  by  Raja 
Ranjit  Singh,  compensation  to  the  extent  of  Rs.  1,000  per  annum  being 
allowed;  and  in  1885  the  chief  abolished  all  remaining  transit  dues, 
except  those  on  opium.  By  an  arrangement  made  in  1887  regarding 
the  collection  of  customs  in  Sailana,  the  Ratlam  Darbar,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  payment  of  a  fixed  sum  yearly,  waived  its  right  to  levy  the 
dues  in  Sailana  territory.  Raja  Ranjit  Singh  was  created  a  K.C.I.E. 
in  1887,  and  died  in  1893,  when  his  son,  the  present  chief.  Raja 
Sajjan  Singh,  succeeded.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ualy  College  at 
Indore,  and  in  1903  joined  the  Imperial  Cadet  Corps.  The  State 
remained  under  management  till  1898.  The  chief  has  the  titles  of 
His  Highness  and  Raja,  and  receives  a  salute  of  1 1  guns. 

The  population  of  the  State  was  :  (1881)  87,314,  (1891)  89,160,  and 
(1901)  83,773.  It  contains  one  town,  Ratlam  (population,  36,321),  the 
capital;  and  206  villages.  Hindus  number  52,288,  or  62  per  cent.; 
Animists  (chiefly  Bhils),  14,002,  or  16  per  cent. ;  Musalmans,  10,693, 
or  12  per  cent. ;  and  Jains,  6,452.  The  total  population  has  decreased 
by  6  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade,  while  the  rural  population  has 
decreased  by  17-6  per  cent.,  owing  to  the  effects  of  famine.  The 
density  of  population,  excluding  the  town  of  Ratlam,  is  54  persons  per 
square  mile.  The  principal  dialect  is  Malwi  (or  Rangri),  spoken  by 
70  per  cent,  of  the  population.  About  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  are 
supported  by  agriculture  and  12  per  cent,  by  general  labour.  The. 
Canadian  Presbyterian  Mission  has  a  station  in  the  capital.  The 
State  was  attacked  by  plague  in  1902,  1,849  deaths  occurring  in  the 
town  between  November  of  that  year  and  March,  1903.  In  1904  there 
were  2,000  deaths  from  the  same  cause. 

The  soil  of  the  plateau  portion  of  the  State  is  mainly  of  the  black 
cotton  variety,  and  bears  good  crops.  Of  the  total  area,  182  square 
miles,  or  20  per  cent.,  are  under  cultivation,  11  square  miles  being 
irrigated  ;  55  square  miles,  or  6  per  cent.,  are  under  forest ;  and  388 
square  miles,  or  43  per  cent.,  cultivable  but  lying  fallow ;  the  remainder 
is  irreclaimable  waste. 

Wheat  occupies  54  square  miles,  or  24  per  cent,  of  the  total  cropped 
•ecttd.\  jowdr^  46  square  miles,  or  21  per  cent.  ;  maize,  25  square  miles, 
or    II   per  cent.;   gram,   2^    square    miles,   or    10    per   cent.;  cotton, 


RATLAM  STATE  243 

23  square  miles,  or  10  per  cent.;  poppy,  11  square  miles,  or  5  per 
cent. 

The  chief  trade  routes  are  the  Ratlam-Godhra  branch  of  the  Bom- 
bay, Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway  and  the  Rajputana-Malwa 
Railway.  There  are  about  14  miles  of  metalled  roads  in  and  around 
Ratlam  town.  The  other  metalled  roads  in  the  State  are  25  miles  of 
the  Mhow-Nimach  road,  and  8  miles  of  the  Namli-Sailana  road. 
British  post  offices  are  maintained  at  Ratlam  town  and  railway  station, 
and  at  Namli  station,  and  a  telegraph  office  at  Ratlam,  combined  with 
the  post  office,  as  well  as  at  all  railway  stations. 

The  State  is,  for  administrative  purposes,  divided  into  two  tahsils, 
Ratlam  and  Bajna,  each  under  a  tahslldar.  It  is  administered  directly 
by  the  chief,  assisted  by  the  dlivan  and  the  usual  departmental  officers. 
The  chief  has  full  powers  in  all  civil  and  general  administrative  matters. 
In  criminal  cases  his  powers  are  those  of  a  Sessions  Court,  subject  to 
the  proviso  that  all  sentences  involving  death,  transportation,  or  im- 
prisonment for  life  must  be  referred  to  the  Agent  to  the  Governor- 
General  for  confirmation. 

The  normal  revenue  amounts  to  5  lakhs,  of  which  2-9  lakhs  is  derived 
from  land  ;  Rs.  67,000  from  customs  ;  Rs.  34,300  from  tribute  paid  by 
feudatory  thdkurs  ;  and  Rs.  1,000  from  compensation  paid  by  the  British 
Government  for  abolition  of  transit  dues  on  salt.  The  income  of 
alienated  lands  is  4-4  lakhs.  The  chief  heads  of  expenditure  are : 
charges  in  respect  of  land  revenue,  Rs.  42,500;  chief's  establishment, 
Rs.  56,900 ;  general  administration,  Rs.  65,600;  police,  Rs.  72,400; 
tribute  to  British  Government,  Rs.  42,700;    public  works,  Rs.  20,000. 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  State,  456  square  miles,  or  51  per  cent., 
have  been  alienated  in  jdglr  holdings,  which  comprise  124  square 
miles,  or  68  per  cent,  of  the  total  cultivated  area,  but  contribute  onl) 
Rs.  34,300  towards  the  revenue.  The  incidence  of  the  land  revenue 
demand  is  Rs.  4-1 1-3  per  acre  of  cultivated  area,  and  R.  i  on  the 
total  area.  Proprietary  rights  in  land  are  not  recognized.  The  system 
of  farming  villages  previously  in  force  throughout  the  State  is  now 
applied  only  to  villages  which  cannot  be  managed  directly  owing  to 
paucity  of  cultivators.  An  assessment  by  the  plough  \hdl)  called 
hdlbaiidi  is  made  in  the  hilly  tract.  The  revenue  of  khdlsa  lands  is 
assessed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  its  capability  for  being 
irrigated. 

The  first  settlement  for  revenue  purposes  was  made  in  1867  for  ten 
years,  the  demand  being  8-2  lakhs,  and  each  village  being  regularly 
surveyed.  In  1877  a  fresh  survey  was  made;  the  average  rates  per 
acre  were  Rs.  28  for  irrigated  and  Rs.  3-13  for  'dry  '  land,  showing 
an  increase  in  the  demand  of  31  per  cent.  A  third  settlement  was 
started  in   1895,  but  was  never  completed. 


244  RATLAM  STATE 

The  State  has  never  had  a  silver  coinage  of  its  own,  and  before  the 
introduction  of  the  British  rupee  as  legal  tender,  in  1897,  carried  on 
its  transactions  in  various  local  currencies,  the  commonest  being  the 
Salim  shdhi  rupee  coined  in  Partabgarh  (Rajputana).  Copper  has 
long  been  coined,  and  is  still  issued. 

The  State  army  consists  of  a  body  of  regular  cavalry  of  12  men, 
who  form  the  chief's  personal  guard,  and  of  100  regular  infantry 
iiilangas),  who  furnish  guards  for  the  palace  and  offices.  About  100 
irregular  cavalry  and  115  irregular  infantry  act  as  police.  There  are 
5  serviceable  guns,  manned  by  12  gunners.  The  regular  police  force 
consists  of  235  men  under  a  superintendent  for  the  town,  and  197  con- 
stables for  rural  areas.  The  head-quarters  jail  is  in  Ratlam  town,  while 
a  local  jail  is  maintained  at  Bajna. 

The  first  State  school  for  boys  was  opened  in  1864.  In  1870  a  girls' 
school  was  started,  and  in  1872  the  Ratlam  Central  College.  A  hospital 
is  kept  up  in  Ratlam  town  and  a  dispensary  at  Bajna.  Vaccination  is 
regularly  carried  out. 

Ratlam  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  Central 
India,  situated  in  23^  19'  N.  and  75°  3^  E.,  411  miles  distant  from 
Bombay.  The  town  stands  at  an  elevation  of  1,577  fe^t  above  sea- 
level,  and  is  clean  and  well  laid  out.  It  contains  no  buildings  of 
any  importance,  the  most  imposing  edifice  being  the  Raja's  palace. 
A  large  number  of  Jain  religious  establishments  {thdnak)  exist  in 
the  place.  Population  has  been:  (1881)  31,066,(1891)  29,822,  and 
(1901)  36,321.  Hindus  form  60  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Musalmans, 
29  per  cent. ;  and  Jains,  11  per  cent.  Christians  number  as  many  as 
282,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  Canadian  Presbyterian  Mission  settle- 
ment. The  addition  of  the  population  within  railway  limits  increases 
the  number  of  Christians  to  429.  Besides  the  Central  College  there 
are  50  other  educational  establishments,  State  and  private,  in  the 
t(jwn.  The  chief  [)ublic  buildings  are  the  British  post  and  telegraph 
office,  a  </(7/^- bungalow,  and  a  State  guesthouse.  The  last  building 
is  situated  in  the  centre  of  a  public  garden,  where  a  small  zoological 
collection  is  kept  up.  Ratlam  is  the  junction  for  the  Rajputana-Malwa 
Railway  and  the  Ratlam-Baroda  branch  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and 
Central  India  Railway. 

Ratnagiri  District.— A  District  in  the  Southern  Division  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  lying  between  15°  44''  and  18°  4'  N.  and  73°  2' 
and  73°  57'  E.,  with  an  area  of  3,998  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  State  of  Janjira  and  Kolaba  District ;  on  the 
east  by  Satara  District  and  the  State  of  Kolhapur ;  on  the  south 
by  the  State  of  Savantvadi  and  the  Portuguese  Possessions  of  Goa ; 
and  on  the  west  by  tlie  Arabian  Sea. 

Ratnagiri  may  be  described  generally  as  rocky  and  rugged.     Near 


RATXAGIRI  DISTRICT  245 

the  coast  it  consists  of  bare  elevated  plateaux,  intersected  by  numerous 

creeks   and   navigable   rivers,   flowing   between  steep  and  lofty  hills. 

These  rivers  have  along  their  banks  the  chief  seaports 

and  almost  all  the  fertile  land  of  the  District.    Ten         Physical 

miles  or  so  inland  the  country  becomes  more  open, 

but  a  little  farther  it  is  occupied  by  spurs  of  the  Western  Ghats.     This 

range  itself  forms  the  continuous  eastern  boundary,  running  parallel  to 

the  coast,  at  distances  varying  from  30  to  45  miles.     It  varies  in  height 

from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  though  some  of  the  peaks  attain  an  altitude 

of  4,000  feet. 

Both  above  and  below  the  main  range  the  massive  basaltic  rocks 
that  crown  the  Western  Ghats  can,  with  little  aid  from  art,  be  turned 
into  nearly  impregnable  fortresses  with  a  liberal  supply  of  the  finest 
water  from  the  springs  with  which  the  hills  abound.  The  hills  are 
crossed  by  numerous  passes,  which,  except  the  made  roads,  form  the 
only  means  of  communication  with  the  Deccan.  The  crests  of  these 
passes  command  some  of  the  most  magnificent  scenery  in  India.  The 
lower  hills  are  for  the  most  part  bare.  Those  deserving  mention  are  : 
beginning  from  the  north,  the  hog-backed  Mandangarh,  a  ruined  fort 
in  Dapoli  commanding  a  view  of  Mahabaleshwar  :  south  of  this,  also  in 
Dapoli,  Palgarh  ;  farther  south,  in  Khed,  the  three  isolated  hills  of 
Mahipatgarh,  Sumargarh,  and  Rasalgarh  ;  {massing  south  to  Lanja  in 
Rajapur,  Machal,  a  triangular  hill,  close  to  the  old  fort  of  Vishalgarh, 
ends  in  a  broad  plateau  fit  fijr  a  sanitarium. 

The  character  of  the  streams  that  form  the  river  system  of  Ratnagiri 
varies  little.  They  rise  in  the  main  range,  or  in  the  spurs  of  the 
Western  Ghats,  and  traversing  the  country  along  narrow  deep-cut 
ravines  enter  the  Arabian  Sea  after  winding  courses  of  seldom  more 
than  40  miles.  The  general  flow  is  from  east  to  west,  with  sometimes 
a  tendency  to  the  south.  The  abruptness  of  their  windings  is  a  notable 
feature  of  the  Ratnagiri  rivers.  Though  of  comparatively  small  size 
and  volume  and  ill-suited  for  irrigation,  they  are  of  great  local  value, 
being  navigable  for  20  miles  or  more  and  having  estuaries  affording 
safe  anchorage  for  coasting  craft. 

The  sea-board,  about  160  miles  in  length,  from  Bankot  or  Fort 
Victoria  to  a  point  2  miles  south  of  Redi  Fort,  is  almost  uniformly 
rocky  and  dangerous.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  small  bays  and  coves 
shut  in  between  jutting  headlands,  and  edged  with  sand  of  dazzling 
whiteness.  At  places  the  hills  recede  a  little,  leaving  at  their  base 
a  rich  tract  of  rice-fields,  with  generally  a  strip  of  coco-nut  gardens 
between  them  and  the  beach.  At  intervals  of  about  10  miles,  a  river 
or  bay  opens,  sufficiently  large  to  form  a  secure  harbour  for  native 
craft ;  and  the  promontories  at  the  river  mouths  are  almost  invariably 
crowned   with  the   ruins  of  an  old  fort.     At  Suvarndrug  and  Malvan 


246  RATNAGIRI  DISTRICT 

rocky  islands  stand  out  from  the  mainland,  still  preserving  the  remains 
of  strong  Maratha  fortifications.  The  larger  rivers  and  creeks  have 
deep  water  for  20  or  30  miles  from  the  coast ;  and  many  of  the  most 
important  towns  are  situated  at  their  farthest  navigable  point,  for  in  so 
rough  a  country  the  rivers  form  the  best  highways  of  trade. 

The  District  contains  no  natural  lakes  and  but  few  artificial  reservoirs 
of  any  size,  the  most  notable  being  those  at  Dhamapur,  Varad,  and 
Pendur  in  Malvan  and  at  Chipliin  in  the  Chiplun  tdluka. 

Ratnagiri  is  occupied  almost  entirely  by  the  basaltic  formation  of  the 
Deccan  trap  overlaid  with  laterite,  except  in  the  southernmost  portion 
near  Malvan,  where  a  substratum  of  gneiss  and  of  Cuddapah  beds 
appears  from  beneath  the  basalt  and  laterite.  Tertiary  beds  containing 
fossil  plants,  the  exact  age  of  which  is  unknown,  occur  at  Ratnagiri. 
The  remarkably  rectilinear  sea-coast  probably  indicates  a  fault  line  of 
comparatively  modern  origin,  and  the  numerous  hot  springs  which 
occur  in  and  along  a  line  parallel  with  the  coast  may  be  connected  with 
the  formation  of  this  fault.  The  line  of  springs  runs  half-way  between 
the  Western  Ghats  and  the  sea,  and  seems  to  stretch  both  north  and 
south  of  the  District.  There  are  similar  springs  near  the  towns  of 
Rajapur,  Khed,  and  Sangameshwar,  and  at  the  villages  of  Arvalli  and 
Tural.  The  water  of  all  of  them  seems  strongly  impregnated  with 
sulphur. 

The  chief  trees  of  the  District  are  teak,  ain,  kinjal,  catechu,  shlsham 
(Dalbergia  Sissoo),  mana  {Lagerstroemia  lanceolatd),  tainan  {lager- 
stroemia  Flos  Reginae),  and  bamboos.  Casuarina  has  been  planted  in 
the  Dapoli  tdluka  ;  and  plantations  of  this  tree  would  probably  thrive 
on  the  sandhills  of  the  sea-board.  From  an  economic  point  of  view, 
the  coco-nut  palm  is  the  most  important  tree  in  the  District. 
Brahmans  and  Marathas  either  cultivate  it  themselves  or  rent  it  to 
Bhandaris  to  be  tapped  for  tdri. 

Game  is  scarce  in  Ratnagiri  District.  Tigers,  sdvibar  deer,  and 
bears  are  few,  and  have  their  haunts  in  the  most  inaccessible  localities. 
Leopards  are  not  uncommon  ;  wild  hog  are  plentiful,  but  owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  ground  hunting  them  on  horseback  is  impossible.  Small 
deer,  antelope,  hares,  jackals,  and  foxes  abound.  Monkeys  of  the 
langur  species  are  to  be  seen  about  all  towns  and  villages.  The  flying- 
fox  (or  fruit-bat)  and  musk-rat  are  common  everywhere.  The  bears  are 
the  usual  Indian  black  or  sloth  species ;  they  inhabit  the  upper  slopes 
of  the  Ghats,  living  mostly  on  their  favourite  food,  the  fruit  of  the  wild 
fig-tree.  Wolves  are  unknown,  but  packs  of  wild  dogs  have  been  seen. 
As  regards  its  game-birds,  Ratnagiri  is  an  indifferent  sporting  country ; 
partridges,  grouse,  and  bustard  are  wanting,  while  quail  are  scarce. 
Duck,  snipe,  and  plover  are  plentiful.  Among  birds  of  prey,  the 
vulture,  the   falcon,  the  eagle,  and   the  osprey  are  found.     Owls  are 


HISTORY  247 

common,  as  also  swallows,  kingfishers,  and  parakeets.  Snakes  are 
abundant,  of  both  venomous  and  harmless  kinds.  The  python  is 
stated  to  measure  10  to  20  feet,  but  the  species  is  only  occasionally 
met  with.  The  rock  snake,  dhaman  {Ftyas  nmcosus),  and  the  brown 
tree  snake  are  general.  The  cobra  {JVaga  tripudians)  is  frequently 
killed  in  human  habitations.  Owing  to  its  nocturnal  habits,  it  is  not 
often  seen  by  dayHght.  The  fursa  {Echis  cat-inata),  identical  with  the 
kappa  of  Sind,  is  by  far  the  most  common  of  the  venomous  snakes 
found  in  the  District,  and  is  very  dangerous.  Ratnagiri  is  well  supplied 
with  sea-fish,  and  in  a  less  degree  with  fresh-water  fish.  Sharks 
are  numerous,  and  whales  are  sometimes  seen  off  the  sea-board. 
Sardines  swarm  on  the  coast  at  certain  seasons  in  such  abundance  as 
to  be  used  for  manure. 

The  climate  of  the  District,  though  moist  and  relaxing,  is  on  the 
whole  healthy.  Fifteen  miles  from  the  coast  extremes  of  cold  and  heat 
are  experienced.  Dapoli  is  generally  considered  the  healthiest  station 
in  the  District,  on  account  of  its  equable  temperature,  excellent 
drinking-water,  and  the  fine  open  plain  on  which  it  stands.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  Ratnagiri  town  on  the  sea-coast  is  83°  and  of 
Dapoli,  57  miles  from  the  coast,  87°.  At  the  former  town  the  tem- 
perature falls  as  low  as  61°  in  January,  and  reaches  93°  in  May.  From 
February  to  the  middle  of  May  strong  gusty  winds  blow  from  the 
north-west,  which  then  give  place  to  the  south-west  monsoon. 

The  rainfall  is  abundant  and  comparatively  regular.  The  south-west 
monsoon  usually  breaks  on  the  coast  early  in  June,  and  the  rains 
continue  to  the  middle  or  end  of  October.  The  fall  of  rain  averages 
100  inches  at  Ratnagiri  and  is  considerably  greater  inland  than  on  the 
coast.  The  maximum  is  166  inches  in  the  Mandangarh  petha,  and 
the  minimum  95  inches  in  the  Devgarh  taluka.  The  cyclone  of  187 1 
swept  up  the  coast  with  great  violence  and  wrecked  numerous  small 
native  craft  and  a  steamer,  besides  causing  much  damage  to  houses. 
Another  very  violent  storm  occurred  in  1879,  i"  which  150  native 
vessels  were  wrecked,  with  a  loss  of  over  200  lives  and  about  3  lakhs 
worth  of  cargo. 

The  Chiplun  and  Kol  caves  show  that  between  200  b.  c.  and  a.  d.  50 
northern  Ratnagiri  had  Buddhist  settlements  of  some  importance. 
The  country  subsequently  passed  under  several 
Hindu  dynasties,  of  whom  the  Chalukyas  were  the 
most  powerful.  In  13 12  Ratnagiri  was  overrun  by  the  Muhanimadans, 
who  established  themselves  at  Dabhol ;  but  the  rest  of  the  country 
was  practically  unsubdued  till  1470,  when  the  Bahmani  kings  gained 
a  complete  ascendancy  by  the  capture  of  Vishalgarh  and  Goa.  About 
1500  the  whole  of  the  Konkan  south  of  the  Savitri  came  under  Bijapur 
rule ;  and,  later,  war  with  the   Portuguese  wrought  grievous  loss  to 


>48 


BA TNAGIRT  DISTRICT 


Dabhol  and  other  coast  towns.  The  decline  of  the  Portuguese  power 
was  accompanied  by  the  rise  of  that  of  the  JMarathas,  who  under 
SivajT  estabh'shed  themselves  in  Ratnagiri  (1658-80),  defeating  the 
Bijapur  armies,  repelling  the  Mughals,  and  overcoming  the  Sidls  and 
Portuguese.  For  some  years  after  this  the  Sidis  held  possession  of 
part  of  the  District.  The  successes  of  the  pirate  Kanhojl  Angria  led 
to  his  appointment  as  admiral  of  the  Maratha  fleet,  and  obtaining  part 
of  Ratnagiri  as  his  principality.  In  1745  Tulaji  Angria,  one  of  his 
illegitimate  sons,  succeeded  to  the  lands  between  Bankot  and  Savant- 
vadi,  disavowed  the  Peshwa's  authority,  and  seized  and  plundered  all 
the  ships  he  could  master.  The  British,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Peshwa,  in  1755  destroyed  the  piratical  forts  at  Suvarndrug.  The 
following  year,  after  the  destruction  of  the  whole  of  Angria's  fleet, 
Yijayadrug  was  taken.  For  these  services  Bankot  with  nine  villages 
was  ceded  to  the  British.  In  1765  Malvan  and  Reddi  were  reduced. 
The  former  was  restored  to  the  Raja  of  Kolhapur,  and  Reddi  was 
given  to  the  chief  of  Savantvadi.  The  wars  between  Kolhapur  and 
Savantvadi,  carried  on  for  twenty-three  years  with  varying  success, 
threw  the  country  into  great  disorder,  as  each  party  in  turn  became 
supreme.  They  finally  entered  into  agreements  with  the  British 
Government,  and  ceded  Malvan  and  Vengurla,  and  arrangements  were 
made  for  the  cession  of  the  Peshwa's  dominions  in  Ratnagiri.  But 
war  breaking  out  in  181 7,  the  country  was  occupied  by  a  military  force, 
and  the  forts  were  speedily  reduced.  A  small  detachment  was  landed 
at  Ratnagiri  during  the  Mutiny,  but  no  disturbance  occurred.  Since 
the  third  Burmese  War,  king  Thlbaw  has  been  detained  there  as 
a  state  prisoner. 

Ratnagiri  contains  many  forts,  some  standing  on  islands,  others  on 
headlands  and  the  banks  of  rivers,  while  inland  natural  positions  of 
advantage  have  been  strengthened.  The  age  of  most  of  the  forts  is 
hard  to  fix.  Some  of  them,  as  Mandangarh,  may  be  as  old  as  the 
Christian  era ;  but  of  this  the  evidence  is  very  slight.  Many  are  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Raja  Bhoj  of  Panhala  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century.  But  most  are  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  Bijapur  kings 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  repaired  and  strengthened  in  the  seven- 
teenth by  Sivaji.  Like  those  of  the  North  Konkan,  the  Ratnagiri  forts 
were  neglected  by  the  Peshwas.  In  1818,  except  for  the  labour  of 
bringing  guns  to  bear  on  them,  they  were  easily  taken  by  the  British. 
Nothing  was  done  to  destroy  the  fortifications.  But  except  a  few,  all 
are  now,  from  weather  and  the  growth  of  creepers  and  wall  trees,  more 
or  less  ruined.     There  are  said  to  be  365  forts  in  the  District. 

Ratnagiri  also  contains  other  Hindu  and  Musalman  remains.  The 
chief  are  the  underground  temple  of  Chandikabai ;  an  old  shrine  of 
Sangameshwar,  which  is  locally  believed  to  date  from  Parasu  Rama's 


POPULATION 


249 


time ;  and  the  mosque  of  Dabhol,  in  a  style  similar  to  that  of  the 
Bijapur  mosques.  In  Kharepatan  is  the  only  Jain  temple  found  in 
the  Southern  Konkan.  Copperplates  of  the  Rashtrakuta  dynasty  were 
found  here.  In  the  temple  in  Sindhudrug  fort  near  Malvan  there  is  an 
effigy  of  Sivajl  held  in  the  greatest  veneration.  Prints  of  Sivaji's  hands 
and  feet  which  appear  in  the  stone  walls  are  held  in  reverence  and 
protected  by  small  temples.  Monday  is  the  chief  day  of  Sivaji's 
worship,  and  the  Kolhapur  chief  sends  turbans  and  other  presents. 

The   Census   of   1872    disclosed   a   total   population    of  1,019,136 
persons;    that    of    1881,    997,090;    that   of    1891, 
1,105,926;  and  that  of  1901,  1,167,927. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  population  according 
to  the  Census  of  1901  : — 


Population. 


Tahika . 

u 
3 

—  c 

Number  of 

c 
0 

"a 

'Z  1; 

entage  of 
ation  in 
lation  be- 
en 1891 
d  igoi. 

liber  of 
ns  able  to 
id  and 
vrite. 

c 

11 

ctf  - 

s 

nt 

3  3 

0  I-  3  g  c 

3  0   oj 

< 

2 

^ 

PLi 

l^ 

t^       a. 

0. 

Dapoli 

500 

243 

154,62s 

309 

—     0-2 

6,999 

Khed 

392 

. . . 

146 

95,594 

244 

5 

3,262 

Chipiun    . 

671 

208 

190,746 

284 

+    3 

9,500 

Ratnagiri  . 

415 

147 

147,182 

355 

+    S 

7,263 

Sangameshwar  . 

1.1^ 

190 

129,412 

225 

+    2 

4,129 

Rajapur     . 

616 

181 

153,808 

250 

+   9 

6,.595 

Devgarh   . 

52.S 

119 

143,750 

274 

+  12 

8,280 

1  Malvan 

238 

.5« 

107,944 

454 

+  17 

9,539 

Vengnrla  . 
District  total 

65 

9 

44,863 

690 

+  14 

5,879 

3>99S 

1,301 

1,167,927 

292 

+    6 

61,446 

The  principal  towns  are  Malvan,  Vengurla,  Ratnagiri  (the  head- 
quarters), and  Chiplun.  Marathi  (including  the  Konkani  dialect)  is 
spoken  by  99  per  cent,  of  the  population.  Classified  according  to  re- 
ligion, Hindus  form  92  per  cent,  of  the  total  and  Musalmans  7  per  cent. 

The  Konkanasth  or  Chitpavan  Brahmans  (31,000)  and  the  Karhadas 
(14,000)  form  the  major  portion  of  the  Brahman  population  (68,000). 
The  Chitpavans,  so  called  from  Chitapolan,  the  old  name  of  Chiplun, 
are  acute  and  intelligent,  and  rose  to  great  prominence  in  the  days  of 
Maratha  power,  the  Peshwa  himself  being  a  Chitpavan  Brahman.  The 
Karhadas  are  named  after  Karad  in  Satara  District.  Vanis  (36,000) 
are  the  most  numerous  of  the  trading  castes  ;  but  the  Bhatias,  who  have 
settled  in  the  District  within  the  last  seventy  years  from  Bombay  and 
Cutch,  are  the  most  enterprising.  Of  husbandmen,  the  majority  are 
Marathas  and  Maratha  Kunbls  (287,000);  Shindes  (13,000),  who  are 
descendants  of  Brahmans  and  female  slaves;  and  Gaudas  (11,000), 
who  seem  to  be  a  class  of  Marathas  formerly  holding  the  position  of 
village  headmen.     The  Bhandaris  or  palm-tappers  (86,000)  are  chiefly 


o 


o  RATNAGIRI  DISTRICT 


found  along  the  coast.  They  were  formerly  employed  as  fighting  men, 
and  are  referred  to  in  the  early  records  of  the  British  in  Bombay  as 
'  Bhandareens.'  Of  artisans,  the  chief  are  Telis  or  oil-pressers  (20,000), 
Sutars  or  carpenters  (18,000),  Sonars  or  goldsmiths  (16,000),  and 
Kumhars  or  potters  (13,000).  Guravs,  wandering  musicians  (19,000), 
are  found  throughout  the  District.  Gaulis  (15,000),  are  cattle-keepers, 
and  Gabits  (19,000)  mostly  sea-fishers  and  sailors.  The  other  sailors 
and  fishermen  are  either  Muhammadans  or  Hindus  of  the  Bhandari 
and  Koll  castes.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  independent  habits 
and  character,  and  are  in  better  circumstances  than  the  agricultural 
population.  Chamars  (12,000)  are  shoemakers  and  saddlers.  Raja- 
pur  Chamars  have  a  local  reputation  for  their  skill  in  making  sandals. 
Mahars  (90,000)  are  found  throughout  the  District.  Of  the  Muham- 
madans, the  most  noticeable  are  those  known  in  Bombay  under  the 
general  name  of  Konkani  Muhammadans,  whose  head-quarters  are  at 
Bankot.  They  hold  a  few  rich  villages  on  the  Savitrl  river,  and  say 
that  they  are  descended  from  Arab  settlers  at  Dabhol,  Chaul,  and 
other  towns  in  the  Konkan.  Some  of  them  can  give  particulars  of 
the  immigration  of  their  forefathers,  and  the  features  of  many  have 
a  distinctly  Arab  cast. 

About  76  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  supported  by  agriculture. 
The  industrial  classes,  numbering  in  all  75,000,  are  mainly  toddy- 
drawers  (4,600),  weavers  (6,000),  and  fishermen  including  fish-dealers 
(44,000).  Under  British  rule,  the  Southern  Konkan  has  always  been 
the  great  recruiting  ground  of  the  Bombay  Presidency.  To  Ratnagiri's 
clever,  pushing  upper  classes,  to  its  frugal,  teachable  middle  classes, 
and  to  its  sober,  sturdy,  and  orderly  lower  classes  Bombay  city  owes 
many  of  its  ablest  officials  and  lawyers,  its  earliest  and  cleverest  factory 
workers,  its  most  useful  soldiers  and  constables,  and  its  cheapest  and 
most  trusty  supply  of  unskilled  labour.  In  1872  Bombay  city  con- 
tained 71,000  persons  born  in  Ratnagiri  District,  while  by  1901  the 
number  had  increased  to  145,000.  About  the  year  1864,  before 
Bombay  offered  so  large  a  market  for  labour,  numbers  went  from 
Ratnagiri  to  Mauritius ;  but  this  emigration  has  almost  entirely  ceased. 

Of  the  4,929  native  Christians  enumerated  in  1901,  4,232  were 
Roman  Catholics,  chiefly  descended  from  the  wholesale  conversions 
made  during  the  time  of  Portuguese  domination.  After  the  introduction 
of  British  rule  the  Scottish  Missionary  Society  was  the  first  to  establish 
a  mission,  choosing  Bankot  as  their  station,  to  which  they  soon  after 
added  Harnai.  In  1830  the  mission  head-quarters  were  moved  to 
Poona,  and  in  1834  the  Ratnagiri  mission  was  abandoned.  About 
twenty-five  years  later  the  American  Presbyterian  Board  constituted 
Ratnagiri  a  station  of  the  Kolhapur  mission.  At  present  Dapoli  is  the 
head-quarters  of  the  Church  of  England  Mission,  established  in  1878, 


I 


AGRICULTURE 


251 


which  maintains  two  orphanages,  one  for  boys  with  25  inmates  and  one 
for  girls  with  14,  a  high  school  with  159  pupils,  and  a  vernacular  school 
with  23  pupils.  It  also  manages  two  vernacular  schools  for  girls  with 
69  pupils.  The  American  Presbyterian  Mission,  with  its  head-quarters 
at  Ratnagiri,  maintains  five  schools  with  200  pupils,  including  one  for 
girls,  an  orphanage  containing  ^'^  boys  and  32  girls,  and  a  home  for 
destitute  widows  with  13  inmates.  It  opened  a  branch  at  Vengurla 
in  1900.  A  considerable  number  of  native  Christians  are  found  in 
Harnai,  Malvan,  Vengurla,  and  other  coast  towns. 

Fertile  land  is  found  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  or  salt-water 
creeks  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea  ;  but  the  soil  is  generally  poor, 
consisting  in  great  measure  of  a  stiff  ferruginous  clay,  . 

often  mixed  with  gravel.  Neither  wheat  nor  cotton 
is  grown.  There  are  several  coco-nut  plantations  in  the  District,  and 
san-\\^m.^  is  grown  by  the  fishermen  for  net-making.  The  better  kinds 
of  rice  land  produce  also  second  crops  of  some  description  of  pulse  or 
vegetable.  By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  food-crops  consist  of 
inferior  coarse  grains,  such  as  harik,  rdgi,  and  vari,  grown  on  varkas 
soil  in  the  uplands.  The  varkas  lands  may  be  divided  into  the  more 
level  parts,  f/iai,  where  the  plough  can  be  used  ;  and  the  steeper  slopes, 
doHgri,  admitting  only  of  cultivation  by  manual  labour.  The  best  of 
the  poorer  soils  bear  crops  for  five  or  six  successive  years,  and  then 
require  a  fallow  of  from  three  to  twelve  years. 

The  District  contains  521  square  miles  held  on  the  ryotivdri  system ; 
khots,  who  rent  villages  from  Government,  occupy  269  square  miles, 
while  indm  and.  jdglr  lands  measure  367  square  miles.  The  chief 
statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4  are  shown  below,  in  square  miles  : — 


Taluka. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

DapoH     . 

499 

62 

I 

26 

0.7 

Khed      . 

392 

85 

... 

2S 

7.8 

Chiplun  . 

671 

19 

. . . 

7 

Ratnagiri 

41. i 

68 

I 

48 

0-4     , 

Sangameshwar 

569 

53 

•  •  • 

25 

4-7 

Rajapur  . 

616 

57 

I 

45 

0-2 

Devgarh 

526 

4' 

I 

36 

* 

Malvan    . 

2.^8 

135 

8 

6.; 

l-O 

Vengurla 

Total 

65 

40 

0 

18 

* 

3,99it 

560 

15 

29S 

14.8 

*  The  area  covered  by  forests  is  about  lo  acres  in  the  Vengurla  and  Devgarh 
ialukas. 

+  Statistics  are  available  for  only  3, 108  square  miles  of  tliis  area.  The  Ggures  in  the 
table  are  based  on  the  latest  information. 

Rice,  almost  entirely  of  the  '  sweet  land '  variety,  occupies  about 
290  square  miles.  It  is  an  important  crop  in  the  southern  id/ukas, 
especially  in  Malvan.     Next  in  importance  come  rdgi,  kodra,  and  vari, 

VOL.  XXI.  R 


2.;  2 


RATNAGIRI  DISTRICT 


occupying  48,  TiZ'i  and  21  square  miles  respectively.  These  grains  are 
eaten  by  the  poorer  classes.  Of  pulses,  which  occupy  24  square  miles, 
the  chief  is  kulith  (16  square  miles),  grown  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  District,  especially  in  Malvan.  Oilseeds,  chiefly  niger-seed,  occupy 
1 2  square  miles.  Chillies  are  raised  in  small  quantities  as  a  '  dry- 
season  '  crop.  Sugar-cane  is  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  District, 
except  Khed  and  Chiplun.  Tag  or  j-^w-hemp  (3  square  miles)  occupies 
a  considerable  area,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  making  fishing-nets,  twine, 
ropes,  gunny,  and  paper.  The  remaining  agricultural  products  of  the 
District  are  coco-nuts  and  areca-nuts,  both  of  which  are  exported  in 
considerable  quantities. 

Since  18 18  experiments  have  been  undertaken  with  a  view  to  intro- 
ducing the  cultivation  of  cotton  into  the  District,  but  without  success. 
The  only  real  improvement  of  late  years  has  been  the  conversion  of 
considerable  areas  of  inferior  soil  into  rice  and  garden  land.  Under 
the  Land  Improvement  and  Agriculturists'  Loans  Acts  over  1-5  lakhs 
has  been  advanced  to  cultivators  since  1894-5.  Of  this  sum,  Rs. 
34,000  was  lent  in  1896-7,  Rs.  25,000  in  1899-1900,  and  Rs.  22,000 
in  1900-1. 

The  pasturage  of  the  District  being  poor  and  devoid  of  nutriment, 
the  local  breed  of  cattle  is  inferior.  Sheep  imported  from  the  grazing 
grounds  above  the  Ghats  deteriorate  rapidly,  and  horses  quickly  lose 
condition.  Goats,  though  of  inferior  breed,  appear  to  thrive.  The 
only  imported  breed  of  cows  or  buffaloes  is  from  Jafarabad  in  South 
Kathiawar.  Sheep  are  kept  by  butchers  and  goats  by  Brahmans  for 
milk ;  no  care  is  bestowed  on  their  breeding.  Donkeys  are  rarely 
kept  by  any  but  the  vagrant  tribes. 

Of  the  total  cultivated  area  in  1903-4,  only  15  square  miles,  or 
0-3  per  cent.,  were  irrigated,  the  areas  from  various  sources  being 
tanks  I  square  mile,  wells  7  square  miles,  and  other  sources  7  square 
miles.  Of  the  irrigated  area,  nearly  5  square  miles  were  under  rice. 
Irrigation  is  chiefly  from  wells  and  watercourses,  as  the  tidal  influence 
passes  so  far  inland  as  to  make  the  rivers  useless  for  irrigation.  The 
District  contains  6,501  wells  and  43  tanks  used  for  irrigation.  No 
ponds  or  reservoirs  are  large  enough  to  be  used  in  watering  fields, 
except  a  few  in  Malvan. 

In  the  early  days  of  British  occupation,  the  region  round  Bankot 
creek  was  clothed  with  fine  teakwood.  Curved  teak  logs,  known  as 
'  Bankot  knees,'  were  largely  exported  to  Bombay  ;  and  from  Bankot 
came  most  of  the  stout  ribs  and  frameworks  of  the  old  Indian  navy. 
The  Marathas  had  shipbuilding  yards  at  Malvan  and  Vijayadrug,  and 
showed  a  prudent  regard  for  forest  preservation.  After  the  transfer  of 
the  District  from  the  Peshwa  in  18 18,  cultivation  greatly  increased,  and 
the  larger  part  of  the  District  was  laid  bare.     In  1829  the  forests  were 


TRADE   AND   COMMUNICATIONS  253 

left  to  the  people  for  unrestricted  use ;  and  in  consequence  enormous 
quantities  of  timber  were  felled  and  dispatched  to  the  Bombay  market. 
The  effect  of  this  treatment  has  left  Ratnagiri  denuded  of  forest  to 
the  present  day.  The  village  groves  along  the  coast  are  well  supplied 
with  mango,  oil-nut  {Calophyllum  InophyUum\  and  jack-trees.  Active 
measures  of  late  years  have  been  adopted  to  preserve  and  extend  the 
forest  area.  The  District  contains  1 9 '  square  miles  of  forest,  the  whole 
of  which  is  '  reserved  '  and  is  in  charge  of  the  Revenue  department. 
The  Government  Reserves  are  in  the  Dapoli,  Khed,  Rajapur,  and 
Malvan  talukas.  The  receipts  in  1903-4  from  the  sale  of  teak  and 
firewood  in  Ratnagiri  District  were  Rs.  1,000,  out  of  a  total  revenue 
of  Rs.  1,200. 

According  to  a  legend,  the  truth  of  which  is  rendered  probable  by 
the  presence  of  quartz,  gold  used  to  be  extracted  near  Phonda,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Western  Ghats.  In  the  south  very  pure  specular  iron  is 
associated  in  small  quantities  with  the  quartz  rock.  All  the  laterite  of 
the  District  is  charged  with  iron,  though  in  proportions  too  small  to 
make  it  worth  smelting.  Near  Malvan  iron  is  found  in  detached 
masses  on  the  tops  of  hills.  In  former  times  the  Malvan  mines  and 
those  of  Gothna,  a  village  above  the  Ghats,  were  much  worked  ;  and 
as  late  as  1844  the  smelting  of  iron  was  carried  on  at  Masura,  Kalavali, 
Varangaon,  and  some  other  villages.  The  other  mineral  products  are 
talc,  stone  for  road-metal,  sand,  clay,  and  lime. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  but  in  a  few  towns   and  villages 

saris  and  coarse  woollen  blankets  are  woven.     In  the  town  of  Rajapur 

guldl  (red  powder)  is  made.      In  Vijayadrug,  Dev- 

garh,  and  a  few  of  the  neighbouring  villages   bison        iraaeana 
°      '  .  .  °  °     .     °  .  .  communications. 

horn  is  worked  up  into  ornaments,  while  Ratnagiri 

town  is  celebrated  for  the  inlaid  furniture  made  at  its  school  of  industry. 

Two  oil-presses,  one  at  Chiplun  and  the  other  at  Malvan,  appear  to 

work  profitably.     A  few  cups  and  bowls  of  soapstone  are  also  made  in 

the  Malvan  tdluka.      At  Shiroda  are  27  salt-works  producing  about 

56,000  maunds  of  salt. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  pepper  and  cardamom  trade  brought 

English  traders  to  Rajapur,  and  there  was  also  some  traffic  in  calico, 

silk,  and  grain.     During  the  disorders  of  Maratha  rule  trade  declined, 

and  in  18 19  there  was  very  little  except  imports  of  salt  and  exports  of 

grain.     At   present  grain,  cotton,  and  sugar  are  brought  down  from 

beyond   the  Ghats  to  the  sea-coast  for   exportation    by  bullock-carts, 

which  usually  return  with  a  freight  of  coco-nuts,  salt,  and  dried  fish. 

Steamers  from  Bombay  call  regularly  at  the  ports  in  the  fair  season, 

bringing  piece-goods  and  stores,  and  taking  back  coco-nuts,  rice,  and 

areca-nuts  from  Vengurla  and  Ratnagiri.     The  local  shipping  traffic  has 

'  This  figure  is  taken  from  the  Forest  Administration  Report  for  1903-4. 

R  2 


254  RATNAGIRI  district 

suffered  through  the  competition  of  steamers  ;  but  a  large  trade  is  still 
carried  on  by  this  means  with  the  Malabar  coast,  Cutch,  Kathiawar, 
and  Karachi. 

The  Ratnagiri  sea-board  contains  thirteen  ports  and  harbours.  They 
are  of  two  classes  :  coast  ports  on  sheltered  bays  and  river  mouths  ;  and 
inland  ports  up  tidal  creeks,  generally  at  the  point  where  navigation 
ceases.  Bankot,  Harnai,  Devgarh,  Dabhol,  Sangameshwar,  Ratnagiri, 
Rajapur,  Malvan,  and  Vengurla  are  places  of  some  trade  and  con- 
sequence ;  the  rest  are  insignificant.  The  ports  are  grouped  for 
customs  purposes  into  seven  divisions  :  Anjanvel,  Bankot,  Jaitapur, 
Malvan,  Ratnagiri,  Shiroda,  and  Vengurla.  The  total  value  of  the 
sea-borne  trade  of  the  ports  in  the  District  amounted  in  1876  to  23 
lakhs,  of  which  9  lakhs  represented  the  exports  and  14  lakhs  the 
imports  \  and  in  1903-4  to  68  lakhs  exports,  and  99  lakhs  imports. 

In  1852  there  were  not  even  bullock-tracks  from  many  villages  to 
the  nearest  market  towns,  and  the  produce  sent  for  sale  was  carried 
upon  men's  heads.  Of  late  years  many  improvements  have  been  made. 
In  1903-4  there  were  479  miles  of  metalled  roads  and  790  miles  of 
unmetalled  roads  in  the  District.  Of  these,  394  miles  of  metalled 
road  are  maintained  by  the  Public  Works  department,  and  the 
remainder  by  the  local  authorities.  Avenues  of  trees  are  planted 
along  257  miles.  The  main  road  runs  north  and  south,  passing  through 
the  chief  inland  trade  centres  and  crossing  the  different  rivers  above 
the  limit  of  navigation.  From  it  cart-roads  lead  to  the  four  chief 
openings  across  the  Ghats.  During  the  fair  season  the  District  is 
served  by  steamers  of  the  Bombay  Steam  Navigation  Company,  while 
in  the  monsoon  communication  is  maintained  via  the  Amba  ghat  and 
the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway. 

Since  the  beginning  of  British  rule  there  has  been  no  year  of  distress 
so  severe  and  general  as  to  amount  to  famine.     Of  only  two  of  the 
.  older  famines,  those  of  1790  and  1802-3,  ^^^"^  any 

information  remain.  Both  of  these  seem  to  have 
been  felt  all  over  the  Konkan.  In  1824  a  very  light  rainfall  was 
followed  by  a  complete  failure  of  crops  in  high  grounds  and  a  partial 
failure  in  low  rice  lands.  In  1876  an  insufficient  rainfall  caused  a 
serious  loss  of  crops,  but  not  actual  famine.  Public  health  was  bad, 
and  there  was  considerable  distress,  Rs.  77,000  being  spent  on  relief 
works.  An  unusual  demand  for  labour  sprang  up  in  and  near  Bombay 
city;  and  it  was  estimated  that  at  least  150,000  (double  the  usual 
number)  of  the  poorer  workers  moved  to  Bombay  for  part  of  the  fair 
season,  and  returned  with  savings  enough  to  last  them  till  the  next 
harvest. 

The    District  is   subdivided  into  9  tdlukas :    Vengurla,  Malvan, 
Devgakh,  Rajapur,  Ratnagiri,  Sangameshwar,  Chiplun,  Khed, 


ADMINISTRA  TTON  2  5  5 

and    Dapoi.i.      Chiplun    includes    the    petty   subdivision    {petha)    of 

Guhagar,  and    Dapoli    that   of   Mandangarh.     The  Collector  usually 

has  three  Assistants,  of  whom  one  is  a  member  of    ^  .    ,  _     ^. 

^    ,.        ^.   .,   ^       .  Administration. 

the  Indian  Civil  Service. 

The  District  Judge,  with  whom  are  associated  two  Assistant  Judges, 
sits  at  Ratnagiri,  and  is  assisted  by  ten  Subordinate  Judges,  of  whom 
two  sit  at  Ratnagiri,  two  at  Chiplun,  and  two  at  Rajapur.  The  Khed 
ta/uka  alone  has  no  Subordinate  Judge.  Original  civil  suits  are  heard 
by  the  Subordinate  Judges,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  is  exercised  by 
the  District  Judge  and  his  Assistants.  There  are  28  officers  to  ad- 
minister criminal  justice  in  the  District.  Crime  is  remarkably  light ; 
and  such  offences  as  occur  are  of  a  comparatively  trifling  nature  and 
usually  arise  from  disputes  about  land,  which  is  very  much  subdivided 
and  is  eagerly  sought  after. 

In  18 1 9  the  South  Konkan  was  formed  into  a  separate  District, 
with  Bankot  as  its  head-quarters,  which  in  1822  were  removed  to 
Ratnagiri,  as  being  a  more  central  and  convenient  place.  In  1830 
the  three  tdlukas  north  of  Bankot  were  transferred  to  the  North 
Konkan,  and  Ratnagiri  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  sub-collectorate.  But 
in  1832  it  was  again  made  a  District. 

The  land  tenures  of  Ratnagiri  differ  from  those  of  the  Presidency 
generally,  in  that  there  is  a  class  of  large  landholders,  called  khots, 
in  the  position  of  middlemen  between  Government  and  the  actual 
cultivators.  The  majority  of  the  villages  in  the  District  are  held  on 
the  khoti  tenure,  under  which  the  khot  makes  himself  responsible  for 
the  payment  of  the  assessment.  The  khot  is  really  a  limited  pro- 
prietor. He  has  the  right  to  hold  villages  on  payment  in  instalments 
of  the  lump  assessment  fixed  by  Government  on  all  the  village  lands, 
the  villages  being  liable  to  attachment  if  the  amount  is  unpaid.  He 
can  lease  lands  in  which  there  is  no  right  of  permanent  occupancy  on 
his  own  terms,  and  has  a  right  to  all  lands  lapsing  by  absence  or 
failure  of  permanent  occupants.  The  khofs  tenants  pay  him  such 
fixed  amount,  either  in  money  or  kind,  as  they  may  have  agreed  to 
pay ;  and  in  cases  of  default  the  khot  receives  assistance  from  Govern- 
ment in  recovering  such  dues.  Some  of  the  khoti  grants  date  back 
to  the  time  of  the  Bijapur  kings,  and  were  made  to  Muhammadans,' 
Marathas,  and  other  Hindus  alike.  In  1829  the  khots  were  well  off, 
and  many  of  them  were  men  of  capital,  who  laid  out  money  in  bring- 
ing new  land  under  tillage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tenants  were 
deep  in  their  debt,  and  wholly  at  their  mercy  ;  and  the  first  efforts 
of  Government  were  directed  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  relative 
rights  of  the  khots  and  their  tenants.  In  1851  it  was  found  that  the 
tenants  were  extremely  impoverished,  having  no  motive  to  improve 
their  lands,  and  that  a  labour  tax  was  exacted  from   them.     It  was 


256 


RATNAGIRI  DISTRICT 


decided  to  make  a  survey,  record  the  rights  of  occupancy  tenants,  and 
obtain  information  upon  which  legislation  could  be  based.  The  terms 
of  the  settlement  were  embodied  in  the  Survey  Act  of  1865.  The 
District  was  settled  under  its  provisions  against  the  strenuous  opposition 
of  the  khots ;  and  as  money  rates  had  been  substituted  for  payments 
in  kind,  the  change  was  also  disliked  by  the  people.  In  1874  the 
discontent  was  so  pronounced  that  a  Commission  was  appointed  to 
reinvestigate  the  subject  and  to  endeavour  to  effect  a  compromise. 
A  new  settlement  was  carried  out  between  1877  and  1880  by  personal 
inquiries  before  the  whole  of  the  assembled  villagers.  All  extra  cesses 
were  abolished,  and  the  relations  between  khot  and  tenant  were  placed 
upon  a  satisfactory  footing.  The  Khoti  Act  (Bombay)  I  of  1880 
legalized  the  settlements.  Besides  the  khot  tenures,  three  other  special 
tenures  are  found  in  the  District :  sheri  thikdns,  or  crown  lands  now 
leased  for  a  term  of  thirty  years ;  katubati  lands,  with  fixed  rent  not 
liable  to  fluctuation  ;  gairdasii  lands,  or  lands  formerly  waste  and 
unassessed  but  now  leased  until  the  new  settlement.  Considerable 
areas  on  the  coast  and  along  the  banks  of  the  larger  creeks  have  been 
granted  on  reclamation  leases.  The  revision  survey  settlement  has 
been  introduced  into  five  out  of  the  nine  td/ukas,  resulting  in  a  decrease 
of  nearly  one  per  cent,  in  the  revenue.  The  average  rate  per  acre 
on  'dry'  lands  is  Rs.  1-3  for  rabi  and  3  annas  for  varkas,  on  rice  land 
Rs.  3-9,  and  on  garden  land  Rs.  6-5. 

Collections  on  account  of  land  revenue  and  revenue  from  all  sources 
have  been,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1 880-1. 

1890-1. 

9,01 
15,89 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue     . 

9,73 
13,74 

9,39 

17,52 

9,11 

17,57 

The  District  has  four  municipalities :  namely,  Vengurla,  Rajapur, 
Ratnagiri,  and  Chiplun.  Outside  these,  local  affairs  are  managed 
by  the  District  board  and  nine  tdluka  boards.  The  total  income  of 
these  boards  is  about  i^  lakhs,  the  chief  source  being  the  land  cess. 
The  expenditure  includes  Rs.  26,000  devoted  to  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  roads  and  buildings. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  assisted  by  two  inspectors. 
There  are  15  police  stations,  with  a  total  of  687  police,  including 
12  chief  constables,  137  head  constables,  and  538  constables.  A 
special  police  officer  resides  at  Ratnagiri  in  charge  of  the  ex-king 
Thibaw  of  Burma.  The  District  Jail  at  Ratnagiri  has  accommodation 
for  228  prisoners.  In  addition,  there  are  11  subsidiary  jails  in  the 
District,  with  accommodation  for  156  prisoners.  The  total  number 
of  prisoners  in  these  jails  in  1904  was  123,  of  whom  7  were  females. 


i 

J 


RATNAGIRI   TOWN  257 

Ratnagiri  stands  tenth  among  the  twenty-four  Districts  of  the 
Presidency  in  regard  to  the  literacy  of  its  population,  of  whom  5-2  per 
cent.  (io-9  males  and  0-3  females)  could  read  and  write  in  1901. 
Education  has  made  progress  of  late  years.  In  1855-6  there  were 
only  20  schools  attended  by  2,403  pupils.  The  latter  number  rose 
to  9,585  in  i88r,  and  to  20,937  in  1891,  but  fell  to  19,733  in  1901. 
In  1903-4  there  were  in  the  District  484  schools  attended  by  22,855 
pupils,  of  whom  1,536  were  girls.    Of  296  institutions  classed  as  public, 

2  are    high    schools,    13    middle   schools,    278    primary  schools,   and 

3  special  schools,  namely  2  technical  schools  at  Dapoli  and  Waknavli 
and  the  school  of  industry  at  Ratnagiri,  Of  these  institutions,  one 
is  maintained  by  Government,  168  are  managed  by  District  and  21 
by  municipal  boards,  99  are  aided  and  7  unaided.  The  total  expendi- 
ture on  education  in  1903-4  was  1-36  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  37,000 
was  met  by  fees,  and  Rs.  1,900  by  Local  funds.  Of  the  total,  63  per 
cent,  was  devoted  to  primary  schools. 

The  District  contains  one  hospital,  four  dispensaries,  one  leper 
asylum,  and  five  other  private  medical  institutions,  with  accommodation 
for  148  in-patients.  In  1904  the  number  of  persons  treated  in  these 
institutions  was  36,500,  of  whom  483  were  in-patients,  and  1,104 
operations  were  performed.  The  total  expenditure  was  Rs.  17,000, 
of  which  Rs.  6,800  was  met  from  Local  and  municipal  funds.  The 
District  has  a  lunatic  asylum  with   iii  inmates  in  1904. 

The  num.ber  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was 
2  7>363,  representing  a  proportion  of  23  per  1,000  of  population,  which 
is  slightly  below  the  average  for  the  Presidency. 

[Sir  J.  M.  Campbell,  Gazetteer  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  vol.  x  (1880).] 

Ratnagiri  Taluka.— Central  tdluka  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  15°  44'  and  17°  17'  N.  and  73°  12'  and  73°  n'  E., 
with  an  area  of  415  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Ratnagiri 
(population,  16,094),  the  District  and  tdluka  head-quarters  ;  and  147 
villages.  The  population  in  1901  was  147,182,  compared  with  136,840 
in  1891.  The  increase  is  normal;  but  the  density,  355  persons  per 
square  mile,  largely  exceeds  the  District  average.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  87,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  6,000.  The 
coast-line  is  bold,  and  indented  with  numerous  creeks.  The  climate 
is  moist  and  relaxing,  and  the  annual  rainfall  averages  96  inches. 
Alluvial  deposits  are  found  on  the  banks  and  at  the  estuaries  of  the 
creeks.     The  plateaux  and  hills  consist  entirely  of  laterite. 

Ratnagiri  Town. —  Head-quarters  of  Ratnagiri  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  r6°  59'  N.  and  73°  18'  E.,  136  miles  south-by-east  of 
Bombay  city.  Population  (1901),  16,094.  The  town  is  open  and 
faces  the  sea ;  the  fort  stands  on  a  rock  between  two  small  bays,  but 
these  afford  neither  shelter  nor  good  anchorage,  as  they  are  completely 


258  RATNAGIRI   TOWN 

exposed  and  have  a  rocky  bottom.  With  any  breeze  from  the  west, 
a  heavy  surf  breaks  on  the  bar,  and  boats  can  enter  only  at  high  tide. 
The  present  town  consists  of  four  originally  distinct  villages.  In  1822, 
on  the  transfer  of  the  District  head-quarters  from  Bankot  to  Ratnagiri, 
the  villages  were  merged  in  the  town.  One  object  of  interest  con- 
nected with  Ratnagiri  is  the  tdrli  or  sardine  fishery,  which  usually  takes 
place  in  the  months  of  January  and  February,  when  fleets  of  canoes 
may  be  seen  engaged  in  this  occupation.  A  single  net-caster  will  fill 
his  canoe  in  the  course  of  a  morning.  The  fishing-ground  is  just 
outside  the  breakers.  The  industry  can  be  carried  on  only  when  the 
water  is  clear  enough  to  admit  of  the  fish  being  readily  visible.  The 
salt-water  creek  to  the  south  of  the  fort  is  practicable  only  for  country 
craft  of  under  20  tons  burden.  The  value  of  the  trade  of  the  Ratna- 
giri port  in  1903-4  was  returned  at  23I  lakhs  ;  imports  17  lakhs,  and 
exports  6|  lakhs.  The  chief  imports  are  salt,  timber,  catechu,  and 
grain  ;    the  chief  exports  are  fuel,  fish,  and  bamboos. 

In  1876  Ratnagiri  was  constituted  a  municipality.  The  average 
income  during  the  decade  ending  1901  was  Rs.  13,000.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  likewise  Rs.  13,000,  chiefly  derived  from  a  house  tax  and 
octroi.  The  streets  and  the  landing-place  are  lighted ;  and  a  travellers' 
bungalow  is  kept  up  by  the  municipality.  From  a  perennial  stream 
2\  miles  east  of  the  town  water  has  been  conducted,  and  pipes  are 
laid  through  all  the  chief  quarters.  Ratnagiri  contains  9  schools, 
including  a  high  school,  a  middle  school,  and  a  school  of  industry 
with  a  daily  attendance  of  209  students,  which  was  opened  in  1879, 
and  is  supported  by  the  District  board.  The  lighthouse  was  erected 
in  1867.  The  elevation  of  the  lantern  above  high  water  is  320  feet, 
and  the  height  of  the  building,  from  base  to  vane,  35  feet.  It  exhibits 
a  single  red,  fixed,  dioptric  light,  of  order  6,  which  is  visible  at  15 
miles  distance.  Besides  the  chief  revenue  and  judicial  offices,  the 
town  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court,  a  lunatic  asylum,  a  civil 
hospital,  and  a  leper  asylum. 

Ratnagiri  Hill. — Small  hill  in  the  Jajpur  subdivision  of  Cuttack 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  20°  39'  N.  and  86°  20'  E.,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Keluo  river.  On  the  top  is  a  modern  temple  of  Mahakala, 
near  the  gate  of  which  are  fine  stone  images  i  to  3^  feet  high,  probably 
of  Tantric  origin.  On  the  east  several  elaborately  carved  images  have 
been  dug  up  and  erected.  Farther  east  is  a  colossal  sculpture,  con- 
sisting of  a  male  figure  sitting  on  a  lotus,  below  which  are  three  rows 
of  figures.  Two  enormous  heads  of  Buddha,  with  thick  lips  and  flat 
noses,  have  been  dug  out,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  other 
images  of  great  antiquarian  interest  are  still  lying  buried.  Local 
tradition  ascribes  these  monuments  to  Vasukalpa  Kesari,  the  king  who 
is  said  to  have  built  the  monuments  on  Naltigiri  hill. 


RAVER    TALUK  A  259 

Rato-Dero  Taluka.— r/rV/z-^f?  of  Larkana  District,  Sind,  Bombay, 
lying  between  27°  37'  and  28°  N.  and  68°  4'  and  68°  33'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  325  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  72,312,  com- 
pared with  61,268  in  1 89 1.  The  tdh^ka  contains  one  town,  Rato- 
Dero  (population,  4,281),  the  head-quarters;  and  80  villages.  Except- 
ing Larkana,  this  is  the  most  thickly  populated  tdhka  in  the  District, 
with  a  density  of  222  persons  per  square  mile.  The  land  revenue 
and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  more  than  2-9  lakhs.  The  tdluka 
is  irrigated  by  the  Sukkur,  Nasrat,  and  Ghar  Canals.  The  staple 
crop  is  rice.  Like  other  well-irrigated  tdhikas,  Rato-Dero  is  flat  and 
has  few  distinctive  features.  It  contains  about  104  square  miles  of 
'  reserved '  forest. 

Rato-Dero  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Larkana  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  27°  48'  N.  and  68° 
20'  E.,  18  miles  north-east  by  north  of  Larkana  town.  Population 
(1901),  4,281.  Local  trade  is  chiefly  in  grain.  Rato-Dero  was 
formerly  the  encampment  of  a  chief  of  the  Jalbani  tribe  called  Rato. 
The  municipality,  established  in  1862,  had  an  average  income  of  Rs. 
8,878  during  the  decade  ending  1901.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs. 
14,000.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  a  vernacular  school  attended 
by  118  pupils,  and  an  Anglo-vernacular  school  attended  by  34  pupils. 

Rattihalli. — Village  in  the  Kod  tdluka  of  Dharwar  District,  Bom- 
bay, situated  in  14°  25'  N.  and  75°  31'  E.,  about  10  miles  south-east 
of  Kod.  Population  (1901),  3,328.  Till  1864  Rattihalli  was  the 
head-quarters  of  the  tdluka.  In  1764,  in  the  war  between  Haidar  All 
and  the  Marathas,  Rattihalli  was  the  scene  of  a  signal  rout  of  Haidar's 
army.  It  contains  a  temple  in  Jakhanacharya  style,  built  of  sculptured 
slabs,  with  three  domes  supported  on  thirty-six  pillars.  There  are  seven 
inscriptions  varying  in  date  from  11 74  to  1550.  There  is  also  a  ruined 
fort.     The  village  contains  two  schools. 

Rauza. —  Tdluk  and  village  in  Aurangabad  District,  Hyderabad 
State.     See   Khuldaead. 

Raver  Taluka. —  Tdluka  of  East  Khandesh  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  21°  3'  and  21°  24'  N.  and  75°  46'  and  76°  10'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  481  square  miles.  It  contains  two  towns,  R.a.ver  (population, 
7,870),  the  head-quarters,  and  Savda  (8,720);  and  106  villages.  The 
population  in  1901  was  80,368,  compared  with  76,281  in  1891.  The 
density,  67  persons  per  square  mile,  is  a  little  less  than  half  the  aver- 
age for  the  District.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
2-1  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  14,000.  The  soil  near  the  hills  is  some- 
what light,  and  in  other  parts  it  is  a  fine  rich  vegetable  mould  of 
varying  depth.  The  chief  water-supply  is  the  Tapti  river.  The  climate 
is  generally  healthy.  Raver  forms  an  unbroken  well-wooded  plain  lying 
below  the  wall  of  the  Satpuras.    The  annual  rainfall  averages  24  inches. 


26o  RAVER    TOWN 

Raver  To"wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdh/ka  of  the  same  name  in 
East  Khandesh  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  21°  15''  N.  and  76°  2'  E. 
Population  (1901),  7,870.  A  good  road,  2  miles  long  and  carefully 
bridged,  connects  the  town  with  the  north-eastern  line  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  Railway.  Raver  has  a  local  reputation  for  its  manu- 
factures of  gold  thread  and  articles  of  native  apparel.  In  the  main 
street,  leading  from  the  market-place  to  the  fort,  the  houses  are  nearly 
all  three-storeyed,  and  have  richly  carved  wooden  fronts.  Raver  was 
ceded  by  the  Nizam  to  the  Peshwa  in  1763,  and  by  the  latter  bestowed 
on  Holkar's  family.  The  municipality,  established  in  1892,  had  an 
average  income  during  the  seven  years  ending  1901  of  Rs.  1,700.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  3,900.  The  town  contains  three  cotton- 
gins  and  presses,  and  three  boys'  schools  with  268  pupils. 

Ravi  (the  Hydraoies  of  Arrian,  the  Parushni  of  the  Vedas,  and 
the  Irdvati  of  classical  Sanskrit  authors.  The  present  name  means 
'  sun  '). — One  of  the  five  rivers  of  the  Punjab  from  which  the  Province 
derives  its  name.  Rising  in  the  Kulu  subdivision  of  Kangra  District, 
it  immediately  passes  into  the  Chamba  State,  after  which  it  re-enters 
British  territory  on  the  borders  of  Gurdaspur  District,  opposite  Basoli 
in  the  Jammu  district  of  Kashmir,  forming  the  boundary  of  that  State 
for  25  miles,  with  a  general  south-westerly  course.  It  leaves  the  hills 
at  Shahpur,  but  still  flows  between  high  cliffs,  while  on  the  Jammu 
side  the  mounta,ins  rise  from  its  very  brink.  At  Madhopur  the  head- 
works  of  the  Bari  Doab  Canal  draw  off  a  large  portion  of  its  waters. 
Thenceforward  the  banks  sink  in  height,  and  the  river  assumes  the 
usual  character  of  the  Punjab  streams,  flowing  in  the  centre  of  an 
alluvial  valley,  with  high  outer  banks  at  some  distance  from  its  present 
bed.  In  1870  it  carried  away  the  Tali  Sahib  shrine  near  Dera  Nanak, 
a  place  of  great  sanctity  with  the  Sikhs,  and  still  threatens  that  town. 
The  Ravi  next  passes  between  Sialkot  and  Amritsar  Districts,  preserving 
its  general  south-westerly  direction.  The  depth  is  here  not  more  than 
a  foot  in  March  and  April,  swelling  in  June  and  September  to  18  or 
20  feet.  Entering  the  District  of  Lahore,  it  runs  within  a  mile  of 
Lahore  city,  and  throws  out  several  branches  which  soon,  however, 
rejoin  the  parent  stream.  A  railway  and  foot-bridge  spans  the  river 
a  few  miles  north  of  Lahore,  and  the  grand  trunk  road  crosses  it  by 
a  bridge  of  boats.  After  entering  Montgomery  District  it  receives  its 
chief  tributary,  the  Degh,  on  its  north-western  bank.  The  Degh  rises 
in  Jammu  and  flows  through  Sialkot  and  Lahore  Districts,  bringing 
with  it  large  deposits  of  silt  and  affording  great  facilities  for  irrigation 
by  wells.  The  Ravi  then  passes  into  Multan  District,  where  it  is  again 
bridged  by  the  North-Western  Railway  near  Sidhnai,  and  finally  falls 
into  the  Chenab  in  30°  31'  N.  and  71°  51'  E.,  after  a  total  course  of 
about  450  miles. 


RAWALPINDI  niJ'ISION  261 

Throughout  its  course  in  the  plains,  the  Ravi  flows  everywhere  in 
a  comparatively  narrow  valley,  often  only  a  couple  of  miles  in  width, 
with  generally  a  very  tortuous  channel.  In  one  part,  however,  the 
river  runs  a  perfectly  straight  course  for  12  miles  from  Kuchlumba  to 
Sarai  Sidhu  in  Multan  District,  between  high  wooded  banks,  forming 
a  beautiful  reach  called  the  Sidhnai,  where  the  Sidhnai  Canal  takes 
off.  Few  islands  are  formed,  but  the  bed  shifts  occasionally  from 
place  to  place.  The  floods  of  the  Ravi  fertilize  only  a  fringe  of  one  or 
two  miles  on  either  side,  and  it  is  little  employed  for  direct  irrigation, 
although  it  supplies  water  to  the  Bari  Doab  and  Sidhnai  Canals. 
Navigation  is  difficult,  but  grain  is  shipped  from  Lahore  in  considerable 
quantities.  Deodar  timber,  floated  down  in  rafts  from  the  Chamba 
forests  during  the  rains,  finds  its  way  to  Lahore  only  in  seasons  of 
heavy  flood.  In  1397  the  Ravi  still  flowed  east  and  south  of  Multan 
and  united  with  the  Beas,  as  it  did  in  the  time  of  Chach  (a.  d.  800). 
The  change  of  course  northwards  has  been  comparatively  slight,  and 
its  date  is  uncertain.  Even  now,  at  times  of  high  flood,  the  water  finds 
its  way  to  Multan  by  the  old  channel. 

Rawain  (or  Raingarh). — A  petty  State  feudatory  to  the  Jubbal 
State,  Punjab,  situated  in  31°  7'  N.  and  77°  48'  E.,  and  comprising 
about  7  square  miles  of  territory  round  the  fort  of  Raingarh,  which 
crowns  an  isolated  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pabar  river,  here  crossed 
by  a  wooden  bridge.  Population  (1901),  823.  The  Thakurs  come 
from  the  same  stock  as  the  Jubbal  family.  The  State  was  originally 
a  fief  of  Tehri,  but  the  eastern  portion  was  overrun  by  the  Bashahris 
some  time  previous  to  the  Gurkha  invasion.  After  the  Gurkha  War 
the  State  was  partitioned  between  the  British,  the  Raja  of  Garhwal, 
and  Rana  Runa  of  Rawain.  The  portion  retained  by  the  British  was 
in  1830  given  to  Keonthal,  in  exchange  for  land  taken  up  for  the 
station  of  Simla.  A  small  community  of  Brahmans  holds  the  surround- 
ing valley,  and  has  charge  of  two  temples  of  Tibetan  architecture. 
The  elevation  of  the  fort  above  sea-level  is  5,408  feet.  The  revenue  is 
about  Rs.  3,000,  of  which  Rs.  1,250  is  derived  from  the  forests,  which 
are  leased  to  Government.  The  present  Thakur,  Kedar  Singh,  suc- 
ceeded in  1904.  He  has  full  powers,  but  sentences  of  death  require 
confirmation  by  the  Superintendent,  Hill  States,  Simla. 

Rawalpindi  Division. — North-western  Division  of  the  Punjab, 
lying  between  31°  35'  and  34°  i''  N.  and  70°  37'  and  74°  29'  E.  The 
Commissioner's  head-quarters  are  at  Rawalpindi  and  Murree.  The 
total  population  of  the  Division  increased  from  2,520,508  in  1881  to 
2)750j7i3  in  1891,  and  to  2,799,360  in  1901.  Its  total  area  is  15,736 
square  miles,  and  the  density  of  the  population  is  178  persons  per  square 
mile,  compared  with  209  for  the  Province  as  a  whole.  In  1901  the 
Muhammadans  numbered  2,428,767,  or  nearly  87  per  cent,  of  the  total ; 


262 


RAWALPINDI  DIVISION 


while  Hindus  numbered  275,905,  Sikhs  84,953,  Jains  1,232,  ParsTs  66, 
and  Christians  8,436.  The  Division  contains  five  Districts,  as  shown 
below  : — 


District. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Population, 
1901. 

Land  revenue 
and  cesses, 

1903-4, 

in  thousands, 

of  rupees. 

Gujrat         .... 

Shahpur      .... 

Jhelum        .... 

Rawalpindi 

Attock         .... 

Total 

2,051 
4,840 

2,813 
2,010 
4,022 

750>54S 

524,259 
501,424 

558,699 
464,430 

10,52 

12,38 

8.84 

6,56 

7,17 

15,736 

2,799,360 

45,47 

The  Districts  of  Rawalpindi,  Attock,  and  Jhelum  are  hilly,  extending 
from  the  outer  ranges  of  the  Himalayas  and  including  most  of  the  Salt 
Range,  which  enters  Shahpur  District  on  the  south-west. 

The  principal  town  is  Rawalpindi  (population,  87,688,  with  canton- 
ments). Shahdheri,  close  to  the  Margalla  pass,  has  been  identified 
with  the  ancient  city  of  Taxila.  Hassan  Abdal,  and  Manikiala,  the 
site  of  the  body-offering  stupa  of  Buddhist  legend,  are  within  30  miles 
of  Shahdheri.  Rohtas  and  Malot  in  Jhelum  and  Mong  in  Gujrat 
District  also  possess  an  antiquarian  interest.  In  Gujrat  District  are 
the  battle-fields  of  Sadullapur,  Chilianwala,  and  Gujrat,  while  the 
famous  defile  of  Narsingh-Phohar  in  the  Salt  Range,  with  its  waterfall, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots  in  Northern  India. 

Rawalpindi  District.— Northern  District  of  the  Rawalpindi  Divi- 
sion, Punjab,  lying  between  33°  4'  and  34°  \'  N.  and  72°  34'  and 
73°  39'  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,010  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Hazara  District  of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province  ;  on 
the  east  by  the  river  Jhelum,  which  separates  it  from  Kashmir  territory  ; 
on  the  south  by  the  District  of  Jhelum ;  and  on  the  west  by  that  of 
Attock.  The  District  as  now  constituted  forms  a  compact  square, 
with  the  mountain  tract  called  the  Murree  Hills 
^^if^  jutting  from  its  north-east  corner,  between  Kashmir 

and  Hazara.  This  range  extends  southward  along  the 
eastern  border  of  the  District,  forming  the  Kahuta  Hills,  which  lie  in 
the  tahs'il  of  that  name,  as  far  south  as  Bagham  on  the  Jhelum  river, 
and  west  to  within  a  few  miles  of  Rawalpindi  cantonment.  On  the 
west  the  slope  is  gradual,  but  the  eastern  escarpments  run  sharply  down 
to  the  deep  gorges  of  the  Jhelum.  The  five  main  spurs  are  known 
generally  as  the  Murree  range,  that  on  which  the  sanitarium  of  Murree 
stands  rising  to  7,500  feet,  Charihan  being  very  little  lower,  and  Paphundi 
reaching  7,000  feet  at  its  highest  point.  These  hills  form  an  offshoot 
of  the  Himalayan  system.     The  valleys  between  them  are  often  ex- 


RAWALPINDI  DISTRICT  26 


J 


tremely  beautiful ;  and  the  higher  ranges  are  covered  with  a  varied 
growth,  the  silver  fir,  ilex,  hill  oak,  blue  pine,  chestnut,  and  wild  cherry 
uniting  to  form  dense  forests  on  the  Murree  and  Paphundi  spurs,  while 
the  lower  hills  are  well  wooded  with  olive,  acacia,  and  bog  myrtle.  The 
view  looking  upwards  from  the  plains  is  of  exquisite  beauty. 

South-west  of  the  Murree  and  Kahuta  Hills  stretches  a  rough  high- 
lying  plateau,  about  1,800  feet  above  sea-level.  The  northern  part  of 
this  includes  the  tahsll  of  Rawalpindi  and  the  Kallar  circle  of  the 
Kahuta  tahsll.  It  is  drained  by  the  Sohan,  which  flows  south-west, 
passing  a  few  miles  south  of  Rawalpindi  cantonment,  below  which  it 
is  joined  by  several  tributaries  from  the  hills.  The  southern  part  of 
the  plain,  forming  the  Giijar  Khan  tahsll,  is  drained  by  the  Kanshi,  a 
stream  which  flows  southward  from  the  low  hills  south  of  Kahuta  till 
near  the  town  of  Gujar  Khan,  and  then  winds  eastwards  to  the  Jhelum. 
The  whole  of  this  plateau  is  highly  cultivated,  th&  fields  being  massively 
embanked  to  retain  moisture,  while  its  numerous  villages  shelter  a  dense 
population.  The  Jhelum  river,  which  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  District,  flows  here  between  precipitous  cliffs,  which  render  it  useless 
for  irrigation  ;  and  it  is  only  navigable  below  Dunga  Gali,  a  point  40 
miles  east  of  Rawalpindi  town. 

The  District  lies  entirely  on  Tertiary  rocks.  The  oldest  of  these 
are  the  Murree  beds,  which  run  in  a  narrow  band  across  its  northern 
part.  They  are  composed  of  red  and  purple  clays,  with  grey  and 
purplish  sandstones,  and  are  probably  of  miocene  age.  These  are 
succeeded  to  the  south  by  a  great  spread  of  Lower  Siwalik  sandstone, 
which  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  District  and  contains  a  rich  mam- 
malian fauna  of  pliocene  age.  It  is  overlain  by  the  Upper  Siwalik 
conglomerates  and  sandstones,  which  occur  to  the  south-west  of  Rawal- 
pindi, and  at  other  localities.  Still  farther  south  the  Lower  Siwalik 
sandstone  is  continuous  with  the  similar  beds  of  the  Salt  Range  \ 

The  vegetation  of  the  higher  portions  of  the  Murree  subdivision 
is  that  of  the  temperate  Himalaya,  with  a  few  Kashmir  and  Oriental 
species  intermingled.  At  lower  levels  it  is  similar  to  that  of  tlie  Outer 
Himalaya,  from  the  Indus  valley  to  Kumaun  ;  but  trans-Indus  types, 
e.g.  DelphiniiiDi,  Dianthus,  Sca/u'osa,  and  Boiicerosia,  are  frequent,  and 
extend  for  some  distance  into  the  extra-Himalayan  part  of  the  District, 
whose  flora  is  that  of  the  Western  Punjab,  but  on  the  whole  rather 
scanty.  Trees  are  mostly  planted,  and  Indo-Malayan  species,  such 
as  the  mango,  &c.,  thrive  rather  poorly. 

Leopards  are  found  in  the  Murree  and  Kahuta  Hills,  and  very  rarely 
the  gural.     The  District  is  a  poor  one  for  sport. 

The  climate  of  Rawalpindi  is  considerably  cooler  than  that  of  the 

'  Wynne,  'Tertiary  Zone  and  Underlying  Rocks  in  N.-W.  Punj.ib,'  Records, 
Geological  Surz'ev  of  India,  vol.  x,  pt.  iii. 


264  RAWALPINDI  DISTRICT 

Punjab  plains.  The  hot  season  lasts  only  three  months,  from  June 
to  August ;  and  the  nearness  of  the  hills  lowers  the  temperature  during 
the  succeeding  months,  even  when  there  is  no  rain  in  the  plains.  The 
cold  in  winter  is  very  severe,  and  a  trying  east  wind  prevails  in  January 
and  February.  The  District  on  the  whole  is  extremely  healthy  for 
Europeans,  while  the  natives  are  robust  and  of  fine  physique. 

The  rainfall  in  the  plains  is  fairly  copious,  varying  from  29  inches  at 
Gujar  Khan  to  41  at  Kahuta ;  in  the  hills  the  average  is  53  inches. 
Heavy  winter  rain  from  January  to  March  is  characteristic  of  this  Dis- 
trict, 8  inches  or  more  frequently  falling  in  the  three  months. 

In  ancient  times  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  the  country  between 
the  Indus  and  the  Jhelum  seems  to  have  belonged  to  a  Turanian  race 
called  Takkas  or  Takshakas,  who  gave  their  name 
to  the  city  of  Takshasila,  the  Taxila  of  the  Greek 
historians,  the  site  of*  which  has  been  identified  with  the  ruins  of 
Shahdheri  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  District.  At  the  time  of 
Alexander's  invasion  Taxila  is  described  by  Arrian  as  a  flourishing  city, 
the  greatest  indeed  between  the  Indus  and  the  Hydaspes  ;  Strabo  adds 
that  the  neighbouring  country  was  crowded  with  inhabitants  and  very 
fertile  ;  and  Pliny  speaks  of  it  as  a  famous  city  situated  in  a  district 
called  Amanda.  The  invasion  of  Demetrius  in  195  B.C.  brought  the 
Punjab  under  the  Graeco-Bactrian  kings.  Later  they  were  superseded 
by  the  Sakas,  who  ruled  at  Taxila  with  the  title  of  Satrap.  At  the  time 
of  Hiuen  Tsiang  the  country  was  a  dependency  of  Kashmir. 

Mahmud  of  Ghazni  passed  through  the  District  after  his  defeat  of 
Anand  Pal  and  capture  of  Ohind.  With  this  conqueror  claim  to  have 
come  the  Gakhars,  a  tribe  still  of  importance  in  the  District.  The  first 
mention  of  them  in  the  Muhammadan  historians  occurs  in  the  memoirs 
of  Babar,  who  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  capture  of  their  capital 
of  Paralah.  It  was  strongly  situated  in  the  hills,  and  was  defended 
with  great  bravery  by  its  chief  Hati  Khan,  who  escaped  from  one  gate 
as  the  Mughal  army  marched  in  at  the  other.  Hati  Khan  died  by 
poison  in  1525  ;  and  his  cousin  and  murderer  .Sultan  Sarang  submitted 
to  Babar,  who  conferred  on  him  the  Potwar  country.  Thenceforth  the 
Gakhar  chieftains  remained  firm  allies  of  the  Mughal  dynasty,  and  were 
able  to  render  efficient  aid  in  its  struggle  with  the  house  of  Sher  Shah. 
Salim  Shah  attempted  in  vain  to  subdue  their  country;  but  in  1553 
Adam  Khan,  Sarang's  successor,  surrendered  the  rebel  prince  Kamran 
to  Humayun.  Adam  Khan  Avas  subsequently  deposed  by  Akbar,  and 
his  principality  made  over  to  his  nephew  Kamal  Khan.  During  the 
flourishing  period  of  the  Mughal  empire,  the  family  of  Sarang  retained 
its  territorial  possessions,  its  last  and  greatest  independent  chief, 
Mukarrab  Khan,  ruling  over  a  kingdom  which  extended  from  the 
Chenab  to  the  Indus. 


HISTORY  265 

In  1765,  during  the  total  paralysis  of  the  Mughal  government,  Sardar 
Gujar  Singh  BhangI,  a  powerful  Sikh  chieftain,  marched  from  Lahore 
against  Mukarrab  Khan,  whom  he  defeated  outside  the  walls  of  Gujrat. 
Mukarrab  Khan  retired  across  the  Jhelum,  where  he  was  soon  treacher- 
ously murdered  by  his  own  tribesmen ;  but  the  traitors  forthwith 
quarrelled  over  their  spoil,  and  fell  one  by  one  before  Sardar  Gujar 
Singh.  The  Sikhs  ruled  Rawalpindi  with  their  usual  rapacity,  exacting 
as  revenue  the  last  coin  that  could  be  wrung  from  the  proprietors,  who 
were  often  glad  to  admit  their  tenants  as  joint-sharers,  in  order  to  lighten 
the  incidence  of  the  revenue.  Gujar  Singh  held  the  District  through- 
out his  life,  and  left  it  on  his  death  to  his  son.  Sahib  Singh,  who  fell 
in  18 10  before  the  power  of  the  great  Ranjit  Singh.  Another  Sikh 
Sardar,  Milka  Singh,  fixed  upon  Rawalpindi,  then  an  insignificant  vil- 
lage, for  his  head-quarters.  In  spite  of  Afghan  inroads  and  the  resis- 
tance of  the  Gakhars,  he  soon  conquered  on  his  own  account  a  tract 
of  country  round  Rawalpindi  worth  3  lakhs  a  year.  On  his  death  in 
1804,  his  estates  were  confirmed  to  his  son,  Jlwan  Singh,  by  Ranjit 
Singh,  until  1814,  when,  upon  Jlwan  Singh's  death,  they  were  annexed 
to  the  territory  of  Lahore.  The  Murree  and  other  hills  long  retained 
their  independence  under  their  Gakhar  chieftains  ;  but  in  1830  they 
were  reduced  after  a  bloody  struggle,  and  handed  over  to  Gulab  Singh 
of  Jammu,  under  whose  merciless  rule  the  population  was  almost 
decimated,  and  the  country  reduced  to  a  desert. 

In  1849  Rawalpindi  passed  with  the  rest  of  the  Sikh  dominions 
under  British  rule  ;  and  though  tranquillity  was  disturbed  by  an  in- 
surrection four  years  later,  led  by  a  Gakhar  chief  with  the  object  of 
placing  a  pretended  son  of  Ranjit  Singh  on  the  throne,  its  administra- 
tion was  generally  peaceful  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in  1857. 
The  Dhunds  and  other  tribes  of  the  Murree  Hills,  incited  by  Hindustani 
agents,  rose  in  insurrection,  and  the  authorities  received  information 
from  a  faithful  native  of  a  projected  attack  upon  the  station  of  Murree 
in  time  to  concert  measures  for  defence.  The  ladies,  who  were 
present  in  large  numbers,  were  placed  in  safety  ;  the  Europeans  and 
police  were  drawn  up  in  a  cordon  round  the  station ;  and  when  the 
enemy  arrived  expecting  no  resistance,  they  met  with  a  hot  recep- 
tion, which  caused  them  to  withdraw  in  disorder,  and  shortly  after 
to  disband.  In  1904  the  tahsils  of  Attock,  Fatahjang,  and  Pindi  Gheb 
were  transferred  from  Rawalpindi  to  the  newly  constituted  Attock 
District. 

The  principal  remains  of  antiquity  are  described  in  the  articles  on 
Manikiala  and  Shahdheri.  The  country  round  the  latter  place 
abounds  in  Buddhist  remains,  the  most  interesting  of  which  is  tlie 
Balar  stupa. 

The  population  of  the  District  at  the  last  three  enumerations  was : 


266 


RAWALPINDI  DISTRICT 


Population. 


(1881)  471,079,  (1891)  533,740,  and  (1901)  558,699,  dwelling  in  two 
towns  and  1,180  villages.  It  increased  by  4-7  per  cent,  during  the 
last  decade.  The  District  is  divided  into  four  tahslls, 
Rawalpindi,  Kahuta,  Murree,  and  Gujar  Khan, 
the  head-quarters  of  each  being  at  the  place  from  which  it  is  named. 
The  towns  are  the  municipalities  of  Rawalpindi,  the  administrative 
head-quarters  of  the  District,  and  Murree,  the  summer  station. 

The    following   table    shows   the   chief  statistics   of  population   in 
1901  : — 


Tahsil. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Number  of 

"3 

§1 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween i8qi 
and  igoi. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

S 
1 

1) 
> 

Rawalpindi 
Muriee 
Kahuta 
Gujar  Khan 

District  total 

764 

258 

456 
568 

I 
I 

2 

448 
120 
231 
3SI 

261,101 
52,303 

94,729 
150,566 

341-7 

202-7 
207.9 
265-1 

+    7-4 
+  14-3 
+    2.6 

—     1-2 

24,924 
1,463 
3,119 
6,513 

2,010 

1,180 

558,699 

2780            +     4.7 



36,019 

Note.— Tlie   figures   for  the  areas  of  iahsils  are  taken  from  revenue  returns.      The 
total  District  area  is  that  given  in  the  Census  Report. 

Muhammadans  number  466,918,  or  more  than  83  per  cent,  of  the 
total  j  Hindus,  57,325  ;  and  Sikhs,  26,363. 

The  most  numerous  tribe  is  that  of  the  land-owning  Rajputs,  who 
number  101,000,  or  18  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Next  come 
the  Awans  with  39,000 ;  after  them  the  Jats,  Gujars,  and  Dhunds,  with 
35,000,  26,000,  and  23,000  respectively.  Other  important  agricultural 
castes  are  the  Sattis  (17,000),  Maliars  (17,000),  Gakhars  (13,000), 
JSIughals  (13,000),  Janjuas  (8,000),  and  Pathans  (7,000).  Saiyids  and 
Kureshis  number  13,000  and  9,000  respectively.  The  Khattris  (30,000) 
and  Aroras  (6,000)  are  the  only  commercial  castes.  Brahmans  number 
15,000,  including  1,000  Muhials  ;  Shaikhs,  partly  agriculturists  and  partly 
traders,  12,000.  Of  the  artisan  classes,  the  Julahas  (weavers,  23,000), 
Tarkhans  (carpenters,  17,000),  Mochis  (shoemakers  and  leather- 
workers,  13,000),  Kumhars  (potters,  10,000),  Lobars  (blacksmiths, 
8,000),  and  Telis  (oil-pressers,  8,000)  are  the  most  important ;  and  of 
the  menials,  the  Chuhras  and  Musallis  (sweepers  and  scavengers, 
14,000)  and  Nais  (barbers,  7,000).  Kashmiris  number  18,000.  Of 
the  total  population,  64  per  cent,  are  dependent  on  agriculture.  Many 
of  the  leading  tribes,  Gakhars,  Janjiias,  and  Rajputs,  enlist  in  the  Indian 
army.  Sattis,  Dhanials,  Brahmans,  and  Khattris  are  also  enlisted,  and 
many  of  them  have  been  distinguished  for  their  courage  and  loyalty. 

The  American  United  Presbyterian  Mission  was  established  at 
Rawalpindi    in    1856.      It  has  a  church  in  the  town,  and  maintains 


AGRICULTURE 


267 


Agriculture. 


an  Arts  college,  a  large  high  school  with  two  branches,  and  three 
girls'  schools.  There  are  Roman  Catholic  missions  at  Rawalpindi  and 
Murree,  and  at  Yusufpur,  close  to  Rawalpindi  cantonment.  Native 
Christians  numbered  511  in   1901. 

More  than  98  per  cent,  of  the  cultivation  depends  entirely  on  the 
rainfall.  In  the  hills  the  rain  is  abundant,  and  the  cultivation,  which 
is  carried  on  in  terraced  fields  along  the  hill-sides,  is 
classed  as  secure  from  famine ;  three-quarters  of  the 
crops  are  grown  in  the  autumn  harvest.  The  rest  of  the  District  is  an 
undulating  plateau,  much  cut  up  by  ravines.  The  soil  is  usually  a 
light-brown  fertile  loam,  the  fields  are  carefully  embanked,  and  the 
tillage  is  generally  good.  The  rainfall  is  sufficient ;  and  the  regularity 
and  abundance  of  the  winter  rains  protect  the  District  from  a  grain 
famine  in  the  worst  years,  while  the  proximity  of  the  hills  mitigates 
a  fodder  famine.     The  spring  crop  is  the  principal  harvest. 

The  District  is  chiefly  held  by  small  peasant  proprietors.  The 
following  table  shows  the  main  statistics  of  cultivation  in  1903-4, 
areas  being  in  square  miles  : — 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Rawalpindi    . 
Murree  . 
Kahiita . 
Gujar  Khan   . 

Total 

764 
258 
4.56 

568 

380 
62 

346 

7 
3 

I 

I 

37 
16 
21 
39 

67 

157 
179 

9 

2,046* 

939 

12 

"3 

412 

*  These  CgTires,  which  do  not  agree  with  the  area  as  shown  on  p.  266,  are  taken  from 
later  returns. 

The  chief  crops  of  the  spring  harvest  are  wheat  and  barley,  the  areas 
under  which  in  1903-4  were  325  and  18  square  miles,  while  in  the 
autumn  \\2iX\Q.?Xjowdr,  bdjra,  and  pulses  covered  33,  t8o,  and  50  square 
miles  respectively. 

The  area  cultivated  has  increased  by  9  per  cent,  since  the  settlement 
of  1880-7.  The  people  exercise  considerable  care  in  the  selection  of 
seed  for  wheat  and  maize.  Loans  from  Government  for  sinking  wells 
are  rarely  taken,  as  the  country  is  not  adapted  for  wells. 

The  cattle  are  small  and  not  good  milkers,  and  attempts  to  improve 
the  breed  by  the  introduction  of  Hissar  bulls  were  not  successful.  The 
cattle  of  the  hills  are  small,  but  hardy.  A  fine  breed  of  camels  is  kept  ; 
they  are  not  adapted  for  riding,  but  make  excellent  pack  animals. 
Horse-breeding  is  popular,  and  many  good  animals  are  reared  ;  a  good 
deal  of  mule-breeding  is  also  carried  on.  The  Army  Remount  department 
maintains  26  horse  and  91  donkey  stallions,  and  the  District  board 
8  pony  and  5  donkey  stallions.    A  large  horse  fair  is  held  yearly  at 

VOL.  XXI.  s 


268  RAWALPINDI  DISTRICT 

Rawalpindi  town.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  of  inferior  breeds 
are  kept  in  the  Murree  and  Kahiita  Hills. 

There  is  very  little  irrigation.  Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4, 
only  12  square  miles,  or  about  i  per  cent.,  were  classed  as  irrigated. 
Of  this  area,  2,946  acres  were  irrigated  from  wells  and  4,870  acres  from 
tanks  and  streams.  In  addition,  3,512  acres  were  subject  to  inundation 
from  various  streams,  and  the  canal  irrigation  is  entirely  from  private 
channels  taking  off  from  them.  Only  1,103  masonry  wells  were  in  use, 
all  worked  with  Persian  wheels  by  cattle ;  but  there  were  over  543 
lever  wells,  unbricked  wells,  and  water-lifts. 

The  forests  are  of  some  importance,  comprising  152  square  miles 
of  'reserved,'  76  of  'protected,'  and  249  of  'unclassed'  forests  under 
the  Forest  department,  besides  21  square  miles  of  military  reserve,  and 
about  one  square  mile  under  the  Deputy-Commissioner.  The  most 
important  are  the  hill  forests  of  Murree  and  Kahuta.  The  others 
are  forests  only  in  name,  consisting  merely  of  scrub  or  grass.  In 
1904-5  the  revenue  from  the  forests  under  the  Forest  department  was 
Rs.  45,000,  and  from  those  under  the  Deputy-Commissioner  Rs.  900. 

The  District  produces  no  minerals  of  commercial  importance. 
Lignite  is  occasionally  met  with  in  the  Murree  Hills,  and  petroleum 
is  found  in  small  quantities  near  Rawalpindi  town.  Gypsum  occurs 
in  considerable  quantities.  A  little  gold  is  washed  from  the  beds  of 
various  streams. 

The  District  possesses  no  important  indigenous  manufactures ;  but 

cotton  is  woven  everywhere,  and  the  silk  embroidered  phfelkdris  of 

Rawalpindi  are  of  some  merit.     Lacquered  legs  for 

^^  ^  ^.         bedsteads    and  other  pieces  of   native  furniture  are 
communications.  '■ 

made  locally,  and  there  is  some  output  of  saddles 
and  shoes.  The  principal  factories  are  the  North-Western  Railway 
locomotive  and  carriage  works,  where  the  number  of  employes  in  1904 
was  1,455  >  ^^d  the  arsenal,  which  in  the  same  year  gave  employment 
to  569  persons.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  Rawalpindi  gas-works 
with  170  employes,  2  breweries  with  391,  a  tent  factory  Avith  252,  an 
iron  foundry  with  123,  and  four  smaller  factories  with  an  aggregate  of 
150  employes.  ^Vith  the  exception  of  the  Murree  Brewery,  all  of 
these  are  situated  at  Rawalpindi  town. 

Trade  consists  chiefly  in  the  supply  of  necessaries  to  the  stations 
of  Rawalpindi  and  Murree,  and  the  through  traffic  with  Kashmir.  The 
District  exports  food-grains  and  oilseeds,  and  imports  piece-goods, 
rice,  hardware,  tea,  and  salt.  A  good  deal  of  timber  comes  from 
Kashmir.  Rawalpindi  town  and  Gujar  Khan  are  the  chief  centres 
of  trade. 

The  District  is  traversed  by  the  main  line  of  the  North-Westem  Rail- 
way, with  a  branch  from  Golra  junction  to  Khushalgarh.     The  metalled 


ADMINISTRA  TION  269 

roads  are  the  grand  trunk  road,  which  runs  by  the  side  of  the  main 
line  of  rail,  and  the  Kashmir  road  and  the  Khushalgarh  road  from 
Rawalpindi  town.  These  are  maintained  from  Provincial  funds.  A 
service  of  tongas  runs  between  Rawalpindi  and  Murree,  but  a  railway 
connecting  the  two  places  is  projected.  The  unmetalled  roads,  which 
are  all  under  the  District  board,  are  not  fit  for  wheeled  traffic,  the  place 
of  which  is  taken  by  pack  animals. 

Although  the  District  has  from  time  to  time  suffered  from  scarcity,  it 
has  not,  at  any  rate  since  annexation,  been  visited  by  serious  famine, 
and  the  hill  tahsils  may  be  considered  as  quite  secure. 

The  District  is  divided  into  four  tahsils,  Rawalpindi,  Gujar  Khan, 

Murree,  and  Kahuta,  each  under  a  tahsilddr  and  a  naib-tahsllddr. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner  is  aided  by  five  Assistant 

T^  ^       .     .  ,     ^  ^,  .    .  r     1         ■    •     Administration, 

or  bxtra-Assistant  Commissioners,  one  of  whom  is  in 

charge  of  the  District  treasury.     During  the  hot  season  an  Assistant 

Commissioner  holds  charge  of  the  Murree  subdivision,  which  consists 

of  the  Murree  tahstl. 

Civil  judicial  work  is  disposed  of  by  a  District  Judge  subordinate 
to  the  Divisional  Judge  of  the  Rawalpindi  civil  division,  one  Subor- 
dinate Judge,  and  two  Munsifs,  of  whom  one  sits  at  head-quarters  and 
the  other  at  Gujar  Khan.  There  are  two  Cantonment  Magistrates 
in  the  Rawalpindi  cantonment  and  several  honorary  magistrates  in  the 
District.  Civil  litigation  presents  no  special  features.  The  pre- 
dominant forms  of  crime  are  burglary  and  theft,  though  murders  are 
also  frequent ;  but  serious  crime  is  rare  in  the  hill  tahsils,  and  the 
Muhammadan  peasants  of  the  Rawalpindi  and  Gujar  Khan  tahsils 
are  industrious  and  peaceable. 

For  a  long  period  prior  to  1770  the  greater  part  of  the  District  was 
subject  to  the  Gakhars,  They  realized  their  revenue  by  appraise- 
ment of  the  standing  crop  at  each  harvest,  current  prices  being  taken 
into  account,  and  the  demand  (which  was  generally  moderate)  being 
levied  in  grain  or  cash  by  mutual  agreement.  No  revenue  was  realized 
from  the  hill  tracts.  From  1770  to  1830  the  Sikhs  pursued  their  usual 
policy  of  exacting  all  they  could,  until  RanjTt  Singh  ordered  a  moderate 
assessment  to  be  made.  Ten  years  of  good  government  under  Bhai 
Dul  Singh  were  followed  by  six  of  oppression. 

^  After  annexation  the  hill  tracts  were  summarily  assessed,  and  the 
demand  of  Maharaja  Gulab  Singh  of  Jammu  (who  had  been  revenue 
assignee  under  the  Sikhs)  was  reduced  by  one-third.  In  the  plains, 
however,  John  Nicholson  imposed  an  enhanced  demand,  based  on  the 
estimates  of  the  oppressive  Sikh  officials,  with  disastrous  results. 
When  the  first  summary  settlement  of  the  whole  District  was  made 

'  The  figures  in  the  paragraphs  on  land  revenue  include  the  tahsils  of  Pindi  Gheb, 
Attock,  and  Fatahjang  throughout. 

S  2 


2)0 


RAWALPINDI  DISTRICT 


in  1 85 1,  the  people  were  heavily  in  debt  and  clamouring  for  relief. 
Large  reductions  were  allowed  in  the  demand,  and  the  assessment 
worked  well  until  the  first  regular  settlement  was  effected  in  i860. 
This  resulted  in  a  further  reduction  of  5-|  per  cent.,  and  a  more 
equal  distribution  of  the  demand  over  the  villages.  The  settlement 
proved  satisfactory,  and  was  allowed  to  run  on  for  twenty  years 
instead  of  the  ten  for  which  it  had  been  sanctioned.  A  revised 
settlement,  completed  in  1885,  was  based  on  an  all-round  increase  of 
50  per  cent,  in  cultivation.  The  new  demand  was  9f  lakhs,  an 
increase  on  the  regular  assessment  of  34  per  cent.,  and  it  has  been 
realized  with  ease.  During  the  sixteen  years  ending  1901  only  8  per 
cent,  of  one  year's  demand  was  remitted.  In  the  same  period  cultiva- 
tion increased  8  per  cent.,  while  prices  of  staple  crops  rose  64  per 
cent.  The  District  again  came  under  settlement  in  1902,  and  the 
anticipated  increase  in  the  demand  is  i-i  lakhs,  or  13  per  cent.  The 
average  assessment  on  '  dry '  land  is  10  annas  (maximum  R.  i, 
minimum  4  annas),  and  on  '  wet '  land  Rs.  3-0-1  (maximum  Rs.  5, 
minimum  Rs.  1-0-2).  The  demand  on  account  of  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  for  the  District  as  now  constituted  was  6-6  lakhs. 
The  average  size  of  a  proprietary  holding  is  9  acres. 

The  collections  of  land  revenue  alone  and  of  total  revenue  for  the 
old  District  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  in  thousands  of  rupees :— 


1 880- 1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue    . 
Total  revenue    . 

6,97 
10,28 

8,58 
12,65 

8,27 
16,76 

9,82 
20,04 

The  District  contains  two  municipalities,  Rawalpindi  and  Murree. 
Outside  these,  local  affairs  are  managed  by  the  District  board,  whose 
income,  mainly  derived  from  a  local  rate,  amounted  in  1903-4  to 
i'2  lakhs  ^  The  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  i-i  lakhs \  the 
principal  item  being  education. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  820  of  all  ranks,  including  154 
cantonment  and  160  municipal  police,  and  10  mounted  constables. 
The  Superintendent  usually  has  one  Assistant  and  7  inspectors  under 
him.  The  village  watchmen  number  664.  There  are  13  police 
stations,  with  10  road-posts  in  Rawalpindi  town.  The  District  jail  at 
head-quarters  has  accommodation  for  902  prisoners. 

The  District  stands  second  among  the  twenty-eight  Districts  of  the 

Province  in   respect  of  the  literacy  of  its  population.      In  1901  the 

proportion    of  literate    persons    was    6-9    per    cent.    (11    males    and 

1-2  females).     The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  was  5,359  in 

'  These  include  the  figures  for  the  three  tahslh  of  Attock,  Fatahjang,  and  Pindi 
Gheb,  since  transferred  to  Attock  District. 


RAWALPINDI  TOWN  zir 

1880-1,  7,603  in  1890-1,  and  17,957^  in  1903-4.  In  1904-5  the 
number  of  pupils  in  the  District  as  now  constituted  was  12,227. 
Education  in  Rawalpindi  is  making  great  strides.  Five  new  high 
schools  have  been  opened  since  1881,  and  two  Anglo-vernacular 
middle  schools,  besides  an  Arts  college  maintained  by  the  American 
Mission.  The  great  advance  made  in  female  education  is  largely  due 
to  the  exertions  of  the  late  Baba  Sir  Khem  Singh  Bedi,  K.C.I.E.,  who 
opened  a  number  of  schools  for  girls  and  undertook  their  manage- 
ment. In  1904-5  the  total  expenditure  on  education  in  the  Dis- 
trict as  now  constituted  amounted  to  i-i  lakhs,  of  which  District  funds 
contributed  Rs.  18,000  and  municipal  funds  Rs.  14,000.  Fees  realized 
Rs.  31,000,  and  the  Provincial  Government  made  grants  amounting  to 
Rs.  18,000. 

Besides  the  Rawalpindi  civil  hospital  and  two  city  branch  dis- 
pensaries, the  District  possesses  three  outlying  dispensaries.  At 
these  institutions  during  1904  a  total  of  120,456  out-patients  and 
1,606  in-patients  were  treated,  and  5,405  operations  were  performed. 
The  expenditure  was  Rs.  21,000,  of  which  municipal  funds  provided 
Rs.  16,000.  The  Lady  Roberts  Home  for  invalid  officers  is  situated 
at  Murree. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  12,546,  repre- 
senting 22-4  per  r,ooo  of  the  population.  The  Vaccination  Act  is  in 
force  in  Rawalpindi  and  Murree  towns. 

[F.  A.  Robertson,  District  Gazetteer  (1895)  ;  Settlement  Report 
(1893);  and  Customary  Law  of  the  Rdivalpindi  District  (1887).] 

Rawalpindi  Tahsil. — ^North-western  tahsil  of  Rawalpindi  District, 
Punjab,  lying  between  33°  19'  and  t,'^  50'  N.  and  72°  34'  and 
73°  23'  E.,  with  an  area  of  764  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901 
was  261,101,  compared  with  243,141  in  1891.  The  tahsil  contains 
the  town  and  cantonment  of  Rawalpindi  (population,  87,688),  the 
head-quarters ;  and  448  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  2-6  lakhs.  Manikiala  and  Shahdheri  are 
places  of  great  archaeological  interest.  The  Sohan  river,  which 
crosses  the  tahsil  from  east  to  west,  divides  it  into  two  distinct  portions. 
To  the  north  lie  the  rich  plains  round  Rawalpindi  town,  sloping  up  to 
the  outlying  spurs  of  the  Himalayas,  which  form  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  the  tahsil.  To  the  south  the  country  is  cut  up  by  torrent 
beds  and  ravines  into  little  plateaux,  which  vary  in  soil  and  character, 
but  resemble  each  other  in  difficulty  of  access. 

Rawalpindi  Town. ^Head-quarters  of  the  Division,  District,  and 
tahsil  of  Rawalpindi,  Punjab,  situated  in  2)'^  36'  N,  and  73°  7'  E.,  on 
the  North-Western   Railway  and   the  grand  trunk  road,  on  the  north 

'  These  include  the  figures  for  the  three  tahsTh  of  Attock,  Falahjang,  and  Pindi 
Gheb,  since  transferred  to  Attock  District. 


2  72  RAWALPINDI  TOWN 

bank  of  the  Leh  river,  a  muddy,  sluggish  stream,  flowing  between 
precipitous  banks,  and  separating  the  town  from  the  cantonment ; 
distant  by  rail  1,443  iiiiles  from  Calcutta,  1,479  ^''orn  Bombay,  and 
908  from  Karachi.  The  population,  including  cantonments,  at  the 
last  three  enumerations  was  :  (1881)  52,975,  (1891)  73,795,  and  (1901) 
87,688,  including  40,807  INluhammadans,  33,227  Hindus,  6,302  Sikhs, 
6,278  Christians,  and  1,008  Jains.  The  present  town  is  of  quite 
modern  origin ;  but  Sir  Alexander  Cunningham  identified  certain  ruins 
on  the  site  of  the  cantonment  with  the  ancient  city  of  Gajipur  or 
Gajnipur,  the  capital  of  the  Bhatti  tribe  in  the  ages  preceding  the 
Christian  era.  Graeco-Bactrian  coins,  together  with  ancient  bricks, 
occur  over  an  area  of  2  square  miles.  Known  within  historical  times 
as  Fatehpur  Baori,  Rawalpindi  fell  into  decay  during  one  of  the 
Mongol  invasions  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Jhanda  Khan,  a  Gakhar 
chief,  restored  the  town  and  gave  it  its  present  name.  Sardar  Milka 
Singh,  a  Sikh  adventurer,  occupied  it  in  1765,  and  invited  traders  from 
the  neighbouring  commercial  centres  of  Jhelum  and  Shahpur  to  settle 
in  his  territory.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  Rawalpindi  became 
for  a  time  the  refuge  of  Shah  Shuja,  the  exiled  king  of  Kabul,  and  of 
his  brother  Shah  Zaman.  The  present  native  infantry  lines  mark  the 
site  of  a  battle  fought  by  the  Gakhars  under  their  famous  chief  Sultan 
IMukarrab  Khan  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  at 
Rawalpindi  that,  on  March  14,  1849,  the  Sikh  army  under  Chattar 
Singh  and  Sher  Singh  finally  laid  down  their  arms  after  the  battle  of 
Gujrat.  On  the  introduction  of  British  rule,  Rawalpindi  became  the 
site  of  a  cantonment,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  head-quarters  of 
a  Division;  while  its  connexion  with  the  main  railway  system  by  the 
extension  of  the  North-Western  Railway  to  Peshawar  immensely  de- 
veloped both  its  size  and  commercial  importance.  The  municipality 
was  created  in  1867.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1902-3  averaged  2-1  lakhs.  In  1903-4  the  income  and 
expenditure  were  i-8  lakhs  and  2-1  lakhs  respectively.  The  chief  item 
of  income  was  octroi  {i-6  lakhs);  and  the  expenditure  included 
administration  (Rs.  35,000),  conservancy  (Rs.  27,000),  hospitals  and 
dispensaries  (Rs.  25,000),  public  works  (Rs.  9,000),  and  pubfic  safety 
(Rs.  17,000).  The  cantonment,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  40,611, 
is  the  most  important  in  India.  It  contains  one  battery  of  horse  and 
one  of  field  artillery,  one  mountain  battery,  one  company  of  garrison 
artillery,  and  one  ammunition  column  of  field  artillery ;  one  regiment 
of  British  and  one  of  Native  cavalry ;  two  of  British  and  two  of  Native 
infantry ;  and  two  companies  of  sappers  and  miners,  with  a  balloon 
section.  It  is  the  winter  head-quarters  of  the  Northern  Command, 
and  of  the  Rawalpindi  military  division.  An  arsenal  was- established 
here  in  1883.     The  income  and  expenditure  from  cantonment  funds 


RAYACHOTI  TALUK  273 

during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  96,000  and  Rs.  93,000 
respectively.  The  chief  educational  institutions  are  the  Government 
normal  school,  the  Gordon  Arts  college  maintained  by  the  American 
United  Presbyterian  Mission,  and  five  aided  Anglo-vernacular  high 
schools.  The  cantonment  also  contains  an  English  and  several  Anglo- 
vernacular  middle  schools,  and  an  English  convent  school  for  girls. 
The  town  has  a  civil  hospital,  with  two  branch  dispensaries.  Rawal- 
pindi has  a  large  carrying  trade  with  Kashmir.  The  principal  factories 
are  the  North- Western  Railway  locomotive  and  carriage  works,  where 
the  number  of  employes  in  1904  was  1,455  j  ^^^d  the  arsenal,  which  in 
the  same  year  gave  employment  to  569  persons.  Besides  these,  the 
Rawalpindi  gas-works  had  1 70  employes ;  a  branch  of  the  Murree 
Brewery,  200;  a  tent  factory,  252;  an  iron  foundry,  123;  and  four 
smaller  factories  an  aggregate  of  150  employes.  The  horse  fair  held  by 
the  District  board  in  April  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  Punjab.  There 
are  branches  of  the  Alliance  Bank  of  Simla  and  of  the  Commercial 
Bank  of  India  in  the  cantonment. 

Raya. — South-eastern  tahsll  of  Sialkot  District,  Punjab,  lying  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Ravi  between  31°  43'  and  32°  13'  N.  and  74°  22' 
and  75°  i'  E.,  with  an  area  of  485  square  miles.  The  Degh  in  its 
course  through  the  western  portion  of  the  tahsll  deposits  a  fertile  silt. 
In  the  north-east  also  the  land  is  rich.  In  the  south  the  soil  is  saline, 
but  abundant  crops  of  rice  are  grown  in  good  years.  The  population 
in  1901  was  192,440,  compared  with  214,671  in  1891.  It  contains  the 
town  of  Narowal  (population,  4,422)  and  456  villages,  including 
Raya,  the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  Rs.  3,77,000. 

Rayachoti  Taluk. — Central  tdhik  of  Cuddapah  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  13°  50'  and  14°  20'  N.  and  78°  25'  and  79°  10'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  998  square  miles.  It  is  flanked  on  the  east  by  the  Palkonda 
Hills,  which  separate  this  tract  from  the  lower  country.  The  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  113,912,  compared  with  113,236  in  1891 ;  and  the 
density  was  114  persons  per  square  mile,  compared  with  the  District 
average  of  148.  It  contains  one  town,  R.\vachoti  (population,  7,123), 
the  head-quarters ;  and  89  villages.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  1,63,000.  Like  the  other  upland 
tdliiks,  Rayachoti  contains  a  large  number  of  tanks,  but  few  are  of  any 
size.  In  the  floods  of  November,  1903,  over  one  hundred  of  them 
were  breached.  The  principal  products  are  rice  and  cambu,  the  latter 
being  the  staple  food-grain.  The  soils  vary  considerably,  but  the  red 
varieties  predominate.  There  is  no  black  cotton  soil.  The  most  fertile 
portion  is  to  the  south-east  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tsundupalle, 
where  there  are  a  large  number  of  tanks  and  some  channels  from  the 
Punchu   and    Bahuda    rivers.     There  are  four    rivers  in  the   taluk — 


2  74  RAYACHOTI   TALUK 

the  Papaghni,  which  flows  through  a  small  part  of  the  western  portion, 
the  Mandavi,  the  Bahuda,  and  the  Chitleru.  All  of  them  are  affluents 
of  the  Cheyyeru,  and  none  is  perennial  or  of  any  size.  The  Papaghni 
runs  in  a  rocky  channel  with  a  very  rapid  stream.  The  Mandavi,  on 
the  banks  of  which  the  town  of  Rayachoti  is  situated,  usually  consists 
of  a  narrow  stream  of  water  trickling  through  a  wide  sandy  bed. 

Rayachoti  Town  {Rajd-vidii,  'the  abode  of  the  Raja').  — Head- 
quarters of  the  ta/iik  of  the  same  name  in  Cuddapah  District,  Madras, 
situated  in  14°  4'  N.  and  78°  46'  E.  Population  (1901),  7,123.  It 
stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Mandavi  river,  and  seven  roads  con- 
verge on  it.  It  has  some  trade  and  a  weekly  market.  An  old  temple 
here  is  dedicated  to  Virabhadraswami,  and  a  large  number  of  people 
(about  6,000)  attend  the  annual  car-festival.  Two  odd  superstitions 
are  connected  with  the  feasts  at  this  shrine.  Early  in  the  morning  of 
the  day  of  the  car-procession  a  big  ruby  of  the  size  of  a  nutmeg  is 
placed  between  the  two  eyebrows  of  the  god  to  represent  the  third  eye 
of  Siva.  Opposite  to  the  idol  a  large  heap  of  boiled  rice  is  placed  so 
as  to  catch  the  first  glance  of  the  ruby  eye.  Till  this  is  done,  the 
doors  are  shut,  and  the  people  are  prevented  from  going  in  front  of 
the  idol,  lest  they  should  be  instantly  killed  by  the  rays  from  the  third 
eye.  The  person  who  conducts  the  ceremony  stands  behind  the  idol, 
out  of  the  range  of  the  eye,  and  stops  there  till  the  rite  is  over.  At 
another  time  of  the  year  the  god  is  taken  out  hunting.  He  is  carried 
to  a  small  open  building  supported  by  stone  pillars  half  a  mile  outside 
the  town,  and  there  placed  on  the  ground.  Beneath  the  flooring  of 
this  building  are  a  large  number  of  scorpions.  While  the  god  is  taking 
his  rest  therein,  the  attendants,  it  is  said,  can  catch  these  scorpions 
and  hold  them  in  their  hands  without  being  stung,  but  directly  he  leaves 
it  the  creatures  resume  their  old  propensities. 

Rayadrug  Taluk. — South-eastern  taluk  of  Bellary  District,  Madras, 
lying  between  14*^  28'  and  15°  4"  N.  and  76°  47'  and  77°  21'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  628  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  82,789, 
compared  with  78,625  in  1891.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and 
cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  1,86,000.  It  contains  only  one 
town,  Rayadrug  (population,  10,488),  the  head-quarters;  and  71 
villages.  The  tdhik  contains  a  far  smaller  proportion  of  black  cotton 
soil  than  the  other  three  eastern  taluks  of  Adoni,  Alur,  and  Bellary. 
Twenty-seven  per  cent.,  mainly  consisting  of  land  in  the  basin  of  the 
Hagari,  is  cotton  soil ;  while  about  a  fifth  is  red  land,  and  more  than 
one-half  is  covered  with  the  light  mixed  soils.  The  Hagari  and  its 
tributary  the  Chinna  Hagari  drain  practically  the  whole  area.  Raya- 
drug has  the  smallest  population  of  any  taluk  in  the  District,  and  its 
people  are  the  worst  educated.  More  than  half  of  them  speak  Telugu, 
and  two-fifths   Kanarese.     It  contains  a  large  number  of  wells,   and 


RAYADRUG    TOWN  275 

the  spring  channels  which  are  annually  dug  from  the  Hagari  are  only 
second  in  importance  to  those  from  the  Tungabhadra.  They  are 
cleared  every  year  by  the  joint  labour  of  the  villagers  who  profit  by 
them;  and  the  provisions  of  section  6  of  Act  I  of  1858,  under  which 
any  person  neglecting  or  refusing  to  contribute  his  share  of  the 
customary  labour  is  liable  to  pay  twice  the  value  of  that  labour,  are 
rigorously  enforced.  Most  of  the  land  supplied  by  these  channels  is 
cultivated  with  rice,  and  the  area  under  this  crop  is  far  higher  than 
that  in  any  other  taluk.  But  much  of  the  land  is  very  infertile,  the 
area  under  horse-gram  (the  characteristic  crop  of  poor  soils)  is  high, 
and  one-fifth  of  the  cultivable  area  is  waste.  Korra  is  the  staple  food- 
crop,  and  not  cholam  as  elsewhere  in  the  District.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  cambu  is  also  raised. 

Rayadrug  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name 
in  Bellary  District,  Madras,  situated  in  14°  42'  N.  and  76°  51'  E. 
Population  (1901),  10,488.  Rayadrug  means  'king's  hill-fortress,'  and 
the  place  is  so  named  from  the  stronghold  on  the  rocky  hill  at  the  foot 
of  which  it  is  built.  The  hill  consists  of  two  parts,  one  considerably 
higher  than  the  other,  connected  by  a  low  saddle.  The  citadel  is  on 
the  higher  peak,  2,727  feet  above  the  sea;  but  the  enclosing  walls  of 
the  fortress  surround  both  the  heights  and  the  saddle  between  them, 
and  run,  it  is  said,  for  a  distance  of  5  miles  round  the  hill.  Though 
the  gates  are  in  ruins,  the  lines  of  walls  which  remain  show  what 
a  formidable  stronghold  it  must  have  been  in  days  gone  by.  On  the 
saddle,  and  even  higher  up  the  rock,  are  a  number  of  houses  which  are 
still  occupied,  and  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  from  the  water  in  the 
many  tanks  on  the  hill  is  a  thriving  industry. 

The  place  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a  stronghold  of  some 
Bedars,  whose  disorderly  conduct  compelled  the  Vijayanagar  kings  to 
send  an  officer,  named  Bhupati  Raya,  to  reduce  them  to  submission. 
He  turned  them  out  of  the  place  and  ruled  it  himself,  and  the  hill  was 
called  after  him  Bhupati-Rayanikonda,  or  more  shortly  Rayadrug. 
Later  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  chief  of  Kundurpi  Drug  in  Anantapur 
District ;  and  his  family  built  the  greater  part  of  the  fortifications  on  the 
hill,  and  raised  the  place  to  the  important  position  it  held  in  the  petty 
wars  of  the  Deccan.  The  height  of  its  power  was  reached  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Haidar  All  was  friendly  to  the  chief, 
but  his  son  and  successor  Tipu  treacherously  seized  the  place  and 
confined  its  owner  at  Seringapatam.  When  Tipu  was  killed  in  1799 
a  member  of  the  chief's  family  took  possession  of  the  fort,  but  he 
attempted  to  excite  disturbances  and  was  almost  immediately  deported 
to  Hyderabad  by  the  Nizam's  officers.  When  Bellary  District  was 
ceded  to  the  Company  in  1800,  he  was  transferred  to  Goot)-,  where  he 
resided  on  a  maintenance  allowance  as  a  quasi-state  prisoner  till  his 


2  76  RAY  AD  RUG   TOWN 

death.  Pensions  were  granted  to  the  members  of  his  family,  which 
several  of  their  descendants  continue  to  draw. 

On  the  hill  on  which  the  fort  stands  are  several  temples,  some  ruins 
of  the  former  chiefs'  residences,  a  Jain  temple,  and  some  curious  Jain 
figures  carved  upon  the  face  of  the  rocks  in  a  place  known  as  Rasa 
Siddha's  hermitage.  Rasa  Siddha,  says  local  tradition,  was  a  sage  who 
lived  in  the  days  when  a  king  named  Rajarajendra  ruled  over  Raya- 
drug.  This  king  had  two  wives.  The  elder  of  these  bore  a  son,  who 
was  named  Sarangadhara  and  grew  into  a  very  beautiful  youth.  The 
younger  wife  fell  in  love  with  him.  He  rejected  her  advances,  and  she 
took  the  time-honoured  revenge  of  telling  her  husband  that  he  had 
attempted  her  virtue.  The  king  ordered  that  his  son  should  be  taken 
to  the  rock  called  Sabbal  Banda,  two  miles  north  of  Rayadrug,  and 
there  have  his  hands  and  feet  cut  off.  The  order  was  obeyed.  That 
night  Rasa  Siddha  found  the  prince  lying  there  and,  knowing  by  his 
powers  of  second  sight  that  he  was  innocent,  applied  magic  herbs 
which  made  his  hands  and  feet  to  grow  again.  The  prince  presented 
himself  to  his  father,  who  saw  from  the  portent  that  he  must  be  inno- 
cent and  punished  the  wicked  wife.  The  hermitage  is  now  occupied 
by  an  ascetic  from  Northern  India,  and  on  Sundays  Hindus  of  all 
classes,  and  even  Musalmans,  go  up  the  hill  to  break  coco-nuts  there. 
It  consists  of  three  cells  with  cut-stone  doorways  built  among  a  pile  of 
enormous  boulders,  picturesquely  situated  among  fine  trees.  On  four 
of  the  boulders  are  carved  the  Jain  figures  referred  to. 

Rayadrug  town  contains  two  or  three  broad  and  regular  streets,  and 
many  narrow  and  irregular  lanes.  Its  industries  include  a  tannery,  the 
weaving  of  silk  fabrics,  and  the  manufacture  of  boriigiiln,  or  rice  soaked 
in  salt  water  and  then  fried  on  sand  until  it  swells.  Trade  is  conducted 
largely  with  Bellary,  but  also  with  Kalyandrug  and  with  the  neighbour- 
ing villages  in  Mysore.  Now  that  the  railway  to  Bellary  has  been 
completed,  that  town's  share  of  the  commerce  will  doubtless  increase 
rapidly. 

Rayagada. — Tahsll  in  the  Agency  tracts  of  Vizagapatam,  Madras, 
lying  in  the  north-east  of  the  District.  It  is  very  hilly,  but  the  hills 
have  for  the  most  part  been  denuded  of  their  forests.  The  Nagavali 
or  Langulya  river  traverses  the  whole  length  of  it,  and  most  of  the 
cultivation  (chiefly  rice)  is  in  this  valley.  The  area  is  710  square  miles  ; 
and  the  population  in  1901  was  86,610  persons,  chiefly  Khonds  and 
other  hill  tribes,  living  in  758  villages.  The  head-quarters  are  at 
Rayagada. 

Rayakottai  ('  king's  fort '). — Village  in  the  Krishnagiri  taluk  of 
Salem  District,  Madras,  situated  in  12°  31'  N.  and  78°  2'  E,  Popula- 
tion (1901),  1,497.  To  the  north  stands  the  hill  with  its  ruined  fort 
which  gives  the  place  its  name.     This  commands  one  of  the   most 


RECHNA   DOAB  277 

important  passes  between  the  Mysore  table-land  and  the  Baramahal, 
and  was  of  great  strategical  importance  in  the  Mysore  Wars  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Its  capture  by  Major  Gowdie  was  the  first  exploit 
in  Lord  Cornwallis's  march.  It  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  the  treaty 
of  1792,  and  under  its  walls  the  army  of  General  Harris  encamped  in 
1799  before  entering  Mysore  territory  on  its  way  to  Seringapatam.  The 
place  was  at  one  time  a  favourite  residence  of  military  pensioners. 

Rayan. — Estate  and  chief  town  thereof  in  Jodhpur  State,  Rajput- 
ana.     See  RiAN. 

Raybag. — Head-quarters  of  the  petty  division  of  the  same  name  in 
Kolhapur  State,  Bombay,  situated  in  16°  30''  N.  and  74°  52'  E.,  on  the 
Southern  Mahratta  Railway,  24  miles  south-east  of  Shirol.  Population 
(1901),  3,804.  In  the  eleventh  century  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  chief 
town  of  a  Jain  chiefship.  According  to  a  local  story,  the  town  was 
formerly  so  wealthy  that  on  one  market  day  the  maid  of  a  rich  merchant 
bid  Rs.  5,000  for  a  gourd.  By  this  offer  she  outbid  the  servant  of 
Randullah  Khan,  the  local  Bijapur  governor.  The  servant  in  anger 
told  her  master  that  all  the  best  things  in  the  market  went  to  the 
merchants.  The  governor,  thinking  that  the  town  had  grown  over- 
wealthy,  ordered  it  to  be  plundered,  a  misfortune  from  which  it  has 
never  recovered.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Jains  and  Marathas,  and 
the  town  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall.  On  every  Monda)'  a  market 
is  held,  where  grain  and  coarse  cloth  are  offered  for  sale.  Raybag  con- 
tains three  temples,  a  mosque,  and  the  domed  tomb  of  Randullah  Khan, 
which  has  recently  been  repaired.  The  Someshwar  temple  is  old,  and 
built  of  huge  well-sculptured  blocks  of  stone.  The  Sidheshwar  temple, 
which  is  built  of  black  stone,  was  repaired  in  1875  by  the  indmddrs  or 
proprietors  of  the  Raybag  petty  division.  The  Narsingha  temple  is  an 
underground  structure  of  black  stone.  The  image  of  Narsingha  is  richly 
carved,  and  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  Kistna  near  Jalalpur. 

Razam. — Town  in  the  Palkonda  taluk  of  Vizagapatam  District, 
Madras,  situated  in  18°  27'  N.  and  83°  41''  E=,  about  14  miles  from 
Palkonda,  in  the  middle  of  an  open  plain  covered  with  scrub  jungle. 
Population  (1901),  5,096. 

Razampeta. — Head-quarters  of  the  PuUampet  taluk  of  Cuddapah 
District,  Madras,  situated  in  14°  12'  N.  and  79°  10'  E.  Population 
(1901),  15,287.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Madras  Railway,  but  otherwise 
it  is  of  little  interest. 

Rechna  Doab. — A  dudb  or '  tract  between  two  rivers  '  (the  Ravi  and 
Chenab)  in  the  Punjab,  lying  between  30°  35"  and  32"  50'  N.  and 
71°  50'  and  75°  3'  E.,  comprising  Sialkot,  Gujranwala,  and  Lyallpur 
Districts,  and  parts  of  Gurdaspur,  Lahore,  Montgomery,  J  hang,  and 
Multan.  The  name  was  formed  by  the  Mughal  emperor  Akbar,  by 
combining  the  tirst  syllables  of  the  names  of  the  two  rivers. 


2  78  REGAN 

Regan. — Petty  State  in  Rewa  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Rehli. — Southern  tahsil  of  Saugor  District,  Central  Provinces,  lying 
between  23°  9'  and  23°  54'  N.  and  78°  36'  and  79°  22'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  1,299  square  miles  in  1901.  The  population  decreased  from  171,090 
in  1 89 1  to  138,030  in  1901.  In  1902,  11  villages  and  30  square  miles 
of  Government  forest  were  transferred  to  Narsinghpur  District,  and  the 
revised  totals  of  area  and  population  are  1,254  square  miles  and  136,463 
persons.  The  density  is  109  persons  per  square  mile,  or  below  the 
District  average.  The  tahs'il  contains  two  towns,  Garhakota  (popula- 
tion, 8,508)  and  Deori  (4,980) ;  and  660  inhabited  villages.  The 
head-quarters  of  the  tahstl  are  at  Rehli,.  a  village  of  3,665  inhabitants, 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Sonar  and  Debar  rivers,  26  miles  from 
Saugor  by  road.  Excluding  327  square  miles  of  Government  forest, 
69  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation.  The 
cultivated  area  in  1903-4  was  443  square  miles.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  in  the  same  year  was  Rs.  1,71,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  18,000. 
The  tahsil  contains  some  fertile  plain  country  round  Garhakota  and 
Deorl,  with  stretches  of  poor  hilly  land  on  the  western  and  southern 
borders. 

Rehrakhol. — Native  State  in  Bengal.     See  Rairakhol. 

Remuna. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Balasore  Di.s- 
trict,  Bengal,  situated  in  21°  33''  N.  and  86°  53'  E.,  about  5  miles  w^est 
of  Balasore  town.  Population  (1901),  1,430.  It  is  celebrated  for  the 
temple  of  the  god  Kshirchora  Gopinath,  a  form  of  Krishna,  in  honour 
of  whom  a  religious  fair  is  held  annually  in  February.  The  fair  lasts^ 
for  thirteen  days  and  is  attended  by  a  very  large  number  of  pilgrims. 
Toys,  sweetmeats,  fruits,  vegetables,  country  cloth,  and  other  articles  are 
sold.  The  temple  of  the  god  is  an  unsightly  stone  edifice,  disfigured 
by  indecent  sculptures. 

Reni. — Head-quarters  of  the  nizdmat  and  tahsil  of  the  same  name 
in  the  State  of  Bikaner,  Rajputana,  situated  in  28°  41'  N.  and  75°  3^  E., 
about  120  miles  north-east  of  Bikaner  city.  Population  (1901),  5,745. 
The  town  is  walled,  and  possesses  a  handsome  Jain  temple  built  in 
942  so  solidly  that  the  masonry  is  almost  as  strong  now  as  when  new, 
a  fort  constructed  in  the  time  of  Maharaja  Surat  Singh  (i 788-1 828),  a 
post  office,  a  vernacular  school  attended  by  72  boys,  a  jail  with  accom- 
modation for  86  prisoners,  and  a  hospital  with  beds  for  7  in-patients. 
Raw  hides  and  chhdgals  (leathern  water-bags),  manufactured  at  Reni, 
are  exported  in  great  numbers.  The  nizdmat  consists  of  the  five 
eastern  tahslls  of  Bhadra,  Churu,  Nohar,  Rajgarh,  and  Reni ;  and  the 
total  population  in  1901  was  175,113,  nearly  90  per  cent,  being  Hindus. 

Reoti. — Town  in  the  Bansdih  tahsil  of  Ballia  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, situated  in  25°  51'  N.  and  84°  24'  E.,  on  the  Bengal  and  North- 
western Railway.    Population  (1901),  8,631,    Reoti  is  the  head-quarters 


REWAH  STATE  279 

of  the  Nikumbh  Rajputs,  but  these  have  lost  most  of  their  property, 
and  the  town  presents  a  dirty  and  overcrowded  appearance.  It  is 
administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  Rs.  1,000. 
Coarse  cotton  cloth,  shoes,  and  palanquins  are  manufactured,  but  there 
is  little  trade  besides.     The  school  has  50  pupils. 

Repalle. — Former  name  of  a  taluk  in  Guntur  District,  Madras, 
which  is  now  called  Tenali. 

Revadanda. — Port  in  the  Alibag  tdluka  of  Kolaba  District,  Bom- 
bay, situated  6  miles  south-by-east  of  Alibag  town,  in  18°  33'  N.  and 
72°  57''  E.     See  Chaul. 

Revelganj  (or  Godna). — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of 
Saran  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  47'  N.  and  84°  39'  E.,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Gogra  river.  Population  (1901),  9,765.  The  town  is 
named  after  Mr.  Revell,  who  was  Collector  of  Government  Customs 
in  1788.  It  was  formerly  a  very  important  trade  centre,  but  the  railway 
has  robbed  it  of  much  of  its  business.  Revelganj  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1876.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the 
decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  9,000  each.  In  1903-4  the  in- 
come was  Rs.  11,000,  derived  mainly  from  tolls  and  a  tax  on  houses 
and  lands  ;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  8,000. 

Rewah  State  {Riwd). — A  treaty  State  in  the  Baghelkhand 
Agency,  Central  India,  lying  between  22°  38'  and  25°  la'  N.  and 
80°  32'  and  82°  51'  E.,  with  an  area  of  about  13,000  square  miles.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Banda,  Allahabad,  and  Mirzapur 
Districts  of  the  United  Provinces  ;  on  the  east  by  Mirzapur  District 
and  the  Tributary  States  of  Chota  Nagpur ;  on  the  south  by  the 
Central  Provinces  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  States  of  Maihar,  Nagod, 
Sohawal,  and  Kothi,  in  Baghelkhand.  The  State  falls  into  two 
natural  divisions,  which  are  separated  by  the  scarp  of 
the  Kaimur  range.  North  of  the  range,  surrounding  Pnysical 
the  chief  town,  hes  a  wide  elevated  alluvial  plain, 
with  an  area  of  3,778  square  miles;  to  the  south  the  country  is 
traversed  by  a  succession  of  parallel  ridges  enclosing  deep  valleys,  the 
whole  being  covered  with  dense  forest.  The  plateau  ends  on  both  the 
north  and  south  in  an  abrupt  scarp,  and  the  scenery  near  the  hilly  tract 
is  very  fine.  Over  the  northern  scarp  the  Tons  falls  in  a  series  of 
magnificent  cascades.  Near  Govindgarh  on  the  southern  boundary 
a  similar  effect  on  a  smaller  scale  is  produced  by  streams  which  pre- 
cipitate themselves  into  the  valley  of  the  Son  river. 

The  Kaimurs  and  their  eastern  spur,  known  locally  as  the  Khainjua, 
the  arm  of  the  Panna  range  {see  Vindhva)  called  locally  the  Binjh 
Pahar,  which  curves  eastwards  from  Bundelkhand  and  forms  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  State,  and  the  Maikala  Hills  on  which  the 
sacred  Amarkantak  stands  in  the  south-east,  constitute  the  hill  system 


28o  RE  WAN  STATE 

of  this  region.  The  watershed  is  formed  by  the  Kaimurs,  from  which 
all  streams  flow  respectively  north  or  south  to  join  the  Tons  and  Son, 
these  two  great  rivers  with  their  tributaries  constituting  the  drainage 
of  the  State. 

The  geology  of  Rewah  is  unusually  interesting.  The  type  areas  of 
several  important  series  lie  within  its  limits,  the  Rewahs,  Kaimurs, 
Bandairs  (Bhanders),  and  Sirbu  shales  deriving  their  designations 
from  local  names.  The  elevated  plain  on  which  the  chief  town  stands 
consists  of  rocks  of  the  lower  Bandair  series  overlaid  with  alluvium, 
while  on  some  of  the  highest  hill-tops  a  covering  of  laterite  still 
appears,  showing  that  the  great  Deccan  trap  flow  once  extended  as  far 
east  as  this  region.  The  jungle-covered  tract  lying  south  of  the  Kaimur 
range  consists  of  hills  of  Vindhyan  sandstone  superimposed  on  gneiss. 
The  Bijawars  here  exhibit  a  varied  series  of  slates,  sandstones,  iron 
ores,  and  basic  lavas,  and  in  the  south  abut  on  the  Gondwana  rocks, 
well-known  for  their  coal-bearing  property,  while  at  the  very  southern 
limit  of  the  State  the  cretaceous  Lametas  and  trap  appear,  the  latter 
reaching  as  far  as  Amarkantak. 

Almost  every  formation  met  with  in  the  State  yields  products  of 
value.  The  gneiss  contains  corundum,  while  mica  and  galena  also 
occur  in  this  formation.  The  Bijawars  contain  rich  iron  ores,  valuable 
limestones,  some  of  which  would  make  highly  ornamental  marbles,  and 
bright-red  banded  jaspers  similar  to  those  which  are  found  near 
Gwalior  and  employed  by  the  stone-workers  of  Agra.  The  Lametas 
contain  ceramic  clays  of  excellent  quality.  The  Umaria  coal-mines  in 
the  Gondwanas  are  a  source  of  considerable  income  to  the  State,  while 
the  Vindhyan  sandstones  yield  building  materials  of  unsurpassed 
excellence. 

The  prevalent  tree  in  the  Rewah  forests  is  the  sal  {Shorea  robi/sfa), 
others  being  the  sdj  {Terminalia  toviefitosa),  feiidu  {Diospyros  tovien- 
tosa),  and  k/mir  {Acacia  Catechu).  The  brushwood  consists  mainly 
of  the  species  Gretnia,  Zizyphus,  Casearia,  Antidesma,  Woodfordia^ 
Elueggea,  Phyllanihns^  Bosivel/ia,  and  Bi/chana?iia,  with  occasional 
trees  of  tnahud  {Bassia  1  at  if  olio). 

The  Rewah  jungles  are  well-known  for  their  tigers,  while  leopards, 
bears,  sd??iba?-  {Cervis  wticolor),  antelope,  and  chinkdra  {Gaze/la  ben- 
netti),  and  other  species  common  to  Peninsular  India  abound.  All 
the  ordinary  wild-fowl  are  met  with. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthy,  but  subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  41  inches.  Great  variations  are, 
however,  apparent  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  the  Raghurajnagar 
tahs'il  having  an  average  of  45  inches,  while  in  the  Sohagpur  tahsil  it 
rises  to  52. 

The  chiefs  of  Rewah  are  Baghel  Rajputs  descended  from  the  Solanki 


HISTORY  281 

clan  which  ruled  over  Gujarat  from  the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth  century. 
Vyaghra  Deo,  brother  of  the  ruler  of  Gujarat,  is  said  to  have  made 
his  way  into  Northern  India  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  and  obtained  the  fort  of  Marpha, 
18  miles  north-east  of  Kalinjar.  His  son,  Karan  Deo,  married  a  Kala- 
churi  (Haihaya)  princess  of  Mandla  and  received  in  dowry  the  fort  of 
Bandhogarh,  which  until  its  destruction  by  Akbar  in  1597  w^as  the  capital 
of  the  Baghel  possessions.  The  Rewah  family,  however,  have  singularly 
few  historical  records  ;  and  such  histories  as  have  been  lately  composed 
confuse  persons  and  dates  in  a  way  that  makes  them  absolutely 
unrehable,  so  that  were  it  not  for  the  detailed  records  of  the  Muham- 
madan  historians  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  any  connected  account. 

\\\  1298  Karan  Deo,  the  last  Baghel  ruler  of  Gujarat,  was  driven 
from  his  country  by  Ulugh  Khan,  acting  under  the  orders  of  the 
emperor  Ala-ud-din.  This  disaster  seems  to  have  caused  a  considerable 
migration  of  Baghels  to  Bandhogarh.  Until  the  fifteenth  century  the 
Baghels  were  engaged  in  extending  their  possessions,  and  were  not  of 
sufficient  political  importance  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Delhi 
kings.  In  1488  the  Baghel  Raja  of  Panna'  assisted  Husain  Shah  of 
Jaunpur  when  pursued  by  Bahlol  Lodl.  In  1494  Sikandar  LodI 
advanced  against  Raja  Bhaira  or  Bhira  of  Panna,  who  had  captured 
Mubarak  Khan,  governor  of  Jaunpur.  The  Raja  was  defeated  and 
died  during  his  retreat,  while  Sikandar  proceeded  as  far  as  Paphund, 
20  miles  north  of  the  capital  town  of  Bandhogarh.  In  1498-9  Sikan- 
dar attacked  Bhira's  son  and  successor,  Salivahan,  for  refusing  to  grant 
him  a  daughter  in  marriage.  An  attempt  to  take  the  fort  of  Bandho- 
garh failed,  and  Sikandar  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  laying 
waste  the  country  up  to  Banda.  Salivahan  was  succeeded  by  Blr  Singh 
Deo,  the  founder  of  Birsinghpur,  now  in  Panna  State,  and  was  followed 
by  his  son  Birbhan,  who  had  lived  for  some  time  at  Sikandar's  court. 
The  next  chief  was  Ram  Chandra  (1555-92),  the  contemporary'  of 
Akbar,-  who  is  constantly  mentioned  by  Muhammadan  historians. 
Hearing  of  the  extraordinary  skill  of  Ram  Chandra's  musician.  Tan 
Sen,  Akbar  summoned  him  to  Delhi.  Tan  Sen's  songs  are  still  sung, 
and  his  name  is  revered  throughout  India  as  that  of  a  singer  who  has 
never  been  equalled.  Ram  Chandra  persistently  refused  to  attend  the 
Delhi  court,  till  at  length  in  1584,  at  the  suggestion  of  his  own  son 
Blrbhadra,  then  at  Delhi,  Raja  Birbal  and  a  noble,  Zain  Khan  Koka, 
fetched  the  old  chief,  who  was  received  with  all  honour  by  Akbar. 
Ram  Chandra  died  in  1592  and  was  succeeded  by  Blrbhadra,  who, 
however,  fell  from  his  palanquin  while  travelling  to  Bandhogarh  and 
died  in  the  following  year.  Birbhadra's  sudden  death  and  the  acces- 
sion of  a  minor  named  Vikramaditya  gave  rise  to  disturbances  in 
'  '  Panna '  is  here  probably  a  copyist's  mistake  for  '  Bhatti.' 


282  REWAH  STATE 

Bandhogarh.  Akbar  intervened  and  captured  and  dismantled  the  fort 
in  1597,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months  and  a  few  days.  Anup  Singh 
(1640-60)  was  driven  from  Rewah  by  Pahar  Singh  Bundela  of  Orchha. 
In  1658,  however,  he  went  to  Delhi  and  made  his  submission;  and 
the  fort  of  Bandhu  and  its  dependent  territory  were  restored  to  him. 
Anirudh  Singh  (1690-1700)  was  killed  by  the  Sengar  Thakurs  of 
Mauganj,  leaving  an  infant  son  Avdhut  Singh  (1700-55).  The  State 
at  this  time  was  invaded  by  Hirde  Sah  of  Panna,  who  occupied 
Rewah,  the  chief  being  forced  to  fly  to  Partabgarh  in  Oudh. 

In  1803,  after  the  Treaty  of  Bassein,  overtures  for  an  alliance  were 
made  to  the  Rewah  chief,  who,  however,  rejected  them.  In  181 2, 
during  the  time  of  Raja  Jai  Singh  (1809-35),  ^  body  of  Pindaris  raided 
Mirzapur  from  Rewah  territory.  The  chief  was  believed  to  have  either 
abetted  or  at  least  countenanced  the  raid,  and  was  accordingly  called 
upon  to  accede  to  a  treaty,  in  which  he  acknowledged  the  protection  of 
the  British  Government,  and  agreed  to  refer  all  disputes  with  neigh- 
bouring chiefs  to  their  arbitration,  and  to  allow  British  troops  to  march 
through  or  be  cantoned  in  his  territories.  The  last  condition  was  not, 
however,  fulfilled,  and  a  fresh  treaty  was  entered  into  in  1813.  Jai 
Singh  was  a  scholar,  and  the  author  of  several  works,  as  well  as  a  great 
patron  of  literary  men.  In  1854  Maharaja  Raghuraj  Singh  succeeded 
to  the  gaddi.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in  1857,  he  offered 
troops  for  the,  assistance  of  the  British  Government,  and  2,000  men 
were  sent  to  keep  peace  in  the  neighbouring  tracts.  Kunwar  Singh, 
leader  of  the  rebels  from  Dinapur,  attempted  to  march  through  the 
country ;  but  Lieutenant  Osborne,  the  Political  Agent,  supported  by 
the  country  people,  beat  them  off,  and  also  repulsed  an  attack  by  the 
mutineers  from  Nagod  and  Jubbulpore,  after  which  Colonel  Hinde, 
commanding  the  Rewah  Contingent,  took  the  offensive  and  cleared  the 
Deccan  road  of  rebels.  For  his  good  services,  the  Sohagpur  and 
Amarkantak  parga?jas,  which  had  been  seized  by  the  Marathas  in 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  were  restored  to  Raghuraj  Singh.  He 
died  in  1880,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  chief,  Maharija 
Venkat  Raman  Singh,  born  in  1876.  He  was  created  a  G.C.S.I.  in 
1897,  in  recognition  of  his  successful  conduct  of  famine  relief  opera- 
tions. The  ruler  of  the  State  bears  the  titles  of  His  Highness  and 
Maharaja,  and  receives  a  salute  of  1 7  guns. 

The  country  possessed  by  the  Rewah  chief  is  covered  with  old  re- 
mains, almost  every  village  having  in  it  or  near  it  some  signs  of  former 
habitation  ;  but  these  have  not  yet  been  fully  examined.  Madho- 
garh,  Rampur,  Kundalpur,  Amarpatan,  Majholi,  and  Kakonsiha  may 
be  especially  noted.  At  Kevati  Kund  the  MahanadI  river  drops  down 
a  sheer  fall  of  331  feet,  forming  a  deep  pool  which  is  held  to  be  very 
sacred  ;   near  it  is  an  inscription  in  characters  of  about  200  B.C.     Gurgi 


il 


POPULATION 


283 


Masaun,  12  miles  east  of  Rewah  town,  is  strewn  with  remains  showing 
that  it  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  importance,  and  it  has  been 
suggested  as  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Kausambhi.  A  fine  fort 
here,  called  Rehuta,  which  is  attributed  to  Kama  Deo  Chedi  (1040-70), 
has  a  circuit  of  2\  miles,  with  walls  11  feet  thick  and  originally  20  feet 
high,  surrounded  by  a  moat  50  feet  broad  and  5  feet  deep.  The 
temples  are  mostly  Brahmanical,  though  some  Digambara  Jain  figures 
are  lying  near.  At  Baijnath  are  the  remains  of  five  or  six  temples.  One 
of  them  is  dedicated  to  Siva  as  Vaidyanath,  and  the  sanctuary  door  of 
this  is  magnificently  carved.  Chandrehl,  a  mile  east  from  the  bank 
of  the  Son,  was  once  a  very  large  place  and  contains  a  fine  temple  and 
an  old  monastery.  The  temple  is  peculiar  in  being  constructed  on 
a  circular  plan,  and  is  assigned  to  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century. 
The  monastery  also  belongs  to  about  the  same  period,  and  is  interest- 
ing as  an  example  of  domestic  architecture.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of 
a  square,  with  a  pillared  courtyard  inside  and  chambers  round  it.  The 
ceilings  of  the  rooms  are  elegantly  ornamented.  At  Mara,  the  Muri  of 
the  maps,  are  three  groups  of  caves  called  the  Buradan,  Chhewar,  and 
Ravan.  They  date  from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth  century,  and  some  of 
them  are  ornamented  with  rough  sculptures. 

The  population  at  the  last  three  enumerations  was :  (1881)  1,305,124, 
(1891)  1,508,943,  and  (1901)  1,327,385.  The  decrease  of  14  per  cent, 
during  the  last  decade  is  chiefly  due  to  the  famines 
of  1897  and  1899.  The  density  of  population  is  ro2 
persons  per  square  mile ;  but  the  two  natural  divisions  show  a 
marked  variation,  the  density  in  the  northern  section  rising  to  1 76  per 
square  mile,  while  in  the  hilly  tract  it  is  only  72. 

The  State  contains  four  towns,  Rewah  (population,  24,608),  Satna 
(7,471),  Umaria  (5,381),  and  Govindgarh  (5,022) ;  and  5,565  villages. 

The  following   table   gives   the   chief  statistics   of  population   and 
land  revenue : — 


Population. 


Tahsil. 


Teonthar    . 
Huzur 
Mauganj    . 
Bardi 

Ramnagnr  . 
j  Sohagpur   . 
Raghurajnagar 

State  tota 


OJ 

Number  of 

rt 

a    . 

U'  (0 

m 

•p 

c 
1 

< 

H 

> 

816 

... 

505 

Ij20I 

2 

975 

784 

609 

2,912 

848 

2,77.5 

949 

3,535 

1,192 

977 

4 

4S7 

13,000 

5-565 

J2  o 
3  c^ 
D.- 
o 


105,154 
3i''^i39 
99,534 
198,921 
221,980 

241,345 
144,312 


1,327,385 


o  = 

3  3 

o-o- 

O    X 


129 

263 

127 

68 

80 

68 

148 


o  c 

4,-- 
ct   o 


J2  "    . 

=  00  O 
O  -   CN 

3  s;  = 

cp  .-3 
a. 


-41 

—  I  I 

—  31 

—  16 

+    7 

—  20 

—  10 


102 


—  12 


0 

^  "T" 

'o^r: 

52  c  ^ 

^^U 

r^v^ 

^     Crt          *u 

c     .^  3 

pas 

and  r 

in  lli< 
ofr 

0. 

J-* 

1,641 

3,29 

10,447 

2,86 

1,831 

2,12 

6,969 

1,63 

1,910 

86 

9,109 

27 

4,039 

2,51 

35,946 

13,54 

VOL.  XXI. 


2  84  RE  WAN  STATE 

Hindus  number  1,013,350,  or  76  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Animists, 
280,502,  or  21  per  cent. ;  and  Musalmans,  32,918,  or  2  per  cent.  The 
Animists  are  proportionately  most  numerous  in  the  hilly  tract,  though 
the  Gonds  ordinarily  return  themselves  as  Hindus.  The  question  of 
female  infanticide  was  raised  in  Rewah  in  1893,  when  a  great  de- 
ficiency of  girls  was  found  to  exist  among  the  Karchull  (Kalachuri), 
Parihar,  and  Somvansi  Rajputs.  Measures  were  introduced  for  the 
surveillance  of  certain  villages,  but  the  census  returns  of  1901  gave  no 
indication  of  any  prevalence  of  the  practice. 

The  chief  Hindu  castes  are  Brahmans  (228,000,  or  17  per  cent.), 
Kunbis  (79,000),  Chamars  (78,000),  and  Telis  (36,000).  The  Telis  were 
in  early  days  the  holders  of  much  of  the  country,  Teli  chiefs  ruling 
in  Northern  Baghelkhand  up  to  the  fifteenth  century.  Of  the  jungle 
tribes,  the  most  important  are  the  Kols  (136,500)  and  Gonds  (127,300). 
Brahmans  and  Rajputs  or  Thakurs  are  the  principal  landholders, 
Ahirs  and  Kunbis  being  the  chief  cultivators.  The  prevailing  language 
is  Baghelkhandi,  spoken  by  94  per  cent,  of  the  population.  About 
64  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are  supported  by  agriculture,  and 
8  per  cent,  by  general  labour. 

There  are  no  Christian  missions  in  Rewah,  and  in  1901  only  61 
Christians  were  recorded  in  the  State,  of  whom  21  were  on  the  staff 
of  the  colliery  at  Umaria. 

The  soil  falls  into  two  natural  divisions,  agreeing  with  the  lie  of  the 
country.  On  the  section  north  of  the  Kaimurs,  with  its  deep  alluvial 
covering,  the  soil  is  fertile  and  bears  excellent  crops, 
while  in  the  hilly  tract  cultivation  is  productive  only 
in  the  valleys,  where  detritus  has  collected.  Land  is  classified  locally 
by  crop-bearing  qualities,  natural  formation,  and  proximity  to  villages. 
The  best  class  is  called  tndr,  a  form  of  black  soil,  especially  adapted 
to  wheat  and  other  spring  crops ;  sigofi  is  a  lighter  yellow-coloured 
soil,  growing  rice  especially  ;  dumat  is  a  mixture  of  the  two  former ; 
and  bhatta  is  a  stony  soil  of  low  productive  power. 

The  principal  crops  are  rice,  sdmdn,  maize,  kdkun,  bdjra,  and  kodon 
in  the  autumn ;  and  wheat,  gram,  and  barley  in  the  spring,  with  sub- 
sidiary crops  of  ///  and  linseed.  In  the  low-level  tract  of  the  Teonthar 
tahs'il  poppy  is  cultivated  to  some  extent. 

The  main  agricultural  statistics  for  1902-3  are  given  in  the  table 
on  the  next  page,  in  square  miles. 

The  area  is  thus  distributed :  cultivated,  2,803  square  miles,  or 
22  per  cent.;  uncultivated  but  cultivable,  1,290  square  miles,  or 
10  per  cent. ;  forest,  4,632  square  miles,  or  35  per  cent.  The  rest 
is  uncultivable  waste.  Of  the  cropped  area,  rice  occupies  600  square 
miles,  or  21  per  cent.,  and  wheat  290  square  miles,  or  10  per  cent. 
The  staple  food-grains  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes  are  kodon  and  sdmdn 


FORESTS 


285 


in  the  rains,  and  jowar  and  gram  at  other  times.  The  rich  eat  rice 
and  wheat,  A  new  class  of  wheat  has  lately  been  introduced,  known 
as  inuda  or  safed  ('  white ')  wheat,  but  it  is  considered  of  inferior  quality 
to  the  ordinary  or  kathia  wheat.  Advances  of  grain  and  cash  are  not 
made  in  ordinary  years,  but  are  freely  given  in  times  of  scarcity. 


TahsU. 

Total 
area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated 
(acres). 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Teonthar 

Huzur     . 

Mauganj 

Bardi       . 

Ramnagar 

Sohagpur 

Raghurajnagar 

Total 

816 
1,201 

7S4 
2,912 

2,775 

3,535 

977 

308 

703 
256 
487 
367 
273 
409 

236 

1,040 
67 
78 

183 
208 

I  S3 
167 
198 
189 

73 
302 
178 

200 
127 

183 
1,296 
1,191 

1,474 
161 

13,000 

2,803 

1,967 

1,290 

4,632 

Water  is  plentiful  and  the  country  is  full  of  large  tanks  and  reservoirs, 
but  these  are  not  as  a  rule  used  for  irrigation  purposes ;  the  only 
system  of  '  wet '  cultivation  is  from  small  embankments  of  earth  raised 
at  the  lower  end  of  sloping  fields,  so  as  to  retain  water  for  some  time 
after  the  monsoon  has  ceased.  In  land  thus  moistened  seed  is  sown 
in  October,  producing  a  yield  three  or  four  times  as  great  as  that 
obtained  from  the  same  area  of  equally  good  '  dry '  soil.  The  method 
is  simple  and  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  local  agriculture.  Ordinary 
well-irrigation  is  little  practised,  being  confined  to  the  cultivation  of 
pan,  poppy,  sugar-cane,  and  garden  produce.  Pasturage  is  ample,  but 
no  special  breeds  of  cattle  are  raised. 

Formerly  the  revenue  was  paid  in  kind  called  bhdg  ('share').  This 
system  has  been  entirely  replaced  by  cash  payments  in  lands  directly 
under  the  State ;  but  the  holders  of  alienated  land,  which  comprises 
about  72  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  still  adhere  to  the  old  practice. 
Wages  are  paid  in  kind  for  agricultural  operations,  but  in  cash  for 
other  work.  Blacksmiths,  carpenters,  and  masons  get  4  to  8  annas 
a  day.  The  staple  food-grains,  rice,  wheat,  Jowar,  and  kodon,  sold  in 
1904  at  II,  13,  17,  and  14  seers  per  rupee  respectively. 

The  forests  are  very  extensive  and  of  considerable  commercial  value. 
They  cover  an  area  of  4,632  square  miles,  the  most  important  lying 
south  of  the  Kaimur  range.  The  greater  part  of  the  forest  consists 
of  .^(7/  iyShorea  robiista),  tendU  (Diospyros  tomentosa), 
dhaiva  {Atiogeissiis  iatifoUa),  and  species  of  Termi- 
iialia,  with  much  bamboo.  In  the  upland  area  stunted  teak,  babul 
{^Acacia  arabica),  and  khair  {Acacia  Catechti)  prevail.  Dahya  (shifting) 
cultivation  was  formerly  very  common,  and  is  still  to  some  extent 
practised  by  jungle  tribes.  Trees  are  felled  and  burnt,  and  the  seed 
sown  in  the  ashes.     This  practice  is  highly  destructive  to  forests,  and 

T  2 


Forests. 


286  REWAH  STATE 

is  discouraged  in  consequence.     Till  1875  no  proper  supervision  was 

exercised  over  the  forests,  but  between  that  date  and  1902  systematic 

management  has  been  introduced  and  some  areas  are  now  regularly 

'  reserved  '  and  protected.     The  cutting  of  certain  trees  is  prohibited  ; 

of  these  the  principal  are  the  mahud  {Bassia  latifolid),  achdr  {Buchan- 

ania  latifoiia),  kusam  {Schleichera  irijuga),  harra  {Terminalia  Chebula), 

khair  (^Acacia  Catechu),  chhiula  {^Bassia  butyraced),  sag  or  teak  ( Tectona 

grandis\   and  shisham  {Dalbergia   Sissod).     Grazing   is  allowed    only 

within  village   limits.     Lac,  rdl  (resin   of  Shorea  robusta),  and  other 

jungle  products  are  leased  out  to  contractors  yearly,  the  first  being 

an  important  commercial  item.     Forest  work  is  done  by  Gonds,  Kols, 

and   other  jungle   tribes.     The  forest   income  amounts   to  4-1   lakhs 

a  year,  and  the  expenditure  to  a  lakh. 

Rewah  is  rich  in  mineral  products.     The  most  paying  is  coal  from 

Umaria,   of  which  193,277  tons,  worth  7-5  lakhs,  were  extracted  in 

1903.     Limestone  is  quarried  by  a  European   firm 

near  Satna,  a  royalty  of  4  annas  per  cubic  foot  being 

paid,   which  in   1903    yielded   Rs.  1,640.     A  little  corundum    is  also 

extracted. 

In   respect   of    arts   and   manufactures    Rewah   is   very   backward. 

Agriculture  affords  a  ready  and  easy  means  of  livelihood,   while  the 

fact  that   the  greater  part  of  the  State  is  covered 

Trade  and       ^,j^j^    iungle    has   always    made    communication   for 
commtinications.        ,  ,.^^     ,         „, 

trade    purposes    difficult.       Ihere    are   no    arts    or 

industries  of  any  importance. 

Grain  and  wood  are  the  chief  exports,  large  numbers  of  railway 
sleepers  being  exported  from  the  stations  between  Umaria  and  Pendra 
Road. 

The  chief  means  of  communication  are  the  Jubbulpore  extension 
of  the  East  Indian  Railway  and  the  Katnl-Bilaspur  section  of  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  Jubbulpore-Mirzapur,  or  great  Deccan 
road,  from  which  an  unmetalled  branch  goes  to  Allahabad,  and  the 
Nowgong-Chhatarpur-Panna-Satna  road  are  the  chief  highways ;  but 
since  the  opening  of  railways  the  former  has  been  little  used. 

In  1864  the  State  introduced  a  post  carried  by  runners.  In  1884 
an  arrangement  was  made  with  the  British  Post  Office  department  to 
open  offices  in  the  State.  There  are  now  twenty-one  British  post 
offices,  and  three  telegraph  offices,  at  Rewah,  Satna,  and  Umaria, 
besides  those  at  railway  stations. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  State  has  suffered 

from  three  famines.     The  first  was  in  1831,  when  no  proper  system 

.  of  relief  was  instituted,  and   the  people  suffered  so 

severely  that  on  the  fall  of  any  kind  of  calamity  it  is 

now  usual  to  recall  it.     In  1868  occurred  another  famine,  which  is  still 


ADMINISTRA  TION  2  8  7 

recollected.  The  next  came  in  1897,  when  for  the  first  time  systematic 
relief  was  afforded  to  the  people,  18  lakhs  being  spent.  In  1899  the 
southern  districts  were  again  attacked  by  famine,  though  not  severely. 

Up  to  the  nineteenth  century  the  administration  of  the  State, 
though  it  lay  nominally  with  the  chief,  was  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Kayasth  community,  then  practically  .   . 

the  only  educated  persons  connected  with  the 
government.  A  diivdti  or  minister  had  nominal  superior  control,  but 
all  reports,  accounts,  and  administrative  work  passed  through  the 
hands  of  the  Kayasth  khdskalams  or  writers.  The  districts  were  in 
charge  of  kdrindas  (managers),  who,  however,  were  again  dependent 
on  their  district  khdskalam  for  all  information.  The  district  khdskalam 
prepared  abstracts  of  the  reports  he  received  from  the  village  officials, 
which  were  again  abstracted  by  the  chief  khdskalam  at  head-quarters 
and  submitted  to  the  diwdii.  The  system  naturally  gave  immense 
opening  for  peculation  to  the  permanent  Kayasth  staff. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  now  divided  into  seven 
tahsils,  four  lying  north  of  the  Kaimur  range — the  Huzur,  Raghuraj- 
nagar  (Satna),  Teonthar,  and  Mauganj ;  and  three  south — Bardi, 
Ramnagar,  and  Sohagpur.  Each  tahsil  is  in  charge  of  a  iahsilddr, 
who  is  the  revenue  collector  and  magistrate  of  his  charge,  and  is 
assisted  by  a  staff  consisting  of  a  thanaddr  (police  inspector),  a  forest 
officer,  a  hospital  assistant,  and  a  district  schoolmaster.  Villages  are 
as  a  rule  let  to  farmers  who  are  responsible  for  the  revenue,  receiving 
a  commission  of  5  to  10  per  cent,  on  the  gross  rental. 

The  chief  of  Rewah  has  first-class  powers,  including  that  of  life  and 
death  over  his  subjects,  and  is  the  final  authority  of  appeal  in  all 
matters.  He  is  assisted  by  two  commissioners,  one  for  revenue 
matters  and  one  for  judicial.  The  departments  of  administration  are 
the  revenue  and  general  executive,  judicial,  customs  and  excise,  police, 
public  works,  medical  (which  is  supervised  by  the  Agency  Surgeon  at 
Satna),  education,  and  forests.  The  courts  of  the  State  are  modelled 
on  those  in  British  India,  the  British  codes  being  followed  in  the 
criminal  and  civil  courts  with  necessary  adaptations  to  suit  local 
usage. 

Land  falls  into  two  classes  :  kothdr,  or  land  directly  owned  by  the 
State;  2i.x\^ pawaiya,  or  land  alienated  mjdgirs  and  other  grants.  The 
latter  class  comprises  72  per  cent,  of  the  total  area.  The  principal 
forms  of  grant  are  mudmla,  a  maintenance  grant  made  to  members 
of  the  chief's  family  and  sa7-ddrs,  under  which  the  land  is  not  trans- 
ferable, but  full  revenue  rights  lie  with  the  holder;  paif>akhar {^ washing 
of  feet'),  a  form  of  religious  grant  made  to  Brahmans,  in  which  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  revenue  is  at  times  taken  from  the  holders  ; 
Jdgirs,  or  service  grants,  under  which  the  holder  maintains  a  certain 


288 


REWAH  STATE 


quota  of  men  and  horses ;  and  vritya,  rent  or  tribute-free  grant.     A 
revenue  survey  was  made  in  1879. 

The  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  of  the  State  for  a  series  of  years 
are  shown  below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


Average 

for  ten  years 

1880-90. 

A\erage 

for  ten  years 

1890-1900. 

1900-1. 

1902-3. 

Land  revenue    . 
Total  revenue   . 

6,70 
11,46 

7>87 
14.13 

9>i3 

22,73 

13,54 
29,08 

Of  the  total  revenue  in  1902-3,  the  Umaria  Colliery  contributed 
7  lakhs,  forests  4-1  lakhs,  customs  2-5  lakhs,  and  excise  Rs.  78,000; 
while  Rs.  82,000  was  paid  by  holders  of  alienated  land,  whose  aggre- 
gate normal  income  from  land  revenue  and  other  sources  amounted  to 
20  lakhs.  The  chief  heads  of  expenditure  were  :  chief's  establishment, 
3-7  lakhs ;  army,  4-3  lakhs  ;  public  works,  3  lakhs  ;  collection  of  land 
revenue,  1-4  lakhs;  forests,  i  lakh;  and  colliery,  3-7  lakhs. 

Silver  has  never  been  coined  ;  but  early  in  the  nineteenth  century 
a  copper  coin  known  as  the  Bagga  shdhi  was  struck  in  Rewah,  of 
which  56  went  to  one  British  rupee. 

The  State  forces  consist  of  1,140  infantry  and  574  cavalry,  with 
13  guns.  A  regular  police  force  of  622  men  is  maintained,  village 
watch  and  ward  being  performed  by  men  of  the  Kotwar  caste,  who 
receive  a  small  land  grant  and  grain  dues  at  each  harvest.  The 
Central  jail  is  at  Rewah,  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth  and  ice 
has  been  started  in  it. 

The  Rewah  chiefs  have  long  been  noted  as  scholars  and  supporters 
of  Hindi  and  Sanskrit  learning.  In  1869  Sir  Dinkar  Rao,  the  famous 
minister  of  Gwalior,  who  for  a  short  time  assisted  in  the  administration 
of  the  State,  attempted,  but  without  success,  to  start  an  English- 
teaching  school.  During  the  minority  of  the  present  chief  many 
schools  were  opened.  Of  the  total  population,  2-7  per  cent.  (4-6 
males  and  o-8  females)  could  read  and  write  in  1901.  The  State 
now  contains  two  high  schools,  affiliated  to  the  Allahabad  University, 
and  51  village  schools,  as  well  as  two  girls'  schools,  with  a  total  of 
2,740  pupils.     The  expenditure  on  education  is  Rs.  27,000  a  year. 

There  are  17  hospitals,  costing  Rs.  49,000  a  year.  In  1903-4  the 
number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  33,580,  representing 
25  per  1,000  of  the  population. 

Rewah  Town. — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  Central 
India,  and  head-quarters  of  the  Huzftr  tahsll,  situated  in  24°  32**  N. 
and  81°  18'  E.,  31  miles  by  metalled  road  from  Satna  on  the  East 
Indian  Railway;  1,045  ^^et  above  the  sea.  Population  (1901),  24,608, 
of  whom  19,274,  or  78  per  cent.,  were  Hindus,  and  5,097  Musalmans. 


RE  IV A  KANTHA  289 

Rewah  was  already  a  place  of  importance  in  1554,  when  it  was  held 
by  Jalal  Khan,  son  of  the  emperor  Sher  Shah.  It  became  the  chief 
town  after  the  capture  of  Bandhogarh,  the  old  capital,  by  Akbar  in 
1597 ;  and  Raja  Vikramaditya,  who,  according  to  some  accounts, 
founded  the  place  in  1618,  probably  added  palaces  and  other  buildings. 
About  1 73 1  Rewah  was  sacked  by  Hirde  Sah  of  Panna,  Raja  Avdhut 
Singh  flying  to  Partabgarh  in  Oudh. 

The  old  city  is  still  enclosed  by  a  wall  20  feet  high.  On  the  east 
side  it  is  entered  through  the  Jhula  Darwaza  ('swing  gate'),  a  finely 
carved  gateway  taken  from  the  old  town  of  Gurgi  Masaun,  of  which 
the  remains  lie  12  miles  east  of  the  capital.  In  1882  a  large  part 
of  the  modern  town  was  destroyed  by  a  flood.  Between  the  old  walled 
town  and  the  modern  extension  lies  a  deep  ravine,  crossed  by  a  cause- 
way at  a  point  known  as  the  Bundela  Gate,  from  a  gate  that  formerly 
stood  there,  erected  by  the  Bundelas  after  their  capture  of  the  city. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  palace  of  Vishvanath  Singh,  the  Kothi 
or  new  palace  erected  in  1883,  and  the  State  offices.  The  town  also 
contains  a  school  with  a  boarding-house  attached,  a  State  printing 
press,  a  jail,  a  combined  post  and  telegraph  office,  and  a  small  ddk- 
bungalow. 

A  garden  known  as  the  Lakshman  Bagh  contains  several  modern 
Vaishnavite  temples  erected  by  the  chiefs,  which  are  supervised  by 
the  Swami  or  high  priest  of  the  State,  the  spiritual  director  of  the 
Rewah  chief.  Three  generations  back  the  chief  of  Rewah  became  an 
ardent  supporter  of  Vaishnavism.  An  income  of  Rs.  40,000  a  year 
is  attached  to  the  post,  and  the  Swami  has  great  influence  in  temporal 
as  well  as  spiritual  matters. 

Rewa  Kantha  ('the  banks  of  the  Rewa  or  Narbada'). — A  Political 
Agency  subordinate  to  the  Government  of  Bombay,  established  in 
1 82 1-6,  having  under  its  control  61  separate  States,  lying  between 
21°  23'  and  23°  33'  N.  and  73°  3'  and  74°  20'  E.,  with  a  total  area 
of  4,972  square  miles.  Besides  lands  stretching  about  50  miles  along 
the  south  bank  of  the  Narbada,  Rewa  Kantha  includes  an  irregular 
band  of  territory  from  10  to  50  miles  broad,  passing  north  of  the 
Narbada  to  about  12  miles  beyond  the  Mahi,  and  an  isolated  strip  on 
the  west  lying  chiefly  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Mahi.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Rajputana  States  of  Dungarpur  and  Banswara ; 
on  the  east  by  the  tdluka  of  Dohad  in  the  Panch  Mahals  District,  All 
Rajpur,  and  other  petty  States  of  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  and  part  of 
Khandesh  District ;  on  the  south  by  Baroda  territory  and  Surat 
District ;  and  on  the  west  by  Broach  District,  Baroda  State,  the  Panch 
Mahals,  Kaira,  and  Ahmadabad  Districts.  Extreme  length  from  north 
to  south  about  140  miles,  breadth  from  east  to  west  varying  from 
10  to  50  miles. 


296 


REWA   KANTHA 


General  Statistics  of  each  State  in  the  Rewa  Kantha  Agency 


State. 


First-class  State. 
RajpTpla    .... 
Second-class  States . 
Chota  Udaipur  .    . 
Bariya 

Lunavada  .... 


Balasinor    .     .     . 
Sunth      .     .     .     . 

Petty  States. 
Kadana .... 
Bhadarva    .     .     . 

Umeta  .... 

Sanjeli  .... 
Narukot     .     .     . 


Total  States 

Satiklieda  Ulehwas. 

1  Mandwa     .... 

2  Vajiria 

3  Gad  Boriad    .     .     . 


4  Shanor  .    .    .     . 

5  Nasvvadi     .     .     . 

6  Palasni  .     .     .     . 

7  Bhilodia  :  — 

ISIotisingliji 
ChhatarsinghjT 

SUchad    .     .     .     . 

9  Nangam     .     .     . 

10  Vasan  Virpur 

11  Agar 

12  Vora 

13  Aiwa 

14  Vasan  Sewada    . 

15  Chorangla  .     .     . 

16  Vanmala     .     .     . 

17  Sindiapura.     .     . 

18  Bihora   .     .     .     . 

19  Vadia  Virampur 

20  Dudhpur    .     .     . 

21  Rampura   .     .     . 

22  Jiral  Kamsoli 

23  Chudesar   .     .     . 

24  Regan    .     .     .     . 

25  Nalia      .... 

26  Pantlavdi : — 

Akbar  Khan    . 
Kesar  Khan     . 


Caste,  tribe, 
or  race  of  the 
ruling  chief. 


Rajput 
Rajput 


ISIusalnirui 
Rajput     . 

Rajput      . 


Rajput     . 
Bariya     . 


Rajput    . 
Musalman 
Rajput    . 


Musalman 


Rajput     . 
Musalman 


Rajput    . 
Musalman 


Total  Sankheda  Mehwas  . 


1.5172 

873 
813 
388 

189 
394 

I  JO 

27 


34 
143 


4o45 


16A 
21 
128 

II* 
19^ 


42 
4i 
8i 

3 

17 

3i 

5 

16 

loi 

4 

I 

i3 

4A 

5 

22 

4 


I! 


IT-  ' 

3332 


927 


546 

495 


102 
291 

106 
15 
14 

52 
53 


2,949 


21 
128 

7 
27 


13 

4 

22 

28 

2 

8 

6 

16 

10 

6 


358 


rt  O 
o 


II7.I75 

64,621 

81,579 
63,967 

32,618 
39,956 


9,550 
8,782 

3,834 

2,743 
5,603 


430,428 


4,9<>7 
3,929 
3,018 

1,219 
2,482 

855 

732 
789 

1,482 
367 

2,185 

1,399 

1,060 

S05 

765 
1,404 

743 
483 
159 
96 
108 

1,457 
672 

359 
262 

56 

178 
221 


Revenue  (1903-4). 


From 
land. 


Rs. 

5,37,485 

1,00,678 

67,833 

1,11,932 

64,447 
62,725 

13,430 
23,329 
28,572 

6,772 

5,682 


10,22,0 


32,272 


22,223 

25,387 
4,890 

8,861 
7,332 
3,637 

5,451 
4,942 
9,319 
1,600 

15,903 
9,911 

5,757 

4,756 

3,860 

3,801 

3,513 

2,570 

1,605 

S90 

667 

2,315 

4,541 

2,9Si 

877 

164 

2,212 
1,750 


Total. 


Rs. 

8,76,014 

2,15,391 
2,13,375 
1,78,701 

99,543 
1,09,207 

18,683 
35,856 
36,132 

13,326 
15,049 


18,11,277 


32,533 
29,962 

9,377 

11,819 
8,865 
4,303 

8,866 

5,699 
10,214 

1,834 
18,798 
10,746 

6,632 

5,577 
4,710 
5,029 
3,952 
2,866 
1,643 
890 

679 

3,556 

4,852 

2,965 

976 

270 

2,544 
2,213 


Tribute. 


1,61,685 


2,02,370 


Amount. 


Rs. 

50,001 

7,806 

S,ooi 
9,231 

3,078 
9,766 
5,384 


14,674 
3,846 
2,402 

32 


1,704 

3,852 

365 

1,214 
1,301 
1,639 

933 
933 
679 
995 
332 
143 
65s 
52 
885 

73 
102 

44 

39 

79 

27 

1,094 

256 

239 

355 
28 

127 
43 


18,18 


To  whom 
payable. 


Gaikwar. 


Gaikwar. 

)   Gaikwar 
f  &  British. 

f  ,,       ,, 
British. 


Gaikwar. 
I   Gaikwar 
/  &  British. 

Gaikwar. 


Gaikwar. 

Chota 

Udaipur. 
Gaik 


Rajpipla. 


Of  the  61  States,  6  are  large  and  55  are  small.  Of  the  large  States, 
Rajpipla  in  the  south  is  of  the  first  class;  and  five  — Chota  Udaipur 
and  Bariya  in  the  centre,  and  Sunth,  Lunavada,  and  Balasinor  in  the 
north  and  north-west  — are  second-class  States.  The  55  small  States 
include  Kadana  and  Sanjeli  in  the  north,  Bhadarva  and  Umeta  in  the 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS 


291 


General  Statistics  of  each  State  in  the  Rewa  Kantha  Agency  {cont>) 


State. 


Pandu  Mehwas. 
I  Pandu    .... 


2  Sihora 

3  Chhaliar 

4  Nara 

5  Varnol  Mai     .... 

6  Juinkha 

7  Itwad 

8  Vakhtapur      .... 

9  Mevali 

10  Kasia  Pagina  Muvada 

11  Kanora 

12  Poicha 

13  Gotardi 

14  MokhaPaginaMuvada 

15  Jesar 

16  Varnoli  Naiii      .     .     . 

17  Dhari 

18  Varnoli  Moti  .... 

19  Rajpar 

20  Litter  Gothda     .     .     . 

21  Amrapur 

22  Dorka 

23  Anghad 

24  Raika 


Caste,  tribe, 
or  race  of  the 
ruling  chief. 


Musalman 
Bariya  . 
Rajput  . 
Bariya     . 


Rajput  . 

Pagi    .  . 

,^ 
Bariya 

Rajput  . 

Pagi    .  . 


Rajput 


Koll  . 
Bariya 
Patidar 
KolT  . 
Rajput 


Total  Pandu  Mehwas  . 
Grand  Total 


'Z.  E 


3i 

o 

I* 

2 

3 

4? 

3 


91? 


-2  S' 


+3412 


1. 149 
2,640 
1,983 
263 
426 
145 
843 
244 
900 

41 

884 

736 
228 

96 
313 

74 
821 

i68 
80 
416 
251 
911 
2,269 
474 


16,355 


479P55 


Revenue  (1903-4). 


From 
land. 


Rs. 

4,502 

12,039 
6,146 

74 

1,000 

222 

893 

606 

1,100 

55 
1,116 
1,764 
385 
"5 
392 
228 

1,567 

317 

318 

583 

249 

4,395 

2,735 

3,337 


44,138 


12,28,708 


Total. 


Rs. 

5,798 

16,719 

7,562 

96 

1,094 

335 

1,152 

816 

1,603 

159 

1,582 

2,163 

478 

445 

433 

346 

2,121 

409 

487 

654 

434 

4,703 

5,181 

3,609 


58,379 


20,72,026 


Tribute. 


Amount. 


Rs. 

3,462 

3,693 
2,616 

19 

65 

39 

462 

116 

1. 155 

50 

1,232 

1,155 
327 

96 
116 

19 
731 

78 

39 
155 
155 
850 

1,344 
443 


18,417 


1,47,826 


To  whom 
payable. 


Gaikwar. 


*  According  to  the  latest  int'ormation.  f  This  figure  is  based  on  the  latest  information.    Unpopulated 

villages  were  not  enumerated  at  the  Census  of  1901. 

west,  Narukot  in  the  south-east,  and  three  groups  of  Mehwas  or 
turbulent  villages.  The  26  Sankheda  Mehwas  petty  estates  lie  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Narbada,  while  the  24  Pandu  Mehwas  petty  estates, 
including  Dorka,  Anghad,  and  Raika,  which  together  form  the  Dorka 
Mehwas,  are  situated  on  the  border  of  the  Mahi. 

In  the  outlying  villages  to  the  west  along  the  Mahi,  and  in  the  north 
and  south  where  Rewa  Kantha  stretches  into  the  plains  of  Gujarat,  the 
country  is  open  and  flat  :  but  generally  the  Agency 
is  hilly.  Its  two  principal  ranges  are :  in  the  south, 
the  Rajpipla  hills,  the  westernmost  spurs  of  the  Sat- 
puras,  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Narbada  and  Tapti  valleys; 
and  across  the  centre  of  the  Agency,  the  spurs  of  the  Vindhya  range 
running  west  from  the  sandstone-crowned  table-land  of  Ratanmal,  and 
forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Narbada  and  the  Mahi.  In  the 
120  miles  of  the  course  of  the  Mahi  through  Rewa  Kantha,  the  country 
changes  from  wild  forest-clad  hills  in  the  east  to  a  flat  bare  plain  in  the 
west.  Its  deep  banks  make  this  river  of  little  use  for  irrigation.  Its 
stream  is  too  shallow  and  its  bed  too  rocky  to  allow  of  navigation. 
The  Narbada  enters  the  Agency  through  a  country  of  hill  and  forest 


Physical 
aspects. 


292  RE  IV A    K ANTE  A 

with  wooded  or  steep  craggy  banks.  For  the  last  40  miles  of  its  course, 
the  country  grows  rich  and  open,  the  banks  lower,  the  bed  widens,  and 
the  stream  is  deep  and  slow  enough  for  water-carriage.  For  8  miles 
it  is  tidal. 

Gneiss  and  Deccan  trap  are  the  predominant  rock  formations  in 
Rewa  Kantha,  the  former  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Agency,  the  latter 
in  the  southern.  There  are  also  some  outcrops  of  Cretaceous  rocks 
underlying  the  Deccan  trap  and  of  Tertiary  rocks  overlying  it.  The 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds,  including  the  Deccan  trap,  dip  in  various 
directions  at  low  but  distinct  angles  and  are  frequently  faulty.  The 
gneiss  is  mostly  a  coarse-grained  granitoid  rock,  associated  sometimes 
with  crystalline  schists.  At  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  gneiss 
area  are  some  ancient  strata  classified  under  the  name  of  Champaner 
beds.  The  Cretaceous  rocks  belong  to  the  Lameta  group,  also  called 
Bagh  or  infra-trappean,  which  is  of  cenomanian  age.  Some  outcrops 
fringe  the  northern  limit  of  the  Deccan  trap  area,  along  the  valleys  of 
the  Asvan  and  Men  rivers ;  and  there  are  also  some  inliers  in  the  midst 
of  the  basaltic  outcrop,  principally  near  Kawant  and  in  the  Devi  valley, 
respectively  north  and  south  of  the  Narbada.  The  Deccan  trap  con- 
tains the  usual  basaltic  flows,  with  occasional  intercalations  of  fossili- 
ferous  fresh-water  inter-trappean  beds.  Ash-beds  and  agglomerates  are 
frequent,  and  dikes  are  very  abundant,  especially  in  the  Rajplpla  hills, 
which  occupy  the  site  of  an  ancient  focus  of  volcanic  activity.  Intrusive 
sills,  some  of  them  trachytic  instead  of  basaltic,  also  penetrate  the 
underlying  Lameta.  The  surface  of  the  Deccan  trap  v/as  greatly  denuded 
and  extensively  transformed  into  ferruginous  laterite  during  the  Tertiary 
period.  The  lowest  Tertiary  beds  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Raj- 
plpla hills  rest  upon  a  thick  mass  of  this  ferruginous  rock,  and  through- 
out the  entire  series  a  great  many  ferruginous  beds  recur  at  various 
horizons  \  the  Tertiary  beds  consist  largely  of  the  accumulated  products 
of  disintegration  from  the  adjoining  volcanic  area.  Two  groups  have 
been  distinguished  in  the  Tertiary  :  a  lower  group  with  Nummulites, 
identical  with  the  upper  part  of  the  Kirthar  in  Sind,  or  the  SpTntangi 
in  Baluchistan,  whose  age  is  middle  eocene ;  and  an  upper  group  with- 
out Nummulites,  containing  numerous  bands  of  conglomerate.  Marine 
and  terrestrial  fossils,  the  latter  including  fragments  of  fossil  wood, 
occur  in  this  upper  subdivision,  which  answers  to  the  Gaj  group  and 
Siwaliks.  The  celebrated  agate-mines  of  Ratanmal  in  the  Rajplpla 
State  are  situated  in  a  conglomerate  belonging  to  this  group.  The 
agates  in  their  original  form  consist  of  geodes  contained  in  the  Deccan 
trap  basalt  which,  having  been  set  free  by  the  disintegration  of  the 
enclosing  rock,  have  been  shaped  into  waterworn  pebbles  accumulated 
into  conglomeratic  layers.  The  exceptional  value  of  the  Ratanmal 
agates  is  due  to   the  lateritic  ferruginous   matrix   in   which   tliey  are 


HISTORY  293 

imbedded :  they  have  been  impregnated  with  ferruginous  products 
giving  them  a  much  appreciated  colour,  which  is  further  enhanced 
by  artificial  treatment. 

A  great  part  of  Rewa  Kantha  is  forest. '  The  commonest  tree  is 
the  mahiid,  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  States  of  Chota  Udaipur 
and  Bariya.  Teak  is  abundant,  but,  except  in  sacred  village  groves,  is 
stunted.  The  other  most  abundant  trees  are  black-wood,  tamarind, 
mango,  ray  an,  sddado  {Terminalia  Arjuna),  beheda,  timburnoi,  bill 
(Aeg/e  Marme/os),  khair,  &c.  Many  shrubs  and  medicinal  plants  are 
also  found  in  the  forests.  Among  grasses  the  most  important  are  viran 
or  khas-khas  and  elephant-grass,  the  stems  of  which  are  used  to  make 
native  pens. 

Tigers  are  very  rare  ;  but  leopards,  though  yearly  becoming  fewer, 
are  still  found  in  considerable  number.  Bears  and  wild  hog  are  com- 
mon. Sdtnbar,  spotted  deer,  and  nilgai  are  found  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  Agency  ;  bison  in  the  extreme  south-east.  The  painted 
and  common  sand-grouse,  red  spur-fowl,  the  peafowl,  the  painted  and 
grey  partridge,  and  quail  are  common.  Common  jack  and  painted 
snipe,  black  goose,  cotton,  whistling,  common,  and  blue-winged  teal, 
are  some  of  the  principal  water-fowl. 

In  the  forest-covered  tracts  of  eastern  Rewa  Kantha,  with  large  areas 
of  land  rich  in  springs,  the  cold  in  January  is  very  severe,  ice  forming 
on  pools  and  the  crops  suffering  at  times  from  frost.  The  heat  is  at 
times  intense,  the  thermometer  in  the  shade  in  Lunavada  and  Bariya 
rising  to  108°  and  110°.  In  1903  the  minimum  ranged  from  54°  in 
January  to  80°  in  May,  and  the  maximum  from  85°  in  January  to  112^ 
in  May.  In  1873  the  heat  was  so  great  that  several  persons  died,  and 
bats  and  monkeys  are  said  to  have  fallen  dead  from  the  trees.  Healthy 
in  the  open  parts,  the  climate  of  the  eastern  hill  and  forest  tracts,  espe- 
cially in  Bariya  and  Rajpipla,  is  very  sickly.  The  chief  diseases  are 
malarial  fever,  eye  and  skin  complaints,  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery. 

The  annual  rainfall  in  the  Agency  varies  from  38  to  48  inches.  At 
Lunavada,  Rajpipla,  and  Balasinor  it  averages  38  inches,  and  at  Bariya 
and  Chota  Udaipur  48  inches. 

Under  the  first  Anhilvada  dynasty  (746-961),  almost  all  the  Rewa 
Kantha  lands  except  Champaner  were  under  the  government  of  the 
Bariyas,  that  is,  Koli  and  Bhil  chiefs.  In  the  eleventh, 
twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries  chiefs  of  Rajput  or 
part  Rajput  blood,  driven  south  and  east  by  the  pressure  of  Muhamma- 
dan  invasion,  took  tlie  place  of  tlie  Koli  and  Bhil  leaders.  The  first 
of  the  present  States  to  be  established  was  the  house  of  the  Raja  of 
Rajpipla.  Kadana  is  said  to  have  been  established  as  a  separate  power 
about  the  thirteenth  century  by  Limdevji,  younger  brother  of  Jhalam 
Singh,  a  descendant  of  Jhalam  Singh,  the  founder  of  the  town  of  Jhalod 


2  94  REWA    KANTHA 

in  the  Panch  Mahals.  About  the  same  date  Jhalam  Singh's  son  settled 
at  the  Bhil  village  of  Brahmapuri,  changing  its  name  to  Sunth.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Ahmadabad  Sultans  brought  under  submission 
almost  the  whole  of  Rewa  Kantha.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  although 
a  member  of  the  Babi  family  founded  the  State  of  Balasinor,  the  power 
of  the  Gujarat  viceroys  began  to  decline.  The  Marathas  soon  spread 
their  authority  over  the  plains,  and  collected  tribute  with  the  help  of 
military  force. 

The  younger  branches  of  the  chiefs'  families  had  from  time  to  time 
been  forced  to  leave  their  homes  and  win  for  themselves  new  States  \ 
and  these,  with  the  descendants  of  a  few  of  the  original  chiefs,  form  the 
present  landholders  of  the  small  estates  of  the  Agency.  Under  the 
Marathas,  they  plundered  the  country ;  and  as  the  Gaikwar  failed  to 
keep  order,  the  British  had  to  undertake  the  task.  In  1822  an  agree- 
ment was  concluded  with  the  Gaikwar,  under  which  the  control  of  all 
the  Baroda  tributaries  was  vested  in  the  Bombay  Government.  In  this 
year  Mr.  Willoughby  was  appointed  to  settle  the  affairs  of  the  territory. 
In  1823  the  position  and  tribute  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Sankheda  Mehwas 
were  settled  by  him.  In  1825  the  chiefs  of  the  Pandu  Mehwas  came 
under  British  control.  At  the  same  time  the  political  control  of  the 
Panch  Mahals  was  made  over  by  Sindhia  to  the  Government,  and  Bariya 
State  was  transferred  from  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central  India.  The 
Political  Agency  of  Rewa  Kantha  was  established  in  1826  to  take 
charge  of  Rewa  Kantha,  including  Rajplpla,  Sindhia's  Panch  Mahals, 
the  Mehwas  States  on  the  Mahi  and  Narbada,  Bariya,  Chota  Udaipur, 
and  Narukot  of  the  Naikdas.  The  States  of  Lunavada  and  Sunth, 
which  had  been  under  British  control  since  18 19,  were  afterwards  trans- 
ferred from  the  Mahl  Kantha  Agency.  In  1829  the  appointment  of 
Political  Agent  was  abolished,  and  the  chiefs  were  left  very  much  to 
themselves  for  a  few  years.  In  1842  the  Political  Agency  at  Rewa 
Kantha  was  re-established,  and  the  powers  of  the  chiefs  in  'criminal 
cases  were  defined.  In  1853  the  State  of  Balasinor  was  transferred 
from  the  Kaira  Collectorate ;  and  Sindhia  handed  over  for  a  period 
of  ten  years  the  administration  of  the  Panch  Mahals.  In  1861  the 
Panch  Mahals  were  exchanged  by  Sindhia  for  land  near  Gwalior,  and 
became  British  territory.  Two  years  later  the  Panch  Mahals  were 
removed  from  the  control  of  the  Agent  and  formed  into  a  separate 
charge.  In  1876  the  Panch  Mahals  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  Dis- 
trict, the  officer  in  charge  of  it  having  control  of  the  Rewa  Kantha 
States.  The  estate  of  Narukot  is  managed  by  the  British  Government, 
which  takes  half  the  total  revenue,  the  remaining  half  going  to  the 
chief,  under  the  agreement  of  1839.  Since  1825  the  peace  of  Rewa 
Kantha  has  thrice  been  broken:  in  1838  by  a  Naikda  (Bariya,  Chota 
Udaipur,  and  Narukot)  rising  ;  in  1857  by  the  presence  of  a  rebel  force 


! 


A  GRIC  UL  TURE  2  9  5 

from   Northern   India;   and  in    1868   by   another  Naikda   (Narukot) 

disturbance. 

The  population  at  the  last  four  enumerations  was  :  (1872)  512,569, 

(1881)  549,892,  (1891)  733,506,  and  (1901)  479,065.    The  great  decrease 

during    the    last    decade   is  due   to    severe   famine.       ^       ,  ^. 
r^.  ,       ■      ■      r  1  Population. 

The     average  density  is  96  persons  per  square  mile. 

The  Agency  contains  6  towns  and  2,817  villages.  The  chief  towns  are 
Nandod,  Lunavada,  and  Balasinor.  Hindus  number  435,023,  or 
90  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Muhammadans,  23,712,  or  5  per  cent.; 
aboriginal  tribes,  18,148  ;  Jains,  1,400  ;  and  Christians,  267.  The  Brah- 
man caste  (20,000)  is  largely  represented  by  the  Audich  (7,000)  and 
Mewada  Brahmans  (5,000).  There  are  17,000  Rajputs,  and  among 
cultivating  castes  Kunbis  (34,000)  are  important ;  but  the  States  of  the 
Agency  are  mainly  populated  by  aboriginal  tribes  of  Bhil  and  Koli 
origin.  Though  these  tribes  suffered  severely  in  the  famine  of  1899- 
1902,  the  last  Census  disclosed  91,000  Bhils,  150,000  Kolls,  32,000 
Dhodias,  27,000  Naikdas,  and  18,000  Dhankas.  Disinclined  to  regular 
cultivation,  these  tribes  lead  a  wandering  life,  subsisting  very  largely 
on  forest  produce.  They  are  thriftless  and  fond  of  liquor,  and  when 
intoxicated  will  tire  themselves  out  in  wild  dancing.  Crime,  however, 
is  less  frequent  among  them  than  formerly.  Among  Hindu  low  castes, 
Mahars  number  14,000. 

Rewa  Kantha  includes  great  varieties  of  soil.  In  the  north  near  the 
Mahl,  and  in  the  south  near  the  Narbada,  are  rich  tracts  of  alluvial 

land.     In  Lunavada  and  Balasinor  in  the  north,  light  . 

r  ^     .    ,  ^    •    -.        Agriculture, 
brown  goradu,  not  so  rich  as  that  of  Central  Gujarat, 

is  the  prevailing  soil.  There  are  also  a  few  tracts  of  grey  besar  land, 
generally  growing  rice.  Near  the  Shedhi  river  are  some  patches  of 
land  called  bhejvdli,  very  damp,  and  yielding  a  cold-season  crop  of 
wheat  and  pulse,  but  not  well  suited  for  cotton.  In  Sunth  the  black 
or  kali  soil  holds  moisture  well,  and  without  watering  yields  two  crops 
a  year.  The  Bariya  lands — light  brown  goradtt,  deep  black  kali,  and 
sandy  reta/ — are  capable  of  yielding  any  crop  except  tobacco.  The 
black  loam  of  the  Sankheda  and  Pandu  Mehwas  is  nearly  as  rich  as 
the  cotton  lands  of  Amod  and  Jambusar  in  Broach.  RajpTpla,  espe- 
cially its  Narbada  districts,  is  exceedingly  fertile.  Except  a  few  tracts 
of  rocky  and  inferior  black  soil,  Rewa  Kantha  is  on  the  whole  fertile. 
In  the  open  country,  in  the  hands  of  Kunbi  and  other  high-class 
husbandmen,  the  tillage  is  the  same  as  in  Central  Gujarat.  In  the  hilly 
and  wooded  tracts  inhabited  by  Bhils,  Kolis,  and  other  unsettled  tribes, 
cultivation  is  of  the  rudest  kind. 

Of  the  total  area,  about  1,719  square  miles  are  cultivable,  of  which 
1,030  square  miles  were  actually  under  cultivation  in  1903-4.  The 
principal  crops  are  :    cereals  (maize,  rice,  Jotvdr,  bdjra,  and  kodra) 


296  J^EJVA   KANTHA 

pulses  (/;/r,  wa///,  and  gram) ;  oilseeds  (castor,  gingelly,  and  HI) ;  and 
fibres  (cotton  and  san-h^m^).  The  wheat  grown  in  the  Agencj'  is  of 
two  kinds,  vajia  and  kdtha.  The  rice  is  of  a  coarse  description  known 
as  vari.  Of  kodra  a  local  variety  {mhiia  kodra)  has  a  narcotic 
property,  which  is  to  a  certain  extent  neutralized  by  washing  and  dry- 
ing two  or  three  times  before  grinding.  Turmeric,  chillies,  cumin, 
melons,  guavas,  custard-apples,  and  plantains  are  commonly  grown. 

The  domestic  animals  are  buffaloes,  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats. 
In  Balasinor,  Lunavada,  Sunth,  and  Bariya  goats  are  carefully  bred, 
and  yield  fairly  close  and  fine  wool.  Horse-breeding  is  carried  on 
in  Sunth. 

Only  4,637  acres  were  irrigated  in  1903-4,  distributed  as  follows : 
Rajpipla  (127),  Lunavada  (2,856),  Balasinor  (1,438),  Sunth  (216). 
Wells  are  the  only  sources  of  irrigation. 

The  greater  part  of  Rewa  Kantha  is  covered  with  forests,  of  which 
the  most  valuable  are  in  Bariya  State.  The  chief  trees  have  already 
been  described  under  Botany.  The  forest  Reserves  are  of  two  kinds  : 
State  Reserves,  or  tracts  in  the  large  forests  where  the  Darbar  only  can 
cut ;  and  sacred  village  groves,  where  the  finest  timber  is  found.  Most 
of  the  villages  have  two  kinds  of  groves — one  never  cut  except  on 
emergencies,  and  the  other  less  sacred  and  felled  at  intervals  of  thirty 
years.  Except  for  the  wartts  of  the  State,  or  when  the  villagers  are 
forced  to  make,  good  losses  caused  by  some  general  fire  or  flood,  the 
fear  of  the  guardian  spirit  keeps  the  people  from  destroying  their 
village  groves.  The  forests  were  once  famous  for  their  large  store 
of  high-class  timber.  Strict  conservancy  in  the  neighbouring  Panch 
Mahals  District  led  to  much  reckless  felling  in  the  Agency,  but  greater 
care  of  their  forests  is  now  taken  by  the  chiefs. 

Manganese  ore  and  mica  deposits  are  found  in  Chota  Udaipur  and 
Jambughoda,  and  a  prospecting  licence  for  manganese  in  the  latter 
place  has  been  issued.  A  prospecting  and  exploring  licence  will 
shortly  be  issued  for  Chota  Udaipur.  Akik  (agate  or  carnelian)  is 
worked  in  Rajpipla. 

The  Rewa  Kantha  manufactures  are  of  little  importance.     The  chief 

industries   are   the   making  of  catechu  from   the  bark   of  the  khair, 

country  soap,  coarse  cotton  cloth,  and  tape  for  cots. 

Trade  and        jj^^  Bhils  make  good  bamboo  baskets  and  matting. 
commxinications.  ^.  ,      .         .  °  ,         ,      ,  , 

Smce  the  iron  furnaces  ceased  work,  the  swords  for 

which  Nandod  was  once  famous  are  no  longer  made.     There  are  three 

cotton-ginning  factories  worked  by  steam,  and  eight  distilleries. 

The  trade  resembles  in  many  respects  that  of  the  Panch  Mahals. 

Both  have  a  through  traffic  between  Gujarat  and  Central  India,  and 

a  local  trade  west  with  Gujarat  and  east  with  Rajputana,  Central  India, 

and  Khandesh.     While  the  opening  of  the  railways  described  in  the 


1 


ADMINISTRA  TION  2  9  7 

following  paragraphs  has  increased  the  local  trade  westwards,  the 
through  trade  has  dwindled,  the  old  direct  routes  with  their  rough 
roads  and  heavy  dues  failing  to  compete  with  the  easy  railway  journey 
by  these  lines.  The  principal  exports  are  timber,  firewood,  mahud, 
and  other  forest  produce ;  and  the  imports  are  piece-goods,  salt,  sugar, 
and  metals. 

No  State  of  the  Agency  possessed  railway  communications  until 
1890.  The  extension  of  the  Anand-Godhra  branch  of  the  Bombay, 
Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway  to  Ratlam  since  1893  has  con- 
nected the  Bariya  State  with  the  main  line.  Similarly,  the  construction 
of  the  Dabhoi  and  Baroda-Godhra  lines  has  facilitated  the  trade  of  the 
Chota  Udaipur,  Rajplpla,  and  Bariya  States  with  the  neighbouring 
Baroda  territory,  and  the  Rajplpla  State  Railway  in  1899  has  connected 
the  State  with  Broach  District  as  well  as  with  the  chief  towns  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway.  Many 
roads  were  newly  constructed  or  repaired  with  the  advantage  of  cheap 
labour  during  the  famine  of  1 899-1 902.  The  total  length  of  roads 
is  about  450  miles.  There  are  27  post  offices  in  the  Agency  main- 
tained by  the  British  Government. 

The  first  famine  of  which  memory  remains  was  in  1746-7.  The 
next  severe  famines  were  in  1790-1  and  1812-3,  while  1802  and  1825 
were  years  of  scarcity.  In  1883-4  the  rainfall  was 
scanty,  and  the  small  harvest  was  destroyed  by 
swarms  of  locusts.  After  a  period  of  fifteen  years  the  Agency  again 
suffered  from  severe  famine  in  1 899-1902.  Relief  measures  were 
commenced  in  November,  1899,  and  were  brought  to  a  close  in 
October,  1902.  The  highest  daily  average  number  on  relief  was 
40,000  in  April,  1900,  which  decreased  to  311  in  October,  1901,  and 
again  rose  to  12,000  in  May,  1902.  More  than  10  lakhs  was  spent  on 
relief.  The  famine  loans  contracted  by  the  Darbars  from  Government 
amounted  to  4  lakhs,  of  which  Rs.  2,25,000  was  borrowed  by  Rajplpla 
and  the  rest  by  the  other  States  in  the  Agency. 

Civil  courts  have  only  lately   been  introduced  into  Rewa  Kantha. 

Disputes  were  formerly  settled  by  arbitration,  and  money-lenders  were 

allowed   to  recover  their  outstanding  debts  as  they    .  ,    .  . 

.  ,  ,       ,  ,  ...  Administration. 

best  could.     At   present    there   are   32   civil    courts 

in  the  Agency,  of  which  17  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  British 
Government,  and  15  in  the  States.  For  the  purpose  of  administering 
criminal  justice,  the  Rewa  Kantha  authorities  belong  to  five  classes  : 
thdnaddrs  with  second  and  third-class  magisterial  powers  in  the  estates 
of  the  petty  Mehwas  chiefs  ;  the  petty  chiefs  of  Kadana,  Sanjeli, 
Bhadarwa,  and  Umeta,  who  have  the  powers  of  second-class  magis- 
trates ;  the  second-class  chiefs  of  Bariya,  Balasinor,  Rajplpla,  Luna- 
vada,  Sunth,  and  Chota  Udaipur,  with  full  jurisdiction  over  their  own 


298  J^EWA    K A  NTH  A 

subjects  ;  the  chief  of  Rajplpla  exercising  powers  of  life  and  death 
with  jurisdiction  over  British  subjects,  except  in  the  case  of  capital 
offences  by  the  latter,  for  the  trial  of  which  the  Political  Agent's  sanc- 
tion is  required ;  and  the  Agency  courts  of  the  Assistant  Political  Agent 
and  the  Political  Agent  of  the  five  second-class  States.  Theft,  hurt, 
mischief,  and  offences  against  excise  and  forest  laws  are  the  commonest 
forms  of  crime.  Balasinor  is  at  present  under  British  management 
owing  to  the  minority  of  the  chief;  and  of  the  five  minor  estates' 
Sanjeli,  Umeta,  and  Narukot  are  similarly  administered. 

Except  such  portions  as  they  have  alienated,  the  Rewa  Kantha  lands 
belong  to  the  chiefs.  The  heads  of  the  larger  estates  take  no  share  in 
the  actual  work  of  cultivation ;  some  small  chieftains,  whose  income  is 
barely  enough  to  meet  their  w^ants,  have  a  home  farm  tilled  by  their 
servants;  and  proprietors  {tdhikddrs)  whose  estates  are  too  small  to 
lease  have  no  resource  but  to  till  their  own  land.  Save  that  they  have 
to  pay  no  part  of  their  produce  to  superior  holders,  men  of  this  class 
do  not  differ  from  ordinary  cultivators. 

To  collect  the  land  revenue,  the  large  States  are  distributed  into 
idlukas,  each  under  a  commandant  {thdnaddr\  who,  besides  police  and 
magisterial  duties  \  has,  as  collector  of  the  revenue,  to  keep  the 
accounts  of  his  charge,  and,  except  where  middle-men  are  employed, 
to  collect  rents  from  the  villagers.  Under  the  thdnaddrs  one  or  more 
accountants  {taldtis)  are  generally  engaged.  In  the  petty  Mehwas 
estates  the  proprietors  themselves  perform  the  duties  of  both  thdnaddr 
and  talati.  In  the  small  estates  under  direct  British  management  the 
revenue  is  collected  by  officers  known  as  attachers  or  mptiddrs.  Rewa 
Kantha  villages  belong  to  two  main  classes  :  State  villages  held  and 
managed  by  the  chiefs,  and  private  villages  alienated  or  granted  under 
some  special  arrangement.  Private  villages  are  of  six  varieties : 
granted  {indm),  held  under  an  agreement  {patdvat),  given  as  a  sub- 
sistence {Jivarakh),  temple  {devasthdn),  charitable  (dharmdda)^  and 
held  at  a  fixed  rent  {ndhad).  In  State  lands  the  form  of  assessment 
varies  from  the  roughest  billhook  or  plough  cess  to  the  elaborate 
system  in  force  in  British  territory.  The  former  ranges  from  4  annas 
to  Rs.  20,  and  the  latter  from  annas  4^  to  Rs.  25  per  acre.  The  crop- 
share  system  prevails  in  parts  of  Balasinor,  Sunth,  and  the  petty  estate 
of  Chudesar,  and  in  the  alluvial  lands  of  Mandwa  in  the  Sankheda 
Mehwas.  The  form  of  assessment  levied  from  the  rudest  and  most 
thriftless  Bhils  and  Kolis,  who  till  no  land,  consists  of  cesses  known  as 
ddtardi,  pdm\  koddH,  &c.  From  those  a  degree  better  off,  who  are 
able  to  keep  bullocks,  a  plough  tax  is  levied.  Among  some  of  the 
more  settled  and  intelligent  communities  a  rough  form  of  the  separate 

*  In  the  States  mentioned  as  being  under  the  direct  management  of  the  British 
Government,  thanaddrs  have  no  police  and  magisterial  powers. 


REWAKI   TAHSIL  299 

holding  (khdtdbandi)  system  has  been  introduced,  and  from  others  cash 
acre-rates  (bighoti)  levied.  In  such  cases  the  holdings  are  roughly 
measured.  Survey  settlements  are  being  gradually  made  throughout 
the  Agency.  Except  in  the  surveyed  States,  where  fi.xed  rates  are 
being  introduced,  the  rates  levied  under  hoes,  or  ploughs,  or  on  the 
crop-share  system,  are  supplemented  by  cesses  of  different  kinds. 

In  former  times  the  scattered  nature  of  the  villages  and  the  isolated 
position  of  the  country,  the  rivalry  among  the  chiefs  to  secure  settlers, 
and  the  lavish  grants  of  lands  to  Brahmans,  &c.,  prevented  the  land 
from  yielding  any  large  amount  of  revenue.  Between  1863  and  1865 
the  rise  in  the  price  of  field  produce  fostered  the  spread  of  tillage  and 
increased  the  rental  of  rich  lands.  Since  then,  owing  to  the  opening  of 
railways  and  the  construction  of  roads,  the  cultivated  area  has  continued 
to  increase  and  the  land  revenue  has  steadily  risen.  Of  the  total 
revenue  of  21  lakhs  raised  in  1903-4,  14  lakhs  was  derived  from  land, 
including  forest  revenue,  customs  yielded  nearly  one  lakh,  and  excise 
nearly  2-|  lakhs.  Rajpipla  has  a  net  income  of  about  Rs.  11,000  from 
the  railway  constructed  by  the  State,  at  a  cost  of  13  lakhs,  in  1899. 
The  total  expenditure  amounted  to  22  lakhs,  and  was  chiefly  devoted 
to  Darbar  charges  (5^  lakhs),  tribute  (i^  lakhs),  administration  (i^ 
lakhs),  public  works  (i-|  lakhs),  police  (i^  lakhs),  military  (Rs.  75,000), 
education  (Rs.  67,000),  and  forests  (Rs.  34,000). 

There  are  four  municipalities — Nandod,  Rampur,  Lunavada, 
and  Balasinor — with  an  aggregate  income  of  one  lakh  in  1903-4. 

Rajpipla  maintains  a  military  force,  which  in  1905  consisted  of 
75  infantry  and  36  cavalry,  and  the  State  owns  6  guns,  of  which  4  are 
unserviceable.  The  total  military  force  in  the  Agency  consists  of 
214  cavalry,  75  infantry,  and  55  guns,  of  which  31  are  unserviceable. 

Regular  police  is  now  provided  by  Government  for  the  Mehwas 
States,  in  place  of  the  Gaikwar's  Contingent,  which  was  disbanded 
in  1885.  The  large  States  maintain  a  police  force  of  their  own.  At 
a  time  when  several  of  the  States  were  under  management  during  the 
minority  of  their  chiefs,  a  system  of  joint  police  was  established  ;  but 
this  had  to  be  given  up  as  each  chief  succeeded  to  his  inheritance.  In 
1903-4  the  strength  of  the  police  was  1,402,  of  whom  162  were 
mounted.  In  the  29  jails  and  lock-ups,  1,099  prisoners  were  confined 
in   1903-4. 

The  number  of  boys'  schools  in  1903—4  was  160,  with  6,^87  pupils, 
and  of  girls'  schools  10,  with  937  pupils.  There  are  6  libraries  in  the 
Agency,  and  a  printing  press  at  Nandod  for  State  work.  The  average 
daily  attendance  at  the  18  dispensaries  maintained  was  221  in  1903-4, 
the  total  number  of  patients  treated  being  80,722.  Nearly  15,000 
persons  were  vaccinated  in  the  same  year. 

Rewari   Tahsil   (^Rmdri). —  Tahs'il  of  Gurgaon   District,   Punjab, 

VOL.  XXI.  u 


300  REWARI   TAHSIL 

lying  between  28°  5'  and  28°  26'  N.  and  76°  18'  and  76°  52'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  426  square  miles.  It  is  almost  entirely  detached  from  the 
rest  of  the  District,  and  is  bounded  on  three  sides  by  Native  States. 
The  isolated  pargana  of  Shahjahanpur,  situated  to  the  south  in  Alwar 
territory,  is  also  included  in  this  tahsll.  The  population  in  1901  was 
169,673,  compared  with  161,332  in  1891.  It  contains  the  town  of 
Rewari  (population,  27,295),  the  head-quarters;  and  290  villages.  The 
land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  3-2  lakhs.  Rewari 
formed  during  the  eighteenth  century  a  semi-independent  principality 
under  a  family  of  Ahir  chiefs.  On  the  cession  of  the  country  to  the 
British,  the  revenue  was  first  farmed  by  the  Raja  of  Bharatpur  and  then 
by  the  Ahir  chief  of  the  day.  It  was  taken  over  by  the  Government 
in  1808.  Shahjahanpur  belonged  to  the  Chauhan  Rajputs  until  the 
Haldias,  dependents  of  Jaipur,  wrested  it  from  them  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  lapsed  to  the  Government  in  1824.  The  tahsll  consists 
of  a  sandy  plain,  the  monotony  of  which  is  varied  towards  the  west  by 
irregular  rocky  hills  of  low  elevation.  The  Kasauti  on  the  extreme  west 
and  the  Sahibi  on  the  east  are  two  torrents  which  contribute  largely 
to  the  fertility  of  the  land  along  their  banks.  In  other  parts  there 
is  copious  well-irrigation. 

Rewari  Town  {Riwdri). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same 
name  in  Gurgaon  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  28°  12'  N.  and  76°  38'  E., 
on  the  Delhi  and  Jaipur  road,  32  miles  south-west  of  Gurgaon,  and  the 
junction  of  the  Rewari-Bhatinda  branch  with  the  main  line  of  the 
Rajputana-Malwa  Railway;  distant  by  rail  from  Calcutta  1,008  miles, 
from  Bombay  838,  and  from  Karachi  904.  Population  (1901),  27,295, 
including  14,702  Hindus  and  11,673  Muhammadans.  Rewari  was 
formerly  a  halting-place  on  the  trade  road  from  Delhi  to  Rajputana, 
celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  brass  and  pewter.  These  manufac- 
tures are  still  carried  on ;  but  since  the  opening  of  the  railway  the  chief 
importance  of  the  town  lies  in  its  trade  in  grain  and  sugar,  sent  west- 
ward, while  salt  and  iron  from  Alwar  are  forwarded  to  the  United 
Provinces. 

The  ruins  of  Old  Rewari,  which  local  tradition  connects  with  a 
nephew  of  Prithwi  Raj,  lie  some  distance  to  the  east  of  the  present  town 
and  are  said  to  have  been  built  about  1000  by  Raja  Reo  or  Rawat,  who 
called  it  after  his  daughter  Rewati.  Under  the  Mughals,  Rewari  was 
the  head-quarters  of  a  sarkdr,  but  its  Raja  seems  to  have  been  almost 
independent.  In  the  reign  of  Aurangzeb  the  town  and  territory  of 
Rewari  were  obtained  by  a  family  of  Ahirs,  who  held  them  until 
annexation  by  the  British.  Rewari  was  brought  directly  under  British 
administration  in  1808-9,  ^"^i  the  village  of  Bharawas  in  its  vicinity  was 
until  18 1 6  the  head-quarters  of  the  District.  The  municipality  was 
created  in   1867.     The   income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 


RITPUR 


301 


averaged  Rs.  56,300,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  58,100.  In  1903-4  the 
income  amounted  to  Rs.  48,800,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi,  and  the 
expenditure  to  Rs.  56,400.  Rewari  contains  the  only  high  school  in 
the  District,  managed  by  the  Educational  department.  The  town  has 
a  Government  dispensary,  and  another  belonging  to  the  S.  P.  G.  Mission 
in  charge  of  a  lady  doctor. 

Rian. — Head-quarters  of  a  jdgir  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Merta  district  of  the  State  of  Jodhpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26° 
32''  N.  and  74°  14'  E.,  about  68  miles  north-east  of  Jodhpur  city  and 
24  miles  south-east  of  Merta  Road  station  on  the  Jodhpur-Bikaner 
Railway.  Population  (1901),  4,574.  The  town  is  walled,  and  on  a 
rocky  hill  immediately  to  the  east  and  about  200  feet  above  the  plain 
stands  a  stone  fort.  The  estate  consists  of  eight  villages  yielding 
a  revenue  of  about  Rs.  36,000,  and  is  held  by  a  Thakur  who  is  the 
head  of  the  Mertia  sept  of  the  Rathor  Rajputs.  The  present  Thakur, 
Bijai  Singh,  is  a  member  of  the  State  Council. 

Rintimbur.— Fort  in  Jaipur  State,  Rajputana.     See  Ranthambhor. 

Ritpur  (or  Ridhpur). — Village  in  the  Mors!  taluk  of  Amraoti  Dis- 
trict, Berar,  situated  in  21°  14"  N.  and  77°  51'  E.  Population  (1901), 
2,412.  The  village  is  mentioned  in  the  Ain-i-Akbarl  as  the  head- 
quarters of  a  pargana.  It  was  a  place  of  importance  as  the  iankhwah 
jdgtr  of  Salabat  Khan,  governor  of  EUichpur,  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  At  that  time  it  was  enclosed  by  a  stone  wall,  which 
has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  is  said  to  have  contained  12,000 
inhabitants,  many  of  whom  fled  owing  to  the  oppression  of  Bisan 
Chand,  tdlukddr  in  the  time  of  Namdar  Khan.  The  principal  build- 
ings of  interest  are  Ram  Chandra's  temple,  the  Mahanubhava  temple 
called  Raj  Math,  and  a  mosque  which  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
dispute. 

Ritpur  is  the  chief  seat  and  place  of  pilgrimage  of  the  sect  vulgarly 
known  as  Manbhau,  more  correctly  Mahanubhava.  Its  founder  was 
Kishan  Bhat,  the  spiritual  adviser  of  a  Raja  who  ruled  at  Paithan  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  His  followers  believe  him  to  have 
been  the  demi-god  Krishna,  returned  to  earth.  His  doctrines  repu- 
diated a  multiplicity  of  gods  ;  and  the  hatred  and  contempt  which  he 
endured  arose  partly  from  his  insistence  on  the  monotheistic  principle, 
but  chiefly  from  his  repudiation  of  the  caste  system.  He  inculcated  the 
exclusive  worship  of  Krishna  as  the  only  incarnation  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  and  taught  his  disciples  to  eat  with  none  but  the  initiated,  and 
to  break  off  all  former  ties  of  caste  and  religion.  The  scriptures  of  the 
sect  are  comprised  in  the  Bhagavad  Gita,  which  all  are  encouraged  to 
read.  The  head  of  the  sect  is  a  maha?it,  with  whom  are  associated  a 
number  of  priests.  The  sect  is  divided  into  two  classes,  celibates  and 
gharbdris  or  seculars.     Celibacy  is  regarded  as  the  perfect  life,  but 

u  2 


302  RITPUR 

matrimony  is  permitted  to  the  weaker  brethren.  The  celibates,  both 
men  and  women,  shave  all  hair  from  the  head  and  wear  clothes  dyed 
with  lampblack.  The  lower  garment  is  a  waistcloth  forming  a  sort  of 
skirt,  and  is  intended  to  typify  devotion  to  the  religious  life  and  conse- 
quent indifference  to  distinctions  of  sex.  The  dead  are  buried  in  salt, 
in  a  sitting  posture.  Kishan  Bhat  is  said  to  have  obtained  a  magic  cap, 
by  wearing  which  he  was  enabled  to  assume  the  likeness  of  Krishna, 
but  the  cap  was  taken  from  him  and  burnt.  This  is  probably  a  Brah- 
manical  invention,  like  the  story  of  Kishan  Bhat's  amour  with  a  Mang 
woman,  which  was  possibly  composed  to  lend  colour  to  the  absurd 
Brahmanical  derivation  of  Manbhau,  the  vulgar  corruption  of  the  name 
of  the  sect  {Mdng  +  bhau  —  '  Mang-brother ').  The  name  Maha- 
nubhava  is  borne  by  the  sect  with  pride,  and  appears  to  be  derived 
from  mahd  ('  great ')  and  a/inbhava  ('  intelligence  ').  It  is  written  Maha- 
nubhava  in  all  their  documents.  The  Mahanubhavas  appear  to  be  a 
declining  sect.  They  numbered  4,111  in  Berar  in  1881,  but  in  1901 
there  were  only  2,566. 

[In  former  editions  of  the  Gazetteer,  the  erroneous  connexion  of  the 
Manbhau  sect  with  the  Mang  caste  w^as  unfortunately  accepted  as  true. 
In  consequence  of  some  legal  proceedings  which  incidentally  arose  from 
this  misstatement,  the  mahaiits  of  the  sect  put  themselves  into  com- 
munication with  Prof.  R.  G.  Bhandarkar  of  Poona,  and  also  placed  at 
his  disposal  their  sacred  books,  which,  as  attested  by  colophons,  go 
back  to  the  thirteenth  century.  Prof.  Bhandarkar  has  satisfied  himself 
of  the  genuineness  of  these  books,  which  are  written  in  an  archaic  form 
of  MarathT.  They  prove  that  the  Manbhau  sect  (or  Mahanubhava, 
as  it  is  there  called)  was  founded  by  one  Chakradhara,  a  Karhada 
Brahman,  who  was  contemporary  with  the  Yadava  Krishna  Raja 
(a.d.  1247-60),  and  is  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Dattatreya.  It  is 
interesting  to  find  that  two  of  the  present  mahants  of  the  Manbhau  sect 
are  natives  of  the  Punjab,  and  that  they  have  a  ?nafh  at  Kabul.  As 
explaining  the  introduction  of  the  name  of  Kishan  Bhat,  mentioned 
above,  Prof.  Bhandarkar  has  further  discovered  in  the  Manbhav  books 
an  account  of  various  religious  sects  formerly  flourishing  in  Maharashtra. 
Among  them  is  one  called  Matangapatta,  confined  to  Mahars  and 
Mangs,  which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  one  Krishnabhatta, 
about  whom  is  told  the  legend  of  an  amour  with  a  Mang  woman. 
This  sect  is  still  represented  in  Ahmadnagar  District.] 

Riwa.  —State  and  town  in  Central  India.     See  Rewah. 

Riwari. —  Tahslla.nd  town  in  Gurgaon  District,  Punjab.    See  Rewari. 

Robertsganj. —  Southern  tahsll  of  Mirzapur  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, comprising  the  parganas  of  Barhar,  Bijaigarh,  Agori,  and 
Singrauli  (including  Dudhl),  and  lying  between  23°  52"  and  24°  54'  N. 
and  82°  32'  and  83''  33'  E.,  with    an    area   of   2,621   square    miles. 


ROHA    TOWN  303 

Population  fell  from  241,779  in  1891  to  221,717  in  1901.  There  are 
1,222  villages  and  two  towns,  neither  of  which  has  a  population  of 
5,000.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  64,000,  and 
for  cesses  Rs.  24,000.  This  tahsil  is  situated  entirely  in  the  hilly 
country,  and  supports  only  85  persons  per  square  mile.  About  one- 
third  of  it  lies  on  the  Vindhyan  plateau,  which  is  drained  to  the  west  by 
the  Belan,  and  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  great  rampart  of  the 
Kaimurs  looking  down  on  the  valley  of  the  Son.  A  fertile  strip  of 
moist  land  crosses  the  plateau  between  the  Belan  and  the  Kaimurs, 
and  produces  a  great  variety  of  crops.  South  of  the  Son  lies  a  tangled 
mass  of  hills,  covered  with  low  scrub  jungle,  and  interspersed  by  more 
fertile  valleys  and  basins,  in  which  cultivation  is  possible.  Pargana 
DudhI  is  managed  as  a  Government  estate,  and  proprietary  rights  exist 
in  only  one  tappa.  The  whole  tract  south  of  the  Son  is  'non-regulation,' 
and  is  administered  under  special  rules  suitable  to  the  primitive 
character  of  its  inhabitants.  Agricultural  statistics  are  maintained  only 
for  an  area  of  654  square  miles,  of  which  255  were  under  cultivation  in 
1903-4,  and  27  were  irrigated.  Dams  and  embankments  are  the  chief 
means  of  irrigation. 

Robertsonpet. — Town  recently  founded  in  Kolar  District,  Mysore. 
See  Koi.AR  Gold  Fields. 

Roha  Taluka. — Central  tdluka  of  Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  lying 
between  18°  17'  and  18°  32'  N.  and  72°  57''  and  73°  20'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  203  square  miles.  It  contains  one  town,  Roha  (population, 
6,252),  the  head-quarters;  and  133  villages.  The  population  in  1901 
was  47,780,  compared  with  46,064  in  1891.  The  density,  235  persons 
per  square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The  demand  for 
land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-22  lakhs,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  8,000. 
Roha  is  for  the  most  part  hilly,  and  contains  the  rich  valley  of  the 
Kundalika  river.  The  rice  lands  are  well  watered  during  the  rainy 
season,  but  in  the  cold  and  hot  months  the  supply  of  drinking  water 
is  defective.  On  the  hill  slopes  and  uplands  the  soil  is  a  mixture  of 
earth  and  broken  trap.  In  the  level  parts  the  soil  varies  from  reddish 
to  yellow  or  black.  During  the  ten  years  ending  1903  the  rainfeU 
averaged  127  inches.  The  eastern  parts  of  Roha  are  much  cut  off 
from  the  sea-breeze,  and  therefore  oppressive  in  the  hot  season,  but 
parts  of  the  west  and  south-west  are  more  open. 

Roha  Town  (known  as  Roha  Ashtami). — Head-quarters  of  the 
ialuka  of  the  same  name  in  Kolaba  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  18° 
26'  N.  and  73°  7'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kundalika  river,  18  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Population  (1901),  6,252.  Roha  is  a  great  rice 
market  for  supplying  Bombay  city.  The  village  of  Ashtami,  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river,  is  included  within  the  municipal  limits  of 
Roha.     Oxenden  (1673)  called  it  Esthemy.     The  municipality,  estab- 


I 


304  ROHA    TOWN 

lished  in  1866,  had  an  average  revenue  during  the  decade  ending  1901 
of  Rs.  6,200.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  6,500.  Ferry  steamers 
run  from  Roha  to  Revadanda  or  Lower  Chaul  twice  a  day.  The  town 
contains  a  dispensary  and  seven  schools. 

Rohankhed. — Village  in  the  Malkapur  tdhik  of  Buldana  District, 
Berar,  situated  in  20°  37'  N.  and  76°  11'  E.,  immediately  below  the 
Balaghat  plateau.  Population  (1901),  2,130.  The  village  has  been 
the  scene  of  two  battles.  In  1437  Nasir  Khan,  Sultan  of  Khandesh, 
invaded  Berar  to  avenge  the  ill-treatment  of  his  daughter  by  Ala-ud-din 
Bahmani,  to  whom  she  had  been  married.  Khalaf  Hasan  Basri, 
governor  of  Daulatabad,  who  had  been  sent  against  the  invader,  fell 
upon  NasTr  Khan  at  Rohankhed,  routed  him,  and  pursued  him  to  his 
capital,  Burhanpur,  which  he  sacked.  In  1590  Burhan,  a  prince  of  the 
Ahmadnagar  dynasty,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  Mughal  empire, 
invaded  Berar  in  company  with  Raja  All  Khan,  vassal  ruler  of  Khan- 
desh, to  establish  his  claim  to  the  kingdom  of  Ahmadnagar  against  his 
son  Ismail,  who  had  been  elevated  to  the  throne  by  a  faction  headed 
by  Jamal  Khan.  The  invaders  met  the  forces  of  Jamal  Khan  at 
Rohankhed  and  utterly  defeated  them,  Jamal  Khan  being  slain  and 
the  young  Ismail  captured.  At  Rohankhed  there  is  a  small  but  hand- 
some mosque,  built  in  1582  by  Khudawand  Khan  the  Mahdavi, 
a  follower  of  Jamal  Khan.  This  Khudawand  Khan  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  Khudawand  Khan  the  Habshi,  who  was  governor  of  Mahur 
a  century  earlier. 

Rohanpur.— Village  in  Malda  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  24° 
49'  N.  and  88°  ao**  E.,  on  the  Purnabhaba,  a  short  distance  above  its 
junction  with  the  Mahananda.  Population  (1901),  1,112.  The  village 
is  a  considerable  depot  for  the  grain  passing  between  Dinajpur  and 
the  western  parts  of  Bihar. 

Rohilkhand. — The  name  is  often  applied  to  the  present  Bareillv 
Division  of  the  United  Provinces  ;  but  it  also  denotes  a  definite 
historical  tract  nearly  corresponding  with  that  Division  plus  the  Ram- 
pur  State  and  the  Tarai  parganas  of  Naini  Tal  District.  It  is  derived 
from  a  Pashtu  adjective  rohelah  or  rohe/ai,  formed  from  rohu  ('  moun- 
tain'). Rohilkhand  as  thus  defined  contains  an  area  of  12,800  square 
miles,  forming  a  large  triangle  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Himalayas, 
on  the  south-west  by  the  Ganges,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Province  of 
Oudh.  In  the  north  lies  a  strip  of  the  Tarai  below  the  hills,  with  large 
stretches  of  forest  land,  the  haunt  of  tigers  and  wild  elephants,  and 
only  small  patches  of  cultivation  belonging  to  the  Tharus  and  Boksas, 
jungle  tribes,  apparently  of  Mongolian  origin,  who  seem  fever-proof. 
Passing  south  the  land  becomes  drier,  and  the  moisture  drains  into  the 
numerous  small  streams  rising  in  the  Tarai  and  joining  the  Ramganga 
or  the  Ganges,  which  ultimately  receive  most  of  the  drainage.     In  the 


ROHILKHAND  305 

northern  portions  of  Bijnor  and  Bareilly  Districts,  canals  drawn  from 
the  Tarai  streams  irrigate  a  small  area.  The  climate  is  healthy,  except 
near  the  Tarai,  and  has  a  smaller  range  of  temperature  than  the  tract 
south  of  the  Ganges.  The  rainfall  is  heavy  near  the  hills,  but  gradually 
decreases  southwards.  The  usual  crops  of  the  plains  are  grown 
throughout  the  tract,  but  sugar-cane  and  rice  are  of  special  importance. 
Wheat,  gram,  cotton,  and  the  two  millets  {joivdr  and  bdjrd)  are  also 
largely  produced. 

In  early  times  part  of  the  tract  was  included  in  Northern  Paxchala. 
During  the  Muhammadan  period  the  eastern  half  was  long  known 
as  Katehr.  The  origin  and  meaning  of  this  term  is  disputed.  It  is 
certainly  connected  with  the  name  of  the  Katehriya  Rajputs,  who  were 
the  predominant  clan  in  it ;  but  their  name  is  sometimes  said  to  be 
derived  from  that  of  the  tract,  which  is  identified  with  the  name  of 
a  kind  of  soil  called  kather  or  katehr,  while  traditions  in  Budaun 
District  derive  it  from  Kathiawar,  which  is  said  to  be  the  original  home 
of  the  clan.  Elsewhere  the  tribal  traditions  point  to  the  coming  of  the 
Katehriyas  into  this  tract,  from  Benares  or  Tirhut,  in  the  twelfth  and 
fourteenth  centuries.  The  portion  they  first  occupied  seems  to  have 
been  the  country  between  the  Ramganga  and  the  Ganges,  but  they 
afterwards  spread  "east  of  the  former  river.  When  the  power  of  Islam 
was  extending  westwards,  Rathor  princes  ruled  at  Budaun  ;  but  the 
town  was  taken  by  Kutb-ud-dTn  Aibak  in  11 96,  and  afterwards  held 
continuously  by  the  Muhammadans.  The  province  was,  however, 
always  turbulent,  and  two  risings  are  described  in  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  In  1379  or  1380  Khargu,  a  Hindu  chief  of  Katehr, 
murdered  Saiyid  Muhammad,  the  governor,  at  a  feast ;  and  Firoz  III 
Tughlak,  foiled  in  his  attempt  to  seize  Khargu,  who  fled  to  Kumaun, 
appointed  an  Afghan  governor  at  Sambhal  with  orders  'to  invade  the 
country  of  Katehr  every  year,  to  commit  every  kind  of  ravage  and 
devastation,  and  not  to  allow  it  to  be  inhabited  until  the  murderer  was 
given  up.'  Thirty-five  years  later,  when  the  Saiyid  dynasty  was  being 
founded,  another  Hindu,  Har  Singh  Deo,  rebelled,  and  though  several 
times  defeated  gave  trouble  for  two  or  three  years.  Mahabat  Khan, 
the  governor,  successfully  revolted  in  1419  or  1420  from  the  rule  of 
Delhi  ;  and  the  king,  Khizr  Khan,  failed  to  take  Budaun,  which 
remained  independent  for  four  years,  till  after  the  accession  of 
Mubarak  Shah,  who  showed  greater  force  and  received  Mahabat 
Khan's  submission.  In  1448  Alam  Shah  Saiyid  left  Delhi  and  made 
Budaun  his  capital,  careless  of  the  fact  that  he  was  thus  losing  the 
throne  of  Delhi,  which  was  seized  by  Bahlol  Lodi.  Until  his  death 
thirty  years  later,  Alam  Shah  remained  at  Budaun,  content  with  this 
small  province.  During  the  long  struggle  between  the  Jaunpur  and 
the  Delhi  kings,  the  former  held  parts  of  Katehr  for  a  time.     In  the 


3o6  ROHILKHAND 

first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  few  events  in  this  tract  have  been 
recorded;  but  the  last  revolt  of  the  Katehriyas  is  said  to  have  taken 
place  in  1555-6.  In  the  reign  of  Akbar  the  sarkdr  of  Budaun  formed 
part  of  the  Subah  of  Delhi.  The  importance  of  Budaun  decreased, 
and  Bareilly  became  the  capital  under  Shah  Jahan,  while  Aurangzeb 
included  the  district  of  Sambhal  (Western  Rohilkhand)  in  the  territory 
ruled  over  by  the  governor  of  Katehr.  At  this  time  Afghans  had  been 
making  many  settlements  in  Northern  India ;  but  they  were  generally 
soldiers  of  fortune,  rather  than  politicians  or  men  of  influence.  Under 
Shah  Jahan  they  were  discouraged ;  but  they  were  found  useful  in  the 
Deccan  campaigns  of  Aurangzeb,  and  early  in  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Bangash  Pathan,  Muhammad  Khan,  obtained  grants  in  Farrukh- 
ABAD,  while  All  Muhammad  Khan,  whose  origin  is  obscure,  began  to 
seize  land  north  of  the  Ganges.  The  former  held  the  southern  part 
of  the  present  Districts  of  Budaun  and  Shahjahanpur ;  but  the  princi- 
pality he  carved  out  for  himself  lay  chiefly  south  of  the  Ganges.  All 
Muhammad  gave  valuable  help  to  the  governors  of  Moradabad  and 
Bareilly  against  the  Raja  of  Kumaun,  and  also  assisted  the  emperor  in 
his  intrigues  against  the  Saiyids  of  Barha,  for  which  he  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Nawab.  When  Nadir  Shah  invaded  India,  All 
Muhammad  gained  many  recruits  among  the  refugees  from  Delhi,  and 
took  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  central  government  to  annex  all 
the  territory  he  could  seize.  The  governors  of  Moradabad  and  Bareilly 
were  sent  against  him,  but  both  were  slain,  and  in  1740  he  was 
recognized  as  governor  of  Rohilkhand.  His  next  exploits  were  against 
Kumaun  ;  but  by  this  time  Safdar  Jang,  Nawab  of  Oudh,  had  begun 
to  look  on  him  as  a  dangerous  rival,  and  persuaded  the  emperor  that 
the  Rohillas  should  be  driven  out.  In  1745  All  Muhammad  was 
defeated  and  imprisoned  at  Delhi,  but  afterwards  he  was  appointed  to 
a  command  in  the  Punjab.  On  the  invasion  by  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani 
in  1748,  he  was  able  to  return  to  Rohilkhand,  and  by  judiciously  sup- 
porting the  claims  of  Safdar  Jang  to  be  recognized  as  Wazir,  obtained 
a  fresh  grant  of  the  province.  On  the  death  of  AH  Muhammad, 
Rahmat  Khan,  who  had  been  one  of  his  principal  lieutenants,  was 
appointed  regent  for  his  sons.  Safdar  Jang  renewed  his  attempts  to 
take  Rohilkhand,  and  persuaded  Kaim  Khan,  son  of  Muhammad 
Khan  Bangash,  of  Farrukhabad,  to  invade  it.  The  attack  was  un- 
successful, and  Kaim  Khan  lost  his  life.  Safdar  Jang  at  once  annexed 
the  Farrukhabad  territories.  But  Kaim  Khan's  brother,  Ahmad  Khan, 
regained  them,  and  attempted  to  win  the  active  sympathy  of  the 
Rohillas,  which  was  at  first  refused  and  then  given  too  late ;  for  Safdar 
Jang  called  in  the  Marathas,  with  whose  help  he  defeated  the  Rohilla 
and  Bangash  forces,  and  Rahmat  Khan  was  driven  to  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas.     In  1752  he  yielded  and  gave  bonds  for  50  lakhs,  which 


ROHILKHAND  307 

were  made  over  to  the  Marathas  in  payment  of  their  services.  When 
Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  invaded  India  a  second  time,  he  brought  back 
AU  Muhammad's  sons,  Abdullah  and  Faiz-ullah,  who  had  been  in 
Kandahar  since  the  previous  invasion ;  but  Rahmat  Khan  skilfully 
arranged  a  partition  of  Rohilkhand,  so  that  the  brothers  fought  among 
themselves,  and  eventually  Rahmat  Khan  and  his  friends  became 
masters  of  most  of  the  province.  About  this  time  (1754)  another 
Pathan,  named  Najib  Khan,  was  rising  in  power.  At  first  he  acquired 
territory  in  the  Doab,  but  in  1755  he  founded  Najlbabad  in  Bijnor, 
and  thus  held  the  northern  part  of  Rohilkhand  independently  of  the 
other  Rohillas.  After  the  third  Durrani  invasion  in  1757,  he  became 
Bakhshi  or  paymaster  of  the  royal  troops,  and  the  following  year  an 
attempt  was  made,  through  the  jealousy  of  other  nobles,  to  crush  him 
by  calling  in  the  Marathas.  Rahmat  Khan  and  Shuja-ud-daula,  the 
new  Nawab  of  Oudh,  were  alarmed  for  their  own  safety,  and  hastened 
to  help  him,  and  the  Marathas  were  driven  out  of  Rohilkhand.  When 
Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  invaded  India  a  fourth  time,  the  Rohillas  joined 
him  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  PanTpat  (1761),  and  Rahmat  Khan 
was  rewarded  by  a  grant  of  Etawah,  which  had,  however,  to  be  con- 
quered from  the  Marathas.  In  1764  and  again  in  1765  the  Rohillas 
gave  some  assistance  to  Shuja-ud-daula  in  his  vain  contests  with  the 
English  at  Patna  and  at  Jajmau ;  but  they  did  not  suffer  for  this  at 
first.  In  fact  the  next  five  years  were  prosperous,  and  Rahmat  Khan 
was  able  to  undertake  one  of  the  most  necessary  reforms  of  a  ruler  in 
this  part  of  India — the  abolition  of  internal  duties  on  merchandise. 
In  1770  the  end  began.  Etawah  and  the  other  territory  in  the  Central 
Doab  were  annexed  by  the  Marathas.  Xajib  Khan  and  Dunde  Khan, 
who  had  been  Rahmat  Khan's  right  hand,  both  died.  In  1771  the 
Marathas  attacked  Zabita  Khan,  son  of  XajTb  Khan,  and  drove  him 
from  his  fort  at  Shukartar  on  the  Ganges,  and  the  next  year  harried 
Rohilkhand.  In  June,  1772,  a  treaty  was  arranged  between  the 
Rohillas  and  Shuja-ud-daula,  in  which  the  latter  promised  help  against 
the  Marathas,  while  the  former  undertook  to  pay  40  lakhs  of  rupees  for 
this  assistance.  The  treaty  was  signed  in  the  presence  of  a  British 
general.  The  danger  to  Oudh,  and  also  to  the  British,  from  the 
Marathas  was  now  clear.  Zabita  Khan  openly  joined  them  in  July, 
1772,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  they  extorted  a  grant  of  the  provinces 
of  Kora  and  Allahabad  from  Shah  Alam.  In  1773  they  demanded 
from  Rahmat  Khan  the  payment  of  the  50  lakhs  promised  twenty  years 
before,  and  again  entered  Rohilkhand.  British  troops  were  now  sent 
up,  as  it  had  become  known  that  Rahmat  Khan  was  intriguing  with 
the  Marathas,  who  openly  aimed  at  Oudh.  These  intrigues  continued 
even  when  the  allied  British  and  Oudh  troops  had  arrived  in  Rohil- 
khand, and  the  Nawab  of  Oudh  then  made  overtures  for  British  help 


I 


308  ROHILKHAND 

in  adding  the  province  to  his  territories.  Finally,  Rahmat  Khan 
agreed  to  carry  out  the  treaty  obligations  which  he  had  formerly  con- 
tracted with  Oudh,  and  the  Marathas  were  driven  across  the  Ganges 
at  Ramghat.  This  danger  being  removed,  Rahmat  Khan  failed  to  pay 
the  subsidy  due  from  him  to  the  Nawab  of  Oudh.  Later  in  the  same 
year,  Warren  Hastings  came  to  Benares  to  discuss  affairs  with  the 
Nawab,  who  strongly  pressed  for  British  help  to  crush  the  Rohillas. 
While  the  Council  at  Calcutta  hesitated,  the  Nawab  made  secret 
alliances  with  Zabita  Khan  and  Muzaffar  Jang  of  Farrukhabad,  and 
persuaded  the  emperor  to  approve  by  promising  to  share  any  territory 
annexed.  He  then  cleared  the  Marathas  out  of  the  Doab,  and  in  1774 
obtained  British  troops  to  assist  him  against  the  Rohillas.  The  latter 
were  met  between  Miranpur  Katra  in  Shahjahanpur  and  Fatehganj 
East  (in  Bareilly  District)  in  April,  1774,  and  were  defeated  after 
a  gallant  resistance,  Rahmat  Khan  being  among  the  slain.  This 
expedition  formed  the  subject  of  one  of  the  charges  against  Warren 
Hastings,  which  was  directed  to  show  that  his  object  was  merely  to 
obtain  money  from  the  Nawab  Wazir  in  return  for  help  in  acquiring 
new  territory.  Contemporary  documents  prove  clearly  the  necessity 
for  improving  the  western  boundary  of  Oudh  as  a  defence  against  the 
Marathas,  and  the  danger  arising  from  this  country  being  held  by  men 
whose  treachery  had  been  manifested  again  and  again.  Faiz-uUah 
Khan,  the  last  remaining  chief  of  the  Rohillas,  received  what  now 
forms  the  Rampur  State,  and  Zabita  Khan  lost  his  possessions  east 
of  the  Ganges.  In  1794  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Rampur,  after 
the  death  of  Faiz-uUah  Khan.  British  troops  were  sent  to  quell  it,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Fatehganj  West.  Seven  years  later,  in  1801,  Rohil- 
khand  formed  part  of  the  Ceded  Provinces  made  over  to  the  British 
by  the  Nawab  of  Oudh. 

The  total  population  of  Rohilkhand  is  nearly  6-2  millions.  The 
density  approaches  500  persons  per  square  mile,  and  in  Bareilly  Dis- 
trict exceeds  600.  More  than  \\  millions  are  Muhammadans,  forming 
28  per  cent,  of  the  total — a  proportion  double  that  found  in  the 
Provinces  as  a  whole.  Among  Hindu  castes  may  be  mentioned  the 
Jats,  who  are  not  found  east  of  Rohilkhand  in  considerable  numbers ; 
the  Ahars,  who  are  akin  to  the  Ahirs  of  other  parts ;  and  the  Khagis 
and  Kisans,  excellent  cultivators  resembling  the  Lodhas  of  the  Doab. 
The  Bishnol  sect  has  a  larger  number  of  adherents  than  elsewhere. 

[Elliot,  History  of  India,  passim  ;  Strachey,  Hasti?igs  and  the  Rohilla 
W^^r  (1892).] 

Rohisala. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Rohri  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Sukkur  District,  Sind,  Bom- 
bay, composed  of  the  Rohri  and  Ghotki  tdlukas. 

Rohri  Taluka.  —  Tahtka  of  Sukkur  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  lying 


ROHRI   TOWN  309 

between  27°  4'  and  27°  50'  N.  and  68""  35'  and  69®  48'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,497  square  miles.  The  population  rose  from  81,041  in  1891 
to  85,089  in  1 90 1.  The  tdluka  contains  one  town,  Rohri  (population, 
9)537))  its  head-quarters  ;  and  69  villages.  The  density,  58  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  much  below  the  District  average.  The  land  revenue 
and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  i'7  lakhs.  The  Eastern  Nara 
Canal  runs  south  through  the  high-lying  land,  which  has  to  be 
irrigated  by  lifts.  Fair  rice,  jowdr,  and,  near  the  Indus,  wheat  crops 
are  grown.  In  the  south,  ranges  of  sandhills  relieve  the  monotony  of 
the  country  ;  but  there  the  soil  is  barren  and  fit  only  for  grazing. 

Rohri  To"wn. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdluka  of  the  same  name 
in  Sukkur  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  situated  in  27°  41'  N.  and  68° 
56'  E.,  upon  the  left  or  eastern  bank  of  the  Indus,  on  a  rocky 
eminence  of  limestone  interspersed  with  flints.  Population  (1901), 
9>537-  I'^e  Hindus,  who  are  mostly  of  the  Baniya  caste,  are  engaged 
in  trade,  banking,  and  money-lending,  while  the  Muhammadans  are 
chiefly  of  the  Bhuta,  Kori,  Patoli,  Muhano,  Khati,  Memon,  and 
Shikari  tribes,  or  describe  themselves  as  Shaikh  and  Saiyid. 

Rohri  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Saiyid  Rukn-ud-dln  Shah  in 
1297.  The  rocky  site  terminates  abruptly  on  the  west  in  a  precipice 
40  feet  high,  rising  from  the  bank  of  the  river,  which,  during  the 
inundation  season,  attains  a  height  of  about  16  feet  above  its  lowest 
level.  On  the  northern  side  is  the  mouth  of  the  supply  channel  for  the 
Eastern  Nara  Canal,  156  feet  wide,  which  is  provided  with  powerful 
sluice  gates  to  regulate  the  supply  of  water  as  required.  When  seen 
from  a  little  distance,  Rohri  has  a  pleasing  appearance,  the  houses  being 
lofty,  frequently  four  and  five  storeys  high,  with  flat  roofs  surrounded 
by  balustrades  ;  some  are  of  burnt  brick,  erected  many  years  ago  by 
wealthy  merchants  belonging  to  the  place.  But  the  streets  are  in 
several  parts  very  narrow,  and  the  air  is  close  and  unwholesome.  It  has 
road  communication  with  Mirpur,  Kandahar,  and  Sangrar,  and  the 
main  trunk  road  from  Hyderabad  to  Multan  also  passes  through  it. 
The  town  has  derived  a  new  importance  as  the  station  where  the 
North-Western  State  Railway  crosses  the  Indus,  and  as  the  junction 
of  the  Kotri-Rohri  lines.  It  contains  a  Subordinate  Judge's  court, 
a  dispensary,  and  four  schools,  of  which  three  for  boys  have  754  pupils 
and  one  for  girls  has  80  pupils. 

Rohri  has  a  large  number  of  Muhammadan  places  of  worship.  One, 
known  as  the  Jama  Masjid,  was  built  in  1564  by  Fateh  Khan,  lieu- 
tenant of  the  emperor  Akbar  ;  it  is  a  massive  but  gloomy  pile  of  red 
brick,  covered  with  three  domes,  and  coated  with  glazed  porcelain 
tiles.  The  other,  the  Idgah  Masjid,  was  erected  in  1593  by  Mir  Musan 
Shah.  The  War  Mubarak,  a  building  about  25  feet  square,  situated 
to  the  north  of  the  town,  was  erected  about  1745  by  Nur  Muhammad, 


3IO  _        ROHRI    TOWN 

the  reigning  Kalhora  prince,  for  the  reception  of  a  hair  from  the  beard 
of  Muhammad.  This  hair,  to  which  miraculous  properties  are  ascribed 
by  the  faithful,  is  set  in  amber,  which  again  is  enclosed  in  a  gold  case 
studded  with  rubies  and  emeralds,  the  gift  of  Mir  All  Murad  of 
Khairpur,  The  relic  is  exposed  to  view  every  March,  when  the  hair 
is  believed  by  the  devotees  to  rise  and  fall,  and  also  to  change  colour. 

Rohri  has  been  administered  as  a  municipality  since  1855,  and 
the  town  has,  in  consequence,  greatly  improved  as  regards  both 
health  and  appearance.  The  municipal  income  during  the  decade 
ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  21,600.  In  1903-4  it  was  Rs.  27,000.  The 
trade  is  principally  in  grain,  oil,  ght^  salt,  fuller's-earth,  lime,  and  fruits. 
Tasar  silk  is  manufactured.  Opposite  to  Rohri  on  the  Indus  is  the 
small  island  of  Khwaja  Khizr,  containing  the  shrine  of  a  saint  who  is 
revered  alike  by  Muhammadans  and  Hindus. 

Rohtak  District.— District  in  the  Delhi  Division  of  the  Punjab, 
lying  between  28°  21'  and  29°  17'  N.  and  76°  13'  and  76°  58'  E.,  on 
the  borders  of  Rajputana,  in  the  high  level  plain  that  separates  the 
waters  of  the  Jumna  and  Sutlej,  with  an  area  of  1,797  square  miles. 
The  eastern  part  falls  within  the  borders  of  the  tract  formerly  known 
as  Hariana.  In  its  midst  lies  part  of  the  small  State  of  Dujana.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Jind  nizamat  of  Jind  State,  and 
by  Karnal  District;  on  the  east  by  Delhi,  and  on  the  south-east  by 
Gurgaon  ;  on  the  south  by  Pataudi  State  and  the  Rewari  tahsil  of 
Gurgaon ;  on  the  south-west  by  territory  belonging  to  the  Nawab  of 
Dujana ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Dadri  nizamat  of  Jind  and  by  Hissar 
District.  Although  there  is  no  grand  scenery  in  Rohtak,  the  canals 
with  their  belts  of  trees,  the  lines  of  sandhills,  and  in  the  south 
the  torrents,  the  depressions  which  are  flooded  after 
Physical  heavy  rain,  and  a  few  small  rocky  hills  give  the  Dis- 

trict more  diversified  features  than  are  generally  met 
with  in  the  plains  of  the  Punjab.  The  eastern  border  lies  low  on  the 
level  of  the  Jumna  Canal  and  the  Najafgarh  swamp.  A  few  miles  west 
the  surface  rises  gradually  to  a  level  plateau,  which,  speaking  roughly, 
stretches  as  far  as  the  town  of  Rohtak,  and  is  enclosed  by  parallel  rows 
of  sandhills  running  north  and  south.  Beyond  the  western  line  of 
sandhills  the  surface  rises  again  till  it  ends  on  the  Hissar  border  in 
a  third  high  ridge.  The  eastern  line  runs,  with  here  and  there  an 
interval,  down  the  east  side  of  the  District,  and  rises  to  some  height  in 
the  Jhajjar  tahsil.  South-west  of  this  ridge  the  country  becomes  more 
undulating,  and  the  soil  lighter.  The  south-eastern  corner  of  the 
District  is  crossed  by  two  small  streams  or  torrents,  the  Sahibi  and 
Indori  ;  these  flow  circuitously,  throwing  oft  a  network  of  branches 
and  collecting  here  and  there  after  heavy  rain  \x\jhils  of  considerable 
size,  and  finally  fall  into  the  Najafgarh  swamp. 


I 


ROHTAK  DISTRICT  x\i 


o^ 


With  the  exception  of  a  few  small  outliers  of  Ahvar  quartzite  be- 
longing to  the  Delhi  system,  there  is  nothing  of  geological  interest  in 
the  District,  which  is  almost  entirely  of  alluvial  formation. 

The  District  forms  an  arm  from  the  Upper  Gangetic  plain  between 
the  Central  Punjab  and  the  desert.  Trees,  except  where  naturalized  or 
planted,  are  rare,  but  the  nimbar  {Acacia  leiicophloea)  is  a  conspicuous 
exception.  Mango  groves  are  frequent  in  the  north-east ;  and  along 
canals  and  roadsides  other  sub-tropical  species  have  been  planted 
successfully.  The  ber  {Zizyphus  Jujuba)  is  common,  and  is  often 
planted. 

Game,  including  wild  hog,  antelope,  '  ravine  deer '  (Indian  gazelle), 
nilgai,  and  hare,  is  plentiful.  Peafowl,  partridge,  and  quail  are  to  be 
met  with  throughout  the  year  ;  and  during  the  cold  season  sand-grouse, 
wild  geese,  bustards,  and  flamingoes.  Wolves  are  still  common,  and 
a  stray  leopard  is  occasionally  killed.  The  villages  by  the  canal  are 
overrun  by  monkeys. 

The  climate  is  not  inaptly  described  in  the  Memoirs  of  George 
Thomas  as  '  in  general  salubrious,  though  when  the  sandy  and  desert 
country  lying  to  the  westward  becomes  heated,  it  is  inimical  to 
a  European  constitution.'  In  April,  May,  and  June  the  hot  winds 
blow  steadily  all  day  from  the  west,  bringing  up  constant  sandstorms 
from  the  Rajputana  desert  ;  at  the  close  of  the  year  frosts  are  common, 
and  strong  gales  prevail  in  February  and  March. 

The  average  rainfall  varies  from  19  inches  at  Jhajjar  to  21  at  Rohtak. 
Of  the  rainfall  at  the  latter  place,  18  inches  fall  in  the  summer  months 
and  3  in  the  winter.  The  greatest  fall  recorded  during  the  years 
1 885- 1 90 2  was  41  inches  at  Jhajjar  in  1885-6,  and  the  least  8  inches 
at  Rohtak  in   190 1-2. 

The  District  belongs  for  the  most  part  to  the  tract  of  Hariana,  and 
its  early  history  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  that  region  and  on  the 
towns  of  Rohtak,  Maham,  and  Jhajjar.  It  appears 
to  have  come  at  an  early  date  under  the  control  of 
the  Delhi  kings,  and  in  1355  Firoz  Shah  dug  a  canal  from  the  Sutlej 
as  far  as  Jhajjar.  Under  Akbar  the  present  District  lay  within  the 
Siibah  of  Delhi  and  the  sarkdrs  of  Delhi  and  Hissar-Firoza.  In  1643 
the  Rohtak  canal  is  said  to  have  been  begun  by  Nawab  All  Khan,  who 
attempted  to  divert  water  from  the  old  canal  of  Firoz  Shah.  On  the 
decay  of  the  Delhi  empire  the  District  with  the  rest  of  Hariana  was 
granted  to  the  minister  Rukn-ud-din  in  1718,  and  was  in  1732  trans- 
ferred by  him  to  the  Nawabs  of  Farrukhnagar  in  Gurgaon.  Faujdar 
Khan,  Nawab  of  Farrukhnagar,  who  seems  to  have  succeeded  to  the 
territories  of  Hissar  on  the  death  of  Shahdad  Khan  in  1738,  handed 
down  to  his  son,  Nawab  Kamgar  Khan,  a  dominion  which  embraced 
the  present  Districts  of  Hissar  and  Rohtak,  besides  part  of  Gurgaon 


312  ROHTAK  DISTRICT 

and  a  considerable  tract  subsequently  annexed  by  the  chiefs  of  Jind 
and  Patiala.  Hissar  and  the  north  were  during  this  time  perpetually 
overrun  by  the  Sikhs,  in  spite  of  the  combined  efforts  of  the  Bhattis 
and  the  imperial  forces ;  but  Rohtak  and  Gurgaon  appear  to  have 
remained  with  Kamgar  Khan  till  his  death  in  1760.  His  son,  Musa 
Khan,  was  expelled  from  Farrukhnagar  by  Suraj  Mai,  the  Jat  ruler  of 
Bharatpur  ;  and  the  Jats  held  Jhajjar,  Badli,  and  Farrukhnagar  till 
1771.  In  that  year  Musa  Khan  recovered  Farrukhnagar,  but  he  never 
regained  a  footing  in  Rohtak  District.  In  1772  Najaf  Khan  came 
into  power  at  Delhi,  and  till  his  death  in  1782  some  order  was  main- 
tained. Bahadurgarh,  granted  in  1754  to  Bahadur  Khan,  Baloch, 
was  held  by  his  son  and  grandson  ;  Jhajjar  was  in  the  hands  of 
Walter  Reinhardt,  the  husband  of  Begam  Sumru  of  Sardhana  ;  and 
Gohana,  Maham,  Rohtak,  and  Kharkhauda  were  also  held  by  nominees 
of  Najaf  Khan.  The  Marathas  returned  in  1785,  but  could  do  little 
to  repel  the  Sikh  invasion  ;  and  from  1785  to  1803  the  north  of  the 
District  was  occupied  by  the  Raja  of  Jind,  while  the  south  and  west 
were  precariously  held  by  the  Marathas,  who  were  defied  by  the  strong 
Jat  villages  and  constantly  attacked  by  the  Sikhs.  Meanwhile  the 
military  adventurer  George  Thomas  had  carved  out  a  principality  in 
Hariana,  which  included  Maham,  Beri,  and  Jhajjar  in  the  present 
District ;  his  head-quarters  were  at  Hansi  in  the  District  of  Hissar, 
and  at  Georgegarh  near  Jhajjar  he  had  built  a  small  outlying  fort.  In 
1 80 1,  however,  the  Marathas  made  common  cause  with  the  Sikhs 
and  Rajputs  against  him,  and  under  the  French  commander,  Louis 
Bourquin,  defeated  him  at  Georgegarh,  and  succeeded  in  ousting 
him  from  his  dominions.  In  1803,  by  the  conquests  of  Lord  Lake, 
the  whole  country  up  to  the  Sutlej  and  the  Siwaliks  passed  to  the 
British  Government. 

Under  Lord  Lake's  arrangements,  the  northern  parganas  of  Rohtak 
were  held  by  the  Sikh  chiefs  of  Jind  and  Kaithal,  while  the  south 
was  granted  to  the  Nawab  of  Jhajjar,  the  west  to  his  brother,  the 
Nawab  of  Dadri  and  Bahadurgarh,  and  the  central  tract  to  the 
Nawab  of  Dujana.  The  latter,  however,  was  unable  to  maintain 
order  in  his  portion  of  the  territories  thus  assigned,  and  the  frequent 
incursions  of  Sikh  and  Bhatti  marauders  compelled  the  dispatch  of 
a  British  officer  in  1810  to  bring  the  region  into  better  organization. 
The  few  parganas  thus  subjected  to  British  rule  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  present  District.  Other  fringes  of  territory  escheated  on  the 
deaths  of  the  Kaithal  Raja  in  181 8  and  the  chief  of  Jind  in  1820. 
In  the  last-named  year,  Hissar  and  Sirsa  were  separated  from  Rohtak  ; 
and  in  1824  the  District  was  brought  into  nearly  its  present  shape 
by  the  District  of  Panipat  (now  Karnal)  being  made  a  separate 
charge. 


POPULATION  313 

Up  to  1832  Rohtak  was  administered  by  a  Political  Agent  under 
the  Resident  at  Delhi ;  but  it  was  then  brought  under  the  Regulations, 
and  included  in  the  North-W^estern  Provinces.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Mutiny  in  1857,  Rohtak  was  for  a  time  completely  lost  to  the 
British  Government.  The  Muhammadan  tribes,  uniting  with  their 
brethren  in  Gurgaon  and  Hissar,  began  a  general  predatory  movement 
under  the  Nawabs  of  Farrukhnagar,  Jhajjar,  and  Bahadurgarh,  and  the 
Bhatti  chieftains  of  Sirsa  and  Hissar.  They  attacked  and  plundered 
the  civil  station  at  Rohtak,  destroying  every  record  of  administration. 
But  before  the  fall  of  Delhi,  a  force  of  Punjab  levies  was  brought  across 
the  Sutlej,  and  order  was  restored  with  little  difficulty.  The  rebel 
Nawabs  of  Jhajjar  and  Bahadurgarh  were  captured  and  tried.  The 
former  was  executed  at  Delhi,  while  his  neighbour  and  relative  escaped 
with  a  sentence  of  exile  to  Lahore.  Their  estates  were  confiscated, 
part  of  them  being  temporarily  included  in  a  new  District  of  Jhajjar, 
while  other  portions  were  assigned  to  the  Rajas  of  Jind,  Patiala,  and 
Nabha  as  rewards  for  their  services  during  the  Mutiny.  Rohtak  Dis- 
trict was  transferred  to  the  Punjab  Government;  and  in  i860  Jhajjar 
was  broken  up,  part  of  it  being  added  to  the  territory  of  the  loyal 
Rajas,  and  the  remainder  united  with  Rohtak. 

There  are  no  antiquities  of  any  note,  and  the  history  of  the  old  sites 
is  unknown.  Excavations  at  the  Rohtak  Khokra  Kot  would  seem  to 
show  that  three  cities  have  been  successively  destroyed  there  ;  the  well- 
known  coins  of  Raja  Samanta  Deva,  who  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
over  Kabul  and  the  Punjab  about  a.  d.  920,  are  found  at  Mohan  Bari. 
Jhajjar,  Maham,  and  Gohana  possess  some  old  tombs,  but  none  is  of 
any  special  architectural  merit  ;  the  finest  are  at  the  first  place.  There 
is  an  old  baoli  or  stepped  well  at  Rohtak  and  another  at  Maham  :  the 
latter  has  been  described  by  the  author  of  Pen  and  Pencil  Sketches,  and 
must  have  been  in  much  better  repair  in  1828  than  it  is  now.  The 
Gaokaran  tank  at  Rohtak  and  the  Buawala  tank  at  Jhajjar  are  fine 
works,  while  the  masonry  tank  built  by  the  last  Nawab  of  Jhajjar  at 
Chuchakwas  is  exceedingly  handsome.  The  asthal  or  Jog  monastery  at 
Bohar  is  the  only  group  of  buildings  of  any  architectural  pretensions 
in  the  District ;  the  Jhajjar  palaces  are  merely  large  houses  on  the  old 
Indian  plan. 

Rohtak  contains  11  towns  and  491  villages.  Its  population  at  each 
of  the  last  four  enumerations  was:  (1868)  531,118,  (1881)  553,609, 
(1891)  590,475,  and  (1901)  630,672.  It  increased  p^jp^j^tion 
by  nearly  7  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade,  the 
increase  being  greatest  in  the  Sampla  tahsll,  and  least  in  Jhajjar.  It 
is  divided  into  four  tahsils — Rohtak,  Jjiajjar,  Saimpla,  and  Gohana 
— the  head-quarters  of  each  being  at  the  place  from  which  it  is  named. 
The  chief  towns  are  the  municipalities  of  Rohtak,  the  administrative 


314 


ROHTAK  DISTRICT 


head-quarters   of  the   District,  Jhajjar,   Beri,    Bahadurgarh,   and 
Gohana. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  population  in  1901  : — 


Tahsll. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Number  of 

c 

■3 
a. 

(2 

^«3 

0   (0 

04 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

to 

c 

f2 

1) 
> 

Rohtak    . 
Sampla    . 
Jhajjar 
Gohana    . 

District  total 

592 
409 
466 
336 

5 
2 
I 
3 

II 

102 
122 
189 

78 

197.727 
162,423 
123,227 

147.295 

334-0 

397-1 
264.4 

438-4 

+    8.2 

+  8.4 
+  3.2 
+  6.3 

7,648 
3,810 

3,598 
2,011 

i>797 

491 

630,672 

350-9 

+  6.8 

17,067 

Note. — Tlie  figures  for  the  areas  of  taJisils  are  taken  from  revenue  returns.     The 
total  area  is  that  given  in  the  Census  Report. 

Hindus  number  533,723,  or  85  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  Muham- 
madans  91,687.  About  85  per  cent,  of  the  population  live  in  villages, 
and  the  average  population  in  each  village  is  1,096,  the  largest  for 
any  District  in  the  Punjab.  The  language  ordinarily  spoken  is  Western 
Hindi. 

The  Jats  (217,000)  comprise  one-third  of  the  population  and  own 
seven-tenths  of, the  villages  in  the  District.  The  great  majority  are 
Hindus,  and  the  few  Muhammadan  Jats  are  of  a  distinctly  inferior 
type.  The  Hindu  Rajputs  (7,000)  are  a  well-disposed,  peaceful  folk, 
much  resembling  the  Jats  in  their  ways ;  the  Ranghars  or  Muham- 
madan Rajputs  (27,000),  on  the  other  hand,  have  been  aptly  described 
as  good  soldiers  and  indifferent  cultivators,  whose  real  forte  lies  in 
cattle-lifting.  Many  now  enlist  in  Skinner's  Horse  and  other  cavalry 
regiments.  The  Ahirs  (17,000)  are  all  Hindus  and  excellent  culti- 
vators. There  are  9,000  Malls  and  3,000  Gujars.  The  Brahmans 
(66,000)  were  originally  settled  by  the  Jats  when  they  founded  their 
villages,  and  now  they  are  generally  found  on  Jat  estates.  They  are 
an  inoffensive  class,  venerated  but  not  respected.  Of  the  commercial 
castes  the  Banias  (45,000)  are  the  most  important ;  and  of  the  menials 
the  Chamars  (leather-workers,  55,000),  Chuhras  (scavengers,  23,000), 
Dhanaks  (scavengers,  21,000),  Jhinwars  (water-carriers,  12,000),  Kum- 
hars  (potters,  13,000),  Lobars  (blacksmiths,  9,000),  Nais  (barbers, 
13,000),  Tarkhans  (carpenters,  13,000),  and  Telis  (oil-workers,  7,000). 
There  are  17,000  Fakirs.  About  60  per  cent,  of  the  population  are 
agriculturists,  and  21  per  cent,  industrial. 

The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  has  a  branch  at 
Rohtak  town,  and  in  1901  the  District  contained  41  native  Christians. 

The  general  conditions  with  regard  to  agriculture  in  different  parts 


■s-' 


AGRICULTURE 


3T5 


depend  rather  on  irrigation  than  on  differences  of  soil.     Throughout 

the  District  the  soil  consists  as  a  rule  of  a  good  light-coloured  alluvial 

loam,  while  a  lighter   and  sandier  soil  is  found  on        *     •     i^ 

.  °  .  Agriculture, 

elevations  and  clay  soils  in  depressions  of  the  land. 

All  soils  alike  give  excellent  returns  with  sufficient  rainfall,  but,  unless 

irrigated,  fail  entirely  in  times  of  drought,  though  the  sandy  soil  can 

do  with  less  rain  than  the  clay  or  loam.     The  large  unirrigated  tracts 

are  absolutely  dependent  on  the  autumn  harvest  and  the  monsoon 

rains.     Roughly  speaking,  the  part  north  of  the  railway  may  be  classed 

as  secure,  that  to  the  south  as  insecure,  from  famine.     The  whole  of 

the  soil  contains  salts,  and  saline  efflorescence  is  not  uncommon  where 

the  drainage  lines  have  been  obstructed. 

The  District  is  held  almost  entirely  on  the  pattlddri  and  bhaiydchdrd 

tenures,  zamlnddri  lands  covering  only  about  8,000  acres,  and  lands 

leased   from    Government   about    5,500    acres.     The   following   table 

shows    the    main    agricultural    statistics    in    1903-4,  areas    being    in 

square  miles : — 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Rohtak 

Sampla 
Jhajjar 
Gohana 

Total 

592 
409 
466 
336 

511 
346 

382 
281 

186 
122 

59 

159 

47 

38 

59 
33 

1,803 

1,520 

526 

177 

Wheat  is  the  chief  crop  of  the  spring  harvest,  occupying  103  square 
miles  in  1903-4  ;  grain  occupied  141  and  barley  47  square  miles.  In 
the  autumn  harvest  the  spiked  and  great  millets  {bdjra  and  J07vdr)  are 
the  principal  staples,  occupying  338  and  335  square  miles  respec- 
tively;  cotton  occupied  65  square  miles,  sugar-cane  31,  and  pulses  138. 
Indigo  is  grown  to  a  small  extent,  but  only  for  seed. 

The  cultivated  area  increased  from  1,406  square  miles  in  1879  to 
1,520  square  miles  in  1903-4,  in  which  year  it  amounted  to  84  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area.  The  increase  of  cultivation  during  the  twenty 
years  ending  1901  is  chiefly  due  to  canal  extensions,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  further  extension  is  possible.  Fallows  proper  are  not  practised; 
the  pressure  of  population  and  the  division  of  property  are  perhaps  too 
great  to  allow  them.  For  rains  cultivation  the  agriculturist  generally 
sets  aside  over  two-thirds  of  his  lands  in  the  autumn  and  rather  less 
than  one-third  in  the  spring,  and  the  land  gets  rest  till  the  season  for 
which  it  is  kept  comes  round  again  ;  if  there  is  heavy  rain  in  the  hot 
season,  the  whole  area  may  be  put  under  the  autumn  crop,  and  in  that 
case  no  spring  crop  is  taken  at  all.  These  arrangements  are  due  to 
the  nature  of  the  seasons,  rather  than  to  any  care  for  the  soil.     On 

VOL.  XXI.  X 


3i6  ROHTAK  DISTRICT 

lands  irrigated  by  wells  and  canals  a  crop  is  taken  every  harvest,  as  far 
as  possible ;  the  floods  of  the  natural  streams  usually  prevent  any 
autumn  crop,  except  sugar-cane,  being  grown  on  the  lands  affected  by 
them.  Rotation  of  crops  is  followed,  but  in  a  very  imperfect  way,  and 
for  the  sake  of  the  crop  rather  than  the  soil.  Nothing  worth  mention 
appears  to  have  been  done  in  the  way  of  improving  the  quality  of  the 
crops  groA^Ti. 

Except  in  the  Jhajjar  tahsil,  where  there  is  a  good  deal  of  well- 
irrigation,  advances  under  the  Land  Improvement  Loans  Act  were  not 
popular  till  recent  years  ;  nor  are  advances  under  the  Agriculturists' 
Loans  Act  common,  save  in  times  of  scarcity,  as  the  people  prefer  to 
resort  to  the  Banias.  During  the  five  years  ending  .September,  1904, 
a  total  of  5-3  lakhs  was  advanced,  including  4-9  lakhs  imder  the 
Agriculturists'  Loans  Act.  Of  this  sum,  3  lakhs  was  lent  in  the  famine 
year  1899-1900. 

The  bullocks  and  cows  are  oi  a  very  good  breed,  and  particularly 
fine  in  size  and  shape.  A  touch  of  the  Hansi  strain  probably  per- 
vades them  throughout.  The  bullocks  of  the  villages  round  Beri  and 
Georgegarh  have  a  special  reputation,  which  is  said  to  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  Nawab  of  Jhajjar  kept  some  bulls  of  the  Nagaur  breed  at 
Chuchakwas.  This  breed  is  small,  hardy,  active,  and  hard-working,  but 
is  said  to  have  fallen  off  since  the  confiscation  of  the  Jhajjar  State. 
The  zaminddrs  make  a  practice  of  selling  their  bullocks  after  one  crop 
has  come  up,  and  buying  fresh  ones  for  the  next  sowings,  thereby 
avoiding  the  expense  of  their  keep  for  four  or  five  months.  The 
extensive  breaking-up  of  land  which  has  taken  place  since  1840  has 
greatly  restricted  the  grazing  grounds  of  the  villages ;  the  present 
fodder-supply  grown  in  the  fields  leaves  but  a  small  margin  to  provide 
against  seasons  of  drought,  and  in  many  canal  estates  difficulty  is 
already  being  experienced  on  this  score.  Few  large  stretches  of  village 
jungle  are  now  to  be  found,  and  the  policy  of  giving  proprietary  grants 
has  reduced  by  more  than  half  the  area  of  the  Jhajjar  and  Bahadur- 
garh  reserves.  A  large  cattle  fair  is  held  at  Georgegarh.  The  horses 
of  the  District  are  of  the  ordinary  mediocre  type.  Goats  and  sheep 
are  owned  as  a  rule  by  village  menials.  The  District  board  maintains 
three  horse  and  three  donkey  stallions. 

Of  the  total  area  cultivated  in  1903-4,  526  square  miles,  or  nearly 
36  per  cent.,  were  classed  as  irrigated.  Of  this  area,  453  square  miles 
were  irrigated  from  canals  and  72  from  wells.  The  District  had  2,903 
masonry  wells  in  use,  all  worked  by  bullocks  on  the  rope-and-bucket 
system,  besides  864  unbricked  wells,  water-lifts,  and  lever  wells.  Canal- 
irrigation  more  than  trebled  and  well-irrigation  more  than  doubled 
during  the  twenty  years  ending  1901.  The  former  is  derived  entirely 
from  the  Western  Jumna  Canal,  the  Butana  branch  of  which  (with 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  317 

its  chief  distributary,  the  Bhiwani  branch)  irrigates  the  Gohana  and 
Rohtak  tahsils,  while  various  distributaries  from  the  new  Delhi  branch 
supply  Rohtak  and  Sampla.  The  area  estimated  as  annually  irrigable 
from  the  Western  Jumna  Canal  is  278  square  miles.  There  used  to 
be  a  certain  amount  of  irrigation  from  the  Sahibi  and  Indori  streams, 
but  this  has  been  largely  obstructed  by  dams  erected  in  the  territory  of 
the  Alwar  State.  Wells  are  chiefly  found  in  the  south  of  Jhajjar  and 
in  the  flood-affected  tracts  of  Sampla. 

The  District  contains  no  forests,  except  8  square  miles  of  Govern- 
ment waste  under  the  control  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner ;  and,  save 
along  canals  and  watercourses  and  immediately  round  the  villages, 
trees  are  painfully  wanting.  Reserved  village  jungles  are,  however,  a 
feature  of  the  District  and  are  found  in  nearly  every  village. 

The  Sultanpur  salt  sources  are  situated  in  five  villages  in  Gurgaon 
and  in  one  in  this  District  in  the  Jhajjar  tahslL  A  large  amount  of 
kankar  is  found,  some  of  which  is  particularly  pure  and  adapted  for 
the  preparation  of  lime.  The  low  hills  in  the  south  yield  a  limestone 
suitable  for  building  purposes. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  the  pottery  of  Jhajjar ;  the  saddlery  and 

leather-work  of  Kalanaur;  muslin  turbans,  interwoven  with  gold  and 

silver  thread,  and  a  muslin  known  as  tanzeb.  produced 

at  Rohtak:  and  the  woollen  blankets  woven  in  all .   °r 

\       .  communications. 

parts.  Dyemg  is  a  speciality  of  Jhajjar.  The  bullock- 
carts  of  the  District  are  well  and  strongly  made.  Four  cotton-ginning 
factories  and  one  combined  ginning  and  pressing  factory  have  recently 
been  opened  at  Rohtak  town,  which  absorb  a  good  deal  of  the  raw 
cotton  of  the  District.  In  1904  they  employed  279  hands.  In  other 
industries  the  native  methods  of  production  are  adhered  to ;  and, 
though  in  the  towns  foreign  sugar  and  cloth  are  making  way,  native 
products  hold  their  own  in  the  villages.  Owing  to  the  opening  of  the 
factories  and  the  Rohtak  grain  market,  the  demand  for  labour  has 
considerably  increased  and  wages  have  risen. 

In  ordinary  seasons  the  District  exports  grain,  the  annual  export 
of  cereals  being  estimated  by  the  Famine  Commission  of  1896-7  at 
89,000  tons.  The  construction  of  the  Southern  Punjab  Railway  has 
greatly  facilitated  exports  at  all  times,  and  imports  in  time  of  scarcity, 
the  monthly  average  imported  by  this  line  during  the  famine  year  1899 
being  no  less  than  3,400  tons.  Commerce  is  also  much  helped  by  the 
Rohtak  grain  market,  owing  to  its  favourable  position,  its  exemption 
from  octroi,  and  the  facilities  given  for  grain  storage. 

The  District  is  traversed  by  the  Southern  Punjab  Railway ;  the 
Rewari-Bhatinda  branch  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway  crosses  the 
west  side  of  the  Jhajjar  tahs'tl ;  and  the  terminus  of  the  branch  from 
Garhi  Harsaru  to  Farrukhnagar  is  about  a  mile  from  the  border.     The 

X  2 


3i8  ROHTAK  DISTRICT 

District  is  also  well  provided  with  roads,  the  most  important  being 
the  Delhi-Hissar,  Rohtak-Bhiwani,  and  Rohtak-Jhajjar  roads,  all  of 
which  are  metalled.  The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  79  miles, 
and  of  unmetalled  roads  605  miles.  Of  these,  20  miles  of  metalled 
and  41  miles  of  unmetalled  roads  are  under  the  Public  Works  depart- 
ment, and  the  rest  under  the  District  board.      ' 

The  first  famine  of  which  there  is  any  trustworthy  record  was  that  of 
1782-3,  the  terrible  chdlisa.     From  this  famine  a  very  large  number 
.  of  villages  in  the  District  date  their  refoundation,  in 

whole  or  in  part.     Droughts  followed  in  1802,  1812, 
181 7,  1833,  and  1837.     The  famine  of  r 860-1  was  the  first  in  which 
relief  was  regularly  organized  by  Government.     Nearly  500,000  daily 
units  were  relieved  by  distribution  of  food  and  in  other  ways ;  about 
400,000  were  employed  on  relief  works;  Rs.  34,378  was  spent  on 
these  objects,  and  Rs.  2,50,000  of  land  revenue  was  ultimately  remitted. 
In  1868-9,  719,000  daily  units  received  relief,  125,000  were  employed 
at  various  times  on  relief  works,  nearly  Rs.   1,35,000  was  spent  in 
alleviating  the  calamity,  and  more  than  Rs.  2,00,000  of  revenue  in  all 
was  remitted.     The  special  feature  of  the  relief  in  this  famine  was  the 
amount  raised  in  voluntary  subscriptions  by  the  people  themselves, 
which  was  nearly  Rs.  45,000.     There  is  said  to  have  been  great  loss  of 
life,  and  nearly  90,000  head  of  cattle  died.     The  next  famine  occurred 
in  1877-8.     Highway  robberies  grew  common,  grain  carts  were  plun- 
dered, and  in  the  village  of  Badli  a  grain  riot  took  place.     No  relief 
was,  however,  considered  necessary,  nor  was  the  revenue  demand  sus- 
pended;  176,000  head  of  cattle  disappeared,  and  it  took  the  District 
many  years  to  recover.     Both  harvests  of  1895-6  were  a  failure,  and 
in  1896-7  there  was  literally  no  crop  in  the  rains-land  villages.     Relief 
operations  commenced   in  November,   1896,  and   continued   till   the 
middle  of  July,  1897,  at  which  time  a  daily  average  of  11,000  persons 
were  on  the  relief  works.     Altogether,  Rs.  96,300  was  spent  in  allevi- 
ating distress,  and  suspensions  of  revenue  amounted  to  3-4  lakhs.    The 
famine  was,  however,  by  no  means  severe ;  more  than  three-fourths  of 
the  people  on  relief  works  were  menials,  and  large  stores  of  fodder  and 
grain  remained  in  most  of  the  villages.     The  famine  of  1899-1900  was 
only  surpassed  in  severity  by  the  chdlisa  famine  above  mentioned.    The 
spread  of  irrigation  had,  however,  largely  increased  the  area  protected 
from  drought ;  and,  while  in  1896-7  the  affected  area  was  1,467  square 
miles,  in  1 899-1 900  this  had  shrunk  to  1,234,  in  spite  of  the  greater 
severity  of  the  drought.     The  greatest  daily  average  of  persons  relieved 
was  in  the  week  ending  March  10,  1900,  when  33,632,  or  9  per  cent, 
of  the  population  affected,  were  in  receipt  of  relief.     The  total  cost  of 
the  famine  was  7-5  lakhs.     The  total  deaths  from  December,  1899,  to 
October,  1900,  were  25,006,  giving  a  death-rate  of  69  as  compared  with 


ADMINISTRA  TION  3 1 9 

the  average  rate  of  37  per  1,000.     Fever  was  responsible  for  18,279 

and   cholera   for    1,935    deaths.     The   losses   of  cattle  amounted    to 

182,000. 

The  District  is  in  charge  of  a  Deputy-Commissioner,  assisted  by  three 

Assistant  or  Extra-Assistant  Commissioners,  of  whom    .  ,    .  . 

...  ^,_-..  T-iri       Administration, 

one  IS  in  charge  of  the  District  treasury.    Lach  of  the 

four  tahstls  is  under  a  tahsilddr,  assisted  by  a  naib-tahsildar. 

The  Deputy-Commissioner,  as  District  Magistrate,  is  responsible  for 
criminal  justice.  Civil  judicial  work  is  under  a  District  Judge ;  and 
both  officers  are  supervised  by  the  Divisional  Judge  of  Delhi,  who  is 
also  Sessions  Judge.  The  District  Judge  has  two  Munsifs  under  him, 
one  at  head-quarters,  the  other  at  Jhajjar.  There  are  also  six  honorary 
magistrates.     The  predominant  form  of  crime  is  burglary. 

The  villages  are  of  unusual  size,  averaging  over  1,000  persons.  They 
afford  an  excellent  example  of  the  bhaiydchdrd  village  of  Northern 
India,  a  community  of  clansmen  linked  together,  sometimes  by  descent 
from  a  common  ancestor,  sometimes  by  marriage  ties,  sometimes  by  a 
joint  foundation  of  the  village  ;  with  no  community  of  property,  but  com- 
bining to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  village  by  means  of  a  council  of 
elders  ;  holding  the  waste  and  grazing  grounds,  as  a  rule,  in  common ; 
and  maintaining,  by  a  cess  distributed  on  individuals,  a  common  fund 
to  which  public  receipts  are  brought  and  expenditure  charged. 

The  early  revenue  history  under  British  rule  naturally  divides  itselt 
into  two  parts — that  of  the  older  tracts  which  form  most  of  the  area 
included  in  the  three  northern  tahsils,  and  that  of  the  confiscated 
estates  which  belonged  before  the  Mutiny  to  the  Nawabs  of  Jhajjar 
and  Bahadurgarh.  Thus  the  regular  settlements  made  in  1838-40 
included  only  half  the  present  District.  The  earlier  settlements  made 
in  the  older  part  followed  Regulation  IX  of  1805,  and  were  for  short 
terms.  In  Rohtak  little  heed  was  paid  to  the  Regulation,  which  laid 
down  that  a  moderate  assessment  was  conducive  equally  to  the  true 
interests  of  Government  and  to  the  well-being  of  its  subjects.  The 
revenue  in  1822  was  already  so  heavy  as  to  be  nearly  intolerable,  while 
the  unequal  distribution  of  the  demand  was  even  worse  than  its  bur- 
den. Nevertheless  an  increase  of  Rs.  2,000  was  levied  in  1825  and 
R.S.  4,000  shortly  after.  The  last  summary  settlement  made  in  1S35 
enhanced  the  demand  by  Rs.  20,000.  The  regular  settlement  made 
between  1838  and  1840  increased  the  assessment  by  Rs.  14,000.  This 
was  never  paid,  and  the  revision,  which  was  immediately  ordered,  re- 
duced it  by  \\  lakhs,  or  16  per  cent.  The  progress  of  the  District  since 
this  concession  was  made  has  been  a  continuing  proof  of  its  wisdom. 

Bahadurgarh  and  Jhajjar  were  resumed  after  the  Mutiny.  The 
various  summary  settlements  worked  well  on  the  whole,  and  a  regular 
settlement  was  made  between  i860  and  1863. 


;20 


ROHTAK  DISTRICT 


The  settlement  of  the  whole  District  was  revised  between  1873  and 
1879.  Rates  on  irrigated  land  varied  from  Rs.  2  to  Rs.  2-12,  and  on 
unirrigated  land  from  5  annas  to  Rs.  1-9.  Canal-irrigated  land  was,  as 
usual,  assessed  at  a  '  dry '  rate,  plus  owners'  and  occupiers'  rates.  The 
result  of  the  new  assessment  was  an  increase  of  9^  per  cent,  over  the 
previous  demand.  The  demand  for  1903-4,  including  cesses,  amounted 
to  nearly  1 1  lakhs.    The  average  size  of  a  proprietary  holding  is  5  acres. 

The  collections  of  land  revenue  alone  and  of  total  revenue  are  shown 
below,  in  thousands  of  rupees:  — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4.    ' 

Land  revenue  . 
Total  revenue . 

9,69 
11,09 

9,50 
11,38 

7:43 

10,37 

8,15 
ii>34 

The  District  contains  five  municipalities,  Rohtak,  Beri,  Jhajjar, 
Bahadurgarh,  and  Gohana  ;  and  ten  '  notified  areas,'  of  which  the 
most  important  are  Maham,  Kalanaur,  Muxdlaxa,  and  Butana. 
Outside  these,  local  affairs  are  managed  by  a  District  board,  whose 
income  amounted  in  1903  4  to  Rs.  1,24,000.  The  expenditure  in  the 
same  year  was  Rs.  1,22,000,  the  principal  item  being  public  works. 

The  regular  police  force  consists  of  433  of  all  ranks,  including  63 
municipal  police,  under  a  Superintendent,  who  is  usually  assisted  by 
2  inspectors.  The  village  watchmen  number  702.  The  District  has 
10  police  stations,  4  outposts,  and  17  road-posts.  Three  trackers  and 
three  camel  soivdrs  now  form  part  of  the  ordinary  force.  The  District 
jail  at  head-quarters  has  accommodation  for  230  prisoners. 

The  standard  of  education  is  below  the  average,  though  some  pro- 
gress has  been  made.  Rohtak  stands  twenty-sixth  among  the  twenty 
eight  Districts  of  the  Punjab  in  respect  of  the  literacy  of  its  population. 
In  1 90 1  only  2-7  per  cent,  of  the  population  (5  males  and  o-i  females) 
could  read  and  write.  The  number  of  pupils  under  instruction  was 
2,396  in  1880-1,  3,380  in  1890  -i,  5,097  in  1900-1,  and  5,824  in  1903-4. 
In  the  last  year  the  District  possessed  9  secondary  and  65  primary 
(public)  schools  and  2  advanced  and  42  elementary  (private)  schools, 
with  211  girls  in  the  public  and  8  in  the  private  schools.  The  Anglo- 
vernacular  school  at  Rohtak  town  with  262  pupils  is  the  only  high 
school.  The  other  principal  schools  are  two  Anglo-vernacular  middle 
schools  supported  by  the  municipalities  of  Jhajjar  and  Gohana,  and 
6  vernacular  middle  schools.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  44,000,  chiefly  derived  from  District  funds;  fees 
provided  nearly  a  third,  and  municipal  funds  and  Provincial  grants 
between  them  a  fifth,  of  the  total  expenditure. 

Besides  the  Rohtak  civil  hospital,  the  District  possesses  five  outlying 
dispensaries.     These  in  1904  treated  a  total  of  59,714  out-patients  and 


ROHTAK   TOWN  321 

1,016  in-patients,  while  2,894  operations  were  performed.  The  income 
was  Rs.  10,000,  almost  entirely  derived  from  Local  and  municipal 
funds. 

The  number  of  successful  vaccinations  in  1903-4  was  14,406,  repre- 
senting 22-8  per  1,000  of  population.  The  towns  of  Rohtak  and  Beri 
have  adopted  the  Vaccination  Act. 

[D.  C.  J.  Ibbetson,  District  Gazetteer  (1883-4);  H.  C.  Fanshawe, 
Settlement  Report  (1880).] 

Rohtak  Tahsil. —  Tahsil  oi  Rohtak  District,  Punjab,  lying  between 
28°  38'  and  29°  6'  N.  and  76°  13'  and  76°  45'  E.,  with  an  area  of  592 
square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  197,727,  compared  with 
182,649  in  1891,  It  contains  five  towns — Rohtak  (population,  20,323), 
the  head-quarters,  Beri  (9,723),  Kalanaur  (7,640),  Kahnaur  (5,024), 
and  Maham  (7,824) — and  102  villages,  including  Sanghi  (5,126).  The 
land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  2-9  lakhs.  The  plain 
is  broken  by  a  chain  of  sandhills  on  the  east  and  by  scattered  sandy 
eminences  elsewhere,  and  is  partially  irrigated  by  the  Western  Jumna 
Canal.  Trees  are  scarce,  except  round  the  villages  and  along  the  older 
canal-branches. 

Rohtak  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsil  of  the 
same  name,  Punjab,  situated  in  28°  54'  N.  and  76°  35'  E.,  on  the 
Southern  Punjab  Railway,  44  miles  north-west  of  Delhi ;  distant  by 
rail  from  Calcutta  1,000  miles,  from  Bombay  1,026,  and  from  Karachi 
863.  Population  (1901),  20,323,  including  10,404  Hindus  and  9,916 
Muhammadans.  It  is  plausibly  identified  with  the  Rauhitaka  or 
Rauhita  of  the  Rdjatarangini  and  of  Albirunl ;  but  tradition  avers 
that  its  ancient  name  was  Rohtasgarh  or  '  the  fort  of  Rohtas,'  a  Ponwar 
Raja,  and  points  to  the  mound  called  the  Khokra  Kot  as  the  site  of 
the  old  town.  It  is  also  said  that  Muhammad  of  Ghor  destroyed  the 
town  soon  after  it  had  been  rebuilt  by  PrithwT  Raj  in  11 60,  but  it  is 
not  mentioned  by  the  earlier  Muhammadan  historians.  A  colony  of 
Shaikhs  from  Yemen  are  said  to  have  built  a  fort ;  and  the  Afghans 
of  Birahma,  an  ancient  site  close  by,  aJso  settled  in  the  town,  which 
became  the  capital  of  a  fief  of  the  Delhi  kingdom.  Kai  Khusru,  the 
grandson  and  heir  of  Balban,  was  enticed  from  Multan  by  Kaikubad 
and  put  to  death  here  about  1286;  and  in  1410  Khizr  Khan,  the 
Saiyid,  besieged  Idris  Khan  in  Rohtak  fort,  and  took  it  after  a  six 
months'  siege.  After  the  decline  of  the  Mughal  power  Rohtak,  situated 
on  the  border  line  between  the  Sikh  and  Maratha  powers,  passed 
through  many  vicissitudes,  falling  into  the  hands  of  one  chieftain  after 
another.  It  became  the  head-quarters  of  Rohtak  District  in  1824,  and 
was  plundered  in  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 

The    municipality   was  created  in    1867.     The   income  during   the 
ten  years  ending   1902-3  averaged   Rs.  24,900,   and   the   expenditure 


32  2  ROHTAK   TOWN 

Rs.  24,400.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  25,000,  chiefly  derived 
from  octroi  :  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  23,600.  The  town  is  an 
important  trade  centre  ;  and  four  factories  for  ginning  cotton  and  one 
for  ginning  and  pressing  have  recently  been  estabhshed.  The  number 
of  factory  hands  in  1904  was  279.  MusHn  turbans  interwoven  with 
gold  and  silver  thread  and  a  form  of  muslin  known  as  tanzeb  are  pro- 
duced. The  Anglo-vernacular  high  school  is  managed  by  the  Educa- 
tional department. 

Rohtang. — Pass  in  the  Kulu  subdivision  of  Kangra  District,  Pun- 
jab, situated  in  32°  22'  N.  and  77°  17'  E.,  across  the  Himalayan  range 
which  divides  the  Kulu  valley  from  Lahul.  The  pass  leads  from 
Koksar  in  Lahul  to  Ralla  in  Kothi  Manali  of  Kulu.  The  elevation 
is  only  13,326  feet,  a  remarkably  low  level  considering  that  the  sides 
rise  to  15,000  and  16,000  feet,  while  within  12  miles  are  peaks  over 
20,000  feet  in  height.  The  high  road  to  Leh  and  Yarkand  from  Kulu 
and  Kangra  goes  over  this  pass,  which  is  practicable  for  laden  mules 
and  ponies.  The  pass  is  dangerous,  and  generally  impassable  between 
November  and  the  end  of  March  or  even  later.  Through  it  the 
monsoon  rains  reach  the  Chandra  valley,  and  the  Beas  rises  on  its 
southern  slope. 

Rohtas.— Fortress  in  the  District  and  tahsil  of  Jhelum,  Punjab, 
situated  in  32°  55'  N.  and  73°  48'  E.,  10  miles  north-west  of  Jhelum 
town,  in  the  gorge  where  the  Kahan  torrent  breaks  through  the  low 
eastern  spur  of  the  Tilla  range.  The  fortress  was  built  by  the  emperor 
Sher  Shah  Suri,  after  his  expulsion  of  Humayun  in  1542,  to  hold  in 
check  the  Gakhars,  who  were  allies  of  the  exiled  emperor.  The 
Gakhars  endeavoured  to  prevent  its  construction,  and  labour  was 
obtained  with  such  difficulty  that  the  cost  exceeded  40  lakhs  in  modern 
currency.  The  circumference  is  about  2\  miles,  and  the  walls  are 
30  feet  thick  and  from  30  to  50  feet  high.  There  are  68  towers  and 
12  gateways,  of  which  the  most  imposing  is  the  Sohal  Gate,  a  fine 
specimen  of  the  Pathan  style,  over  70  feet  in  height,  with  exquisite 
balconies  on  the  outer  walls.  The  fortress  was  named  after  the  fort 
of  Rohtas  in  Bengal,  the  scene  of  a  victory  of  Sher  Shah.  The  north- 
ern wall  is  now  a  ruin,  and  within  the  fortifications  lies  the  small  but 
flourishing  village  of  Rohtas. 

Rohtasgarh. — Hill  fort  in  the  Sasaram  subdivision  of  Shahabad 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  24°  37'  N.  and  83°  55'  E.,  about  30  miles 
south  of  Sasaram  town,  overlooking  the  junction  of  the  Koel  with  the 
Son  river.  Population  (1901),  1,899.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
young  prince  Rohitaswa,  son  of  Haris  Chandra,  king  of  the  Solar  race. 
Little  or  nothing  is  known  concerning  the  persons  who  held  the  fort 
until  1 1 00,  when  it  is  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  Pratap  Dhawala, 
father  of  the  last   Hindu  king.     Sher  Shah   captured    Rohtasgarh    in 


J^ON  TALUK  A  323 

1539)  ^■"'d  immediately  began  to  .strengthen  the  fortifications;  but  the 
work  had  not  progressed  very  far,  when  lie  selected  a  more  favourable 
site  in  the  neighbourhood  at  the  place  still  known  as  Shergarh.  Man 
Singh,  Akbar's  Hindu  general,  on  being  appointed  viceroy  of  Bengal 
and  Bihar,  selected  Rohtasgarh  as  his  stronghold ;  and,  according  to 
two  inscriptions  in  Sanskrit  and  Persian,  erected  many  of  the  buildings 
now.  existing.  When  he  died,  the  fortress  was  attached  to  the  office 
of  Wazir  of  the  emperor,  by  whom  the  governors  were  appointed.  The 
governor  of  the  place  in  1622-4  protected  Shah  Jahan's  family  when 
that  prince  was  in  rebellion  against  his  father.  Rohtasgarh  was  surren- 
dered to  the  British  soon  after  the  battle  of  Buxar  in  1764. 

The  remains  of  the  fortress  now  occupy  a  part  of  the  table-land, 
about  4  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  5  miles  from  north  to  south,  with 
a  circumference  of  nearly  28  miles.  On  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
plateau  is  an  old  temple  called  Rohtasan,  where  an  image  of  Rohitaswa 
was  worshipped  until  destroyed  by  Aurangzeb.  It  is  situated  on 
a  steep  peak,  and  is  approached  by  a  great  stone  staircase  arranged 
in  groups  of  steps  with  successive  landings.  Close  by  is  the  temple 
of  Haris  Chandra,  a  graceful  building  consisting  of  a  small  pillared 
hall  covered  by  five  domes.  Within  the  gate  at  Raj  Ghat  there  must 
have  been  a  very  considerable  building,  which  is  thought  to  have 
formed  the  private  residence  of  the  commandant.  Other  remains, 
some  of  which  date  back  to  the  time  of  Sher  Shah,  are  scattered  over 
the  plateau.  The  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  palace  or  Mahalsarai, 
which  is  attributed  to  Man  Singh.  It  is  irregularly  built  without  any 
architectural  pretensions,  the  most  striking  building  being  the  main 
gateway,  a  massive  structure  consisting  of  a  large  Gothic  arch,  with  the 
figure  of  an  elephant  on  each  side.  The  palace  is,  however,  of  great 
interest  as  being  the  only  specimen  of  Mughal  civil  architecture  in 
Bengal,  and  as  giving  an  insight  into  the  conditions  of  military  life 
under  that  empire. 

Rojhan. — Village  in  the  Rajanpur  tahs'tl  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan 
District,  Punjab,  situated  in  28°  41'  N.  and  69°  58''  E.,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Indus,  below  Dera  Ghazi  Khan  town.  Population  (lyoi), 
8,177.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  Mazari  Baloch,  having  been  founded 
by  Bahram  Khan,  tumanddr  or  chief  of  that  tribe,  about  1825.  The 
village  contains  a  fine  courthouse,  built  by  the  late  chief  for  his  use 
as  honorary  magistrate,  and  a  mosque  and  tomb  erected  in  memory 
of  his  father  and  nephew.  Woollen  rugs  and  nose-bags  for  horses 
are  manufactured.  A  vernacular  middle  school  is  maintained  by  the 
District  board. 

Ron  Taluka. — North-eastern  tdhika  of  Dharwar  District,  Bombay, 
lying  between  15°  30'  and  15°  50'  N.  and  75°  29'  and  76°  2'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  432   square  miles.     There  arc  two  towns,  Ron  (popula- 


324  RON  TALUK  A 

tion,  7,298),  the  head-quarters,  and  Gajendragarh  (8,853) ;  and  84 
villages,  including  Naregal  (8,327)  and  Savdi  (5,202).  The  popula- 
tion in  1 90 1  was  103,298,  compared  with  92,370  in  1891.  The 
density,  239  persons  per  square  mile,  is  slightly  below  the  District 
average.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  1-8  lakhs, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  14,000.  Ron  taluka  is  a  stretch  of  rich  black  soil, 
without  a  hill  or  upland.  The  people  are  skilful,  hard-working  husband- 
men, and  well-to-do.  The  water-supply  is  poor,  and  the  annual  rainfall 
averages  only  about  23  inches. 

Ron  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tdhika  of  the  same  name  in 
Dharwar  District,  Bombay,  situated  in  15°  42'  N.  and  75°  44'  E.,  55 
miles  north-east  of  Dharwar  town.  Population  (1901),  7,298.  Ron 
has  seven  black  stone  temples,  in  one  of  which  is  an  inscription  dated 
1 180.     The  town  contains  two  schools,  one  of  which  is  for  girls. 

Roorkee  Tahsil. — Eastern  tahsil  of  Saharanpur  District,  United 
Provinces,  lying  between  29°  38'  and  30°  8'  N.  and  77°  43'  and 
78°  12'  E.,  with  an  area  of  796  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Siwaliks,  on  the  east  by  the  Ganges,  and  on  the  south 
by  Muzafifarnagar  District.  It  comprises  the  parganas  of  Roorkee, 
Jwalapur,  Manglaur,  and  Bhagwanpur.  The  population  fell  from 
290,498  in  1891  to  286,903  in  1901.  There  are  426  villages  and 
six  towns,  Hardwar  Union  (population,  25,597),  Roorkee  (17,197), 
the  tahsil  head-quarters,  and  Manglaur  (10,763)  being  the  largest. 
In  1903-4  the  demand  for  land  revenue  was  Rs.  3,86,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  62,000.  In  the  same  year  the  urea  under  cultivation  was 
369  square  miles,  of  which  38  were  irrigated.  Besides  the  forests  on 
the  slopes  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Siwaliks,  the  tahsil  contains  20  square 
miles  of  grazing  reserve  south  of  Roorkee,  known  as  the  Pathrl  forest, 
and  a  large  area  of  low-lying  land  in  the  Ganges  khddar.  The  head- 
works  of  the  Upper  Ganges  Canal  are  near  Hardwar,  but  the  area 
irrigated  in  this  tahsil  \^  small.  The  average  rainfall  is  about  43  inches, 
being  the  highest  in  the  District.  Successful  drainage  operations  have 
been  carried  out  near  Pathrl.  The  tahsil  forms  a  regular  subdivision 
of  the  District,  with  a  Civilian  Joint-Magistrate  and  a  Deputy-Collector 
recruited  in  India,  who  reside  at  Roorkee. 

Roorkee  Town  (Rurki). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  oi  the  same 
name,  and  cantonment,  in  Saharanpur  District,  United  Provinces, 
situated  in  29°  51'  N.  and  77°  53'  E.,  on  the  main  line  of  the  Gudh 
and  Rohilkhand  Railway,  and  connected  by  road  with  Saharanpur  and 
Hardwar.  The  Upper  Ganges  Canal  passes  between  the  native  town 
and  the  cantonment.  Population  (1901),  17,197,  including  9,256 
Hindus  and  6,197  Muhammadans. 

Roorkee  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  inahdl  or  pargana  mentioned 
in  the  Ai/i-i-Ak/ian ;  but  about  1S40,  when  the  Ganges  Canal  works 


ROORKEE    TOWN  325 

commenced,  it  was  a  mere  mud-built  village  on  the  banks  of  the  Solani. 
It  is  now  a  fair-sized  town,  with  broad  metalled  roadways  meeting  at 
right  angles,  and  lined  with  excellent  shops.  It  is  also  provided  with 
good  saucer  drains,  which  are  flushed  with  water  pumped  from  the  canal. 
A  short  distance  above  the  town  the  Ganges  Canal  is  carried  over  the 
wide  bed  of  the  Solani  by  a  magnificent  brick  aqueduct.  Roorkee 
first  became  important  as  the  head-quarters  of  the  canal  workshops  and 
iron  foundry,  which  were  established  in  1845-6,  and  extended  and 
improved  in  1850.  For  thirty  years  the  workshops  were  conducted 
rather  on  the  footing  of  a  private  business  than  as  a  Government 
concern.  In  1886  they  were  brought  under  the  ordinary  rules  for 
Government  manufacturing  departments.  The  annual  out-turn  is 
valued  at  about  2  to  3  lakhs,  and  80  workmen  were  employed 
in  1903.  Roorkee  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Bengal  Sappers  and 
Miners,  who  have  large  workshops,  employing  135  men  in  1903.  The 
most  important  institution  is,  however,  the  Thomason  Engineering 
College,  called  after  its  founder,  who  was  Lieutenant-Governor  from 
1843  to  1853.  This  institution  had  its  origin  in  a  class  started  in  1845 
to  train  native  youths  in  engineering,  to  assist  in  the  important  public 
works  then  beginning.  The  decision  arrived  at  in  1847  to  carry  out 
the  Ganges  Canal  project  increased  the  necessity  for  a  well-trained  staff 
of  engineers,  and  the  college  was  opened  in  1848.  In  185 1  there 
were  50  students,  and  42  had  entered  the  service.  Up  to  1875  each 
student  received  a  stipend  ;  but  from  that  year  the  number  of  scholar- 
ships and  the  number  of  guaranteed  appointments  were  limited,  though 
education  remained  practically  free.  Since  1896  all  students  except 
soldiers  and  industrial  apprentices  have  paid  fees,  but  the  applications 
for  admission  far  exceed  the  accommodation.  In  the  same  year  the 
methods  of  instruction  were  greatly  developed,  and  the  college  was 
practically  rebuilt.  There  are  now  chemical,  physical,  electrical,  and 
mechanical  laboratories,  and  technical  workshops  fitted  witli  the  latest 
tools  and  machinery.  The  press  is  supplied  with  power  machines,  and 
turns  out  all  varieties  of  work  besides  ordinary  printing.  There  are  also 
mechanical  and  industrial  classes.  The  total  number  of  students  in 
1903-4  was  369;  and  in  1903  the  press  employed  125  workmen,  and 
the  workshops  52,  besides  77  students.  Roorkee  is  also  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  and  of  the 
American  Methodist  Missions  in  this  District.  The  Joint  Magistrate 
and  the  Deputy-Collector  posted  to  the  subdivision,  and  an  Executive 
Engineer  of  the  Upper  Ganges  Canal,  reside  here. 

The  municipality  was  created  in  1868.  The  income  and  expenditure 
from  1892  to  1901  averaged  Rs.  17,000  and  Rs.  16,000.  In  1903-4 
the  income  was  Rs.  27,000,  chiefly  from  octroi  (Rs.  16,000)  :  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  28,000. 


326  ROORKEE    TOWN 

Besides  the  Bengal  Sappers  and  Miners,  two  heavy  batteries  of 
artillery  are  ordinarily  stationed  here.  The  cantonment  income  and 
expenditure  are  about  Rs.  6,000  annually,  and  the  population  of  the 
cantonment  in   1901  was  2,951. 

Rosera. — Town  in  Darbhanga  District,  Bengal.     See  Rusera. 

Roshnabad.— Estate  in  Tippera  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam.     See  Chakla  Roshnabad, 

Rotas. — Place  of  archaeological  interest  in  Jhelum  District,  Punjab. 
See  RoHTAS. 

Ruby  Mines  District. — District  in  the  Mandalay  Division  of 
Upper  Burma,  lying  between  22°  42'  and  24°  V  N.  and  95°  58'  and  96^^ 
43'  E.,  with  an  area  of  1,914'  square  miles.  The  Shan  State  of  Mong- 
mit  (Momeik)  lies  to  the  east,  and  is  for  the  present  administered  as 
a  subdivision  of  the  District.  The  combined  area  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Katha  and  Bhamo  Districts  ;  on  the  east  by  the  North 
Hsenwi  State  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Tawngpeng  and  Hsipaw  States, 
and  Mandalay  District ;  and  on  the  west  by  Shwebo  and  Katha  Dis- 
tricts. With  the  exception  of  a  thin  strip  of  land  about  20  miles  long 
by  2  miles  wide,  half-way  down  its  western  border,  the  whole  area  lies 
.  east  of  the  Irrawaddy.     The  District  proper  consists 

aspects.  ^^  ^^°  tracts,  essentially  different  in  configuration  : 

a  long  plain  running  north  and  south  bordering  the 
river  and  extending  back  some  dozen  miles  from  its  banks  ;  and  in 
the  south  a  mass  of  rugged  mountains,  stretching  eastwards  from  the 
level,  in  the  centre  of  which  lies  the  Mogok  plateau.  North  of  this 
mass  the  ground  rises  rapidly  from  the  plains  to  a  ridge  bordering 
the  District  proper  on  the  east  and  separating  it  from  the  basin  of  the 
Shweli,  in  which  the  whole  of  the  Mongmit  State  is  comprised.  The 
highest  peak  in  the  District  is  Taungme,  7  miles  north-west  of  Mogok 
and  7,555  feet  above  the  sea;  and  elsewhere  are  several  imposing  hills, 
conspicuous  among  them  being  the  Shweudaung  (6,231  feet),  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  first-named  eminence.  The  Irrawaddy  washes  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  western  border  of  the  District  from  north  to  south,  the 
upper  part  of  its  course  being  wide  and  dotted  with  islands,  while 
the  lower  part,  known  as  the  first  defile,  lies  confined  between  steep 
rocky  banks  which  give  a  succession  of  picturesque  views  to  the 
traveller  on  the  river.  The  watercourses  running  across  the  plains  into 
the  Irrawaddy  are  for  the  most  part  short  and  of  little  importance. 
After  the  Irrawaddy  the  river  most  worthy  of  note  is  the  Shweli  (or 
Nam  Mao),  a  considerable  stream,  which  enters  the  Mongmit  State 
from  China  near  the  important  trade  centre  of  Namhkam,  and  runs  in 
a  rocky  defile  in  a  south-westerly  direction  through  Mongmit  as  far  as 
the  village  of  Myitson.     Here  it  abruptly  takes  a  northerly  course  till 

^  Excluding  Mongmit  .State. 


RUBY  MINES  DISTRICT  327 

it  is  close  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  District,  when  it  bends 
sharply  south-west  again  to  meet  the  Irrav,addy  a  few  miles  above 
Tigyaing  in  Katha  District.  The  valley  below  Myitson  is  wide  and  to 
a  certain  extent  cultivated,  in  marked  contrast  to  the  country  on  the 
upper  course.  At  Myitson  the  Shweli  is  joined  on  the  left  by  a  stream 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Kin,  which  rises  near  Shwenyaungbin  in 
the  Mogok  subdivision,  and  the  Nam  Mit  (Meik),  watering  the  valley 
in  which  the  capital  of  the  Mongmit  State  is  situated.  Another  stream 
deserving  of  mention  is  the  Moybe  or  Nam  Pe,  which  rises  in  the 
Tawngpeng  State,  and,  after  skirting  the  southern  boundary  of  Mong- 
mit and  of  the  District  proper,  turns  south  to  separate  the  Hslpaw 
State  from  Mandalay  District,  finishing  its  course  as  the  Madaya 
charing. 

The  whole  of  the  Ruby  Mines  District  is  occupied  by  crystalline 
rocks,  mainly  gneisses,  and  pyroxene  granulites,  traversed  by  grains  of 
tourmaline-bearing  granite.  Between  Thabeikkyin  and  Mogok  bands 
of  crystalline  limestone  are  interbedded  with  the  gneiss,  and  from  these 
the  rubies  of  the  District  are  derived.  The  stones  were  formerly 
obtained  from  the  limestone  itself,  but  the  principal  sources  now  are 
the  clays  and  other  debris  filling  up  fissures  and  caves  in  the  limestone 
and  the  alluvial  gravels  and  clays  of  the  valleys  of  Mogok  and 
Kyatpyin.  Besides  rubies,  sapphires  and  spinels  with  tourmaline  are 
found  in  the  alluvium.  Graphite  occurs  in  small  flakes  disseminated 
through  the  limestone,  and  in  a  few  localities  is  concentrated  in 
pockets  of  considerable  size  along  the  junction  of  the  Hmestones  with 
the  gneiss. 

The  vegetation  is  much  the  same  as  is  described  in  the  article  on 
the  Northern  Shan  States.  In  the  evergreen  tracts  it  is  very 
luxuriant. 

Tigers  and  leopards  are  common  and  are  very  destructive  to  cattle. 
Bears,  hog,  bison,  sdmbar,  and  gyi  (barking-deer)  are  all  numerous. 
Elephants  are  found  in  places,  especially  in  Mongmit  territory,  and 
here  and  there  rhinoceros  have  been  met  with. 

The  Mogok  plateau  is  situated  at  a  high  altitude  and  possesses 
a  temperate  climate  well  suited  to  Europeans,  the  maximum  and 
minimum  temperatures  at  Mogok  averaging  70°  and  37°  in  December 
and  80°  and  59°  in  May.  Bernardmyo,  a  small  station  10  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  Mogok,  and  somewhat  higher,  enjoys  a  climate  colder 
and  more  bracing.  It  used  to  be  a  military  sanitarium,  but  the  troops 
have  now  been  withdrawn  from  it.  The  climate  of  the  river-side  town- 
ships resembles  that  of  Mandalay,  but  the  country  farther  from  the 
river  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  is  very  malarious.  The  Mongmit  valley, 
too,  is  unhealthy,  but,  unlike  that  of  Mogok,  is  excessively  hot.  The 
rainfall  varies  considerably  in  the  different  subdivisions,     During  the 


328  RUBY  MINES  DISTRICT 

three  years  ending  1903   it  averaged  44  inches   at    Thabeikkyin,  43 

inches  at  Mongmit,  and  98  inches  at  Mogok. 

The  Ruby  Mines  District  was  constituted  in  1886  on  the  annexation 

of  Upper  Burma,  but  was  practically  left  to  itself,  so  far  as  any  attempt 

„.  ^  at  formal  administration  was  concerned,  until  the  end 

History.  ^    ,  ,  ,  ,       ^  ,   ^ 

of  the  year,  when  a  column  under  General  Stewart 

marched  up  to  Mogok.  Some  opposition  was  encountered  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Taungme,  but  it  was  slight  and  easily  overcome,  and 
the  new  District  remained  quiet  for  about  two  years  after  its  first 
occupation.  Then  troubles  fell  on  it  from  outside,  the  result  of  the 
vigorous  operations  in  the  neighbouring  plains,  which  drove  the  insur- 
gents into  the  hills.  Towards  the  end  of  the  two  years  it  was  reported 
that  the  capital  of  Mongmit  was  being  threatened  by  a  large  gathering 
under  Saw  Yan  Naing,  a  rebel  leader  who  had  established  his  head- 
quarters at  Manpon,  a  village  situated  three  days'  march  north-east 
of  Mongmit,  As  a  result  of  these  reports  a  small  detachment  of  troops 
was  posted  at  Mongmit ;  and  after  an  unfortunate  encounter  in  which, 
owing  to  insufficient  information,  a  handful  of  troops  suffered  a  reverse, 
a  considerable  body  of  dacoits  which  had  advanced  on  Mongmit  was 
attacked  and  severely  defeated.  The  disturbances  naturally  affected 
the  rest  of  the  District.  Twinnge,  an  important  village  of  300  houses 
on  the  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  was  taken  and  burnt  by  a  band  under 
one  Nga  Maung.  Another  man  of  the  same  name  and  other  minor 
dacoits  from  the  same  part  threatened  the  District,  and  a  feeling 
of  insecurity  prevailed.  On  the  Tawngpeng  border  also  Nga  Zeya, 
a  noted  desperado,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Mandalay,  was  reported 
to  have  a  considerable  following.  Dacoities  were  numerous,  and  the 
main  road  from  Mogok  to  Thabeikkyin  became  very  unsafe,  especially 
during  the  rains,  when  it  was  haunted  by  the  two  Nga  Maungs  and 
other  outlaws.  The  military  garrison  was  therefore  strengthened  ;  an 
attack  was  made  on  Manpon  and  Saw  Yan  Naing's  gathering  was  dis- 
persed ;  at  the  same  time  steps  were  taken  to  strike  at  the  root  of  the 
evil  by  improving  the  administration  of  the  neighbouring  States  of 
Monglong  and  Tawngpeng,  and  Gurkha  troops  were  substituted  for 
the  existing  garrison.  The  net  result  of  all  these  measures  was  that 
the  disturbances  were  reduced  to  sporadic  dacoities  of  a  petty  nature, 
chiefly  committed  on  traders  on  the  road  between  Mogok  and  Tha- 
beikkyin, and  these  were  finally  checked  by  the  maintenance  of  patrols 
on  the  road  and  the  establishment  of  military  police-  posts  in  the  more 
important  wayside  villages.     The  District  is  now  perfectly  quiet. 

The  oldest  pagoda  of  which  anything  is  known  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Mogok  is  the  Shwekugyi,  built  in  Dhammathawka  Min's  time.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  erected  on  the  precise  spot  where  the  elephant 
which  brought  some  bones  and  hair  and  a  tooth  of  Gautama  from 


POPULA  TION 


329 


India  knelt  down  with  its  precious  burden.  At  Kyatpyin  there  is 
a  pagoda  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  known  as  Pingutaung,  remarkable 
chiefly  for  the  amount  of  labour  that  must  have  been  involved  in  the 
carriage  of  the  materials  to  such  a  height.  Tagaung,  a  village  on 
the  Irrawaddy  in  the  west  of  the  District,  is  the  site  of  the  earliest 
of  the  known  capitals  of  Burma.  Traces  of  the  old  city  walls  are  still 
to  be  seen;  and  among  the  ruins  of  the  pagodas  terra-cotta  tablets 
of  considerable  antiquity,  known  generally  as  Tagaung  bricks,  have 
been  found  in  the  past.  Of  the  Tagaung  pagodas,  the  four  of  most 
note  are  the  Shwezigon,  the  Shwezedi,  the  Shwebontha,  and  the 
Shwegugyi.  The  most  frequented  shrine  in  the  District  is  the  Shwe- 
myindin  near  Mongmit,  which  is  the  scene  of  a  large  gathering  of 
many  nationalities  at  the  full  moon  of  Tabaung  (March)  in  every  year. 

The  population  of  the  District,  excluding  the  Mongmit  State,  was 
34,062  in  1891  and  42,986  in  1901,  while  that  of  the 
Mongmit  State  in  the  latter  year  was  44,708.     The 
distribution  of  the  population  of  the  combined  areas  in  1901  is  set  forth 
below :  — 


Township. 

3     . 
CT'tn 

< 

610 

688 

616 

2,802 

760 

Number  of 

c 
0 

1 

a. 

u 

1)    . 

§1 
Is 

40 
14 
14 

8 
29 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween 1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 

0 
H 

en 

Mogok 
'I'habeikkyiii 
Tagaung    . 
Mongmit    . 
Kodaiing    . 

District  total 

TI2 

74 

71 

236 

303 

24,590 

9,7«7 
8,609 

22,581 

22,127 

+   31 
-(-    20 

-(-    21 

5,462 
3,206 

2,441 

3,291 

158 

5,476 

796 

87,694 

16 

... 

14,558 

Mogok  is  the  only  urban  area  of  any  size.  There  has  been  con- 
siderable immigration  from  the  Shan  States,  and  to  a  less  extent  from 
the  adjoining  Districts  of  Mandalay  and  Shwebo.  Buddhism  is  the 
religion  of  79  per  cent,  of  the  population  and  Animism  that  of  most  of 
the  remainder.  Less  than  half  the  people  speak  Burmese  and  Shan. 
Kachin  and  Palaung  are  both  strongly  represented. 

Burmans  numbered  35,200  in  1901.  They  form  almost  the  entire 
population  of  the  river-side  (Thabeikkyin  and  Tagaung)  townships,  and 
about  one-third  of  that  of  the  Mogok  township.  There  are  10,400 
Burmese-speakers,  that  is  Burmans  and  mixed  Burmans  and  Shans,  in 
the  Mongmit  State,  where  they  inhabit  the  larger  villages  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Shweli  and  its  tributaries.  Shans  numbered  16,800  in  1901, 
being  widely  distributed  over  the  Mogok  township  and  the  entire 
Mongmit  State  except  in  the  Kodaung  tract,  where  they  have  to  a  large 
extent  been  ousted  by  Kachins.     The   Palaungs  numbered   16,400. 


33° 


RUBY  ^^INES  DISTRICT 


They  share  the  Kodaung  township  with  the  Kachins,  and  are  found  in 
considerable  numbers  in  the  Mongmit  and  Mogok  townships.  The 
Kachins,  numbering  13,300,  form  half  the  population  of  the  Kodaung 
tract,  and  have  spread  into  the  Mongmit  township.  There  were  2,800 
natives  of  India  in  igoi  (of  whom  only  370  resided  in  the  Mongmit 
State).  About  one-fourth  are  Musalmans  and  the  rest  Hindus,  and 
two-thirds  of  the  total  reside  in  Mogok  and  its  suburbs.  The  Census 
of  1901  showed  that  50,900  persons,  or  58  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion, were  directly  dependent  upon  agriculture,  a  low  proportion  for 
Burma.  Excluding  the  Mogok  township,  the  percentage  becomes  72 
as  compared  with  the  Provincial  average  of  66.  Of  the  agricultural 
population,  28,700  persons  were  returned  as  dependent  upon  taimgya 
(shifting)  cultivation.  About  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  were  dependent 
upon  industries  connected  with  precious  stones.  No  Christian  missions 
are  maintained. 

Owing  to  the  hilly  nature  of  the  District  the  area  of  taungya  cultiva- 
tion is  proportionately  large,  but  rice  is  also  grown  on  the  low-lying 
levels.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  usually  rich  and 
the  rainfall  is  everywhere  sufficient,  eked  out  with  the 
help  of  some  small  irrigation  works,  for  the  needs  of  the  crops.  Rice 
in  the  plains  is  as  a  rule  first  raised  in  nurseries,  but  the  mayin  (hot- 
season)  crop  is  sown  broadcast  in  the  tanks  as  they  dry  up.  Both  the 
plough  {te)  and  the  harrow  {tuii)  are  employed,  and  for  ploughing 
purposes  the  buffalo  is  in  most  general  use.  The  advantages  of 
manure  are  not  fully  understood  (except  by  the  Chinese  gardeners  near 
Mogok),  though  the  stubble  is  burnt  for  fertilizing  purposes  on  the 
fields.  An  experimental  orchard  was  started  some  little  time  ago  at 
Bernardmyo,  but  was  destroyed  by  fire  before  any  good  result  had 
been  attained.  The  garden  was  finally  given  up  when  it  was  proved 
that  the  rains  broke  before  the  fruit  could  ripen. 

The  cultivated  area  of  the  District  is  very  small.  The  main  agricul- 
tural statistics  for  1903-4  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  in  square 
miles  : — 


Agriculture. 


Township. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Forests. 

Mogok     . 
Thabeikkyin     . 
Tagaung  . 
Mongmit  . 
Kodaung  . 

Total 

610     1            5 
688     :           5 
616               3 
2,802 
760 

3 
I 

-  5,399 

5,476              '3 

4 

5»399 

Rice  is  the  staple  crop,  the  great  bulk  of  the  out-turn  being  harvested 
during  the  cold  season.  Mayin  rice  is  grown  chiefly  in  Mongmit  and 
Thabeikkyin.     The  'wet'  rice  land  in  the  District  proper  in   1903-4 


FORESTS  331 

comprised  about  7,000  acres.  A  very  small  area  (400  acres)  is  under 
sesamum,  and  a  still  smaller  area  under  maize.  All  kinds  of  vege- 
tables are  extensively  grown  ;  and,  in  particular,  the  Lisaw  colony  near 
Bernardmyo  cultivates  potatoes,  which  do  very  well  on  the  higher 
lands. 

Experiments  have  lately  been  made  in  coffee-growing  on  the  Mogok 
hills.  The  soil  is  said  to  be  suitable,  but  the  industry  is  impossible  at 
present  owing  to  the  high  rates  that  have  to  be  paid  for  labour.  The 
jungles  in  the  valleys  are  being  gradually  cleared,  and  cultivation  is 
slowly  extending  over  the  face  of  the  country  ;  but  the  husbandmen 
are  lamentably  conservative  and  no  improvements  in  the  quality  of 
seed  can  be  recorded.  Experiments  were  made  at  one  time  with 
Havana  tobacco,  but  they  ended  in  complete  failure  owing  to  the 
inclement  weather.  A  similar  venture  was  recently  started  with  \'irginia 
tobacco  seed.  No  advances  have  been  made  under  the  Land  Improve- 
ment Loans  Act,  but  advantage  is  taken  of  the  Agriculturists'  Loans 
Act,  a  sum  of  more  than  Rs.  20,000  having  been  advanced  under  it 
during  the  four  years  ending  1903-4.  I'he  loans  are  utilized  chiefly 
for  the  purchase  of  buffaloes  for  ploughing. 

Little  attention  is  paid  to  the  breeding  of  live-stock,  and  nature  is 
allowed  free  play.  The  ponies  are  as  a  rule  under-sized,  good  beasts 
being  hard  to  get.  A  little  attention  paid  to  breeding  would  be  of 
great  advantage  and  help  to  rescue  this  useful  type  of  animal  from 
further  deterioration,  if  not  from  total  extinction.  There  are  no  recog- 
nized grazing  grounds,  except  those  reserved  by  the  Forest  department, 
but  uncultivated  land  and  jungle  are  abundant. 

The  District  contains  no  Government  irrigation  works,  but  nearly 
2,300  acres  of  land  are  irrigated.  The  fisheries  are  confined  to  the 
Thabeikkyin  subdivision.  The  number  of  recognized  fishing  areas  is 
16,  and  these  are  divided  between  the  Tagaung  and  Thabeikkyin 
townships,  11  belonging  to  the  former  and  5  to  the  latter.  The 
most  important  is  the  Ywahmwe  fishery,  which  brought  in  Rs.  4,500  in 
1903-4.     The  total  revenue  from  this  source  is  about  Rs.  20,000. 

The  forests  are  greatly  affected  and  modified  by  the  physical 
geography,  which  must  be  briefly  described  to  explain  the  character 
of  its  vegetation.  The  dry  tract  of  Burma  extends 
from  Shwebo  into  the  Ruby  Mines  District  in  a  band 
of  about  10  to  12  miles  broad  from  Thabeikkyin  and  Tagaung.  This 
arid  stretch  is  bounded  by  laterite  hills,  which  in  their  turn  give  place 
to  the  high  range  of  the  Irrawaddy-Shweli  watershed,  with  a  large  spur 
running  eastwards  to  Mogok,  and  boasting  of  peaks  of  6,000  feet  and 
higher.  On  the  eastern  side  of  this  watershed  the  ground  slopes  gently 
to  an  elevated  plateau  of  laterite  drained  by  sandy  streams,  which 
usually  disappear  into  plains  of  grass  as  the  Shweli  is  approached.     On 

VOL.  XXI.  V 


332  RUBY  MINES  DISTRICT 

the  farther  side  of  that  stream,  i.  e.  on  its  east  l^ank,  perennial  streams 
drain  a  hilly  country  of  metamorphic  rocks. 

On  the  dry  tract  the  vegetation  partakes  of  the  scrub-like  character 
of  the  forest  of  the  dry  zone,  the  only  bamboo  being  the  inyin  {Dendro- 
calamus  stricius),  while  the  trees,  except  near  the  river  and  jhlls,  are 
for  the  most  part  stunted  cutch  {Acacia  Catechu).  This  is  the  only 
tree  of  any  economic  value.  It  grows  sparsely  now,  but  must  have 
been  plentiful  in  the  past.  Wherever  the  dry  plain  land  rises  up  to 
meet  the  laterite  hills  there  are  stretches  of  i?idaing,  or  forests  in  which 
the  i?i  {Dipterocarpus  tuberculatus)  is  the  predominant  tree.  \\'here 
the  laterite  is  modified  with  clay  the  forest  is  mixed  with  bamboo 
(Z?.  strictus),  and  the  characteristic  tree  is  the  than  [Tertninalia 
Oliveri).  As  the  watershed  of  the  Irrawaddy  is  reached,  the  laterite 
gives  way  to  metamorphic  rocks,  and  the  forest  changes  to  the  mixed 
deciduous  type.  This  consists  of  teak,  pyingado,  and  deciduous  trees 
mixed  with  bamboos.  As  the  elevation  rises,  the  high  evergreen  forest 
of  Burma  is  encountered,  with  various  species  of  oaks  and  chestnuts, 
eugenias,  Dipterocarpus  laevis,  and  Fici  forming  the  upper  stratum, 
below  which  are  found  palms,  screw-pines,  canes,  and  bamboos,  while 
the  lowest  stratum  is  composed  of  shrubs  and  ferns  making  a  dense 
mass  of  vegetation.  As  the  elevation  increases  to  6,000  feet,  wild  tea 
{Camellia  theifera)  and  cinnamon  are  found,  while  on  the  topmost 
levels  there  is  no  vegetation  except  short  grass  which  forms  open 
plains,  while  the  ridges  are  covered  with  pines  {Finus  Khasya).  This 
is  the  natural  sequence  where  not  modified  by  the  action  of  man  ; 
where,  however,  taungya-zwVim^  has  been  prevalent,  the  evergreen 
forests  turn  into  huge  savannahs  of  coarse  grass,  8  to  10  feet  high  in 
the  rains,  which  are  burnt  annually  in  the  hot  season.  On  the  laterite 
hills  and  plateaux  to  the  east  of  the  Irrawaddy-Shweli  watershed,  the 
forests  consist  of  pure  indaing  jungle,  which  in  Mongmit  covers  about 
1,800  square  miles.  On  the  banks  of  the  streams,  where  the  soil  is 
good  alluvial  loam,  pure  teak  forests  of  fine  quality  are  met  with,  or 
padauk  mixed  with  bamboo.  West  of  the  Shweli  the  ordinary 
deciduous  mixed  forests  of  Burma  are  the  rule,  till,  as  the  elevation 
increases,  they  are  displaced   by  evergreen  vegetation. 

Owing  to  the  extent  of  the  natural  teak  forests,  very  little  systematic 
planting  has  been  undertaken,  a  small  taungya  of  25  acres  being  the 
only  area  under  plantations  in  the  District.  An  attempt  is  being  made 
to  reafforest  the  grass  savannahs  caused  by  taungya-o-wMixw^  in  the  hills, 
by  putting  down  pine  seedlings.  About  30  acres  were  so  treated ;  but 
the  pines  were  burnt  and  destroyed  the  first  year,  while  in  the  second 
year  the  growth,  though  protected,  was  poor.  In  1903-4  the  area  of 
the  Forest  division  was  5,399  square  miles,  of  which  994  square  miles 
were  composed  of  '  reserved '   and  4,405   of  unclassed  forests.      The 


MINERALS  333 

receipts  of  the  Forest  department  in  1903-4  amounted  to  nearly 
4f  lakhs. 

The  main  industry  is  the  extraction  of  rubies,  sapphires,  and  spinels, 
all  three  of  which  are  found  together  in  the  same  gravel-beds.     The 
Burma  Ruby    Mines  Company,  Limited,   works  on 
a  large  scale  at  Mogok  and  elsewhere  with  modern  *°^^^  ^* 

machinery  under  a  special  licence ;  and  a  large  but  fluctuating  num- 
ber of  natives  take  out  ordinary  licences,  which  do  not  permit  the  use 
of  machinery.  The  company's  workings  take  the  form  of  large  open 
excavations.  At  present  these  vary  from  20  to  50  feet  in  depth  and 
are  kept  dry  by  powerful  pumps ;  the  ruby  earth  (locally  known  as 
byon)  is  loaded  by  coolies  into  trucks  and  hauled  up  inclines  to  the 
washing  machines,  which  are  merely  rotary  cylinders  discharging  into 
large  pans,  where  by  the  action  of  water  and  revolving  teeth  the  mud 
is  separated  from  the  gravel.  The  latter  is  then  treated  in  pulsating 
machines  which  still  further  reduce  the  bulk,  and  finally  the  residue  is 
picked  over  by  hand.  For  the  year  ending  1904  the  following  was  the 
result  of  the  company's  operations  :  rubies,  199,238  carats,  valued  at 
13  lakhs;  sapphires,  11,955  carats,  valued  at  Rs.  8,700;  and  spinels, 
16,020  carats,  valued  at  Rs.  26,300.  Of  this  total,  stones  worth  8-8 
lakhs  were  sent  to  London  for  disposal  there,  and  4-5  lakhs'  worth 
was  sold  locally. 

The  staff  in  1904  consisted  of  the  following  :  44  Europeans  and 
Eurasians,  earning  from  Rs.  150  to  Rs.  600  a  month  each;  254  Bur- 
mans,  at  R.  I  each  a  day  ;  1,073  Chinese,  Shans,  and  Maingthas,  at 
R.  I  a  day;  and  248  natives  of  India,  at  from  Rs.  20  to  Rs.  100 
a  month,  making  a  total  of  1,619  hands.  The  company  derives  its 
power  from  an  electric  installation  driven  by  water,  which  generates 
about  450  horse-power.  During  the  dry  season,  steam  is  used  to 
a  limited  extent,   the  fuel  being  cut  locally. 

The  number  of  native  miners  varies  very  much,  but  the  average  for 
nine  years  ending  1904  was  1,220,  paying  to  the  company  Rs.  60  a 
month  per  set  of  three  men  working  each  mine.  It  is  quite  impossible 
to  estimate  their  gain  ;  but,  as  the  working  expenses  are  at  least  Rs.  20 
a  month  in  addition  to  the  sum  paid  to  the  company,  the  industry 
nmst  produce  Rs.  32,500  a  month  before  any  profit  is  made.  'I'he 
four  methods  of  native  mining  adopted  are  known  as  hmyaw  or  hill-side 
workings,  /ii  or  cave  workings,  hvinlon  or  pit  workings,  and  se  or 
damming  a  stream  and  diving  for  the  gravel  behind  the  dam  or  weir. 
Most  of  the  produce  is  sold  locally,  though  fine  stones  frequently  go 
direct  to  London.  In  addition  to  the  mining  described  above,  women  are 
allowed  to  wash  with  small  baskets  in  all  perennial  streams  licence  free. 
Their  individual  earnings  are  probably  not  often  more  than  a  few  unnas 
a  day,  but  occasionally  they  pick  up  a  valuable  stone,  and  on  the  whole 

Y  2 


334  RUBY  MINES  DISTRICT 

their  takings  must  be  not  inconsiderable.  They  sell  their  finds,  usually 
at  the  end  of  each  day's  work,  to  small  ruby  pedlars. 

Tourmaline  occurs  in  the  District,  and  is  mined  on  an  insignificant 
scale  near  Nyaungdauk,  on  the  road  to  Monglong,  and  at  Mongmit. 
The  Burma  Ruby  Mines  Company  did  a  little  work  a  few  years  ago  on 
an  outcrop  of  gold-bearing  quartz  about  5  miles  from  Thabeikkyin  ;  but 
the  assays  were  not  encouraging,  and  the  place  was  abandoned.  Plum- 
bago is  found  on  the  surface  at  many  places,  notably  near  Wapyudaung. 
The  company  sank  several  shafts  at  Onzon,  but  the  vein  ended  and 
further  mining  was  discontinued.  Various  other  persons  have  from 
time  to  time  obtained  prospecting  licences  and  started  a  certain  amount 
of  work,  but  the  results  seem  in  all  cases  to  have  been  unsatisfactory. 
Mica  is  distributed  over  apparently  the  whole  District,  but  does  not 
appear  to  be  present  in  paying  quantities.  Limestone  exists  every- 
where, but  is  burnt  only  where  it  is  wanted  for  pagodas  and  brick 
buildings,  and  in  Mogok  by  the  Ruby  Mines  Company  for  their 
foundations,  &c. 

The  only  local  industry  that  has  attained  to  any  dimensions  is  mining 

for  and  trading  in  precious  stones.     A  certain  amount  of  stone-cutting, 

polishing,  and  setting  is  carried  on  in  Mogok  town. 

comm^lcTtLs.  '^^^^  ^^'°''^  '^'  however,  primitive  ;  and  most  of  the 
stones  are  sold  in  the  rough,  the  best  being  sent  to 
London  and  Paris,  while  the  inferior  qualities  go  to  Mandalay,  Calcutta, 
Bombay,  and  Madras.  On  the  Shweli  and  Irrawaddy  rivers  the 
principal  non-agricultural  occupations  are  fishing,  bamboo-cutting,  and 
timber-trading.  Rafts  of  bamboos,  teak,  and  other  kinds  of  timber  are 
made  up  on  the  banks  and  floated  down  to  Mandalay.  Maingthas 
come  into  the  District  in  large  numbers  every  year  for  the  dry  season, 
chiefly  from  the  Shan-Chinese  States  of  Mongla,  Mongda,  and  Mengtat. 
They  are  the  iron-workers  of  the  District  and  are  welcome  visitors,  for, 
besides  being  the  most  expert  blacksmiths  in  an  otherwise  non-indus- 
trial community,  they  are  esteemed  the  best  working  coolies  in  Burma. 
Trade  conditions  vary  in  the  different  parts,  but  as  a  general  rule  the 
people  depend  on  the  outside  world  for  most  articles  of  consumption. 
Rice,  sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  the  District  outside  the  Mogok 
township,  is  grown  within  its  limits  in  the  Thabeikkyin  and  Mongmit 
subdivisions,  but  is  also  imported  from  the  Shan  States  of  Tawngpeng 
and  Monglong  for  Mogok  and  its  environs.  Other  articles  of  import 
are  opium  brought  from  China  via  Lashio  and  Monglong,  pickled  tea 
from  Tawngpeng  and  HsTpaw,  cotton  goods  and  articles  of  clothing. 
Weaving  is  carried  on  only  in  outlying  villages,  and  the  out-turn  of  the 
looms  is  intended  solely  for  home  consumption,  while  in  the  larger 
towns  and  villages  foreign  piece-goods  are  preferred  as  being  both  of 
better  (juality  and  cheaper  than  the  local  product.     The  same  is  true  of 


AD  MI  NTS  TRA  TIOX  3  3  5 

articles  of  hardware.  In  return  for  these  imports  Mogok  offers  precious 
stones,  and  Mongmit  and  Thabeikkyin  rice,  timber,  and  fish.  The 
chief  centre  of  trade  is  Mogok ;  and  in  the  bazar,  which  is  held  every 
fifth  day,  there  are  to  be  seen  representatives  of  a  large  and  varied 
number  of  nationalities. 

The  main  trade  routes  to  Mogok  are  the  Thabeikkyin  cart-road,  over 
which  all  goods  from  India  and  Europe  travel ;  the  Monglong  road, 
which  unites  Mogok  with  Hsipawand  connects  with  the  Lashio  railway  ; 
and  the  Mongmit  road  over  which  the  rice  from  Mongmit  and  Tawng- 
peng  enters  Mogok.  Generally  it  may  be  said  that  trade  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Chinese  and  Indian  merchants,  the  Burmans  and  Shans 
confining  themselves  to  trading  in  rice  and  precious  stones.  The  chiet 
means  of  transport  are  the  mule  and  pack-bullock,  the  Chinese  wooden 
saddle  being  used.  A  good  deal  of  transport  is  done  by  pakondans — 
men  carrying  a  bamboo  pole  on  their  shoulders,  from  each  end  of 
which  hangs  a  pack.  The  time  for  these  hucksters  is  the  rainy  season, 
when  the  hill  roads  become  very  trying  for  animal  transport. 

There  are  no  railways  in  the  District.  The  most  important  road  is 
that  from  Thabeikkyin  to  Mogok  (61  miles),  metalled  throughout. 
This  highway  and  the  partially  metalled  mule-track  from  Mogok  to 
Konwet,  half-way  to  Mongmit,  are  maintained  from  Provincial  funds. 
The  District  fund  is  responsible  for  the  upkeep  of  two  partly  metalled 
roads  from  Mogok,  one  to  Monglong  (17  miles),  metalled  for  a  portion 
of  its  length,  and  one  to  Bernardmyo  (loi  miles);  also  of  two  un- 
metalled  cart-roads,  one  from  Twinnge  to  Thitkwebin  (12  miles),  and 
one  from  Wapyudaung  to  Chaunggyi  (13  miles)  ;  and  of  three  short 
cuts  on  the  Mogok-Thabeikkyin  road.  The  Mongmit  State  maintains 
an  unmetalled  cart-road  from  Thitkwebin  to  Mongmit  (35^  miles), 
a  continuation  of  the  road  from  Twinnge,  and  mule-tracks  from  Mong- 
mit to  Konwet  (10  miles),  and  from  Mongmit  to  Namhkam  through 
Molo.  The  Irrawaddy  is  navigable  by  the  largest  river  steamers  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla  boats  between  Manda- 
lay  and  Bhamo  touch  at  Thabeikkyin  twice  weekly  up  and  down.  In 
addition,  a  steamer  plies  twice  a  week  between  Mandalay  and  Thabeik- 
kyin. The  Shweli  is  navigable  by  river  boats  up  to  the  cataracts  by 
which  the  river  descends  from  Namhkam  to  Molo,  and  is  nowhere 
fordable. 

The  District  proper  is  divided  into  two  subdivisions  :  the  subdivision 
and  township  of  Mogok,  and  the  Thabeikkyin  subdivision,  composed 
of  the  Thabeikkyin  and  Tagaung  townships.  The  .  ,  .  . 
Mongmit  State,  which  is  administered  temporarily 
as  a  third  subdivision  of  the  District,  is  divided  into  the  Mongmit 
(Momeik)  and  Kodaung  townships.  The  subdivisions  are  in  charge 
of  the  executive  ofificers,  as  also  is  the  Tagaung  township,  but  the  town- 


336  RUBY  MINES  J)/ STRICT 

ships  of  Thabeikkyin  and  Mogok  are  directly  under  the  subdivisional 
officers  concerned.  The  Kodaung  township  is  administered  by  a  civil 
officer,  generally  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Service,  who  is  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  Deputy-Commissioner,  and  exercises  certain  powers 
under  the  Kachin  Hill  Tribes  Regulation,  1895.  The  District  forms 
a  subdivision  of  the  Mandalay  Public  Works  division  (which  includes 
the  greater  part  of  Mandalay  District),  and  is  nearly  conterminous  with 
the  Ruby  Mines  Forest  division.  There  are  261  village  headmen,  of 
whom  II  are  subordinate  headmen,  receiving  no  commission.  A  num- 
ber of  them  exercise  special  civil  and  criminal  powers. 

The  civil  courts  are  presided  over  by  the  executive  officers,  the 
treasury  officer  at  Mogok  acting  as  additional  judge  of  the  Mogok 
township  court.  As  the  District  is  situated  on  the  borders  of  China 
and  the  Shan  States,  and  peopled  to  a  large  extent  by  non-Burmans, 
a  large  traffic  in  smuggled  opium  is  carried  on,  and  offences  against  the 
Opium  Act  are  consequently  common.  Similarly,  breaches  of  the  Upper 
Burma  Ruby  Regulation,  a  special  local  law  applicable  to  the  stone 
tract,  are  numerous. 

The  District  is  made  up  of  various  old  Burmese  jurisdictions,  where 
in  former  days  a  variety  of  revenue  methods  were  in  force.  What  is 
now  the  Mogok  subdivision  consisted  of  three  administrative  areas 
known  as  sos,  which  sometimes  were  independent  jurisdictions,  each 
under  its  own  sothugyi,  and  sometimes  formed  the  combined  charge  of 
a  Burmese  official  known  as  the  thonsowiin.  This  area  was  treated 
practically  as  a  royal  demesne,  and  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
farmed  out  to  the  ivun.  The  rent,  which  in  theory  was  fixed  but  in 
practice  was  fluctuating,  was  paid  in  kind  ;  and  to  obtain  the  requisite 
supply  of  precious  stones  the  wun  levied  a  stone  cess  or  kyaukdaing 
on  those  who  mined  and  traded  in  rubies,  and  a  viindaing  or  royal  cess 
on  those  who  did  not.  The  kyaukdaing  was  paid  in  rubies  ;  and  the 
stones,  duly  diminished  by  what  the  wun  thought  might  with  safety  be 
appropriated,  were  remitted  to  the  court  at  Mandalay.  The  mindaing 
was  designed  to  stimulate  the  production  of  stones  ;  it  was  collected 
in  cash,  and  was  employed  in  making  advances  to  the  miners  and  in 
paying  the  wu?t's  subordinates.  There  was  no  land  tax  in  the  District 
under  Burmese  rule,  though  a  nominal  assessment  of  one-third  of  the 
gross  produce  on  rice  land  in  the  Mogok  valley  was  used  to  gauge  the 
capacity  of  the  cultivators  to  pay  the  mindaing.  After  the  annexation 
of  Upper  Burma  thathameda  was  at  first  the  only  impost,  and  land 
revenue  was  not  assessed  till  after  it  had  become  difficult  to  prove  that 
the  land  (which  in  reality  was  nearly  all  state)  had  not  in  part  been 
acquired  by  private  individuals. 

Revenue  rates  have  varied  since  land  revenue  was  first  demanded. 
At  present  state  land  in  the  Mogok  subdivision  pays  15  per  cent.,  and 


ADMINISTRA  TION  337 

non-state  land  10  per  cent.,  of  its  gross  out-turn,  and  Rs.  2-8  per 
household  is  paid  on  taungya  cultivation.  The  same  rates  prevail  in 
the  Thabeikkyin  subdivision,  as  well  as  in  Mongmit  (where  in  king 
Mindon's  time  land  revenue  was  assessed  at  \\  per  cent,  of  the  gross 
out-turn  on  all  lands) ;  but  in  Mongmit  a  sort  of  permanent  settlement 
called  ^flsa  has  been  effected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  head-quarters, 
under  which  the  cultivators  pay  a  fixed  sum  on  each  plot  of  land, 
irrespective  of  the  out-turn.  The  District  has  not  yet  been  cadastrally 
surveyed  or  settled.  The  Ruby  Mines  Company  pays  an  annual  rent 
of  2  lakhs  of  rupees,  plus  30  per  cent,  of  the  excess  whereby  the  fees 
received  from  holders  of  ordinary  licences  exceed  2  lakhs,  and  30 
per  cent,  on  the  net  profits  of  the  company.  In  1903-4  the  receipts 
of  the  Government  from  the  company  amounted  to  Rs.  2,11,500. 
The  total  collections  of  fhathameda  (at  Rs.  10  per  household)  amounted 
in  1903-4  to  Rs.  7,300,  those  of  land  revenue  to  Rs.  17,000,  and 
those  of  fishery  revenue  to  Rs.  24,000,  the  aggregate  revenue  from  all 
sources  for  the  District  proper  (excluding  Mongmit)  being  Rs.  3,90,000. 

The  District  fund  had  in  1903-4  an  income  of  Rs.  49,300,  the 
chief  item  of  expenditure  being  public  works  (Rs.  34,800).  No  muni- 
cipalities have  been  constituted. 

The  District  Superintendent  is  the  immediate  head  of  the  civil  police. 
An  Assistant  Superintendent  is  in  charge  of  the  police  in  the  Mongmit 
State.  The  sanctioned  strength  of  the  force  is  3  inspectors,  5  head 
constables,  9  sergeants,  and  173  constables.  Two  Kachin  sergeants 
and  5  constables  are  also  sanctioned  for  the  Kodaung  tract,  and  are 
directly  under  the  civil  officer,  Kodaung.  They  form  no  part  of  the 
regular  District  police  force.  There  are  six  police  stations  in  the  Dis- 
trict proper,  and  three  in  the  Mongmit  State.  The  Ruby  Mines  Com- 
pany has  three  inspectors  in  its  employ  invested  with  police  powers, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  apprehend  and  prosecute  persons  engaged  in  illicit 
mining,  or  otherwise  contravening  the  provisions  of  the  Ruby  Regula- 
tion. The  Ruby  Mines  military  police  battalion  has  its  head-quarters 
at  Mogok.  It -is  under  a  commandant  and  an  assistant  commandant, 
and  consists  of  24  native  officers,  79  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
801  men,  stationed  at  the  several  township  head-quarters,  and  on  the 
main  road  from  Mogok  to  the  Irrawaddy. 

A  jail  is  under  construction  at  Mogok.  At  present  convicted 
prisoners  are  kept  in  the  lock-up  at  that  station,  and,  if  sentenced  to 
more  than  two  months'  imprisonment,  are  sent  under  military  police 
escort  to  Mandalay.  The  lock-up  has  accommodation  for  about  40 
prisoners. 

Education  is  in  a  decidedly  backward  state.  There  are  no  Govern- 
ment schools,  and  none  of  the  private  institutions  is  at  all  advanced. 
In  1901  the  proportion  of  persons  returned  as  able  to  read  and  write 


338  RUBY  MINES  DISTRICT 

was  25-9  per  cent.  (40  males  and  4-7  females),  but  the  standard  of  lite- 
racy must  have  been  very  low.  In  the  Mongmit  State  (with  a  large 
non-Buddhist  population)  the  corresponding  figure  was  only  7-7  per 
cent.  In  1904  the  District  contained  24  primary  (public)  and  107 
elementary  (private)  schools,  with  a  roll  of  1,409  pupils  (including 
400  girls),  as  compared  with  1,273  in  190 1.  I"  1903-4  the  expenditure 
on  education  was  Rs.  1,600,  met  wholly  from  Government. 

The  only  hospital  is  at  Mogok,  which  has  accommodation  for  36  in- 
patients. In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  13,863,  including 
494  in-patients,  and  206  operations  were  performed.  The  income  was 
made  up  of  Rs.  4,000  from  Provincial  funds  and  Rs.  600  from  subscrip- 
tions.    Another  hospital  is  about  to  be  built  at  Thabeikkyin. 

Vaccination  is  nowhere  compulsory  within  the  limits  of  the  District. 
In  T903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  2,451, 
representing  28  per  1,000  of  population. 

Rudarpur. — Town  in  the  Hata  tahsll  of  Gorakhpur  District, 
United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  45'  N.  and  83°  n'  E.,  27  miles  south- 
east of  Gorakhpur  city.  Population  (1901),  8,860.  Near  the  town  are 
some  ancient  remains,  and  an  old  name  of  the  place  is  said  to  have 
been  Hansakshetra.  The  ruins  cover  a  large  area,  but  have  not  been 
regularly  excavated.  A  celebrated  temple  of  Dudhnath  is  also  situ- 
ated close  by.  Rudarpur  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with 
an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,100.  The  diversion  of  commerce  to  the 
railway  has  injured  its  trade ;  but  grain  is  exported  and  saltpetre  is 
manufactured.  The  town  contains  a  dispensary,  and  a  school  with 
139  pupils. 

Rudauli. — Town  in  the  Ramsanehlghat  tahsll  of  Bara  Banki  Dis- 
trict, United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  45'  N.  and  81°  45'  E.,  on  the 
Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway  and  close  to  the  Lucknow-Fyzabad 
road.  Population  (1901),  11,708.  The  foundation  of  the  town  is 
ascribed  to  a  Bhar  chief,  named  Rudra  Mai.  It  contains  the  shrines 
of  two  noted  Muhammadan  saints :  Shah  Ahmad,  who  was  entombed 
alive  for  six  months  ;  and  Zohra  Bibi,  who  recovered  her  sight  miracu- 
lously by  a  visit  to  the  shrine  of  Saiyid  Salar  at  Bahraich.  Large  fairs 
are  held  at  each  of  these.  RudaulT  is  administered  under  Act  XX 
of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  3,200.  There  is  a  flourish- 
ing trade  in  grain,  and  cotton  cloth  is  manufactured.  The  town 
contains  a  dispensary,  and  a  school  with  106  pupils. 

Rudraprayag. — Temple  in  Garhwal  District,  United  Provinces, 
situated  in  30*^  18'  and  79°  N.,  at  the  confluence  of  the  MandakinI  and 
Alaknanda,  2,300  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  one  of  the  five  sacred 
confluences  {praydg)  in  the  upper  course  of  the  Ganges  head- waters, 
and  is  visited  by  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Kedarnath. 

Rumpa. — Hill  tract  in  Godavari  District,  Madras.     See  Ram  pa. 


RUPAR    TOJfW  339 

Rungamati. — Outpost  of  the  Mughals  in  Goalpara  District,  East- 
ern Bengal  and  Assam.     See  Rangamati. 

Rungpore. — District,  subdivision,  and  town  in  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam.     See  Rangpur. 

Rupal. — Petty  State  in  MahT  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Rupar  Subdivision. —  Subdivision  of  Ambala  District,  Punjab, 
comprising  the  tahsils  of  Rupar  and  Kharar.  Kharar  contains  the 
cantonment  and  sanitarium  of  Kasauli  and  the  'notified  area '  of  Kalka. 

Rupar  Tahsil. — Northern  tahsil  of  Ambala  District,  Punjab,  lying 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  between  30°  45' and  31°  13'  N.  and 
76°  19'  and  76°  44'  E.,  with  an  area  of  290  square  miles.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Sutlej  river,  and  forms  part  of  the  Rupar 
subdivision.  On  the  north-east  the  tahsil  runs  up  into  the  Lower 
Siwaliks,  and  along  the  Sutlej  is  a  narrow  strip  of  low-lying  country. 
The  rest  consists  of  a  loam  plateau  rich  in  wells,  and  intersected  by 
mountain  torrent  beds.  The  head-works  of  the  Sirhind  Canal  are  at 
Rupar.  The  population  in  1901  was  139,327,  compared  with  146,816 
in  1 89 1.  The  head-quarters  are  at  the  town  of  Rupar  (population, 
8,888).  It  also  contains  358  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses 
in  1903-4  amounted  to  2-8  lakhs. 

Rtipar  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  subdivision  and  tahsil  of  the 
same  name  in  Ambala  District,  Punjab,  situated  in  30°  58'  N.  and 
76°  32''  E.,  at  the  point  where  the  Sutlej  issues  from  the  hills.  Popula- 
tion (1901),  8,888.  It  is  a  town  of  considerable  antiquity,  originally 
called  Rupnagar  after  its  founder.  Raja  Rup  Chand.  It  was  occupied 
about  1763  by  Hari  Singh,  a  Sikh  chieftain,  who  seized  upon  a  wide 
tract  south  of  the  Sutlej,  stretching  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 
In  1792  he  divided  his  estates  between  his  two  sons,  Charrat  Singh 
and  Dewa  Singh,  the  former  of  whom  obtained  Rupar.  The  estates 
were  confiscated  in  1846,  in  consequence  of  the  part  taken  by  the 
family  during  the  Sikh  War  of  the  preceding  year.  The  head-works  of 
the  Sirhind  Canal  are  situated  here,  and  the  town  is  an  important  mart 
of  exchange  between  the  hills  and  the  plains.  Salt  is  imported  from 
the  Khewra  mines  and  re-exported  to  the  hills,  in  return  for  iron, 
ginger,  potatoes,  turmeric,  opium,  and  charas.  Cotton  twill  {susi)  is 
largely  manufactured,  and  the  smiths  of  Rupar  have  a  reputation  for 
locks  and  other  small  articles  of  iron.  Rupar  was  the  scene  of  the 
celebrated  meeting  between  Lord  William  Bentinck  and  Ranjit  Singh 
in  1831.  There  are  two  important  religious  fairs,  one  Hindu,  one 
Muhammadan.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1867.  The  income 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  Rs.  i2,roo,  and  the 
expenditure  Rs.  11,400.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  14,500, 
chiefly  from  octroi;  and  the  ex^penditure  was  Rs.  16,900.  There  are 
three  Anglo-vernacular  middle  schools  and  a  dispensary. 


340  RUPBAS 

Rupbas. — Head-quarters  of  a  tahsU  oi  the  same  name  in  the  State 
of  Bharatpur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  59'  N.  and  77°  39'  E.,  about 
19  miles  south-by-south-east  of  Bharatpur  city.  Population  (1901), 
2,981.  The  town  contains  a  post  ofifice,  a  vernacular  school  attended 
by  about  100  boys,  and  a  dispensary.  The  place  is  mentioned  by 
Jahangir  as  having  formerly  been  the  jaglr  of  Rup  and  subsequently 
given  to  Aman-ullah,  son  of  Mahabat  Khan,  and  called  after  him 
Amanabad.  It  was  one  of  Jahanglr's  regular  hunting-grounds.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Rupbas  are  some  enormous  stone  obelisks  and  images ; 
the  oldest  is  a  sleeping  figure  of  Baldeo  cut  in  the  rock,  22^  feet  long, 
with  a  seven  serpent-hooded  canopy  and  an  inscription  dated  a.d.  1609. 
About  8  miles  to  the  south-west  are  the  famous  sandstone  quarries  of 
Bansi  Paharpur,  which  have  supplied  material  for  the  beautiful  palaces 
at  Dig  and  for  many  of  the  buildings  at  Agra  and  Fatehpur  Sikri. 

[Archaeological  Si/n^ey  of  Northern  India,  vol.  xx.] 

Rilpnagar. —  Head-quarters  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
north  of  the  State  of  Kishangarh,  Rajputana,  situated  in  26°  48'  N. 
and  74°  52'  E.,  about  16  miles  due  north  of  Kishangarh  town.  Popu- 
lation (1901),  3,676.  The  town,  which  takes  its  name  from  its  founder, 
Rup  Singh  (chief  of  Kishangarh  1644-58),  is  walled  and  possesses 
a  fort.  The  place  was  once  a  big  market  for  salt  and  sugar,  but  the 
railway  has  diverted  this  trade  elsewhere.  Rupnagar  contains  a 
British  post  ofifice;  a  small  jail,  with  accommodation  for  12  prisoners; 
a  vernacular  middle  and  an  elementary  school,  attended,  respectively, 
by  about  70  boys  and  20  girls  ;  and  a  dispensary.  A  municipal  com- 
mittee attends  to  the  lighting  and  conservancy  of  the  town.  Sursara, 
5  miles  to  the  south,  was  the  original  seat  of  the  hero  Tejajl,  venerated 
by  the  Jats  ;  and  a  cattle  fair  is  held  there  yearly  in  August. 

Rupnarayan. — River  of  Bengal,  known  in  the  early  part  of  its 
course  as  the  Dhalkisor.  It  rises  in  the  Tilabani  hill  in  Manbhum 
District,  and  follows  a  tortuous  south-easterly  course  through  the 
south-west  corner  of  Burdwan  District.  The  Silai  joins  it  on  the  border 
of  Midnapore  District:  and  from  this  point  (22°  40'  N.  and  87°  47' 
E.)  it  takes  the  name  of  Rupnarayan,  and  after  a  farther  course  of  49 
miles,  during  which  it  separates  Midnapore  District  from  Hooghly 
and  Howrah,  it  joins  the  Hooghlv  River  in  22"  13'  N.  and  88°  3'  E. 
The  Rijpnarayan  proper  is  tidal  throughout  its  entire  course,  and 
a  heavy  bore  ascends  as  high  as  the  mouth  of  the  Gaighata  Bakshi 
Khal.  The  Rupnarayan  originally  formed  a  western  exit  of  the 
Ganges.  It  now  enters  the  Hooghly  at  right  angles  opposite  Hooghly 
Point,  and  when  in  flood  it  banks  up  the  stream  of  the  Hooghly  and 
forces  that  river  to  deposit  its  silt  upon  the  dangerous  shoal  known 
as  the  James  and  Mary.  It  thus  constitutes  the  principal  danger  to 
the   navigation  of   the   Hooghly  river.     The  river  is  protected  on  its 


RUSHIKULYA  341 

right  bank,  within  Midnapore  District,  by  a  continuous  embankment 
29^  miles  in  length ;  and  it  is  also  embanked  all  along  its  left 
bank  from  its  junction  with  the  Gaighata  Bakshi  Khal  to  its  union 
with  the  Hooghly  river.  The  bordering  lands  are  more  or  less 
inundated  by  the  spring-tides  in  April  and  May,  which  leave  behind 
destructive  impregnations  of  salt,  rendering  them  unfit  for  cultivation 
unless  small  defensive  works  are  thrown  up  round  the  fields  every  year 
to  keep  the  water  out.  Grass  and  hogla  reeds  {Typha  elephantind)  are 
the  ordinary  produce,  except  in  years  when  the  rains  set  in  and  close 
early,  when  a  late  rice  crop  can  be  planted  in  September.  The  Rup- 
narayan  is  navigable  throughout  the  year  by  native  boats  of  4  tons 
burden  as  high  as  Ghatal  village  in  Midnapore  District.  It  is  not 
fordable  at  any  season  of  the  year  within  the  limits  of  Hooghly  and 
Howrah  Districts.  It  has  been  spanned  by  a  fine  bridge  at 
Kolaghat,  where  it  is  crossed  by  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway. 

Rurki. — Subdivision,  tahsil,  and  town  in  Saharanpur  District, 
United    Provinces.     See  Roorkee. 

Rusera. — Town  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Darbhanga 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  45'  N.  and  86°  2'  E.,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Little  Gandak,  just  below  the  former  confluence  of  that  river 
with  the  Baghmati.  Population  (1901),  10,245.  Owing  to  its  position 
on  the  Little  Gandak,  Rusera  was  at  one  time  the  largest  market  in  the 
south  of  the  District ;  but  though  it  is  still  an  important  bazar,  it  has 
somewhat  lost  its  importance  since  the  opening  of  the  railway.  Rusera 
was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1869.  The  income  during  the 
decade  ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  5,700,  and  the  expenditure 
Rs.  4,900.  In  1903-4  the  income,  mainly  derived  from  a  tax  on 
persons  (or  property  tax),  was  Rs.  6,600 ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  6,000. 

Rushikulya. — River  in  Ganjam  District,  Madras.  It  rises  in  the 
Rushimalo  hill  (from  which  it  takes  its  name),  near  Daringabadi  in 
the  Chinnakimedi  Maliahs,  in  19°  55'  N.  and  84°  8'  E.,  and  runs 
south-east  to  Aska  and  thence  south-east  and  east  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  at  Ganjam  town,  in  19°  22'  N.  and  85°  4'  E.  Its  length  is 
about  115  miles,  and  the  towns  on  its  banks  are  Surada,  Aska,  Puru- 
shottapur,  and  Ganjam.  It  is  spanned  at  Aska  by  a  fine  masonry 
bridge  of  nineteen  arches.  It  is  joined  by  the  Pathama  near  Surada, 
by  the  Bhaguva  in  Dharakota  estate,  by  the  MahanadI  at  Aska, 
and  by  the  Godahaddo  in  the  Berhampur  tdlnk.  The  river  dries  up 
in  the  hot  season. 

At  Aska  and  at  Pratapuram  near  Purushottapur,  where  its  channel 
turns  northwards  for  a  short  distance,  a  large  festival  is  held  every  year 
in  February  or  March,  when  thousands  of  people  bathe  in  its  waters. 
The  river  is  utilized  for  irrigation  by  means  of  a  series  of  works 


342  RUSHIKULYA 

known  collectively  as  the  Rushikulya  Project.  This  was  begun  in 
1884,  has  already  cost  48  lakhs,  and  is  still  being  extended.  It  renders 
the  water  of  the  Rushikulya  and  its  tributary,  the  MahanadI,  available 
for  cultivation  in  the  Berhampur  taluk  and  one  corner  of  Goomsur. 
The  main  dam  across  the  Rushikulya  is  at  Jannimilli,  between  Surada 
and  Aska,  above  the  junction  with  the  MahanadI.  Its  catchment  at 
this  point  is  650  square  miles.  To  intercept  flood-water  which  would 
otherwise  run  to  waste,  a  tributary  has  been  dammed  higher  up  and 
a  reservoir  formed  at  Surada,  from  which  a  supply  can  be  let  down  to 
the  Jannimilli  dam.  The  MahanadI  has  been  treated  in  the  same  way, 
there  being  a  dam  at  Madhavaborida,  6  miles  below  Russellkonda. 
Its  catchment  at  this  point  is  870  square  miles.  A  subsidiary  reservoir, 
fed  by  dams  across  two  tributaries  of  the  MahanadI,  has  been  formed 
just  above  Russellkonda.  From  the  Madhavaborida  dam  a  channel 
20  miles  long,  called  the  MahanadI  canal,  runs  through  a  corner  of  the 
Goomsur  taluk  (irrigating  6,500  acres)  into  the  Rushikulya  above  the 
Jannimilli  dam,  and  thus  still  further  increases  the  supply  available 
there.  From  the  Jannimilli  dam  the  main  Rushikulya  canal,  54  miles 
long,  runs  south  through  several  zamtnddris  and  on  into  the  Berhampur 
taluk.  It  has  sixteen  distributaries,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  136 
miles.  The  cultivable  area  commanded  by  the  project  is  142,000  acres 
(of  which  106,000  are  in  the  Berhampur  taluk),  and  the  extent  at 
present  irrigable  is  102,000  acres.  In  1903-4,  90,000  acres  of  first 
crop  were  watered  by  it  and  1,000  acres  of  second  crop.  There  is 
seldom  sufficient  water  for  much  second  crop.  The  gross  and  net 
revenue  earned  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  97,000  and  Rs.  35,000.  The 
project  is  technically  classed  as  protective  and  not  productive  (it  is 
the  only  work  so  classed  in  the  Presidency),  and  is  not  remunera- 
tive, the  profits  on  the  capital  outlay  being  at  present  only  0-71  per 
cent.  Neither  the  river  nor  the  canals  are  used  for  navigation.  It 
is  under  contemplation  to  construct  another  reservoir  at  Pattupur, 
by  damming  the  Godahaddo  river,  to  supplement  the  supply  avail- 
able. 

Russellkonda  ('Russell's  hill'). — Town  in  the  Goomsnx  taluk  of 
Ganjam  District,  Madras,  situated  in  19°  57'  N.  and  84°  37'  E.,  about 
50  miles  north-we.st  of  Berhampur  on  the  Loharakandi  river.  It  is 
called  after  Mr.  George  Russell,  who  was  appointed  Special  Commis- 
sioner in  1835  to  put  down  the  disturbances  in  the  country  round 
about.  Population  (1901),  3,493.  It  is  the  head-quarters  of  the 
subdivision  and  taluk  of  Goomsur,  and  of  the  Special  Assistant  Agent, 
Balliguda  subdivision.  It  contains  a  training  school  chiefly  intended 
for  teachers  for  the  schools  in  the  Agency  tract,  a  tannery  which  in 
1903  employed  an  average  of  45  persons  daily  and  turned  out  50  tons 
nf  leather  valued  at  about  Rs.  49,000,  and  a  jail  in   charge  of  the 


SAB  A  J^  GAM  343 


Special  Assistant  Agent.  This  last  was  built  for  convicts  belonging  to 
the  hill  country,  to  save  them  from  the  severe  fever  they  become  liable 
to  if  sent  down  to  the  coast.  It  contains  accommodation  for  158 
prisoners,  who  are  employed  in  stone-quarrying,  oil-pressing,  weaving, 
rice-pounding,  and  making  elephant  harness.  Russellkonda  was  at 
one  time  a  military  cantonment,  but  the  troops  were  withdrawn  in 
December,  1863. 

Rustak. — 'i'own  in  the  Badakhshan  province  of  Afghanistan, 
situated  in  37°  8'  N.  and  69°  47'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rustak 
river;  3,920  feet  above  the  sea.  Lying  in  a  rich  and  fertile  tract,  and 
within  easy  reach  of  the  Oxus,  it  is  the  most  important  commercial 
centre  in  Badakhshan,  with  2,000  houses  and  185  shops.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  Hindu  shopkeepers,  the  inhabitants  are  all  Tajiks 
and  speak  Persian.  Bokhara  silk  is  worn  by  the  upper  classes,  and 
cotton  clothes  by  the  rest :  some  of  the  material  for  the  latter  is 
imported  from  the  Russian  markets  and  some  from  Peshawar,  while 
a  not  inconsiderable  quantity  is  woven  from  locally  grown  cotton. 
Barley,  rice,  w^heat,  and  other  grains  are  produced,  but  not  sufficiently 
for  export ;  and  fruit  trees  abound.  Arms,  and  practically  all  articles 
made  of  iron,  are  manufactured  locally.  Bajauri  traders  used  to  visit 
Rustak  every  year  in  large  numbers,  bringing  merchandise  from  India 
through  Chitral,  and  returning  with  horses.  Owing  to  the  prohibi- 
tion of  the  export  of  horses  from  Afghanistan,  this  trade  has,  however, 
fallen  off  in  recent  years.  The  town  contains  schools  for  religious  in- 
struction, supported  chiefly  by  public  charity.  The  fort,  situated  to 
the  north  of  the  town,  is  a  square  of  about  100  yards  :  the  Rustak 
Mirs  still  reside  there,  but  they  no  longer  have  any  power,  the  govern- 
ment being  entirely  carried  on  by  Afghan  officials. 

Rutlam. — State  and  town  in  Central  India.     See  Ratlam. 

Sabalgarh. — Head-quarters  of  the  Sheopur  district  of  Gwalior 
State,  Central  India,  situated  in  26°  15'  N.  and  77°  25'  E.,  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Gwalior-Sabalgarh  branch  of  the  Gwalior  Light 
Railway.  Population  (1901),  6,039.  Sabalgarh  was  founded  by  a 
Gujar  named  Sabala ;  but  the  present  fort  was  built  by  Raja  Gopal 
Singh  of  Karauli,  and  till  1795,  when  it  was  taken  by  Khande  Rao 
Inglia,  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Karauli  chiefs.  In  1809,  owing 
to  the  contumacious  conduct  of  its  governor,  the  fort  was  taken  by 
Jean  Baptiste  Filose  on  behalf  of  Sindhia.  The  town  contains  no 
buildings  of  any  size ;  but  the  district  offices,  a  hospital,  a  school,  a 
State  post  office,  a  custom-house,  a  resthouse,  and  a  jail  are  situated 
in  it.  Sabalgarh  is  noted  for  its  wood-carving  and  lacquer  and  metiil- 
work.  Close  to  the  town  is  a  tract  of  forest  carefully  protected  as 
a  preserve  for  big  game. 

Sabargam. — One  of  the   principal  peaks  in  the  Singalila  spur  of 


344  SABARGAM 

the  Himalayas  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Darjeeling  District, 
Bengal,  situated  on  the  western  frontier  of  the  District  in  27°  10'  N. 
and  88°  i'  E.     The  height  above  sea-level  is  11,636  feet. 

Sabarmati  (Sanskrit,  Svabhravatt). — River  of  Western  India,  flow- 
ing from  the  hills  of  Mewar  south-westwards  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay, 
with  a  course  of  about  200  miles  and  a  drainage  area  of  about 
y,5oo  square  miles.  The  name  is  given  to  the  combined  streams  of 
the  Sabar,  which  runs  through  the  Idar  State,  and  of  the  Hathmati, 
which  passes  the  town  of  Ahmadnagar  (Mahi  Kantha  Agency).  In  the 
upper  part  of  their  course  both  rivers  have  high  rock)'  banks,  but  below 
their  confluence  the  bed  of  the  Sabarmati  becomes  broad"  and  sandy. 
The  united  river  thence  flows  past  Sadra  and  Ahmadabad,  and  receives 
on  the  left  bank,  at  Vantha,  about  30  miles  below  the  latter  city,  the 
waters  of  the  Vatrak,  which,  during  its  course  of  150  miles,  is  fed  by 
a  number  of  smaller  streams  that  bring  down  the  drainage  of  the  Mahi 
Kantha  hills.  The  Sabarmati  receives  no  notable  tributaries  on  the 
right  bank.  There  are  several  holy  places  on  its  banks  in  and  about 
Ahmadabad  city,  and  the  confluence  at  Vantha  attracts  many  pilgrims 
to  an  annual  fair  in  the  month  of  Kartik  (November).  Luxuriant 
crops  are  grown  on  the  silt  deposited  by  the  river,  and  many  wells 
are  sunk  in  its  bed  in  the  fair  season.  The  lands  of  Parantij  are 
watered  from  the  Hathmati  by  means  of  an  embankment  above 
Ahmadnagar. 

Sabathu  {SubCithu). — Hill  cantonment  in  Simla  District,  Punjab, 
situated  in  30°  59'  N.  and  77°  o'  E.,  on  a  table-land  at  the  extremity  of 
the  Simla  range,  overlooking  the  Ghambar  river.  It  lies  above  the  old 
road  from  Kalka  to  Simla,  9  miles  from  Kasauli  and  23  from  Simla 
station.  Sabathu  has  been  held  as  a  military  post  since  the  close  of 
the  Gurkha  War  in  1816,  and  a  detachment  of  a  British  infantry 
regiment  is  usually  stationed  here.  There  is  a  small  fort  above  the 
parade-ground,  formerly  of  military  importance,  now  used  as  a  store- 
room. The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  maintains  a  school,  and 
an  asylum  for  lepers  is  supported  by  voluntary  contributions.  Elevation 
above  sea-level,  4,500  feet.     Population  (1901),  2,177. 

Sabhar. — Village  and  ruins  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of 
Dacca  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  23°  51'  N.  and 
90°  15'  E.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Bansi  river.  Population  (1901), 
1,904.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  Bhuiya  or  chief  named  Haris 
Chandra,  but  the  only  vestiges  of  it  are  ruins  of  buildings  and  old 
tanks  and  the  remains  of  what  must  have  been  a  tower.  Sabhar  is 
now  an  important  mart. 

Sachin  State.— State  in  the  Sural  Political  Agency,  Bombay. 
The  villages  constituting  the  State  are  much  scattered,  some  of  them 
being  surrounded   by  British  territory,  and  others  by  portions  of  the 


SACHlN  STATE  345 

Baroda  State.  Sachin  may,  however,  roughly  speaking,  be  said  to 
lie  within  the  limits  of  the  British  District  of  Surat. 

The  Nawab  of  Sachin  is  by  descent  a  Habshi  or  Abyssinian.  When 
his  ancestors  first  came  to  India  is  doubtful-;  but  they  were  long 
known  on  the  western  coast  as  the  Sidis  of  Danda-Rajpuri  and  Janjira. 
They  were  also  the  admirals  of  the  fleets  of  the  kings  of  Ahmadnagar 
and  Bijapur,  in  the  Deccan,  while  those  dynasties  lasted,  and  sub- 
sequently of  the  Mughal  emperors,  being  appointed  to  that  office  by 
Aurangzeb  about  1660,  with  an  annual  assignment  of  3  lakhs  on  the 
Surat  revenues  for  their  maintenance.  On  the  decline  of  the  Mughal 
empire  the  Sidis  became  notorious  pirates,  plundering  the  ships  of  all 
nations,  except  the  British,  whose  friendship  they  appear  to  have  early 
cultivated.  The  branch  of  the  family  who  had  their  head-quarters  at 
the  island  of  Janjira  remained  chiefs  of  that  place  during  the  wars  be- 
tween Sivaji  and  the  Mughals,  and  between  the  Marathas  and  the  British 
Government.  During  these  wars  different  members  of  the  family  were 
alternately  supported  by  either  party  as  best  suited  its  own  interest. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  Balu  Mia  Sidl,  the  heir  to 
the  throne  of  Janjira  and  to  the  other  possessions  of  the  Sidis,  was 
expelled  from  his  dominions  by  a  younger  branch  of  the  family.  He 
appealed  for  aid  to  the  Marathas  and  the  British.  The  Peshwa  being 
desirous  of  obtaining  Janjira,  an  arrangement  was  come  to  in  1791  by 
which  Balu  Mia  ceded  to  the  Peshwa  Janjira  in  return  for  Sachin. 
Balu  Mia  duly  took  possession  of  his  new  State  of  Sachin  ;  but  when 
the  Peshwa  claimed  Janjira,  the  Sidis  who  held  it  refused  to  give  it  up, 
and  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  independence.  Sachin  remained 
in  the  hands  of  Balu  Mia  and  his  descendants  ;  while  Janjira  is  still 
held  by  the  younger  branch  of  the  family  who  had  ousted  Balu  Mia, 
the  Peshwa  never  having  been  able  to  establish  his  influence.  Janjira 
is  reckoned  as  a  maiden  fortress  to  this  day.  A  full  account  of  the 
transactions  between  the  British,  the  Peshwa,  and  the  rival  rulers  of 
Janjira  and  Sachin,  will  be  found  in  Aitchison's  Treaties^  vol.  iv, 
pp.  311  et  seq.  (1876  ed.). 

The  chief  is  entitled  to  a  salute  of  9  guns.  The  family  holds  a 
title  guaranteeing  any  succession  legitimate  according  to  Muhammadan 
law,  and  succession  follows  the  rule  of  primogeniture. 

The  State  contains  21  villages,  and  occupies  an  area  of  about 
42  square  miles,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  20,530.  Hindus  number 
17,581  ;  Muhammadans,  2,604  j  ^^^d  Parsis,  238. 

The  soil  varies  from  black  to  light.  The  arable  land  in  the  State 
covers  34  square  miles,  of  which  33  square  miles  were  cultivated  in 
1903-4.  The  usual  cereals  are  grown,  as  well  as  cotton  and  sugar- 
cane. Irrigation  is  carried  on  from  tanks  and  wells.  There  are  no 
forests  in  the  .State.     Cotton  yarn  and  coarse  cloth  are  manufactured. 


346  SACHIN  STATE 

A  breakwater  at  Dumas,  and  a  causeway  at  Bhimpur,  by  keeping 
back  sea-water,  have  contributed  towards  the  reclamation  of  a  con- 
siderable area  of  hitherto  uncultivable  salt  land. 

The  chief  has  power  to  try  his  own  subjects  for  capital  offences.  At 
present  the  State  is  in  charge  of  an  Administrator,  who  also  disposes 
of  civil  suits.  There  are  two  criminal  courts,  and  the  police  force 
numbers  60.  The  State  contains  a  jail.  A  survey  and  land  settlement 
were  completed  in  1883.  On  the  whole,  the  rates  fixed  were  higher 
than  in  neighbouring  British  villages,  but  much  lower  than  the  ryots 
had  hitherto  paid.  The  gross  revenue  in  1903-4  amounted  to  over 
2  lakhs,  of  which  i-i  lakhs  was  derived  from  land  revenue  and 
Rs.  36,000  from  excise.  The  expenditure  amounted  to  \\  lakhs.  In 
1903-4  the  State  contained  19  schools  with  1,501  pupils,  and  two 
dispensaries  treating  annually   7,000  persons. 

Sachin  Village. — -Chief  place  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Surat  Agency,  Bombay,  situated  in  21°  4'  N.  and  72*^  59'  E.,  9  miles 
south  of  Surat  city.  Population  (1901),  997.  Good  roads  connect  it 
with  Surat,  with  Lachpur  on  the  Mindhola,  the  former  residence  of  the 
Nawabs,  and  with  Sachin  station  on  the  Bomba)-,  Baroda,  and  Central 
India  Railway.  The  village  contains  the  palace  of  the  Nawab,  a  small 
fort,  a  courthouse,  a  jail,  a  dispensary,  &c. 

Sacramento  Shoal. — Shoal  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gautami  branch 
of  the  Godavari  river,  off  the  village  of  MoUetimoga  in  the  Amalapuram 
tdbik  of  Godavari  District,  Madras,  situated  in  16°  35'  N.  and  82°  14'  E. 
It  is  named  after  the  United  States  steam  frigate  Sacramento,  which 
went  ashore  here  on  June  19,  1867.  A  lighthouse  148  feet  high  was 
erected  on  the  shoal  in  1902.  It  has  a  light  of  the  third  order,  showing 
a  white  light,  one  flash  every  five  seconds,  visible  for  18  miles  in  clear 
weather.  The  object  of  this  is  to  warn  vessels  off  Point  Godavari  and 
the  shoal. 

Sadabad  Tahsil.  —  Easternmost  tahsil  of  Muttra  District,  United 
Provinces,  conterminous  with  the  pargana  of  the  same  name,  lying 
between  27°  16'  and  27°  31' N.  and  77°  53'  and  78°  13'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  180  square  miles.  Population  rose  from  102,103  in  1891  to 
108,886  in  1 90 1.  There  are  127  villages  and  two  towns,  including 
Sadabad  (population,  4,091),  the  tahsil  head-quarters.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,07,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  49,000. 
The  density  of  population,  605  persons  per  square  mile,  is  considerably 
above  the  District  average.  A  small  river,  the  Karon  or  Jhirna,  crosses 
the  centre  of  the  tahsil,  and  its  channel  has  been  improved  by  the 
Irrigation  department  to  serve  as  an  escape.  The  Jumna  just  touches 
the  south-western  corner.  In  1903-4  the  area  under  cultivation  was 
154  square  miles,  of  which  59  were  irrigated.  The  latter  were  supplied 
entirely  from  wells  ;    but  in  November,  1903,  the  Mat  branch  of  the 


SADIYA 


347 


Upper  Ganges  Canal  was  opened,  which  commands  the  western  half  of 
the  tahsll.  Cotton  is  relatively  a  more  important  crop  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  District. 

Sadakheri. —  Thakiirdt  in  the  Malwa  Agency,  Central  India. 

Sadalgi. — Village  in  the  Chikodi  tdluka  of  Belgaum  District,  Bombay, 
situated  in  i6°  34'  N.  and  74°  32'  E.,  51  miles  north  of  Belgaum  town, 
and  25  south-east  of  Kolhapur.  Population  (1901),  9,091.  Coarse 
waistcloths,  blankets,  and  women's  sdr'is  are  woven,  but  the  chief  in- 
dustry in  the  village  and  neighbourhood  is  sugar-making.  A  large  area 
is  cultivated  with  sugar-cane,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  molasses  is 
prepared  here.     The  village  contains  two  boys'  schools  with  35  pupils. 

Sadaseopet. — Town  in  the  Kalabgur  taluk  of  Medak  District, 
Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  17°  37'  N.  and  77°  58'  E.,  10  miles  west 
of  Sangareddipet.  Population  (1901),  6,672.  It  is  a  large  emporium, 
with  a  flourishing  trade  in  both  exports  and  imports. 

Sadasivgarh.— Fort  in  North  Kanara  District,  Bombay.  See 
Chitakul. 

Sadda. — Post  in  the  Kurram  Agency,  North-West  Frontier  Province, 
now  garrisoned  by  a  detachment  of  the  Kurram  militia.  It  lies  in 
33°  30'  N.  and  70°  7'  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kurram  river.  Under 
Afghan  rule  Sadda  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  governor  of  Kurram. 

Sadhaura. — Town  in  the  Naraingarh  tahsll  of  Ambala  District, 
Punjab,  situated  in  30°  23^  N.  and  77°  12!  E.,  at  the  foot  of  the  outly- 
ing range  of  the  Himalayas.  Population  (1901),  9,812.  It  dates  from 
the  time  of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  and  contains  a  mosque  built  in  the 
reign  of  Shah  Jahan.  A  fair  held  yearly  at  the  shrine  of  the  Muham- 
madan  saint.  Shah  Kumais,  is  attended  by  20,000  or  30,000  persons. 
There  is  some  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth ;  and  the  town  possesses 
a  steam  printing  press,  and  a  combined  cotton-ginning  and  pressing 
factory,  which  in  1904  employed  55  hands.  The  municipality  was 
created  in  1885.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3 
averaged  Rs.  6,800,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  6,400.  In  1903-4  the 
income  was  Rs.  7,300,  chiefly  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  8,100.     There  is  a  vernacular  middle  schooland  a  dispensary. 

Sadikabad. — Tahsll  m  Bahawalpur  State,  Punjab.  See  Naushahra 
TahsIl. 

Sadiya. — Village  ip  the  Dibrugarh  subdivision  of  Lakhimpur 
District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  27°  48'  N.  and 
95°  39'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra  river.  Sadiya  is 
the  extreme  north-east  frontier  station  of  British  India,  and  stands  on 
a  high  grassy  plain  from  which  on  a  clear  day  a  magnificent  view  is 
obtained  of  the  hills  which  surround  it  on  three  sides.  It  is  garrisoned 
by  detachments  of  native  infantry  and  military  police.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  extensive  forts,  which  are  said  to  have 

VOL.  XXI.  ■/. 


348  SADIYA 

been  built  by  Hindu  Rajas  who  preceded  the  Chutiyas  in  the 
sovereignty  of  the  country.  A  little  to  the  east  are  the  remains  of  the 
famous  copper  temple,  at  which  human  sacrifices  used  at  one  time 
to  be  offered  by  the  Chutiyas,  and  which  was  a  centre  of  worship  for 
the  tribes  on  the  north-east  frontier.  In  1839  the  Khamtis  rose  in 
rebellion  and  killed  the  garrison  and  Colonel  White,  the  officer  in 
charge ;  and  since  that  day  Sadiya  has  been  the  base  of  a  chain  of 
outposts  stretching  towards  the  north  and  east.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  an  officer  whose  particular  duty  is  to  extend  his  influence 
over  the  hill  tribes  and  to  keep  a  watch  upon  their  movements.  There 
is  a  considerable  bazar,  at  which  the  hillmen  exchange  rubber,  wax, 
musk,  ivory,  and  other  hill  produce  for  cotton  cloth,  salt,  metal 
utensils,  jewellery,  and  opium. 

Sadra. — Head-quarters  of  the  Mahl  Kantha  Agency,  Bombay, 
situated  in  72°  47'  N.  and  23*^  2\'  E.,  on  the  Sabarmati  river,  about  25 
miles  north  of  Ahmadabad.  Population  (1901),  1,683.  Sadra  con- 
tains a  small  fort  said  to  have  been  built  by  Sultan  Ahmad  I  (141 1-43), 
who  also  built  the  fort  of  Ahmadnagar.  Colonel  Ballantyne,  the  first 
Political  Agent,  built  a  picturesque  bungalow  on  the  side  of  the  fort 
next  the  river,  which  is  still  the  Political  Agent's  office ;  a  new- 
Residency  was  built  on  the  southern  rampart  in  1887.  A  broad  well- 
laid-out  market-place,  with  rows  of  trees  on  both  sides,  and  well  lighted 
at  night,  leads  from  the  Ahmadabad  road  to  the  fort.  Near  the 
Residency  is  the  small  neat  hospital,  built  with  money  subscribed  by 
the  Mahl  Kantha  chiefs,  and  a  public  library.  The  Political  Agent 
exercises  direct  jurisdiction  within  the  station,  but  offences  committed 
outside  its  limits  are  under  the  cognizance  of  the  Vasna  Thakur. 
Several  schools  are  situated  at  Sadra,  including  one  for  minor  chiefs 
and  their  relations. 

Sadra  Bazar. — Petty  State  in  Mahi  Kantha,  Bombay. 

Sadras. — Village  in  the  District  and  taluk  of  Chingleput,  Madras, 
situated  on  the  coast  in  12°  31'  N.  and  80°  10'  E.,  about  35  miles 
south  of  Madras  city  and  connected  with  it  by  the  Buckingham  Canal. 
Population  (1901),  1,564.  Sadras  became  a  trading  settlement  of  the 
Dutch  in  1647,  and  was  long  famous  for  the  fine  muslin  produced  by 
its  looms.  The  Dutch  erected,  close  to  the  shore,  a  brick  fort  of 
considerable  extent  and  pretensions  to  strength,  of  which  the  ruins 
still  stand.  There  are  also  the  remains  of  the  houses  of  the  officials, 
one  of  which  has  long  been  in  use  as  a  halting-place  for  European 
travellers.  The  old  Dutch  cemetery  within  the  fort,  which  contains 
curious  and  elaborate  tombs,  is  maintained  in  order  by  Government. 
A  Dutch  church  stands  on  the  esplanade  opposite  the  fort.  A  few 
weavers  still  live  in  the  place,  but  the  cunning  which  produced  the 
once  famous   fabrics  is    forgotten.      The  rest   of  the  inhabitants  are 


SAFlDON  349 

cultivators,  and  the  place  is  now  only  a  sleepy  little  village.  Sadras 
was  taken  by  the  English  in  1795,  but  given  back  to  the  Dutch 
in  1818.  It  finally  returned  to  British  hands  in  1825  along  with  the 
rest  of  the  Dutch  settlements  in  India. 

Sadri. — Town  in  the  Desuri  district  of  the  State  of  Jodhpur, 
Rajputana,  situated  in  25°  i\'  N.  and  73°  27'  E.,  close  to  the  Aravalli 
Hills  and  the  Udaipur  border,  and  about  80  miles  south-east  of 
Jodhpur  city.  Population  (1901),  6,621.  Sadri  is  an  ancient  town 
and  possesses  several  handsome  Hindu  and  Jain  temples  and  a  step- 
well,  which  bear  inscriptions  ranging  from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth 
centuries. 

Sadullapur  {Sndullahpiir). — Village  in  the  Phalia  tahs'il  of  Gujrat 
District,  Punjab,  situated  in  32°  25'  N.  and  73°  53'  E.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  action  between  the  British  and  the  Sikhs  fought  on 
November  22,   1848.     (.SVf  Gujrat  District.) 

Safed  Koh.— The  most  conspicuous  mountain  range  in  Eastern 
Afghanistan,  separating  the  Kabul  basin  from  the  Kurram  and  Afridi 
Tirah,  and  forming  a  natural  division  between  Afghanistan  and  India. 
Starting  on  the  west  (34°  N.,  69°  30'  E.)  from  near  its  highest  point, 
Sikaram,  15,620  feet  above  the  sea,  it  forms  a  watershed  reaching 
down  into  Southern  Afghanistan,  and  terminating  in  a  mass  of  uplands, 
consisting  of  the  Psein  Dag  and  Toba  (31°  15'  N.,  67°  E.  approx.). 
Its  eastern  ramifications  extend  to  the  Indus  at  and  below  Attock 
(33°  50'  N.,  72°  10'  E.  approx.).  Among  the  northern  and  eastern 
spurs  of  this  range  are  those  formidable  passes  between  Kabul  and 
Jalalabad  in  which  the  disasters  of  184 1-2  culminated,  and  the  famous 
Khyber  Pass  between  Jalalabad  and  Peshawar.  The  northern  spurs 
are  extremely  barren ;  but  the  intervening  valleys  are  a  combination 
of  orchard,  field,  and  garden,  abounding  in  mulberry,  pomegranate, 
and  other  fruit  trees,  while  the  banks  of  their  streams  are  edged  with 
turf,  enamelled  with  wild  flowers,  and  fringed  by  rows  of  weeping 
willows.  The  main  range  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  spurs  are 
wooded  with  pine,  deodar^  and  other  timber  trees ;  many  of  the 
southern  offshoots  are  also  clothed  with  pines  and  wild  olive. 

Safidon. — Town  in  the  Jind  State  and  tahsll,  Punjab,  situated 
in  29°  21'  N.  and  76°  42'  E.,  24  miles  east  of  Jind  town.  Population 
(1901),  4,832.  Legend  ascribes  its  foundation  to  the  destruction  of 
the  serpents  {sarpa  damafia,  whence  Safidon)  by  Janamejaya,  the  son 
of  Raja  Parikshit,  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  father.  It  lies  in  the 
holy  tract  of  Kurukshetra,  and  the  remains  to  the  south  of  the  modern 
town  testify  to  its  former  splendour.  The  Nagchhetra  tank  recalls 
the  holocaust  of  the  Nags  or  snakes.  The  municipality  has  an  income 
of  Rs.  2,300  a  year,  chiefly  derived  from  octroi ;  and  there  is  some 
local  trade. 

z  2 


350  SAFIPUR    TAHSIL 

Safipur  Tahsil.  -North-western  tahsti  of  Unao  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Safipur,  Bangarmau,  and  Fateh- 
pur-Chaurasi,  and  lying  between  26°  38'  and  27°  2'  N.  and  80°  4'  and 
80°  27'  E.,  along  the  Ganges,  with  an  area  of  408  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation increased  from  210,141  in  1891  to  225,490  in  1901.  There  are 
360  villages  and  three  towns,  Safipur  (population,  7,949),  the  tahsil 
head-quarters,  and  Bangarmau  (6,051)  being  the  largest.  The  demand 
for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  3,38,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  35,000. 
The  density  of  population,  552  persons  per  square  mile,  is  slightly 
above  the  District  average.  About  a  third  of  the  tahsil  lies  in  the 
thinly  populated  Ganges  valley,  and  the  remainder  is  situated  on  raised 
upland.  A  sluggish  stream,  called  the  KalyanI,  flows  through  the 
former  and  does  some  damage  by  flooding.  The  uplands  are  partly 
drained  by  the  Sai,  which  skirts  the  north-east ;  they  include  some 
light  sandy  soil,  but  are  generally  composed  of  good  loam.  In  1903-4 
the  area  under  cultivation  was  259  square  miles,  of  which  99  were 
irrigated.  Wells  supply  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  irrigated  area,  and 
tanks  and  other  sources  the  remainder. 

Safipur  To"wn  (or  Saipur). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the 
same  name  in  Unao  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  45'  N. 
and  80°  22'  E.,  on  the  old  road  from  Delhi  to  Benares,  north  of  the. 
Ganges.  Population  (1901),  7,949.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Sai  Sukul,  a  Brahman,  and  is  generally  called  after  him, 
Saipur.  A  religious  mendicant  subsequently  came  to  the  place  and 
was  buried  there,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Safipur  in  com- 
memoration of  the  holy  man.  Sai  Sukul  is  said  to  have  been  defeated 
and  killed  by  Ibrahim  of  Jaunpur,  who  put  his  lieutenants  in  charge 
of  the  town.  Their  descendants  are  still  the  principal  proprietors. 
Safipur  contains  a  number  of  tombs  of  Muhammadan  saints.  Besides 
the  usual  offices,  there  are  a  munsifl,  a  dispensary,  and  a  branch  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission.  The  town  is  administered  under 
Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  1,200.  A  market 
is  held  twice  a  week,  and  there  are  also  some  popular  fairs.  There 
is  a  school  with  95  pupils. 

Sagaing  Division.-— North-western  Division  of  Upper  Burma, 
lying  between  21°  29'  and  26°  22'  N.  and  93°  58''  and  96"^  20'  E.  It 
comprises  four  Districts  :  the  Upper  and  Lower  Chindwin,  bestriding 
the  Chindwin ;  and  Sagaing  and  Shwebo,  extending  from  that  river 
across  the  Mu  valley  to  the  Irrawaddy.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  unadministered  Hukawng  valley ;  on  the  east  by  the  Mandalay 
Division  ;  on  the  south  by  Myingyan  District  of  the  Meiktila  Division  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Manipur  and  the  Chin  Hills.  The  population  was 
821,769  in  1891  and  1,000,483  in  1901  ;  but  the  former  figure  did 
not  include  the  population  of  two  Shan  States  in  the  Upper  Chindwin 


District  which  were  enumerated  in  1901 
tion  is  given  in  the  following  table  : — 


SAGAING  DISTRICT  351 

The  distribution  of  popula- 


District. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Population, 
1 901. 

Land  revenue 
and  (hatha- 

meda, 
1903-4,  in      : 
thousands  of 
rupees. 

Shwebo    . 
Sagaing    . 
Lower  Chindwin 
Upper  Chindwin 

Total 

5,634 
1,862 

3,480 
18,590* 

286,891 
282,658 

276,383 
154,551 

5,5° 

7,93 
6,18 

3,45 

29,566 

1,000,483 

23,06 

*  Area  figure  revised  since  the  Census  of  1901. 

There  are  4,864  villages  and  4  towns  :  Sagaing  (population,  9,643), 
Shwebo  (9,626),  Monywa,  and  Kindat,  the  first  three  of  which  are 
trade  and  industrial  centres  of  some  importance.  The  administrative 
head-quarters  are  at  Sagaing,  which  is  conveniently  situated  at  the 
south-eastern  corner  of  the  Division,  the  District  head-quarters  of  the 
Shwebo  and  Lower  Chindwin  Districts  being  accessible  by  rail,  and 
that  of  the  Upper  Chindwin  District  by  rail  and  river  steamer.  The 
majority  of  the  population  are  Burmans,  the  number  of  Burmans  in 
1 90 1  being  no  less  than  915,204.  The  only  other  indigenous  race 
strongly  represented  is  the  Shans  (68,077),  nearly  all  of  whom  inhabit 
the  northern  townships  of  the  Upper  Chindwin  District.  An  appreciable 
portion  of  the  population  is  foreign,  but  most  of  the  7,704  Musalmans 
and  4,538  Hindus  enumerated  in  1901  were  either  military  policemen 
or  indigenous  Zairbadis.  A  few  Chins  are  found  in  the  hills  along 
the  western  border  of  the  Upper  Chindwin  District,  and  a  few  China- 
men at  the  main  trade  centres.  The  people,  being  Burman  or  Shan 
for  the  most  part,  are  nearly  all  Buddhists.  The  aggregate  of  the 
adherents  of  the  Buddhist  faith  in  1901  was  981,369,  while  Christians 
numbered  3,773,  and  Animists  (practically  all  Chins)  2,289. 

Sagaing  District. — District  in  the  Sagaing  Division  of  Upper 
Burma,  lying  between  21°  29'  and  22°  15'  N.  and  95°  9'  and  96°  \'  E., 
with  an  area  of  1,862  square  miles.  It  extends  across  the  Irrawaddy, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Lower  Chindwin  and  Shwebo,  on 
the  east  by  Mandalay  and  Kyaukse,  on  the  south  by  Myingyan,  and 
on  the  west  by  Pakokku  and  the  Lower  Chindwin.  Sagaing  has  for 
its  size  an  exceptional  length  of  navigable  waterways 
within  its  limits.  About  10  miles  below  Mandalay 
the  Irrawaddy,  after  skirting  the  District  for  more 
than  20  miles,  turns  abruptly  from  the  southerly  course  it  has  been 
pursuing  and  makes  a  considerable  bend  westwards  across  the  plain, 
till  it  receives  the  waters  of  the    Mu   from  the  north,  after  which   it 


Physical 
aspects. 


352  SAGAIiYG   DISTRICT 

begins  to  turn  southwards  again  as  it  quits  the  District.  Its  westerly 
course,  which  begins  immediately  below  Sagaing  town,  cuts  the  District 
into  two  portions,  one  north  and  one  south  of  the  channel,  the  former 
comprising  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole.  The  northern  section 
contains  the  Sagaing  township  on  the  east  end  the  Myinmu,  Chaungu, 
and  Myaung  townships  on  the  west ;  the  southern  is  made  up  of  the 
Tada-u  and  Ngazun  townships.  At  the  south-west  corner  the  Irra- 
waddy  approaches  close  to,  and  in  the  rains  is  connected  by  various 
waterways  with,  the  Chindwin,  which  for  some  distance  forms  the 
western  border  of  the  Myinmu  subdivision.  The  eastern  boundary 
of  the  same  subdivision,  separating  it  from  the  Sagaing  subdivision, 
is  the  Mu,  which  flows  southwards  from  Shwebo  into  the  Irrawaddy, 
a  few  miles  east  of  Myinmu  village.  There  are  two  main  hill  ranges. 
The  first  is  the  barren  Sagaing  ridge,  which  is  covered  with  sparse 
stunted  vegetation  and  dotted  with  white-washed  pagodas,  and  runs 
parallel  to  the  Irrawaddy  from  Sagaing  town  up  to  the  northern  border 
of  the  District,  reaching  its  highest  point  in  the  Mingun  hill  (1,341 
feet).  The  second  is  a  compact  cluster  of  hills  lying  in  the  centre 
of  the  southern  edge  of  the  District  on  the  Myingyan  border,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Tada-u  and  Ngazun  townships,  and  culminating  in  the 
Mozataung  (1,474  feet).  All  over  the  District  are  other  patches  of 
rugged  elevated  country,  notably  in  the  north-west  on  the  Lower 
Chindwin  border,  and  in  the  country  west  of  Myotha. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  country  is  very  diversified,  ranging  from 
rich  alluvial  soil  to  barren  hills.  Along  the  rivers,  where  the  channel 
bank  is  frequently  higher  than  the  country  behind,  the  land  is  flat 
and  low-lying  and  is  inundated  yearly.  These  riparian  levels  are 
very  rich  and  productive,  and  the  Irrawaddy  itself  is  full  of  islands 
which  emerge,  silt-laden,  from  the  current  at  the  close  of  each  rainy 
season  and  are  thus  perennially  fertile.  In  the  Sagaing  township, 
immediately  to  the  west  of  the  railway,  is  a  large  depression  called  the 
Yemyet  lake,  which  after  heavy  rain  is  occupied  by  a  sheet  of  water 
covering  an  area  of  10  miles  north  and  south,  and  3  miles  east  and 
west,  but  is  almost  dry  during  the  hot  season.  There  are  numerous 
Jhils  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  Chindwin,  and  a 
small  salt-water  lake  at  Yega,  a  few  miles  north  of  Sagaing  town. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  the  District  is  covered  with  alluvium,  from 
beneath  which  a  few  patches  of  soft  sandstone  of  Upper  Tertiary 
(pliocene)  age  appear,  forming  low  undulating  hills.  As  in  Shwebo 
District,  these  sandstones  arc  brought  down  by  a  great  fault  against 
the  crystalline  rocks— gneiss,  granite,  and  crystalline  limestone — which 
form  the  narrow  ridge  of  hills  running  along  the  western  bank  of  the 
Irrawaddy.  This  ridge  disappears  beneath  the  alluvium  at  Sagaing 
town,  where  the  river  breaks  across  it. 


I 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  353 

'i'he  hilly  tracts  are  mostly  covered  with  thick  scrub  jungle ;  in  waste 
places  on  low  land,  as  at  Nabegyu  on  the  Mu  and  in  the  east  of  the 
Tada-u  township,  the  jungle  becomes  forest,  with  many  large  trees  and 
thick  undergrowth  and  creepers.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
common  trees  :  Bauhi/iia  nicemosa,  okshit  {Aegle  Marme/os),  nyaioig 
{Fit  us  indica),  common  cassia  of  various  kinds  {inezali,  ngiigyizat),  Termi- 
nalia  be/erica,  Zizyphus  Jujuba,  fanaiing  {Acacia  /eucophhea),  Antho- 
cephalus  sp.,  sha  {Acacia  Ca/echu),  Lagerstroemia  parviflora^  kokko 
{Albizzia  Lebbek),  letpan  {Bombax  malabaricuni),  the  tamarind,  which 
grows  to  a  very  large  size,  the  toddy-palm  {Borassus  flabellifer),  and 
the  mango.  The  produce  of  the  fruit  trees  is  collected  and  sold  in 
the  bazars.  The  Chinese  date,  the  in,  the  ingyin,  the  pyintna,  the 
padank,  and  the  thitya  may  also  be  mentioned. 

The  larger  kinds  of  wild  animals  are  not  found  in  great  numbers ; 
those  that  frequent  the  District  include  the  leopard,  the  jackal,  the 
hog,  the  thamin  or  brovv-antlered  deer,  the  hog  deer,  the  barking-deer, 
and  the  hare.  There  are  no  tigers,  bears,  or  sdmbar,  and  it  is  only 
occasionally  that  elephants  come  down  from  the  Lower  Chindwin  and 
Shwebo  hills  into  the  District.  Ducks,  geese,  and  snipe  abound  in  the 
cold  season,  and  at  certain  times  of  the  year  partridges  and  quail  are 
plentiful. 

Sagaing  town  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque,  and  appears  also  to  be 
one  of  the  healthiest  and  coolest,  places  in  the  plains  of  Upper  Burma. 
The  sick-rate  of  the  troops  while  they  held  the  town,  and  that  of  the 
military  police  since  that  time,  has  always  been  remarkably  low.  Only 
two  months,  April  and  May,  are  really  hot,  and  even  during  these  the 
mean  maximum  is  under  102°  while  the  average  ranges  from  76°  to 
100°.  In  the  winter  the  temperature  oscillates  between  60°  and  80°. 
During  the  rains  high  south  winds  sweep  across  the  country,  and  keep 
the  air  cool  and  pleasant.  The  great  body  of  water  that  passes  through 
and  around  the  District  probably  prevents  the  thermometer  from  rising 
as  high  in  the  most  oppressive  months  as  it  otherwise  would.  The  hot 
season  is  not  distinguished  by  persistent  sultry  winds,  though  gales  of 
great  violence  blow  occasionally.  The  end  of  the  rains  and  the  early 
cold  season,  when  very  heavy  fogs  hang  till  late  in  the  day  all  along  the 
Irrawaddy,  are  the  least  healthy  seasons  of  the  year  ;  but  the  District 
as  a  whole  is  not  insalubrious,  and  has  no  fever-haunted  hills  or  tarai. 
No  cyclones,  earthquakes,  or  exceptional  floods  have  occurred  within 
memory.  The  rainfall  for  the  whole  District  averages  about  30  inches 
per  annum,  but  varies  considerably  from  tract  to  tract.  In  i88g,  for 
instance,  although  the  total  fall  at  Sagaing  town  exceeded  by  5  inches 
the  aggregate  of  the  preceding  year,  elsewhere,  notably  in  the  north  of 
the  Sagaing  subdivision  and  the  south  of  the  Chaungu  and  Ngazun 
townships,   it   was  very  short. 


354  SAGAING   DISTRICT 

Up  to  the  time  of  annexation  the  history  of  the  District  outside 
Sagaing  town  and  Ava  has  no  special  features.  From  time  immemorial 
it  has  ahvays  been  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burma, 
^*  whether  centred  at  Pagan,  Ava,  or  Sagaing.  After 
the  surrender  of  king  Thibaw,  in  November,  1885,  a  column  marched 
from  Mandalay  to  Myingyan  through  Ava,  where  it  was  joined  by  the 
taunghmu  or  jailor  of  Ava,  who  did  good  service  in  the  fighting  that 
followed.  The  fort  at  Sagaing  was  occupied  as  early  as  December, 
1885  ;  but  regular  administration  was  not  introduced  at  once,  and  for 
two  years  the  District  was  one  of  the  most  turbulent  in  the  Province. 
Outside  the  two  posts  at  Sagaing  and  Myinmu  it  was  in  the  hands 
of  dacoits,  who  terrorized  the  village  headmen,  and  two  British  officers 
were  killed  near  Sagaing  during  the  first  months  of  occupation.  There 
were  several  bands  of  rebels,  the  most  notorious  leader  being  Hla  U, 
who  was  a  scourge  to  the  country  round  Myinmu.  The  old  Ava 
subdivision,  comprising  the  present  Tada-u  and  Ngazun  townships, 
then  a  separate  District,  was  equally  disturbed,  the  followers  of  a  man 
named  Shwe  Yan  giving  most  trouble  there.  The  building  of  outposts 
at  Myotha  and  Myinthe,  followed  by  active  operations,  drove  Shwe 
Yan  across  the  Panlaung  in  April,  but  later  he  took  up  his  head- 
quarters in  the  country  between  the  Panlaung  and  its  tributary  the 
Samon.  In  1887  the  state  of  the  District  was  no  better,  and  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  the  country  was  practically  in  the  hands  of  the 
dacoits.  Great  efforts  were  made  to  capture  Hla  U,  but  none  of  them 
succeeded,  and  he  was  ultimately  murdered  by  one  of  his  own  fol- 
lowers. His  lieutenants,  chief  among  whom  were  Nyo  U,  Nyo  Pu, 
and  Min  O,  soon  gathered  strength,  and  before  long  had  succeeded  in 
making  the  country  as  disturbed  as  ever.  On  the  Ava  side  Shwe  Yan 
openly  defied  the  authorities,  and  two  British  officers  were  killed  in  an 
engagement  with  him.  Finally,  in  1888,  military  operations  on  a  larger 
scale  were  begun  under  the  late  General  Penn  Symons ;  and  though  no 
great  measure  of  success  appeared  at  first  to  attend  them,  the  resistance 
to  authority  slowly  weakened,  and  the  slrict  observance  of  the  Yillage 
Regulation  by  which  villages  were  punished  for  not  resisting  the 
dacoits,  and  suspicious  persons  were  removed  from  their  local  spheres 
of  influence,  gradually  led  to  the  pacification  of  the  country.  By  the 
end  of  1888  no  less  than  26  dacoit  leaders,  including  Shwe  Yan,  had 
been  killed  and  26  captured,  and  most  of  their  followers  had  come  in 
and  were  disarmed.  Since  that  date  the  District  has  given  no  trouble. 
The  Ava  District  was  amalgamated  with  Sagaing  early  in  1888. 

The  ancient  capital  of  Ava  is  described  in  a  separate  article.  Pinya 
and  Myinzaing  to  the  south  of  Ava  in  the  Tada-u  township  are  also 
old  capitals.  The  pagodas,  both  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sagaing  and 
throughout  the  District,  are  exceedingly  numerous,  especially  on  the 


POPULATION  355 

barren  hills  that  follow  the  Irrawaddy  on  its  western  bank.  By  far  the 
best  known  is  the  Mingun  pagoda,  begun  by  Bodawpaya  in  1790  and 
continued  till  1803,  but  never  completed.  This  huge  relic  of  the 
glories  of  the  Alaungpaya  dynasty,  which  was  intended  to  eclipse  all 
previous  records  in  pagoda  building,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Irrawaddy  opposite  a  point  6  or  7  miles  above  Mandalay,  and 
is  one  of  the  largest  solid  masses  of  brickwork  known  to  exist.  Only 
the  two  lions  at  the  eastern  entrance,  five  walled  terraces,  and  the  base 
of  the  pagoda  had  been  completed,  when  an  earthquake  in  1839 
wrecked  the  lions  and  cracked  the  building  from  top  to  bottom.  \\'ork 
on  it  was  never  resumed  after  the  catastrophe.  The  present  height  of 
the  ruin  is  130  feet;  but,  calculating  from  the  model  near,  it  would, 
when  completed,  have  been  about  555  feet  in  height.  Close  to  it 
is  the  famous  Mingun  bell,  the  largest  bell  hung  in  the  world.  It 
is  12  feet  high  and  i6i  feet  in  diameter  at  the  mouth,  and  its  weight  is 
about  90  tons.  More  interesting  from  an  archaeological  point  of  view, 
but  less  famous  than  the  bell  and  the  ruin,  is  the  Sinpyushin  pagoda 
not  far  off,  built  about  a.d.  1359,  and  restored  by  the  queen  by  whose 
name  it  is  known.  It  represents  the  Myinmo  mountain  and  rises 
in  tiers,  on  each  of  which  are  niches  filled  with  images  representing 
various  members  of  the  celestial  hierarchy,  many  of  which  have  been 
broken  or  stolen  by  profane  excursionists.  The  pagoda  most  rever- 
enced, however,  is  not  the  Mingun  shrine  but  the  clumsy  Yazamanisula 
or  Kaunghmudaw,  which  raises  its  almost  hemispherical  shape  from 
the  plain  about  5  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Sagaing.  This  royal  work 
of  merit  has  achieved  so  wide  a  notoriety  throughout  Indo-China  that 
a  miraculous  origin  has  been  ascribed  to  it,  despite  an  inscription  at  its 
base,  which  testifies  to  its  having  been  built  by  Thalunmintayagyi,  king 
of  Ava,  in  1636.  The  shrine  benefits  by  the  revenue  of  wuttugan 
lands  in  its  neighbourhood,  and  has  an  annual  festival.  The  trustees 
who  manage  its  affairs  keep  it  in  good  order.  Periodical  festivals  are 
held  at  other  pagodas,  including  the  Ngadatgyi,  in  the  south-western 
suburbs  of  Sagaing,  a  shrine  founded  in  1660  and  containing  a  large 
masonry  figure  of  Buddha ;  the  Shinbinnangaing  and  Shwemoktaw 
pagodas,  dating  from  the  tenth  century ;  and  the  Onminthonze,  a 
crescent-shaped  colonnade  on  the  side  of  the  Sagaing  hills  overlooking 
Sagaing,  with  thirty  arches  containing  forty-four  figures  of  Gautama 
Buddha. 

The  population  of  Sagaing  District  increased  from  246,141  in  1891 

to  282,6i;8  in   1901.     Its  distribution  in  the  latter       ^       ,  ^. 

.      .        .      ^       ,  ,  ,  Population, 

year  is  given  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

Sagaing,  the  head-quarters  of  the  District,  is  the  only  town.     The 

density  of  population,  152  persons  per  square  mile,  bears  comparison 

with  the  most  thickly  populated  Districts  of  Lower  Burma — Henzada 


35^ 


SAGAING   DISTRICT 


and  Hanthawaddy.  It  is  far  in  excess  of  the  density  of  the  Sagaing 
Division  as  a  whole  (only  33  persons  per  square  mile),  and  is  higher 
than  that  of  any  other  District  of  Upper  Burma.  Burmans  have 
immigrated  in  considerable  numbers  from  Mandalay,  Myingyan,  and 
Lower  Chindwin  Districts.  More  than  99  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants 
speak  Burmese,  and  all  but  2  per  cent,  are  Buddhists. 


a; 

U 

■~ 

0       1 

Townsliip. 

rea  in  squar 
miles. 

Number  of 

c 

_0 

i 
(2 

'ercentage  o 
variation  in 
opulation  be 
tween  1891 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

ersons  able  t 

read  and 

write. 

B 
1 

en 

& 

J3 

< 

I 

> 

^ 

+ 16 

o. 

Sagaing    . 

485 

211 

77,.S78 

160 

21,362 

Tada-ii 

310 

... 

'57 

46,661 

151 

+    I 

I. -,074 

Myinmu    . 

286 

... 

86 

41,256 

144 

+     5 

9,581 

Chaungu  . 

177 

... 

88 

33,134 

187 

+  10 

6,019 

Myaung    . 

246 

79 

3i>497 

128 

+  25 

7,018 

Ngazuii     . 
District  total 

358 

169 

52,532 

147 

^  17 

12,215 

1,862 

790 

282,658 

152 

+  15 

68,269 

1 

The  population  is  almost  wholly  Burmese,  the  Burman  aggregate  in 
1 90 1  being  278,500  or  98  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Musalmans  numbered 
1,800,  and  Hindus  930.  Of  these,  1,300  were  Indians.  Zairbadis  are 
plentiful  in  Sagaing  town,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  District :  as,  for 
instance,  at  Ywathitgyi,  a  large  village  on  the  Irrawaddy  about  half- 
way between  Sagaing  and  Myinmu,  where  communities  of  Musalman 
Burmans  show  no  signs  now  of  any  Indian  admi.xture.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  non-immigrant  Hindus  are  Ponnas  or  Manipuris,  who 
have  a  quarter  of  their  own  in  Sagaing  town.  The  Census  of  1901 
showed  163,785  persons  directly  dependent  on  agriculture,  or  only 
58  per  cent,  of  the  population,  as  compared  with  66  per  cent,  for 
the  Province  as  a  whole. 

In  1 901  there  were  748  native  Christians,  most  of  them  Roman 
Catholics,  centred  round  the  missions  at  Chaungu  and  Nabet,  who  are 
said  to  be  descended  from  Portuguese  and  other  prisoners  captured  at 
Syriam  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  American 
Baptist  Union  has  a  mission  and  church  at  Sagaing,  but  the  number  of 
Baptist  converts  is  not  large. 

There  is  great  diversity  in  the  nature  of  the  country  as  well  as  in  the 

methods   of  cultivation,  especially   in  the  north-west,   which  presents 

large  stretches  of  rice  land  dependent  on  the  rainfall 

Agncu  ture.  ^^^  .^^  success.  The  Myinmu  township  consists 
chiefly  of  plateaux  and  undulating  uplands.  In  the  western  half  of 
the  Chaungu  and  in  the  Myaung  township,  in  the  wedge-shaped  area 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  Chindwin,  large  tracts  are 


AGRICULTURE  357 

subject  to  yearly  inundation,  and  the  richest  lands  are  found  here. 
The  Ngazun  township  is  dry  and  undulating,  while  to  the  south  of  Ava 
the  country  consists  chiefly  of  level  black  cotton  soil. 

Various  distinct  kinds  of  cultivation  are  carried  on.  Wet-season  rice 
is  grown  on  land  falling  into  two  separate  categories  :  namely,  land 
submerged  by  the  annual  rise  of  the  river  {ye-win-ie),  and  land  beyond 
the  reach  of  inundation  {mogaufig-k).  In  July  and  August  nurseries 
are  sown  on  the  higher  lands  in  the  inundated  tract,  and  when  the 
river  begins  to  fall  after  the  highest  rise  the  planting  of  the  seedlings 
is  taken  in  hand.  In  uninundated  land  nurseries  are  sown  from  the 
end  of  June  through  July,  and  are  planted  out  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber. The  crops  begin  to  ripen  in  November,  and  the  harvest  continues 
till  after  Christmas.  Dry-season  {inayhi)  rice  is  grown  wherever  suffi- 
cient water  remains  in  the  hollows  along  the  river  bank  when  the 
floods  have  subsided.  Nurseries  are  sown  in  December,  planting  out 
begins  in  January,  and  the  crop  is  ready  for  reaping  towards  the  end 
of  April.  '  Dry '  or  ya  cultivation  is  practised  on  the  poorer  kinds  of 
uninundated  land,  and  is  mainly  composed  of  three  chief  crops  :  sesa- 
mum,  millet,  and  cotton.  Early  sesamum,  a  somewhat  precarious 
crop,  is  grown  but  little.  Late  sesamum,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the 
most  largely  cultivated  of  all  staples  in  the  District,  though  the  plant 
is  delicate  and  is  apt  to  suffer  from  lengthy  drought  towards  the  end  of 
September  and  during  October.  Millet  {jowdr),  sown  towards  the 
end  of  July  and  throughout  August,  is  ready  for  cutting  by  the  end  of 
January  and  till  near  the  end  of  February.  It  is  cultivated  almost  as 
much  for  the  sake  of  its  stalk,  which  affords  excellent  fodder  for  cattle, 
as  for  its  grain,  which  is  used  for  human  consumption  only  in  the 
poorest  parts  of  the  District.  Cotton  is  sown  after  the  early  rains  in 
May,  and  picking  begins  in  October.  Wheat,  always  of  the  bearded 
variety,  is  an  important  crop.  It  is  grown  in  sane,  the  level  rich  black 
soil  of  the  Sagaing  and  Tada-u  townships,  in  November,  and  ripens 
about  the  beginning  of  March.  The  sane  soil  is  suitable  also  for  oats, 
linseed,  gram,  and  other  staples. 

Various  miscellaneous  crops  are  grown  on  alluvial  and  inundated 
land,  and  are  classified  together  under  the  head  of  kaitig  cultivation. 
These  are  very  numerous,  the  commonest  being  pulse  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  gram,  pegya,  sadmvpe,  peselon,  and  viatpe.  The  kaing  lands 
are  ploughed  up  before  the  river  rises,  so  that  the  moisture  may 
penetrate  as  deep  as  possible.  When  the  water  falls  and  they  are 
sufficiently  dry  again  they  are  usually  harrowed,  and  sowing  commences 
in  October.  The  harvest  is  gathered  in  March.  Onions,  tobacco, 
maize,  chillies,  sweet  potatoes,  and  indigo  are  grown  on  these  lands, 
but  the  areas  under  these  crops  are  small. 

The  total   area  under   cultivation    was   372   square   miles   in   1891. 


358 


SAGAING   DISTRICT 


\ 


and  473  scjuare  miles  in  rgoi.  For  1903-4  the  main  agricultural 
statistics  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  the  areas  being  in  square 
miles  : — 


Township. 

Total  area. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Sagaing 

485 

177 

2.30 

Tada-u 

310 

117 

4-37 

Myinmu      . 

286 

120 

0-56 

Chaungii     . 

177 

96 

1-76 

Myaung 

246 

96 

0.17 

Ngazun 

Total 

358 

164 

1.60 

1,862 

770 

10-76      I 

Sesamum  covered  210  and  millet  184  square  miles  in  1903-4,  while 
the  comparatively  small  area  of  148  square  miles  was  under  rice, 
19  square  miles  being  dry-season  rice.  The  greater  part  of  the  entire 
wheat  crop  of  Burma  is  grown  in  this  District,  the  area  being  32  square 
miles;  peas  in  the  same  year  covered  119,  gram  17,  and  cotton  about 
67  square  miles.  This  last  crop  is  grown  for  the  most  part  in  the 
Tada-u  and  Ngazun  townships,  on  the  high  ground  which  extends  into 
Meiktila  and  Myingyan  Districts  ;  and  after  Myingyan,  Sagaing  shows 
the  largest  cotton  acreage  in  the  Province.  Gardens  covered  only 
1,100  acres  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sagaing  town  and  the  large  villages 
of  the  District,  and  tobacco  2,500  acres. 

The  cropped  area  is  steadily  and  rapidly  increasing  ip  extent,  its 
growth  being  only  retarded  temporarily  by  a  bad  season.  The  quality 
of  the  cultivation  is  much  the  same  as  it  has  been  from  time  immemo- 
rial, and  the  introduction  of  new  kinds  of  seed  is  regarded  by  the 
Burman  more  as  a  curiosity  than  anything  else.  Experiments  with 
American  tobacco,  Egyptian  cotton,  and  other  non-indigenous  varieties 
of  seed  have  been  made,  but  none  has  met  with  marked  success. 
Except  in  1902-3  no  agricultural  loans  have  been  advanced  during' 
the  past  few  years  to  cultivators. 

There  are  no  special  breeds  of  cattle,  except  on  a  small  stock  farm 
at  Myinmu,  where  Madras  bulls  have  been  placed  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, though  with  little  result.  The  ordinary  Burmese  bullocks  and 
buffaloes  are  used  for  ploughing ;  and  sheep  and  goats  are  bred  in  fair 
numbers,  chiefly  by  Indians  and  Chinese,  who  buy  in  the  District 
cheap  and  sell  at  a  profit  in  Mandalay.  Goats  are  freely  used  for 
milch  purposes.  Pony-breeding  is  not  extensive.  Stallions  are  kept 
here  and  there,  their  owners  taking  them  round  to  adjacent  villages, 
and  letting  them  out  on  hire  at  fees  ranging  between  Rs.  5  and  Rs.  10. 
The  ponies  in  Chaungu  appear  to  be  strong  and  hardy,  and  it  is  said 
that  the  military  police  detachment  in  Monywa  buys  most  of  its 
animals  there.    Pig-breeding  is  carried  on  in  certain  localities.    Grazing 


TRADE  AND  COMMUNICATIONS  359 

grounds  are  sufficient  for  all  requirements,  and  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  feeding  the  cattle. 

The  only  irrigation  works  of  importance  are  tanks,  mostly  small. 
The  chief  are  the  Kyaungbyu,  Taeinde,  Pyugan,  and  Obo-tamayit 
tanks,  all  in  the  Sagaing  township,  the  Kandaw  tank  in  the  Myinmu 
township,  and  the  Kandaw-Kanhla  in  the  Tada-u  township.  On  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mu  a  powerful  steam-pump  was  set  up  a  few  years 
ago  by  a  European  grantee  to  irrigate  his  grant,  and  the  results  are 
said  to  have  been  good.  The  total  area  irrigated  in  1903-4  was  dis- 
tributed as  follows:  from  tanks,  3,400  acres;  from  wells,  2,100  acres; 
total,  6,900  acres,  nearly  all  under  rice.  There  are  numerous  fisheries 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  channels  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  Chindwin. 
The  most  important  are  the  Tande  fishery  in  the  Sagaing  township 
near  the  Kaunghmudaw  pagoda,  the  Maungmagan  fishery  in  the 
Sagaing  township  near  Byedayaw  village,  the  Sindat-Gaungbo-Myitton 
fishery  in  the  Sinbyugon  circle  of  the  Ngazun  township,  the  Twingya 
fishery  in  the  Ngazun  township,  the  Inmagyi-Komachaung  fishery  in 
the  Myinmu  township,  and  the  Taunggaw  fishery  in  the  Chaungu 
township.  They  are  leased  by  auction,  and  produced  a  revenue  of 
Rs.  58,700  in  1903-4. 

No  forests  are  '  reserved  '  or  protected  in  the  District,  but  the  timber- 
collecting  stations  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mu  and  the  Myintge  are  within 
its  limits.  On  parts  of  the  low-lying  land  are  found  stretches  of  timber 
growth  the  constituents  of  which  have  been  enumerated  under  Botany. 
Except  for  cutch,  however,  they  contain  little  of  economic  value. 

Limestone  is  extracted  at  the  foot  of  the  Sagaing  hills,  and  is  burnt 
in  two  villages,  one  on  the  outskirts  of  Sagaing  town  and  the  other 
a  few  miles  above  Mingun  on  the  river  bank.  The  industry  is  not 
a  thriving  one,  and  the  annual  profits  of  a  lime-burner  nowadays  are 
said  to  average  only  about  Rs.  200.  Copper  has  been  found  in  small 
quantities  in  the  Sagaing  hills,  but  has  never  been  systematically 
worked.  Clay  suitable  for  pottery  and  brick-making  is  found  here  and 
there,  and  in  the  Sagaing  township  a  little  salt  is  produced. 

There  are  gold-  and  silversmiths  at  Sagaing,  Ywataung,  and  Wachet. 

Brass-workers  ply  their  trade  in  the  same  towns  and  a  few  of  the  larger 

villages,  and  convert  sheets  bought  in  the  Mandalay 

bazar  into  spittoons,  betel  and  lime  boxes,  drinking        Trade  and 

^  '  ,       ,  communications. 

cups,    filters    {yesit),   bowls,    and    trays.     The   local 

blacksmiths  obtain  their  iron  in  the  bazars,  and  manufacture  das,  axes, 

pickaxes,    scythes,    ploughs,    wheel-tires,    and    similar    articles.      The 

shaping  from  local  sandstone  of  kyaukpyins,  the  round  flat  stones  used 

for  grinding   thanatka   (a  vegetable  cosmetic),   gives  employment    to 

a  number  of  persons  in  Kyaukta  village  in  the  east  of  the  Sagaing 

township.    The  finished  articles  are  taken  for  the  most  part  to  Mandalay 


36o  SAGAING   DISTRICT 

for  sale.  In  and  near  Sagaing  reside  several  sculptors  of  figures  of 
Gautama,  which  are  hewn  from  the  white  marble  brought  from  the 
Sagyin  hill  in  Mandalay  District.  The  artificers  go  to  the  quarries 
and  buy  their  rough  material  on  the  spot  ready  shaped  into  approxi- 
mately conical  blocks,  bringing  it  over  to  Sagaing  by  cart  and  boat. 
The  images  are  usually  well  finished,  but  the  design  is  stereotyped  and 
tasteless.  For  some  years  past  the  sculptors  have  been  one  by  one 
attracted  to  Mandalay,  where  the  expenses  of  procuring  the  rough 
stone  are  lighter,  and  a  readier  sale  for  their  work  is  obtained.  Ordi- 
nary rough  red  earthenware  w'aterpots  are  made  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Sagaing  and  elsewhere  throughout  the  District,  At  Myitpauk, 
a  village  on  the  river  just  below  Myinmu,  the  common  red  earthenware 
is  glazed  a  dark  green  and  brown  to  prevent  percolation.  Sugar- 
boiling  is  practised  wherever  there  are  sufficient  toddy-palm  trees  to 
make  the  industry  pay.  Cutch-boiling  used  to  be  a  regular  source  of 
employment,  but  the  industry  is  now  almost  moribund.  Silk-weaving 
is  common,  the  silk  employed  coming  from  China  or  Siam.  The 
Sagaing  silks  are  famous  ;  and  sometimes  from  loo  to  150  shuttles  are 
used  in  weaving  a  luntamein  or  a  h/iipaso,  the  design  in  which  is  so 
elaborate  that  not  more  than  i  inch  width  of  the  pattern  can  be  woven 
in  a  day.  A  tamein  (skirt)  of  this  kind  costs  from  Rs.  12  to  Rs.  15  ; 
Sipaso  (waistcloth)  from  Rs.  100  to  Rs.  150.  The  weaving  is  all  done 
by  hand.  There  are,  in  fact,  no  factory  industries  [whatever  in  the 
District.  Salt-boiling  is  carried  on  systematically  only  in  two  villages, 
Sadaung  and  Yega  in  the  Sagaing  township.  In  the  former  wells  are 
sunk  to  obtain  the  brine ;  in  the  latter  salt  is  obtained  by  evaporating 
the  water  of  a  small  lake.  Lacquer-work  is  done  in  some  of  the 
quarters  of  the  old  town  of  Ava,  but  in  quality  it  is  inferior  to  that 
produced  in  Myingyan  District. 

The  chief  exports  are  cleaned  cotton,  sesamum  and  its  oil,  wheat, 
gram  and  pulses,  tobacco,  onions,  maize  and  maize  husks,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  indigo.  The  cotton  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Chinamen,  who 
have  set  up  numerous  hand-gins  at  Kyauktalon,  Ywathitgyi,  Ondaw, 
and  other  villages  in  the  cotton-growing  area.  The  cleaned  product  is 
carried  by  river,  the  good  quality  to  Bhamo  for  transmission  to  China, 
the  inferior  to  Rangoon  for  shipment  to  the  Straits  Settlements.  From 
the  east  of  the  District  some  of  the  villagers  take  their  own  oil  and 
indigo  to  Mandalay,  but  most  of  the  two  latter  products,  and  nearly 
all  the  maize,  is  shipped  down  the  river  to  Pakokku.  Fruit — mangoes, 
guavas,  oranges,  limes,  tamarinds,  pineapples,  and  melons — is  sold  to 
passing  steamers,  or  taken  in  small  quantities  to  Mandalay. 

The  imports  comprise  rice,  dried  fish,  ngapi,  pickled  tea,  .salt,  betel- 
nuts,  coco-nut  oil,  petroleum,  timber,  bamboos,  iron  and  hardware, 
crockery,  piece-goods,  raw  silk,  miscellaneous  articles  of  European  make. 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  361 

and  liquor.  Among  the  chief  centres  of  trade,  besides  Sagaing  town, 
are  Tada-u,  through  which  most  of  the  surplus  produce  of  the  middle 
of  the  Tada-u  township  passes  on  its  way  to  the  river  ;  and  Kyauktalon 
and  Ywathitgyi,  river  stations  for  the  inland  parts  of  the  Ngazun  and 
Sagaing  townships.  The  produce  from  the  Myaung  and  the  south  of 
the  Chaungu  township  finds  its  exit  to  the  river  at  Nagabauk,  in  the 
extreme  south-west  corner  of  the  District;  that  from  the  west  of  Chaungu 
chiefly  at  Amyin  in  the  north-west,  but  most  of  the  trade  of  these  two 
townships  passes  through  Chaungu  and  thence  to  Myinmu.  The  road 
from  the  latter  town  to  Monywa  has  hitherto  been  the  rouie  of  a  con- 
siderable transit  trade  with  the  Chindwin.  Probably  the  railway  will 
now  divert  most  of  it  via  Sagaing. 

The  Sagaing-AIyitk\ina  railway,  starting  from  the  Irrawaddy  bank 
at  Sagaing  town,  runs  northwards  along  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Dis- 
trict for  about  24  miles,  having  four  stations  within  its  limits.  From 
the  first  of  these,  Ywataung,  a  branch  leads  off  almost  due  west  to  the 
Chindwin,  entering  Lower  Chindwin  District  near  Chaungu,  between 
50  and  60  miles  from  Sagaing.  After  leaving  Ywataung  it  has  ten 
stations  in  the  District.  A  good  deal  of  the  interior  of  the  District 
is  thus  brought  into  touch  with  both  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Chindwin. 
These  two  rivers  are  navigable  for  all  traffic  up  to  large  river  steamers, 
the  Irrawaddy  Flotilla  Company  providing  bi-weekly  communication 
on  the  Irrawaddy  with  all  down-river  ports,  and  daily  communica- 
tion with  places  between  Mandalay  and  Myingyan.  The  railway  com- 
pany provides  the  steam  ferry  between  Sagaing  and  Amarapura  Shore, 
connecting  the  Myitkyina  extension  with  the  main  raihvay  system  of 
Burma.  Country  boats  go  up  the  Panlaung,  Myitnge,  and  Samon  rivers 
into  the  interior  of  Mandalay  and  Kyaukse  Districts,  and  in  the  rains 
the  Mu  river  is  navigable  for  light  country  trafific  into  Shwebo  District. 
An  old  highway,  called  the  Minlan,  follows  the  Samon  valley  from  Ava 
to  the  south,  but  is  now  falling  into  disuse.  Since  annexation  a  road 
has  been  made  from  Myinmu  on  the  Irrawaddy  to  Monywa  on  the 
Chindwin.  Minor  roads  are  those  from  Myotha  to  Kyauktalon  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy  near  Ngazun,  affording  access  to  the  river 
from  a  fine  cotton  country ;  from  Chaungwa  in  the  south-east  towards 
Kyaukse,  from  Tada-u  to  Myotha,  from  Padu  to  Sadaung  in  the  north- 
east, and  from  Ywathitgyi  to  Legyi  near  the  centre  of  the  District. 
Exclusive  of  the  roads  in  Sagaing  town,  263  miles  of  road  are  kept 
up,  of  which  65  miles  are  maintained  from  Provincial  revenues  and 
198  miles  from  the  District  fund.  There  are  a  number  of  ferries 
across  the  Irrawaddy  and  Chindwin. 

So  much  of  its  area  is  watered  by  the  Irrawaddy  and  Chindwin,  and 
is  thus  rendered  in  a  measure  independent  of  its  rather  meagre  rainfall, 
that  the    District,  as   a    whole,    can   be   depended    upon   to  produce 


362  SAGAING   DISTRICT 

enough  food  as  a  general  rule  to  prevent  a  famine.  A  drought,  how- 
ever, is  bound  to  occasion  at  least  local  scarcity  ;  and  in  189 1-2  it  was 
found  necessary,  owing  to  a  failure  of  crops,  to  open 
relief  works  and  spend  about  Rs.  9,000  in  helping 
the  inhabitants  of  the  affected  tracts.  Scarcity  was  threatened  towards 
the  end  of  1903,  but  some  opportune  showers  in  September  saved  the 
situation.  The  District  can  never  be  wholly  free  from  a  calamity  such 
as  seemed  imminent  in  1903,  but  its  communications,  by  both  land 
and  water,  are  so  ample  that  the  distress  need  never  assume  alarming 
proportions. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  District  is  divided  into  two  subdivi- 
sions :    Sagaing,    comprising    the    Sagaing    and    Tada-u    townships ; 

and    Myinmu,  comprising  the   Myinmu,   Chaungu, 

Administration.    ,,  ,  -.t  ^  1  •  rr^-i  i  i-  •  • 

Myaung,  and  Ngazun  townships.      1  he  subdivisions 

and  townships  are  under  the  usual  executive  officers,  assisted  by  389 

village  headmen,   to   29  of  whom  have  been  given  special  criminal 

powers  under  the  Upper  Burma  Village  Regulation,  and  to  46  special 

civil   powers  under   the    same   enactment.      At    head-quarters    are    a 

treasury  officer,  an  ahinivun  (in  subordinate  charge  of  the  revenue),  and 

a  superintendent  of  land    records,  with  a  staff  of   8  inspectors  and 

80  surveyors.     There  are  no  superior  Forest  and  PubHc  Works  officers 

in  the  District,  which  forms  a  portion  of  the  Mu  Forest  division  and 

constitutes  a  subdivision  of  the  Shwebo  Public  Works  division. 

The  subdivisional  and  township  officers  preside  in  the  respective 
subdivisional  and  township  courts  (civil  and  criminal),  but  the  Sagaing 
township  officer  is  assisted  in  his  civil  duties  by  the  head-quarters 
magistrate,  who  is  ex-offlcio  additional  judge  of  the  township  court. 
Oime  is  of  the  ordinary  type,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  litigation 
in  the  District. 

During  the  last  years  of  Burmese  rule  the  revenue  consisted  of  tha- 
thatneda  and  a  land  tax  at  the  rate  of  one-fourth  of  the  gross  produce, 
assessed  by  thamadis  (specially  selected  village  elders),  and  paid  in 
money  at  the  market  rate  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  were  held 
by  members  of  the  royal  family  or  by  servants  of  the  government,  and 
were  not  assessed.  At  annexation  the  existing  revenue  system  was  con- 
tinued and  applied  to  all  state  land,  an  exception  being  made  in  the 
case  of  certain  undtugan  or  religious  lands  which  paid  preferential  rates 
of  one-eighth  or  one-tenth  of  the  gross  produce.  On  non-state  lands 
a  water  rate  was  levied  on  irrigated  land  only.  Settlement  operations 
were  commenced  in  1893  and  completed  in  1900,  the  rates  proposed 
being  first  levied  in  the  agricultural  year  1903-4.  On  inundated  land 
cold-season  rice  is  now  assessed  at  from  Rs.  1-8  to  Rs.  3-6  per  acre, 
tnayin  (hot-season)  rice  at  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  3,  and  kat7ig  crops  (onions, 
beans,  &c.)  at  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  5-4  per  acre.    U'heat  pays  from  6  annas 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


2>^l 


on  the  most  unfavourable  yas  (uplands)  to  Rs.  2-8  per  acre  on  the  best 
rice  land,  unirrigated  rice  from  6  annas  to  Rs.  2.  Other  crops  on 
upland  tracts  are  assessed  at  from  6  annas  to  Rs.  2-8.  The  rate  for 
toddy-palm  groves  is  Rs.  4,  that  for  mixed  orchards  Rs.  8,  and  that 
for  betel-vineyards  Rs.  20  per  acre.  The  rates  on  non-state  land  are 
generally  three-fourths  of  those  stated  above,  which  are  levied  on  state 
land. 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the  land  revenue  and  total 
revenue  since  1890-1,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1890-1. 

1900-1. 

J903-4- 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue     . 

67 
6,44 

1,01 
7,74 

.5,19 
9,48 

The  increase  in  the  land  revenue  between  1 900-1  and  1903-4  is 
due  to  the  introduction  of  the  acreage  rates  referred  to  above.  The 
thathameda  showed  a  corresponding  decrease  from  Rs.  5,71,000  to 
Rs.  2,74,200. 

The  District  fund,  for  the  provision  of  roads  and  other  local  needs, 
had  an  income  of  Rs.  53,000  in  1903-4,  the  chief  item  of  expenditure 
being  Rs.  47,000  on  public  works.     Sagaixg  is  the  only  municipality. 

The  two  subdivisions  are  each  in  charge  of  an  inspector  of  police, 
and  there  are  10  police  stations  and  5  outposts  in  the  District.  The 
civil  force  consists  of  4  inspectors,  9  head  constables,  28  sergeants,  and 
296  rank  and  file,  including  23  mounted  men.  The  military  police, 
who  belong  to  the  Shwebo  battalion,  number  85.  There  are  no  jails 
or  reformatories.  Prisoners  are  sent  on  conviction  to  the  ^Slandalay 
Central  jail,  and  those  under  trial  are  kept  in  a  lock-up  close  to  the 
courthouse. 

The  proportion  of  persons  able  to  read  and  write  to  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  District  in  1901  was  48  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  males,  and 
3  per  cent,  in  that  of  females,  or  24  per  cent,  for  both  sexes  together  ; 
but  the  educational  standard  is  really  higher  than  these  figures  would 
appear  to  show.  The  pongyis  of  Sagaing  are  as  a  whole  exceptionally 
enlightened  and  progressive,  and  many  of  the  lay  schools  are  above  the 
average.  The  total  number  of  pupils  was  7,254  in  1890-1,  12,672  in 
1900-1,  and  12,665  ^^  i903-4>  including  1,421  girls.  In  the  last  year 
there  were  10  special,  7  secondary,  147  primary,  and  987  elementary 
(private)  institutions.  The  more  notable  institutions  are  the  municipal 
Anglo-vernacular  school  in  Sagaing  town,  now  maintained  by  Go^ern- 
ment,  and  the  vernacular  secondary  schools  in  Sagaing  town  and  at 
Sungyet,  AUagappa,  and  Myotha.  The  total  expenditure  on  education 
in  1903-4  was  Rs.  18,400,  to  which  Provincial  funds  contributed 
Rs.  16,100,  municipal  funds  Rs.   2,300,  and  fees  Rs.  2,100. 

VOL.  XXI. 


A  a 


364  SAGAIXG   DISTRICT 

Four  hospitals  are  maintained  from  public  funds  and  two  dispensaries 
by  the  railway  company.  The  former  have  acconmiodation  for  88  in- 
patients. In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  22,270,  including 
703  in-patients,  and  430  operations  were  performed.  The  total  income 
of  the  four  hospitals  was  Rs.  10,700,  towards  which  municipal  funds 
contributed  Rs.  5,000,  Provincial  funds  Rs.  5,100,  and  subscriptions 
Rs.  6,000. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  within  the  limits  of  the  municipality 
of  Sagaing.  In  1903-4  the  number  of  successful  operations  was  8,207, 
representing  28  per  1,000  of  the  population.  Vaccination  is  popular, 
and  no  opposition  is  met  with  in  the  rural  areas. 

[L.  M.  Parlett,  Settlement  Hepori  {i()o2).'\ 

Sagaing  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Sagaing  District,  Upper 
Burma,  containing  the  Sagaing  and  Tada-u  townships. 

Sagaing  Township. — Township  of  Sagaing  District,  Upper  Burma, 
between  the  bend  of  the  Irrawaddy  on  the  east  and  the  Mu  river  on 
the  west.  It  lies  between  21°  50'  and  22°  15'  N.  and  95°  38'  and  96° 
4'  E.,  with  an  area  of  485  square  miles.  The  township  is  level  through- 
out, save  for  a  fringe  of  low  hills  running  parallel  to  the  Irrawaddy 
up  its  eastern  edge.  The  population  was  66,989  in  1891,  and  77,578 
in  1901,  distributed  in  one  town,  Sagaing  (population,  9,643),  the 
head-quarters,  and  211  villages.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was 
177  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda  amounted  to 

Rs.  1,97,500. 

Sagaing  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  Division  and  District  of 
the  same  name  in  Upper  Burma,  picturesquely  situated  in  21°  54'  N. 
and  96°  E.,  opposite  Amarapura  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  at 
the  sweeping  curve  of  that  river,  as  it  changes  its  course  from  south  to 
west.  The  bank  here  is  high,  and  the  town,  embowered  in  tamarind- 
trees,  is  unusually  healthy.  The  civil  station  occupies  the  southern 
portion  of  the  river  front.  The  native  quarters  lie  to  the  south,  north, 
and  north-west  of  the  European  quarter ;  and  on  the  foreshore  in  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  town  are  the  railway  station  and  the  steamer 
ghat,  whence  communication  is  established  with  the  Amarapura  side  of 
the  river  by  a  steam  ferry.  North  of  the  railway  station  again  stretches 
a  long  range  of  arid  hills  covered  with  pagodas  and  monasteries,  which 
follows  the  Irrawaddy  along  its  western  bank  as  far  as  the  north-eastern 
angle  of  the  District.  There  is  a  good  road  along  the  river  front  from 
the  railway  station  to  the  Commissioner's  residence,  and  most  of  the 
main  roads  of  the  town  run  parallel  to  or  at  right  angles  to  it. 

The  population  of  Sagaing  town  was  9,934  in  189 1  and  9,643  in 
1 901,  and  included  in  the  latter  year  670  IMusalmans  and  2x8  Hindus. 
In  addition  to  a  fairly  large  Indian  population,  the  town  contains  a 
good  many  Ponnas  or  Manipuris,  who  live  in  a  quarter  of  their  own. 


SAGAR    taluk  365 

It  is  a  fairly  thriving  industrial  centre,  and  is  well-known  for  its  silk- 
weaving. 

Sagaing  (or  Sit-kaing,  '  the  branch  of  a  sit  tree ')  dates  as  a  capital 
from  A.D.  1315,  w'hen  Athin  Khaya  made  himself  independent  of  the 
Shan  kingdom  of  Pinya.  In  1364  Athin  Khaya's  grandson,  Thadomin- 
paya,  founded  the  kingdom  of  Ava,  and  Sagaing  was  destroyed  by  the 
Shans.  It  was  at  Sagaing  that  the  Manipuri  invasion  of  1733  was 
checked  ;  but  the  town  did  not  again  become  a  capital  till  1760,  when 
a  city,  with  a  circumference  of  2  miles,  was  built  by  Naungdawgyi,  the 
eldest  son  of  Alaungpaya,  only  to  lapse  into  comparative  insignificance 
on  his  death.  The  old  city  lies  to  the  north  of  the  present  town,  north 
of  the  Zingyan  creek  and  east  of  the  Sigongyi  pagoda.  An  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Burman  garrisons  of  Sagaing  to  stop  the  British 
flotilla  ascending  the  Irrawaddy  in  the  1885  expedition  ;  but  the  forts, 
being  inadequately  defended  on  the  land  side,  were  soon  captured. 

Sagaing  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1888.  The  municipal 
income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  igoi  averaged 
Rs.  27,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  35,700,  including 
Rs.  14,700  from  the  bazars  and  Rs.  3,800  house  and  land  tax  ;  and  the 
expenditure  was  Rs.  36,000,  the  chief  items  being  conservancy 
(Rs.  6,600),  hospital  (Rs.  5,500),  roads  (Rs.  3,900),  and  lighting 
(Rs.  2,900).  The  municipality  owns  a  large  and  a  small  bazar,  and 
supports  a  hospital  with  64  beds.  There  is  an  Anglo-vernacular  school 
at  Sagaing,  maintained  till  recently  by  the  municipality  at  a  cost  of 
Rs.  2,300  annually.     It  is  now  maintained  by  Government. 

Sagar. — District,  tahsi/,  and  town  in  the  Central  Provinces.  See 
Saugor. 

Sagar  Taluk. — Western  tdiuk  of  Shimoga  District,  Mysore,  lying 
between  13°  51'  and  14°  20'  N.  and  74°  38'  and  75°  18'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  666  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  56,818,  com- 
pared with  58,999  in  1891.  The  taluk  contains  one  town,  .Sagar 
(population,  3,103),  the  head-quarters,  and  245  villages.  The  land 
revenue  demand  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,71,000.  The  west  and  great 
part  of  the  north  and  south  are  bounded  by  the  Western  Ghats,  from 
which  a  ridge  crosses  the  tdhek  from  west  to  east.  The  extreme  west  is 
not  more  than  8  miles  from  the  sea.  Devarkonda  and  Govardhangiri 
are  the  principal  heights.  The  Sharavati  flows  through  the  middle  in 
a  north-westerly  direction,  receiving  the  Yenne-hole  at  the  frontier,  where 
it  turns  west,  forming  the  celebrated  Gersoppa  Falls,  and  continuing 
along  the  boundary.  The  Varada  rises  in  the  north-east  and  flows  out 
north.  The  whole  taluk  is  considered  Malnad,  but  the  south-west  and 
north-east,  separated  mostly  by  the  Sharavati,  differ  a  good  deal.  In 
the  former  the  rice-fields  bear  a  double  crop  annually,  but  the  areca, 
pepper,  and  cardamom  gardens  are   somewhat   inferior.       This    tract 

A  a  2 


3^6  SAGAR    TALUK 

presents  the  appearance  of  a  rolling  stretch  of  bare  hill-tops,  with  their 
sides  and  valleys  densely  wooded.  The  scenery  is  surpassingly  beauti- 
ful, and  the  climate  cool  and  pleasant  even  in  the  hottest  season.  The 
people  live  in  scattered  homesteads,  and  there  are  no  villages  with  a 
collection  of  houses.  The  other  parts  of  the  taluk  are  more  level  and 
open,  but  the  climate  is  not  so  good.  Only  one  crop  of  rice  is  raised 
in  the  year,  but  the  gardens  are  remarkably  fine.  As  a  rule  the  people 
live  in  villages,  but  there  are  many  scattered  homesteads,  especially  in 
the  south-west.  Except  the  great  Hinni  forest,  south  of  the  Gersoppa 
Falls,  the  remainder  are  chiefly  kd?is  or  tracts  of  evergreen  forest  con- 
taining self-sown  pepper.  Towards  the  south  the  forest  is  in  patches, 
very  dense  inside  but  suddenly  opening  on  bare  spots  containing 
nothing  but  grass.  This  is  due  to  laterite,  on  which  trees  refuse  to 
grow.  The  demand  for  leaf-manure  for  the  gardens  is  ruining  the 
forests,  as  they  are  mercilessly  stripped  for  the  purpose.  The  soil  in 
the  kdns  is  rich  and  deep,  but  in  most  of  the  tdhik  it  is  hard  and 
shallow,  with  much  laterite.  '  Dry  crops  '  are  of  no  importance,  but 
rice  is  largely  exported  by  the  ryots  to  Gersoppa  by  the  Govardhangiri 
and  Hinni  ghats,  that  of  the  south  being  sent  to  Bhatkala  or  Baidur. 
Areca-nuts  are  sent  towards  Bellary,  and  also  to  Walajapet  and  Birur. 
Cardamoms  and  pepper  go  to  the  Kanara  and  Dharwar  markets. 

Sagar  Island. — Island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hooghly  river  in  the 
Twenty-four  Parganas  District  of  Bengal,  lying  between  21°  36'  and 
21°  56'  N.  and  88°  2'  and  88°  11'  E.  The  name  means  'the  sea,'  and 
situated,  as  it  is,  at  the  point  where  the  holy  Ganges  once  mingled  it.'^ 
waters  with  the  Bay,  the  island  is  regarded  as  peculiarly  sacred.  It  is 
the  scene  of  a  great  annual  bathing  festival,  where  thousands  of 
pilgrims  congregate  from  all  parts  of  India  to  wash  away  their  sins.  A 
good  deal  of  business  takes  place  in  articles  from  Calcutta,  such  as 
mats  and  stoneware.  Much  progress  has  been  made  of  recent  years  in 
the  reclamation  of  the  island,  the  north  part  of  which  is  now  well 
cultivated  ;  but  the  south  is  still  dense  jungle.  The  cyclone  of  1864 
caused  enormous  destruction  and  loss  of  life,  and  only  1,500  out  of 
a  population  of  5,600  survived  the  catastrophe.  There  is  a  lighthouse 
on  the  island. 

Sagar  Town.— yiT^J;-  town  in  the  Shahi)ur  taluk  of  Gulbarga 
District,  Hyderabad  State,  situated  in  16°  37'  N.  and  76°  48'  E., 
6  miles  south  of  Shahpur  town.  Population  (1901),  5,445.  Two 
large  tanks  and  the  shrine  of  Sufi  Sarmast,  a  Musalman  saint,  lie  close 
to  the  town. 

Sagauli. —Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Champaran 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  26°  47'  N.  and  84°  45'  E.,  on  the  road  to 
Nepal.  Population  (1901),  5,611.  In  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  the 
1 2th  Regiment  of  Irregular  Horse,  W'hich  was  stationed  here,  mutinied 


I 


SAHARANPUR   DISTRICT  367 

and  massacred  the  commandant,  Major  Holmes,  his  wife  and  children, 
and  all  the  Europeans  in  the  cantonment. 

Sagri. — North-eastern  Ar/^j-J/ of  Azamgarh  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  up  to  1904  the  parganas  of  Gopalpur,  SagrI,  GhosI,  and 
Natthupur,  and  lying  between  26°  \'  and  26°  19'  N.  and  83°  4'  and 
83°  52'  E.,  with  an  area  of  589  square  miles.  In  October,  1904,  the 
two  last-named /ar^flwai-  were  transferred  to  the  new  Ghosi  TahsTl,  and 
a  number  of  villages  were  transferred  from  Gorakhpur  District,  making 
the  new  area  345  square  miles.  Population  fell  from  469,817  in  1891 
to  421,740  in  1 901,  the  population  of  the  area  as  now  constituted 
being  234,872.  There  are  now  755  villages  and  one  town,  Maharajganj 
(population,  2,192).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  4,32,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  72,000 ;  but  the  figures  for  the  area  as 
now  constituted  are  Rs.  2,40,000  and  Rs.  39,000  respectively.  The 
density  of  population  of  the  reduced  tahsll  is  681  persons  per  square 
mile,  considerably  below  the  District  average.  The  tahs'il  lies  south  of 
the  Gogra  and  is  chiefly  drained  by  the  Chhotl  Sarju.  The  greater 
part  of  the  area  is  upland,  but  along  the  Gogra  and  Chhotl  Sarju  are 
large  stretches  of  alluvial  soil  called  kachhar.  In  1899- 1900,  327 
square  miles  of  the  old  area  were  under  cultivation,  of  which  218  were 
irrigated,  wells  being  the  chief  source  of  supply. 

Sagu. — South-eastern  township  of  Minbu  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  along  the  Irrawaddy,  between  19°  53'  and  20''  23'  N.  and  94°  30' 
and  95°  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  542  square  miles,  which  comprises 
a  stretch  of  dry  undulating  country  round  the  town  of  Minbu.  The 
eastern  part  of  the  township  is  irrigated  by  the  Man  river  canal  system, 
which  is  being  extended.  The  population  was  43,659  in  1891,  and 
57,699  in  1901,  distributed  in  one  town,  Minbu  (population,  5,780), 
the  head-quarters  of  the  District,  and  197  villages,  Sagu  (4,294),  on 
the  Man  river,  being  the  township  head- quarters.  The  area  cultivated 
in  1903-4  was  105  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathameda 
amounted  to  Rs.  1,57,000. 

Saharanpur  District.— District  in  the  Meerut  Division  of  the 
United  Provinces,  lying  between  29°  34'  and  30°  24'  N.  and  77°  7' 
and  78°  12''  E.,  with  an  area  of  2,228  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Siwalik  Hills,  which  separate  it  from  Dehra  Dun  Dis- 
trict ;  on  the  east  by  the  Ganges,  dividing  it  from  Bijnor  District  ;  on 
the  south  by  Muzaffarnagar  District ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  river 
Jumna,  separating  it  from  the  Punjab  Districts  of  Karnal  and  Ambala. 
Saharanpur  forms  the  most  northerly  portion  of  the  Doai;  or  alluvial 
plain  between  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  On  its  northern  boundary  the 
Siwaliks  rise  abruptly,  pierced  by  several  passes  and  crowned  by  jagged 
summits  which  often  assume  the  most  fantastic  shapes.  At  their  base 
stretches   a   wild   submontane    tract   (ghdr)  overgrown   with    forest  or 


368  SAHARANPUR   DISTRICT 

jungle,  and  scored  by  the  rocky  beds  of  innumerable  mountain  streams 
i^raos).     South   of  this  forest  belt  lies  the  plain,  an  elevated  upland 
tract  flanked   on  both  sides  by  the  broad  alluvial 
aspects  plains  which   form  the   valleys   of  the  Jumna   and 

Ganges.  Besides  the  two  great  rivers  there  are  many 
smaller  streams.  Excluding  arms  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  these  fall 
into  two  classes :  those  which  are  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  torrent 
beds  issuing  from  the  Siwaliks,  and  those  which  rise  in  various  depres- 
sions and  swamps.  Though  the  raos  are  sometimes  dry  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  their  channels  lower  down  gradually  assume 
the  form  of  rivers,  and  contain  water  even  in  the  hot  season.  Chief 
among  these  rivers  may  be  mentioned  the  Hindan,  which  rises  in  the 
centre  of  the  Siwaliks  and  after  crossing  several  Districts  joins  the 
Jumna  ;  and  the  Solani,  lying  farther  to  the  east  and  falling  into  the 
Ganges  in  Muzaffarnagar  District. 

The  geology  of  the  Siwaliks  has  been  dealt  with  in  the  description 
of  those  hills.  They  consist  of  three  main  divisions:  (i)  the  upper 
Siwalik  conglomerates,  sands,  and  clays  ;  (2)  the  middle  Siwalik  sand- 
rock  ;  and  (3)  the  lower  Siwalik  or  Nahan  sandstone.  The  middle  and 
upper  rock  stages  have  yielded  a  magnificent  series  of  fossils,  chiefly 
mammalian'.  The  ghar  or  belt  below  the  Siwaliks  consists  of  debris 
from  the  hills  with  a  shallow  light  soil  resting  on  boulders.  The  pre- 
vailing soil  in  the  plain  is  a  productive  loam,  which  stiffens  into  clay  in 
depressions,  while  along  the  crests  of  slopes  it  merges  into  sand. 

The  natural  flora  of  the  District  forms  two  groups :  the  luxuriant 
tropical  forest  trees  and  plants  of  the  Siwalik  slopes,  and  the  products 
of  the  plains  which  resemble  those  of  other  Districts.  The  botanical 
gardens  at  Saharanpur  form  an  important  centre  for  the  distribution 
of  plants,  and  are  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  Botanical  Survey  of 
Northern  India.  The  District  is  noted  for  the  production  of  excel- 
lent fruit  of  European  varieties,  especially  peaches. 

Tigers  are  still  fairly  numerous  in  the  Siwalik  and  submontane  forests, 
and  are  found  more  rarely  in  the  Ganges  khddar.  Leopards,  wolves, 
and  wild  hog  are  common,  and  the  lynx,  hyena,  and  sloth  bear  are  also 
found.  Wild  elephants  occur  in  the  Siwaliks.  Deer  of  various  sorts, 
the  sdmhar  oxjarai/,  chital  or  spotted  deer,  kdkar  or  barking-deer,  and 
pdrha  or  hog  deer  are  also  found,  while  the  four-horned  antelope  and 
the  gural  haunt  the  Siwaliks.  The  karait  and  cobra  are  the  common- 
est poisonous  snakes,  while  the  Siwalik  python  grows  to  an  immense 
size.  The  mahseer  affords  good  sport  in  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and 
in  the  canals,  and  otiier  kinds  of  fish  are  common. 

The  climate  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  United  Provinces  generally, 

'  Falconer  and  Cautley,  Faiitia  Antiqua  Sivahnsis ;  Lydekker  and  Foote,  Palae- 
ontologia  Indica,  series  X. 


HISTORY  369 

modified  by  tlie  northern  position  of  the  District  and  the  cool  breezes 
from  the  neighbouring  hills.  The  cold  season  arrives  earlier,  and  lasts 
longer,  than  in  the  lower  Districts  ;  but  the  summer  months  are  tropical 
in  their  extreme  heat.  The  tract  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  was  very 
unhealthy  before  the  jungle  was  cleared  ;  but  the  climate  is  now 
comparatively  good,  except  in  the  actual  forest,  which  is  still  malarious 
during  and  immediately  after  the  rains.  Fever  is  common  throughout 
the  District. 

The  rainfall  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  District  and  is  heaviest 
near  the  hills,  where  no  recording  station  exists.  The  annual  average 
for  the  whole  District  is  about  37  inches  ;  but  it  ranges  from  i2i  inches 
at  Nakur  in  the  south-west  to  43  at  Roorkee  in  the  north-east. 

The  portion  of  the  Doab  in  which  Saharanpur  is  situated  was  probably 
one  of  the  first  regions  of  Upper  India  occupied  by  the  Aryan  colonists, 
as  they  spread  eastward  from  their  original  settlement 
in  the  Punjab.  But  the  legends  of  the  Mahabharata 
centre  around  the  city  of  Hastinapur,  in  the  neighbouring  District  of 
Meerut ;  and  it  is  not  till  the  fourteenth  century  of  our  era  that  we 
learn  any  historical  details  with  regard  to  Saharanpur  itself.  The  tovrn 
was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Muhammad  bin  Tughlak,  about  the  year 
1340,  and  derived  its  name  from  a  Musalman  saint,  Shah  Haran  ChishtT, 
whose  shrine  is  still  an  object  of  attraction  to  Muhammadan  devotees. 

At  the  close  "of  the  fourteenth  century  the  surrounding  country  was 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  Timur,  who  passed  through  Saharanpur  on 
his  return  from  the  sack  of  Delhi,  and  subjected  the  inhabitants  to  all 
the  horrors  of  a  Mongol  invasion.  In  1414  the  tract  was  conferred  by 
Sultan  Saiyid  Khizr  Khan  on  Saiyid  Sallm  ;  and  in  1526  Babar  marched 
across  it  on  his  way  to  Panlpat.  A  ^t\\  Mughal  colonies  still  trace  their 
origin  to  his  followers.  A  year  later  the  town  of  Gangoh  was  founded 
by  the  zealous  missionary,  Abdul  Kuddus,  whose  efforts  were  the  means 
of  converting  to  the  faith  of  Islam  many  of  his  Rajput  and  Giijar  neigh- 
bours. His  descendants  ruled  the  District  until  the  reign  of  Akbar, 
and  were  very  influential  in  strengthening  the  Musalman  element  by 
their  constant  zeal  in  proselytizing.  During  the  Augustan  age  of  the 
Mughal  empire  Saharanpur  was  a  favourite  summer  resort  of  the  court 
and  the  nobles,  who  were  attracted  alike  by  the  coolness  of  its  climate 
and  the  facilities  which  it  offered  for  sport.  The  famous  empress,  Nur 
Mahal,  the  consort  of  JahangTr,  had  a  palace  in  the  village  which  still 
perpetuates  her  memory  by  its  name  of  Xiirnagar  ;  and  under  Shah 
Jahan  the  royal  hunting  seat  of  Badshah  Mahal  was  erected  by  Ali 
Mardan  Khan,  the  projector  of  the  Eastern  Jumna  Canal.  The  canal 
was  permitted  to  fall  into  disuse  during  the  long  decline  of  the  Mughal 
empire,  and  it  was  never  of  much  practical  utility  until  the  establish- 
ment of  British  rule. 


370  SAHARANPUR   DISTRICT 

After  the  death  of  Aurangzeb,  this  region  suffered,  like  the  rest  of 
Upper  India,  from  the  constant  inroads  of  warlike  tribes  and  the 
domestic  feuds  of  its  own  princes.  The  first  incursion  of  the  Sikhs 
took  place  in  1709,  under  the  weakened  hold  of  Bahadur  Shah;  and 
for  eight  successive  years  their  wild  hordes  kept  pouring  ceaselessly  into 
the  Doab,  repulsed  time  after  time,  yet  ever  returning  in  greater  num- 
bers, to  massacre  the  hated  Muhammadans  and  turn  their  territory  into 
a  wilderness.  The  Sikhs  did  not  even  confine  their  barbarities  to  their 
Musalman  foes,  but  murdered  and  pillaged  the  Hindu  community  with 
equal  violence.  In  17 16,  however,  the  Mughal  court  mustered  strength 
enough  to  repel  the  invaders  for  a  time ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  utter 
decay  of  all  authority  that  the  Sikhs  once  more  appeared  upon  the  scene. 

Meanwhile  the  Upper  Doab  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Saiyid 
brothers  of  Barha,  whose  rule  was  more  intimately  connected  with  the 
neighbouring  District  of  Muzaffarnagar.  On  their  fall  in  1721  their 
possessions  were  conferred  upon  various  favourites  in  turn,  until,  in 
1754,  they  were  granted  by  Ahmad  Shah  Durrani  to  Najlb  Khan, 
a  Rohilla  leader,  as  a  reward  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of  Kotila. 
This  energetic  ruler  made  the  best  of  his  advantages,  and  before  his 
death  (1770)  had  extended  his  dominions  to  the  north  of  the  Siwaliks 
on  one  side,  and  as  far  as  Meerut  on  the  other.  But  the  close  of  his 
rule  was  disturbed  by  incursions  of  the  two  great  aggressive  races  from 
opposite  quarters,  the  Sikhs  and  the  Marathas.  Najib  Khan  handed 
down  his  authority  to  his  son,  Zabita  Khan,  who  at  first  revolted  from 
the  feeble  court  of  Delhi,  but  on  being  conquered  by  Maratha  aid 
was  glad  to  receive  back  his  fief  through  the  kind  offices  of  his  former 
enemies,  then  supreme  in  the  councils  of  the  empire.  During  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  Zabita  Khan  was  continually  engaged  in  repelling 
the  attacks  of  the  Sikhs,  who  could  never  forgive  him  for  his  recon- 
ciliation with  the  imperial  party.  Under  his  son,  Ghulam  Kadir  (1785), 
the  District  enjoyed  comparative  tranquillity.  The  Sikhs  were  firmly 
held  in  check,  and  a  strong  government  was  established  over  the  native 
chieftains. 

But  upon  the  death  of  its  last  Rohilla  prince,  who  blinded  the 
emperor  Shah  Alam  II,  and  was  mutilated  and  killed  by  Sindhia  in 
1 788,  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Marathas,  and  remained 
in  their  possession  until  the  British  conquest.  Their  rule  was  very 
precarious,  owing  to  the  perpetual  raids  made  by  the  Sikhs  ;  and  they 
were  at  one  time  compelled  to  call  in  the  aid  of  George  Thomas,  the 
daring  military  adventurer,  who  afterwards  established  an  independent 
government  in  Hariana.  The  country  remained  practically  in  the  hands 
of  the  Sikhs,  who  levied  blackmail  under  the  pretence  of  collecting 
revenue. 

After  the  fall  of  Aligarh  and  the  capture  of  Delhi  (1803),  a  British 


I 


HISTORY  371 

force  was  dispatched  to  reduce  Saharanpur.  Here,  for  a  time,  a  double 
warfare  was  kept  up  against  the  Marathas  on  one  side  and  the  Sikhs  on 
the  other.  The  latter  were  defeated  in  the  indecisive  battle  of  Charaon 
(November  24,  1804),  but  still  continued  their  irregular  raids  for  some 
years.  Organization,  however,  was  quietly  pushed  forward  ;  and  the 
District  enjoyed  a  short  season  of  comparative  tranquillity,  until  the 
death  of  the  largest  landowner,  Ram  Dayal  Singh,  in  1813.  The  re- 
sumption of  his  immense  estates  gave  rise  to  a  Gujar  revolt,  which 
was  put  down  before  it  had  assumed  serious  dimensions.  A  more 
dangerous  disturbance  took  place  in  1824.  A  confederacy  on  a  large 
scale  was  planned  among  the  native  chiefs,  and  a  rising  of  the  whole 
Doab  might  have  occurred  had  not  the  premature  eagerness  of  the 
rebels  disclosed  their  designs.  As  it  was,  the  revolt  was  only  sup- 
pressed by  a  sanguinary  battle,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the 
insurgents  and  the  fall  of  their  ringleaders. 

From  that  period  till  the  Mutiny  no  events  of  importance  disturbed 
the  quiet  course  of  civil  administration  in  Saharanpur.  News  of  the 
rising  at  Meerut  was  received  early  in  May,  1857,  and  the  European 
women  and  children  were  immediately  dispatched  to  the  hills. 
Measures  were  taken  for  the  defence  of  the  city,  and  a  garrison  of 
European  civil  servants  established  themselves  in  the  Magistrate's 
house.  The  District  soon  broke  out  into  irregular  rebellion  ;  but  the 
turbulent  spirit  showed  itself  rather  in  the  form  of  internecine  quarrels 
among  the  native  leaders  than  of  any  settled  opposition  to  British 
government.  Old  feuds  sprang  up  anew  ;  villages  returned  to  their 
ancient  enmities ;  bankers  were  robbed,  and  money-lenders  pillaged  ; 
yet  the  local  officers  continued  to  exercise  many  of  their  functions,  and 
to  punish  the  chief  offenders  by  ordinary  legal  process.  On  the  2nd  of 
June  a  portion  of  the  native  infantry  at  Saharanpur  city  mutinied  ami 
fired  upon  their  officers,  but  without  effect.  Shortly  afterwards  a  small 
body  of  Gurkhas  arrived,  by  whose  assistance  order  was  partially 
restored.  As  early  as  December,  1857,  it  was  found  practicable  to 
proceed  with  the  regular  assessment  of  the  District,  and  the  population 
appeared  to  be  civil  and  respectful.  In  fact— thanks  to  the  energy  of 
its  District  officers— the  Mutiny  in  Saharanpur  was  merely  an  outbreak 
of  the  old  predatory  anarchy,  which  had  not  yet  been  extirpated  by  our 
industrial  regime. 

When  the  Eastern  Jumna  Canal  was  being  excavated  in  1834  ihe 
site  of  an  old  town  was  discovered,  1 7  feet  below  the  surface,  at  Hehal, 
18  miles  from  Saharanpur  city'.  Goins  and  other  remains  prove  its 
occupation  in  the  Buddhist  period.  The  three  towns  of  Ilardwar, 
Kankhal,  and  Mayapur  on  the  Ganges  have  been  sacred  places  of  the 
Hindus  for  countless  years.     Muhammadan  rule  is  commemorated  by 

'  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Beiii^al,  vol.  iii,  pp.  43  ami  ii\. 


372 


SAHARANPUR   DISTRICT 


tombs  and  mo.sques  at  several  places,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
Manglaur,  Gangoh,  and  Faizabad.  Sarsawa  is  an  ancient  town, 
with  a  lofty  mound,  once  a  strong  brick  fort.  The  District  contains 
two  celebrated  Muhammadan  shrines :  that  of  Piran  Kaliar,  a  few- 
miles  from  Roorkee;  and  the  birthplace  of  Guga  or  Zahir  Pir,  at 
Sarsawa.  Both  are  also  reverenced  by  Hindus,  and  the  cult  of  the 
latter  is  popular  throughout  Northern  India. 

In  1901  there  were  18  towns  and  1,628  villages.  The  population  at 
each  Census  in  the  last  thirty  years  has  been:  (1872)  884,017,  (1881) 
Population.  979>544,  (1891)  1,001,280,  and  (1901)  1,045,230. 
The  District  is  divided  into  four  /^-^.f/A— Saharan- 
pur, Deoband,  Roorkee,  and  Nakur— the  head-quarters  of  each 
bearing  the  same  name.  The  chief  towns  are  the  municipalities  of 
Saharanpur,  the  head-quarters  of  the  District,  Hardw^ar,  and 
Deoband.  The  following  table  shows  the  principal  statistics  of  the 
District  in  1901  : — 


TahsU. 

u 

% 

< 

Number  of 

"3 
a 

Population  per 
square  mile. 

Percentage  of 
variation  in 

population  be- 
tween i8qi 
and  1901. 

Number  of 

persons  able  to 

read  and 

write. 

c 
0 

> 

Saharanpur 
Deoband     . 
Roorkee     . 
Nakiir         .    ,      . 

District  total 

619 

3S5 
796 
428 

I 

3 
6 

8 

18 

497 
31 ' 
426 

394 

334,681 
220,152 
286,903 
203,494 

54^ 

572 
360 

475 

+  7-1 

+  7-1 

—   1-2 

+  5-6 

8.179 
3.696 
9*529 
4.385 

2,228 

1,628 

1,045,230 

469 

+  4-4 

25,789 

Hindus  form  65  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  Muhammadans  34  per 
cent.,  the  latter  being  a  very  high  proportion,  peculiar  to  the  northern 
part  of  the  plains.  The  District  supports  469  persons  per  square  mile, 
and  the  density  is  thus  slightly  higher  than  the  average  of  the  Provinces 
(445).  Between  1891  and  1901  the  population  increased  by  4-4  per 
cent.,  the  famine  of  1896-7  having  had  little  effect.  The  principal 
language  is  Western  Hindi,  which  is  spoken  by  more  than  99  per  cent. 

The  most  numerous  Hindu  caste  is  that  of  the  Chamars  (leather- 
workers  and  labourers),  204,000.  Brahmans  number  43,000  ;  Rajputs, 
46,000;  and  Banias,  28,000.  Money-lenders  have  acquired  a  very  large 
share  in  the  land  of  the  District.  The  best  cultivating  castes  are  the 
Jats  (15,000),  Malls  (28,000),  Sainls  (16,000),  and  Tagas  (15,000); 
while  the  Gujars,  who  are  graziers  as  well  as  cultivators  and  land- 
holders, number  51,000.  Kahars  (41,000)  are  labourers, /^//^J-bearers, 
and  fishermen.  Among  castes  not  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Provinces 
may  be  mentioned  the  Tagas,  who  claim  to  be  Brahmans ;  the  Sainls, 
Gujars,  Jats,  and    Kambohs    (3,000),  who    inhabit   only   the   western 


AGRICULTURE 


'»  7  •? 


Districts ;  and  the  Banjaras  (6,000),  who  chiefly  belong  to  the  sub- 
montane tract.  The  criminal  tribes,  Haburas  (824)  and  Sansias  (585), 
are  comparatively  numerous  in  this  District.  A  very  large  proportion 
of  the  Muhammadan  population  consists  of  the  descendants  of  converts 
from  Hinduism.  The  three  tribes  of  purest  descent  are  :  Saiyids,  8,000  ; 
Mughals,  2,000;  and  Pathans,  16,000.  Shaikhs,  who  often  include 
converts,  number  28,000.  On  the  other  hand,  Muhammadan  Rajputs 
number  23,000  and  Gujars,  20,000  ;  Telis  (oil-pressers  and  labourers), 
49,000  ;  Julahas  (weavers),  45,000 ;  and  Garas,  45,000 ;  while  the 
number  of  the  lower  artisan  castes  professing  Islam  is  also  consider- 
able. Garas  and  Jhojhas  (12,000)  are  peculiar  to  the  west  of  the 
Provinces.  The  proportion  of  agriculturists  (44  per  cent.)  is  low, 
owing  to  the  large  number  of  landless  labourers  (14  per  cent.)  and 
artisans.     Cotton  weavers  form  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 

Out  of  1,617  native  Christians  in  1901,  more  than  1,100  were 
Methodists,  200  were  Anglicans,  250  Presbyterians,  and  53  Roman 
Catholics.  The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  commenced  work  in 
1835,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  1855,  and  the 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission  in  1874. 

Excluding  the  jungle  tracts  immediately  under  the  Siwaliks,  the 
District  may  be  divided  into  two  main  tracts :  the  uplands  in  the 
centre,  and  the  low-lying  land  or  khddar  on  the  banks 
of  the  great  rivers.  A  feature  of  even  greater  impor- 
tance is  the  possibility  of  canal-irrigation,  and  generally  speaking  it 
may  be  said  that  cultivation  is  most  careful  where  irrigation  is  avail- 
able. It  is  inferior  in  the  unprotected  uplands,  and  worst  in  the 
khddai'  and  submontane  tracts.  There  are  two  harvests  as  usual,  the 
autumn  or  kharlf  zx\di  the  spring  or  rabi. 

The  District  presents  no  peculiarity  of  tenures.  Out  of  2,500 
7nahdls,  900  are  hhaiydchdrd,  900  pafttdd?-i,  and  700  zaminddri.  The 
main  agricultural  statistics  according  to  the  village  papers  are  shown 
below  for  1903-4,  in  square  miles: — 


Agriculture. 


Tahsil. 

Total. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Saharanpur 
Deoband    . 
Roorkee     . 
Nakur 

Total 

619 

385 
796 
428 

.^70 
320 

369 
306 

51 
112 

38 
84 

30 
20 

58 

70 

2,228 

I>.^65 

285 

17S 

The  area,  in  square  miles,  under  each  of  the  principal  food-grains  in 
1903-4  was:  wheat,  553;  rice,  204;  gram,  203;  maize,  126;  bdjra, 
127  ;  and  barley,  55.     Other  important  crops  are  sugar-cane,  64;  and 


cotton,  26. 


374  SAHARANPUR    DISTRICT 

The  great  features  in  the  agriculture  of  the  District  are  the  enormous 
extension  of  rice  cultivation,  especially  in  the  Nakur,  Deoband,  and 
Roorkee  tahsils ;  and  the  increasing  area  under  the  more  valuable 
crops — wheat,  barley,  and  sugar-cane.  The  area  under  cotton  fluc- 
tuates, but  is  not  increasing.  Very  small  amounts  are  ordinarily 
advanced  under  the  Agriculturists'  Loans  Act.  Between  1891  and 
1903  the  total  advances  amounted  to  half  a  lakh,  but  Rs.  34,000  of 
this  was  lent  in  the  famine  year  1896-7.  Advances  under  the  Land 
Improvement  Loans  Act  are  still  smaller.  Much  has  been  done  to 
improve  the  drainage,  especially  in  the  Jumna  and  Ganges  khddars,  by 
straightening  and  embanking  streams.  In  1880  a  new  branch  of  the 
Ganges  Canal  was  opened,  which  serves  the  Deoband  tahsil. 

There  is  no  local  breed  of  cattle,  and  the  animals  used  are  either 
imported,  or  of  the  inferior  type  common  in  the  Provinces.  The  breed 
of  horses  in  the  south  of  the  District  was  formerly  good,  and  in  1842 
a  stud  farm  was  opened  at  Saharanpur  city.  For  many  years  there 
was  a  considerable  sale  of  horses  at  the  Hardwar  fair ;  but  this  has 
almost  ceased,  and  the  Saharanpur  farm  is  now  a  depot  for  training 
imported  remounts.  Government  stallions  are,  however,  maintained 
at  several  places  in  the  District.  Mule-breeding  has  been  tried,  and 
there  are  several  donkey  stallions  ;  but  the  operations  have  not  been 
very  successful. 

Of  the  total  area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4,  the  area  irrigated  from 
canals  was  201  square  miles,  or  15  per  cent.  Wells  irrigated  75  square 
miles,  and  other  sources  9.  The  canal-irrigation  is  supplied  by  the 
Eastern  Jumna  and  Upper  Ganges  Canals,  both  of  which  start  in 
this  District.  The  former  irrigates  about  130  square  miles  in  the 
Nakur,  Deoband,  and  Saharanpur  tahs'ils  ;  and  the  latter  about  75 
square  miles  in  Deoband,  Saharanpur,  and  Roorkee.  Well-irrigation 
is  important  only  in  Nakur.  Up  to  1880  the  area  irrigated  from  the 
Ganges  Canal  in  this  District  was  small,  but  the  construction  of 
the  Deoband  branch  between  1878  and  1880  has  enabled  a  larger  area 
to  be  watered.  There  is  a  striking  difference  in  the  methods  of  irriga- 
tion from  wells.  East  of  the  Ilindan  water  is  raised  in  a  leathern 
bucket,  as  in  most  parts  of  the  Provinces,  while  to  the  west  the  Persian 
wheel  is  used. 

'I'he  total  area  of  the  forests  is  295  square  miles.  Most  of  this  area 
is  situated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Siwaliks  or  in  the  tract  along  the  foot 
of  the  hills  ;  but  there  are  also  Reserves  on  the  islands  in  the  Ganges 
below  Hardwar,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  Roorkee  tahsil  south  of 
Hardwar.  The  forests  on  the  hills,  with  an  area  of  nearly  200  square 
miles,  are  chiefly  of  value  as  grazing  and  fuel  reserves  and  as  a  pro- 
tection against  erosion  ;  but  in  the  submontane  tract  sal  timber  may 
in  time  become  valuable.      In   1903-4   the  total   forest  revenue  was 


TRADE  AND   COMMUNICATIONS  375 

Rs.  45,000,  of  which  Rs.  11,000  was  derived  from  timber  and  bamboos, 
the  other  receipts  being  chiefly  for  firewood,  charcoal,  grazing,  and 
minor  products. 

The  mineral  products  are  insignificant.  In  the  middle  and  southern 
portions,  kankar  or  nodular  limestone  is  obtained  a  few  feet  below 
the  surface,  and  block  kankar  is  occasionally  found.  To  the  north  the 
substratum  consists  of  shingle  and  boulders,  gradually  giving  place  to 
sandstone,  which  appears  at  the  surface  in  the  Mohan  pass.  Stone 
hard  enough  for  building  purposes  is  scarce,  and  Sir  Proby  Cautley  was 
obliged  to  use  brick  largely  in  the  magnificent  works  on  the  upper 
course  of  the  Ganges  Canal.  The  houses  at  Hardwar  and  Kankhal 
are  often  constructed  of  pieces  of  stone  carefully  selected  ;  but  the 
quantity  obtained  is  not  large  enough  to  defray  the  expense  of  carriage 
to  a  long  distance,  and  building  stone  is  generally  obtained  from  Agra. 

The  most  important  indigenous  industry  is  that  of  cotton-weaving, 
which  supports  46,000  persons,  or  4  per  cent,  of  the  population.     Next 
to  this  comes  wood-carving,  w^hich  is  very  flourishing, 
though  the  increased  demand  has  led  to  a  deteriora-  communications, 
tion  in  style  and  finish.     Less  important  industries 
are  cloth-dyeing  and  printing,  cane  and  woodwork,  and  glass-blowing 
in  country  glass.     In  1903  there  were  two  cotton-ginning  and  pressing 
factories,  one  rice-mill,  and  an  indigo  factory.     There  are  also  five 
Government  factories  of  some  importance  :  namely,  the  North-Western 
Railway  workshops  at  Saharanpur  city,  the  Canal  foundry,  the  Sappers 
and  Miners  workshops,  and  the  Thomason  College  Press  and  work- 
shops, the  last  four  being  all  at  Roorkee. 

The  opening  of  new  railways  has  greatly  developed  trade  ;  and  the 
District  does  a  large  export  business  with  the  Punjab  and  Karachi  by 
the  North-Western  Railway,  with  Bombay  via  Ghaziabad,  and  with 
Calcutta  by  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway.  Wheat  and  oilseeds 
are  the  articles  most  largely  exported,  and  salt,  metals,  and  piece-goods 
the  chief  imports. 

The  first  railway  opened  was  the  North-Western  Railway  in  1869, 
which  enters  the  District  at  the  middle  of  the  southern  boundary  and 
passes  north-west  through  Saharanpur  city.  In  1886  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway  main  line  was  extended  through  Roorkee  to 
Saharanpur,  its  terminus,  and  a  branch  line  was  opened  from  Laksar 
to  Hardwar,  the  great  pilgrim  centre.  The  latter  was  extended  by  the 
Hardwar-Dehra  (Company)  line  in  1900,  and  now  conveys  the  whole 
of  the  passenger  and  most  of  the  goods  traflic  to  the  hill  station  of 
Mussoorie.  K  light  railway  is  being  constructed  from  Shahdara,  in 
Meerut  District,  to  Saharanpur. 

The  total  length  of  metalled  roads  is  1 11  miles,  and  of  unmetalled 
roads  415  miles.     Except  98  miles  of  metalled  roads,  the  whole  of 


376  SAHARANPUR   DISTRICT 

these  are  maintained  from  Local  funds.  There  are  avenues  of  trees 
along  176  miles.  From  Saharanpur  two  roads  lead  north  across  the 
Siwaliks  and  the  valley  of  the  Dun.  The  road  to  Chakrata  is  still 
a  military  route,  though  maintained  by  the  civil  authorities,  but  that  to 
Dehra  has  lost  its  importance.  The  old  road  from  the  Doab  to  the 
Punjab  runs  alongside  the  North-Western  Railway,  which  has  largely 
superseded  it.  The  Jumna  and  Ganges  khadar  are  not  well  supplied 
with  roads,  but  the  latter  is  generally  accessible  from  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  Railway.  The  Forest  department  maintains  a  road  along 
the  foot  of  the  Siwaliks,  and  there  are  good  roads  along  the  canal 
banks.  The  Ganges  Canal  is  navigable,  and  carries  timber  and 
bamboos  to  Meerut,  but  the  Jumna  Canal  has  no  navigable  channels. 

Saharanpur  has  suffered  from  famine,  but  not  so  severely  as  the 
Districts  south  of  it.  Remissions  of  revenue  were  made  in  1837-8. 
_      .  In  1 860-1  work  was  provided  on  a  road  from  Roorkee 

to  Dehra,  at  a  cost  of  2\  lakhs,  besides  an  expendi- 
ture of  Rs.  59,000  on  other  relief.  It  was  noted,  however,  that  the 
great  canals  had  mitigated  the  scarcity,  and  there  was  an  average 
spring  crop  in  two-fifths  of  the  District.  In  1868  and  1S77  the  failure 
of  the  rains  caused  distress,  but  it  was  not  so  marked  as  in  other 
Districts.  During  1896-7,  when  famine  raged  elsewhere,  the  high 
prices  of  grain  caused  exceptional  prosperity  to  agriculturists  in  the 
tracts  protected  by  canals  and  wells  ;  and  though  test  works  were 
opened,  no  workers  came  to  them. 

The  District  is  divided  into  four  tahs'ils  and  fifteen  parganas.  The 
Roorkee  tahsil  forms  a  subdivision  usually  in  charge  of  a  Joint-Magis- 

.  ,    .  .  ^    ,.        trate   residing   at    Roorkee,   assisted    by   a   Deputy- 

Admimstration.    „  ,,  °         ,  .,,       .'         .        ,    -^      ,       /     ■' 

Collector,  A  tahsilddr  is  stationed  at  the  head- 
quarters of  each  tahsil.  The  remaining  members  of  the  District  staff 
— namely,  the  Collector,  three  Assistants  with  full  powers,  and  one 
Assistant  with  less  than  full  powers — reside  at  Saharanpur.  There  are 
also  officers  of  the  Canal  department. 

The  tahsils  of  Saharanpur  and  Nakur  are  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Munsif  of  Saharanpur,  and  the  rest  of  the  District  under  the  Munsif  of 
Deoband.  There  are  also  a  Subordinate  Judge  and  one  Assistant 
Judge.  Civil  appeals  from  Dehra  Dun  District  (except  the  Chakrata 
tahsil)^  and  also  from  the  District  of  Muzaffarnagar,  lie  to  the  District 
Judge  of  Saharanpur,  who  likewise  sits  as  Sessions  Judge  for  the  three 
Districts.  Crime  is  of  the  ordinary  nature.  Cattle-theft  is  more  than 
usually  common,  owing  to  the  number  of  Gujars,  who  are  notorious 
cattle-lifters.  Infanticide  was  formerly  very  prevalent ;  but  the  number 
of  families  proclaimed  has  fallen  considerably,  and  the  annual  cost  of 
special  police  is  now  only  Rs.  600,  as  compared  with  Rs.  4,000  in  1874. 

The  District  was  acquired  in  1803  and  at  first  formed  part  of  a  large 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


Z11 


area  called  Saharanpur,  which  also  included  Muzaffarnagar  and  part 
of  Meerut.  This  was  divided  into  a  northern  and  southern  part.  The 
District  as  it  exists  at  present  was  formed  in  1826.  At  annexation 
a  large  portion  of  it  was  held  at  a  fixed  revenue  by  a  few  powerful 
chiefs,  whose  occupation  dated  from  the  troubled  times  of  Rohilla  and 
Maratha  government ;  and  these  tenures  were  not  interfered  with  till 
the  death  of  the  grantees,  between  1812  and  1815.  Elsewhere  the 
usual  System  of  short  settlements  based  on  estimates  of  the  value  of 
crops  was  in  force,  and  engagements  for  the  payment  of  revenue  were 
taken  from  the  actual  occupiers  of  the  soil.  A  quinquennial  settlement 
made  on  the  same  principles  in  1 815-6  was  extended  by  two  further 
terms  of  five  years  each.  The  next  settlement  was  based  on  a  chain 
survey,  and  on  more  accurate  calculations  of  out-turn  from  which  fair 
rents  were  estimated,  or  on  the  value  of  the  share  of  produce  actually 
taken  by  the  landlords.  Produce  rents  were  the  rule  and  soil  rents 
were  unknown.  In  1859  a  new  assessment  was  commenced.  This 
was  based  on  a  plane-table  survey  ;  but  the  proposals  were  not 
accepted,  and  the  assessment  was  revised  between  1864  and  1867. 
Standard  rent  rates  were  obtained  by  classifying  villages  according  to 
their  agricultural  condition,  and  ascertaining  the  average  of  the  cash 
rents,  or  by  calculating  soil  rates.  The  latest  revision  was  commenced 
in  1887,  and  was  largely  made  on  rent-rolls  corrected  in  the  usual  way. 
Cash  rents  existed  in  less  than  half  of  the  total  area,  and  the  valuation 
of  the  grain-rented  area  was  difficult.  The  revenue  fixed  was  14-3 
lakhs,  or  47  per  cent,  of  the  corrected  rental  'assets.'  The  incidence 
was  Rs.  I- 1 4  per  cultivated  acre  and  Rs.  1-9  per  assessable  acre,  the 
rates  varying  in  different /ar^'-a/mi"  from  R.  i  to  Rs.  2-2. 

The  total  receipts  from  land  revenue  and  from  all  sources  have  been, 
in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

189O-I. 

IQOO-I. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue . 
Total  revenue. 

12,07 

15>22 

i3,05 
20,31 

i5>33 
25>o3 

i.5>25 
2  5>34 

There  are  four  municipalities — Saharanpur,  Hardwar  Union, 
Deoband,  and  Roorkee — and  fourteen  towns  administered  under 
Act  XX  of  1856.  The  population  of  five  of  the  latter — Gangoh, 
Manglaur,  Raivipur,  Ambahta,  and  Nakur — exceeds  5,000.  Out- 
side these  places,  local  affairs  are  administered  by  the  District  board. 
In  1903-4  the  income  and  expenditure  of  the  board  amounted  to  1-2 
lakhs  each,  the  expenditure  on  roads  and  buildings  being  Rs.  40,000. 

The  police  of  the  District  are  supervised  by  a  Superintendent  and 
two  Assistants,  and  five  inspectors.  There  are  22  police  stations; 
and  the  total  force  comprises  97  sub-inspectors  and  head  constables 


378  SAHARANPUR   DISTRICT 

and  446  men,  besides  373  municipal  and  town  police,  and  2,035  ''^''^1 
and  road  police.  The  District  jail,  in  charge  of  the  Civil  Surgeon,  had 
an  average  of  306  prisoners  in  1903. 

Only  2-5  per  cent,  of  the  population  (4-5  males  and  0-2  females) 
can  read  and  write,  compared  with  a  Provincial  average  of  3-1  per 
cent.  The  proportion  is  distinctly  higher  in  the  case  of  Hindus 
than  of  Musalmans,  and  the  Saharanpur  and  Roorkee  iahsils  are 
better  than  the  other  two.  In  1 880-1  there  were  157  schools  with 
5,000  pupils,  exclusive  of  private  and  uninspected  schools.  In  1903-4, 
ig8  public  institutions  contained  8,158  pupils,  of  whom  581  were  girls, 
besides  429  private  schools  with  6,198  pupils.  Of  198  schools  classed 
as  public,  4  were  managed  by  Government,  and  117  by  the  District 
and  municipal  boards.  Of  the  total  number  of  pupils,  12,000  were  in 
primary  classes.  The  expenditure  on  education  was  2-6  lakhs,  of  which 
1-9  lakhs  was  met  from  Provincial  revenues,  Rs.  39,000  from  Local 
funds,  and  Rs.  9,000  from  fees.  The  greater  part  of  the  Government 
expenditure  is  on  the  Roorkee  College.  There  is  a  famous  school 
of  Arabic  learning  at  Deoband. 

There  are  15  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  with  accommodation  for 
80  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated  was  107,000,  of 
whom  2,500  were  in-patients,  and  8,000  operations  were  performed. 
The  total  income  was  Rs.  21,000,  chiefly  from  Local  funds. 

The  number  of  persons  vaccinated  in  1903-4  was  37,000,  or  35  per 
r,ooo  of  population.  Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  the  munici- 
palities and  the  cantonment  of  Roorkee. 

[District  Gazetteer  {i2>']<^,  under  revision);  L.  A.  S.  Porter,  Settlement 
Report  (1891).] 

Saharanpur  TahsiL— Northernmost  tahsll  of  Saharanpur  District, 
United  Provinces,  lying  between  29°  52'  and  30°  24'  N.  and  77°  26' 
and  77°  53'  E.,  with  an  area  of  619  square  niiles.  It  is  divided  into 
four  parganas  :  Faizabad,  Muzaffarabad,  Saharanpur,  and  Haraura. 
The  boundaries  are  artificial  on  the  south  and  east,  while  the  Jumna 
flows  on  the  west,  and  the  Siwaliks  form  the  northern  boundary.  The 
population  rose  from  312,498  in  1891  to  334,681  in  1901.  There  are 
497  villages  and  one  town,  Saharanpur  (population,  66,254),  the 
head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahs'il.  In  1903-4  the  demand  for 
land  revenue  was  Rs.  4,26,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  69,000.  The  rainlall 
is  38  inches,  being  slightly  above  the  District  average.  In  the  north 
is  a  strip  of  forest  land.  Of  370  square  miles  under  cultivation  in 
1903-4,  51  were  irrigated.  Irrigation  is  chiefly  supplied  by  the  Eastern 
Jumna  Canal,  which  runs  through  the  western  portion.  Much  has 
been  done  to  improve  the  drainage  of  the  north-western  portion,  which 
is  intersected  by  a  network  of  small  streams. 

Saharanpur  City. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  tahsil  of 


V 


SAHASPUR  379 

the  same  name  in  the  United  Provinces,  situated  in  29"  57'  N.  and 
77°  2il'  E.,  988  miles  by  rail  from  Howrah  and  1,069  ^''O"''  Bombay. 
It  lies  on  the  old  road  from  the  Doab  to  the  Punjab,  and  is  the  north- 
ern terminus  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  Railway  main  line,  which 
here  meets  the  North- Western  Railway.  The  population  has  risen  in 
the  last  thirty  years  :  (1872)  43,844,  (1881)  59,194,  (1891)  63,194,  and 
(1901)  66,254.  More  than  half  the  total  are  Musalmans  (37,614). 
The  history  of  the  city  has  been  given  in  that  of  the  District.  It  was 
founded  about  1340,  and  derives  its  name  from  a  Musalman  saint, 
Shah  Haran  Chishti.  In  Akbar's  time  it  was  the  capital  of  a  sarkdr, 
and  was  sufficiently  important  to  be  constituted  a  mint  town. 

The  city  lies  in  a  low  moist  situation  on  both  sides  of  the  Dhamaula 
Nadi,  and  is  also  traversed  by  the  Pandhol  Nadl.  In  1870  both  of 
these  streams  were  improved  and  deepened,  with  marked  benefit  to 
the  public  health.  In  1900  the  main  city  drain  was  paved  and  cunetted, 
and  a  scheme  for  flushing  all  drains  is  under  consideration.  About 
three-fourths  of  the  houses  are  built  of  brick,  and  trade  is  increasing. 
The  opening  of  the  North-Western  Railway  in  1869  gave  the  first 
impetus,  and  the  construction  of  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  line  in 
1886  has  still  further  increased  the  importance  of  vSaharanpur.  The 
place  has,  however,  lost  the  traffic  to  the  hill  station  of  Mussoorie, 
which  now  passes  by  the  Hardwar-Dehra  Railway,  opened  in  1900. 
Besides  the  ordinary  District  staff,  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  Botanical 
Survey  of  Upper  India  and  the  Executive  Engineer,  upper  division, 
Eastern  Jumna  Canal,  reside  here.  Saharanpur  also  has  large  railway 
workshops,  which  employed  241  hands  in  1903,  and  in  the  same  year 
two  cotton-gins  employed  158  and  a  rice-mill  92  hands.  Wood- 
carving  is  an  important  industry,  and  really  good  work  can  be  obtained. 
The  Government  Botanical  gardens,  founded  in  181 7  on  the  site  of 
an  old  garden  of  the  Rohillas,  covering  an  area  of  156  acres,  sell  large 
quantities  of  fruit  trees,  strawberry  plants,  timber,  ornamental  trees 
and  shrubs,  and  flower  and  vegetable  seeds,  besides  supplying  drugs 
to  Government.  The  former  stud  farm,  with  an  area  of  2,413  acres, 
is  now  a  reserve  remount  depot,  at  which  imported  horses  are  trained 
and  acclimatized  for  the  army.  The  American  Methodist  and  Presby- 
terian Churches  have  missions  here,  and  there  is  a  fine  Muhammadan 
mosque  built  on  the  model  of  the  Jama  Masjid  at  Delhi. 

Saharanpur  was  constituted  a  municipality  in  1867.  The  income 
and  expenditure  during  the  ten  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  62,000 
and  Rs.  59,000.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  93,000,  chiefly  derived 
from  octroi  (Rs.  65,000);  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  77,000. 

Saharwal  Doab. — Doab  in  the  Punjab.  See  Bisx  Juli.undur 
Doab. 

Sahaspur. — Town  in  the  Dhampur  tahsil  of  Bijnor  District,  United 

\(>i..  \xi.  1;  b 


J 


80  SAHASPUR 


Provinces,  situated  in  29°  7'  N.  and  78"^  37'  E.,  on  the  Oudh  and 
Kohilkhand  Railway,  Population  (1901),  5,851.  It  was  the  head- 
quarters of  a  mahdl  ox  pargami  in  Akbar's  time.  The  town  is  extremely 
dirty ;  and,  though  most  of  its  inhabitants  are  Musalmans,  it  swarms 
with  pigs.  There  is  a  fine  sarai  used  by  Hindu  pilgrims  on  their  way 
to  Hardwar.  The  only  industry  is  the  weaving  of  cotton  cloth  of  good 
quality.     A  primary  school  has  50  pupils. 

Sahaswan  Tahsil. — Tahsil  oi  Budaun  District,  United  Provinces, 
comprising  the  parganas  of  Sahaswan  and  Kot,  and  lying  between 
27°  57'  and  28°  20'  N.  and  78°  30'  and  79°  4'  E.,  with  an  area  of  454 
square  miles.  Population  increased  very  slightly,  from  193,070  in 
1891  to  193,628  in  1901.  There  are  328  villages  and  two  towns: 
Sahaswan  (population,  18,004),  the  tahsil  head-quarters,  and  BiLsi 
(6,035).  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  2,33,000, 
and  for  cesses  Rs.  29,000.  The  density  of  population,  426  persons  per 
square  mile,  is  the  lowest  in  the  District.  The  tahsil  contains  a  fertile 
stretch  of  rich  upland  soil  watered  by  the  Sot  river,  in  the  tract  known 
as  Katehr ;  but  this  is  mostly  held  by  impoverished  and  quarrelsome 
Rajputs,  and  it  also  suffers  from  defective  drainage.  South  of  the 
Katehr  a  large  area  is  occupied  by  a  sandy  ridge,  4  or  5  miles  wide, 
and  poor  in  quality ;  and  beneath  this  the  khddar  stretches  away  to 
the  Ganges,  which  forms  the  south-western  boundary.  The  khddar  is 
crossed  by  the  Mahawa,  which  is  gradually  scouring  out  a  larger  bed, 
and  in  years  of  heavy  rainfall  brings  down  disastrous  floods,  increased 
by  the  spill-water  from  the  Ganges.  Portions  of  the  khddar  are  ex- 
tremely fertile,  but  the  tract  is  liable  to  great  vicissitudes.  In  1903-4 
the  area  under  cultivation  was  338  square  miles,  of  which  54  were  irri- 
gated, mostly  from  wells. 

Sahaswan  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name 
in  Budaun  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  28°  4'  N.  and 
78°  45''  E.,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Mahawa,  24  miles  west  of  Budaun 
town  by  metalled  road.  Population  (1901),  18,004.  According  to 
tradition,  the  town  was  founded  by  Sahasra  Bahu,  a  king  of  Sankisa 
in  Farrukhabad  District,  who  built  a  fort  now  represented  by  an  earthen 
mound.  The  Ain-i-Akbarl  records  this  place  as  the  chief  town  of 
a  mahdl  or  parga?ia.  In  1824  Sahaswan  became  the  head-quarters 
of  a  British  District,  which  were  removed  to  Budaun  owing  to  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  site.  The  town  is  really  a  collection  of  scattered 
villages,  standing  at  the  point  where  the  sandy  ridge  of  the  District 
meets  the  Ganges  khddar.  It  contains  a  tahsll'i,  a  »!n?isifl,  and  a  dis- 
pensary, A  municipality  was  constituted  in  1872.  During  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  the  income  and  expenditure  averaged  Rs.  8,000.  In 
1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  14,000,  chiefly  from  a  tax  on  circumstances 
and  property  (Rs.  6,000):  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  13,000.     The 


SAHIB  G  AN/  381 

town  has  little  commercial  importance;  but  perfumes  are  manufactured, 
especially  from  the  keora  or  screw  pine  which  grows  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  middle  school  has  160  pupils,  and  the  municipality  manages 
6  schools  and  aids  3  others  with  a  total  attendance  of  390. 

Sahat'war  (also  called  Mahatwar  and  Mahatpal). — Town  in  the 
Bansdih  tahsil  o{  Ballia  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  50'  N. 
and  84°  19' E.,  on  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway.  Population 
1901),  10,784.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  one  Mahant 
Billeshar  Nath  Mahadeo,  and  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  Kinwar 
Rajputs.  It  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of 
about  Rs.  1,400.  Sahatwar  has  a  considerable  trade  in  the  collection 
of  raw  produce  and  sugar  for  export,  and  in  the  distribution  of  cotton, 
salt,  tobacco,  and  English  piece-goods.  There  is  also  a  small  manu- 
facture of  indigo  and  cotton  cloth.  The  town  school  has  about  80 
pupils. 

Sahawar. — Town  in  the  Kasganj  tahsil  of  Etah  District,  United 
Provinces,  situated  in  27°  48'  N.  and  78°  51"  E.,  near  the  Ganeshpur 
station  on  the  Cawnpore-Achhnera  Railway.  Population  (1901), 
5,079.  The  town  was  founded  by  Raja  Naurang  Deo,  a  Chauhan 
Rajput,  who  called  it  Naurangabad  after  his  own  name.  On  being 
attacked  by  the  Musalmans,  the  Raja  fled  to  Sirhpura,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants who  remained  were  forcibly  converted  to  Islam.  Shortly  after- 
wards Naurang,  assisted  by  the  Raja  and  the  people  of  Sirhpura, 
expelled  the  Musalmans,  and  changed  the  name  to  Sahawar.  The 
town  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about 
Rs.  700.  There  is  very  little  trade.  The  primary  school  has  about 
80  pupils. 

Sahet  Mahet. — Ancient  ruins  in  Gonda  and  Bahraich  Districts, 
United  Provinces.     See  Set  Mahet. 

Sahibganj  (i). — Town  in  the  Rajmahal  subdivision  of  the  Sanlal 
Parganas  District,  Bengal,  situated  in  25°  15'  N.  and  87°  38'  E.,  on  the 
Ganges,  and  on  the  loop-line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Population 
(1901),  7,558.  At  the  time  of  the  Census  a  severe  outbreak  of  plague 
had  led  to  a  partial  evacuation  of  the  town,  and  the  true  population 
is  probably  about  12,000.  Owing  to  its  favourable  position  on  the 
railway  and  river,  Sahibganj  has  become  a  great  entrepot  for  trade. 
Local  produce  is  received  by  river  from  the  trans-Gangetic  tracts  of 
Malda,  Purnea,  and  North  Bhagalpur,  while  European  goods  are  brought 
by  rail  from  Calcutta  for  distribution  to  those  Districts.  Sahibganj  was 
constituted  a  municipality  in  1883.  The  income  during  the  decade 
ending  190 1-2  averaged  Rs.  15,000,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  14,000, 
In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  21,000,  mainly  derived  from  a  tax  on 
houses  and  lands  and  a  conservancy  rate  ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs,  18,000. 

B  b  2 


382  SAHIBGANJ 

Sahibganj  (2). — Part  of  Padrauna  Town,  in  Gorakhpur  District, 
United  Provinces. 

Sahibgarh  (or  Pail). — Northern  iahsil  of  the  Amargarh  7iizamaf, 
Patiala  State,  Punjab,  lying  between  30°  23' and  30°  56'  N.  and  75°  59' 
and  76°  35'  E.,  with  an  area  of  278  square  miles.  The  population  in 
1901  was  115,391,  compared  with  112,540  in  1891.  The  tahsJl  con- 
tains the  town  of  Pail  or  Sahibgarh  (population,  5,515),  the  head- 
quarters; and  197  villages.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  3-1  lakhs. 

Sahiswan. —  Tahsll  and  town  in  Budaun  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces.    See  Sahaswan. 

Sahiwal.— Town  in  the  District  and  tahsll  of  Shahpur,  Punjab, 
situated  in  31°  59'  N.  and  72°  20''  E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Jhelum, 
22  miles  south  of  Shahpur  town  on  the  road  from  Bhera  to  Jhang. 
Population  (1901),  9,163.  The  town  has  a  brisk  trade  in  cotton, 
grain,  and  ghl  with  Multan  and  Sukkur ;  and  the  extension  of  the 
Lower  Jhelum  Canal  is  giving  renewed  prosperity  to  the  impoverished 
Baloch  who  own  the  country  round.  The  municipality  was  created 
in  1867.  The  income  during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged 
Rs.  9,200,  and  the  expenditure  Rs.  8,800.  In  1903-4  the  income 
amounted  to  Rs.  10,500,  chiefly  from  octroi ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs.  10,100.  The  town  possesses  an  Anglo-vernacular  middle  school, 
maintained  by  the  municipality,  and  a  Government  dispensary. 

Sahuka. — Petty  State  in  Kathiawar,  Bombay. 

Sahyadri. — The  Sanskrit  name  given  to  the  great  mountain  range 
otherwise  known  as  the  Western  Ghats. 

Sahyadriparbat.— Hill  range  in  Bombay,  Berar,  and  Hyderabad. 
See  Ajanta. 

Sai. — River  of  the  United  Provinces,  rising  in  Hardol  District  be- 
tween the  Gumti  and  the  Ganges  (27°  46'  N.,  80°  9'  E.).  It  flows  in 
a  tortuous  south-easterly  direction  through  the  Oudh  Districts  of  Unao, 
Rae  BarelT,  and  Partabgarh,  and  enters  the  Province  of  Agra  in  Jaunpur 
District,  falling  into  the  Gumtl  ten  miles  below  Jaunpur  city  after 
a  course  of  over  350  miles.  In  the  rains  small  boats  can  pass  up  as 
high  as  Rae  Barell.  The  drainage  falling  into  the  Sai  is  chiefly  from 
the  north,  and  its  bed  is  usually  too  deep  to  afford  irrigation. 

Saidapet  Taluk. —  Taluk  and  subdivision  of  Chingleput  District, 
Madras,  lying  between  12°  51'  and  13°  14' N.  and  80°  o'and  80°  20' E., 
and  touching  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  with  an  area  of  342  square  miles. 
It  surrounds  on  all  sides  but  the  east  Madras  City,  a  fact  which  has 
much  influence  upon  its  people  and  conditions.  The  population  in 
1901  was  262,478,  compared  with  224,472  in  1891,  the  increase  of 
nearly  17  per  cent,  being  due  to  its  including  several  villages  which  are 
really  suburbs  of  Madras.     The  density,  767  persons  per  square  mile,  is 


SAIDAFET  TOWN  383 

higher  than  in  any  other  taluk  in  the  District.  The  demand  on  account 
of  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  Rs.  3,44,000.  It  con- 
tains 6  towns  and  255  villages.  Said.\pet  (population,  14,254)  is  the 
head-quarters  of  the  District  and  of  the  taluk.  The  other  five  towns  are 
Skmbiem  (population,  17,567),  Tiruvottiyur  (15,919),  St.  Thomas's 
Mount  (15,571),  Poonamallee  (15,323),  and  Paixavaram  (6,416). 
The  Korttalaiyar,  the  Cooum,  and  the  Adyar  rivers  flow  through  the 
taluk.  Its  general  appearance  is  flat  and  uninteresting ;  but  here  and 
there  occur  hills  of  no  great  elevation,  on  many  of  which  are  perched 
either  a  temple  or  a  bungalow,  which  serve  to  relieve  the  monotony  of 
the  aspect. 

Saidapet  Town.— Head-quarters  of  the  taluk  of  the  same  name 
and  of  Chingleput  District,  Madras,  situated  in  13°  2'  N.  and  80°  13'  E., 
5  miles  from  Fort  St.  George.  Population  (1901),  14,254.  The  Dis- 
trict head-quarters  have  been  located  here  since  1859.  The  Collector's 
oftice  and  treasury  are  in  a  building  called  Home's  Gardens,  which  has 
of  late  been  much  enlarged  and  improved,  and  which  also  contains  the 
offices  of  a  Deputy-Collector  and  of  the  tahsilddr  and  stationary  sub- 
magistrate.  Saidapet  is  practically  a  suburb  of  Madras,  and  as  the 
South  Indian  line  connects  it  with  the  business  quarters  of  that  city  it 
is  the  residence  of  many  officials  and  others.  Weaving  and  dyeing  are 
its  chief  industries.  The  handsome  Marmalong  bridge  across  the  Adyar 
river,  built  in  the  early  days  of  Madras  by  an  Armenian  merchant  named 
Petrus  Uscan,  connects  the  place  with  St.  Thomas's  Mount.  This  has 
an  endowment  in  Government  securities,  the  interest  on  which  is  utilized 
for  its  repair  and  for  the  upkeep  of  the  steps  leading  up  the  Mount. 

The  most  notable  institutions  in  Saidapet  are  the  Agricultural  College 
and  the  Teachers"  College.  The  latter  is  under  the  management  of 
a  European  principal,  aided  by  a  staff  of  assistants,  and  is  designed  to 
instruct  persons  who  are  taking  up  teaching  as  a  profession  in  the  theory 
and  practice  of  that  art.  A  high  school  is  attached  to  give  the  students 
an  opportunity  of  practising,  and  there  is  also  a  well-equipped  gymna- 
sium. The  Agricultural  College  originated  as  a  model  farm,  established 
in  1865,  during  the  Governorship  of  Sir  William  Denison.  In  this 
liiany  important  agricultural  experiments  were  made,  some  of  which 
produced  encouraging  results,  indicating  the  general  directions  in  which 
improvements  might  be  effected  in  the  agriculture  of  the  country. 
Attention  was  given  to  subsoil  drainage,  improved  tillage,  the  restora- 
tion of  exhausted  soils,  the  proper  utilization  of  irrigation  water,  the 
fertilization  of  arable  soils  by  the  use  of  lime,  saltpetre,  oil-cake, 
poudrette,  and  other  manures  available  in  Southern  India  but  little 
used  by  the  ryots  ;  the  introduction  of  new  crops  suited  to  the  climate 
and  adapted  for  cultivation  under  an  improving  agricultural  practice ; 
the  production  ai  live  fences  to  afford  protection  from  cattle,  shelter 


384  SAID  A  PET  TOWN 

from  wind,  and  fuel ;  the  introduction  of  water-lifts,  barn  machines, 
carts,  ploughs,  cultivators,  cattle-houses,  reaping-knives,  &c.,  of  im- 
proved construction  ;  and  the  improvement  of  the  live-stock  of  the 
country  by  careful  feeding  and  breeding  and  by  acclimatizing  new 
breeds.  In  1876  a  school  of  agriculture  was  opened  to  extend  the 
practical  utility  of  the  experiments.  The  institution  was  later  raised  to 
the  status  of  a  college,  and  a  handsome  building  and  museum  have 
been  erected.  A  chemical  laboratory  is  attached  to  it  and  a  veterinary 
hospital  has  been  opened.  The  college  is  intended  to  afford  instruction 
to  persons  who  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  the  theory  and  practice 
of  agriculture,  and  is  under  the  charge  of  a  principal,  a  vice-principal, 
and  five  assistants.  Experimental  work  at  the  farm  has  now  been  given 
up,  the  cropping  done  being  no  more  than  is  necessary  for  educational 
purposes,  but  other  experimental  farms  have  been  established  in  more 
suitable  localities.  The  college  itself  is  shortly  to  be  transferred  to 
a  more  suitable  site  at  Coimbatore. 

Saidpur  Tahsil. — Western  tahstl  of  Ghazipur  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces, comprising  the  parganas  of  Saidpur,  Bahriabad,  Khanpur,  and 
Karanda,  and  lying  north  of  the  Ganges,  between  25°  28'  and  25°  46'  N. 
and  83°  4'  and  83°  26'  E.,  with  an  area  of  297  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation fell  from  206,615  ^^^  1S91  to  182,320  in  1901.  There  are  617 
villages  and  two  towns,  of  which  Saidpur,  the  tahsil  head-quarters,  has 
a  population  of  4,260.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  2,75,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  39,000.  The  density  of  population, 
614  persons  per  square  mile,  is  the  lowest  in  the  District.  Besides  the 
Ganges  and  Gumtl,  the  chief  drainage  channel  is  the  GangI,  which 
flows  from  north-west  to  south-east.  In  the  south-east  corner  lies  a  fine 
stretch  of  rich  alluvial  land,  while  towards  the  north  the  soil  is  a  heavy 
clay,  where  rice  is  grown.  Elsewhere  the  ordinary  loam  is  found.  The 
area  under  cultivation  in  1903-4  was  186  square  miles,  of  which  87 
were  irrigated,  chiefly  from  wells. 

Saidpur  Town  (i). — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  oi  the  same  name 
in  Ghazipur  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  25°  32'  N.  and 
83°i3'E.,  on  the  Bengal  and  North-Western  Railway.  Population 
(1901),  4,200.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  history  of  Saidpur,  but  it 
contains  remains  of  great  interest.  In  the  town  itself  are  two  Musal- 
man  dargahs  constructed  from  Hindu  or  Buddhist  pillars,  if  they  were 
not  actually  chaityas  attached  to  a  vihara  or  monastery.  Large  mounds 
exist  in  the  neighbourhood,  which  undoubtedly  conceal  ancient  build- 
ings. Saidpur  is  administered  under  Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an 
income  of  about  Rs.  1,400.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  oilseeds, 
tobacco,  cotton,  hides,  and  sajjl,  or  carbonate  of  soda.  The  town  also 
contains  a  dispensary,  and  a  school  with  about  140  pupils. 

\^  Journal,  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal^  vol.  x.xxiv,  pp.  80  2.] 


SAIL  ANA    STATE  385 

Saidpur  Town  (2). — Town  in  the  Nilphaniari  subdivision  of  Rang- 
pur  District,  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  situated  in  25°  47'  N.  and  88° 
54'  E.  Population  (1901),  5,848.  It  is  the  head-quarters  of  the  northern 
section  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  State  Railway,  and  contains  large  rail- 
way workshops  and  jute-presses.  A  company  of  the  Eastern  Bengal 
State  Railway  Volunteer  Corps,  1 5  7  strong,  has  its  head-quarters  here. 

Sailana  State.  — One  of  the  mediatized  States  of  the  Central  India 
Agency,  under  the  Political  Agent  in  Malwa.  The  State  has  an  area 
of  about  450  square  miles,  of  which,  however,  about  half  has  been  alien- 
ated in  land  grants.  Owing  to  the  inextricable  mingling  of  its  territory 
with  that  of  Ratlam,  no  very  accurate  figure  can  be  arrived  at.  The  State 
is  called  after  the  capital  town  which  stands  at  the  foot  {d/iaiia,  lit. 
'  mouth ')  of  the  hills  (s/iai/a),  whence  it  derives  its  name  of  Sailana. 
Scattered  portions  of  Sailana  touch  the  Gwalior,  Indore,  Dhar,  Jhabua, 
Jaora,  Banswara,  and  Kushalgarh  States,  of  which  the  two  last  are  in 
Rajputana.  The  only  stream  of  importance  is  the  MahT,  which  flows 
through  the  western  portion  of  the  State. 

The  chiefs  of  Sailana  are  Rathor  Rajputs  of  the  Ratanavat  branch, 
an  offshoot  of  the  Ratlam  house,  and  till  1730  Sailana  formed  a  part  of 
Ratlam.  In  that  year  Jai  Singh,  a  great-grandson  of  Ratan  Singh,  the 
founder  of  Ratlam,  started  an  independent  State,  of  which  Raoti  was 
the  capital.  In  1736  he  built  the  present  capital  of  Sailana.  During 
the  settlement  of  Malwa  in  18 19,  Raja  Lachhman  Singh  received, 
through  the  mediation  of  Sir  John  Malcolm,  an  agreement  on  behalf  of 
Daulat  Rao  Sindhia,  by  which  all  interference  in  the  administration  of 
the  State  by  the  Gwalior  Darbar  was  prohibited,  and  he  was  secured  in 
his  possessions  on  payment  of  a  tribute  of  Rs.  23,000.  The  payment 
of  this  tribute  was  transferred  to  the  British  Government  in  i860. 
From  1850,  the  chief,  Dule  Singh,  being  a  minor,  the  State  was 
administered  by  the  British  authorities,  but  during  the  disturbances 
of  1857  it  was  entrusted  to  the  late  chiefs  widow,  who  rendered 
good  service.  In  1881  the  State  abandoned  all  transit  duties  on  salt, 
receiving  annually  from  the  British  Government  100  maunds  of  salt 
free  of  cost.  In  1883,  however,  this  compensation  was  commuted  to 
an  annual  cash  payment  of  Rs.  412-8.  In  1887  an  agreement  was 
made  between  the  Ratlam  and  Sailana  States  by  which  the  latter  levies 
its  own  customs  duties,  compensating  Ratlam  for  relinquishing  its  right 
to  levy  customs  dues  in  Sailana  by  an  annual  payment  of  Rs.  6,000. 
In  the  same  year  all  transit  dues,  except  those  on  opium,  were 
abolished.  The  present  chief.  Raja  Jaswant  Singh,  succeeded,  by 
adoption,  in  1895.  He  has  done  much  to  improve  the  financial  con- 
dition of  the  State,  though  the  famine  of  1899-1900  caused  fresh 
embarrassments.  He  received  the  gold  Kaisar-i-Hind  medal  in  1901, 
and  was  made  a  K.C.I. E.  in  1904.     The  territory,  as  is  usual  in  Rajput 


386  SAIL  A IV A    STATE 

holdings,  has  heen  aUenated  to  a  considerable  extent,  ten  of  the 
jdglrdars  being  Rathor  Rajputs  connected  with  the  ruling  family.  The 
chief  enjoys  the  titles  of  His  Highness  and  Raja,  and  is  entitled  to 
a  salute  of  ii  guns. 

The  population  of  the  State  has  varied  :  (i88i)  29,723,  (1891) 
31,512,  and  (1901)  25,731.  In  the  latest  year  Hindus  formed  67  per 
cent,  of  the  total,  while  Animists  (chiefly  Bhils)  numbered  6,300, 
Musalmans  1,321,  and  Jains  912.  The  population  decreased  by 
22  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade,  and  now  represents  a  density  of 
57  persons  per  square  mile.  The  State  contains  96  villages  and  one 
town,  Sailana  (population,  4,255),  the  capital.  About  78  per  cent,  of 
the  population  speak  the  Malwl  dialect  of  Rajasthani,  and  15  per  cent. 
Bhilr.  The  prevailing  castes  and  tribes  are  Kunbis  (2,700),  Rajputs 
(2,100),  and  Bhils  (6,300).  Agriculture  and  general  labour  support 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  soil  over  most  of  the  area  is  of  the  high  fertility  common  in 
Malwa,  bearing  excellent  crops  of  all  the  ordinary  grains  and  also  of 
poppy,  which  forms  one  of  the  most  valuable  products. 

Of  the  total  area  of  450  square  miles,  123,  or  26  per  cent.,  are  under 
cultivation,  5  square  miles  being  irrigable,  and  the  rest  'dry'  land. 
About  38  square  miles,  or  30  per  cent,  of  the  cropped  area,  are  under 
cereals,  3  under  poppy,  and  3  under  cotton.  Of  the  uncultivated  area, 
65  square  miles,  or  14  per  cent.,  are  capable  of  cultivation,  39  are 
forest,  and  the  rest  is  irreclaimable  waste.  Pasturage  is  ample 
in  good  years.  In  former  days  there  was  a  considerable  industry  in 
brass-work  and  the  manufacture  of  dye  from  the  dl  tree  {Morinda 
tinctoria),  but  the  importation  of  foreign  materials  has  almost  entirely 
killed  the  latter. 

The  Baroda-Nagda  section  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central 
India  Railway  passes  through  the  State,  with  stations  at  RaotI  and 
Bangrod.  A  metalled  road  connects  Sailana  town  with  the  Namli 
station  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway,  and  a  section  of  the  Mhow- 
Nimach  high  road  passes  through  the  south-western  districts  of  Bhll- 
pank  and  Bangrod.  British  post  offices  are  maintained  at  Sailana, 
Bangrod,  and  Raoti,  and  telegraph  offices  at  the  railway  stations  of 
RaotI  and  Bangrod. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  divided  into  four  sections  : 
the  chief  town  and  its  environs,  and  the  districts  of  Bhilpank,  Bangrod, 
and  Raoti.  The  chief  administers  the  State  assisted  by  a  dlzvdn,  and 
in  civil  matters  has  complete  control.  In  criminal  cases  he  exercises 
the  powers  of  a  Sessions  Court,  but  submits  for  confirmation  by 
the  Agent  to  the  Governor-General  all  sentences  of  transportation, 
imprisonment  for  life,  or  capital  punishment. 

The  normal  revenue  amounts   to  X'5  lakhs,  of  which   i-i   lakhs  are 


I 


SAINT  THOMAS'S  MOUNT  387 

derived  from  the  laud;  Rs.  18,000  from  customs;  Rs.  21,000  from 
idnka  (tribute  from  feudatory  land-holders);  and  Rs.  412-8  from 
the  British  Government  in  lieu  of  salt  dues  relinquished  in  i88r.  The 
chief  heads  of  expenditure  are  general  administration,  including  the 
chiefs  establishment,  Rs.  9,000;  military,  Rs.  15,000;  tribute  to 
British  Government,  Rs.  23,000  (paid  to  Sindhia  until  i860) ;  Rs.  6,000 
to  Ratlam,  being  the  share  of  sdyar  or  customs  dues  levied  in  Sailana. 

The  incidence  of  land  revenue  demand  is  Rs.  3  per  acre  of  cultivated 
land  and  15  annas  per  acre  of  total  area.  The  land  revenue  system 
includes  the  grant  of  leases  to  each  cultivator  for  a  certain  number 
of  years. 

The  British  rupee  is  the  current  coin  in  the  State,  the  Sdlim  shdhi 
(of  Partabgarh)  having  been  disused  since  1897.  Copper  has  been 
minted  at  Baramawal  and  Sailana,  but  the  former  mint  was  closed  in 
i88r,  and  it  is  proposed  to  close  the  latter. 

The  State  forces  consist  of  162  regular  cavalry,  who  form  the  chief's 
body-guard,  278  irregular  infantry,  5  guns  and  15  gunners.  The  police 
were  regularly  organized  in  1899.  A  jail  is  maintained  in  Sailana 
town.  Seven  schools  are  maintained  in  the  State,  with  an  average 
attendance  of  100  pupils.     Two  dispensaries  are  kept  up. 

Sailana  Town  {Saldna). — Capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name 
in  Central  India,  situated  in  23°  28'  N.  and  74°  57'  E.,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Vindhyas,  1,847  feet  above  sea-level.  Sailana  is  10  miles  by 
metalled  road  from  NamlT  station  on  the  Rajputana-Malwa  Railway, 
and  521  by  rail  from  Bombay.  Population  (1901),  4,255.  The  town, 
which  dates  from  1736,  has  no  buildings  of  any  note  except  the 
Raja's  new  palace.  A  dispensar)-,  an  inspection  bungalow,  a  British 
post  ofifice,  a  jail,  and  a  school  are  situated  within  its  limits. 

Saint  George,  Fort.— The  citadel  of  Madras  city.     See  Madras 

CiTV. 

Sainthia. — Village  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  Birbhum 
District,  Bengal,  situated  in  23°  57' N.  and  87°  41'  E.,  on  the  East 
Indian  Railway,  119  miles  from  Howrah.  Population  (1901),  2,622. 
The  village,  which  lies  on  the  Mor  river,  is  connected  with  Suri  by 
a  good  road.     It  is  an  important  trade  centre. 

Saint  Thomas's  Mount. — Town  and  cantonment  in  the  Saidapet 
tdhik  of  Chingleput  District,  Madras,  situated  in  13°  N.  and  80°  12'  E., 
8  miles  south  of  Madras  city.  Population  (1901),  15,571.  It  is  known 
to  the  natives  as  Parangimalai,  or  '  Europeans'  hill.'  The  Mount  after 
which  the  place  is  named  is  composed  of  greenstone  and  syenite,  and 
is  ascended  by  a  flight  of  200  masonry  steps,  the  work  of  the  Portu- 
guese. On  its  summit,  220  feet  above  sea-level,  is  a  curious  old  Portu- 
guese church  dedicated  to  the  Expectation  of  tlic  Blessed  \'irgin.  It 
was  built  by  the  Portuguese  in  1547,  over  the  spot  where  was  found  the 


388  SAINT   THOMAS'S  MOUNT 

celebrated  cross  attributed  to  the  legendary  visit  of  St.  Thomas  the 
Apostle  to  this  part  of  India.  The  tradition  ^  states  that  after  preaching 
in  Malabar  and  other  places,  St.  Thomas  came  to  Mylapore,  a  suburb 
of  Madras ;  that  the  Brahmans  there  stirred  up  a  tumult  against  him, 
and  that  on  December  21,  a.  d.  68,  he  was  stoned  by  the  crowd  and 
finally  thrust  through  with  a  spear  near  the  Mount.  Lucena  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  finding  of  the  cross  : — 

'  It  was  met  with  on  digging  for  the  foundations  of  a  hermitage  amid 
the  ruins  which  marked  the  spot  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  Apostle 
St.  Thomas.  On  the  face  of  the  slab  was  a  cross  in  relief,  with  a  bird 
like  a  dove  over  it,  with  its  wings  expanded  as  the  Holy  Ghost  is  usually 
represented  when  descending  on  our  Lord  at  His  baptism,  or  on  our 
Lady  at  her  Annunciation.  This  cross  was  erected  over  the  altar  at  the 
chapel  which  was  built  on  the  new  sanctuary.' 

Dr.  Burnell  {Indian  Antiquary,  1874,  p.  313)  says  : — 

'  This  account  is  no  doubt  accurate,  for  the  Portuguese  on  first  visit- 
ing the  Mount  found  the  Christian  church  in  ruins,  and  occupied  by 
a  native  fakir.  The  description  of  the  slab  is  also  accurate.  It  does 
not  appear  what  cause  had  destroyed  the  Christian  community  here, 
but  it  probably  was  owing  to  the  political  disturbances  attending  the 
war  between  the  Muhammadans  of  the  north  and  the  Hindu  kingdom 
of  Vijayanagar.' 

Referring  to  an  Italian  account  (in  the  seventeenth  century)  of  the 
cross  and  the  Mount  festival,  Dr.  Burnell  continues  :— 

'  The  cross  is  built  into  the  wall  behind  the  altar  in  a  church  on  the 
Great  Mount,  which  is  served  by  a  native  priest  under  the  Goa  juris- 
diction. An  annual  festival  is  held  here,  which  brings  a  large  assem- 
blage of  native  Christians  to  the  spot,  and  causes  an  amount  of  disorder 
which  the  European  Catholic  clergy  of  Madras  have  in  vain  tried  to 
put  down.' 

Dr.  Burnell  considered  that  the  date  of  the  cross  tablet  and  its  Pahlevi 
inscription  was  probably  about  the  eighth  century. 

On  the  plain  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Mount  lies  the  military  can- 
tonment bearing  the  same  name.  The  garrison  now  consists  of  two 
batteries  of  field  artillery  and  one  regiment  of  native  infantry.  The  can- 
tonment is  a  pretty  place  and  well  kept.  In  the  centre  is  an  open  grassy 
inaiddn,  round  which  cluster  the  various  bungalows  and  other  buildings, 
including  the  handsome  mess-house  of  the  artillery.  The  church,  which 
stands  at  the  southern  end  of  the  parade  ground,  is  one  of  the  best 
edifices  of  its  kind  in  the  Presidency. 

'  Discussions  of  the  ciedibility  ol  this  tratlitioii  will  be  found  in  the  Indian 
Anliquciiy,  vol.  .\xxii ;  in  the  Journal  0/  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  for  April,  1905; 
and  ill  India  and  the  Apostle  Thomas  (1905  ,  by  A.  E.  MedlycoU,  Bishop  of 
Tricomia. 


SAKESAR  3S9 

St.  Thomas's  Mount  figured  in  British  history  long  before  it  was 
made  a  cantonment.  The  battle  of  the  Mount,  fought  on  February  7, 
1759,  between  Lally  and  Colonel  Calliaud,  was  one  of  the  fiercest 
struggles  of  the  Franco-British  wars  in  Southern  India.  It  is  thus 
described  in  the  Chingleput  Manual: — 

'  Colonel  Calliaud  had  been  summoned  from  the  south  to  assist  in 
raising  the  siege  of  Madras.  He  took  post  at  the  Mount,  with  his 
right  at  a  deserted  little  temple  at  the  north-east  of  the  present  parade 
ground,  and  his  left  supported  by  a  house  called  Carvalho's  Garden, 
where  he  posted  four  pieces  of  cannon.  His  troops  included  the 
contingent  brought  by  the  Company's  partisan  Muhammad  Yusuf,  and 
consisted  of  2,200  horse,  2,500  foot,  and  6  cannon.  Of  these,  how- 
ever, only  1,500  natives,  80  Europeans,  and  12  artillerymen  were  pos- 
sessed of  the  slightest  discipline.  Lally's  forces  aggregated  2,600,  half 
of  whom  were  Europeans,  and  all  disciplined.  He  had,  besides,  8  guns, 
possessing  a  great  superiority  in  weight  of  metal.  The  fight  lasted  from 
early  morning  till  5  p.m.,  when  the  enemy,  to  Colonel  Calliaud's  intense 
relief,  retreated.  The  latter  had  ammunition  sufficient  to  have  lasted 
for  about  a  couple  of  minutes  more.' 

On  March  20,  1769,  Haidar  All,  who  had  marched  within  5  miles  of 
Madras,  met  here  Mr.  Dupre,  the  senior  Member  of  Council,  and  here 
the  inglorious  treaty  of  April  2  was  signed.  In  1774,  at  the  suggestion 
of  Col.  James,  the  Mount  became  the  head-quarters  of  the  Madras 
Artillery, 

'The  garrison  of  the  Mount  formed  the  major  part  of  the  force 
(under  Sir  Hector  Munro)  that  ought  to  have  saved  Baillie  in  1780. 
During  its  absence,  only  five  companies  of  sepoys  and  four  guns  had 
been  left  for  the  protection  of  the  Mount,  and  a  temporary  earthwork 
was  raised  to  strengthen  the  place  against  attack.  This  has  long  been 
levelled,  but  a  slight  depression  crossing  the  plain  midway  between 
Pallavaram  and  the  Mount  indicates  the  position  of  what  went  by  the 
name  of  the  Maratha  Ditch.' 

Saint  Thome.— Suburb  of  Madras  City. 

Saiyidpur. —  Tahsll  and  town  in  Ghazlpur  District,  United  Pro- 
vinces.    See  Saidpur. 

Sajjangarh.— Fort  in  Satara  District,  Bombay.     See  Parli. 

Sakesar  {Sukesar). — Hill  in  the  Khushab  tahsll  of  Shahpur  Dis- 
trict, Punjab,  situated  in  31°  33'  N.  and  71°  58'  E.,  25  miles  east  of 
Mianwali  town,  and  the  highest  peak  in  the  Salt  Range.  It  is  a  fine 
grassy  hill,  forming  the  terminal  point  in  which  two  divergent  spurs  of 
the  range  reunite.  Upon  its  summit  stands  the  sanitarium  for  Shahpur, 
Attock,  and  Mianwali,  at  an  elevation  of  5,010  feet  above  sea-level, 
with  plenty  of  excellent  building  space  available.  Wild  olive-trees  are 
abundant,  and  the  oak  thrives  well.  According  to  daily  meteorological 
observations  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  middle  of  ()rtoI)er. 


390  SAKESAR 

1866,  the  average  temperature  was  75°,  or  one  degree  less  than  summer 
heat  in  England.  The  climate  of  Sakesar,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  of 
the  higher  parts  of  the  Salt  Range,  is  believed  to  be  well  adapted  for 
Europeans,  and  very  favourable  in  cases  of  dysentery  and  phthisis, 
which,  as  a  rule,  do  not  derive  any  benefit  from  the  Himalayan 
sanitaria.  The  great  drawback  to  Sakesar  is  the  scarcity  of  good 
drinking-water.  There  are,  however,  many  places  in  the  neighbourhood 
where  excellent  water  is  procurable  ;  and,  by  having  recourse  to  tanks, 
a  sufficiency  of  water  could  be  stored  for  a  considerable  number  of 
people. 

Sakhera. — Town  in  the  Baroda  prdnt,  Baroda  State.     See  San- 

KHEDA. 

Sakhi  Sarwar.— Famous  Muhammadan  shrine  in  the  District  and 
iahsli  of  Dera  Ghazi  Khan,  Punjab,  situated  in  29°  59'  N.  and  70°  18'  E. 
The  shrine,  which  dates  from  about  1300,  crowns  the  high  bank  of 
a  hill  stream,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sulaiman  Hills,  in  the  midst  of  arid 
desert  scenery,  well  adapted  for  the  residence  of  those  who  desire  to 
mortify  the  flesh.  It  was  founded  in  honour  of  Saidi  Ahmad,  afterwards 
known  as  Sakhi  Sarwar,  the  son  of  an  immigrant  from  Baghdad,  who 
settled  at  Sialkot,  12  miles  east  of  Multan,  in  1220.  Saidi  Ahmad  became 
a  devotee,  and,  having  performed  a  very  remarkable  series  of  miracles, 
was  presented  by  the  king  of  Delhi  with  four  mule-loads  of  money, 
with  which  the  Sakhi  Sarwar  shrine  was  erected.  A  handsome  flight 
of  steps  leads  from  the  bed  of  the  stream  to  the  building,  constructed 
at  the  expense  of  two  Hindu  merchants  of  Lahore.  The  buildings 
include  the  mausoleum  of  Sakhi  Sarwar  himself;  a  monument  to  Baba 
Nanak ;  the  tomb  of  Musammat  Bibi  Bai,  wife  of  Sakhi  Sarwar ;  and 
a  thdhirdwdra.  They  thus  comprise  a  curious  mixture  of  Hindu  and 
Muhammadan  architecture,  and  are  frequented  by  devotees  of  all 
religions.  The  guardians  of  the  shrine  are  the  descendants  of  Sakhi 
Sarwar's  three  servants,  among  whom  the  revenues  accruing  from  the 
offerings  are  divided  in  1,650  shares,  the  descendants  of  one  servant 
receiving  750  shares,  of  another  600  shares,  and  of  the  third  300  shares. 
Throughout  the  year  the  shrine  forms  the  resort  of  numerous  mendi- 
cants, Hindu  and  Muhammadan. 

Sakkarepatna. — Town  in  the  Kadur  tdhik  of  Kadur  District, 
Mysore,  situated  in  13°  26'  N.  and  75°  55' E.,  11  miles  south-west 
of  Kadur  railway  station.  Population  (1901),  1,884.  i  his  is  said  to 
have  been  in  old  times  the  capital  of  Rukmangada,  a  king  mentioned 
in  the  Mahabharata.  It  contains  a  monument  to  Honbilla,  who  was 
sacrificed  to  secure  the  stability  of  the  Ayyankere  reservoir,  and  also 
a  great  gun,  and  an  immense  slab  of  stone,  about  12  feet  square  and 
several  inches  thick,  supported  on  four  pillars.  The  last  is  called  Vira 
Ballala  Chauki,  and  is    said  to   have  been   the  ruyal  seat  of  justice. 


SAKOLI  391 

Under  the  Vijayanagar  kingdom,  the  place  belonged  to  the  Belur 
chiefs.  It  was  next  taken  by  the  Bednur  rulers,  and  Sivappa  Naik  of 
that  family  conferred  it  on  the  king  of  Vijayanagar,  who  had  fled  to 
him  for  refuge.  But  in  1690  it  was  taken  by  the  Raja  of  Mysore,  and 
retained  by  him  under  the  treaty  of  1694.  The  municipality,  formed 
in  1895,  became  a  Union  in  1904.  The  receipts  and  expenditure 
during  the  six  years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  1,700  and  Rs.  1,200. 
In  1903-4  they  w^ere  Rs.  1,500  and  Rs.  5,200. 

Saklana  Estate. — Feudatory  estate  situated  in  the  west  of  the 
State  of  Tehri,  United  Provinces,  with  an  area  of  70  square  miles. 
The  owners  or  miidfiddrs  pay  an  annual  quit-rent  of  Rs.  200  to  the 
Raja  of  TehrT,  and  derive  an  income  of  about  Rs.  2,500  from  the  estate. 
During  the  Gurkha  War  their  ancestors  rendered  important  services 
to  the  British  Government.  The  7niidfidars  have  power  to  try  all  civil, 
rent,  and  revenue  suits  arising  in  their  own  villages,  and  exercise 
powers  as  second-class  magistrates.  Cases  in  which  the  imidfiddrs 
are  personally  interested  are  transferred  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Kumaun,  as  Agent  for  the  Tehrl  State,  to  competent  courts  in  a 
British  District. 

Sakoi  (Burmese,  Sagive). — A  small  State  in  the  central  division 
of  the  Southern  Shan  States,  Burma,  lying  astride  of  the  Pilu  river, 
between  19° 52' and  20°  o'  N.  and  96°  55'  and  97°  13'  E.,  with  an  area 
of  103  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Samka  and 
Namtok ;  on  the  east  by  Hsahtung  and  Karenni ;  and  on  the  south 
and  west  by  Mongpai  and  Loilong.  The  population  in  1901  was 
1,387,  inhabiting  27  villages,  of  whom  three-fourths  were  Shans  and 
the  rest  Karens  and  Taungthus,  who  are  mainly  occupied  in  rice  culti- 
vation. Sakoi,  the  head-quarters  of  the  INIyoza,  has  only  35  houses 
and  157  inhabitants  ;  and  there  are  no  villages  of  any  size  in  the  State. 
The  revenue  in  1903-4  was  only  Rs.  1,600.  The  tribute  payable  to 
the  British  Government  is  Rs.  500. 

Sakoli. — Southern  taJisil  of  Bhandara  District,  Central  Provinces, 
lying  between  20°  41'  and  21°  17'  N.  and  79°  43'  and  80°  34'  E.,  with 
an  area  of  1,549  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  167,395, 
compared  with  178,984  in  1891.  The  density  is  108  persons  per 
square  mile.  The  tahsll  contains  557  inhabited  villages.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  Sakoli,  a  village  of  2,019  inhabitants,  24  miles  from 
Bhandara  town  by  road.  Excluding  240  square  miles  of  Government 
forest,  only  32  per  cent,  of  the  available  area  is  occupied  for  cultivation. 
The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  1,25,000,  and  for 
cesses  Rs.  12,000.  The  tahsll  includes  17  zatiiinddri  estates  with  a 
total  area  of  710  square  miles,  of  which  406  consist  of  forest.  It  is 
a  rice-growing  tract  broken  up  by  small  ranges  of  hills,  and  contains 
the  large  irrigation  tanks  for  which  Bhandara  is  noted.     The  culti- 


392  SAA'OLI 

vated  area  in  1903-4  was  356  square  miles,  of  which  53  were 
irrigated. 

Sakrand.  — ri/z/^a  of  Hyderabad  District,  Sind,  Bombay,  lying 
between  26°  2'  and  26°  35'  N.  and  67°  53'  and  68°  31'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  786  square  miles,  including  ihepetha  of  Shahpur.  Population 
rose  from  49,447  in  1891  to  64,036  in  1901.  The  density  is  84  persons 
per  square  mile.  The  number  of  villages  is  109,  of  which  Sakrand  is 
the  head-quarters.  The  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  exceeded 
r-i  lakhs.  Much  of  the  land  in  the  eastern  portion  is  covered  with 
sandhills.  The  tdluka  has  considerable  jungles  which  give  shelter  to 
wolves  and  wild  hog.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  tobacco,  gram,  rape- 
seed,  and  sesamum. 

Sakrayapatna.— Town  in  Kadur  District,  Mysore.     See  .Sakk.\re- 

PATXA. 

Sakti. — Feudatory  State  in   the  Central   Provinces,  lying  between 
21"  55'  and  22°  11'  N.  and  82°  45'  and  83°  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  138 
square  miles.     It  is  bounded  by  Bilaspur  District  on  the  west  and  by 
the  Raigarh  State  on  the  east.     The  head-quarters  are  at  Saktl  (popu- 
lation, r,79i),  a  station  on  the   Bengal- Nagpur   Railway.     Along  the 
north  of  the  State  extends  a  section  of  the  Korba  range  of  hills,  and 
beneath   these  a  strip    of  undulating    plain    country   of  Chhattisgarh 
tapers  to  the  south.     The  ruling  family  are  Raj  Gonds.     The  legend 
is  that  their  ancestors  were  twin  brothers  who  were  soldiers  of  the  Raja 
of  Sambalpur,  but   they  only  had   wooden   swords.     When  the   Raja 
heard  of  this,  he  determined  to  punish  them  for  keeping  such  useless 
weapons  ;  and,  in  order  to  expose  them,  he  directed  that  they  should 
slaughter  the  sacrificial   buffalo  on   the  next   Dasahra  festival.      The 
brothers,  on  being  informed  of  the  order,  were  in  great  trepidation, 
but  the  goddess  Devi  appeared  to  them  in  a  dream  and  said  that  all 
would  be  well.     When  the  time  came  they  severed  the  head  of  the 
buffalo    with    one   stroke    of  their    wooden    swords.      The    Raja   was 
delighted  at  their  marvellous  performance,  and  asked  them  to  name 
their  reward.     They  asked   for  as  much   land  as  would  be  enclosed 
between   the    lines   over  which    they  could   walk   in   one  day.      This 
request  was  granted,  the  Raja  thinking  they  would  only  get  a  small 
plot.     The  distances  walked  by  them,  however,  enclosed  the  present 
Saktl  State,  which  their  descendants  have  since  held.     The  swords  are 
preserved   in  the  family  and   worshipped  at   the   Dasahra.     The  last 
chief,  Raja  RanjTt  Singh,  was  deprived  of  his  powers  in  1875  for  gross 
oppression  and  attempts  to  support  false  representations  by  means  of 
forged  documents,  and  the  management  of  the  State  was  assumed  by 
the  British  Government.     In  1892  Rup  Narayan  Singh,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  ex-Raja,  was  installed  as  chief  of  Saktf,  on  his  engaging  that  he 
would   be  guided   in   all   matters   of  administration  by  the  advice  of 


SALAR  JANG   ESTATE 


>)VJ) 


a  Diwan  appointed  by  Government.  This  restriction  was  subsequently 
removed,  but  was  reimposed  in  1902,  The  relations  of  the  State  with 
Government  are  in  charge  of  a  Political  Agent,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Commissioner,  Chhattisgarh  Division.  The  population  in  1901 
was  22,301,  having  decreased  by  12  per  cent,  during  the  preceding 
decade.  The  number  of  inhabited  villages  is  122,  and  the  density  of 
population  162  persons  per  square  mile.  Gonds  and  Kawars  are  the 
most  numerous  castes,  and  the  whole  population  speak  the  Chhattls- 
garhi  dialect  of  Hindi. 

The  yellow  rice  land  of  Chhattisgarh  extends  over  most  of  the  State. 
No  regular  agricultural  statistics  have  been  prepared  since  1893,  in 
which  year  the  last  settlement  of  revenue  was  made.  It  1904  it  was 
estimated  that  73  square  miles,  or  53  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  were 
cultivated.  Of  this,  50  square  miles  were  under  rice,  the  other  crops 
being  kodon  and  iirad.  It  is  believed  that  there  has  been  little 
alteration  in  the  cropping  since  1893.  The  State  contains  258  irriga- 
tion tanks.  The  forests  lie  in  the  sal  belt,  and  sal  {Shorea  robiisia)  is 
the  principal  timber  tree,  but  there  is  also  a  little  teak.  Timber  and 
other  forest  produce  are  exported,  and  tasar  silk  cocoons  are  gathered 
for  the  local  demand. 

The  revenue  in  1904  vvas  Rs.  38,000,  of  which  Rs.  21,000  was 
derived  from  land,  Rs.  6,900  from  forests,  and  Rs.  4,000  from  excise. 
The  State  has  been  cadastrally  surveyed,  and  in  1893  a  summary  settle- 
ment was  made  on  a  rough  valuation  of  the  village  lands.  The  villages 
are  generally  let  to  thekaddrs  or  farmers,  and  many  of  these  have  been 
secured  against  ejectment.  The  expenditure  in  1904  was  Rs.  31,000, 
the  principal  items  being  general  administration  (Rs.  11,000),  expenses 
of  the  ruling  family  (Rs.  8,600),  and  repayment  of  loans  (Rs.  1,200). 
The  Government  tribute  is  Rs.  1,300,  and  is  liable  to  revision.  The 
chief  also  owns  ten  villages  in  Bilaspur  District  in  ordinary  proprietary 
right.  The  State  has  not  sought  the  assistance  of  the  Engineer  of 
the  Chhattisgarh  States  division,  and  manages  its  own  public  works. 
It  supports  four  vernacular  schools,  with  280  pupils,  at  an  annual 
expenditure  of  Rs.  400,  and  a  dispensary  at  SaktI. 

Salar  Jang  Estate. — An  estate  comprising  six  taluks  situated  in 
various  Districts  of  the  Hyderabad  State.  It  consists  of  ^iTiZ  villages, 
and  has  an  area  of  1,486  square  miles,  with  a  population  (1901)  of 
180,150.  The  taluks  are  Kosgi  in  Gulbarga,  Ajanta  in  Aurangabad, 
Koppal  and  Yelbarga  in  Raichur,  Dundgal  in  Medak,  and  Raigir  in 
Nalgonda.     The  total  revenue  is  8-2  lakhs. 

The  present  representative  of  the  family  is  Nawab  Salar  Jang,  grand- 
son of  the  late  Sir  Salar  Jang,  G. C.S.I. ,  the  great  minister  of  the 
Nizam  ^     The  family  claim  descent  from  Shaikh  Owais  of  Karan,  who 

'  Memoirs  of  Sir  Salar  Jang,  by  Syed  Hossain  Bilgranii  (18S3), 


394  SALAR  JANG   ESTATE 

lived  in  the  time  of  the  Prophet ;  Shaikh  Owais  the  second,  his  tenth 
descendant,  came  to  India  during  the  reign  of  All  Adil  Shah  (1656-72), 
and  settled  in  Bijapur,  where  his  son.  Shaikh  Muhammad  All,  married 
the  daughter  of  Mulla  Ahmad  Nawayet  \  the  minister  of  the  Bijapur 
kingdom,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons  who  rose  to  high  rank.  Mulla 
Ahmad  having  joined  the  imperial  service  about  1665,  his  successor 
ill-treated  the  two  brothers,  who  eventually  left  Bijapur  during  the  reign 
of  Sikandar  Adil  Shah  and  entered  the  service  of  Aurangzeb.  One 
of  these,  Shaikh  Muhammad  Bakar  by  name,  was  appointed  Dlwan  of 
Thal-kokan,  and  after  retiring  from  active  work  settled  in  Aurangabad, 
where  he  died  in  17 15.  His  son,  Shaikh  Muhammad  Taki,  served 
under  Aurangzeb,  Bahadur  Shah,  and  Farrukh  Siyar.  Asaf  Jah,  the 
viceroy  of  the  Deccan,  appointed  him  commander  of  the  garrisons  of 
all  his  forts.  Shams-ud-din  Muhammad  Haidar,  son  of  Muhammad 
Taki,  continued  in  the  service  of  Asaf  Jah,  and  was  promoted  by  his 
successors.  Under  Salabat  Jang  his  command  was  raised  to  7,000  foot 
and  7,000  horse,  and  he  received  the  title  of  Munlr-ul-mulk,  with  the 
appointment  of  head  steward.  He  was  subsequently  made  Diwan  of 
the  Deccan  SFtlmhs,  and  finally  retired  to  Aurangabad,  of  which  city  he 
was  governor. 

He  left  two  sons,  the  elder  of  whom,  Safdar  Khan  Ghayur  Jang,  was 
appointed  Diwan  of  the  Deccan  Subahs  in  1782,  with  the  title  of  Ashja- 
ul-mulk.  The  third  son  of  Ghayur  Jang,  from  whom  the  present 
members  of  the  family  are  directly  descended,  was  All  Zaman,  Munir- 
ul-mulk  II.  After  his  death  his  eldest  son  became  the  third  Munlr-ul- 
mulk,  and  was  married  successively  to  two  daughters  of  Mir  Alam 
(Saiyid  Abul  Kasim).  Mir  Alam,  who  was  thus  the  maternal  great- 
grandfather of  Sir  Salar  Jang,  belonged  to  the  Nuria  Saiyids  of  Shustar 
in  Persia.  His  father,  Saiyid  Razzak,  came  to  India  when  quite  young, 
and  settled  at  Hyderabad,  where  Nizam  All  Khan  bestowed  jdglrs 
upon  him.  Mir  Alam  acted  as  vakil  between  the  British  envoy  and 
the  Hyderabad  minister  in  1784.  Two  years  later  he  went  to  Calcutta 
as  the  Nizam's  representative,  and  in  1791  he  was  sent  to  Lord 
Cornwailis  to  discuss  the  peace  proposals  between  Tipu  Sultan  and  the 
allies.  He  commanded  the  Nizam's  troops  in  the  campaign  of  1799 
against  Tipu,  and  in  1804  was  made  minister  after  the  death  of  Azam- 
ul-Umara.  After  his  death  in  1808,  he  was  succeeded  as  minister  by 
his  son-in-law,  Munir-ul-mulk  III. 

Sir  Salar  Jang,  the  grandson  of  Munir-ul-mulk  III,  succeeded  his 
uncle  Siraj-ul-mulk  of  Hyderabad  in  1853.  For  thirty  years  the  story  of 
his  life  is  the  history  of  the  Hyderabad  State,  to  the  article  on  which 
reference  should  be  made.      For  his  eminent  services  he  was  made 

'  Vide  History  of  A^aivayets,  by  Nawab  Aziz  Jang,  published  at  Hyderabad,  131 3 
Fasli  (1904'. 


II 


SALEM  DISTRICT  395 

G.C.S.I.,  and  during  a  visit  to  England  in  1876  he  received  the  D.C.L. 
degree  at  Oxford,  and  the  freedom  of  the  City  of  London.  In  1884 
the  Nizam  appointed  the  elder  son  of  Sir  Salar  Jang  as  minister,  who, 
however,  resigned  in  1887,  and  died  two  years  later,  leaving  an  infant 
son,  Nawab  Yiisuf  All  Khan  Bahadur  Salar  Jang,  who  is  now  the  only 
direct  representative  of  this  distinguished  family. 

Sale. — South-western  township  of  Myingyan  District,  Upper  Burma, 
lying  along  the  Irrawaddy,  between  20°  32'  and  20°  56'  N.  and  94°  43' 
and  95°  2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  498  square  miles.  The  soil  is  poor  ; 
near  the  river  late  sesamum  is  the  chief  crop,  while  on  the  less  fertile 
lands  farther  from  the  stream  the  staple  is  early  sesamum,  followed  by 
millet,  beans,  or  lu.  The  population  was  45,394  in  1891,  and  33,993 
in  1901,  distributed  in  157  villages.  Sale  (population,  2,514),  a  village 
on  the  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and  a  port  of  call  for  river  steamers, 
is  the  head-quarters.  In  1903-4  the  area  cultivated  was  113  square 
miles,  and  the  land  revenue  and  thathaineda  amounted  to  Rs,  46,000. 

Salem  District. — An  inland  District  in  the  south  of  the  Madras 
Presidency,  lying  between  11°  1'  and  12°  54'  N.  and  77°  29'  and  79° 
2'  E.,  with  an  area  of  7,530  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Mysore  and  North  Arcot;  on  the  east  by  North  and  South  Arcot 
and  Trichinopoly  ;  on  the  south  by  Trichinopoly  and  Coimbatore  ;  and 
on  the  west  by  Coimbatore  and  the  State  of  Mysore. 

Salem  is  made  up  of  three  distinct  tracts  of  country,  which  were 
formerly  known  as  the  Balaghat,  the  Baramahal,  and  the  Talaghat. 
The  Balaghat,  consisting  of  the  Hosur  taluk,  is 
situated  on  the  Mysore  table-land  and  is  the  most  asoects 
elevated  portion  of  the  District,  the  greater  part  of  it 
being  3,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  Baramahal  is  the  next  step  in 
descent,  and  its  extensive  plain  comprises  the  Krishnagiri,  Dharmapuri, 
Tiruppattur,  and  Uttangarai  taluks.  Of  these,  Krishnagiri  slopes  from 
2,000  down  to  1,300  feet,  which  is  the  general  level  of  the  other  three. 
An  almost  unbroken  chain  of  hills,  traversing  the  District  a  little  south 
of  its  centre  from  east-south-east  to  west-north-west,  separates  this  tract 
from  the  Talaghat.  The  latter,  comprising  the  Salem,  Atur,  Namakkal, 
and  Tiruchengodu  taluks,  is,  as  its  name  imports,  below  the  Eastern 
Ghats,  and  descends  from  a  maxinmm  of  about  1,200  feet  in  the  Salem 
taluk  to  the  level  of  the  plains  of  the  Carnatic  on  the  east  and  south. 
The  southern  Talaghat  is  marked  by  three  most  striking  masses  of 
rock,  all  alike  more  or  less  bare  of  vegetation  :  namely,  the  walled  and 
battlemented  height  of  Namakkal,  the  crescent-topped  hill-fortress  of 
Tiruchengodu,  and  the  great,  square,  white  mass  of  Sankaridrug. 
From  it,  over  a  saddle  on  the  north-western  base  of  the  Kollaimalais, 
an  unsuspected  ghat,  guarded  by  a  huge  statue  of  Hanuman,  descends 
into  the  gardens  of  Namagiripet  and  Rasipur.      Emerging  from   this 

VOL.  XXI.  C  C 


396  SALEM  DISTRICT 

valley,  which  is  shut  in  by  the  Bodamalais,  one  reaches  the  higher 
plateau  of  the  northern  Talaghat,  studded  from  end  to  end  with 
numerous  isolated  hills.  Particularly  striking  are  the  serrated  ridge 
of  the  Kanjamalai  outlined  sharply  against  the  south-western  sky, 
and  the  peaks  of  the  Godumalai  which  rise  boldly  on  the  east  towards 
the  Atur  valley.  Much  mineral  wealth  lies  hidden  in  these  hills  \  their 
iron  is  exceedingly  rich,  and  valuable  beds  of  white  magnesite,  which 
local  tradition  declares  to  be  the  bones  of  the  legendary  bird  Jatayu, 
crop  out  among  the  hills  on  either  side  of  the  railway  before  it  enters 
Salem  city. 

The  great  mountain  screen  above  referred  to,  which  stretches  across 
the  District  with  the  Shevaroys  as  its  centre,  is  pierced  by  four  passes 
giving  access  from  the  Talaghat  to  the  Baramahal.  The  easternmost 
of  these  is  the  Kottapatti  pass,  leading  to  the  village  of  the  same  name 
at  the  head  of  a  lovely  valley  stretching  away  to  the  historic  ghat  of 
Changama  (Chengam),  through  which  flows  the  trade  from  the  north 
into  the  ancient  mart  of  Tiruvannamalai.  This  Kottapatti  pass 
separates  the  Tenandamalai  from  the  range  of  the  Kalrayans.  On 
either  side  of  the  Shevaroys  is  a  ghat  leading  to  the  two  great  land- 
marks of  the  Baramahal  country.  The  trunk  road  over  the  eastern, 
or  Manjavadi  ghdt^  passes  to  the  left  of  the  Chitteri  hills  and  winds 
round  Harur  towards  the  sacred  heights  of  Tirthamalai  (3,500  feet). 
On  the  west,  the  railway,  toiling  up  the  Morurpatti  ghat,  keeps  the 
Vattalamalai  to  the  left  and  runs  past  the  sharp  peak  of  Mukkanur 
(4,000  feet).  The  w-esternmost,  or  Toppur  pass,  leads  to  the  rolling 
downs  of  Dharmapuri. 

On  the  north-east  of  the  Baramahal  the  Javadis  hang  like  a  curtain. 
From  the  breezy  top  of  Kambugudi  (3,840  feet)  there  is  a  fine  view 
of  the  fertile  Alangayam  valley,  of  which  Munro  wrote,  'There  is 
nothing  to  be  compared  to  it  in  England,  nor,  what  you  will  think 
higher  praise,  in  Scotland.'  A  rifle-shot  carries  across  from  the  Javadis 
to  the  Yelagiri,  which  is  more  healthy,  and  deserves  to  be  more 
popular,  than  the  other  minor  hill  ranges.  An  extensive  view  of  the 
whole  Baramahal  country  is  obtained  from  this  hill.  On  the  right 
gleam  the  white  minarets  of  Vaniyambadi,  above  the  dark  groves  of 
coco-nut  that  stretch  away  on  both  sides  of  the  Palar.  To  the  left 
the  great  red  plain  heaves  into  billows,  and  its  many  rocky  hills  seem 
to  surge  against  the  mountain  guard  of  the  Balaghat,  from  which  the 
country  rises  tier  over  tier  to  the  Mysore  plateau. 

The  Melagiris,  the  chief  hill  range  of  the  Balaghat,  attain  a  height 
of  over  4,500  feet  at  their  southern  extremity.  Sandal-wood  and 
valuable  timber  abound  here,  as  well  as  in  the  Denkanikota  jungles. 
The  rolling  uplands  of  the  Balaghat  or  Hosur  tdliik  are  admirably 
adapted  ft)r  pasture  ;  and  abundant  forage  is  available  at  the  Ca\alr}- 


PHYSICAL   ASPECTS  397 

Remount  Depot  at  Mattagiri,  which,  with  its  paddocks  and  hedgerows 
and  the  green  lanes  between,  recalls  the  familiar  features  of  an  English 
landscape. 

The  river  systems  of  Salem  are  four  in  number.  The  chief  stream 
in  the  District  is  the  Cauvery,  which  flows  along  its  western  and 
southern  boundaries,  separating  it  from  Coimbatore,  and  is  joined  by 
the  Sanatkumaranadi,  the  Sarabhanganadi,  the  Tirumanimuttar,  the 
Karuvattar,  and  the  Aiyar  rivers.  The  second  system  may  be  called 
the  Vellar  system  ;  to  it  belong  the  Vasishtanadi  and  the  Swetanadi, 
which  drain  two  parallel  valleys  running  east  and  west  in  the  Atur  taluk, 
the  former  carrying  off  the  drainage  of  the  Kalrayans  and  the  latter  that 
of  the  KoUaimalais  and  Pachaimalais.  The  third  system  is  that  of 
the  PoNNAiYAR,  which  flows  through  the  Balaghat  and  Baramahal  to 
the  east  coast.  The  last  and  smallest  system  is  that  of  the  Palar, 
which  traverses  the  northern  corner  of  Tiruppattur. 

Geologically,  Salem  is  covered  with  gneisses  and  crystalline  schists 
belonging  to  the  older  and  younger  Archaeans  of  Southern  India.  The 
quartz-magnesite  schists  of  the  Kanjamalai,  Tirthamalai,  KoUaimalais, 
and  the  Javadis,  beds  of  great  thickness  with  an  average  of  40  per  cent, 
richness  in  iron,  are  included  in  the  latter  class  ;  and  the  former  is 
represented  by  the  lower  platform  of  mixed  gneisses,  chiefly  micaceous 
and  hornblendic,  partially  laid  bare  in  the  plains  round  Salem  cit)-. 
The  more  massive  plutonic  Archaeans  associated  with  the  mixed 
gneisses  comprise  the  charnockite  series  of  granulites,  well  developed 
in  the  rugged  masses  of  the  Shevaroys  and  elsewhere,  on  the  eastern 
borders  of  which  occurs  a  line  of  exposures  of  corundum  ;  the  biotite 
gneissose  granite  of  the  Baramahal,  which  builds  the  sharp  cones  and 
drugs  of  that  country  ;  and  the  mottled  gneiss  of  Uttangarai.  The 
only  rocks  of  later  age  than  these  Archaeans  are  a  scattered  set  of 
younger  intrusives  of  considerable  interest,  including  an  enormous 
number  of  rock  types.  Among  them  are  the  dunites,  the  magne- 
site  of  the  Chalk  Hills,  and  some  acid  pegmatites  containing  good 
mica. 

Varying  so  considerably  in  altitude  and  in  rainfall,  the  District 
naturally  contains  a  wide  range  of  flora.  On  the  lowest  levels  are  the 
usual  Coromandel  plants,  while  at  Yercaud  on  the  Shevaroys  English 
fruits,  flowers,  and  vegetables  flourish  wonderfully,  and  the  wild  flora  is 
almost  that  of  zones  of  heavy  rainfall. 

The  District  is  not  rich  in  large  game.  Tigers  and  bears  are  met 
with  in  the  hills  adjoining  the  Cauvery  in  the  Hosur  and  Dharmapuri 
taluks,  and  an  elephant  occasionally  wanders  across  from  the  Coimba- 
tore side.  Bears  and  leopards  have  been  almost  exterminated  on  the 
Shevaroys,  and  deer  are  now  unknown  there.  The  Malaiyalis  on  all 
the  hill  ranges  have  enormously  reduced  the  quantity  of  small  game  j 

c  c  2 


39H  SALEM  DISTRICT 

but  the  jungles  in  tlie  plains  still  abound  with  hares,  partridges,  quail, 
and  spur-fowl. 

In  Hosur,  which  is  on  the  Mysore  table-land,  the  climate  is  as 
pleasant  as  that  of  Bangalore,  while  in  the  lower  Talaghat  section  the 
heat  is  as  oppressive  as  in  the  adjoining  District  of  Trichinopoly.  The 
mean  temperature  of  Salem  city  is  82°.  The  Shevaroys  from  their 
elevation  naturally  boast  the  coolest  climate  in  the  District,  the  thermo- 
meter rarely  rising  above  75°  in  the  hottest  months.  The  other  hill 
ranges  approach  the  Shevaroys  in  this  respect,  but  they  are  not  free 
from  the  drawback  of  malaria. 

The  rainfall  is  fairly  evenly  distributed  through  the  plains,  except  in 
the  two  southernmost  taluks  of  Namakkal  and  Tiruchengodu,  which 
get  an  average  of  only  30  inches  annually  as  compared  with  the  District 
average  of  32.  The  Shevaroys  are  quite  exceptional,  receiving  nearly 
double  as  much  as  the  rest  of  the  District. 

Floods  on  a  large  scale  are  unknown.  In  the  autumn  of  1874  heavy 
freshes  occurred  in  the  Palar,  washing  away  the  railway  line  in  several 
places  and  sweeping  away  a  portion  of  the  town  of  Vaniyambadi.  This 
disaster  was  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  in  November,  1903,  when,  owing 
to  the  bursting  of  tanks  in  Mysore,  the  river  rose  even  higher  than 
before  and  two  suburbs  of  the  town  were  completely  ruined. 

The  District  was  never  an  independent  political  entity.  In  early 
times  the  north  of  it  was  ruled  by  the  Pallavas,  while  the  south  was 
included  in  the  Kongu  kingdom.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury the  Chola  kings  annexed  the  whole,  and  subse- 
quently it  passed  under  the  Hoysala  Ballalas.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  it  was  conquered  by  the  Hindu  kings  of  Vijayanagar,  whose 
sway  was  acknowledged  till  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  District  passed  under  the  Naik  rulers  of  Madura.  From  1652 
parts  of  it  began  to  fall  under  the  power  of  the  rising  Hindu  dynasty  of 
Mysore,  till  the  whole  was  absorbed  by  Chikka  Deva  Raja,  the  greatest 
of  them,  about  1688-90.  In  1761  Haidar  All  usurped  the  Mysore 
throne.  In  1767  the  English  reduced  portions  of  the  Baramahal  and 
carried  on,  both  within  and  without  it,  a  desultory  warfare  with  Haidar, 
in  which  the  latter  had  the  advantage.  By  the  treaty  which  concluded 
the  war  with  Haidar's  son  Tipu  in  1792  the  whole  District,  excepting 
the  Hosur  td/iik,  fell  to  the  Company.  After  the  fall  of  Seringapatam 
and  the  death  of  Tipu  in  1 799,  Hosur  also  passed  to  the  English, 

The  chief  objects  of  antiquarian  interest  in  the  District  are  the  old 
fortresses  at  Krishnagiri,  Namakkal,  and  Sankaridrug. 

Excepting  Coimbatore,  Salem  is  the  most  sparsely  peopled  of  the 

southern  Districts  of  the  Presidency.     The  numbers 

ut  the  four   enumerations   were   as   follows:  (1871) 

1.966,995.  (1881)  1,599.595.  (1891)  1,962,591,  and  (1901)  2,204,974. 


POPULATION 


399 


The  decrease  of  19  per  cent,  in  i88t  was  due  to  the  severity  of  the 
great  famine  of  1876-8  ;  but  the  recovery  was  rapid  during  the  ten  years 
ending  1901,  the  rate  of  increase  being  higher  than  in  any  District  except 
Kistna.  Salem  consists  of  nine  taluks,  the  head-quarters  of  which  are 
at  the  places  from  which  each  is  named.  Statistics  of  them  according 
to  the  Census  of  1901  are  appended  : — 


!     2i 

Nu 

mber  of 

U 

'~     «'i 

0 

s 

c 

^« 

1,  —      0-  _ 

'oS-^ 

2*2 

oi 

'Z 

§6 

rt  0  0  ~  o\ 

1)  0  al  IJ 

TSluk. 

< 

c 

0 
H 

1 

a. 
0 

Oh 

3  3 

Percent 

\'ariati 

populat 

tween 

and  I 

Numl 

persons 

read 

wri 

Hosur 

1,217 

750 

184,971 

152 

+  18-7 

6,656 

Krishnagiri 

6.59 

I 

507 

175,300 

266 

+  15-2 

6,198 

Dharmapuri 

941 

I 

580 

206,030 

219 

+  15-.^ 

6,336 

Tinippattur 

.^.39 

2 

323 

205,986 

382 

+    9-1 

10,263 

Uttangarai 

910 

... 

451 

159,419 

175 

+  15-4 

4.3M 

.Salem 

1,071 

2 

470 

470,181 

439 

+  12.7 

21,613 

Atur  . 

841 

I 

17.'. 

199475 

237 

+     8-9 

7,159 

Namakkal 

715 

2 

356 

313,895 

439 

+    4-6 

14,612 

Tiruchengodu    . 
District  total 

637 

7.530 

I 
T  1 

166 

289,717 

455 

+  i6-5 

7,234 
84,385 

3,782 

2,204,974 

293 

+  12.4 

The  chief  of  the  eleven  towns  in  the  District  are  the  three  munici- 
palities of  Salem,  Tiruppattur,  and  Vaniyambadi.  Of  the  population 
in  1901,  2,116,768,  or  96  per  cent.,  were  Hindus;  68,497  were  Musal- 
mans;  and  19,642  Christians.  Tamil  is  the  mother  tongue  of  71  per 
cent,  of  the  people,  and  Telugu  is  spoken  by  19  per  cent.  In  Hosur 
Kanarese  is  the  vernacular  of  a  considerable  proportion. 

As  elsewhere,  agriculture  is  the  predominant  occupation.  The  largest 
castes  are  all  agriculturists,  the  most  numerous  being  the  Pallis 
(516,000),  Vellalans  (396,000),  and  Paraiyans  (185,000).  Brahmans 
are  unusually  few,  numbering  only  15  in  every  1,000  of  the  population, 
or  less  than  in  any  area  except  the  three  Agencies  in  the  north  of  the 
Presidency  and  the  Nilgiris.  The  shepherd  Kurumbans  (50,000)  and 
the  Kuravans,  a  wandering  people  who  have  a  bad  reputation  for  crime, 
are  more  numerous  in  Salem  than  in  any  other  District. 

Of  the  total  Christian  population  in  1901,  18,701  were  natives  of 
India.  Of  the  various  sects,  the  Roman  Catholics  greatly  preponderate, 
numbering  17,624.  The  foundation  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the 
District  was  laid  in  1630  by  the  celebrated  Robert  de  Nobili.  He 
landed  in  India  in  1606,  and  after  foimding  the  well-known  mission  at 
Madura,  turned  his  steps  to  the  north.  He  passed  by  Trichinopoly 
to  Sendamangalam,  which  was  then  the  capital  of  a  ruler  called 
Ramachandra  Naik,  tributary  to  the  king  of  Madura.  This  chief 
welcomed  the  missionary  and  gave  him  a  site  on  which  to  build  a  church. 


400  SALEM  DISTRICT 

De  Nobili  then  pushed  on  to  Salem,  where  after  a  period  of  trouble  he 
succeeded  in  winning  over  the  ruler  there,  who  was  also  tributary  to 
Madura,  in  1630.  A  church  was  built  in  the  place  about  this  time. 
The  mission  then  developed  towards  the  north,  and  a  centre  was 
established  at  Koilur  in  the  Dharmapuri  iahik.  By  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  number  of  converts  had  reached  a  large  total, 
but  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  1773  checked  the  advance  of 
Christianity  ;  and  when  Tipu  Sultan  ascended  the  throne  of  Mysore 
he  ordered  the  Koilur  church  to  be  destroyed  and  deported  half  the 
Christian  population  to  Mysore,  where  he  sought  to  convert  them 
forcibly  to  Muhammadanism.  The  work,  however,  went  on  in  spite 
of  these  difficulties,  and  at  the  present  day  there  are  Catholic  mission- 
aries in  every  part  of  the  District.  Of  the  Protestant  missions  the 
most  important  is  the  London  Mission,  which  began  work  in  Salem  as 
early  as  1827. 

Agriculturally,  the  northern  and  central  sections  of  the  District  are 
generally  inferior  in  soil  and  situation  to  the  southern  or  Talaghat 
section.  The  prevailing  soil  everywhere  is  red  sand, 
which  occupies  as  much  as  82  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
area.  This,  however,  is  not  the  ordinary  barren  red  sand  of  Trichi- 
nopoly  and  South  Arcot,  but  is  of  superior  quality  and  as  good  as  red 
loam.  The  first  three  months  of  the  year  are  usually  rainless,  and  the 
fall  in  April  is  not  great.  The  May  rainfall,  the  early  showers  which 
precede  the  south-west  monsoon,  is  usually  copious  and  marks  the 
commencement  of  the  cultivation  season,  which  goes  on  through  the 
south-west  monsoon,  on  which  the  District  mainly  depends,  and 
the  north-east  rains.  The  months  during  which  the  largest  sowings 
are  made  are  July,  August,  and  October ;  but  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  western  tdbiks  a  wide  area  of  crop  is  put  in  even  before  June. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  District  is  composed  of  zaminddri  and 
i7idm  land,  which  covers  2,052  square  miles  out  of  the  total  area  of 
7,530.  Returns  are  not  available  for  the  zamJnddris,  and  the  area  for 
which  statistics  are  collected  is  5,675  square  miles.  The  table  on 
the  next  page  gives  details  for  1903-4,  areas  being  in  square  miles. 

The  characteristic  food-grains  of  the  District  are  rdgi  {Eleusine 
coracana)  and  cambu  {Pennisetum  typhoideum),  the  former,  generally 
speaking,  being  most  prominent  in  the  northern  and  central  sections 
and  the  latter  in  the  southern  portion.  The  area  under  them  in  1903-4 
was  431  and  516  square  miles  respectively.  Rice  is  grown  largely  in 
Namakkal  and  Atur.  The  former  tdh/k  contains  a  large  area  of 
plantain  and  sugar-cane  cultivation,  and  the  latter  of  areca-nut  and 
coco-nut.  Of  special  crops,  the  coffee  on  the  Shevaroy  Hills  is  the 
most  important.  It  covers  an  area  of  9,000  acres,  most  of  it  grown 
under  European  supervision.     In    Atur  3,000  acres  are  occupied  by 


AGRICULTURE 


401 


indigo,  and  in  the  Hosur  tahik  mulberry  is  grown  to  a  small  extent  for 
rearing  silkworms. 


Taluk. 

Area 
shown  in 
accounts. 

Cultivated. 

Irrigated. 

Cultivable 
waste. 

Forests. 

Hosur    . 

Krishnagiri    . 

Dhamiapuri  . 
1  Tinippatlur  . 
1  Uttangarai     . 

Salem    . 

Atur     . 

Namakkal 

Tiruchengodn 

873 

377 
738 

371 
764 

963 
789 
374 
426 

22S 
226 
289 
129 
2  So 
446 
241 
210 
326 

16 
23 

25 
17 
>3 

55 
52 
38 
52 

129 
22 
62 
6 
92 
28 

122 
72 
25 

388 

54 
293 
159 
304 
281 
114 
50 
13 

Total 

5,675 

2,375 

291 

558 

1,656 

After  the  great  famine  of  1876-8  there  was  a  considerable  decrease 
in  the  area  of  the  holdings  in  the  District,  the  decline  being  as  much 
as  20  per  cent.  Since  then,  however,  the  country  has  rapidly  recovered, 
and  the  area  now  occupied  is  one-fifth  more  than  it  was  before  that 
famine.  No  marked  improvements  can,  however,  be  said  to  have  been 
made  in  the  local  methods  of  agriculture.  Only  in  the  extension  of 
well-irrigation  has  a  real  advance  been  made.  During  the  sixteen  years 
ending  1904  nearly  2\  lakhs  was  advanced  to  ryots  under  the  Land 
Improvements  Loans  Act,  and  this  has  been  chiefly  laid  out  in  digging 
or  repairing  wells. 

Owing  to  the  number  of  hill  ranges  and  the  large  area  of  waste  land 
affording  pasture,  the  District  is  generally  rich  in  live-stock.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  the  Hosur  tdhk,  where  the  climate  is  favourable 
to  the  growth  of  grass,  and  almost  every  ryot  keeps  attached  to  his 
holding  a  small  patch  of  grass  land  which  is  reserved  for  pasture.  The 
chief  breeds  of  cattle  are  three  :  namely,  the  Mysore,  the  Alambadi, 
and  the  Tiruchengodu.  The  first  is  raised  in  the  forests  bordering  on 
the  Cauvery  in  the  Hosur  tdluk^  and  the  second  in  the  forest  land  of 
the  Pennagaram  side  of  the  Dharmapuri  tdluk.  The  bullocks  of  both 
these  breeds  are  in  much  demand  for  draught,  and  command  good 
prices  at  the  great  cattle  fairs  of  the  southern  Districts.  The  cows 
of  the  Tiruchengodu  breed,  though  small,  are  good  milkers.  The 
sheep  are  of  the  two  well-known  classes  called  Kurumba  and  Sem- 
meri.  The  former  is  woolly  and  black  or  brown  ;  the  latter,  hairy  and 
reddish  in  colour.  Government  encourages  pony-breeding  by  main- 
taining stallions  at  different  stations  in  the  District,  and  there  is 
a  Remount  Depot  at  Hosur. 

Of  the  total  cultivated  area  of  the  ryotwdri  and  *  minor  indm  '  land, 
291  square  miles,  or  14  per  cent.,  were  irrigated  in  1903-4.  Of  this, 
122  square  miles  (42  per  cent.)  were  supplied  from  wells;  11  t   square 


402  SALEM  DISTRICT 

miles  (38  per  cent.)  from  tanks ;  and  only  44  square  miles  (15  per  cent.) 
from  canals.  The  Cauvery  is  of  little  use  for  irrigation  till  it  enters  the 
Namakkal  Id/uk.  Here  three  channels  of  a  total  length  of  49  miles 
take  off  from  it,  and  convert  more  than  7,000  acres,  which  would 
otherwise  be  barren,  into  a  fertile  area  that  has  with  justice  been  called 
the  garden  of  the  District. 

The  tributaries  of  the  Cauvery  have  not  the  same  constant  flow  as 
the  main  stream,  and  the  land  watered  by  them  is  liable  to  failure  of 
crops,  owing  to  short  supply  of  water.  The  Vellar  river  system  in  the 
Atur  fahik  possesses  a  perennial  supply  and  irrigates  an  area  of  9,400 
acres.  The  Ponnaiyar,  with  its  tributaries,  waters  26,000  acres,  in- 
cluding both  direct  and  indirect  irrigation.  Of  the  1,842  Government 
tanks  in  the  District,  the  only  one  large  enough  to  be  worth  mention 
is  the  Barur  tank  fed  by  the  Ponnaiyar,  which  irrigates  about  3,000 
acres.  Of  the  tanks,  79  per  cent,  are  small  reservoirs  supplying  less 
than  50  acres  each,  and  32  per  cent,  of  these  irrigate  less  than  10  acres 
each.  In  these  small  works  the  supply  is  very  precarious,  and  has  to 
be  supplemented  by  wells  to  enable  a  '  wet  crop '  to  be  raised.  Accord- 
ingly, we  find  that  there  are  25,152  wells  in  'wet'  land,  a  larger  number 
than  that  in  any  other  District  in  the  Presidency  except  North  and 
South  Arcot.  Wells  in  '  dry '  land  are  also  numerous,  numbering 
53,878,  a  figure  exceeded  only  by  Coimbatore  and  North  and  South 
Arcot.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  Talaghat  and  least  so  in  the 
Balaghat.  The  garden  land  supplied  by  them  is  cultivated  with  great 
skill,  and  the  crops  raised  are  heavier  and  more  valuable  than  those 
irrigated  from  channels  or  tanks.  In  the  Rasipur  side  of  the  Salem 
ia/i/k  this  garden  cultivation  is  especially  excellent. 

The  chief  forests  form  a  horseshoe  belt  across  the  District  from  west 
to  east,  beginning  on  the  mass  of  hills  bordering  the  Cauvery  and 
thence  extending  along  the  Shevaroys  in  the  centre 
of  the  District  to  the  Chitteri  and  Kalrayan  hills. 
The  Pachaimalais  and  Kollaimalais  form  a  separate  block  in  the 
south-eastern  corner  of  the  District.  The  area  of 'reserved'  forests 
is  1,560  square  miles,  and  that  of  'reserved'  lands  96  square  miles, 
Sandal-wood  flourishes  on  almost  every  hill  range,  but  is  most  abundant 
on  the  Javadis  and  the  Chitteris  at  an  altitude  of  2,000  to  3,000  feet. 
Teak,  black-wood  {Da/i>ergia  /a/ifo/ia),  acha  {Nardivickia  l>hiata),  't'efigai 
{Pterocarpus  Maisupiuvi),  Tennina/ia  iomentosa,  satin-wood  {C/i/oro- 
xyhn  S7(iiefe/n'a),  Anogeissiis  /a/ifo/ia,  and  other  timber  trees  grow  to  a 
moderate  size  in  all  the  forests,  while  along  the  streams  in  the  hills  some 
large  specimens  of  Termi7ia/ia  Arjuna  are  found.  At  the  foot,  and  on 
the  lower  slopes,  of  all  the  hill  ranges  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  District 
are  numbers  of  tamarind-trees  growing  to  a  remarkable  height  and 
size.     The  forests  within   15  miles  of  the  Madras   Railway  were  until 


II 


MINERALS  403 

recently  worked  principally  for  the  supply  of  fuel  for  the  line.  The 
work  in  the  Forest  department  has  now  become  so  heavy  that  an 
additional  Forest  ofificer  has  been  posted  to  the  District. 

Salem  is  rich  in  minerals.  Gold,  iron,  saltpetre,  mica,  corundum, 
rubies,  magnesite,  and  crystalline  limestone  have  all  been  found. 
Dr.  Heyne,   an    Indian  medical  ofificer  who   toured 

iViiTiftrfl  Is 

throughout  the  country  in  the  early  part  of  last 
century,  refers  to  some  gold-mines  at  Siddharkovil,  a  place  conjectured 
to  be  near  Rayakottai.  Gold  used  to  be  found  also  at  the  foot  of  the 
Kanjamalai  hills,  people  washing  for  it  in  the  streams  after  the  rains. 
No  gold  in  workable  quantities  is  found  now.  Licences  have  been 
taken  out  for  prospecting  in  the  village  of  Kanavaypudur  in  the  Salem 
taluk  and  in  the  Kurumbapatti  '  reserved  '  forests  of  the  Shevaroy  Hills, 
but  the  search  has  been  without  result. 

Magnetic  iron  ore  of  an  excellent  quality  is  found  in  practically 
inexhaustible  abundance  in  the  District,  but  the  scarcity  of  cheap  fuel 
prevents  its  utilization.  The  iron  beds  occur  chiefly  in  five  groups  : 
the  Kanjamalai  group  at  the  hill  of  the  same  name,  the  Godumalai 
group  in  the  Salem-Atur  valley,  the  Singipatti  group  4  miles  south  of 
the  Godumalai,  the  Kollaimalai-Talamalai  group  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Namakkal  taluk,  and  the  Tirthamalai  group  in  the  Uttangarai  taluk. 
In  the  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  these  beds  the  ore  is  smelted  in  the 
primitive  Indian  fashion,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  formerly  when 
there  was  no  competition  from  English  wrought  iron.  Salem  iron  was 
famous  in  the  early  years  of  the  last  century,  and  a  company  known  as 
the  Porto  Novo  Iron  Company  worked  the  ores  on  the  Kanjamalai 
hills  at  foundries  established  at  Porto  Novo  in  South  Arcot  and  at 
Pularnpatti  on  the  Cauvery  in  the  Tiruchengodu  taluk.  As  the  jungles 
diminished,  charcoal  for  smelting  had  to  be  brought  from  longer 
distances,  and  the  working  expenses  became  too  heavy  to  allow  of  any 
profit.  The  company  finally  ceased  to  exist  about  1867.  At  present 
two  firms  hold  prospecting  licences  for  the  Kanjamalai  iron,  but 
nothing  has  yet  been  done  to  develop  it. 

Saltpetre  gives  work  to  three  refineries  at  Mohanur  in  the  Namakkal 
taluk.  Mica-mining  operations  were  conducted  for  a  short  time  in 
the  villages  of  Chinnamanali  and  Cholasiramani,  but  have  ceased. 
Corundum  is  extracted  under  a  mining  lease  at  Komarapalaiyam  in 
the  Namakkal  taluk.  In  a  number  of  other  villages  also  corundum 
is  found,  and  the  right  to  quarry  for  it  is  annually  leased  out  by 
auction.  Along  with  the  corundum,  rubies  are  sometimes  discovered. 
Magnesite  is  being  extracted  under  a  mining  lease  in  five  Government 
villages  and  one  J dglr  village  in  the  Salem  taluk.  The  area  leased  is 
1,131  acres,  and  in  1904  the  out-turn  was  174  tons  in  Government 
land  and  1,141  tons  in  jagir  land. 


404  SALEM    DISTRICT 

The  chief  industry  in  Salem  is  weaving,  which  is  carried  on  in  every 

town  or  village  of  any  importance.     Pure  silk  cloths  and  good  white 

cloths    with    silk  borders   are   woven,    especially   in 

coiJmi^'ic?t?ons.  ^^^^"'  ^^^7'  '''"'^  exported  to  other  Districts  ;  but  the 
industry  is  now  on  the  decline,  owing  to  the  competi- 
tion of  English  machine-made  goods.  Kurumbans  or  shepherds  weave 
coarse  blankets  from  sheep's  wool  all  over  the  District,  and  a  superior 
variety  of  these  articles  is  made  at  Lattivadi  in  the  Namakkal  tdhk. 
Indigo  is  manufactured  in  fifty-five  factories  in  Atur  and  two  in  Tirup- 
pattur.  Several  tanneries  for  the  curing  of  hides  exist  at  Tiruppattur, 
Vaniyambadi,  and  elsewhere.  The  latter  town  is  a  centre  of  the 
Labbais,  a  mixed  race  of  Musalmans  who  do  most  of  the  skin  trade 
in  the  Presidency.  Potstone  utensils  are  made  at  Omalur  in  the 
Salem  taluk. 

Rice,  wheat,  castor-oil  seed,  castor-oil,  gh'i^  cloth,  betel-leaves, 
plantains,  areca-nuts,  indigo,  tamarinds,  mangoes,  coffee,  and  cattle  are 
among  the  chief  exports  of  the  District.  Salt,  pepper,  tobacco,  yarn, 
and  ground-nuts  are  some  of  the  principal  articles  imported.  Cattle 
are  driven  from  Hosur  and  Dharmapuri  to  the  great  cattle-markets  in 
South  Arcot,  Trichinopoly,  Madura,  and  Tinnevelly.  The  mangoes 
go  to  Madras  and  Bombay  (where  they  are  sold  as  Bombay  mangoes), 
and  betel-leaves  and  plantains  are  sent  to  the  same  places.  The 
internal  trade  of  the  country  is  carried  on  at  weekly  markets,  which 
are  held  at  most  of  the  large  villages  and  form  a  feature  of  social 
life  in  this  District.  They  are  usually  managed  by  the  local  boards, 
which  in  1903-4  collected  Rs.  15,800  in  market  fees. 

The  south-west  line  of  the  Madras  Railway  enters  the  District  near 
Vaniyambadi  and  runs  through  to  the  Cauvery,  which  it  crosses  by 
a  fine  bridge  near  Erode.  A  narrow-gauge  (2^  feet)  railway  between 
Morappur  and  Dharmapuri  is  under  construction,  and  a  similar  line 
between  Tiruppattur  and  Krishnagiri  has  recently  been  opened.  The 
District  has  the  largest  mileage  of  roads  (2,020  miles)  in  the  Presidency 
except  Coimbatore,  but  only  582  miles  are  metalled.  There  are 
avenues  of  trees  along  1,311  miles  of  road,  which  are  managed  by 
the  local  boards. 

During  the  last  century  the   District    experienced  two  famines,    in 

1833  and   1876-8,  and  serious   scarcity    in    1866  and   189 1-2.      The 

^      .  most   terrible   calamity   was  the  famine  of    1876-8, 

Famine.  j     ,     •        •       ,    •  ,  r  ^    1 

and   durmg  its    height    as    many   as  369,137  of  the 

population    were   being   gratuitously  fed.     The   expenditure    on  relief 

works  was   28  lakhs,   on  gratuitous  relief  32  lakhs,  and  the   indirect 

expenditure   and    loss   of    revenue   amounted   to   a   further    sum   of 

8|  lakhs. 

The  District  is  arranged   into  four  administrative  subdivisions,  two 


ADMINISTRATION  405 

of  which  are  usually  in  charge  of  members  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service, 

and  the   other  two  of  Deputy-Collectors  recruited  in  India.     These 

are  Hosur,  comprising  the  Hosur,  Krishnaoiri,  and 

T-v  ^-7  i      T--  .1^-  •  •      T-  Administration. 

Dharmapuri  taluks  ;  Tiruppattur,  comprismg  Tirup- 

PATTUR  and  Uttangarai  ;  Namakkal,  comprising  Namakkal  and  TiRU- 
CHENGODU  ;  and  Salem,  comprising  Salem  and  Atur.  A  tahstlddr\s  in 
charge  of  each  tdhik,  but  in  only  four  taluks  is  there  a  stationary  sub- 
magistrate  for  magisterial  work,  which  in  the  other  five  is  entrusted 
to  a  sheristaddr  magistrate.  Ten  diQ.\}wi-^ -tahsllddrs  are  subordinate  to 
the  tahsllddrs.  There  is  the  usual  staff  of  .superior  officers,  with  the 
addition  of  the  second  District  Forest  officer  already  mentioned. 

Civil  justice  is  administered  by  the  District  Judge,  aided  by  a  Sub- 
Judge  who  sits  for  part  of  the  year  at  Salem,  and  by  five  District 
Munsifs.  Criminal  justice  is  dispensed  by  the  Sessions  Court,  the 
divisional  magistrates  (who  have  the  usual  first-class  powers),  and  the 
subordinate  second-class  magistrates.  Much  of  the  crime  is  committed 
by  the  Pallis  and  the  Kuravans  already  referred  to.  Dacoity  has  been 
more  than  usually  prevalent  of  late. 

The  land  revenue  history  of  Salem  District  is  of  considerable  interest, 
as  the  beginnings  of  the  ryotwdri  system  were  evolved  here.  The  old 
native  method  was  to  rent  out  the  country  by  villages  or  other  small 
areas  to  the  village  headmen  or  other  lessees.  Captain  Read,  the  first 
Collector  of  the  District,  took  charge  in  1792.  Government  instructed 
him  to  effect  a  settlement  for  a  term  of  five  years  with  the  cultivators 
themselves.  To  do  this.  Read,  with  the  co-operation  of  his  Assistants, 
Graham  and  Munro,  surveyed  all  the  land  in  the  District  and  fixed 
a  money  assessment  on  the  fields,  the  operations  being  completed  in 
five  years  (1793-7).  During  the  time  the  survey  was  in  progress  a 
change  had  come  over  Read's  opinions  ;  and,  on  December  10,  1796, 
he  issued  his  famous  order  which  gave  ryots  the  option  of  holding  their 
land  either  under  the  old  lease  system  or  under  annual  settlements,  the 
latter  mode  allowing  them  to  give  up  early  in  each  year  whatever  land 
they  might  not  care  to  cultivate  that  year,  and  to  retain  for  any  length 
of  time  such  land  as  they  wished,  subject  to  the  payment  of  assessment 
for  it.  This  was  the  germ  of  the  ryotwdri  system  ;  but  the  revenue 
system  of  Bengal,  where  Lord  Cornwallis  had  introduced  permanent 
setdement,  was  extended  to  Madras  by  the  Government  of  India.  In 
1802  Read's  7yotwdri  settlement  was  cancelled  by  the  appointment 
of  a  special  commissioner,  who,  in  the  next  three  years,  parcelled  out 
the  District  into  205  mittahs  (estates),  which  were  sold  at  auction  to  the 
highest  bidders  and  held  on  fixed  rents.  The  zamlnddri  system  was 
a  failure.  Owing  to  the  high  rates  at  which  the  rents  were  fixed  and 
the  low  margin  of  profit  remaining  to  the  ntittahddrs,  the  sums  payable 
by  them  fell  into  arrear,  their  mittahs  were  in  consequence  attached 


4o6 


SALEM  DTSTRICT 


and  sold,  and  for  want  of  other  bidders  Government  had  to  buy  them 
in.  The  estates  thus  broken  up  were  then  administered  under  the 
ryohvdri  system.  The  evil  of  excessive  assessments  was  partially 
reduced  by  orders  issued  in  1816  and  1818;  but  systematic  reduction 
was  not  effected  before  1859,  when  the  Government  sanctioned  pro- 
posals of  the  Collector  for  a  percentage  abatement  in  the  old  rates. 
The  reduction  gave  a  wonderful  impetus  to  cultivation,  and  the  land 
revenue  rose  with  a  bound.  In  i860  a  scientific  survey  of  the  District 
was  begun,  and  in  1871  a  new  revenue  settlement  was  inaugurated. 
The  survey  showed  that  the  extent  of  holdings  in  the  old  accounts  had 
been  understated  by  15  per  cent.,  and  the  settlement  resulted  in  an 
increase  of  revenue  amounting  to  4  per  cent.  The  average  assessment 
per  acre  on  'wet'  land  was  Rs.  3-15-1  in  the  north  of  the  District 
and  Rs.  5-1-9  in  the  south,  the  maximum  being  Rs.  10-8  and  the 
minimum  Rs.  1-4.  On  'dry'  land  the  average  assessment  was 
R.  0-14-5  in  the  north  and  Rs.  1-5-6  in  the  south,  the  maximum 
being  Rs.  5  and  the  minimum  4  annas  per  acre.  This  settlement  is 
now  being  revised  in  five  taluks  by  a  resurvey  and  a  resettlement. 

The  revenue  from  land  and  the  total  revenue  in  recent  years  are 
given  below,  in  thousands  of  rupees  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

igoo-i. 

1903-4- 

Land  revenue    . 
Total  revenue   . 

25.40 
31,50 

26,70 
39,09 

27,84 
45.67 

29,01 
49.39 

Local  affairs  are  managed  by  a  District  board  and  four  taluk  boards, 
the  jurisdictions  of  the  latter  corresponding  to  the  four  subdivisions 
above  mentioned.  The  total  expenditure  of  these  bodies  in  1903-4 
was  4-27  lakhs,  the  chief  items  being  roads  and  buildings  (1.85  lakhs), 
education  (Rs.  71,000),  and  medical  services  (1-30  lakhs).  The  chief 
source  of  income  is,  as  usual,  the  land  cess.  The  towns  of  SALE>r, 
TiRUPPATTUR,  and  Vaniyambadi  are  municipalities  and  are  excluded 
from  the  control  of  the  boards.    The  number  of  Unions  is  thirty-four. 

The  police  force  is  managed  by  a  District  Superintendent  aided  by 
an  Assistant.  There  are  102  police  stations;  and  the  force  in  1904 
numbered  1,285  constables  and  head  constables,  working  under  21  in- 
spectors, and  2,475  rural  police.  Besides  the  Salem  jail,  which  is  one 
of  the  seven  Central  prisons  of  the  Province  and  can  hold  548  convicts, 
there  are  18  subsidiary  jails,  which  can  collectively  accommodate 
201  male  and  ti8  female  prisoners. 

In  education  Salem  is  very  backward.  The  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation who  can  read  and  write  is  scarcely  more  than  half  the  average 
for  the  southern  Districts  as  a  whole,  and  the  only  areas  in  the  Madras 
Presidency  which  at  the  Census  of  190  t  contained  a  smaller  percentage 


SALEM   TALUK  407 

of  literate  persons  were  Vizagapatam  and  the  three  Agency  Tracts.  Of 
every  1,000  persons  in  the  District,  only  38  were  classed  as  literate. 
The  number  of  literate  persons  among  the  males  and  females  of  the 
District  amounted  to  74  and  4  per  1,000  respectively.  Only  5  per 
cent,  of  the  males  had  received  any  education  in  English,  and  the 
number  of  girls  (including  all  the  Europeans  and  Eurasians)  who  could 
read  and  write  that  language  was  only  500.  Education  was  most 
advanced  in  the  Tiruppattur,  Salem,  and  Namakkal  taluks,  and  least  so 
in  Uttangarai  and  Tiruchengodu.  The  total  number  of  pupils  under 
instruction  in  1880-1  was  9,316  ;  in  1890-1,  23,171  ;  in  1900-1,  31,976; 
and  in  1903-4,  31,231.  The  number  of  educational  institutions  of  all 
kinds  in  the  District  in  1904  was  972,  of  which  847  were  classed  as 
public  and  the  remainder  as  private.  Of  the  former,  1 1  were  managed 
by  the  Educational  department,  197  by  the  local  boards,  and  26  by  the 
municipalities,  while  288  were  aided  from  Local  funds  and  325  were 
unaided.  These  institutions  include  the  municipal  college  at  Salem, 
25  secondary,  8x8  primary,  and  3  training  and  other  special  schools. 
The  number  of  girls  in  these  was  4,023.  As  usual,  the  majority  of  the 
pupils  were  only  in  primary  classes.  Of  the  male  population  of  school- 
going  age  15  per  cent,  were  in  the  primary  stage  of  instruction,  and 
of  the  female  population  of  the  same  age  2  per  cent.  The  corre- 
sponding percentages  for  Musalmans  were  72  and  12.  Panchama 
pupils  numbering  1,344  were  being  educated  in  51  schools  main- 
tained especially  for  them.  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in 
1903-4  was  Rs.  1,73,000,  of  which  Rs.  69,000  was  derived  from  fees. 
Of  the  total,  7 1  per  cent,  was  devoted  to  primary  education. 

The  District  possesses  11  hospitals  and  15  dispensaries,  with  accom- 
modation for  114  in-patients.  In  1903  the  number  of  cases  treated 
was  203,000,  of  whom  1,400  were  in-patients,  and  7,100  operations 
were  performed.  The  expenditure  was  Rs.  56,000,  met  chiefly  from 
Local  and  municipal  funds. 

In  1903-4  the  number  of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  27 
per  1,000  of  the  population,  the  mean  for  the  Presidency  being  30. 
Vaccination  is  compulsory  in  all  the  municipalities  and  Unions,  and 
in  the  village  of  Komarapalaiyam  in  the  Tiruchengodu  taluk. 

[H.  Le  Fanu,  District  Manual  {i^^t,).] 

Salem  Subdivision. — Subdivision  of  Salem  District,  Madras, 
consisting  of  the  S.\lem  and  AtOr  taluks. 

Salem  Taluk.— Central  fdluk  of  Salem  Distiict,  Madras,  lying 
between  11°  23' and  11°  59'  N,  and  77°  46'  and  78°  29'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  1,071  square  miles.  The  greater  part  is  composed  of  a  series 
of  valleys  from  5  to  12  miles  wide  shut  in  by  lofty  ranges  of  hills,  the 
chief  being  the  Shevaroys,  on  which  stands  the  sanitarium  of  Yer- 
CAUD,  the  Toppur  hills,  and  the  Tenandamalai  on  the  north,  which 


4o8  SALEM   TALUK 

separate  the  taluk  from  the  Baramahal.  The  chief  river  is  the  Tiru- 
maniniuttar,  which  rises  in  the  Shevaroys  and  flows  through  the  city 
of  Saletn  to  Tiruchengodu  and  on  to  Namakkal,  where  it  enters  the 
Cauvery.  But  the  mainstay  of  irrigation  is  the  wells  sunk  by  the 
ryots  themselves,  which  are  more  numerous  here  than  in  any  other 
portion  of  the  District.  The  taluk  had  a  population  of  470,181  in 
1901,  as  compared  with  417,379  in  1891.  It  contains  476  villages 
and  two  towns:  Salem  City  (population,  70.621),  the  head-quarters 
of  the  District  and  tdluk^  and  Rasipur  (11,512),  the  head-quarters 
of  a  ^&{^\xi-^-tahsllddr.  The  taluk  is  rich  in  minerals,  containing  the 
famous  iron  deposits  of  Kanjamalai  and  the  magnesite  of  the  Chalk 
HILL.-5.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted 
to  Rs.  6,41,000. 

Salem  City. — Head-quarters  of  the  District  and  taluk  of  the  same 
name  in  Madras,  situated  in  11°  39'  N.  and  78°  10'  E.,  206  miles  by 
rail  from  Madras  city.  It  lies  in  a  picturesque  valley,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Shevaroys  and  on  the  south  by  the  Jarugumalais.  The 
Tirumanimuttar  river,  flowing  through  this  valley,  contributes  to  the 
wealth  of  greenness  which  is  the  great  charm  of  the  landscape.  Salem 
contains  the  usual  offices,  a  small  college,  and  one  of  the  seven  Central 
jails  of  the  Presidency.  The  residences  of  the  officials,  except  of  the 
Collector  whose  house  is  in  the  native  quarter,  are  pleasantly  situated 
on  high  ground  along  the  road  to  Yercaud,  which  is  only  14  miles 
distant  by  the  old  bridle-path.  The  city  is  straggling  and  extensive, 
being  about  4  miles  long  and  3  broad.  Its  population  in  1901  was 
70,621,  and  it  ranks  as  the  fifth  largest  place  in  the  Presidency.  Of 
the  total,  Hindus  numbered  63,444,  Musalmans  5,811,  and  Christians 
1,365.  In  1871  the  population  was  50,012;  in  i88r,  50,667;  and  in 
1891,  67,710.  A  serious  riot  took  place  here  in  1882  between  the 
Muhammadans  and  the  Hindus,  the  question  involved  being  the  old 
one  of  the  right  of  a  Hindu  procession  to  pass  a  Musalman  mosque. 
Salem  was  made  a  municipality  in  1S66.  The  receipts  and  expenditure 
during  the  ten  years  ending  1902-3  averaged  about  Rs.  77,000  and 
Rs.  70,000  respectively.  In  1903-4  the  income  was  Rs.  90,000,  the 
chief  items  being  house  and  land  taxes  ;  and  the  expenditure  was 
Rs  1,00,000,  including  medical  services  and  sanitation  (Rs.  39,000), 
education  (Rs.  23,000),  and  public  works  (Rs.  20,000).  The  great  want 
of  the  city  is  a  proper  water-supply.  Several  schemes  have  been  inves- 
tigated, but  only  recently  has  a  promising  one  been  discovered.  Salem 
formerly  had  an  evil  reputation  as  a  hotbed  of  cholera,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1875  there  were  2,039  attacks  and  840  deaths  in  the  short 
space  of  six  weeks.  Weaving  in  silk  and  cotton  is  the  chief  local 
industry,  but  is  on  the  decline.  In  the  distress  of  189 1-2  the  weavers 
suffered    greatly    and   emigrated    in    large    numbers,   the    demand   for 


SALIN   TOWN  409 

their  productions  having  fallen  oif  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  money 
among  their  usual  clients.  Government  started  a  special  scheme  for 
their  relief,  by  undertaking  to  purchase  cloths  from  them  on  a  system 
which  left  them  a  margin  for  subsistence. 

Salempur-Majhauli. — Two  adjacent  villages  in  the  Deoria  tahstl 
of  Gorakhpur  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  on  either  bank  of  the 
Little  Gandak  river,  in  26°  17'  N.  and  83°  57'  E.  Salempur  is  now 
a  station  on  the  Bengal  and  North-W^estern  Railway.  The  two  villages 
are  treated  as  one  town;  population  (1901),  6,051.  Majhauli,  on  the 
east,  is  the  residence  of  the  Raja  of  the  Majhauli  estate,  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  District,  the  Raja  being  recognized  as  head 
of  the  Bisen  Rajputs.  The  estate  deteriorated  owing  to  improvidence 
and  continued  bad  administration,  but  has  recovered  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Court  of  ^\'ards.  The  fort  is  a  modern  brick  building 
of  conuuonplace  appearance.  The  joint  town  is  administered  under 
Act  XX  of  1856,  with  an  income  of  about  Rs.  700.  There  is  no 
trade.  A  school  in  Salempur  has  43  pupils,  and  another  in  Majhauli 
115.     There  is  also  a  girls'  school  with  27  pupils  at  Majhauli. 

Salin  Subdivision. — Northern  subdivision  of  Minbu  District, 
Upper  Burma,  comprising  the  Salin  and  Sidoktava  townships. 

Salin  Township. — North-eastern  township  of  Minbu  District, 
Upper  Burma,  lying  along  the  Irrawaddy,  between  20°  20'  and  21*^ 
2'  N.  and  94°  18'  and  94°  53'  E.,  with  an  area  of  741  square  miles. 
The  chief  feature  of  the  township  is  its  ancient  irrigation  system,  the 
main  canal,  from  which  numerous  branches  run,  being  about  18  miles 
in  length.  The  country  is  flat  and  fertile.  The  population  was  98,922 
in  1891,  and  100,737  in  1901,  distributed  in  one  town,  Salin  (popula- 
tion, 7,957);  the  head-quarters,  and  464  villages,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  Sinbyugyun  (population,  5,487),  near  the  Irrawaddy.  This 
is  by  far  the  most  densely  populated  township  in  the  District.  The 
area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  186  square  miles,  and  the  land  revenue 
and  thathameda  amounted  to  Rs.  3,18,000. 

Salin  Town. — Head-quarters  of  a  subdivision  in  Minbu  District, 
Upper  Burma,  situated  in  20°  35'  N.  and  94°  40'  E.,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Salin  river,  9  miles  west  of  the  Irrawaddy.  It  is  on  low  ground, 
surrounded  by  well-irrigated  paddy-fields,  and  is  connected  with  Sin- 
byugyun and  the  Irrawaddy  by  a  good  metalled  road.  According  to 
tradition  the  town  was  founded  about  a.  d.  1200  by  king  Narapadisithu 
of  Pagan,  and  the  ruins  of  the  Burmese  wall  are  still  to  be  traced. 
The  neighbourhood  was  the  scene  of  active  operations  at  the  time  of 
the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma.  After  its  occupation  in  1886  the 
town  was  besieged  for  three  dajs  by  the  pongyi  rebel  Oktama,  who  was 
driven  off  by  a  force  under  Major  Atkinson,  but  that  officer  fell  in 
the  attack. 


410 


SALIN  TOIVN 


The  populatiun  of  Salin  has  fallen  of  late  in  the  same  way  as  has 
that  of  other  towns  in  the  dry  zone,  the  actual  decrease  having  been 
from  10,345  in  1891  to  7,957  in  1901.  The  town  has  a  large  bazar 
and  is  a  thriving  trade  centre,  for  nearly  all  the  business  from  the 
Mon  river  comes  to  Salin  and  not  to  Minbu,  and  the  main  road  from 
the  An  pass  enters  the  town  from  the  west.  Salin  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1887.  The  income  and  expenditure  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1901  averaged  Rs.  21,000.  In  1903-4  the  receipts  were 
Rs.  21,000,  including  Rs.  12,000  from  the  municipal  bazar,  and  Rs.  4,000 
house  and  land  tax;  and  the  expenditure  was  Rs.  23,000,  the  principal 
items  of  outlay  being  Rs.  7,700  spent  on  conservancy,  Rs.  4,700  on 
public  works,  and  Rs.  2,500  on  the  hospital.  The  municipal  hospital 
has  accommodation  for  22  in-patients. 

Salingyi. — Township  of  the  Lower  Chindwin  District,  Upper 
Burma,  lying  between  21°  49'  and  22°  8'  N.  and  94°  47'  and  95*^  10'  E., 
along  the  western  bank  of  the  Chindwin,  with  an  area  of  296  square 
miles.  The  population  was  43,658  in  1891,  and  50,814  in  1901,  dis- 
tributed in  211  villages,  Salingyi  (population,  1,503),  a  village  south  of 
Monywa  and  a  few  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Chindwin,  being  the  head- 
quarters. The  township  is  flat,  except  in  the  north-east,  and  is  well 
watered  and  thickly  populated.  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  black 
cotton  soil,  which  produces  rice,  jowdr,  sesamum,  peas,  gram,  and 
cotton.  The  area  cultivated  in  1903-4  was  147  square  miles,  and  the 
land  revenue  and  thathaineda  amounted  to  Rs.  1,19,900. 

Salkhia. — Northern  suburb  of  Howrah  City,  Bengal,  containing 
docks.  Government  salt  godowns,  salt  crushing-mills,  jute-presses,  and 
engineering  and  iron  works. 

Salon  Tahsil. — South-eastern  tahsil  of  Rae  Barell  District,  United 
Provinces,  comprising  the  parganas  of  Parshadepur,  Rokha  Jais,  and 
Salon,  and  lying  between  25°  49' and  26*^  19'  N.  and  81°  13' and  81° 
37'  E.,  north  of  the  Ganges,  with  an  area  of  440  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion fell  from  262,120  in  1891  to  261,270  in  1901.  There  are  444 
villages  and  two  towns:  Jais  (population,  12,688)  and  Salon  (5,170), 
the  /rt/w// head-quarters.  The  demand  for  land  revenue  in  1903-4  was 
Rs.  3,67,000,  and  for  cesses  Rs.  60,000.  The  density  of  population, 
594  persons  per  square  mile,  is  almost  that  of  the  District  as  a  whole. 
Across  the  centre  of  the  tahsil  flows  the  Sai  from  west  to  east.  Its 
banks  are  fringed  by  light  sandy  soil,  while  to  the  north  is  found 
a  great  plain  of  stiff  clay  land,  producing  rice.  South  of  the  Sai  lies 
a  series  of  jhils  which  once  formed  a  river-bed,  and  along  the  Ganges 
is  a  rich  alluvial  tract  producing  magnificent  spring  crops.  In  1903-4 
the  area  under  cultivation  was  241  square  miles,  of  which  123  were 
irrigated.  Wells  serve  three-fourths  of  the  irrigated  area,  tanks  or  jhils 
being  the  other  source  of  supply. 


SALSETTE  411 

Salon  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahs'il  of  the  same  name  in 
Rae  BarelT  District,  United  Provinces,  situated  in  26°  2'  N.  and  81° 
28'  E.,  on  a  metalled  road  from  Rae  Barell  town.  Population  (1901), 
5,170.  The  town  is  traditionally  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Salivahan,  ancestor  of  the  Bais,  and  was  for  long  held  by  the  Bhars. 
Under  Oudh  rule  Salon  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  chakid,  and  on 
annexation  the  name  was  preserved  till  after  the  Mutiny,  when  the 
District  officer  was  posted  to  Rae  Barell.  Salon  contains  a  dispensary 
and  a  branch  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission,  besides  the  usual 
offices.  It  is  also  the  residence  of  the  manager  of  a  large  Muham- 
madan  religious  endowment.  A  grant  of  land  was  first  given  by 
Aurangzeb,  and  additions  were  made  by  subsequent  rulers.  Two- 
fifths  of  the  income  are  spent  on  a  school  and  charitable  gifts,  and  the 
accounts  are  submitted  to  the  District  officer.  A  middle  vernacular 
school  is  attended  by  80  pupils. 

Salsette. — Large  island  forming  the  Salsette  tdluka  of  Thana 
District,  Bombay,  lying  between  18°  53'  and  19°  19'  N.  and  72° 
47'  and  73°  3'  E.,  extending  16  miles  from  Bandra  northwards  to  the 
Bassein  inlet,  and  connected  with  Bombay  Island  by  bridge  and  cause- 
way. The  area  is  246  square  miles  ;  and  the  island  contains  three 
towns,  Bandra  (population,  22,075),  Thana  (r6,oii\  the  head-quarters 
of  the  District  and  tdluka.,  and  Kurla  (14,831);  and  128  villages, 
including  Vesava  (5,426).  The  population  in  1901  was  146,933,  com- 
pared with  126,518  in  189 1.  It  is  the  most  densely  populated  taluka  in 
the  District,  with  an  average  of  597  persons  per  square  mile.  Land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  amounted  to  about  2-6  lakhs.  Along 
the  centre  of  the  island,  from  north  to  south,  runs  a  broad  range  of 
hills,  which,  after  subsiding  into  the  plain  near  Kurla,  crops  up  again 
in  the  southernmost  point  of  the  island  at  Trombay.  The  central  and 
highest,  Thana  peak,  is  1,530  feet  above  sea-level;  and  on  the  north  is 
a  detached  sharp  peak  1,500  feet  high.  Spurs  from  the  main  range  run 
west  towards  the  sea,  while  the  low  lands  are  much  intersected  by  tidal 
creeks,  which,  especially  on  the  north-west,  split  the  sea-face  of  the 
tdluka  into  small  islands.  There  are  no  large  fresh-water  streams ;  but 
the  supply  of  water  from  wells  is  of  fair  quality  and  pretty  constant. 
The  staple  crop  is  rice ;  and  most  of  the  uplands  are  reserved  for  grass 
for  the  Bombay  market.  The  coast  abounds  in  coco-nut  groves,  and 
the  palmyra  palm  grows  plentifully  in  most  parts.  This  beautiful  island 
is  rich  in  rice-fields,  diversified  by  jungles,  and  studded  with  hills. 
The  ruins  of  Portuguese  churches,  convents,  and  villas  attest  its  former 
importance,  and  its  antiquities  at  Kanheri  still  form  a  subject  of 
interest.  Eighteen  estates,  consisting  of  53  villages,  were  granted  in 
Salsette  by  the  East  India  Company,  some  freehold,  and  others  on 
payment  of  rent,   and  liable  to  assessment.     The  lines  of  the  Great 

VOL.  XXI.  D  d 


412  SALSETTE 

Indian  Peninsula  Railway  and  of  the  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central 
India  Railway  traverse  the  tdiuka.  Since  the  first  outbreak  of  plague 
in  Bombay,  a  large  number  of  villa  residences  have  been  built  by  the 
wealthier  merchants  of  Bombay  near  the  latter  railway.  An  additional 
Assistant  Collector  was  appointed  in  1902  to  plan  new  roads  and 
control  building  operations.  Seized  by  the  Portuguese  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  Salsette  should  have  passed  to  the  English,  together 
with  Bombay  Island,  as  part  of  the  marriage  portion  of  the  queen  of 
Charles  11.  The  Portuguese  in  1662,  however,  contested  its  transfer 
under  the  marriage  treaty,  and  it  was  not  till  more  than  a  century  after- 
wards that  possession  was  obtained.  The  Marathas  took  it  from  the 
declining  Portuguese  in  1739.  The  English  captured  it  from  the 
Marathas  in  December,  1774,  and  it  was  formally  annexed  to  the  East 
India  Company's  dominions  in  1782  by  the  Treaty  of  Salbai. 

Salt  Range. — Hill  system  in  the  Jhelum,  Shahpur,  and  Mianwali 
Districts  of  the  Punjab,  deriving  its  name  from  its  extensive  deposits 
of  rock-salt,  and  extending   from  32°  41'  to  32°  56'  N.  and  71''  42' 
to  73°  E.     It  was  known  to  the  ancient  historians  as  the  Makhialah 
hills   and  the  Koh-i-Jud.     The  main  chain  commences  in  the  lofty 
hill  of  Chail,  3,701  feet  above  sea-level,  which  is  formed  by  the  con- 
vergence of  three  spurs  cropping  up  from  the  Jhelum  river,  and  divided 
from  the  Himalayan  outliers  only  by  the  intervening  river  valley.     The 
most   northern  of   these  spurs  rises  abruptly  from,  the  river   bank  at 
Sultanpur,  and  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  Jhelum  at  a  distance  of 
25  miles,  till  it  joins  the  main  chain  after  a  course  of  40  miles.     It 
bears  the  local  name  of  the  Nlli  hills.     The  second  spur,  known  as 
the  Rohtas  range,  runs  half-way  between  the  Nili  hills  and  the  river, 
parallel  with  both.     It  contains  the  fort  of  Rohtas,  and  the  hill  of 
TiLLA  in  Jhelum  District,  3,242  feet  above  sea-level.     The  third  or 
Pabbi  spur  rises  south  of  the  Jhelum,  dips  for  a  while  on  approaching 
the  river  valley,  and    rises  once  more  on    the    northern   bank   till  it 
finally  unites  with  the  two  other  chains  in  the  central  peak  of  Chail. 
Thence   the  united  range   runs  westward  in  two  parallel   ridges,  till 
it  culminates  in  the   Sakesar    hill,  on   which    is  the  sanitarium   for 
the    Districts  of   Shahpur,  Attock,    and    Mianwali,   5,010  feet   above 
sea-level.     Between  these  lines  of  hills,  and  topped  by  their  highest 
summits,  lies  an  elevated  and  fertile  table-land,   picturesquely  inter- 
sected   by  ravines    and  peaks.     In  the   midst    nestles    the  beautiful 
lake   of  Kallar    Kahar.      The    streams    which   take  their  rise  in  the 
table-land,  however,  become  brackish   before  reaching  the  lowlands. 
From   Jhelum   District   the   Salt   Range  stretches   into  Shahpur  and 
Mianwali.     The  long  spur   which   projects   into   Shahpur   terminates 
in   the   hill   of  Sakesar,  and   comprises   a   number  of  separate  rock- 
bound  alluvial  basins,  the  largest  of  which,  the  Sun  and  Khabbakki 


SALT  RANGE  413 

valleys,  occupy  the  northern  half,  while  the  south  consists  of  a 
broken  country,  cut  up  into  tiny  glens  and  ravines  by  a  network  of 
limestone  ridges  and  connecting  spurs.  In  the  northern  portion  of 
the  range,  the  drainage  gathers  into  small  lakes,  and  trees  stud  the 
face  of  the  country;  but  southward,  the  streams  flow  through  barren 
and  stony  gorges,  interspersed  with  detached  masses  of  rock,  and 
covered  with  the  stunted  alkaline  plants  which  grow  on  soil  impreg- 
nated with  salt.  The  Mianwali  portion  of  the  range  runs  north- 
westward towards  the  Indus,  which  it  meets  at  Mari,  opposite  Kala- 
bagh,  and  rising  again  on  the  western  side  is  continued  in  the 
Khattak-Maidani  hills.  The  scenery  throughout  the  range  is  rugged 
and  often  sublime,  but  wanting  in  softness  and  beauty.  In  many 
parts  it  becomes  simply  barren  and  uninviting. 

The  beds  of  salt,  from  which  the  range  derives  its  name,  occur 
in  the  shape  of  solid  rock  on  the  slopes  of  this  table-land,  and  form 
the  largest  known  deposits  in  the  world.  The  mineral  is  quarried  at 
the  Mayo  Mines,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  village  of  Khewra, 
a  few  miles  north-east  of  Pind  Dadan  Khan  in  Jhelum  District,  at 
NuRPUR  in  Jhelum,  at  Warcha  in  Shahpur,  and  at  Kalabagh  in 
Mianwali  District.  Coal  also  occurs  in  the  Salt  Range  both  in  oolite 
and  Tertiary  strata  :  the  former  at  Kalabagh,  and  the  latter  between 
Jalalpur  and  Pind  Dadan  Khan.  It  is  of  inferior  quality,  however, 
consisting  of  a  brown  lignite,  difficult  to  burn  and  yielding  a  large 
proportion  of  ash.  Besides  salt  and  coal,  other  valuable  minerals  occur 
in  these  hills. 

Few  areas  in  India  are  of  greater  geological  interest  than  the  Salt 
Range,  the  sedimentary  rocks  in  which  have  yielded  fossils  ranging 
from  Cambrian  to  Tertiary,  while  the  deposits  of  rock-salt  constitute 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  with  which  the  Indian  geologist 
has  to  deal.  A  striking  feature  of  the  sedimentary  beds  is  their  marked 
variation  in  different  parts  of  the  range,  and  no  single  section  affords 
a  representative  sequence.  The  following  list  of  formations  is  compiled 
from  a  large  number  of  sections  seen  in  different  localities : — 

Conglomerates  and  sandstones  (Siwalik)         .        .        .        •  ]   it         t    f 
Sandstone  and  red  clay  (Nahan  or  lower  Siwalik)  .         .         .  j  '^PP^''  tertiary. 

Unconformity. 
Nummulitic  limestone,  underlain  by  shale,  sandstone,  and  coal      Lower  Tertiary. 

Unconformity. 
Whitish  sandstone  ........      Lower  Cretaceous. 

Dnrk  shales  and  limestone,  with  ammonites  and  belemnites    .      Jurassic. 

Unconformity. 
Limestone  with  ceratites  (upper  ceratite  limestone)         .        .  \ 
Sandstone  do.  (ceratite  sandstone)  .         .         .         •It  t  ' 

Marl  do.  (ceratite  mnrl)  ... 

Limestone         do.  (lower  ceratite  limestone) 

D  d  2 


4 14  SALT  RANGE 

Limestone  with  ammonites  and  brachiopods  (Chidrii  group, 
or  upper  Productus  limestone)    ...... 

Limestone  with  Xenaspis  and  brachiopods  (Virgal  group,  or  i    TTr,,^-    p 
middle  Productns  limestone)       ......  \      ^^ 

Sandstone  with  brachiopods  (Amb  group,  or  lower  Productns 
beds)  .......... 

Lavender  clay        .........' 

Speckled  sandstone        ....... 

Olive  sandstone     ........ 

Boulder-bed   ......... 


Lower  Permian, 

perhaps,  in  part, 
Upper  Carboniferous. 


Unconformity. 
Sandstone  with  pseudomorphs  after  salt  (Salt  pseudomorph  1 

zone'  .         .         .         .         .         ,         .         .         .         .  I    ^      ,    . 

Magnesian  sandstone j"  '-amDnan. 

Shales  with  obohis  and  trilobites     .         .         .         .         .         .  j 

Purple  sandstone    .......... 

Red  salt  marl,  with  rock-salt  and  gypsum      .         .         .         .  |  Age  unknown. 

[The  following  publications  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India  may 
be  consulted  :  Records,  vols,  xix,  pt.  ii ;  xxiv,  pts.  i  and  iv  ;  xxv,  pt. 
i ;  Memoirs,  vols,  xiv,  xvii,  pt.  ii ;  Palaeontologia  Indica,  Series  xiii, 
vols,  i,  pts.  i-vii ;  iv,  pts.  i,  ii ;  and  New  Series  i,  pt.  i.  Also  Neues 
fahrbuch  fur  Mineralogie,  d^c,  1896,  Bd.  ii,  p.  61  ;  and  1901,  Bd. 
xiv,  p.  369.] 

Salt-Water  Lake. — Swamp  in  the  head-quarters  subdivision  of  the 
District  of  the  Twenty-four  Parganas,  Bengal,  situated  about  5  miles 
east  of  Calcutta,  between  22°  28'  and  22°  36'  N.  and  88°  23'  and  88° 
28'  E.,  with  an  area  of  about  30  square  miles.  This  is  a  low  depression, 
which  is  being  gradually  filled  by  silt  deposits  of  the  tidal  channels 
that  intersect  it.  It  serves  as  a  cesspool  for  the  sewage  of  Calcutta. 
A  portion  of  the  lake  at  Dhapa  is  being  gradually  reclaimed  by  the 
deposit  of  street  refuse,  which  is  conveyed  out  daily  from  Calcutta 
by  a  municipal  railway. 

Salumbar. — Chief  town  of  an  estate  of  the  same  name  in  the 
State  of  Udaipur,  Rajputana,  situated  in  24°  9'  N.  and  74°  3'  E., 
about  40  miles  south-east  of  Udaipur  city.  Population  (1901),  4,692. 
A  masonry  wall  surrounds  the  town,  which  is  protected  on  the  north 
by  lofty  and  picturesque  hills  ;  and  one  of  these,  immediately  over- 
looking the  place,  is  surmounted  by  a  small  fort  and  outworks.  The 
palace  of  the  Rawat  is  on  the  edge  of  a  lake,  and  the  scenery  is 
altogether  very  charming.  The  estate,  which  consists  of  the  town  and 
237  villages,  yields  an  income  of  about  Rs.  80,000  and  pays  no  tribute. 
The  Rawat  of  Salumbar  is  the  head  of  the  Chondawat  family  of  the 
Sesodia  Rajputs,  and  ranks  fourth  among  the  nobles  of  Mewar.  Chonda 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Rana  Lakha,  and  in  1398  surrendered  his  right 
to  the  Mewar  gaddi  in  favour  of  his  younger  brother,  Mokal.  For 
many  years  the  Rawats  of  Salumbar  were  the  hereditary  ministers 
[bhdnjgai-ia)  of  the  State,  and  to  this  day  their  symbol,  the  lance,  is 
always  superadded  to  that  of  the  Maharana  on  all  deeds  of  grant. 


S A  LI  VEEN  DISTRICT  415 

Salur  Tahsil. —  Tahsil  in  Vizagapatani  District,  Madras,  lying  be- 
tween 18°  19'  and  18°  46'  N.  and  83°  3'  and  83°  22'  E.,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Eastern  Ghats  and  traversed  by  the  road  from  Vizianagram  to 
Jeypore.  It  lies  partly  within  the  Agency  tract,  the  area  of  the  ordinary 
portion  being  180,  and  of  the  Agency  part  200  square  miles:  total, 
380  square  miles.  The  population  in  1901  was  97,843,  compared 
with  88,836  in  1 89 1.  The  tahsil  contains  one  town,  Salur  (population, 
16,239),  the  head-quarters;  and  199  villages.  The  Agency  population 
consists  chiefly  of  Khonds  and  other  hill  tribes.  The  demand  for  land 
revenue  and  cesses  in  1903-4  was  Rs.  48,500. 

Salur  Town. — Head-quarters  of  the  tahsil  of  the  same  name  in 
Vizagapatani  District,  Madras,  situated  in  18°  31'  N.  and  83°  13'  E., 
at  the  foot  of  the  Ghats  on  the  road  from  the  Jeypore  estate  to 
Vizianagram.     Population  (1901),   16,239. 

Salween  District  (Burmese,  Thanhvin).-~K  hill  District  in  the 
extreme  north  of  the  Tenasserim  Division  of  Lower  Burma,  lying  be- 
tween 17°  17'  and  18°  41'  N.  and  96°  58'  and  97°  46'  E.,  with  an 
area  of  2,666  square  miles.  It  includes  the  whole  of  the  country 
between  the  Salween  on  the  east  and  the  Paunglaung  range  (the 
watershed  between  the  Sittang  and  the  Yunzalin  and  Bilin)  on  the 
west.  To  the  north  of  the  District  lies  Karenni ;  to  the  west  Toungoo 
District ;  to  the  south  and  south-east  Thaton  District ;  and  to  the 
east,  on  the  farther  side  of  the  Salween,  the  province  of  Chiengma  in 
Northern  Siam.  The  District  is  about  120  miles  long  by  40  to  50 
miles  broad  in  a  direct  line.  Its  distinctive  features 
are  the  long  narrow  valleys  into  which  it  is  divided  asoects 

by  ranges  of  hills,  having  a  general  direction  of 
north-north-west  and  south-south-east,  with  peaks  rising  to  3,000  and 
5,000  feet.  The  whole  country  is,  in  point  of  fact,  a  wilderness  of 
mountains,  and  the  valleys  may  more  properly  be  described  as  long 
winding  gorges,  in  which  the  view  is  naturally  very  limited.  The 
scenery  in  the  Yunzalin  valley  is  extremely  picturesque  ;  but,  owing 
to  the  nature  of  the  country,  it  is  confined  to  short  stretches  of  river 
and  hill,  a  picture  that  is  repeated  with  monotonous  iteration  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  valley.  The  pine  forests  that  clothe  the 
hills  farther  north,  however,  afford  some  variation  to  the  otherwise 
tedious  beauty  of  the  scenery  in  general. 

The  country  is  drained  by  three  main  rivers :  the  Salween,  which 
gives  the  District  its  name,  to  the  east ;  the  Yunzalin,  one  of  the 
Salween's  affluents,  in  the  centre ;  and  the  Bilin  to  the  west — all  fed 
by  innumerable  mountain  torrents  and  partaking  somewhat  of  the 
nature  of  their  turbulent  tributaries.  They  all  flow  in  a  south-south- 
easterly direction.  The  Yunzalin,  which  divides  the  District  into  two 
halves  east  and  west,  is  navigable  by  country  boats  as  far  as  l^apun,  the 


4r6  S A  LI  VEEN  DISTRICT 

head-quarters  of  the  District ;  the  Bilin  as  far  as  Pawota,  near  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  District ;  the  Sahveen,  which  forms  the  eastern 
border,  can  be  navigated,  notwithstanding  many  rapids,  by  native 
craft  throughout  as  much  of  its  course  as  Hes  within  the  District 
except  at  the  Hatgyi  (the  '  great  rapids '),  a  series  of  formidable  falls 
which  bar  the  passage  a  little  below  the  place  where  the  Thaungyin, 
the  north-eastern  boundary  of  Thaton  District,  flows  into  it  from  the 
east.  The  Bilin  is  not  an  affluent  of  the  Sahveen,  but  enters  the 
sea  in  Thaton  District. 

Salween  is  essentially  a  hill  tract,  and  is  traversed  in  a  general 
north  and  south  direction  by  ranges  of  hills.  The  country  is  com- 
posed of  several  groups  of  beds  of  Palaeozoic  age,  together  with 
metamorphic  rocks,  the  whole  traversed  by  granite  and  elvan  dikes 
in  which  gneiss,  limestone,  and  hard  calcareous  sandstone  are 
associated.  The  last  two  are  probably  of  the  Moulmein  group  and  of 
Carboniferous  age. 

A  dense  mass  of  tropical  forest  trees  covers  the  lower  or  southern 
portions  of  the  narrow  river  basins,  becoming  interspersed  higher  up 
the  valleys  and  on  the  hill-slopes  with  mixed  forest  trees,  including 
teak,  padauk  {Fterocarpi/s  india/s),  pyingado  {Xylia  dolabriformis\ 
and  Albizzia  Lebbek,  with  species  of  oak,  fig,  bamboo,  &c.  Orchids 
and  ferns  abound  on  the  trees  and  rocks.  In  the  northern  part  of 
the  District  large  forests  of  pine  occur  at  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  and 
upwards.    The  species  met  with  are  Pinus  Khasya  and  Pinus  Merhisii. 

The  District  abounds  in  wild  animals,  principally  deer  and  wild 
hog.  Tigers  and  leopards  are  numerous,  and  bears  are  also  fre- 
quently met  with,  but  large  game  of  other  kinds  is  not  common. 

The  climate  in  the  valleys,  generally  speaking,  is  moist,  hot,  and 
unhealthy,  and  has  a  peculiarly  enervating  efiect  on  persons  not 
acclimatized  to  it.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  Yunzalin  valley,  how- 
ever, at  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  and  upwards,  in  the  pine-forest 
tract,  pleasanter  and  healthier  conditions  prevail,  though  even  there 
the  climate  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  In  the  north  the  thermo- 
meter falls  to  freezing-point  at  night  in  the  month  of  January.  At 
Papun  the  temperature  in  the  cold  season  ranges  between  65°  and 
80° ;  in  the  hot  season,  between  75°  and  97°. 

The  rainfall,  which  averages  114  inches  annually,  is  evenly  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  District.  There  is  practically  no  rain  during 
the  first  four  and  the  last  two  months  of  the  year. 

Very   little  is   known   of  the  early  history  of  Salween.     Tradition 

asserts  lliat  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country  was  formerly  inhabited 

.  by  Yun   (Lao)  Shans,  who  have  given  their   name 

to  the  Yunzalin    river.     Most  of  these  are  said  to 

have  been    brought    away    by  Alaungpaya    on    his    return    from    the 


POPULATION  417 

invasion  of  Siani,  and  to  have  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Syriam.  The  Karens  appear  to  have  afterwards  occupied  and 
obtained  possession  of  the  country,  but  were  some  time  later  sub- 
jugated by  the  chief  of  Chiengmai,  a  state  at  that  time  independent 
of  Siam.  The  remains  of  extensive  fortifications,  said  to  have  been 
constructed  by  the  Shans,  and  probably  of  this  period,  are  still  to 
be  seen  in  the  District.  After  the  second  Burmese  War  the  country 
became  British  territory  and  was  included  in  the  old  Shwegyin 
District,  but  remained  for  some  years  in  a  very  disturbed  state.  A 
Karen,  who  called  himself  a  Minlaung  ('the  incarnation  of  a  prince  '), 
collected  around  him  a  number  of  adventurers  from  the  neighbouring 
Shan  and  Karen  areas,  and  reduced  the  tract  to  complete  subjection. 
This  outlaw  and  his  followers,  however,  did  not  remain  long  in  the 
country.  They  were  driven  out  by  a  mixed  British  force  of  troops 
and  police,  aided  by  friendly  Karens,  and  were  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  Chiengmai.  Disturbances  recommenced  in  1867  ;  a  chief 
named  Di  Pa  attacked  and  plundered  several  villages,  and  threatened 
Papun,  and  dacoities  continued  for  some  time.  For  the  better 
administration  of  the  tract  it  was  accordingly  separated  from 
Shwegyin  in  1872,  and  placed  in  charge  of  an  officer  immediately 
under  the  Commissioner  of  Tenasserim  ;  and  from  this  date  the 
area  ceased  to  be  styled  the  Yunzalin  {Rivonzakng)  subdivision  of 
Shwegyin  District,  and  became  the  Salween  District,  with  Papun  as 
its  head-quarters. 

The  population  in  1901  was  37,837,  distributed  in  246  villages, 
the  head-quarters  being  at  Papun  Village.  Its  numbers  have  been 
increasing  steadily  during  the  past  thirty  years.  The 
total  was  26,117  i"  1872;  30,009  in  1881;  and 
31,439  in  1891.  The  District  forms  a  single  township  called  Papun. 
Of  the  total  population,  23,500  (or  62  per  cent.)  are  Animists  and 
13,800  (or  nearly  37  per  cent.)  Buddhists.  The  majority  of  the 
Karen  population  are  animistic  in  their  belief,  but  the  number  pro- 
fessing Buddhism  is  increasing  yearly.  Karen  is  the  prevailing 
language. 

The  Karens  form  the  most  important  racial  element,  numbering 
33,400.  The  Shans  come  next  with  2,816,  while  the  Burman  total 
is  only  953.  The  other  races  are  for  the  most  part  Taungthus  and 
Talaings.  There  are  a  few  natives  of  India.  About  86  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population  were  engaged  in  or  dependent  upon  agriculture 
in  1901.  Of  this  number,  nearly  seven-eighths  Avere  supported  by 
tau7igya  cultivation  alone. 

In  1901  native  Christians  numbered  174,  of  whom  133  were 
Baptists,  chiefly  converted  Karens.  These  latter  possess  a  chapel  at 
Papun,  and  support  a  native  pastor. 


4iS  SALWEE.V  DISTRICT 

The  soil  is  uniformly  poor,  except  here  and  there  in  the  Bilin  and 
Yunzalin  valleys,  where  loamy  alluvial  deposits  have  been  formed. 
The  rainfall  is  always  ample  and  seasonable,  but 
the  extremely  hilly  nature  of  the  country  and  its 
poor  soil  afford  little  scope  for  agricultural  development.  Owing  to 
the  conformation  of  the  surface,  taungya  cultivation  naturally  takes 
the  first  place.  Le  or  '  wet '  rice  cultivation  is  carried  on  in  the 
small  area  of  low-lying  plain  land  in  the  valleys.  It  is  mostly  in 
the  form  of  terraced  fields,  flooded  by  means  of  drains  connected 
with  hill  streams  or  torrents,  which,  dependent  on  the  rainfall,  can 
supply  the  necessary  water  for  this  kind  of  cultivation  only  during 
the  monsoon  period.  Areca  palms  are  grown  in  sheltered  spots  be- 
tween the  lesser  hill  spurs. 

In  1903-4  only  36  square  miles  were  cultivated.  Rice  is  the 
staple  grain,  occupying  31  square  miles  of  the  total.  Other  food-crops 
are  raised  in  such  small  quantities  as  scarcely  to  deserve  mention. 
A  moderate  quantity  of  sesamum  is  grown  on  old  tmmgyas,  but 
details  of  the  area  under  this  crop  are  not  available.  The  greater 
part  of  the  oilseed  is  exported  in  bulk,  though  some  of  it  passes 
through  the  local  oil-mills  {si-zon).  Betel-nuts  are  also  produced  for 
export  in  fairly  large  quantities,  on  an  area  of  3,000  acres  in  1903-4. 
Nothing  else  is  grown,  save  a  little  tobacco  and  sugar-cane  for  local 
consumption. 

Cultivation  has  steadily  increased  year  by  year,  but  it  cannot  be 
expected  in  a  rugged  Country  like  Salween  to  attain  anything  Hke 
the  important  position  it  holds  in  other  Districts.  The  increase  in 
the  production  of  rice  is  chiefly  due  to  the  demands  of  an  in- 
creasing population.  Improvement  in  quality  by  selection  of  seed  is 
not  understood  by  the  cultivators.  No  loans  for  land  improvement 
have  been  applied  for  or  made,  but  advances  to  agriculturists  for 
the  extension  of  cultivation  have  from  time  to  time  been  granted. 
Droughts,  floods,  and  insect  plagues  have  never  been  experienced  in 
the  District ;  but  cattle-disease  occurs  yearly,  though  not  to  any 
serious  extent. 

There  is  no  cattle  or  pony  breeding  ;  and  although  elephants, 
buffaloes,  and  bullocks  are  largely  used,  they  are  all  imported  from 
elsewhere,  chiefly  from  Northern  Siam.  All  overland  transport  is 
effected  by  means  of  elephants  and  pack-bullocks.  Ponies  and 
mules  are  scarce  and  rarely  used. 

The  forests  are  of   three  classes.     In  the  lowlands  the  ground  is 

covered  with  tropical  forests,  while  higher  up  the  valleys  and  on  the 

hills  the  slopes  are  clad  with  mixed  and  pine  forests. 

The  timber  contained  in  them  includes  teak,  pyingado 

{Xylia    dolabriforiiiis),  pyinma  {Lagerstroemia    Flos    Reginae),  padauk 


TRADE   AND    COMMUNICATIONS  41'; 

{Pterocarptis  indicus),  thingan  {Ilopea  odorata),  and  a  number  of 
other  trees.  Bamboos  are  plentiful,  and  various  kinds  of  cane  are 
found.  'Reserved'  forests  cover  128  square  miles,  of  which  the 
greater  part  is  under  measures  of  protection  from  fire.  No  forests 
have  been  notified  as  '  protected,'  but  the  '  unclassed '  forests  amount 
to  approximately  2,000  square  miles.  Teak  plantations  in  an  area 
of  ii|  acres  were  started  in  the  year  1876,  and  in  a  few  of  these 
padaiik  has  been  mixed  with  young  teak  with  fair  success.  The 
receipts  from  forests  in  1903-4  amounted  to  i-6  lakhs.  All  the 
timber  extracted  from  the  District  is  floated  down  the  Salween  river 
to  Moulmein. 

Lead  and  iron  ore  have  been  discovered  in  various  places,  but 
much  of  the  former  could  not  be  profitably  extracted  unless  a  great 
demand  for  the  metal  were  to  arise  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  workings.  Veins  of  lead  have 
also  been  found  in  more  accessible  parts  of  the  District.  The  ore 
is  said  to  contain  about  14  oz.  of  silver  to  a  ton  of  metallic  lead. 
An  attempt  was  once  made  to  exploit  a  vein  discovered  a  short 
distance  up  the  Kanyindon,  a  tributary  of  the  Yunzalin  ;  but  though 
much  valuable  machinery  was  imported,  the  work  was  abandoned 
very  soon  after  operations  had  commenced.  The  iron  ore  occurring 
in  the  District  is  of  little  or  no  value.  Gold-dust  is  found  in  the 
Mewaing  creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Bilin,  flowing  into  it  from  the 
west.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Shan  village  of  Mewaing,  who  are 
mostly  petty  shopkeepers,  wash  for  gold  in  the  dry  season,  when  the 
auriferous  mudbanks  are  exposed.  The  gold  occurs  in  diminutive 
scales,  and  the  result  of  a  season's  washing  is  said  to  be  from  one 
to  two  ounces  of  gold-dust  for  each  worker. 

Manufactures  are  almost  non-existent.     Cotton-weaving  by  hand  is 
carried  on   as  a  source  of  income    on    a    small  scale,  for    the    most 
part  by  Shan  and  Talaing  women.     The  industry  is 
universal  among   the  Karens,  whose  women  supply  commiiica°ions. 
the  greater  part  of  the  requirements  of  their  house- 
hold  in   the  way  of  clothing,  but  they  do  not  manufacture  for  sale. 
Mats  are  woven  by  both  men  and  women  for  domestic  use.     Oil  is 
expressed  from  sesamum  seed  in  a  few  oil-mills,  the  produce  being 
disposed    of   in    the    local    market.     The    Karens    are    permitted    to 
manufacture  liquor    in  small    quantities   for  their    own    consumption. 
There  are  four  licensed  distilleries    for    the    manufacture    of  country 
spirit  for  sale. 

In  addition  to  traffic  with  other  portions  of  Burma,  there  is  a 
steady  trade  with  Karenni  and  Siam,  over  three  main  routes  :  the 
Dagwin  route,  leading  due  east  from  Papun  across  the  Salween  river 
into  Siam ;    the    Kyaukhnyat    route,  somewhat    more    to    the    north  : 


420  SALWEEN   DISTRICT 

and  the  Kawludo  route,  farther  north  again.  Both  the  latter  routes 
communicate  with  Karenni  as  well  as  with  Siam.  The  chief  imports 
are  cattle  and  treasure.  Clothing,  jewellery,  tea;  &c.,  are  also  brought 
in,  but  in  small  quantities.  About  80  per  cent,  of  the  imports  come 
from  Siam.  The  chief  exports  are  silk  and  cotton  piece-goods, 
wearing  apparel,  jewellery,  betel-nuts,  manufactured  iron,  petroleum, 
salt,  and  provisions,  as  well  as  silver  (rupees)  and  gold  (Chinese). 
Siam  receives  60  per  cent,  of  what  is  sent  out,  and  Karenni  the  rest. 

Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  imports  from  Siam  and  80  per  cent,  of 
the  exports  to  that  country  are  carried  over  the  Dagwin  route,  while 
the  remainder  go  through  Kyaukhnyat.  The  roads  on  both  these 
routes  are  rough  paths  crossing  extremely  hilly  country,  and  as  a  rule 
only  elephants  and  bullocks  are  employed  as  transport.  An  im- 
proved bridle-path  between  Papun  and  Dagwin  is,  however,  under 
construction. 

The  exports  and  imports  to  Karenni  are  divided  between  the  land 
and  river  routes.  The  former  passes  close  to  Kawludo,  a  police 
post  in  the  north  of  the  District ;  the  latter  commences  at  Kyau- 
khnyat, at  which  place  goods  for  Karenni,  carried  from  Papun  on 
elephants  or  bullocks,  are  transhipped  into  boats  which  proceed  up 
the  Salween  river  to  their  destination.  With  the  exception  of  betel- 
nuts,  nearly  all  goods  for  export  are  brought  to  Papun  by  boat 
from  Moulmein.  There  are  trade  registration  stations  at  Dagwin, 
Kyaukhnyat,  and  Kawludo.  The  total  value  of  the  merchandise  im- 
ported from  Siam  and  Karenni  in  1903-4  was  46^  lakhs,  and  the 
total  value  of  that  exported  2\  lakhs. 

The  chief  lines  of  road  connect  Papun,  the  head-quarters  of  the 
District,  with  Bilin  in  Thaton  District  (71  miles),  Kamamaung  on 
the  Salween  (53  miles),  Dagwin  on  the  Salween  (28  miles),  Kyau- 
khnyat, Kawludo,  Lomati,  and  Mewaing  within  the  Hmits  of  the 
District,  and  Shwegyin  in  Toungoo  District.  All  these  roads  were 
mere  jungle  tracks  till  very  recently,  but  are  now  being  improved. 
The  Papun-Bilin  road  is  to  be  a  cart-road,  the  others  will  be  bridle- 
paths. 

The  waterways  are  the  Salween,  the  Yunzalin,  and  the  Bilin  rivers. 
On  the  first,  intercourse  between  Kyaukhnyat  and  the  Karenni 
country  on  the  north  is  maintained  by  means  of  country  boats.  The 
Yunzalin  is  the  chief  means  of  communication  between  Papun  and 
Moulmein,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  goods  brought  to  Papun  for  local 
consumption  or  for  export  are  carried  by  boat.  The  weekly  mails 
are  also  conveyed  by  the  same  means.  The  Yunzalin  is  not  at 
present  navigable  by  launches,  but  might  without  great  difificulty 
be  made  so  during  four  to  six  months  in  the  year.  The  Bilin  river 
is  an  important  waterway,  and  is  the  channel  for  most  of  the  im- 


ADMINISTRA  TION 


421 


Administration. 


port  and  export  trade  of  the  western  areas  of  the  District.  There 
are  ferries  across  the  Sahveen  at  Dagwin  and  Kyaukhnyat,  and  others 
on  the  Yunzalin  and  Bilin  rivers. 

The  District  Superintendent  of  police  is  also  the  Deputy-Com- 
missioner, and  carries  on  the  administration  of  the  District  with  the 
assistance  of  a  township  officer.  There  are  six 
thugyis  of  circles.  Sections  2  to  13  of  the  Lower 
Burma  Village  Act  have  not  been  extended  to  Sahveen ;  and  con- 
sequently the  village  headmen,  who  are  here  called  kyedangyis, 
exercise  no  magisterial  powers  and  have  very  little  authority  in  the 
villages  under  them.  The  District  forms  a  subdivision  of  the 
Martaban  Public  Works  division,  and  is  included  in  the  ^\'est  Sahveen 
Forest  division,  which  also  comprises  a  portion  of  Thaton  District. 

Sahveen  forms  part  of  the  Tenasserim  civil  and  sessions  division, 
while  the  Deputy-Commissioner  is  ex-officio  District  Judge.  Civil 
work,  is  light,  and  the  District  is  on  the  whole  remarkably  free 
from  crime.  Cases  of  petty  theft  are  confined  to  Papun  and  the 
large  villages,  but  the  culprits  are  seldom  Karens,  who  are  not 
generally  given  to  petty  thieving.  Elephant-stealing,  traffic  in  stolen 
elephants,  and  the  illicit  extraction  and  sale  of  teak  logs,  however, 
are  forms  of  crime  that  have  a  great  attraction  for  the  Karen. 

No  thorough  survey  has  yet  been  undertaken,  and  somewhat 
primitive  methods  of  conducting  revenue  work  prevail.  Land  is 
assessed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  cultivation  as  well  as  the 
quahty  of  the  soil.  The  rates  for  rice  land  are  Rs.  1-8,  R.  i,  and 
8  annas  per  acre,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  other 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  different  parts  of  the  District.  Garden 
land  and  kaiiig  are  uniformly  assessed  at  Rs.  2  per  acre.  Taiitigya 
is  assessed  at  8  annas  per  da  or  per  man,  and  for  revenue  purposes 
a  man  is  estimated  to  be  capable  of  working  2  acres  of  taungya 
land.  The  aggregate  number  of  holdings  amounts  to  9,650,  and 
the  average  extent  of  each  holding  is  2  acres.  No  revision  of 
assessments  has  been  made  for  over  ten  years. 

The  following  table  shows,  in  thousands  of  rupees,  the  collections 
of  land  revenue  and  total  revenue  since  1 880-1  : — 


1880-1. 

1890-1. 

1900-1. 

1903-4. 

Land  revenue 
Total  revenue    . 

18 
^9 

II 

27 

20 

37 

24 
54 

The  income  of  the  District  cess  fund  for  the  maintenance  of 
communications  and  other  local  necessities  amounted  in  1903-4  to 
Rs.  8,000.  Public  works  absorbed  Rs.  1,000  of  this  total,  and  District 
post  charges  a  similar  amount.     There  are  no  municipalities. 


42  2  SALWEEN  DISTRICT 

For  police  work  the  District  Superintendent  is  assisted  by  an 
Assistant  Superintendent  and  two  inspectors,  all  of  whom  are  sta- 
tioned at  head-quarters.  There  are  4  head  constables,  9  sergeants, 
102  constables,  and  10  yazawut-gaungs  (rural  policemen),  as  well  as 
a  military  police  force  of  125,  including  2  native  officers.  The  armed 
police  are  posted  in  eight  stations. 

The  District  possesses  no  jail.  All  prisoners  but  those  sentenced 
to  short  terms  of  imprisonment  are  sent  to  the  Moulmein  jail.  The 
short-term  prisoners  detained  at  Papun  are  confined  in  the  police 
lock-up. 

The  standard  of  education  in  Salween  is  lower  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  Province  except  in  the  Chin  Hills.  In  1901  the  pro- 
portion of  persons  able  to  read  and  write  was  only  7-2  per  cent. 
(5-1  males  and  0-56  females).  A  school  has  been  opened  by  the 
American  Baptist  Mission  at  Papun.  It  is  under  a  Karen  teacher, 
and  is  attended  by  about  40  boys  and  girls.  Another  small  school 
has  been  started  by  the  same  mission  in  Bwado,  a  small  Karen 
village  south-east  of  Papun.  There  is  also  a  small  elementary  school 
in  Papun  for  Buddhist  children,  who  are  taught  in  the  vernacular 
only.  The  Buddhist  monks,  as  elsewhere  in  Burma,  impart  such 
education  as  is  not  given  in  the  missionary  and  lay  schools. 

The  hospital  at  Papun  is  the  only  one  in  the  District.  It  has 
accommodation  for  9  in-patients.  During  1903  the  number  of  in- 
patients treated  was  113,  and  that  of  out-patients  1,808,  while  the 
number  of  operations  performed  was  44.  Its  income  consisted  of 
a  grant  from  Provincial  funds  of  Rs.  3,400,  and  Rs.  170  from 
subscriptions. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  Papun.  In  1903-4  the  number 
of  persons  successfully  vaccinated  was  583,  representing  15  per  1,000 
of  population. 

Salween  River  (called  Thanlwin  by  the  Burmese  and  Nam  Kong 
by  the  Shans). — The  most  important  river  of  Burma  after  the  Irra- 
waddy.  Like  its  sister  stream,  it  flows  generally  from  north  to  south. 
So  far  as  is  known,  the  springs  of  this  headstrong  and  turbulent 
waterway,  which  has  been  described  as  the  most  uncompromising 
natural  boundary  in  the  world,  are  situated  at  about  the  32nd  or  33rd 
parallel  of  latitude  in  unexplored  country  to  the  east  of  Tibet,  far  north 
of  the  sources  of  the  Irrawaddy  ;  and  at  about  the  27th  parallel  of 
latitude  only  a  comparatively  narrow  watershed  separates  its  channel 
from  that  of  the  N'maikha.  It  is  not,  however,  till  it  has  penetrated 
three  degrees  farther  south  that  it  enters  British  territory.  Thence 
flowing  southwards  and  ploughing  between  steep  hills,  it  bisects  the 
Shan  States  and  Karenni,  receiving,  among  other  tributaries  from  both 
British  and  foreign  territory,  the  Nam  Pang,  the  Nam  Teng,  and  the 


SALWEEA-"  RIVER  423 

Nam  Pawn  from  the  west,  and  the  Nam  Ting,  the  Nam  Hka,  and 
the  Nam  Hsim  from  the  east.  After  passing  the  southern  limit  of 
Karenni,  it  forms  the  boundary  between  Siam  and  the  Salween  District 
of  Lower  Burma  till  a  point  is  reached,  at  the  northern  end  of  Thaton 
District,  where  the  Thaungyin,  the  boundary  between  Burma  and  Siam 
farther  south,  pours  into  it  from  the  south-east.  Southward  from  this 
point  the  Salween  passes  down  the  centre  of  Thaton  District,  and  after 
receiving  the  waters  of  the  Yunzalin  from  the  west,  and  those  of  the 
Gyaing  and  the  Attaran  from  the  east,  discharges  itself,  after  a  course 
within  British  territory  of  about  650  miles,  into  the  Gulf  of  Martaban 
below  the  wooded  heights  of  Moulmein.  Of  greater  length  than  the 
Irrawaddy,  its  narrow  rocky  bed  and  frequent  rapids  render  it,  unlike 
that  stream,  practically  useless  for  the  purposes  of  through  navigation, 
though  as  a  waterway  it  is  of  no  less  value  than  its  eastern  sister,  the 
Mekong.  For  timber-floating  it  is  freely  utilized.  Considerable  quanti- 
ties of  teak  are  annually  sent  down  the  stream  to  a  station  60  miles 
above  Moulmein,  where  the  logs  are  stopped,  rafted,  and  taken  on  to 
Moulmein  for  shipment  by  sea.  With  the  exception  of  Moulmein  no 
towns  of  any  importance  stand  on  the  Salween,  and  even  villages  of 
considerable  size  are  few.  The  river  is  not  bridged  in  British  terri- 
tory, but  is  crossed  at  intervals  by  ferries.  Of  these,  the  most  important 
are  the  Kun  Long,  close  to  a  point  once  selected  as  the  terminus  for 
the  Northern  Shan  States  Railway,  the  Taw  Kaw  (Kaw  ferry)  on  the 
main  route  between  Kengtung  and  the  railway,  the  Taw  Maw  ferry  in 
Karenni,  and  the  ferries  at  Kyaukhnyat  and  Dagwin  in  Salween  Dis- 
trict. The  Salween  has  no  value  for  irrigation.  Of  late  years  navigation 
between  Moulmein  and  the  sea  has  been  increasing  in  difficulty,  and 
the  improvement  of  the  channel  is  in  contemplation. 


Oxford  :  Printed  at  the  Clarendon  Press  by  Horace  Hart,  M.A. 


/ 


CET 


RY 


DS 

M05 

H8 

1907 

V.21 

C.l 

ROBA