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STATE  N 

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IN/IPROVEA/LKNX 


OF 


THK    MIND 

BY  ISAAC  WATTS,  D.D. 


EDITED   BY 

STEPHEN  N.  FELLOWS,  D.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  MENTAI^  AND  MORAT^  SCIENCE,  AND  DIDACTICS,  IN  THE 
STATE  UNlVEltSITY  OF  lUWA 


'•Whoever  lias  the  care  of  instructing  otliers,  may  be    charged  with 
deficiency  in  his  duty,  if  tliis  book  is  not  recommended." 

— Du.  Johnson 


Co]>yrighl,  ISSr,,  by  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

A.  S.  BARNES  &  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO 


PREFACE. 


T^ 


HE  Imjyi'ovcnirnt  of  the  Mind  by  Doctor  Watts  is  full  of 
practical  Misdom.  Prof.  L.  F.  Parlvcr,  of  the  Chair  of 
History  iu  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  writes  as  fi^llows  : 
"Watts'  little  volume  on  the  Lnprovcmrnt  of  iKz  Mind  co^^t 
Lini  twenty  years  of  eajjital  thinking,  and  is  still  the  nicst 
comprehensive,  most  suggestive,  and  best  of  its  kind.  It  is 
not  only  unequaled  but  incomparal)U' ;  so  far  below  it,  in  my 
estimation,  are  all  its  competitors.  Wlioever  induces  a  young 
person,  on  the  verge  of  active  life  to  read  "Watts"  carefully, 
has  done  much,  very  much,  to  ennoble  iiini  in  all  thouglit  and 
'        living." 

It  is  in  the  hope  of  recovering  to  the  youth  of  the  present 
age,  this  excellent  but  almost  forgotten  book,  that  the  work 
of  recasting  it  has  been  attempted.  In  endeavoring  to  adapt 
it  to  the  needs  of  the  present,  the  following  changes  have  been 
made  : 

I'irst — Nearly  one-third  of  the  book  has  been  eliminated,  as 
being  too  theological  or  too  closely  related  to  tlie  age  and  coun- 
try of  the  author. 
^      Second — A  brief  but  comprehensive  analj-sis  has  been  pre- 
\'  pared,  which  appears  as  a  table  of  contents. 
^       Third — Prominence  is  given  to  some  of  the  more  essential 
doctrines  by  stating  them  in  large  type,  while  explanatory  and 
^j  illustrative  matter  is  given  in  smaller  type. 

But  few  changes  have  been  made  in  tlie  text  other  than  those 
mentioned  above,  as  it  seemed  desirable  to  preserve  the  unique 
and  forcible  style  of  the  author.  Tiie  original  work  was  first 
])ublished  in  1727,  and  although  it  is  over  one  hundred  and 
lifty  years  old,  yet  its  teachings  are  in  substantial  harmony 
M'ilh  the  truest  pedagogical  doetrines  of  to-day.  It  is  believed 
tliat  in  its  present  form  and  dress  it  is  adapted  to  ])rivate  read- 
ing, and  reading  circles,  and  also  as  a  text-book  in  Secondary 
and  ]S'ormaI  Schools.  S.  X.  F. 


A  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  the  Author. 


Isaac  Watts,  D.D.,  tm  English  dissent ing  (•lf'rpr>'man  and 
poet,  wa8  born  in  .Southampton,  July  17,  1()74,  and  died  in 
London,  November  2o,  174.S.  He  "wa.s  edueated  by  his  father, 
who  kept  a  boarding  Bohool  in  Southampton  and  then  an 
academy  in  London.  When  a  boy  lie  was  very  Btudious, 
spending  for  books  the  little  money  received  as  presents,  and 
devoting  his  leisure  hours  to  study  and  reading,  instead  of 
joining  other  boys  in  ])lay.  At  school  he  allowed  himself  no 
time  for  exercise  and  play,  and  very  little  for  sleep.  He  used 
to  mark  all  the  books  he  read  ;  abridge  some,  and  annotate 
others  of  them.  In  1698  he  was  chosen  assistant  minister  to 
the  Rev.  Isaac  Chauncey,  of  an  Independent  Congregation  in 
Mark  I^ane,  London,  of  wliich  he  became  pastor  in  1702,  and 
remained  at  his  post  until  his  death. 

Doctor  Watts  wrote  largely  for  almost  all  classes  of  readers, 
students  of  all  ages,  in  Science,  Literature,  Pwtry  and  Divin- 
ity. His  complete  works  have  been  i)ublished  in  various 
editions  of  from  six  to  nine  volumes.  His  X07/V;  and  his 
Improvement  of  the  Mind  are  the  best  known  of  his  prose 
writings.  Of  his  literary  merits  Doctor  Johnson  naid  :  "H^ 
has  provided  instruction  for  all  ages,  from  those  who  are  lisp- 
ing their  first  lessons  to  the  enlightened  readers  of  Locke  ;  he 
has  left  neither  corporal  nor  spiritual  nature  unexamined.  He 
has  taught  the  science  of  reasoning  and  the  science  of  the 
stars.  His  character,  therefore,  must  be  judged  from  the 
multiplicity  and  diversity  of  his  attainments,  rather  than 
from  any  single  performance. 

Of  his  Hijmns,  James  ^Montgomery  said  :  "  Everj'  Sabbath, 
in  every  region  Avhere  his  native  tongue  is  spoken,  thousands 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  voices  are  sending  the  sacrifices  of 
prayer  and  praise  to  God  in  the  strains  which  he  prepared  a 
century  ago.  Probably  no  poetry  in  the  language  has  been 
more  widely  read  or  warmly  i)rized. 

Doctor  Watts  was  snuill  in  stature,  being  little  more  than 
five  feet  high,  and  was  never  marrie<l.  ]Mo!iuments  have  lieen 
erected  to  his  memory  in  Abney  Park  ami  Westminster  Abbey. 


Table  of  Contents. 


III. 


IV. 

V. 

VI. 


Prkface  ....... 

Sketch  op  the  Life  of  the  author 
Introduction   .  .  .  .  . 

CHAPTER  I. 

Generate  Rules  for  the  Improvement  of  Knowled; 

I.  Importance  of  a  good  iudjjjiiieut 
II.  Mistakes  of  human  nature  in  general 
A  slight  view  of  momentous  things 

1.  Survey  of  the  vast  regions  of  learning    . 

2.  Numberless  variety  of  questions 

3.  Thoughts  on  puzzling  inquiries    . 

4.  Read  aeeounts  of  vast  treasures  of  knowledge 
Presume  not  too  mueh  on  a  bright  genius     . 
Ready  wit  does  not  constitute  a  learned  man 
A  life  of  learning  not  one  of  ease 

VII.  Dally  industry  animatod  by  liope  of  discoveries 
VIII.  Penetrate  into  the  depth  of  matters 
IX.  Daily  account  of  new  i(h;as  gained 
X.  Avoid  a  dogmatical  spirit. 

1.  It  forbids  further  improvement  of  knowledge 

2.  It  leads  to  arrogance  of  mind  . 
XT.  Be  willing  to  retract  mistakes    . 

XII.  Danger  of  indulging  fancy  and  liumor 

XIII.  Reware  of  a  sj)irit  of  jest  and  ridicule 

XIV.  Virtue  leads  to  truth   ..... 
XV.  Vain  conceit  of  personal  powers 

XVI.  Ask  Di\inc  guidance.  .... 

CHAPTER  II. 
Five  Eminent  Methods  ok  (jJaininc*  Knowleixji:. 

1.  (Observation  ..... 

2.  Reading  ...... 

3.  Lectures      ...... 

4.  Conversation   ...... 

5.  Meditation.  ..... 

I.  Oliservation — Its  advantages: 

1.  It  lays  the  foundation  of  all  knowledge 

2.  It  gives  clear  concci)tions  of  things 

3.  It  makes  learnini^  continuous  . 


19 
19 
19 
20 
20 
20 
21 
21 
22 
23 
24 
24 
25 
2(5 
2(i 
2(5 
27 
27 
28 
2H 
29 
•2'.} 


:;i 
3.-; 

33 

34 
.34 
3a 


C  CONTENTS. 

II.   Koadiiipc— Its  ndvaiitjinos: 

1.  Wo  bocoiiio    acquainted  with  tho  living  and  the 

(load    .......  35 

2.  Wo  acciiiiro  tho  learning  of  tho   wisest  and  best 

men     .......  ."yi 

3.  Wo  gain  their  best  thonghls  careliiUy  ehiltorated  30 

4.  AVo  niav  review  what  we  have  read  .  .  3(> 

III.  LeetTires— '^lieir  advantages: 

1.   Instruction  is  more  impressive  .  .  .37 

-.   Instnu'tion  ciin  teach  what  is  most  neeessary  37 

3.  Sensil)le  means  of  instruction  may  Ijo  used  .       .37 

4.  The  pui)il  may  ask  rjuestit)n.s  ...  38 

IV.  Conversation — Its  advantiiges: 

1.  ()|)i)ortunity  for  explaining  oljscnrities         .  .      38 

2.  Doul)ts  may  ho  pro[»ose(l  and  solved        .  .  39 

3.  Advantages  of  comparison  of  ideas  .  .  .39 

4.  Hidden  treasures  of  knowledge  revealed  .  40 

5.  Conversation  stimulates  thought         .  .  .40 

6.  Wo  test  the  truth  and  vahie  of  our  own  knowledge      40 

7.  It  fui-nislies  knowledge  of  men  and  afl'airs  of  life      41 
V.  Meditation — Its  advantages: 

1.  It  alone  forms  ])ersonal  judgment      .  .  .42 

2.  It  makes  knowledge  personal        ...  42 

3.  It  secures  deeper  penetration  into  the  the  themes 

of  knowledge    .  .  .  .  .  .43 

CHAPTER  III. 

Rri-Es  Relating  to  Ouservatiox. 

I.  Its  aim  should  be  the  enlargement  of  knowledge  .      45 

II.  Encourage  a  laudable  curiosity  in  the  young  .            45 

III.  Note  what  is  uncommon,  and  review         .            .  .4/3 

IV.  Keep  mind  free  from  passions  and  prejudices  .             47 
V.  Avoid  an  impertinent  curiosity        .            .            .  .48 

VI.  Observe  for  i)ersonal  good        *  .  .  .  .  48 

VII.  Do  not  publish  observed  faults  in  others.  .  .      48 

VIII.  Do  not  erect  geueraivtheories  from  limited  observation      49 

CHAPTER  IV. 


Of  Books  axd  Reading. 

T.  Wise  selection  of  hooks 
IT.  Rooks  should  be  first  read  in  a  general  way  . 

III.  Form  a  reading  circle  to  read  the  same  book 

IV.  Form  circle  to  read  distinct  treatises  on  one  subject 
V,  Consider  whether  the  sentimeiUs  are  right  or  not 

VI.  Note  faults  or  defects  in  the  book 
VII.  Make  an  analysis  of  tho  book 
VIII.  If  needed,  prepare  an  index        .... 
IX.  Improvement  of  reasoning  powers  .  . 

X.  Thoughtful  reading  secures  correct  judgment 


49 
.50 
51 
51 
51 
52 
5.3 
53 
54 
55 


CONTENTS.  7 

XI.  Read  with  the  mind  open  to  truth       ...  56 

XII.  Caution.  .......      56 

XIII.  How  to  read  books  on  morality  ...  57 

XIV.  Some  boolvs  sliould  he  read  biit  once        .  .  .58 
XV.  Otliers  siiould  l)e  reviewed         ....  59 

XVI.  Fre(|uently  consult  dictionaries     .  .  .  .60 

XVII.  Study  subjects  rather  than  authors      .  .  ,  Gl 

CHAPTER  V. 

.TUDGMKNT   OF    RoOKS. 

I.  Examination  of  title-page  and  pref;i('0      .  .  .61 

II.  Careful  reading  of  a  few  chapters  determines  value  of 

a  book.        .......  62 

III.  Agreement  with  our  own  principles  no  test  of  value    .      G'-l 

IV.  Overestiniation  of  a   book,  because  it  contains  new 

trullis  ........  63 

V.  Undervaluation  of  a  book,  because  it  contains  nothing 

ncsw       ........  49 

VI.  Rcware  of  judgment  based  on  pretended  knowledge  65 

VII.  Do  not  merely  echo  the  judgment  of  others        .            .  65 

VIII.   Do  not  condemn  a  book,  because  of  a  few  mistakfis  66 

IX.  Seek  Ijeauties  rather  than  hlomishes         .  .  .68 

X.  .Justly  estimate  the  parts  of  a  book      ...  69 

XI.  Be  cautious  in  receiving  the  judgment  of  others           .  70 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Of  Living  Instructors  and  Lectuuks,  of  Teachers  and 

IjEARNEUS. 

T.  Teachers  absolutely  U(M-pssary  for  most  persons            .  70 
II.    Dillerenl  instructors  necessary              .             .             .  7i 
III.  Teachers  should  have  skill  in  the  art  of  teaching           .  71 
IV.  Teachers  should  have  diligence,  patience,  and  adapt- 
ability              .......  72 

V.  Tiic  learner  should  attend  with  constancy  an<l  eai-o  7'{ 

VI.  Tlu^  learner  siiould  seelv  ()])p()i'tunit^- to  ask  (|ues!if)iis  7-> 
Vil.  The  learner  should  maintain  lujiiorable  opinion  (jf  his 

tutor      ........  7.3 

\III.  Arrogance  of  youth           .....  7t 

IX,  The  i>upil  should  maintain  freedom  of  tliought              .  71 
X.  The  learner  slioulil  accept  no  opinion  without  siilli- 

cient  e\idence  .  .  .  .  .  .71 

(!HAPTER  VTI. 

Of  Inqttirtno   into  the   Sense   and   Meaning   of   any 
Writer  or  Speaker,  and  Especiat^lv  the 
Sense  of  the  Sacred  Writings. 
I.  Learn   the   language  wherein  the   author's   mind   is 

expressed         ...  ...      75 

II.  Examine  words  and  phrases  employed   by  contem- 
poraneous authors  .  .  .  .  .  76 

II.  Comi)are  words  and  [)hrases  in  different  places  .      75 


CONTKNT.S. 


IV.  Consider  tho  subject  as  treated  in  (lifTeront  places 

by  tlic  same  author  ....  76 

V.  Observe  scope  and  design  of  writer    .  .  .76 

VI.  K.\i>lain  mystical  terms  by  those  that  are  jdain  76 

VII.  Consider  persons  addressed      .  .  .  .77 

VIII.  Sense  of  an  author  known  by  tiie  inferenr-es  drawn 

from  his  own  i)roi)ositions  ...  77 

IX.  Objections  may  reveal  the  sense  .  .  .77 

X.  Let  not  latent  prejudices  warp  tho  sense  .  78 

XI,  Lay  aside  a  carping  spirit,  and  read  with  candor         78 

CHAPTER  VIIL 
Rules  of  I.mprovrment  ry  Conversation. 
I.  Seek  acfiuaintanco  of  those  wiser  than  ourselves      70 
II.  When  in  company,  waste  no  time  in  trilles       .  79 

III.  Lead  others  into  a  discourse  of  matters  of  their  vo- 

cation     .  .  .  .  .  .  .70 

IV.  Converse  with  men  ofvarions  countries  and  parties      80 
V.  In  mixed  company,  cultivate  all        .  .  .80 

VI,  Be  not  provoked  at  di  tiering  opinions     .  .  81 

A'll.  Seek  to  learn  from  inferiors     .  .  .  .81 

"VIII.  Seek  variety  of  views  on  subjects  .  .  81 

IX.  Reading  a  basis  of  conversation  .  ,  ,82 

X.  Give  diligent  attention  when  one  is  speaking  82 

XI.  Plain  language  may  show  great  sense  ,  .      R3 

XII.  Cultivate  a  modest  manner  of  inquiry    .  ,  83 

XllI,  Agree  with  others  as  far  as  you  can  ,  .      84 

XIV.  Bo  not  afraid  to  confess  your  ignorance  ,  84 

XV.  Be  not  too  forward  in  the  presence  of  elders  .      85 

XVI.  A  time  when  "A  fool  may  be  answered  according 

to  his  folly'' 86, 

XVII.  Be  not  fond  of  displaying  your  logical  powers  87 

XVIII.  Avoid  warm  party  spirit  .  .  .  .87 

XIX,  Instruct  others  by  apt  questioning  ,  .  88 

XX.  Do  not  aflect  to  shine  above  others    ,  ,  ,88 

XXI.  You  may  modestly  simplify  another's  language         88 

XXII.  Patiently  bear  contradiction    .  .  .  .88 

XXIII.  Avoid  everv  thing  that  tends  to  provoke  pas.sion        89 

XXIV.  Cultivate  self-control  ....  80 
XXV.  Cultivate  a  candid  and  obliging  manner      .            .      90 

XXVI.  Choose  Avise  and  good  comi)anions  .  .  90 

XXVII,  Persons  nntit  for  associates  in  tho  inquiry  for  truth  91 

XXVIII,  Beware  of  being  such  an  associate  for  others    .  02 

XXIX.  Review  in  solitude  facts  learned         .  .  ,92 

XXX,  Notice  defects  in  others  for  personal  improvement  93 

XXXI,  How  to  make  the  highest   improvement  and  be 

universally  desired  as  an  associate       .  .  94 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Of  Disputes  and  Debates. 
1,  When  a  dispute  occurs  .  .  .  .      .»4 

II.  Objects  of  disputes    .....  94 


CONTENTS.  9 

III.  They  are  often  without  forms  of  order  .  .      r>5 

IV.  A  few  general  rules  should  be  observed  .  .  95 
V.  Points  of  agrei-ment        .            .            .            ,            .5)5 

VI.  Clear  the  question  of  doubtful  terms        .            .  90 

VII.  Fix  the  i)rei-ise  points  of  inquiry        .            .  .97 

VIII.  Seek  truth  rather  than  vietorv        ...  97 

IX.  Yield  to  reason      .            .        "^   .            .            .  .98 

X.  Beware  of  makiutr  fatal  concessions         .            .  98 

XI.  Utilize  such  concessions  of  an  opponent       .  ,      99 

XII.  Use  "argumentum  ad  homiuem"             .            .  99 

XIII.  Repress  all  passion           .            .            .            .  .5)9 

XIV.  These  general  ilirections  necessary  in  all  debates  liJU 

CHAPTER  X. 
Of  Study,  or  Meditation. 
I.  The  necessity  of  study    .  .  .  .  .101 

II.  Learn  to  distinguish  between  words  and  things  lUl 

III.  Be  not  too  hasty  to  know  things  above  your  jn-es- 

ent  powers     .  .  .  .  .  .102 

IV.  Be  not  frightened  at  apparent  difliculties      .  .     102 
A'.  Proceed  slowly  from  the  known  to  the  unknown        103 

VI.  Study  not  too  many  things  at  once      .  .  .  lO'i 

VII.  Keep  the  end  always  in  view  .  .  .  104 

VIII.  Exercise  care  in  proportion  to  the  importance  of 

the  subject     ......  104 

IX.  Give  not  a  favorite  study  undue  importance  .  106 

X.  Despise  not  other  learning  than  3'our  own  .  107 

XI.  (iive  due  time  to  each  study      ....  107 

XII.  Overtaxing  the  mind  ....  108 

XIII.  TMi[)aiicn<-e  for  solution  of  difficulties.  .  .  I08 

XI  \'.  Certainty  in  every  study  impossible  .  .  108 

XV.  Utility  the  end  of  speculative  study    .  .  .  100 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Op  Fixing  the  Attention. 
I.  Necessity  of  attention      .....     110 
II.  Rules  for  gaining  greater  facility  of  attention     .  110 

1.  Likin'j;  the  study  of  knowledge  pursueil  .     1 10 

2.  Use  sensil)le  things  for  illustration  .  .  Ill 

3.  Read  authors  of  connected  reasonings  .  .Ill 

4.  Fine  i)rospects  not  to  inlluence  a  jilace  for 

study U2 

5.  Be  not  hasty  in  determining  important  points    11:^ 

6.  Do  not  indulge  the  more  sensual  passions  and 

appetites      .  .  .  .  .  .11:5 

7.  Fix   and  engage  the  mind  in  the  pursuit  of 

study  .  .  .  .  .  .113 

CHAPTER   XII. 
On  Enlakgino  the  Capacity  of  the  Mind. 
I.  Ability  to  receive  sublime  ideas  without  pain  .     Ill 

II.  Ability  to  receive  new  and  strange  ideas  without 

surprise         .  .  .  .  .  .  114 


CONTEXTS. 


III.  Ability  to  rocoive  many  i(U!:iH  ;it  once  without  fon- 

fiision  .  .  .  .  .  .  lin 

IV    How  capafity  f>r  tlioii^rht  may  bo  itiiTCiiHr'd  .  ,  I'M 

1.  Labor  to  K'.iiu  an  attentive  ami  i>atieiit  temper 

of  mind    ......  120 

2.  Accustom  yourself  to  form  clear  and  distinct 

ideas  .  .  .  .  .  .121 

3.  Use  diligence  to  acfiuirea  larjfo  stf)re  of  ideas  121 

4.  Lay  up  ilaily  new  iaeas  in  refjuiar  order  .  122 
.").  Observe  a  ret^nlar  jirogressive  method  .  12.'5 
6.  Peruse  and  solve  intricate  questions       .            .  12t 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Of   iMPROVINfJ   THK    MkMORV. 

I.  Our  memory  is  our  power  of  retaining  and  recall- 

inif  what  we  learn  .....     124 

II.  All  other  abilities  of  the  mind  borrow  their  beauty 

nnd  perfection  from  memory  .  .  .     125 

III.  Memory  is  useful  to  the   si)eaker  as   well  as  the 

learner      .......     12."> 

IV.  Good  judgment  and  good  memory  are  very  differ- 

ent cjualitications  .....     126 

V.  A  hapijy   memory   is  a  good  foundation  for  wise 

and  just  judgment        .....     12(i 

VI.  How  some  persons  have  good  judgment  without 

a  happy  memory  .  .  .  .  .127 

VII.  A  tine  genius  often  has  a  feeble  memory  .  r28 

VIII.  Crowding  the   memory    may  prevent  and  cramp 

invention  ......     128 

IX.  Lay  up  nothing  in  the  memory  but  what  has  just 

value         .......     129 

X.  One's  own  improvements  together  with  those  l)or- 

rowed  make  a  wealthy  and  a  happy  mind  .     129    ♦ 

XI.  How  many  excellent  judgments  are  lost  for  want 

of  a  stronger  and  more  retentive  memory  .     129 

XII.  Tlie  great  advantages  of  remembering  the  noble 

sentiments  of  others  as  well  as  one's  own  .  .     130 

XIII.  The  mind  itself  is  immaterial;  the  brain  is  its  in- 

strument        ......  130 

XIV.  The  memory  grows  from  the  period  of  infancy       .     131 
XV.  Memory  requires  the  cultivation  of  habits  of  at- 
tention     .  .  .  .  .  .  .131 

XVI.  The  memory  is  affected  by  various  bodily  diseases  131 
XVII.  Excess  of  wine  as  well  as  excess  of  study  may 

injure  the  memory  .....  132 

XVIII.  A  good  memory  has  several  qualifications    .            .  132 

1.  It  is  ready  to  receive  and  admit          .            .  132 

2.  It  is  large  and  copious         ....  132 

3.  It  is  strong  and  durable             .            .            .  133 

4.  It  is  faithful  and  active        ....  13:J 
XIX.  Every  one  of  these  qualifications  may  be  improved  133 

XX.  One  great  and    general    direction   is   to  give  the 

memory  proper  and  sufficient  exercise      .  .     133 


CONTENTS.  11 

XXI.  Ovir  memories  are  improved  or  injured  according 

to  their  exercise  .....     133 

XXII.  Tlie  memory  of  a  child  should  not  l)e  overbur- 
dened        .......     134 

XXIII.  Particular  rules: 

1.  Due  attention  and  diligence  to  learn  and  know 

things.  We  should  engage  our  delight  in 
order  to  fix  the  att(;nlion  .  .  .     134 

2.  Clear  and  distinct  ai)i)reiiension  of  the  things 

which  we  commit  to  memory  is  necessary. 
For  this  reason,  take  lieed  that  you  do  not 
take  up  with  words  instead  of  things  .     135 

3.  ^lethod  and  regularity  in  the  things  we  com- 

mit to  memory       .....     13rt 
TiCt  it  be  disjjosed  in  a  proper  method  .  13ti 

4.  A  frequent  review  of   things  lias  a  great  in- 

fluence to  fix  them  in  the  memor^'^.  .  130 

The  art  of  short-hand  is  of  excellent  use  .     137 

Teach     in    order    to    establish     your      own 

knowledge  .  .  .  .  .  .138 

5.  Pleasure  and  delight  in  the  things  we  learn, 

give  great  assistance  towards  the  remem- 
brance of  them.  ....  138 

6.  The  memory  of   useful  things    may  receive 

considerable  aid  if  they  are  thrown  into 
verse  .  .  .  .  .  .139 

7.  We  may  better  imprint  any  new  idea  upon  the 

memory  by  joining  with  it  some  circum- 
stance of  the  time,  jilace,  coinpanj',  etc.  .     140 

8.  Seek  after  a  local  memory      .  " .  .  141 

9.  Every  thing  should   be  distinctly  written  and 

divided  into  i^eriods   ....  142 

The  memory  gains  hy  having  the  several  ob- 
jects of  our  learning  drawn  out  into  schemes 
and  tables    ......     143 

Once  writing  will  tix  a  thing  more  in  mind 
than  reading  live  times   ....     143 

10.  Sometimes,  we  can  remember  sentences  by 
taking  first  letters  of  every  word  and  mak- 
ing a  new  word  of  them      \  .  .  144 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Of   DETERMININa   A  QUKSTION. 

I.  Consider  whether  it  be  knowable  at  all  .  .     143 

II.  Consider  again  whether  the  matter  be  worthy  of 

your  inquiry      .  .....     145 

III.  Consider  whether  the  subject  of  your  inquiry  bo 

easy  or  difiicult  .  .  .  '         .  ,  .     145 

IV.  Consider  whether  the  subject  be  anv  wavs  useful 

fT  not        •  .  .  .  .       '    .  .     14(5 

V.  Consider  what  tendency  it  has  to  make  you  wiser 

and  better  ......    14<i 


12  CONTENTS. 

\'l.  (Jonsidor  wliollicr  it  bo  (lr(>.sso(l  up  und  r'litanj^led 

in  nioro  winds  tluui  is  lu'iiilful  .  .  .     146 

VII.  Bo  ciirrful  to  keep  (lio  point  of  inquiry  tlio  Huine     140 
To  sl.ilo   a  cjuestion,   of'tentinios  fully  resolves  the 
<li>ulil  .  .  .  .  .     "       .  .147 

VIII.  If  tlio  question  relate  to  an  axiom,  it  should  not  he 

Buddeidy  admitted  or  reeeivtMl    .  .  .  147 

IX.  Call  only  such  a  proposition  as*  requires  no  proof 

whatevoi',  an  axiom  ....  147 

X.  Keep  up  a  just  indillerence  to  either  side    of  the 

question  .  .  ...  .  .  148 

XI.  ¥or    the    most    part,    people    are  horn    to    their 

opinions  ......  148 

XII.  Do  not  take  uo  witii  partial  examination.  Take 
these  instanees  to  show  what  a  i)artial  examina- 
tion is : 

1.  When  you  examine  an  object  at  too  great  a 

distance        ......     140 

2.  Wlien  you  turn  the  question  only  in  one  liiiht     14U 

3.  When  you  ask  tlie  report  of  tiiosc  only  who 

were  not  eye  or  ear  witnesses,  and  neglect 
tlioso  who  saw  and  heartl      .  .  .  149 

4.  To  try  to  determine  by  natural  reason  only     .     I.j0 

5.  To  examine  witiiout  the  use  of  reason  .     '      .     150 
XIII.  Take  lieed  lest  some  darling  notion  be  made  a  test 

of  truth  or  falseliood     .....     1.50 

XTV.  Be  watchful  as  far  as  possible  against  any  false  l)ias    151 
XV.  Be  careful  lest  your  zeal  luive  too  powerful  an  in- 
liuence,  and  stop  \ip  all  avenues  of  further  light. 
Zeal  must  not  reign  over  the  powers  of  our  un- 
derstanding        ......     151 

XVI.  Do  not  oppose  banter  and  ridicule  to  any  doctrines 

of  professed  revelation.    .Such  a  test  is  silly  and       t 
unreasonable.     The  best  sense  may   be  set  in  a 
most  unreast)nal)le  light  Ijy  this  grinning  faculty    152 
XVII.  These  very  men  who  emjiloy  jest  and  ridicule,  cry 
out  louclly  against  all  penalties  aud   jjersecutions 
of  the  state.     Penal  and  smarting  mctln>ils  are 
every  whit  as  wise  as  banter  and  ri<licule  .  .     154 

XVIII.  It  is  a  piece  of  contempt  and  profane  insolence  to 
treat    any    tolerable  or    rational    ai)i>earance  of 
such  a  revelation  with  jest  and  laughter.  Let  such 
sort  of  writers  lay  asiile  all  their  ])retenses  to 
reason  as  well  as  religion  ....  l-Vt 

XIX.  On  reading  philosophical,  moi"al,  or  religious  con- 
troversies, let  the  fori-e  of  argument  alone  influ- 
ence your  assent  or  dissent.  The  bigots  of  all 
parties  are  generally  the  most  positive  .  U>o 

XX.  So  large  a  (juestion  may  be  proposed  as  ought  not 
injustice  to  be  determined  at  once.  In  the  nuun, 
it  is  enouirh  to  incline  to  that  side  which  has  the 
fewest  ditlicullies    .....  156 


CONTENTS. 


13 


XXI. 

XXII. 
XXIII. 
XXIY. 


XXV. 

XXVI, 


XXVII, 

XXVITI. 


Take  a  full  survey  of  the  objections  ni^ainst  any 
question,  as  well  as  the  arguments  Ibr  it  .  1.57 

In  matters  of  moment,  seek  after  certain  and 
eonclusive  arfjuments         ....  158 

Degrees  of  assent  should  always  he  regarded  ac- 
cording to  the  different  degrees  of  evidence  .  158 

Why  then  does  our  Saviour  so  much  commend  a 
strong  faith?  The  God  of  nature  has  given  every 
nian  his  own  reason  to  be  the  judge  and  to  direct 
his  assent  ......     159 

God  will  not  require  us  to  assent  to  any  thing 
without  reasonable  or  sullicient  evidence  .  .     159 

Concerning  truth  and  diUies  the  reason  is  the  same     100 

Three  rules  in  juduing  of  probabilities: 

1.  That  which  agrees  most  with  the  constitution 

of  nature,  carries  the  greatest  probability  in  it     101 

2.  That  which  is  most  conformable  to  the  con- 

stant observations  of  men,  is  most  likely  to 

be  true    ......  161 

3.  We  may  derive  a  probability  from  the  attesta- 

tion of  wise  and  honest  men  .  .  101 

We  ought  to  stand  firm  in  such  well  established 

principles       ......  102 

We  are  l)ut  follible:  therefore  there  is  no  need  of 

our  resolving  never  to  change  our  mind  .  102 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Of  Ixquirino  into  Causes  and  Effects. 

I.  When  inquiring  into  the  cause  of  anj-  particular 

elfect  consider    .  .  .  .  .  .     103 

1.  What  effects    j-ou  have  shown  of  a  kindred 

nature  ......  ]()3 

2.  What  are  the  several  possible  causes  .  ]()4 

3.  What  tilings  jjrecedcd  the  event  .  .  .  10-1 

4.  Whether  one  cause  or  a  concurrence  of  several 

causes,  be  sutticiont.  This  is  tlie  course  to 
be  followed  both  in  natural  i)hilosophy  and 
in  the  moral  world.  .  .  .  '         .     101 

II.  When  iiKiuiring  into  the  effects  of  any  particular 

cause  or  causes  .  .  .  .  .  .     lOo 

1.  Consider  the  nature  of  every  cause  apart    .  105 

2.  Consider  the  causes  united  together        .  .     105 

3.  Consider  what  the  subject  is    .  ,  .  105 

4.  150  frecpient  in    setting  such    causes  at  work 

whose  effects  you  tlesire  tt)  know  ,  KiS 

fy.  Observe  carefully  when  you  see  any   happy 

eflect.     Treasure  it  up      .  .        '   .  .     1()5 

6.  Take  a  Just  survey  of  all  the  circumstances. 

In  this  manner  physicians  practice;  so  also 

the  preacher  .....     lO*! 


1  1  CONTENTS. 

CHArTKU    XVI. 
Mrn'irons  ok  TiCAciiiNf*  and  JIkadino  TiKOTiTRKS. 
I.   Hr  lliiit  )ias  loiiriioil  any  Uiint?  thorou^^lily,  is  )^en- 

(■rally  liiist  i)ri;|)ar(!(l  to  t(;;i!-li        .  .  .  Ii7 

II.    1I(!  miisl.  also  111)  aiMiiiaiiilc.Ml  with  words         .  ,     KiS 

HI.  A  tutor  slioiiM  havo  iiiii'li  candor  ami  use  every 

mild  and  (>ii<;a;^in^  method     ....     lt>8 
IV.  The  ailvaiitagea  of  tlio  Soc-ratieal  methfid  of  disi)U- 

tatioii         .......     H58 

1.  The  foriii  f)f  a  dialo<^no  .  .  .  1»W 

2.  Somethiiii^  very  oblitrinf?  in  i;       .  .  .     KW 

3.  Draw  a  pupil  on  to  (liHi-over  his  own  mistakes     !*>!> 

4.  The  most  easy  reasonini;    ....     ll)9 
V.  Th(!  most  useful  is  by  readini^  lecturers    .  .  l»i!J 

VI.  The  tutor  should  explain  what  is  dark  and  diffleult     170 
YII.  Teachers    should     endeavor    to    .join    jirolit    and 
pleasure  together.     They  should  be  very  solic- 
itous that  learners  take  iip  their  meaning;       .  171 
YIII.  He   who  instructs  others,    should    use  the  most 
j)roper  style.     He  should  run  over  the  Ibrei^oiui; 
lecture  in  questions  propose<l  to  the  learners      .     171 
IX.  I^et  the  teacher  always  accommodate  himself  to  the 

ijenius,  temper,  and  capacity  of  his  disciples        .     172 
X.  Turiosity  is  a  useful  sjirini;  of  knowledge  .  173 

XI.  When  a  lad  is  |>ert,  let  the  tutor  take  every  just 

occasion  to  show  him  his  error    .  .  .  173 

XII.  The  tutor  should    watch  the  learner's  frrowth  of 
iinderstandins;.     Let  hiai  guard  and  encourage 
the  tender  buddings      .....     174 
XIII.  Call  the  reason  into  exercise  .  .  .  174 

XIV    Let  the  tutor   make  it   appear  that  he  loves  his 
pupils,  and  seeks  nothing  so  much  as  their  in- 
crease of  knowledge     .....     174 
XV.  Those  that  hear  him  have  some  good  degree  of  es- 
teem and  respect  for  his  person  and  character.  17') 

CIIAPTICR  XVIL 
Of  an  Instructive  Style. 

I.  The  most  necessary  and  most  useful  character  of 
a  style  tit   for  instruction,   is  that  it  be  plain, 

perspicuous,  and  easy  .  ...  .  .  175 

II.  The  errors  of  style     .....  ]7t) 

1.  The  use  of  many  foreign  words   .  .  .  17t) 

2.  Avoid  a  fantastic  style  ....  176 

3.  Affected  words  that  are  used  only  at  court        .  ]7t) 

4.  A  mean,  vulgar  style     ....  17ii 

5.  An  obscure  and  mysterious  manner  of  exprcs-  177 

sion         ......  177 

fi.  A  long  and  tedious  style    ....  177 

III.  Some  methods  a\  hereby  a  style  proper  for  instruc- 
tion may  be  obtained         ....  178 

1.  Accustom  yourself  to  read  those  authors  who 

think  and  write  with  great  clearness  .  .  178 


CONTENTS.  l". 

2.  Get  a  distinct  and  comprohensivo  knowledge 

of  tlie  subject         .  .  .  .  .178 

3.  Bo  well  skilled  in  the  language  .  .  178 

4.  Acquire  a  variety  of  words  ,  .  .     179 

5.  Learn  the  art  of  shortening  your  sentences  179 

6.  Talk  frequently  to  young  and  ignorant  persons    180 

CHAPTKR  XVIII.. 

Or  Convincing  Otiiku  Persons  of  any  TnuxH,  oil  Dkliver- 
ING  Them  tkom  Kuuors  and  Mistakks. 

I.  We  are  naturally    desirous    of  bringing    all  the 

world  inlo  our  sentiments  .  .  .  ISO 

II.  The  following  directions  may  bo  useful         .  .     1^0 

1.  Ciioose  a    proper   place,  a  hai>py    hour,   and 

the  fittest  concurrent  circumstance      .  .     ISl 

2.  Make  it  appear  that  you  mean  him  well      .  loi 

3.  The  softest  and  gentlest  a  idress    is  \hv.   best 

way  to  convince.  It  is  a  very  great  and  fatal 
mistake  to  make  tlie  difference  appear  as 
wide  as  possible.  Human  nature  must  Ije 
nattered  a  little      .  .  .  .  .181 

4.  Watch  over  yourself,  lest  you  grow  warm  in 

dispute.  You  must  treat  an  opponent  like  a 
friend.  Truth  oftentimes  perishes  in  the 
fray 182 

5.  Xeillier  attempt  any  penal  methods  or  severe 

usage  .  .  .  .  .  .183 

6.  Always  make  choice  of  tliose  arguments  that 

are  best  suited  to  his  understanding  and 
capacity  .....  184 

7.  Load  the  mind  onward  to  perceive  the  truth 

in  a  clear  and  agreeable  liglit  .  .  184 

8.  Allow  a  reasonable  time  to  enter  into  the  force 

of  your  arguments.     Address  him  therefore 
in  an  obliging  manner     ....     181 
0.  Make  the   j)ersou  you  would   teach  liis    own 

instructf>r     ......     185 

10.  Bo  not  very  solicitous  about  the  nicety  with 

which  it  shall  Ijo  expressed        .  .  .     180 

11.  Yon  may  sometimes  liave  happy  success  by 

setting  Jiiin  to  read  a  weak  autlior  who 
writes  against  it  .  .  .  .  L-^  > 

12.  To  convince  a  whole  fanuly   or   community, 

lirsL  make  as  sure  as  wo  can  of  the  most  in- 
teiligent  and  learned        ....     1^7 

CHAPTKIl   XIX. 

Oi'  AuTHoniTY.    Ok  tiik  Ariose  of  it:  and  of  its  Kkal  and 
Phopkr  Use  and  Service. 

I.  The  influence  which  other  persons  have  upon  our 

opinions,  is  usually  called  authoritj-     .  .  1S3 


IG  rOXTKNTS. 

II.  Tlii-fd  ciriiiHiit  Mini  rniTiarkiililo  cusea  -wherein 
uiitliorily  will  duturmine  lliujudgiiionl  and  jirao 
ticuof  mankind.  .....     189 

1.  I'arcnits    aiu    appointed     to    jiidjro    for    tlieir 

cliiidrfn.     Tliix  is  a  dictate  of  n  itnre  .     189 

Tlio  iJ^ronl  Judge  will  not  punish  l)cyon<l  just 

demerit        .  .  .  .  .  .190 

It  is  hjird  to  say  at  what  exaet  time  of  life  the 

child  is  exoniptod  from  the  wover(;i<:nty   of 

parental  dictates  ....  ]!>1 

2.  Another  case  is  in  matters  of  fact.     The  au- 

thority or  testimony  of  men  oufrht  to  sway 
our  assent,  when  multitudes  concur  in  tiio 
same  testimony.  Yet,  tliat  there  have  been 
so  many  falselioods,  should  make  us  wisely 
eautious  .  .  .  .  .     '      191 

3.  Believe  what  persons  under  in»i)iration  have 

dictated  to  ns.     It  is  enoufrh  if  our  faculty 
of  reason  can  discover  the  divine  Authority     193 
III.  Some  other  cases  wherein  we  oujrht  to  jiay  a  jrreat 

deference  to  llio  authority  and  sentiment  of  others    193 

1.  We  oufrht  to  i>ay  very  jrreat  deference  to  the 

sentiments  of  onr  i)arents  .  .  .     194 

2.  Persons    of  years    and    long    experience    in 

liuman  affairs         .....     194 

3.  Persons  of  long  standing  in  virtue  and  piety      194 

4.  Men  in  their  several  jirofossions  and  arts        '       195 

5.  The  narratives  of  persons  wise  and  sober  .  195 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Of  Treating  axd  Managing  the  Prejudices  of  Men. 

I.  Mankind  stands  wrapped  round  in  errors,  and  en-  ^ 

trenched  in  prejudices       ....  195 

II.  Sevci-al  methods  to  bo  practiced  .  .  .  196 

1.  By  avoiding  the  power  and  inliuence  of  the 

prejudice  without  any  direct  attack  upon  it    196 
Begin   at  a   distance,   then    silently  observe 
what  impression  this  makes  upon  him  .     197 

2.  We  mav  expressly  allow  and    indulge  those 

Srejuclices  for  a  season.     When   the  jireju- 
ices  of  mankind  can  not  be  conquered  at 
once,  yield  to  them  for  the  present  .  197 

3.  Make  use  of  the  very  prejudices  under  which 

a  person  labors,  in  or(ier  to   convince  him     199 
Men  are  but  children  of  a  larger  size  .    2o0 


THE 
IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  MIND. 


PAET  I. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  ATTAINMENT  OF  USEFUL 
KNOWLEDGE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

No  man  is  obliged  to  learn  and  know  every  thing ; 
this  can  neitlier  bo  sought  nor  required,  for  it  is  utterly 
impossible ;  yet  all  persons  are  under  some  obligation  to 
inij)roYe  their  own  understanding ;  otherwise  it  will  be 
a  barren  desert,  or  a  forest  overgrown  with  weeds  and 
brambles.  Universal  ignorance  or  infinite  errors  will 
OAcrspread  the  mind  which  is  utterly  neglected  and  lies 
witlunit  any  cultivation. 

►Skill  in  the  sciences  is  indeed  the  business  and  profes- 
sion of  but  a  small  part  of  mankind  ;  but  there  are  numy 
others  placed  in  such  an  exalted  rank  in  the  world,  as 
allows  them  much  leisure  and  large  opportunities  to 
cultivate  their  reason,  and  to  beautify  and  enrich  their 
minds  with  various  knowledge.  Even  the  lower  orders 
of  men  have  particular  callings  in  life,  wherein  they 
ought  to  acquire  a  just  degree  of  skill ;  and  this  is  not  to 
bedoneAvell,  without  (hinkiugaud  i-easoniug  about  them. 

The  common  duties  and  benefits  of  society,  which 
belong  to  every  man  living,  as  we  are  social  creatures, 
and  even  our  native  and  necessary  relations  to  a  family, 
2 


IS  INTIiODUCnON. 

:i  ricigliborliood,  or  ^'ovcriiiiK'iit,  oblige  all  persons, 
whatsoever,  to  use  their  reasoning  powers  upon  a 
thousand  occasions;  every  hour  of  life  calls  for  some 
regular  exorcise  of  our  judgment,  as  to  lime  and  things, 
persons  and  actions:  without  a  i)ru(lcnt  and  discreet 
(Ictcrniinatioii  in  matters  before  us,  wo  shall  bt;  i)lunged 
into  pi-rpetual  errors  in  our  conduct.  Isow  that  "which 
should  always  be  practiced  must  at  some  time  be  learne«l. 

Besides,  every  son  and  daughter  of  Adam  has  a  most 
important  concern  in  the  affairs  of  the  life  to  come,  and 
therefore  it  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  moment,  fur 
every  one  to  understand,  to  judge,  and  to  reason  right 
about  the  things  of  religion.  It  is  vain  for  any  to  say, 
we  have  no  leisure  time  for  it.  The  daily  intervals  of 
time,  and  vacancies  from  necessary  labor,  together  with 
the  one  day  in  seven  in  the  Christian  world,  allow  suffi- 
cient time  for  this,  if  men  would  but  apply  themselves 
to  it  with  half  so  much  zeal  and  diligence  as  they  do  to 
the  trifles  and  amusements  of  this  life,  and  it  would  turn 
to  infinitely  better  account. 

Thus  it  appears  to  be  the  necessary  duty  and  the 
interest  of  every  person  living,  to  improve  his 
understanding,  to  inform  his  judgment,  to  tieasure 
up  useful  knowledge,  and  to  acquire  the  skill  of  good 
reasoning,  as  far  as  his  station,  capacity,  and  circum- 
stances furnish  him  with  x>i'oper  means  for  it.  Our  mis- 
takes in  judgment  may  idunge  us  into  nuich  folly  and 
guilt  in  practice.  By  acting  without  thought  or  rea- 
son, we  dishonor  the  God  that  made  us  reiusonable 
creatures,  we  often  become  injurious  to  our  neigh- 
bors, kindred,  or  friends,  and  we  bring  sin  and  misery 
upon  ourselves;  for  we  are  accountable  to  God,  our 
Judge,  for  every  j^art  of  our  irregular  and  mistaken 
conduct,  where  He  hath  given  us  sufficient  advantages 
to  guard  against  those  mistakes. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERA.L    RULES    FOE    THE    IMPROVE:\rEXT    OF 
KNOWLEDGE. 

Rule  T, — Deeply  possess  your  mind  with  the  vast 
importance  of  a  good  judgment,  and  the  rich  and  iues- 
tiinahle  advantage  of  right  reasoning.  Review  the  in- 
stances of  yonr  own  nusconduct  in  life  ;  think  seriously 
with  yourselves  how  many  follies  and  sorrows  you  had 
escaped,  and  how  much  guilt  and  misery  you  had  pre- 
vented, if  from  your  early  years  you  had  but  taken  due 
l)ains  to  judge  aright  concerning  persons,  times,  and 
things.  This  will  awaken  you  with  lively  vigor  to 
address  yourselves  to  the  work  of  improving  your  rea- 
Koning  powers,  and  seizing  every  opportunity  and  ad- 
vantage for  that  end. 

II.  Consider  the  weaknesses,  frailties,  and  mis- 
takes of  human  nature  in  general,  which  arise  from 
the  very  constitution  of  a  soul  united  to  an  animal  body 
and  subjected  to  many  inconveniences  thereby.  Con- 
sider the  depth  and  difficulty  of  many  truths,  and  the 
flattering  appearances  of  falsehood,  whence  arises  an 
infinite  variety  of  dangers  to  which  we  are  exposed  in 
our  judgment  of  things.  Read  with  greediness  those 
authors  that  treat  of  the  doctrine  of  prejudices,  prepos- 
sessions, and  springs  of  error,  on  puri^ose  to  make  your 
soul  watchful  on  all  sides,  that  it  suffer  itself,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  be  imposed  upon   by  none  of  them. 

III.  A  slight  view  of  things  so  momentous  is  not 
sufficient.  You  should  therefore  contrive  and  i)r:K'(ice 
fc-.ome  proper  methods  to  acquaint  yourself  with  your  own 
ignorance,  and  to  impress  vour  mind  with  a  (Wo\)  and, 

111 


20  GENERAL   KUEES 

painful  s;-uso  of  the  low  and  inii)erlVct  dc^rrccs  of  your 
j)reseiit  kuowh  (li^e,  that  you  may  l)o  iiicilcd  with  lal)or 
and  activity  to  pursue  after  greater  measures.  Among 
others,  you  may  find  some  such  methods  as  these  suc- 
cessful. 

1.  Take  a  wide  survey  noiv  and  then  of  the  vd-st  and 
unlimited  region  of  learning.  Let  your  meditations 
run  over  the  names  of  all  the  sciences,  witli  their 
numerous  branchings,  and  innumerable  particular  themes 
of  knowledge  ;  and  then  reflect  how  few  of  them  you  arc 
acquainted  with  in  any  tolerable  degree.  The  most 
learned  of  mortals  will  never  tiud  occasion  to  act  over 
again  what  is  fabled  of  Alexander  the  Great,  that  ■when 
he  had  conquered  what  was  called  the  ea.stern  world,  he 
wept  for  want  of  more  worlds  to  conquer.  The  worlds 
of  science  are  immense  and  endless. 

2.  Think  what  a  numberless  variety  of  questions  and 
difficulties  there  are  belonging  even  to  that  particular 
science  in  which  you  have  made  the  greatest  progress, 
and  how  few  of  them  there  are  in  which  you  have 
arrived  at  a  final  and  undoubted  certainty ;  excepting 
only  those  questions  in  the  pure  and  simple  mathematics, 
whose  theorems  are  demonstrable,  and  leave  scarce  any 
doubt ;  and  yet,  even  in  the  pursuit  of  some  few  of  these, 
mankind  liave  been  strangely  bewildered. 

3.  S])end  a  few  thoughts  sometimes  on  the  puzzling  inquiries 
concerning  vacuums  and  atoms,  the  doctrine  of  infinites, 
indivisibles,  and  incommensurables  in  geometry,  wherein 
there  appear  some  insolvable  difiiculties :  do  this  on  pur- 
pose to  give  you  a  more  sensible  impression  of  the 
poverty  of  your  understanding  and  the  imperfection 
of  your  knowledge.  This  Avill  tcaeli  you  what  a  vain 
thing  it  is  to  fancy  that  you  know  all  things,  and 
will  instruct  you  to  think  modestly  of  your  present 
attainments,  when  every  dust  of  the  earth    and  every 


TO   OBTAIN   KNOWLEDGE.  21 

inch  of  empty  space    surinoimts   your    understanding 
and  triumphs  over  your  presumption. 

Arithmo  had  been  bred  up  to  accounts  all  his  life  and 
tli<)Ufj:ht  himself  a  complete  master  of  numbers.  But  when  he 
was  pushed  hard  to  give  the  sciuare  root  of  the  number  iJ,  he 
tried  at  it  and  labored  long  in  millesimal  fractions,  till  he 
confessed  there  was  no  end  of  the  incjuiry  ;  and  yet  he  learned 
so  much  modesty  Ijy  this  i)erplexing  (juestion,  that  he  was 
afraid  to  say  it  was  an  impossible  thing.  It  is  some  good 
degree  of  improvement,  when  we  are  afraid  to  be  positive. 

4.  Bead  the  accounts  of  those  vast  treasures  of  knowledge 
which  some  of  the  dead  have  possessed,  and  some  of  the 
living  do  possess.  Read  and  be  astonished  at  the 
almost  incredible  advances  which  have  been  made  in 
science.  Acquaint  yourself  with  some  persons  of  great 
learning,  that  by  converse  among  them  and  comparing 
yourself  with  them,  you  may  acquire  a  mean  opinion  of 
your  own  attainments  and  may  thereby  be  animated 
with  new  zeal,  to  equal  tliem  as  far  as  possible,  or  to 
exceed :  thus  let  your  diligence  be  quickened  by  a 
generous  and  laudable  emulation.  If  Yanillus  had 
never  met  with  Scitorio  and  Palydes,  he  had  never 
imagined  himself  a  mere  novice  in  philosophy,  nor  ever 
set  himself  to  study  in  good  earnest. 

Remember  this,  that  if  upon  some  few  superficial 
acquirements  you  value,  exalt,  and  swell  yourself,  as 
though  5"ou  were  a  man  of  learning  already,  you  are 
thereby  building  a  most  impassable  barrier  against  all 
improvement ;  you  will  lie  down  and  indulge  in  idleness, 
and  rest  yourself  contented  in  the  midst  of  deep  and 
shameful  ignorance.  3fuUi  ad  scientiam  pervenissent  si  se 
illuc  jicrvejiisse  non  putasscnt. 

IV.  Presume  not  too  much  upon  a  bright  genius,  a 
ready  wit,  and  good  parts;  for  this,  without  labor  and 
study,  will  never  make  a  man  of  knowledge  and  wisdom. 
This  has  been  an  unhappy  temptation  to  persons  of  a 


22  GENERAL   KULES 

viijorouR  and  ji^ay  fancy,  to  dcspiso  Irarninpj  and  stndy. 
'I'licy  liavc  been  acknowledged  to  shine  in  an  assembly, 
and  sparkle  in  a  discourse  on  common  topics,  and  thence 
they  took  it  into  their  lieads  to  abandon  readinj^  and 
iuboi-,  and  grow  old  in  ignorance;  but  when  tliey  had 
lost  their  vivacity  of  animal  nature  and  youth,  they 
became  stupid  and  sottish  even  to  contempt  and  ridicule. 

LiU'idus  and  Scintillo  arc  young  men  of  this  stamp ;  they 
sliine  ill  conversation  ;  they  spread  their  native  riches  l)efore 
the  ignorant;  tliey  j)ride  themselves  in  their  own  Uvcly 
images  of  fancy,  and  imagine  tliemselves  wise  and  learned  ; 
but  tlicy  had  best  avoid  the  i)resence  of  tlic  skillful  and  the 
test  of  re:isoning;  and  I  would  advise  them  once  a  day  to 
think  forward  a  little,  what  ii  contemptible  figure  they  will 
make  in  age. 

The  witty  men  sometimes  have  sense  enough  to  know  their 
own  foible ;  and  therefore  they  craftily  shun  the  attacks  of 
argunaent,  or  boldly  pretend  to  despise  and  renounce  them, 
because  they  are  conscious  of  their  own  ignorance  and 
inwardly  confess  their  want  of  acquaintance  with  the  skill  of 
reasoning. 

Y.  As  you  arc  not  to  fancj"  yourself  a  learned  man 
because  you  are  blessed  with  a  ready  wit ;  so  neither 
must  you  imagine  that  large  and  laborious  reading,  and 
a  strong  niemorj",  can  denominate  jou  truly  wise. 

What  that  excellent  critic  has  determined  when  he 
decided  the  question,  wliether  wit  or  study  makes  the 
best  x^oet,  may  well  bo  applied  to  every  sort  of  learning : 

Ego  nee  studium  sine  divite  vena, 

Nee  rude  quid  prosit,  video,  ingenium:  alterius  sic 
Altera  poscit  opem  res,  et  conjurat  amice. 

— llor.  de  Art.  Poet. 
Thus  made  English  : 

Concerning  poets  there  has  been  contest, 

Whether  they're  made  by  art  or  nature  best ; 

l^ut  if  I  may  presume  in  this  affair, 

Among  the  rest  my  judgment  to  declare, 

No  art  without  a  genius  will  avail. 

And  parts  without  the  lu'lp  of  art  will  fail : 

But  both  ingredients  jointly  nuist  unite, 

Or  verse  will  never  sliiue  with  a  transcendent  lisht. 

—OU/hanu 


TO   OBTAIN    KNOWLEDGE.  23 

It  is  meditation  and  studious  thought,  it  is  the  exer- 
cise of  your  own  reason  and  Jndjiincnt  upon  all  you  read, 
that  gives  good  sense  even  to  the  best  genius  and 
affords  your  understanding  the  truest  improvement.  A 
boy  of  a  strong  memory  may  repeat  a  A\'hole  book  of 
Eadid,  yet  be  no  georaetrieian  ;  for  he  may  not  be  able 
perhaps  to  demonstrate  one  single  theorem. 

A  well-furnished  library  and  a  capacious  memory  are 
indeed  of  singular  use  towai'd  the  improvement  of  the 
mind  ;  but  if  all  your  learning  be  nothing  else  but  a  mere 
amassment  of  what  others  have  written,  without  a  due 
penetration  into  the  meaning,  and  without  a  judicious 
choice  and  determination  of  your  own  sentiments,  I  do 
not  see  what  title  your  head  has  to  true  learning,  above 
your  shelves.  Though  you  have  read  i)hilosophy  and 
theology,  morals  and  metaphysics  in  abundance,  and 
every  other  art  and  science,  yet  if  your  memory  is  the 
only  faculty  employed,  with  the  neglect  of  your  reason- 
ing powers,  you  can  justly  claim  no  higher  character  but 
that  of  a  good  historian  of  the  sciences. 

VI.  Be  not  so  weak  as  to  imagine  that  a  life  of 
learning  is  a  life  of  laziness  and  ease;  dare  not  give 
upj'ouiself  to  any  of  the  learned  professions,  unless  you 
are  resolved  to  labor  hard  at  study,  and  can  make  it  your 
delight  and  the  joy  of  your  life,  according  to  the  motto 
of  our  late  Lord  Chancellor  King : 

....  Labor  ipse  voluptas. 
(Labor,  itself,  is  a  pleasure.) 

It  is  no  idle  thing  to  be  a  scholar  indeed.  A  man 
much  addicted  to  luxury  and  plea.sure,  recreation  and 
pastime,  should  never  pretend  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  the  sciences,  unless  his  soul  be  so  reformed  and  refined, 
that  he  can  taste  all  these  entertainments  eminently  iu 
his  closet,  among  his  books  and  papers. 


24  GKXKRAI-   Rl'LKS 

Hobrino  is  ji  toinpcnite  inun  ami  a  pliilosrjjdicr,  and  he  fufds 
iilH)ii  jKirtrid'-Co  and  pheasant,  venison  and  ra<?<)Uts,  and  every 
delicacy,  in  a  ;!:r<)win<^  understandin<r,  and  a  sereiM"  and  liealthy 
fsoul,  liioiii^ii  lie  dines  on  a  disli  of  sprouts  or  turnips.  Lan- 
{Xuinos  loved  his  ease,  and  tiierefore  chose  to  i»e  brou^^ht  up  ii 
scholar;  he  had  much  indolence  in  his  temper;  an<l  us  he 
never  cared  for  study,  lu;  falls  under  universal  contempt  in  his 
profession,  because  he  has  nothin;^  Init  the  K'>wn  and  the  name. 

VII.  Let  the  hope  of  new  discoveries,  as  well  as  tlie 
satisfaction  and  ph^asure  of  known  truths,  animate  your 
daily  industry.  Do  not  tliink  Icarnin;^  in  general  is 
arrived  at  its  perfection,  or  that  the  knowledj^e  of  any 
particular  subject  in  any  science  can  not  be  improved, 
merely  because  it  has  lain  five  hundred  or  a  thousand 
years  without  improvement.  The  present  aj^e,  l)y  the 
blessin,<;  of  God  on  the  ingenuity  and  diligence  of  men, 
has  brought  to  light  such  truths  in  natural  philosophy, 
and  such  discoveries  in  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  as 
seemed  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  man.  But  may  there 
not  be  Sir  Isaac  Xewtons  in  every  science?  You  should 
never  despair  therefore  of  finding  out  that  which  has 
never  yet  been  found,  unless  you  see  something  in  the 
nature  of  it  which  renders  it  unsearchable  and  above  thQ 
reach  of  our  faculties. 

VIII.  Do  not  hover  always  on  the  surface  of  things, 
nor  take  up  suddenly  with  mere  appearances ;  but  pene- 
trate into  the  depth  of  matters,  as  far  as  your  time  and 
circumstances  allow,  especially  in  those  things  which  re- 
late to  your  own  profession.  Do  not  indulge  yourselves 
to  judge  of  things  by  the  first  glimpse,  or  a  short  and 
superficial  view  of  them ;  for  this  will  fill  the  mind  with 
errors  and  prejudices,  and  give  it  a  wrong  turn  and  ill 
habit  of  thinking,  and  make  uuich  work  for  retraction. 

As  for  those  sciences,  or  those  parts  of  knowledge, 
which  either  your  profession,  your  leisure,  your  inclina- 
tion, or  your  incapacity,  forbid  you  to  pursue  with  much 
application,  or  to  search  far  into  them,  you  must  be  con- 


TO   OBTAIX   KNOWLEDGE.  'lo 

tentetl  with  an  historical  and  superficial  knowledge  of 
them,  and  not  pretend  to  form  any  jud^^ment  of  your 
own  on  those  subjects  which  you  understand  very  im- 
l)eriectly. 

IX.  Once  a  day,  especially  in  the  early  years  of  life 
and  study,  call  yourselves  to  an  account  what  new 
ideas,  what  new  i^roposilion  or  truth  you  have  gained, 
what  further  confirmation  of  known  truths,  and  what  ad- 
vances you  have  made  in  any  part  of  knowledge ;  and 
let  no  day,  if  possible,  pass  away  without  some  intellec- 
tual gain :  such  a  course,  well  pursued,  must  certainly 
advance  us  in  useful  knowledge.  It  is  a  wise  proverb 
among  the  learned,  borrowed  from  the  lips  and  practice 
of  a  celebrated  painter,  Xulla  dies  sine  linea,  "  Let  no  day 
pass  without  one  line  at  least;"  and  it  was  a  sacred 
rule  among  the  Pythagoreans,  That  they  should  every 
evening  thrice  run  over  the  actions  and  affairs  of  the 
day,  and  examine  what  their  conduct  had  been,  what 
they  had  done,  or  what  they  had  neglected  ;  and  they 
assured  their  pupils,  that  by  this  method  they  would 
make  a  noble  progress  in  the  path  of  virtue. 

Nor  let  soft  slumber  close  your  eyes, 
Before  you've  recollected  thrice 
The  train  of  action  through  the  day  : 
Where  have  my  feet  chose  out  their  way. 
What  have  I  learu'd,  wliere'er  I've  been, 
From  all  I've  heard,  from  all  I've  seen? 
What  know  I  more  that's  worth  the  knowing? 
What  have  I  done  tliaf 's  wortli  the  doing? 
Wliat  liave  I  souglit  tliat  1  sliould  shun? 
What  duty  have  I  h-ft  undone? 
Or  into  wiiat  new  folHes  run? 
These  self-itKjuiries  are  the  road 
That  leads  to  virtue,  and  to  God. 

I  would  bo  glad,  among  a  nation  of  Christians,  to 
find  young  men  heartily  engaged  in  the  practice  of  what 
this  heathen  writer  teaches. 


26  GKXERAT-  inrj:s 

X.  Mainlain  a  constanl  watch  at  all  times  against  a 
dogmatical  spirit:  fix  ijoi  yourasseul  to  any  i)ropo.silion 
in  a  lirui  and  nnalterable  manner,  till  you  have  some 
limi  and  unalterable  ground  for  it,  and  till  you  have  ar- 
rived at  some  clear  and  sure  evidence ;  till  you  have 
turned  the  proposition  on  all  sides  and  searched  the 
matter  throuj^h  and  through,  so  that  you  can  not  be  mis- 
taken. And  even  where  you  may  think  you  have  full 
grounds  of  assurance,  be  not  too  early,  nor  too  fre<iuent, 
in  expressing  this  assurance  in  too  peremptory  and  posi- 
tive a  manner,  remembering  that  human  nature  is  al- 
ways liable  to  mistake  in  this  corrupt  and  feeble  state. 
A  dogmatical  spirit  ha>s  many  inconveniences  attending 
it :  as 

1.  It  stops  the  ear  against  all  further  reasoning  upon 
that  subject,  and  shuts  up  the  mind  from  all  further  im- 
provements of  knowledge.  If  you  have  resolutely  fixed 
your  opinion,  though  it  be  upon  too  slight  and  insufii- 
cient  grounds,  yet  you  will  stand  determined  to  renounce 
the  strongest  reason  brought  for  the  contrary  opinion, 
and  grow  obstinate  against  the  force  of  the  clearest  ar- 
gument. 

Positive  Is  a  man  of  this  character ;  and  has  often  pro- 
nounced his  assurance  of  the  Cartesian  vortexes ;  last  year 
some  further  light  broke  in  upon  his  understanding,  witli 
uncontrollable  force,  by  reading  something  of  mathematical 
philosophy  ;  yet  having  asserted  his  former  opinions  in  a  most 
conlident  manner,  lie  is  tempted  lunv  to  wink  a  little  against 
the  truth,  or  to  prevaricate  in  his  diseourse  upon  that  sul>ject, 
k>st  by  admitting  conviction,  he  should  expose  himself  to  the 
necessity  of  confessing  his  former  folly  and  mistake :  and  he 
has  not  humility  enough  for  that. 

2.  A  dogmatical  spirit  naturally  leads  ns  to  arrogance 
of  mind,  and  gives  a  man  some  airs  in  conversation 
which  are  too  haughty  and  assuming.  Audeus  is  a  man 
of  learning,  and  very  good  company  ;  but  his  infallible 
assurance  renders  his  carriage  sometimes  insu importable. 


TO   OBTAIN    KNOAVLEDGE.  27 

A  dogmatical  spirit  inclines  a  man  to  be  censorious  of 
his  neiglibors.  Eveiy  one  of  his  own  opinions  appears 
to  him  written  as  it  Averc  with  sunbeams  ;  and  he  grows 
angiy  that  his  neiglibor  does  not  see  it  in  the  same 
light.  He  is  tempted  to  disdain  his  correspondents,  as 
men  of  a  low  and  dark  understanding,  because  they  will 
not  believe  -svliat  he  does.  Furio  goes  farther  in  this 
wild  track  and  charges  those  Avho  refuse  his  notions 
with  willful  obstinacy  and  vile  hypocrisy  ;  he  tells  them 
boldly,  that  they  resist  the  truth  and  sin  against  their 
consciences. 

XI.  Though  caution  and  slow  assent  will  guard  you 
against  frequent  mistakes  and  retractions;  yet  you  should 
get  humility  and  courage  enough  to  retract  any  mistake, 
and  confess  an  error:  fre(iuent  changes  are  tokens  of 
levity  in  our  lirst  determinations;  yet  you  should  never 
be  too  proud  to  change  your  opinion,  nor  frightened  at  the 
name  of  changeling.  Learn  to  scorn  those  vulgar  bug- 
bears, which  confii-m  foolish  man  in  his  old  mistakes,  for 
fear  of  being  charged  with  inconstancy.  I  confess  it  is 
better  not  to  judge,  than  to  judge  falsely;  it  is  wiser  to 
withhold  our  assent  till  we  see  complete  evidence ;  but 
if  we  have  too  suddenly  given  up  our  assent,  as  the  wisest 
man  does  sometimes,  if  we  have  professed  what  we  find 
afterwards  to  be  false,  we  should  never  be  ashamed  nor 
afraid  to  renounce  a  mistake.  That  is  a  noble  essay 
which  is  found  among  the  Occasional  I^ajjcrs,  "  to  encour- 
age the  world  to  ]»iactice  retractations";  and  I  would 
recommend  it  to  the  perusal  of  every  scholar  and  every 
Christian. 

XII.  He  that  would  raise  his  judgment  above  the  vul- 
gar rank  of  mankind,  and  learn  to  pass  a  just  sentence 
on  ])(Msons  and  things,  must  take  heed  of  a  fanciful 
temper  of  mind  and  a  humorous  conduct  iu  hisaifairs. 
Fancy  and  huuu^r,  early  and  constantly  inchilged,  may 
expect  an  old  a;^c  overrun  with  follius. 


28  GENERAL  RULES 

The  notion  of  a  liumorist  is  one  that  is  jj^reatly  pleaded, 
or  j^reatly  displeased,  witli  little  t  liin,i;s ;  'svho setsliis  heart 
niucli  upon  matteis  of  very  small  inijiorlance  ;  who  has 
his  will  determined  every  day  by  trifles,  his  actions  sel- 
dom directed  by  the  reason  and  natnre  of  thin'^s,  and  his 
passions  frequently  raised  by  thinj^s  of  little  moment. 
Where  this  practice  is  allowed,  it  will  insensibly  warp 
the  judi;inent  to  pronounce  little  things  great,  and  lemi)t 
you  to  lay  a  great  weight  upon  them.  In  shoil,  this 
temper  will  incline  you  to  pass  an  unjust  value  on  almost 
everything  that  occurs  ;  and  every  step  you  take  in  this 
path  is  just  so  far  out  of  the  way  to  wisdom. 

XIII.  For  the  same  reason  have  a  care  of  trifling  with 
things  impoi'tant  and  momentous,  or  of  sporting  with 
things  awful  and  sacred  :  do  not  indulge  a  spirit  of 
ridicuTe,  as  some  witty  men  do  on  all  occasions  and  sub- 
jects. This  will  as  unhappily  bias  the  judgment  on  the 
other  side,  and  incline  you  to  pass  a  low  esteem  on  t  he  most 
valuable  objects.  Whatsoever  evil  habit  we  indulge  in 
practice,  it  will  insensibly  obtain  a  power  over  our  un- 
derstanding and  betray  us  into  many  erroi-s.  ' 

Jocander  is  ready  with  his  jests  to  answer  every  thing  tliat 
he  liears  ;  he  reads  books  in  the  same  jovial  humor,  and  haa 
gotten  the  art  of  turning  every  thought  and  sentence  into 
luerrimeut.  How  many  awkward  and  irregular  judgments 
does  tliis  man  pass  upon  solemn  suhjeots,  even  when  he  designs 
to  be  grave  and  in  earnest!  His  mirth  and  laughing  humor 
is  formed  into  habit  and  temper,  and  leads  liis  understanding 
shamefully  astray.  You  will  see  him  wandering  in  pursuit  of 
a  gay  flying  feather,  and  lie  is  drawn  by  a  sort  of  ijni^i  J'atuus 
into  bogs  and  mire  almost  every  day  of  his  life. 

XIV.  Ever  maintain  a  ^•irtuous  and  pious  frame  of 
spirit ;  for  an  indul^nce  of  vicious  inclinations  de- 
bases the  understanding  and  perverts  the  judgment. 
Whoredom  and  wine,  and  new  wine,  take  away  the  heart 
and  soul,  and  reason  ofaman.  Sensuality  ruins  the  better 
faculties  of  the  mind;  an  indulgence  to  appetite  and  pas- 


TO   OBTAIN    KNOWLEDGE.  29 

sion  enfeebles  the  powers  of  reason;  it  makes  the  jndg- 
meut  weak  and  suscei^tible  of  every  falseliood,  and  espe- 
cially of  such  mistakes  as  have  a  tendency  towards  the 
gratilication  of  the  animal :  and  it  warps  the  soul  aside 
strangely  from  that  steadfast  honesty  and  integrity  tliat 
necessarily  belongs  to  the  pursuit  of  truth.  It  is  the  vir- 
tuous man  who  is  in  a  fair  way  to  wisdom.  "God  gives 
to  those  that  are  good  in  His  sight  wisdom,  and  knowl- 
edge, and  joy,"  Eccles.  2:  26. 

XV.  Watch  against  the  pride  of  your  own  reason  and 
a  vain  conceit  of  your  own  iutellectual  powers,  with  the 
neglect  of  divine  aid  and  blessing.  Presume  not  upon 
great  attainments  in  knowledge  by  your  own  self-sufli- 
ciency  :  those  who  trust  to  their  own  understanding  en- 
tirely are  pronounced  fools  in  the  word  of  God  ;  and  it  is 
tlie  wisest  of  nu'n  gives  them  this  character.  "He  that 
trust eth  in  his  own  heart  is  a  fool,"  Prov.  28:  20. 
And  the  same  divine  writer  advises  us  to  "trust  in  the 
Lord  with  all  our  heart,  and  not  to  lean  to  our  under- 
standings, nor  to  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes,"  chap,  o  :  5,  T. 

XVI.  Offer  up,  therefore,  your  daily  requests  to 
God  the  Father  of  lights,  that  He  would  bless  all  your  at- 
tempts and  labois  in  reading,  study,  and  conversation. 
Think  with  yourself  liow  easily  and  how  insensibly,  by 
one  turn  of  thought,  lie  can  lead  you  into  a  large  scene  of 
useful  ideas:  He  can  teach  you  to  lay  hold  on  a  clue  which 
may  guide  your  thoughts  withsaA'ly  and  ease  through  all 
the  dinicullies  of  an  intricate  sul)ject.  Think  how  easily 
the  Author  of  your  beings  can  direct  your  motions,  by 
His  providence,  so  that  the  glance  of  an  eye,  or  a  word 
striking  the  ear,  or  a  sudden  turn  of  the  fancy,  shall  con- 
duct you  to  a  train  of  happy  seii^iments.  I>y  Ilis  secret 
and  supreme  method  of  government,  He  can  di-aw  you 
to  read  such  a  treatise,  or  converse  witli  sucli  a  i)v'rs()n, 
who  may  give  you  more  light  into  some  deep  subject  in 


30  GEXKRAI,    IJT'T,F.R. 

;iii  hour,  llian  yon  could  ol)liiiu  by  a  monlh  of  your  own 
solitary  labor. 

Implore  constantly  His  divine  p^racc  to  point  your 
inclination  to  proper  studies,  and  to  fix  your  lieai-t  there, 
lie  can  keep  off  temjitations  on  the  right  liand,  and  on 
the  left,  both  by  the  course  of  His  providence,  and  l)y  Iho 
secret  and  insensible  intimations  of  His  Spirit.  He  can 
guard  your  understandings  from  every  evil  influence  of 
error,  and  secure  you  from  the  danger  of  evil  books  and 
men,  which  might  otherwise  have  a  fatal  effect  and  lead 
you  into  pernicious  mistakes. 

Even  the  poets  call  upon  the  muse  as  a  goddess  to 
assist  them  in  their  compositions. 

The  first  lines  of  Homer  in  his  Iliad  and  his  Odyssey, 
the  first  line  of  Musaeus  in  his  song  of  Hero  and  Leander, 
the  beginning  of  Hesiod  in  his  poem  of  Works  and  Days, 
and  several  others  furnish  us  with  sufficient  examples 
of  this  kind ;  nor  does  Ovid  leave  out  this  piece  of  devo- 
tion, as  he  begins  his  stories  of  the  Metamorphoses. 
Christianity  so  much  the  more  obliges  us,  by  the  precejits 
of  Scripture,  to  invoke  the  assistance  of  the  true  God  in 
all  our  labors  of  the  mind,  for  the  improvement  of  our- 
selves and  others.  Bishop  Saunderson  says,  that  study 
without  prayer  is  atheism,  as  well  as  that  prayer  without 
study  is  presumption.  And  we  are  still  more  abun- 
dantly encouraged  by  the  testimony  of  those  who  have 
acknowledged,  from  their  own  experience,  that  sincere 
prayer  was  no  hinderance  to  their  studies :  they  have 
gotten  more  knowledge  sometimes  upon  their  knees, 
than  by  their  labor  in  perusing  a  A'ariety  of  authors; 
and  they  have  left  this  observation  for  such  as  follow, 
Bene  orasse  est  bene  stiuhiisse,  ''praying  is  the  best 
studying." 

To  conclude,  let  industry  and  devotion  join  together, 
and  you  need  not  doubt  the  happy  success.     Prov.  2:2: 


THE   FIVE   METHODS.  ol 

"Incline  thine  ear  to  wisdom;  apply  thine  heart  to 
understanding ;  cry  after  knowledge,  and  lift  up  thy 
voice :  seek  her  as  silver,  and  search  for  her  as  for  hidden 
treasures;  then  shalt  thou  understand  the  fear  of  the 
Lord,"  etc.,  which  "is  the  beginning  of  wisdom."  It  is 
"the  Lord  M'ho  gives  wisdom  even  to  the  simple,  and 
out  of  his  mouth  cometh  knowledge  and  understanding." 


CHAPTER  II. 


OBSEEVATIOX,     HEADING,     INSTRUCTION     BY     LECTURES, 
CONVERSATION,  AND   STUDY,  COMPARED. 

There  are  five  eminent  means  or  methods  whereby 
the  mind  is  imjiroved  in  the  knowledge  of  things ;  and 
these  are  observation,  reading,  instruction  by  lectures, 
conversation,  and  meditation  ;  which  last  in  a  most 
peculiar  manner,  is  called  study. 

Let  us  survey  the  general  definitions  or  descriptions 
of  them  all. 

1.  Observation  is  the  notice  that  we  take  of  all  oc- 
currences in  human  life,  whether  they  are  sensible  or 
intellectual,  whether  relating  to  persons  or  things,  to  our- 
selves or  others.  It  is  this  that  furnishes  us,  even  from 
our  infancy,  M'ith  a  rich  variety  of  ideas  and  propositions, 
words  and  phrases:  it  is  by  this  we  know  that  fire  will 
burn,  that  the  sun  gives  light,  that  a  horse  eats  grass, 
that  an  acorn  produces  an  oak,  that  man  is  a  being 
capable  of  reasoning  and  discourse,  that  our  judgment  is 
weak,  that  our  mistakes  are  many,  that  our  sorrows  are 
great,  that  our  bodies  die  and  are  carried  to  the  grave, 
and  that  one  generation  succeeds  another.  All  those 
things  which  we  see,  which  we  hear  or  feel,  whicli  we 
perceive  by  sense  or  consciousness,  or  which  we  know 


..2  THE  FIVE  :\ri;TnoDS 

i;i  a  (liroct  inaniUT,  willi  scarce  any  exercise  of  our  rcflecf- 
iii-  laciillies  or  our  icasoniii;^  jtowers,  may  be  included 
under  (he  general  nanu;  of  observation. 

^^'hen  this  observation  relates  to  any  thing  tliat  imme- 
diately concerns  ourselves,  and  of  which  we  are  conscious, 
it  may  be  called  experience.  jSo  I  am  said  to  know  or 
experience  that  1  ha\  e  in  myself  a  jxiwer  of  thinking, 
fearing,  loving,  etc.,  that  I  have  ai>petites  and  passions 
working  in  me,  and  many  personal  occurrences  have 
attended  me  in  this  life. 

Observation,  therefore,  includes  all  that  Mr.  Locke 
means  by  sensation  and  reflection, 

AVhen  we  are  searching  out  the  nature  or  properties 
of  any  being  by  various  methods  of  trial,  or  when  we 
apply  some  active  powers,  or  set  some  causes  to  work  to 
observe  what  effects  they  would  produce,  this  sort  of  ob- 
servation is  called  experiment.  So  when  I  IhroAv  a 
bullet  into  water,  I  find  it  sinks  ;  and  when  I  throw  the 
same  bullet  into  quicksilver,  I  see  it  swims  :  but  if  I  beat 
out  this  bullet  into  a  thin  hollow  shax)e,  like  a  dish,  then 
it  will  swim  in  the  water  too.  So  when  I  strike  two 
flints  together,  I  find  they  produce  fire ;  when  I  throw  a 
seed  in  the  earth,  it  grows  up  into  a  plant. 

All  these  belong  to  the  first  method  of  knowledge; 
which  I  shall  call  observation. 

2.  Reading  is  that  means  or  method  of  knowledge 
whereby  we  acquaint  ourselves  with  what  other  men 
have  written,  or  published  to  the  world  in  their  writings. 
These  arts  of  reading  and  writing  are  of  infinite  advan- 
tage; for  by  them  we  are  made  j)artakers  of  the  senti- 
n.ents,  observations,  reasonings,  and  improvements  of 
all  the  learned  M'orld,  in  the  most  remote  nations,  and  in 
former  ages  almost  from  the  beginning  of  mankind. 

3.  Public  or  private  lectures  are  such  verbal  in- 
structions   as    are   given    by   a    teacher   while  the 


OF   IMPROVEMENT  C03IPARED.  33 

learners  attend  in  silence.  This  is  the  "way  ol"  learning 
religion  from  the  pulpit ;  or  of  philosophy  or  theology 
from  the  professor's  chair;  or  of  mathematics,  by  a 
teacher  showing  us  various  theorems  or  problems,  /.  r., 
speculations  or  practices,  by  demonstration  and  oi)era- 
tion,  with  all  the  instruments  of  art  necessary  to  those 
ox)erations. 

4.  Conversation  is  another  method  of  im])r(>v!ng  our 
minds,  wlierein,  by  mutual  discourse  and  inquiry,  we 
learn  the  sentiments  of  others,  as  well  as  communicate 
our  sentiments  to  others  in  the  same  manner.  Some- 
times, indeed,  though  both  parties  speak  by  turns,  yet 
the  advantage  is  only  o;i  one  side,  as  when  a  teacher  and 
a  learner  meet  and  discourse  together :  but  frequently 
the  profit  is  mutual.  Under  the  head  of  conversation 
we  may  also  rank  disputes  of  various  kinds. 

5.  Meditation  or  study  includis  all  t hose  exercises  of 
the  mind,  whereby  we  render  all  the  former  methods 
useful  for  our  increase  in  truti  knowletlge  and  wisdom. 
It  is  by  meditation  we  come  to  confirm  our  memory  of 
things  that  i)ass  through  our  thoughts  in  theoccurri'iices 
of  life,  in  our  own  experiences,  and  in  tlie  observations 
we  make.  It  is  by  meditation  that  we  draw  various  in- 
ferences, and  establish  in  our  minds  general  ])rinciples 
of  knowledge.  It  is  by  meditation  that  we  compare  the 
various  ideas  which  we  derive  from  our  senses,  or  from 
the  oj)erations  of  our  semis,  and  join  tliem  in  i)roposi- 
tions.  It  is  by  meditation  that  we  fix  in  our  memory 
whatsoever  we  learn,  and  form  our  judgment  of  the 
truth  or  falsehood,  the  strength  or  weakness,  of  what 
others  speak  or  WTite.  It  is  meditation  or  study  that 
draws  out  long  chains  of  argnment,  and  searches  and 
finds  deep  and  diflicult  truths  which  l)efore  lay  concealed 
in  darkness. 

It  would  be  a  needless  thiug  to  i)rove,  that  our  own 


34  TTIK   FIVF-   METHODS 

solitary  meditations,  to^otlicr  with  tlie  lew  observations 
that  tbo  most  part  of  mankind  are  capable  of  making, 
arc  not  sufncieiit,  of  themselves,  to  lead  us  into  the 
altaiiinient  of  any  considerable  i)roi)ortion  of  knowledge, 
at  least  in  an  age  so  much  improved  as  ours  is,  without 
the  assistance  of  conversation  and  reading,  and  other 
proper  instructions  that  are  to  be  attained  in  our  days. 
Yet  each  of  these  five  methods  have  their  jieculiar 
advantages,  whereby  they  assist  each  other;  and  their 
peculiar  defects,  which  have  need  to  be  supplied  by  the 
other's  assistance.  Let  us  trace  over  some  of  the  partic- 
ular advantages  of  each. 

I.  One  method  of  improving  the  mind  is  observation, 
and  the  advantages  of  it  are  these : 

1.  It  is  owing  to  observation,  that  our  viind  is  furnished 
icilh  the  first  simple  and  coni])h'x  ideas.  It  is  this  lays 
the  ground-work  and  foundation  of  all  knowledge, 
and  makes  us  capable  of  using  any  of  the  other  methods 
for  improving  the  mind :  for  if  we  did  not  attain 
a  variety  of  sensible  and  intellectual  ideas  by  the  sen- 
sations of  outward  objects,  by  the  consciousness  of  our 
own  appetites  and  passions,  pleasui'cs  and  pains,  and  by 
inward  experience  of  the  actings  of  our  own  spirits,  it 
would  be  impossible  either  for  men  or  books  to  teach  us 
any  thing.  It  is  observation  that  must  give  us  our 
first  ideas  of  things,  as  it  includes  in  it  sense  and  con- 
sciousness. 

2.  All  our  knowledge  derived  from  observation,  whether 
it  be  of  single  ideas  or  of  jiropositions,  is  knowledge 
gotten  at  first  hand.  Hereby  we  see  and  know  thini:s 
as  they  are,  or  as  they  appear  to  us;  we  take  the 
impressions  of  them  on  our  minds  from  the  original 
objects  themselves,  which  give  a  clearer  and  stronger 
conception  of  things:  these  ideas  are  more  lively,  and 
the  propositions  (at  least  in  many  cases)  are  much  more 


OF  IMPROVEMENT  COMPARED.  35 

evident,  ^vllereas,  \vluit  kuowledge  we  derive  from  lec- 
tures, reading',  aud  conversation,  is  but  the  coi)y  ofotlier 
men's  ideas,  that  is,  the  picture  of  a  i)icture;  aud  it  is 
one  remove  farther  from  the  originah 

3.  Another  advaniaye  of  ohHermtion  is,  that  we  may  gain 
knowledge  all  the  day  long,  and  every  moment  ot 
our  lives;  and  every  moment  of  our  existence  Ave  may 
be  adding  something  to  our  intellectual  treasures  thereby, 
except  only  while  we  are  asleep,  and  even  then  the  re- 
membrance of  our  dreanun<^  will  teach  us  some  truths, 
and  lay  a  foundation  for  a  better  ac(iuaintance  Mith 
human  nature,  both  in  the  powers  and  in  the  frailties 
of  it. 

II.  The  next  way  of  imjn-oving  the  mind  is  by  read- 
ing, and  the  advantages  of  it  are  such  as  these  : 

1.  Jiy  reading  ice  acquaint  ourselves,  in  a  very  extensive 
manner,  with  the  affairs,  actions,  and  thoughts,  of  the  living 
and  the  dead,  in  tlie  most  remote  nations  and  most  dis- 
tant ages,  and  that  with  as  much  ease  as  though 
they  lived  in  our  own  age  and  nation.  By  reading  of 
books  we  may  learn  something  from  all  parts  of  man- 
kind ;  whereas,  by  observation  we  learn  all  from  our- 
selves, and  only  what  comes  within  our  own  direct 
cognizance  ;  by  conversation  we  can  only  enjoy  the 
assistance  of  a  very  few  persons,  viz.,  those  who  are  near 
us  and  live  at  the  same  time  when  we  do,  that  is,  our 
neighbors  and  contemporari(\s ;  but  our  knowledge  is 
nuich  more  narrowed  still,  if  wecontine  ourselves  merely 
to  our  own  solitary  reasonings,  without  much  observatn-.n 
or  reading;  for  then  all  our  improvement  must  arise  only 
from  our  own  inwai'd  i)owers  and  meditations. 

2.  By  reading  ire  learn  not  only  the  actions  and  the  senti- 
ments of  different  nations  and  ages,  but '\\e  transfer  to 
ourselves  the  knowledge  and  improvements  of  the  most 
learned  men,  the  wisest  and  the   best  of  mankind, 


36  THE   TIVK   METHODS 

■\vhon  or  whorosoevor  Ihcy  livc<l :  for  tlioiij^h  many  hooks 
]i;ivc  In-eu  uritlcii  l>y  Mcak  and  injudicious  jjcrsons,  y«,'t 
the  most  of  those  books  \\iiicli  liave  ol)tainc(l  ^reat  repu- 
tation in  the  ^vorhl,  are  the  i)rodu(ts  of  f;reat  and  ^vise 
men  in  their  several  aj^es  and  nations  :  a\  htreii-s  we  can 
obtain  tlic  conversation  and  instiuction  of  lliose  only  who 
are  within  the  reach  of  our  dwelling,  or  our  acc^uaint- 
ance,  whether  they  are  wise  or  unwise :  and  sometimes 
that  narrow  sphere  scarce  affords  any  person  of  great 
eminence  in  wisdom  or  learning,  unless  our  instructor 
happen  to  have  this  character.  And  as  for  our  study 
and  meditations,  even  when  we  arrive  at  some  good 
degrees  of  learning,  our  advantage  for  further  improve- 
ment in  knowledge  by  them,  is  still  far  more  contracted 
than  what  we  may  derive  from  reading. 

3.  When  we  read  good  authors,  we  leant  the  befif.  the  most 
labored,  and  most  refined  sentiments,  even  of  those 
wise  and  learned  men ;  for  they  have  studied  hard,  and 
have  committed  to  writing  their  maturest  thoughts,  and 
the  result  of  their  long  study  and  experience  :  whereas, 
by  conversation,  and  in  some  lectures,  we  obtain  many 
times  only  the  present  thoughts  of  our  tutors  or  friends, 
which  (though  they  may  be  bright  and  useful',  yet,  at 
first  perhaps,  may  be  sudden  and  indigested,  and  are 
mere  hints  which  have  risen  to  no  maturity. 

4.  It  is  another  advantage  of  reading,  that  we  may 
review  what  we  have  read;  we  may  consult  the  page 
again  and  again,  and  meditate  on  it  at  successive  seasons, 
in  our  sereuest  and  retired  hours,  having  the  book  always 
at  hand  :  but  what  we  obtain  by  conversation  anil  in  lec- 
tures, is  oftentimes  lost  again  as  soon  as  the  company 
breaks  up,  or  at  least  when  the  day  vanishes,  unless  we 
haj^pen  to  have  the  talent  of  a  good  memory,  or  quickly 
retire  and  note  down  what  remarkable  thoughts  or  ideas 
we  have  found  in  those  discourses.     And  for  the  same 


OF  IMPROVEMENT   f ■o:\rP AT? F.D.  37 

reason,  and  for  the  want  of  retiring  and  wriliiig,  many 
a  learned  man  has  lost  several  useful  meditations  of  his 
own,  and  could  never  recall  them  again. 

III.  Thti  advantage  of  verbal  instructions  by  jniblic 
or  private  lectures  aie  these  : 

1.  There  is  aometMiig  more  sprlghllj,  more  delightful  and 
entertaining,  in  the  living  discourse  of  a  wise,  learned, 
and  well  qualified  teacher,  than  there  is  in  the  silent 
and  sedentary  practice  of  reading.  The  very  turn 
of  voice,  the  good  pronunciation,  and  the  polite  and 
alluring  manner  which  some  teachers  have  attained,  will 
engage  the  attention,  keep  the  soul  fixed,  and  convey 
and  insinuate  into  the  mind,  the  ideas  of  things  in  a  more 
li\ely  and  forcible  way,  than  the  mere  reading  of  books 
in  the  silence  and  retirement  of  the  closet. 

2.  A  tutor  or  instructor,  when  he  paraphrases  and 
explains  other  authois,  can  mark  out  the  i^rccise  point  of 
difficidty  or  controversy,  and  vnfold  it.  He  can  show  you 
which  paragraphs  are  of  greatest  importance,  and 
which  are  of  less  moment.  He  can  teach  his  hearers 
what  authors,  or  Mhat  paits  of  an  author  ai'e  best  worth 
reading  on  any  i)articular  subject,  and  thus  save  his  dis- 
ciples much  time  and  pains,  by  shortening  the  labors  of 
their  closet  and  private  studies.  He  can  show  you  what 
were  the  doctrines  of  the  ancients,  in  a  compendium 
which  i)erhaps  would  cost  much  labor  and  the  i)erusal 
of  many  books  to  attain.  He  can  inform  you  what  new 
doctrines  or  sentiments  are  arising  in  the  world  before 
they  come  to  be  public;  as  well  as  aecpuiint  you  witli  his 
own  private  thoughts,  and  his  own  e\i)eriments  and 
obsi'rvations,  which  never  were,  and  i)erhaps  never  will 
be  i)ublished  to  the  world,  and  yet  may  be  very  valiuible 
and  useful. 

3.  A  liring  instructor  can  conrnj  to  our  senses  those 
notions  with  which  he  would  furnish  our  minds,  when 


38  Tin:  I  FVi:  ^rKT^ODK 

hv  ti'iU'lu'S  lis  iiuliuui  ])liil()S()j)liy,  orinosl  ]i;uts  of  niullir- 
uiutical  k'ainiiig.  lie  can  make  the  experiments  heloie 
om-  eyes.  He  can  describe  figures  and  dia^Manis,  jxiint 
1o  tlic  lines  and  anjilcs,  and  make  ont  the  deniojistration 
in  a  more  intelligible  manner  by  sensible  means,  wliich 
can  not  so  ■well  bo  done  by  mere  reading,  even  though 
Ave  should  have  the  same  figures  lying  in  a  l>ook  before 
our  eyes.  A  living  teachei-,  therefore,  is  a  most  neces- 
sary help  in  these  studies. 

I  might  add  also,  that  even  where  the  subject  of  dis- 
course is  nioi-al,  logical,  or  rhetorical,  et c.,. and -which  <loes 
not  directly  come  under  the  notice  of  our  senses,  a  tutor 
may  explain  his  ideas  Ijy  such  familiar  exami)les.  and 
plaiu  or  simjjle  similitudes,  as  seldom  find  place  in  books 
and  writings. 

4.  When  an  insfrucior  in  his  lectures  delivers  any  matter 
of  difficulty,  or  expresses  himself  in  such  a  manner 
as  seems  obscure,  so  that  you  do  not  take  up  his  ideas, 
clearly  or  fully,  you  have  opportunity,  at  least  when  the 
lecture  is  finished,  or  at  other  jiroper  seasons,  to  inquire 
lio"w  such  a  sentence  should  be  understood,  or  how  such 
a  difiiculty  maj'  be  explained  and  removed. 

If  there  be  permission  given  to  free  converse  v.ith  the 
tutor,  either  in  the  midst  of  the  lecture,  or  rather  at  the 
end  of  it,  concerning  any  doubts  or  difliculties  that  occur 
to  the  hearer,  this  brings  it  verj'  near  to  conversation  or 
discourse. 

lY.  Conversation  is  the  next  method  of  improve- 
ment, and  it  is  atterided  with  the  following  advantages : 

1.  TT7/f«  \re  converse  familiarly  ivitli  a  Icanird  friend,  we 
have  his  own  help  at  hand  to  explain  to  us  every  word 
aiul  sentiment  that  seems  obscure  in  his  discourse,  and  to 
inform  us  of  his  whole  meaning  ;  so  that  we  are  in  much 
less  danger  of  mistaking  his  seusc  :  whereas  in  books, 
whatsoever  is  really  obscure  may  also  abide  always  ob- 


OF  IMPROVEMENT  C03IPAEED.  o9 

scure  without  remedy,  .since  the  author  is  not  at  hand, 
that  we  may  inquire  his  sense. 

If  we  mistake  tlie  meaiiinu'  of  our  friend  in  conversa- 
tion, we  are  quickly  set  right  again ;  but  in  i-eadiug,-,  we 
many  times  go  on  in  tlie  same  mistake  and  are  not 
capable  of  recovering  ourselves  from  it.  Thence  it  comes 
to  pavss  that  we  have  so  many  contests  in  all  ages  about 
the  meaning  of  ancient  authors,  and  especially  the  sacred 
writers.  Ilappj'  shovild  Ave  be  could  we  Init  converse  with 
Moses,  Isaiah,  aiul  8t.  Paul,  and  consnlt  the  piophets 
and  ajjostles,  when  we  meet  with  a  difficult  text  :  but 
that  glorious  conversation  is  reserved  for  the  ages  of 
future  blessedness. 

2.  When  ve  are  cliscours^nff  iipon  any  theme  with  a 
friend,  tee  may  ^u-opose  our  doubts  and  objections  against 
his  sentiments,  and  have  them  solved  and  ansAvered  at 
once.  The  difficulties  that  arise  in  our  minds  may  l)e 
remoA'cd  by  one  enlightening  Avord  of  our  correspondent : 
whereas  in  reading,  if  a  difficult}'  or  question  arises  in  (»ur 
thoughts,  AAhicli  the  author  has  not  happened  to  mention, 
we  must  be  content  AA'ithout  a  present  ansAver  or  solution 
of  it.     Books  can  not  speak. 

3.  Kot  only  the  doubts  Avhich  arise  in  the  mind  upon 
any  subject  or  discourse  are  easilj'  proposed  and  soh'ed 
in  conversation,  but  the  very  difficulties  ice  meet  Avith 
in  books,  and  in  our  priA'ate  studies,  may  fnd  a  relief  by 
friendly  conferences.  "\\'e  may  pore  upon  a  knotty  point 
in  solitary  meditation  many  months  Avithout  a  solution, 
because  perhaps  aac  have  gotten  into  a  Avrong  track  of 
thought ;  and  our  labor  (Avhile  we  are  pursuing  a  false 
scent )  is  not  onh'  useless  and  unsuccessful,  but  it  leads 
us  perhaps  into  a  loi:g  train  of  i-rror  for  Avant  of  being 
corrected  in  the  first  step.  But  if  we  note  doAvu  tliis 
difficulty  when  Ave  read  it,  we  may  propose  it  to  an  in- 
genious correspondent  when  Ave  see  him  ;  we  may  be  r*^- 


40  THE   FIVE   METHODS 

licvcd  in  a  inoincnt.  and  find  lln-  dinnnliy  \;inisli:  ho 
Ix'liolds  the  object  jx'i-liaps  in  a  dillcrcnt  view,  sets  it 
before  us  ill  (]uitc  aiiotlier  lij^lit,  leads  us  at  once  into 
evidence  and  truth,  and  that  with  a  delightful  surprise. 

4.  ConrernatUm  calls  out  into  lijjht  -what  has  been 
lodged  in  all  tlu;  recesses  and  secret  clniinbers  of  the 
soul :  by  occasional  hints  and  incidents  it  briii;,'Sold  us<  ful 
notions  into  reinenibrance  ;  it  unfolds  and  displays  the 
hidden  treasures  of  knowledge  Avilh  Avhieh  reading  ol)- 
servation,  and  study,  had  before  furnished  the  mind. 
By  mutual  discourse  the  soul  is  awakened  and  allured 
to  bring  forth  its  hoards  of  knowledge,  and  it  learns  how 
to  render  them  most  useful  to  mankind.  A  man  of  vast 
reading  without  conversation  is  like  a  miser,  who  lives 
only  to  himself. 

5.  In  free  and  friendly  conversation,  our  inicUcdual 
poiccrs  are  more  animated,  and  our  spirits  act  with  a 
superior  vigor  in  the  quest  and  pursuit  of  unknown 
truths.  There  is  a  sharpness  and  sagacity  of  thought 
that  attends  conversation  beyond  what  we  find  whilst 
we  are  shut  up  reading  and  musing  in  our  retirements. 
Our  souls  may  be  serene  in  solitude,  but  not  sjiarkling,  » 
though  perhaps  we  are  employed  in  reading  the  works 
of  the  brightest  writers.  Often  has  it  hajipened  in  free 
discourse,  that  new  thoughts  are  strangely  struck  out,  and 
the  seeds  of  truth  sparkle  and  blaze  through  the  com- 
l^any,  which  in  calm  and  silent  reading  would  iie\"er  liave 
been  excited.  By  conversation  you  will  both  give  and 
receive  this  benefit ;  as  flints,  when  jjut  into  motion,  and 
striking  against  each  other,  produce  living  fire  on  both 
side.-,  which  would  never  have  arisen  from  the  same  hard 
materials  in  a  state  of  rest. 

G.  In  generous  conversation,  among-st  ingenious  and 
learned  men,  we  have  a  great  advantof/e  of  proposing  our 
private  opinions,  and  of  bringing  our  own  sentiment^  to  the 


OF    IMPROVr.MEXT   fOIMPARED.  41 

test,  and  loarninj;'  in  a  moiv  compendious  and  safer 
Way  Avhat  the  world  will  jndge  of  them,  how  mankind 
will  receive  them,  what  objections  may  be  raised  against 
them,  wliat  defects  there  are  in  our  scheme,  and  how  to 
correct  our  own  mistakes ;  which  advantages  are  not  so 
easy  to  be  obtained  by  our  own  private  meditations:  lor 
the  pleasure  we  take  in  our  own  notions,  and  the  i^assion. 
of  self-love,  as  wxdl  as  the  narrowness  of  our  views,  tempt 
us  to  pass  too  favorable  an  opinion  on  our  own  schemes ; 
wlu'reas  the  variety  of  genius  in  our  several  associates 
will  give  hapi)y  notices  how  our  opinions  will  stand  in 
the  view  of  mankind, 

7.  It  is  also  another  considerable  advantage  of  con- 
versation, that  it  furnislies  the  student  uiih  the  luoicl- 
edye  of  men  and  the  affairs  of  life,  as  reading  furni.-hes 
him  with  book  learning.  A  man  who  dwells  all  his  days 
among  books  may  have  amassed  together  a  vast  heap  of 
notions ;  but  he  may  be  a  mere  scholar,  which  is  a  con- 
temi)tible  sort  of  character  in  the  world.  A  hermit,  who 
has  been  shut  up  in  his  cell  in  a  college,  has  contracted 
a  sort  of  mould  and  rust  upon  his  soul,  and  all  his  airs 
of  l)ehavior  have  a  certain  awkwardness  in  them  ;  l»ut 
these  awkward  airs  are  worn  away  by  degrees  in  com- 
pany :  the  rust  and  the  mould  are  filed  and  brushed  off 
by  polite  conversation.  The  scholar  now  becomes  a  citi- 
zen or  a  gentleman,  a  neighbor,  and  a  fiiend  ;  he  learns 
liow  to  dress  his  s<'ntiments  in  the  fairest  colors,  as  well 
as  to  set  them  iu  the  strongest  light.  Thus  he  brings  out 
his  notions  with  honor;  he  makes  some  use  of  them  in 
the  w^orld   and  improves  the  theory  by  the  practice. 

But  before  we  proceed  too  far  in  finishing  a  bright  char- 
acter by  conversation,  we  should  consider  that  something 
else  is  necessary  besides  an  acquaintance  with  men  and 
books:  and  therefore  I  add, 

V.  IVIere  lectures,  reading,  and  conversation,  without 


42  Tin:  five  methods 

thinkiiiLj,  are  not  sufliciciit  to  iiKikc  a  inim  of  knowifflge 
aiul  wisdom.  It  is  our  own  thought  and  iclb-ction, 
Ftiidy  and  meditation,  that  must  attend  all  the  other 
methods  of  improvement  and  perfect  them.  It  carries 
these  advantages  witli  it: 

1.  Though  obstTvation  and  instruction,  reading  and 
conversation,  may  I'unush  us  ^vith  many  ideas  of  men 
and  tldngs,  yet  it  is  our  own  meditation,  and  the  labor 
of  our  own  thoughts,  that  mud  fot-m  our  judgment  of 
things.  Our  own  thoughts  should  join  or  disjoin  these 
idoas  in  a  proj^osition  for  ourselves :  it  is  our  own  mind 
that  must  judge  fur  ourselves  concerning  the  agreement 
or  disagreement  of  ideas,  and  form  propositions  of  truth 
out  of  them.  Reading  and  conversation  may  acquaint 
us  vrith  many  truths,  and  "svith  mauy  arguments  to  sup- 
port them ;  but  it  is  our  own  study  and  reasoning  that 
must  determine  whether  these  ijropositions  are  true,  and 
whether  these  arguments  are  just  and  solid. 

It  is  confessed  there  arc  a  thousand  things  which  our 
eyes  have  not  seen,  and  which  would  never  come  within 
the  reach  of  our  personal  and  immediate  knowledge  and, 
observation,  because  of  the  distance  of  times  and  places  : 
these  must  be  known  by  consulting  other  persons  ;  and 
that  is  done  either  in  their  writings  or  in  their  discourses. 
But  after  all,  let  this  be  a  fixed  point  with  us,  that  it  is 
our  own  reflection  and  judgment  must  determine  how 
far  we  should  receive  that  which  books  or  men  inform 
us  of,  and  how  far  they  are  worthy  of  our  assent  and 
credit. 

2.  It  is  meditation  and  stud//  that  transfers  and  con- 
veys the  notions  and  sentiments  of  others  to  ourselves, 
so  as  to  make  them  properly  our  own.  It  is  our  own 
judgment  upon  them,  as  well  as  our  memory  of  them, 
that  makes  them  become  our  own  property.  It  does  as 
it  were  concoct  our  intellectual  food,  and  turns  it  into  a 


OF    IMrnoVKMKNT   COMPARED.  43 

part  of  ourselves:  just  as  a  niau  may  call  hi:?  limbs  aud 
his  llesli  liis  own,  Avlietlier  he  borrowed  the  materials 
from  the  ox  or  the  sheep,  from  the  lark  or  the  lobster  : 
whether  he  derived  it  from  corn  or  luilk,  the  fruits  of  the 
trees,  or  the  herbs  and  roots  of  the  earth  ;  it  is  all  now 
become  one  substance  with  himself,  and  he  wields  and 
manages  those  muscles  and  limbs  for  his  om'u  jjroper  pui-- 
poses,  which  once  were  the  substance  of  other  animals  or 
vegetables;  that  very  substance  which  last  week  was 
gi-azing  in  the  field  or  swimming  in  the  sea,  waving  iu 
the  milk-pail,  or  growing  in  the  garden,  is  now  become 
part  of  the  man. 

3.  By  study  and  meditation  ice  improve  the  hinis  that 
we  have  acquired  hi/  ob.serrafion,  conversation,  and  read- 
ing :  we  take  more  time  in  thinking,  and  by  the  labor  of 
the  mind  we  jyenetrate  deeper  into  the  themes  of  Imoui- 
edge  and  carry  our  thoughts  sometimes  much  farther  on 
many  sulyects,  than  we  ever  met  with,  either  in  the 
l)o()ks  of  the  dead  or  discourses  of  the  living.  It  is  our 
own  reasoning  that  draws  out  one  truth  from  another, 
and  forms  a  whole  scheme  or  science  from  a  few  hints 
which  we  borrowed  elsewhere. 

By  a  survey  of  these  things  we  may  Justly  conclude, 
that  he  who  spends  all  his  time  in  hearing  lectures,  or 
l^oring  upon  books,  without  observation,  meditation,  or 
converse,  will  have  but  a  mere  historical  knowledge  of 
learning,  and  be  able  oidy  to  tell  wliat  others  have 
known  or  said  on  the  subject :  he  that  lets  all  his  time 
How  away  in  conversation,  M'ithout  due  observation,  read- 
ing, or  study,  will  gain  but  a  slight  and  superficial  knowl- 
edge, which  will  be  in  danger  of  vanishing  Avilh  the  voice 
of  the  speaker  :  and  he  that  eoiijines  himself  vienli/  to 
his  closet,  and  his  own  narrow  observation  of  things, 
and  is  taught  only  by  his  own  solitary  thoughts,  without 
instruction  by  lectures,  reading,  or  free  convt'rsation.  will 


A\  RULES    RKLATING 

be  in  danger  of  a  narrow  spirit,  ;i  vain  conceit  of  liim- 
scll',  and  an  nnnasonaMc  conti  inpl  of  olhcis  ;  and  alter 
all,  he  will  oI)(ain  hut  ii  very  limited  and  imperfect  view 
and  knowledj^e  of  tliinj;s,  and  lie  will  seldom  hain  how 
to  make  tliat  knowledp;  usefid. 

TInac  Jirr  mrfhods  of  improvement  .should  hr  pursued 
joirdJij,  and  ^o  hand  in  hand,  Mhere  our  cireiunstances 
arc  so  happy  as  to  lind  oi)portunity  and  conveniency  to 
enjoy  them  all ;  thou.i;h  1  must  fjive  opinion  that  two  of 
them,  viz  :  reading;-  and  meditation,  should  employ  much 
moie  of  our  time  than  i)ul)Iic  lectures,  or  conversation 
and  discourse.  As  for  observation,  we  may  be  always 
acquirinj?  knowledge  that  way,  whether  we  are  alone  or 
in  comixmy. 

But  it  will  be  for  our  further  improvement,  if  we  go 
over  all  these  live  methods  of  obtaining  knowledge  more 
distinctly  and  more  at  large,  and  see  what  special  ad- 
vances in  useful  science  we  may  draw  from  them  all. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EULES   RELATING   TO   OBSERVATION. 

Though  observation,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
and  as  it  is  distinguished  from  meditation  and  study,  is 
the  first  means  of  improvement,  and  in  its  strictest  sense 
does  not  include  in  it  any  reasonings  of  the  mind  upon 
the  things  which  we  obsi'rve,  or  inferences  di-awn  from 
them ;  yet  the  motions  of  the  mind  are  so  exceedingly 
swift,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  for  a  thinking  man  to 
gain  experiences  or  observations  without  making  some 
secret  and  short  reflections  upon  them,  and  therefore  in 
giving  a  few  directions  concerning  this  method  of  im- 
provement, I  shall  not  so  narrowly  confine  myself  to  the 


STATE  M 

TO  OBSERVATION.  45 

first  moro  impression  of  object  on  tlie  mind  by  observa- 
tion ;  but  include  also  some  hints  ^vhicll  relate  to  the  lirst, 
most  easy,  and  obvious  reflections  or  reasonings  Avhich 
arise  from  them. 

I.  Let  the  enlargement  of  your  knowledge  be  one 
constant  view  and  design  in  life  ;  since  there  is  no  time 
or  place,  no  transactions,  occurrences,  or  engagemer^ts  in 
life,  which  exclude  us  from  this  method  of  improving  the 
mind.  When  we  are  alone,  even  in  darkness  and 
silence,  we  may  converse  with  our  own  hearts,  ob- 
serve the  "working  of  our  own  spirits,  and  reflect  upon 
the  inward  motions  of  our  own  passions  in  some  of  the 
latest  occurrenct  s  in  life ;  we  may  acquaint  ourselves 
witli  the  poweis  and  properties,  the  tendencies  and  in- 
clinations, both  of  body  and  spirit,  and  gain  a  more 
intimate  knowledge  of  ourselves.  When  we  are  in 
company,  we  may  discover  something  more  of  human 
nature,  of  human  passions  and  follies,  and  of  human 
affairs,  vices,  and  virtues,  by  conversing  with  mankind 
and  obsL'rving  their  conduct.  l!s^or  is  there  any  thing 
more  valuable  than  the  knowledge  of  ourselves  and  tlie 
knowledge  of  mi'n,  except  it  be  the  knowledge  of  God 
who  made  us  and  our  relation  to  Ilim  as  our  Governor. 

When  we  are  in  the  house  or  the  city,  wheresoever  we 
turn  our  eyes,  we  see  the  works  of  men  ;  when  we  are 
abroad  in  the  country,  we  behold  more  of  the  works  of 
God.  The  skies  above,  and  the  ground  beneath  us,  and 
the  animal  and  vegetable  world  round  about  us,  may 
entertain  our  observation  with  ten  thousand  varieties. 

Endeavor  tlierefore  to  derive  some  instruction  nr  im- 
])i'ov('m('nt  of  the  mind  from  every  thing  which  you 
see  or  hear,  from  every  thing  which  occurs  in  hum;iu 
lilV',  from  every  thing  within  you  or  without  you. 

II.  In  order  to  furnish  the  mind  with  a  rich  variety  of 
idea*;,  the  laudable  curiosity  of  young  people  should 


40  ra'i,Es  ijkt.ating 

be  indulged  and  gratified,  i  at  lici'  t  liaii  ( 11  scon  raffed.  Jl  is 
a  very  liopi  I'lil  8i;;M  in  youii.L,'  iktsoiis,  to  sec  tlu'in  curious 
in  obsorvin'j,  and  in(|uisitivo  in  searfhin;^  into  the  {great- 
est part  of  thinirs  tliat  occur  ;  nor  should  such  an  in(|uir- 
inj;  temper  he  frowned  into  silence,  nor  l)e  lijrorously  re- 
strained, hut  should  rather  he  satisfie<l  with  j)ioi)er 
answers  given  to  all  those  queries. 

For  this  reason  also,  where  time  and  fortune  allow  it, 
younjj;  peoi)le  should  be  led  into  company  at  proper  sea- 
sons, should  be  carried  abroad  to  see  the  fields,  and  the 
woods,  and  the  rivers,  the  buildings,  towns,  and  cities, 
distant  from  their  own  dwelling  ;  they  should  be  enter- 
tained with  the  sight  of  strange  birds,  beasts,  fishes,  in- 
sects, vegetables,  and  productions  both  of  nature  and 
of  art  of  every  kind,  whether  they  are  the  i)roducts  of 
their  own  or  foreign  nations :  and  in  due  time,  where 
Providence  gives  opportunity,  they  may  travel  under  a 
wise  inspector  or  tutor  to  dillerent  parts  of  the  world  for 
the  same  end,  that  they  may  bring  home  treasures  of 
useful  knowledge. 

III.  Among  all  these  observations  write  down  what  is 
most  remarkable  and  uncommon :  reserve  these  re- 
marks in  store  for  proper  oeeasions,  and  at  projier  seasons 
take  a  review  of  them.  Such  a  practice  will  give  you  a 
habit  of  useful  thinking  ;  this  will  secure  the  workings  of 
your  soul  from  running  to  waste ;  and  by  this  means 
even  your  looser  moments  will  turn  to  hajipy  account 
both  here  and  hereafter. 

And  whatever  useful  observations  have  been  made, 
let  them  be  at  least  some  part  of  the  subject  of  your  con- 
versation among  your  friends  at  next  meeting. 

Let  the  circumstances  or  situation  in  life  be  what  or 
where  they  will,  a  man  should  never  neglect  this  im- 
provement which  may  be  derived  from  observation.  Let 
him  travel   for  his  own  humor  as  a  traveler,  or  pursue 


TO   OBSERVATION.  47 

his  diversions  in  what  part  of  the  world  he  ijleascs  as  a 
gentleman  :  let  prosperous  or  adverse  fortune  eall  him 
to  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  globe  ;  still  let  him 
carry  on  his  knowledge  and  the  improvement  of  his  soul 
by  wise  observations.  In  due  time,  by  this  means,  he 
may  render  himself  some  way  useful  to  the  soeieties  of 
mankind. 

IV.  Let  us  keep  our  minds  as  free  as  possible  from 
passions  and  prejudices ;  for  these  will  give  a  wrong 
turn  to  our  observations  both  on  persons  and  things. 
The  eyes  of  a  man  in  the  jaundice  make  yellow  observa- 
tions on  every  thing ;  and  the  soul,  tinctured  with  any 
passion  or  prejudice,  diffuses  a  false  color  over  the  real 
appearance  of  things,  and  disguises  many  of  the  com- 
mon occurrences  of  life  :  it  never  beholds  things  in  a 
true  light,  nor  sutlers  them  to  appear  as  they  are. 
Whensoever,  therefore,  you  would  make  proper  obser- 
vations, let  self,  with  all  its  influences,  stand  aside  as 
far  as  i)ossible  ;  abstract  your  own  interest  and  your  own 
concern  from  them,  and  bid  all  friendships  and  enmi- 
ties stand  aloof  and  keep  out  of  the  way,  in  the  ob- 
servations that  you  make  relating  to  persons  and  things. 

If  this  rule  were  well  obeyed,  we  should  be  much 
better  guarded  against  those  common  pieces  of  miscon- 
duct in  the  observations  of  men,  viz  :  the  false  judg- 
ments of  pride  and  envy.  How  ready  is  envy  to 
mingle  with  the  notices  which  we  take  of  other  persons. 
IIow  often  is  mankind  i)rone  to  put  an  ill  sense  upon 
the  action  of  their  neighbors,  to  take  a  survey  of  them 
in  an  evil  position  and  in  an  unhappy  light !  And  by 
this  means  we  form  a  worse  opinion  of  our  neighbors 
than  they  deserve  ;  while  at  the  same  time  pride  and 
self-flattery  tempt  us  to  make  unjust  observatit>ns  on 
ourselves  in  our  own  favor.  In  all  the  favorable  judg- 
ments we  pass  concerning  cmrselves,  we  should  allow  a 
little  abatement  on  this  account. 


48  iirLi:s  i:i;lating  to  oBSEiiVATiox. 

A'.  In  niakiiii^  your  observations  on  persons,  take  care 
of  indulging  that  busy  curiosity  which  is  over  incjuii- 
'\u<^  into  private  and  domestic  affairs,  Mith  an  endU'SS 
itch  of  learnin'^  tlic  secret  history  of  lUmilies.  It  is  but 
seldom  that  such  a  jurying  curiosity  attains  any  valuable 
ends  :  it  often  begets  suspicions,  jealousies,  and  disturb- 
ances in  households,  and  it  is  a  frequi-ut  teniiitation  to 
persons  to  derame  their  neighbors:  some  persons  can  not 
help  telling  what  they  know  :  a  busyl)ody  is  most  liable 
to  become  a  tattler  upon  every  occa^sion. 

Yl.  Let  your  observation,  even  of  i)ersons  and  their 
conduct  be  chiefly  designed  in  order  to  lead  you  to  a 
better  acquaintance  with  things,  particularly  with  hu- 
man nature  ;  and  to  inform  you  -what  to  imitate  and 
what  to  avoid,  rather  than  to  furnish  out  matter  for  the 
evil  passions  of  the  mind,  or  the  impertinencies  of  dis- 
course and  reproaches  of  the  tongue. 

VII.  Though  it  may  be  proper  sometimes  to  make 
your  observations  concerning  persons  as  well  as  things 
the  subject  of  your  discourse  in  learned  or  useful  con- 
versations, yet  what  remarks  you  make  on  particular 
persons,  particularlj-  to  their  disadvantage,  should  for 
the  most  part  lie  hid  in  your  own  breast,  till  some  just 
and  apparent  occasion,  some  necessary  call  of  Provi- 
dence, leads  you  to  speak  to  them. 

If  the  character  or  conduct  which  you  observe  be 
greatly  culi^able,  it  should  so  much  the  less  be  published. 
You  may  treasure  up  such  remarks  of  the  follies,  inde- 
cencies, or  vices  of  your  neighbors  as  may  be  a  constant 
guard  against  your  practice  of  the  same,  without  expos- 
ing the  reputation  of  your  neighbor  on  that  account.  It 
is  a  good  old  rule,  that  our  conversation  should  rather 
belaid  out  on  things  than  on  persons;  and  this  rule 
should  generally  be  observed,  unless  names  be  concealed, 
wheresoever  the  faults  or  follies  of  mankind  are  our 
present  theme. 


OF   BOOKS   AND   EE.VDIXG.  49 

YIII.  Be  not  too  hasty  to  erect  general  theories  from 
a  few  particular  obscrvalions,  appearances,  or  experi- 
ments. This  is  what  the  logicians  call  a  false  induction. 
When  general  observations  aredi-awn  from  so  many  par- 
ticulars as  to  become  certain  and  indubitable,  these  arc 
jewels  of  knowledge,  comprehending  great  treasure  in 
little  room  :  but  they  are  therefore  to  be  made  with  the 
greater  care  and  caution,  lest  errors  become  large  and 
diflfusive.  if  we  should  mistake  in  these  general  notions. 

A  hasty  determination  of  some  universal  princii)les, 
without  a  due  survey  of  all  the  i^articular  cases  whicli 
may  be  included  in  them,  is  the  way  to  lay  a  trap  for 
our  cwn  understandings,  in  their  pursuit  of  any  sub- 
ject, and  we  shall  often  be  taken  cajitives  intt)  mistake 
and  falsehood. 

Niveo  in  his  youth  observed,  that  on  three  Christmas  Days 
tofrothor  tliere  fell  a  jrood  quantity  of  snow,  and  now  hath 
writ  it  down  in  his  almanac,  as  a  part  of  his  wise  remarks  on 
the  weather,  that  it  will  always  snow  at  Christmas.  Euren, 
a  younjif  lad,  tcH)k  notice  ten  times,  that  there  was  a  sharp  frost 
when  the  wind  was  in  the  north-east;  therefore,  in  the  middle 
of  the  last  July,  he  almost  expected  it  should  freeze,  because 
the  weather-cocks  showed  liim  a  north-east  wind  ;  and  he  was 
still  more  disappointed,  when  he  found  it  a  very  buUry  seaaou. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF   BOOKS    AXl)   EEADIXa. 

I.  The  world  is  full  of  Books  ;  but  there  are  multi- 
tudes which  are  so  ill  written,  they  were  never  worth 
any  man's  reading  ;  and  there  are  thousands  more  which 
may  be  good  in  their  kind,  yet  are  worth  nothing  when 
the  month  or  year,  or  occasion  is  past  for  which  they 
were  written.  Others  may  be  valuable  in  themselves  for 
some  special  purpose,  or  in  some  peculiar  science,  but 
are  not  fit  to  be  perused  by  any  but  those  who  are  en- 


50  OF   BOOKH    AM)    KKADINO, 

pip'd  in  lliat  ]):irliouliir  science;  or  Imsinrss.  To  Avimt 
use  is  it  for  ;i  <liviii(i  oi-  ii  physician,  or  a  tradosman,  to 
irad  over  lli»!  liii^c  voluiiU'S  of  reports  of  judged  cases 
ill  the  law?  or  fur  a  lawyer  to  learn  Ileljrew  and  read 
the  Rabbins?  It  is  of  vast  advantage  for  improvement 
of  kiiowlcd<;(',  and  s:i\  ing  tinn-.  for  a  young  man  to 
have  the  most  proper  books  for  his  reading  recom- 
mended by  a  judicious  friend. 

J  I,  Books  of  inii)ortanec  of  any  kind,  and  especially 
complete  treatises  on  any  subject,  should  be  first  read 
in  a  more  general  and  cursory  manner,  to  learn  a  little 
what  the  treatise  promises,  and  what  yon  may  expect  from 
the  writer's  manner  and  skill.  And  for  this  end  I  would 
advise  always  that  the  preface  be  read  and  a  survey 
taken  of  the  table  of  contents,  if  there  be  one,  before 
the  survey  of  the  book.  By  this  means  you  will  not 
only  be  better  fitted  to  give  the  book  the  first  reading, 
but  you  will  be  much  assisted  in  your  second  perusal 
of  it,  M'hieh  should  be  done  with  greater  attention  and 
delil)eration,  and  you  will  learn  Avith  more  ease  and 
ri'adiness  what  the  author  pretends  to  teach.  In  your 
reading,  mark  what  is  new  or  unknown  to  you  before, 
and  review  those  chapters,  pages,  or  paragraphs.  Unless 
a  reader  has  an  uncommon  and  most  retentive  memory, 
I  may  venture  to  afiirm,  that  there  is  scarce  any  book  or 
chapter  worth  reading  once,  that  is  not  worthy  of  a 
second  perusal.  At  leavSt  take  a  careful  review  of  all 
the  lines  or  paragrajihs  which  you  marked,  and  make  a 
recollection  of  the  sections  which  you  thought  truly 
valuable. 

There  is  another  reason  also  why  I  would  choose  to 
take  a  superficial  and  cursory  survey  of  a  book,  before 
I  sit  down  to  read  it  and  dwell  upon  it  with  studious 
attention  :  and  that  is,  that  there  mav  be  several  diflicul- 
ties  in  it  which  we  can  not  easilv  understand  and  con- 


OF   BOOKS   AND   READING.  51 

quer  at  the  first  reading,  for  Avaiit  of  a  fuller  eompre- 
lieiisioii  of  the  author's  wiiole  scheme  And  therefore 
in  such  treatises,  we  should  not  stay  till  we  master  every 
difficulty  at  the  first  perusal ;  for  perhaps  many  of  these 
W(nil(l  appear  to  be  solved  when  we  have  proceeded  far- 
ther in  that  book,  or  would  vanish  of  themselves  upon 
a  second  reading. 

III.  If  three  or  four  persons  agreed  to  read  the  same 
book,  and  each  brings  his  own  remarks  upon  it.  at  S(nne 
set  hours  appointed  for  convei'sation,  and  they  commu- 
nicate mutually  their  sentiments  on  the  subject  and 
debate  about  it  in  a  friendly  manner,  this  practice  will 
render  the  reading  of  any  author  more  abundantly  bene- 
ficial to  any  one  of  them. 

IV.  If  several  persons  engaged  in  the  same  study, 
take  into  their  hands  distinct  treatises  on  one  subject, 
and  appoint  a  season  of  communication  once  a  week, 
they  may  inform  each  other  in  a  brief  mannt'r  concern- 
ing the  sense,  sentiments,  and  methods  of  those  several 
authors,  and  thereby  promote  each  other';;  improve- 
ment, either  by  recommending  the  perusal  of  the  same 
book  to  their  comjianions,  or  perhaps  by  satisfying  their 
inquiries  concerning  it  by  conversation.  Mithout  every 
one's  perusing  it. 

V.  Kemember  that  your  business  in  reading  or  in 
conversation,  especially  on  subjt'cts  of  natural,  moral, 
or  divine  science,  is  not  m<'rely  to  know  the  opinion  of 
the  author  or  speaker,  for  this  is  but  tin?  mere  knowl- 
edge of  history  ;  but  your  chief  business  is  to  consider 
whether  their  opinions  are  right  or  not,  and  to  im- 
prove your  own  solid  knowledge  on  that  subject  by 
meditation  on  the  themes  of  their  writing  or  discoursi'. 
Dv-al  freely  with  every  author  you  read,  and  yield  up 
your  assent  only  to  evidence  and  just  reasoning  on  the 
subject. 


52  OF    ROOKH    AND    HKADING. 

Iloro  T  would  be  iimhTstood  to  siM'jik  only  of  liuinan 
:ni11iors,  and  not  of  the  sacred  and  inspired  writings. 
In  these  our  business  is  only  to  find  out  the  true  sense, 
aini  understand  the  ti'ue  meanin;^  of  llui  jjarajjjraph  and 
l)aj;-e,  and  our  assent  then  is  bound  to  follow  when  we 
are  before  satisfied  that  the  writing  is  divine.  Yet  1 
Tni.:,dit  add  also,  that  even  this  is  sufiieient  evidence  to 
demand  our  assent. 

But  in  the  composures  of  men,  remember  you  are  a 
man  as  well  as  they  ;  and  it  is  not  their  reason,  but  your 
own  that  is  given  to  guide  you  when  you  arrive  at  years 
of  discretion,  of  manly  age  and  judgment. 

YI.  Let  this  therefore  be  your  practice,  especially  after 
you  have  gone  through  one  course  of  any  science  in  your 
academical  studies ;  if  a  writer  pn  that  subject  maintains 
the  same  sentiments  as  you  do,  yet  if  he  does  not  explain 
his  ideas  or  prove  his  positions  well,  mark  the  faults  or 
defects,  and  endeavor  to  do  better,  either  in  the 
margin  of  your  book,  or  rather  in  some  papers  of  your 
own,  or  at  least  let  it  be  done  in  your  private  meditations. 
As  for  instance  : 

AA'here  the  author  is  obscure,  enlighten  him :  where 
he  is  imperfect,  suj^ply  his  deficiencies  :  where  lie  is  too 
brief  and  concise,  amplify  a  little,  and  set  his  notions  in 
a  faii'er  view :  where  he  is  redundant,  mark  those  para- 
gi-ajths  to  be  retrenched :  when  he  trifles  and  grows 
impertinent,  abandon  those  passages  or  pages  :  when  he 
argues,  observe  whether  his  reasons  be  conclusive :  if 
the  conclusion  be  true,  and  yet  the  argument  weak, 
endeavor  to  confirm  it  by  better  proofs  :  where  he 
derives  or  infers  any  proposition  darkly  and  doubtfully, 
make  the  justice  of  the  inference  appear,  and  make 
further  inferences  or  ctn-ollaries,  if  such  occur  to  your 
mind :  where  you  suppose  he  is  in  a  mistake,  projiose 
your  objections  and  correct  his  sentiments :   what   he 


OF   BOOKS   AND   READING.  53 

■wrrites  so  well  as  to  approve  itself  of  your  iiulpTnent, 
both  as  just  and  useful,  treasure  it  up  iu  your  iiieiuury, 
and  count  it  a  part  of  your  intellectual  gains. 

Xote,  many  of  these  same  directions,  -which  I  have 
now  given,  may  be  practiced  with  regard  to  conversation 
as  well  as  reading,  in  order  to  render  it  useful  in  the  most 
extensive  and  lasting  manner. 

VII.  Other  things  also  of  the  like  nature  may  be  use- 
fully practiced  with  regard  to  the  authors  v.hieh  you  lead, 
viz.:  If  the  method  of  a  book  be  irregular,  reduce  it 
into  form,  by  a  little  analysis  of  your  own,  or  by  hints 
in  the  margin :  If  those  things  are  heaped  together, 
which  should  be  separated,  you  may  wisely  distinguish 
and  divide  them  :  if  several  things  relating  to  the  same 
subject  are  scattered  up  and  down  separately  through 
the  treatise,  you  may  bring  them  all  to  one  view  by  ref- 
erences; or  if  the  matter  of  a  book  be  really  valuable 
and  deserving,  you  may  throw  it  into  a  better  method, 
reduce  it  to  a  more  logical  scheme,  or  abridge  it  into  a 
lesser  form  :  all  these  practices  will  have  a  tendency  both 
to  advance  your  skill  in  logic  and  method,  to  improve 
your  judgment  iu  geneial,  and  to  give  you  a  fuller  survey 
of  that  subject  in  particular.  A\'heu  you  have  finished 
the  treatise  with  all  your  observations  upon  it,  recollect 
and  determine  what  real  improvements  you  ha^•e  made 
by  reading  that  author. 

YIII.  If  a  book  has  no  index  to  it,  or  good  table  of 
contents,  it  is  very  useful  to  make  one  as  you  are  reading 
it:  not  with  that  exactness  as  to  include  the  sense  of 
every  page  and  paragraph,  which  should  be  done  if  you 
designed  to  print  it ;  but  it  is  sullieient  in  your  in<h'X  to 
take  notice  only  of  those  i)arts  of  the  book  which  are 
new  to  you,  or  which  you  think  well  written  and  well 
worthy  of  ycmr  own  reniendirance  or  review. 

Shall   I  be  so  free  as  to  assure  my  younger  friends. 


5t  OF    ROOKS    AND    KKADINT,. 

from  my  own  oxporieiieo,  that  these  methods  of  readinfj 
will  cost  some  pains  in  tlic  first  .yeiir  ol"  your  study,  an<l 
(Specially  in  tli(i  liist  authors  Avliicli  you  jjeitise  in  any 
science,  or  on  any  part  icniar  subject  :  but  the  profit  will 
richly  compensate  the  pains.  And  in  the  following 
years  of  life,  after  you  have  read  a  few  valuable  books  on 
any  special  subject  in  this  manner,  it  will  be  easy  to  read 
others  of  the  same  kind,  because  you  "vvill  not  usually 
find  very  much  new  mattei-  in  them  which  you  have  not 
alreatly  examined. 

If  the  writer  be  remarkable  for  any  peculiar  excel- 
lences or  defects  in  liis  style  or  manner  of  writing,  make 
just  obser\"ations  ui)on  this  also;  antl  whatsoever  orna- 
ments you  find  there,  or  whatsoever  blemishes  occur  in 
the  language  or  manner  of  the  writer,  you  may  make 
just  lemarks  ui)on  them.  And  remember  that  one  book 
read  over  in  this  manner,  with  all  this  laborious  medita- 
tion, will  tend  more  to  enrich  your  understanding,  thau 
the  skimming  over  the  surface  of  twenty  authors. 

IX.  By  peiusing  books  in  the  manner  I  have  described, 
you  will  make  all  your  reading  subservient  not  only  to 
the  enlai'gement  of  your  treasuies  of  knowledge,  but  also 
to  the  improvement  of  your  reasoning  powers. 

There  are  many  who  read  with  constancy  and  dili- 
gence, and  yet  make  no  advances  in  true  knowledge  by 
it.  They  are  delighted  wit Ii  the  notions  which  they  read 
or  hear,  as  they  would  be  with  stories  that  are  told  ;  ])ut 
they  do  not  weigh  them  in  their  minds  as  in  a  just 
balance,  in  order  to  determine  their  truth  or  falseht>o(l; 
they  make  no  observations  ui)on  them,  or  infeiences 
from  them.  Perhaps  their  eyes  slide  over  the  i>ages,  or 
the  words  slide  over  their  e;irs,  and  vanish  like  a  rhap- 
sody of  evening  tales,  or  the  shadows  of  a  cloud  Hying 
over  a  gre.'u  lield  in  a  summer's  day. 

Or  if  they  review  them  suflicieutly  to  lix  them  in  their 


OF   BOOKS    AND    RKADIXG.  55 

remembi'anco.  it  is  merely  Avitli  a  design  to  tell  tlie  tale 
over  again,  and  show  what  men  of  learning  they  are. 
Thus  they  dream  out  their  days  in  a  course  of  reading", 
witliout  real  advantage.  As  a  man  may  be  eating  all 
day,  and,  for  want  of  digestion  is  nevei-  nourished  :  t^o 
those  endless  readers  may  cram  themselves  in  \ain 
with  intelleetnal  food,  and  without  real  improvement 
of  their  minds,  for  want  of  digesting  it  by  proper  re- 
fleetions. 

X.  Be  diligent  therefore  in  observing  these  directions. 
Enter  into  the  sense  and  arguments  of  the  authors  you 
read;  examine  all  their  proofs,  and  then  judge  <if  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  their  oi)inions;  and  thereby  yt)U 
shall  not  only  gain  a  rich  increase  of  youi-  understanding, 
by  those  truths  which  the  autlior  teaches,  when  you  see 
them  well  supported,  but  you  shall  acquire  also  by 
degrees  a  habit  of  judging  justly  and  of  leasoning 
well,  in  iniitati«ni  of  the  good  writer  whose  works  you 
peruse. 

This  is  laborious  indeed,  and  the  mind  is  backward 

to  undergo  the  fatigue  of  weighing  every  argument   and 

tracing  eveiy  thing  to  its  original.     It  is  much  less  laboi- 

to  take  all  things  upon  trust  :   believing  is  much  easier 

than  arguing. 

liut  Mhcn  Stiulciilioliad  onco  porsuadod  liisinind  to  tit' itself 
down  to  tills  iiH'tJHKl  wiiicli  1  liavc  i)rt'scril>c'd,  he  scnsil)ly 
gaiiu'd  an  admiralilc  facility  to  read,  and  judiii-  of  wliat  he 
read  by  his  daily  i)racticc  of  it,  and  tlic  man  made  hirgo 
advances  in  the  ])in-suit  of  truth  ;  while  IMundiinus  and  I'lunico 
made  less  i)ro<j;ress  in  knowkdge,  thoujili  they  Jiad  read  over 
more  folios,  riunico  skimmed  over  the  j)afjts  like  a  swallow 
over  the  llowery  meads  in  May.  Phimhiniis  read  every  lin<' 
an<l  syllable,  but  did  not  give  himself  the  trouble  of  thiiiking 
and  .judging  about  them.  They  both  could  boast  in  conijiany 
of  their  great  reading,  for  tiiey  knew  more  titles  aiul  pages 
than  Studeiitio,  but  were  far  less  ac(juaiuted  m  itli  science. 

I  confess  those  whose  reading  is  designed  only  to  tit 

them  foi-  much  talk    and  little  knowledge,  mav  content 


fiG  OF    HOOKS    AND    UKAPINT,. 

thcmsi'lvf's  to  nm  over  thoir  authors  in  sncli  a  siKhlon 
and  lrilliii<^  way;  llicy  may  devour  lil)raries  in  this 
manlier,  yiit  be  jxmr  reas(mers  at  last;  an<l  have  no  Holid 
wisdom  or  true  learninjij.  The  traveler  who  walks  on 
fair  and  softly  in  a  eouise  that  points  right,  and  examines 
every  lurnin.!^  l>efoi-e  lie  ventures  upon  it,  will  eome 
sooner  and  safer  to  his  journey's  end,  than  he  who  runs 
through  every  lane  he  meets,  though  he  gallops  full 
speed  all  the  day.  The  man  of  much  reading  and  a 
large  retentive  memory,  but  without  meditation,  may 
become,  in  the  sense  of  the  world,  a  knowing  man;  and 
if  he  converse  much  with  the  ancients,  he  may  attain 
the  fame  of  learning  too ;  but  he  spends  his  days  afar 
off  from  wisdom  and  true  judgment,  and  possesses 
very  little  of  the  substantial  riches  of  the  mind. 

XI.  Never  apply  yourselves  to  read  any  human  author 
with  a  determination  beforehand  either  for  or  against 
him,  or  with  a  settled  resolution  to  believe  or  disbelieve, 
to  conliini  or  to  oppose,  whatsoever  he  saith  :  liut  always 
read  with  a  design  to  lay  your  mind  open  to  truth, 
and  to  embrace  it  wheresoever  you  find  it,  as  well  as  to 
reject  every  fiilsehood,  though  it  appear  under  ever  so  fair 
a  disguise.  IIow  unhappy  are  those  men  who  seldom 
take  an  author  into  their  hands  but  they  have  deter- 
mined before  they  begin  whether  they  will  like  or  dislike 
him  !  They  have  got  some  notion  of  his  name,  his  char- 
acter, his  party,  or  his  principles,  by  general  conversa- 
tion, or  perhaps  by  some  slight  view  of  a  few  pages ;  and 
having  all  their  own  opinions  adjusted  beforehand,  they 
read  all  that  he  writes  with  a  prepossession  either  for  or 
against  him.  Unhai)py  those  who  hunt  and  purvey  for 
a  party,  and  scrape  together  out  of  every  author  all  those 
things,  and  those  only,  which  favor  their  own  tenets, 
while  they  despise  and  neglect  all  the  rest ! 

XII.  Yet  take  this  caution.     I  would  not  be  under- 


OF   BOOKS   AND   EEADIXG.  57 

stood  here,  as  thouj^h  I  ijersuaded  a  person  to  live  without 
any  settled  liiinciples  at  all,  by  which  to  jud^e  of  men, 
and  books,  and  things:  or  that  I  Avould  keep  a  man 
alwaj's  doubting  about  his  foundations.  The  chief 
things  that  I  design  in  this  advice,  are  these  three  : 

1.  That  after  our  most  nece-ssary  and  imi^ortaut  i)rin- 
cijiles  of  science,  i)rudence,  and  religion,  are  settled  upon 
good  grounds,  with  regard  to  our  present  conduct  and 
our  future  hopes,  we  should  read  with  a  just  freedom  of 
thought  all  those  books  which  treat  of  such  subjects  as 
may  admit  of  doubt  and  reasonable  disi)ute.  .  Xor  should 
any  of  our  opinions  be  so  resolved  upon,  especially  in 
younger  years,  as  never  to  hear  or  to  bear  an  opposition 
to  them. 

2.  When  we  peruse  those  authors  who  defend  our  own 
settled  sentiments,  we  should  not  take  all  their  argu- 
ments for  just  and  solid;  but  we  should  viale  a  wise  dis- 
tinction between  the  corn  and  the  chaff,  between  solid  reason- 
ing and  the  mere  superficial  colors  of  it ;  nor  should  we 
readily  swallow  down  all  their  lesser  opinions  because 
we  agree  with  them  in  the  greater. 

3.  That  when  we  read  those  authors  which  oppose  our 
most  certain  and  established  principles,  Ave  should  be 
ready  to  receive  any  informations  from  them  in  other 
points,  and  not  abandon  at  once  every  thing  they  say, 
though  we  are  well  fixed  in  our  opposition  to  their  main 
point  of  arguing. 

Fas  est  ab  hoste  doeeri.  — Vi>'(/. 

Seize  upon  truth  where'er  'tis  found, 

Aiuouy^st  your  friends,  amongst  your  foes, 

On  Christian  or  on  lieatheu  ground  ; 
Tlie  flower's  divine  wlicre'i-r  it  grows  : 
Negieet  the  priekies  aiul  assume  the  rose. 

XIII.  What  I  have  said  hitherto  on  this  subject, 
relating  to  books  and  reading,  must  be  chiefly  under- 
stood of  that  sort  of  books,  and  those  hours  of  our  read- 


5S  O F    I '.*  K  t  K  S    A  N"  [ )    R  i:  A  D I XO . 

ini;  iiiid  study,  \vlu'ifl»y  \v«i  (l<'si;:;ii  lo  imjuovrs  the 
intt'lli'cluiil  i)()\vt'i-,s  of  the  iiiiiMl  with  iiafuial.  moral,  or 
diviue  kiiowled«;c.  As  for  those  treatises  which  are 
■\viilton  to  direct  or  to  «iilorcc  and  persuade  our  prac- 
tice, thcro  is  «)n<^  tliin;^  further  neccssaiy;  and  tliat  is, 
that  when  our  consciences  are  convinced  that  thi-se 
rules  of  i)rudeucc  or  duty  hi-lou;,^  to  us,  and  i<(juire  our 
conformity  to  them,  we  should  then  call  ourselves  to 
account,  aiul  incjuiic  seiiously  Mhether  Ave  have  put 
thcni  in  jiractice  or  not;  ^ve  should  dwell  upon  the 
arguments,  and  impress  the  motives  and  methods  of 
persuasion  upon  our  own  hearts,  till  we  feel  the  force 
and  power  of  them  inclining  us  to  the  practice  of  the 
things  which  are  theie  recommended. 

If  folly  or  vice  be  represented  in  its  open  colors,  or  its 
secret  disguises,  let  us  search  our  hearts,  and  review  our 
lives,  and  inquire  how  far  we  are  criminal ;  nor  should 
we  ever  think  we  have  done  with  the  treatise  while  we 
feel  ourselves  in  sorrow  for  our  past  misconduct,  and 
aspiring  after  a  victory  over  those  vices,  or  till  we  find  a 
cure  of  those  follies  begun  to  be  wrought  upon  our  souls. 

In  all  our  studies  and  pursuits  of  knowledge,  let  us 
remember  that  virtue  and  vice,  sin  and  holiness,  and  the 
conformation  of  our  hearts  and  lives  to  the  duties  of  true 
religion  and  morality,  are  things  of  far  more  consequence 
than  all  the  furniture  of  our  understanding,  and  the 
richest  treasures  of  more  speculative  knowledge;  and 
that,  because  they  have  a  more  immediate  and  elfectual 
influence  upon  our  eternal  felicity  or  eternal  sorrow. 

XIV.  There  is  yet  another  sort  of  books,  of  which  it 
Is  proper  I  should  say  something,  while  I  am  treating  on 
this  subject ;  and  these  are  history,  poesy,  travels ;  books 
of  diversion  or  amusement :  among  which  we  may  reckon 
also  little  common  pamphlets,  newspapers,  or  such. like: 
for  many  of  these  I  confess  once  reading  may  be  suf- 
ficient, where  there  is  a  tolerable  good  memorv. 


OF   BOOK^   AND   READING.  59 

Or  when  several  persons  are  in  company,  and  one 
reads  to  the  rest  such  a  sort  of  writing,  once  liearing; 
may  be  sufficient,  provided  that  every  one  be  so  atten- 
tive, and  so  free,  as  to  make  their  occasional  remarks  on 
such  lines  or  sentences,  such  periods  or  para2:!aplis,  as 
in  their  opinion  deserve  it.  Xow  all  those  paragraphs 
or  sentiments  deserve  a  remark,  which  are  new  and 
uncommon,  are  noble  and  excellent  for  the  matter  of 
them,  are  strong  and  convincing  for  tlio  arunment  con- 
tained in  them,  are  beautiful  and  elegant  for  the  Ian 
guage  or  the  manner,  or  any  way  worthy  of  a  second 
rehearsal ;  'and  at  the  request  of  any  of  the  company,  let 
those  paragraphs  be  read  over  again. 

Such  parts  also  of  these  writings  as  ma 5'  happen  to  be 
remarkably  stupid  or  silly,  false  or  mistaken,  should 
become  subjects  of  an  occasional  criticism,  made  by  some 
of  the  comi)any;  and  this  may  give  occasion  to  the  repe- 
tition of  them,  for  the  canfirmation  of  the  censure,  for 
amusement  or  diversion. 

Still  let  it  be  remembered,  that  where  the  historical 
narration  is  of  considerable  moment,  where  the  poesy, 
oratory,  etc.,  shine  with  some  degrees  of  perfection  and 
glory,  a  single  reading  is  neither  sufficient  to  satisfy  a 
mind  that  has  a  true  taste  for  this  sore  of  writings;  nor 
can  we  make  the  fullest  and  best  improvement  of  them 
without  proper  reviews,  and  that  in  our  retirement  as 
well  as  in  company.  Who  is  there  that  has  any  taste  f -r 
polite  writings  that  would  be  sufficiently  satisfied  willi 
hearing  the  beautiful  pages  of  Steele  or  Addison,  the 
admirable  descriptions  of  Virgil  or  Milton,  or  some  (<f 
the  finest  poems  of  Pope,  Young,  or  Drydi'u,  once  read 
over  to  them,  and  then  lay  them  by  for  ever? 

XV.  Among  these  writings  of  the  hitter  kind  we  may 
justly  reckon  short  miscellaneous  essays  on  all  man- 
ner of  subjects ;  such  as  the  Occasional  rapcrs,  {\w  latlers, 


r»0  OF    BOOKS    AND    IIEADINO. 

llic  Sprrfators,  and  somo  olhor  liooks  th;it  liavo  boon 
i'ompilcd  out  of  the.  wiM'kly  or  <laily  jnoducls  of  Ihf 
press,  -vvhereiu  are  coiilainrd  a  j^rcat  iiuinbcr  of  1)rij;lit 
thou<;hls,  ingenious  remarks,  andadniirablo  observations, 
which  have  had  a  considerable  share  in  furnishing  the 
present  age  with  knowh-dge  and  jx^liti-ness. 

I  wisli  every  jjupcr  amoiiR  tliese  writiii<r.s  eouM  have  been 
recomniended  both  as  innocent  and  useful,  I  wis^h  every 
unsi-enily  idea  and  wanton  exijression  had  been  l)anishe(l  from 
anion<;st  tlieni,  and  every  trilling  na.sjre  liad  Iteen  exeludeil  from 
tlie  company  of  the  rest  when  they  had  been  bound  up  in 
vohnnes  :  but  it  is  not  to  l)e  expeeteil,  in  so  imi)erfect  a  state, 
that  every  ])afre  or  piece  of  such  mixed  pul)lic  papers  should  be 
entirely  l)lameless  and  laudal)le.  Yet  in  the  main  it  nuist  be 
confessed,  there  is  .so  much  virtue,  prudence,  injrenuity,  and 
goodness  in  them,  especially  in  eight  volumes  of  ,\jjf <fiifors, 
there  is  such  a  revert-nco  for  things  sacred,  so  many  valuable 
renuxrks  for  our  conduct  in  life,  that  they  are  not  improper  to 
lie  in  ])arlors,  or  sununcr-houses,  or  plact.s  of  usual  resitlence, 
to  entertain  our  tlioughts  in  any  moments  of  leisure  or  vacant 
iiours  that  occur.  There  is  such  a  discovrry  of  the  follies,  in- 
icpiities,  and  fashionable  vici's  of  mankind  containecl  in  them, 
that  we  may  learn  much  of  the  humors  and  madnesses  of  the 
age  and  tlie  i)ul)lic  world,  in  our  own  solitary  retirement, 
without  the  danger  of  fre(j[Ueuting  vicious  company,  or  receiv- 
ing the  mortal  infection. 

XVI.  Among  other  books  whioli  are  proper  and  requi- 
site, in  order  to  prove  our  knowledge  in  general,  or  our 
ac(iuaintance  with  any  ]iartienlar  science,  it  is  neeessai'V 
that  we  should  be  furnished  with  vocabularies  and 
dictionaries  of  several  sorts,  viz.,  of  common  words, 
idioms,  and  phrases,  in  order  to  explain  their  sense ;  of 
technical  words  or  the  terms  of  art,  to  show  their  use  in 
arts  and  sciences;  of  names  of  men,  countries,  towns, 
rivers,  etc.,  wdiich  are  called  historical  and  geographical 
dictionaries,  etc.  These  are  to  be  consulted  and  used 
upon  every  occasion  ;  and  never  let  an  unknown  word 
pass  in  your  reading  without  seeking  lor  its  sense  and 
meaning  in  some  of  these  writers. 

If  such  books  are  not  at  hand,  you  must  supply  the 


JUDGMENT  OF   BOOKS.  Gl 

want  of  them  as  well  as  you  can,  by  cousultinj:?  such  as 
can  inform  you :  and  it  is  useful  to  note  down  tlie  mat- 
tcis  of  doul)t  and  iiuiuiry  in  some  po(;ket-book,  and  take 
the  first  opportunity  to  <i('t  them  resolved,  either  by  per- 
sons or  books,  when  we  meet  M'ith  them. 

XVII.  Be  not  satisfied  with  a  mere  knowledge  of  the 
best  authors  that  treat  of  any  subject,  instead  of  ac- 
quainting ourselves  thoroughly  with  the  subject 
itself.  There  is  many  a  y«)un,y-  student  that  is  fond  of 
enlarging  his  knowledge  of  books,  and  he  contents  him- 
self with  the  notice  he  has  of  their  title-page,  which  is 
the  attainment  of  a  bookseller  rather  than  of  a  scholar. 
Such  ])ersons  are  under  a  great  temi^tation  to  practice 
these  two  follies.  (1.)  To  heap  uj)  a  great  number  of 
books  at  a  greater  exi^ense  than  most  of  them  can  bear, 
and  to  furnish  their  libraries  infinitely  better  than  their 
understanding.  And  (2)  when  they  have  gotten  such 
rich  treasures  of  knowledge  upon  their  shelves,  they 
imagine  themselves  men  of  learning  and  take  a  pride 
in  talking  of  the  names  of  famous  authors,  and  the  sub- 
jects of  which  they  treat,  without  any  real  improvement 
of  their  own  minds  in  true  sciences  or  wisdom.  At  liest 
their  learning  reaches  no  farther  than  the  indexes  and 
tables  of  contents,  while  they  know  not  how  to  judge  or 
reason  concerning  the  matters  contained  in  those  authors. 

And  indeed  how  many  volumes  of  learning  soevei-  a 
man  possesses,  he  is  still  deplorably  poor  in  his  under- 
standing, till  he  has  made  those  several  parts  of  learn- 
ing his  own  pro]K'rty  by  reading  and  reasoning,  by  judg- 
ing for  himself  and  remembeiing  Mhat  In;  has  read. 


CIIAPTEE  V. 

.TUDCniKXT   OF   BOOKS. 

I.   If  we  would  form  a  judgment  of  a  book  which  we 
have  not  seen  before,  the  first  thing  that  offers  is  the 


G2  .IT'DCMIA'T   or    I'.OOK'?. 

ticle-page,  and  wc  may  soiiictiincs  j^ucss  a  litllo  at  tlic 
iiiil)ort  and  (h'sij^n  of  u  book  thereby  ;  tliouf^li  it  must  be 
<*<)iif('S.s«'<l  tliat  lilies  aio  oHeii  <I<'(<it  liil  and  ]>r<>iiiiHe 
iuovo  lliaii  llir  book  ix'rforins.  The  author's  name,  if  it 
be  known  in  tlicAvoild,  may  help  us  to  conjecture  at  the 
l>erforinancc  a  little  inoi'c,  and  lead  us  to  ^micss  in  what 
manner  it  is  done.  A  perusal  of  the  preface  or  intro- 
duction (Mhicli  1  bclbie  I'cconiincndcd  >  may  further 
assist  our  judgment;  and  if  there  be  an  index  of  the 
cojitents,  it  will  give  us  still  some  advancing  light. 

If  we  have  not  leisure  or  inclination  to  read  over  the 
book  itself  regularl}-,  then  by  the  titles  of  chapters  we 
may  be  directed  to  i)eruse  several  particular  chapters  or 
sections,  and  observe  whether  there  be  anything  valua- 
ble or  important  in  them.  "We  shall  find  lierel)y  whether 
the  author  explains  his  i<leas  clearly,  whether  he  reasons 
strongly,  whether  he  methodizes  well,  whether  his 
thought  and  sense  be  manly,  and  his  manner  polite  ;  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  whether  he  be  obscure,  weak,  trifling, 
and  confused  ;  or,  finally,  whether  the  matter  may  not 
be  solid  and  substantial,  though  the  style  and  manner  be 
rude  and  disagreeable. 

II.  By  having  run  through  several  chapters  and  sec- 
tions in  this  manner,  we  may  generally  judge  whether 
the  treatise  be  worth  a  complete  ])erusal  or  not.  But  if 
by  sueli  an  occasional  survey  of  some  chaj^ters  our  ex- 
pectation be  utterly  discouraged,  we  may  well  lay 
aside  that  book  ;  for  there  is  great  jnobability  he  can  be 
but  an  indifferent  writer  on  that  subject,  if  he  affords 
but  one  prize  to  divers  blanks,  and  it  may  be  some 
downright  blots  too.  The  piece  can  hardly  be  valuable 
if  in  seven  or  eight  chapters  which  we  peruse  there  be 
but  little  truth,  evidence,  force  of  reasoning,  beauty,  in- 
genuity of  tliouglit,  etc.,  mingled  with  much  error, 
ignorance,   impertinence,   dullness,   mean  and  common 


JUDGMENT  OF   EOOKS.  63 

thoughts,  inaccuracy,  sophistry,  railing,  etc.  Life  is 
too  short,  and  time  is  too  precious,  to  read  every  new 
book  quite  over,  in  order  to  find  that  it  is  not  worth  the 
reading. 

III.  There  are  some  general  mistakes  which  persons 
are  frequently  guilty  of  in  passing  a  judgment  on  the 
books  which  they  read. 

One  is  this:  when  a  t  reatise  is  wiittcn  but  tolerably 
well,  we  are  ready  to  pass  a  favorable  judgment  of  ii 
and  sometimes  to  exalt  its  character  far  beyond  its  merit, 
if  it  agree  with  our  ow^n  principles  and  support  the 
opinions  of  our  pai'ty.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  author 
be  of  different  sentiments  and  espouse  contrary  prin- 
ciples, we  can  find  neither  wit  nor  reason,  good  sense,  nor 
good  language  in  it ;  whereas,  alas !  if  our  opinions  of 
things  were  ceitain  and  infallible  truth,  yet  a  silly  author 
may  draw  his  pen  in  the  defense  of  them,  and  he  may 
attack  even  gross  errors  with  feeble  and  ridiculous  argu- 
ments. Truth  in  this  world  is  not  always  attended  and 
supported  by  the  wisest  and  safest  methods  ;  and  error, 
though  it  can  never  be  maintained  by  just  reasoning,  yet 
may  be  artfully  covered  and  defended.  An  ingenious 
writer  may  put  excellent  colors  upon  his  own  mistakes. 
Books  are  never  to  be  judged  of  merely  by  their  subject, 
or  the  opinion  they  represent,  but  by  the  justness  of 
their  sentiment,  the  beauty  of  their  manner,  the  force  of 
their  expression,  or  the  strength  of  reason,  and  the 
weight  of  just  and  proper  argument  which  appears  in 
them. 

IV.  Another  mistake  which  some  persons  fall  into  is 
this :  when  they  read  a  treatise  on  a  subject  with  which 
they  have  but  little  actiuaintance,  they  find  almost 
every  thing  new  and  strange  to  them:  tlieir  undrr- 
standings  are  greatly  entertained  and  imjuoved  by  the 
occurrence  of  many  things  which  were  unknown  to  I  hem 


64  .TrDOMEXT   OF    r.OOKP. 

l)or()i(', J   they  admire    the    treatise    and  (.oinmend  lite 

aiilliorat  once;  wherras,  if  they  had  attained  a  good  de- 

j;rec  of  skill  in  llial  sciciK-c,  i(Oihai).s  llicy  w(tuld  fiiultlmt 

theautlior  liad  written  \  cry  jxjcjrly,  that  neither  liis  sense 

nor  his  ini'thod  was  jnst  and  proper,  and  that  lie  liad 

nothinji^  in  him  but  'what  was  very  eommon  or  trivial  in 

his  discourses  on  that  subject. 

Hence  it  cnnics  to  pass  tliat  f'ario  and  Falxr,  wlio  were  both 
bred  up  to  lalK)r  and  imac<|Uaiiite<l  with  the  scitncis,  sliall 
admire  one  of  the  weekly  ijajteis,  or  a  httle  i)ajiij)hlet  tliat 
talks  pertly  on  some  eiitieal  or  learned  theme,  because  the 
matter  is  all  straii^^e  and  new  to  theni,  and  they  join  to  extol 
the  writer  to  the  skies  ;  while  at  thtt  same  time,  persons  well 
skilU'd  in  these  ditlerent  snhjeets,  hear  the  impertinent  tattle 
with  11  just  contempt  :  for  they  know  how  weak  and  awkward 
many  of  these  diminutive  discourses  are;  and  that  those  very 
]nipei-s  of  science,  politics,  or  trade,  which  were  so  much  ad- 
mired l)y  the  ignorant,  are  i)erhaps  l>ut  very  mean  perform- 
ances ;  though  it  must  also  l)e  ccmfessed  there  are  some  excellent 
essays  in  those  papers,  aud  that  upon  science  as  well  as  trade. 

y.  But  there  is  a  danger  of  mistake  in  our  judgment 
of  books,  on  the  other  hand  also :  for  when  we  liave 
made  ourselves  masters  of  any  particular  theme  of 
knowledge,  and  surveyed  it  long  on  all  sides,  there  is 
perhaps  scarcely  any  writer  on  that  subject  who  mueb 
entertains  and  pleases  us  afterwards,  because  we  find 
little  or  nothing  new  in  him;  aud  yet,  in  a  true 
judgment,  perhaps  his  sentiments  are  most  proper  and 
just,  his  explication  clear,  aud  his  re;isoning  strong,  and 
all  the  parts  of  the  discourse  are  well  connected  and  set 
In  a  happy  light ;  but  we  knew  most  of  those  things  be- 
fore, aud  therefore  they  strike  us  not,  aud  we  are  in 
danger  of  discommending  them. 

Thus  the  learned  and  the  unlearned  have  their  several 
distinct  dangers  aud  prejudices  ready  to  attend  them  in 
their  judgment  of  the  writings  of  men.  These  which  I 
have  mentioned  are  a  specimen  of  them,  and  indeed  but 
a  mere  specimen ;  for  the  i>rejudices  that  warp  our  judg- 
ment aside  from  truth  are  almost  infinite  and  endless. 


JUDGMENT   OF   BOOKS.  05 

VL  Yet  I  can  not  forbear  to  point  ont  tMO  or  three 
more  of  these  follies,  that  I  may  attempt  something-  to- 
wards the  correction  of  them,  or  at  least  to  guard  others 
against  them.     , 

There  are  some  persons  of  a  forward  and  lively 
temper,  and  who  are  fond  to  intermeddle  with  all  ap- 
pearances of  knowledge,  -will  give  their  judgment  on  a 
book  as  soon  as  the  title  of  it  is  mentioned,  for  they 
would  not  willingly  seem  ignorant  of  any  thing  that 
others  know.  And  especially  if  tht-y  happen  to  have 
any  superior  character  or  possessions  of  this  world,  they 
fancy  they  have  a  right  to  talk  freely  upon  every  thing 
that  stirs  or  appears,  though  they  have  no  other  pre- 
tense to  this  freedom. 

Divito  is  worth  forty  thousand  pounds.  Politulus  is  a  fine 
younj?  gcntlenum,  wli'o  sparkles  in  all  the  shining-  t]iin<is<)f 
(Iri'ss  and  ec^uipage.  Anlinns  is  a  small  attendant  on  a  niin- 
ister  of  state,  and  is  at  eourt  almost  every  day.  These  tiuve 
hai>pened  to  meet  on  a  visit  where  an  exeellent  book  of  warm 
and  relined  devotions  lay  on  the  window.  AVhat  dull  stulf  is 
here !  said  Divito  ;  1  never  read  so  much  nonsense  in  one  page 
in  my  life;  nor  would  I  give'a  shilling  for  a  thousand  sueh 
treatises.  Aulinus,  though  a  eourtii-r,  had  not  used  to  speak 
roughly,  yet  would  not  allow  there  was  a  line  of  good  sense  in 
the  hook,  and  i)r()nouneed  him  a  madman  tiiat  wrote  it  in  his 
seeret  retirement,  and  dcelared  him  a  fool  that  publishrd  it 
after  his  death.  Politulus  had  more  manners  than  to  diller 
from  men  of  such  rank  and  eharaeter,  and  therefore  hesiu-tred 
attlie  devout  expressions  as  he  heard  them  read,  and  made  the 
divine  treatise  a  matter  of  seorn  and  ridicule  ;  and  yet  it  wa.s 
well  known,  that  neither  this  tine  gentleman,  nor  the  courtier, 
nr,r  tile  man  of  wealth,  liad  a  grain  of  devotion  in  tiiem  iie- 
yond  tlu'ir  horses  tliat  waitecl  at  the  door  with  tlu-ir  gilded 
cliariots.  Hut  this  is  the  way  of  the  world;  blind  men  will 
talk  of  the  beauty  of  colors,  and  of  the  harmony  or  dispropor- 
tion of  figures  in  painting  ;  the  deaf  will  i)rate  of  discords  in 
music;  and  those  who  have  nothing  to  do  with  religion  will 
arraign  the  best  treatise  on  tlivine  subjects,  though  they  do  not 
uncU-rstand  the  very  language  of  the  Scrii)tures,  nor  t lie  com- 
mon terms  or  phrases  used  in  ("lu"i.>tianity. 

VII.   I  might  here  name  another  sort  of  judges,  who 

will  set  themselves  up  to  decide  in  favor  of  an  author,. 
5 


66  JUDGMENT  OF   BOOKK. 

or  will  pronounco  liiiii  a  iiicro  Ijlundcrcr.  according  to 
the  conipany  they  have  kept  and  tlie  judfiuicnt  tlity 
have  licard  })ass('d  uixm  a  Ijcjok  l)y  otheis  of  their  own 
.stamp  or  size,  tliou;;h  they  have  no  knowl<'(l<^e  or 
ttuste  of  tlie  subject  tlieniselves.  These,  witli  a  Ihieut 
and  voluble  touj>ue,  become  mere  echoes  of  the  praises 
or  Ci'usures  of  other  men. 

SoniUus  hapjjtncd  to  be  in  tlie  room  Mboro  the  three  genlle- 
nien  just  mentioned  jiave  out  their  tboufrlit.s  so  freely  upon  an 
adnurable  book  of  (Uvotion  :  and  two  da\.s  afterwards  lie  jjiet 
with  some  friends  of  his,  where  this  lioo'k  was  llie  subject  of 
conversation  and  praise.  Soinllus  woiulered  at  their  tiulhuwi, 
and  repeated  the  jists  which  he  had  heard  east  U))on  the  weak- 
ness of  the  author.  His  knowleiige  of  the  book,  and  his  de- 
cision upon  it,  was  all  Irom  hearsay,  for  he  had  n<ver.seen  it; 
and  if  he  had  read  it  through,  he  had  no  manner  of  right  to 
judge  about  the  things  of  religion,  having  no  more  knowledge 
or  taste  of  any  thing  of  inward  piety  than  a  hedgehog  or  a  bear 
has  of  politeness. 

When  I  had  written  these  remarks,  Probus,  who  knew  all 
the  four  gentlemen,  wished  they  udght  have  an  opportuiuty 
to  read  their  own  character  as  it  is  rei)re?-enti(l  here.  Alas! 
Proltus,  I  fear  it  would  do  them  very  little  good,  though  it  may 
guard  others  against  their  folly  ;  for  there  is  never  a  o!ie  of 
them  would  find  their  own  name  in  these  characters  if  they 
read  them,  though  all  their  acquaintance  would  acknowledgv 
the  features  imuiediately  and  see  the  persons  almost  alive  in 
the  picture. 

VIII.  There  is  yet  another  mischievous  principle 
which  jirevails  among  some  persons  in  passing  a  jtidg- 
ment  on  the  writings  of  others,  and  that  is,  wlien  from 
the  secret  stimtilations  of  vanity,  pride,  or  envy,  they 
despise  a  valuable  book,  and  throw  contempt  uj^on  it 
by  wholesale  :  and  if  you  ask  them  the  reason  of  their 
severe  censure,  they  will  tell  you,  perhaps,  they  have 
found  a  mistake  or  two  in  it,  or  there  are  a  lew  senti- 
ments or  expressions  not  suited  to  their  tooth  and  humor. 

Bavis  cries  down  an  adnurable  treatise  of  philosophy  and 
says  there  is  at luism  in  it,  liecause  there  are  a  few  sentiments 
that  .seem  to  suppose  brutes  to  be  mi-re  machines.  Umler  the 
same  iutluence,  Momus  a\  ill  not  allow  Paradisic  Lost  to  be  u 


JUDGMENT   OF   BOOKS.  ()7 

jTood  poem,  hecause  ho  has  road  sonic  Hat  aiul  heavy  lines  in  it ; 
and  he  thouglit  ]Milton  had  looiniieli  honor  done  h.ini.  It  is  a 
]ialtr.v  liunior  that  inehnes  a  man  to  rail  at  any  human  per- 
lormanee,  because  it  is  not  absolutely  jierfect. 

Sunt  dclicta  tamcn  (juibus  ignovissc  vclimus, 

^'am  ne(iue  chorda  sonum  rcddit  (jucm  vult  manus  et  mens, 

Necsemjier  ieriet  quodcunque  minabitur  arcus  : 

Verum  ubi  ])Una  nitint  in  carmine,  non  ego  jjaucis 

Otl'endar  macuiis,  (juas  aut  incuria  fudit, 

Aut  humana  parum  cavit  natura.  — Hor.  de  Art.  Pott. 

Thus  Englished  : 

Be  not  too  rigidly  censorious  : 

A  string  may  jar  in  the  best  master's  hand, 

And  tiiemost  skillful  archei'  miss  his  aim. 

So  in  a  poem  elegantly  writ, 

I  will  not  (juarrel  with  a  small  mistake, 

Such  as  our  nature's  frailty  may  excuse. 

— Boscommon. 

This  noble  traiLslator  of  Horace,  whom  I  here  cite,  has 

a  very  honorable  opinion  of  Homer  in  the  main  ;  yet 

hi'  allows  him  to  be  justly  censured  for  some  grosser 

si)ots  and  blemishes  in  him  : 

For  who  M  ithout  aversion  ever  looked 
On  holy  garl)arge,  though  by  Homer  cooked  ; 
"Whose  railing  herois,  anil  whose  wounded  gods. 
Make  some  susi)cct  he  snores  as  well  as  nods. 

kSuch  wise  and  just  distinctions  ought  to  be  made  when 
we  pass  a  jndgment  on  mortal  things;  but  Envy  con- 
demns by  wholesale.  Envy  is  a  cursed  plant;  some 
filxTS  of  it  are  jootcd  in  abnost  every  man's  natuiv,  and 
it  works  in  a  sly  and  impcrcei)tible  manner,  and  that  even 
in  some  persons  who  in  the  main  are  men  of  wisdom  and 
])i('ty.  Tliey  know  not  how  to  l)ear  the  i)raises  that  are 
given  to  an  ingenious  author,  esix-cially  if  he  be  li\ing, 
and  of  their  i^rofession  ;  and  therefore  Ihey  will,  if  pos- 
sible, find  some  blemish  in  Ins  writings,  that  tliey  may 
ni])l)le  and  bark  at  it.  Tlu-y  will  endeavor  to  dimini>]i 
the  honoi-  of  the  best  treatise  that  has  been  written  on 
any  subject,  and  to   lender  it   useless  by  their  censures, 


G8  JUDGMENT  OF  BOOKS. 

rather  than  suffer  their  em^  to  lie  asleep  and  the  little 
mistakes  of  tliat  author  to  i)ass  unexposed.  Perliap)S 
they  Avill  commend  tJie  woik  infreneral  with  a  pretended 
air  of  candor  ;  but  i)ass  so  many  sly  and  inA'idious  re- 
marks upon  it  afterM'ards,  as  shall  eliectually  destroy  all 
their  cold  and  formal  praises. 

IX.  "When  a  person  feels  any  thinj?  of  this  invidious 
humor  workin*;^  in  him,  he  may  by  the  following;  consid- 
eration attempt  the  correction  of  it.  Let  him  think  with 
himself  how  many  are  the  beauties  of  such  an  author 
whom  he  censures,  in  comparison  with  his  blemishes,  and 
remember  that  it  is  a  much  more  honorable  and  good- 
naturedthingtofind  out  peculiar  beauties  than  faults; 
true  and  undisguised  candor  is  a  much  more  amiable  and 
divine  talent  than  accusation.  Let  him  reflect  again, 
what  an  easy  matter  it  is  to  find  a  mistake  in  all  human 
authors,  who  are  necessarily  tiillible  and  imperfect. 

I  confers,  where  an  author  sets  up  himself  to  ridicule  divine 
writers, and  things  sacred,  and  yet  assumes  an  air  of  s^ovreignty 
and  dictatorsliip,  to  exalt  and  almost  deify  all  the  ])agan 
ancients,  and  east  his  seorn  upon  all  the  moderns,  espeeially 
if  they  do  but  savor  of  niiraeles  and  the  Gospel ;  it  is  tit  the 
a  Iniirers  of  this  author  should  know,  that  nature  and  these 
aneients  are  not  the  sajiie,  though  some  writers  unite  them. 
Reason  and  nature  never  made  tlnse  aneiuit  heathens  tluir 
standard,  either  of  art  or  genius,  of  writing  or  heroism,  Sir 
Richard  Steele,  in  his  little  essay,  ealkd  the  i'hrif'ikin  Ilrrn^ 
has  shown  our  t^aviourand  Pt.  Paul  in  a  more  glorious  and 
transcendent  light  than  a  Virgil  or  Homer  could  do  for  their 
Aehilles,  Ulysses,  or  yEneas  :  and  I  am  persuaded,  if  Moses 
and  David  had  not  been  inspired  writers,  these  very  men 
would  have  ranked  them  at  least  with  Herodotus,  if  nf>t  given 
them  the  superior  place. 

But  where  an  author   has  many  beauties  consistent 

with  virtue,  piety,  and  truth,  let  not  little  critics  exalt 

themselves   and  shower  down  their  ill  nature  upon  him 

without  bounds  or  measure  ;  but  rather  stretch  their  own 

powers  of  sotil  till  they  write  a  treatise  superior  to  that 

wliicli  they  condemn.     This  is  the  noblest  and  surest 

manner  of  supjjressing  what  they  censure. 


JUDG:\rENT  OF  BOOKS.  69 

A  little  wit  or  a  little  learnin-j;,  with  a  good  degree 
of  vanity  and  ill  nature,  will  teaeh  a  man  to  i^our  out 
M'liole  pages  of  remark  and  reproach  iii)on  one  real  or 
liincied  mistake  of  a  great  and  good  author :  and  this 
may  be  dressed  up  by  the  same  talents  and  made  enter- 
taining enough  to  the  world,  Avliieh  loves  rejiroach  and 
scandal :  but  if  the  remarker  would  but  once  make  this 
attempt,  and  try  to  outshine  the  author  by  writing  a 
better  book  on  the  same  subject,  he  would  soon  be  con- 
vinced of  his  own  insufficiency,  and  i^erhaps  might  learn 
to  judge  more  justly  and  favoral)ly  of  the  performance 
of  other  men.  A  cobbler  or  a  shoemaker  may  find  some 
little  fault  with  the  latchet  of  a  shoe  that  an  Apelles  liad 
painted,  and  perhaps  with  justice  too,  when  the  whole 
figure  and  portraiture  is  such  as  none  but  Apelles  could 
ixiint.  Every  poor  low  genius  may  cavil  at  what  the 
richest  and  the  noblest  hath  i)erformed  ;  but  it  is  a  sign 
of  envy  and  malice,  added  to  the  littleness  and  poverty 
of  genius,  when  such  a  cavil  becomes  a  sufficient  reason 
to  pronounce  at  once  against  a  bright  author  and  a  whole 
Aahuible  treatise. 

X.  Another,  and  that  a  very  frequent  fault  in  jxissing 
a  judgment  U])on  books,  is  this,  that  persons  spread  the 
same  praises  or  the  same  reproaches  over  a  whole 
treatise,  an<l  all  thi^  chapters  in  it,  which  are  due  only  to 
some  of  them.  They  judge  as  it  were  by  wholesale, 
without  making  a  due  distinction  between  the  seviM-al 
parts  or  sections  of  the  performance  ;  and  this  is  ready 
to  lead  lliose  wlio  hear  them  talk  into  a  dangerous  mis- 
take. 

^lilton  is  a  noble  genius,  and  the  world  agrees  to  confess  it  : 
liis  poem  of  J'(ii-(«/isr  jA>sf  is  a  glorious  pcrfonnanco  and  rivals 
tlu!  most  famous  pieces  of  aii(i(|uity  ;  l)iit  that  reader  must  lie 
d.'v'ply  ])i\'ju(lice(l  ill  favor  (f  tlie  ixnt,  who  can  ini;:;rine  liiiii 
C(i:;al  t:>  lilinself  throuii,!!  all  that  worli.  xs'iilher  the  suhliiiie 
sentiments,  nor  dignity  of  iiuiid)ers,  nor  foree  or  beauty  of 
expression,  arc   eiiually  niainlaiued,  evin   in  all  those  parts 


70  or  living;  insttm'ctiotw 

M  liidi  rccniirofrniiHlciir  or  iHtiiity,  fon-ffii  liamiony.  lean  not 
bill  coiiMiit  loJNlr.  J^iydcii's  oi>inion,  1  ln)ii)r|i  I  will  not  list- liin 
Avonls,  tliaf  for  snnic  scorcH  of  linos  lo^tctlni'  iIhtc  in  uc-oldni-sH 
Jiiid  Ihitiitss,  ainl  almost  a  perfect  alisi-nco  of  tliut  sj>irit  of 
poLsy  whieh  hrcathts,  and  lives,  and  llaiues  in  iHlier  pugcw. 

XT.  AVluMi  you  hear  any  person  i^retending  to  j;ive  his 
jud;;m«'nl  ol"  :i  book,  consider  Avith  yourself  ■NvlietlM-r  iw 
be  II  capable  judge,  or  Avhcther  lie  may  not  lie  under 
some  iiiihapi>y  bias  or  prejudice,  f«jr  or  against  if,  or 
winHher  lie  lias  made  a  Kuliieieut  inquiry  to  loi  iii  his 
justest  sentiments  upon  it. 

Though  he  be  a  man  of  good  sense,  yet  he  is  incapable 
of  jiassing  a  true;  judgment  of  a  i)articular  book,  if  he 
be  not  well  ac(]uai]ited  uith  the  subject  of  uhicli  it 
treats,  and  the  manner  in  Avhieh  it  is  written,  be  it  verse 
or  i^rose  :  or  if  he  hath  not  had  an  opportunity  or  leisure 
to  look  sutficiently  into  the  writing  itself. 

Again,  though  he  be  ever  so  capable  of  judging  on  all 
other  accounts,  by  the  knowledge  <jf  the  subject,  and 
of  the  book  itself,  yet  you  are  to  consider  also  whether 
there  be  any  thing  in  the  author,  in  his  manner,  in  his 
language,  in  his  opinions,  and  his  particular  party, 
which  may  warp  the  sentiments  of  him  that  judgeth.  to 
think  well  or  ill  of  the  treatise,  and  to  pass  too  favorable 
or  too  severe  a  sentence  concerning  it. 

If  you  find  that  he  is  either  an  unfit  judge  because  of 
his  ignorance  or  because  of  his  prejudices,  his  judgment 
of  that  book  should  go  for  nothing. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


OF  LIVIXCr  IXSTEUCTIOXS  AND  LECTUEES,  OF   TEACHEES 
AND  LEAENEES. 

I.  Theee  are  few  persons  of  so  penetrating  a  genius, 
and  so  just  a  judgment,  as  to  be  capable  of  learning  the 


BY   TEACIIEES.  71 

arts  and  sciences  without  the  assistance  of  teachers. 
There  is  scarce  any  .scirnce  so  salV-ly  and  so  s[>ci-diiy 
learned,  even  by  tlie  noblest  geiiins  and  the  best  books, 
without  a  tutor.  His  assistance  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  most  persons,  and  it  is  very  useful  for  all  beginners. 
B  )oks  are  a  sort  of  dumb  teachers  ;  they  point  out  the 
way  to  learning  ;  but  if  we  labor  under  any  doubt  or 
mistake,  they  can  not  answer  sudden  questions,  or  ex- 
plain present  doubts  and  difficulties :  this  is  i^roperly 
the  work  of  a  living  instructor. 

II.  There  are  very  few  tutors  who  are  sufficiently 
furnished  with  such  universal  learning,  as  to  sustain  all 
the  parts  and  provinces  of  instruction.  The  sciences  are 
numerous,  and  many  of  them  lie  far  wide  of  <'ueh  other  ; 
and  it  is  best  to  enjoy  the  instructions  of  two  or  three 
tutors  at  least,  in  order  to  run  through  the  whole  ency- 
clopni'dia,  or  circle  of  sciences,  where  it  may  be  obtained  j 
1  hen  Ave  may  expect  that  each  will  teach  the  few  jiarts 
of  learning  which  are  committed  to  his  care  in  greater 
perfection.  But  where  this  advantage  can  not  be  had 
with  convenience,  one  great  man  must  supply  the  place 
of  two  or  three  common  instructors. 

HI.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  instructors  lie  compe- 
tently skillful  in  those  sciences  which  they  profess  and 
teach  ;  l)ut  they  should  have  skill  also  in  the  art  or 
method  of  teaching,  and  i)atience  in  the  jn-actice  of  it. 

It  is  a  great  uidiappiness  indeed,  Avhen  i)ersons  by  a 
spirit  of  party,  or  faction,  or  interest,  or  by  purcliase, 
arc  set  up  for  tutors,  who  have  neither  due  knowledge 
of  science,  nor  skill  in  the  way  of  communication.  And. 
alas  !  there  are  others  who,  with  all  their  ignorance  and 
insulliciency,  have  self-admiration  and  elfrontery  t'nongli 
to  set  up  themselves  ;  and  the  poor  pupils  fare  accord- 
ingly and  grow  lean  in  thoir  understandings. 

And   let   it  be   observed   also,    there   are   some    v»-ry 


7"  or  i.iviNf;  iN'STia:cTioxs 

Icai-ncd  men,  mIio  know  iiiucli  tliemsolvi-s,  but  have  not 
th(!  talent  of  coninninicatiu^  llicir  own  knowlcd}^*! ;  or 
else  they  are  lazy  and  will  take  no  i)ains  at  it.  KHIht 
they  have  an  ob.scure  and  i)erplexed  way  of  talking,  or 
they  show  their  learning  uselessly  and  make  a  long 
I)ei-iphrasis  on  every  word  of  the  ])o<)k  they  exjihiin,  or 
they  ean  not  condescend  to  young  ])eginneis,  or  they  run 
jiresently  into  the  elevated  parts  of  the  science,  because 
it  gives  themselves  greater  pleasure,  or  they  are  soon 
angry  and  impatient,  and  can  not  bear  with  a  few  im- 
pertinent questions  of  a  young,  incpiisitive, and spiightly 
genius;  or  else  they  skim  over  a  science  in  a  very  slight 
and  superficial  survey,  and  never  lead  their  disciples 
into  the  dej^ths  of  it. 

IV.  A  good  tutor  should  have  characters  and  qualifi- 
cations very  different  fiom  all  these.  lie  is  such  a  one 
as  both  can  and  will  apply  himself  with  diligence  and 
concern,  and  indefatigable  patience,  to  elfect  what  he 
undertakes  ;  to  teaeh  his  disciples  and  see  that  they 
learn ;  to  adapt  his  way  and  method,  as  near  as  may 
be,  to  the  various  dispositions,  as  well  as  to  the  capac-  ^ 
ities  of  those  whom  he  instructs,  and  to  inquire  often 
into  their  progress  and  imi)rovenient. 

And  he  should  take  particular  care  of  his  own  tem- 
per and  conduct,  that  there  be  nothing  in  hini  or  about 
him  which  may  be  of  ill  example ;  nothing  that  may 
savor  of  a  haughty  temper,  or  a  mean  and  sordid  spirit ; 
nothing  that  may  expose  him  to  the  aversion  or  to  the 
contempt  of  his  scholars,  or  create  a  prejudice  in  their 
minds  against  him  and  his  inst  ructions :  but,  if  possible, 
he  should  have  so  much  of  a  natural  candor  and  sweet- 
ness mixed  with  all  the  improvements  of  learning,  as 
might  convey  knowledge  into  the  minds  of  his  disciples 
with  a  sort  of  gentle  insinuation  and  sovereign  delight, 
and  may  tempt  them  into  the  highest  improvements  of 


BY  TEACHERS.  73 

their  reason  by  a  resistless  and  insensible  force.  But  I 
shall  liave  occasion  to  say  more  on  this  snl)jt'ct,  ^hen  I 
come  to  speak  more  directly  of  the  methods  of  the  com- 
munication of  knowledge. 

V.  The  learner  should  attend  with  constancy  and 
care  on  all  the  instructions  of  his  tutor  ;  and  if  he  liap- 
pens  to  be  at  any  time  unavoidably  hindered,  he  must 
endeavor  to  retrieve  the  loss  by  double  industry  for  time 
to  come.  He  should  always  recollect  and  review  his 
lectures,  read  over  some  other  author  or  authois  upon 
the  same  subject,  confer  upon  it  with  his  instructor,  or 
wit li  his  associates,  and  writedown  the  clearest  result 
of  his  present  thoughts,  reasonings,  and  inquiries,  which 
he  may  have  recourse  to  hereafter,  either  to  re-examine 
them  and  apply  them  to  proper  use,  or  to  improve  them 
farther  to  his  own  advantage. 

YI.  A  student  should  never  satisfy  himself  with  bare 
attendance  on  the  lectures  of  his  tutor,  unless  he  clearly 
takes  up  his  sense  and  meaning,  and  understands  the 
things  which  lie  teaches.  A  young  disciple  should 
behave  himself  so  well  as  to  gain  the  rfiection  and  ear 
of  his  instructor,  that  ui)on  every  occasion  he  may,  with 
the  utmost  freedom,  ask  questions,  and  talk  over  liis 
own  sentiments,  his  doubts,  and  dillicultics  with  liim, 
and  in  an  humble  and  modest  manner  desire  the  solution 
of  them. 

VII.  Let  the  learner  endeavor  to  maintain  an 
honorable  opinion  of  his  instructor,  and  heedfnlly 
listen  to  his  instructions,  as  one  willing  to  be  led  by  a 
more  experienced  guide  ;  and  though  he  is  not  bound  to 
fall  in  with  every  sentiment  of  his  tutor,  yet  he  should 
so  far  comply  with  him  as  to  resolve  upon  a  jiLst  consid- 
eration of  the  matter,  and  try  and  examine  it  thoroughly 
with  an  honest  heart,  before  he  presume  to  determine 
against  him :  and  then  it  should  be  done  with  great 


74  or  i.rvrvf;  i\sTKT'fTrr»xs, 

modcsly,  Willi  ;iii  limnblc  jciiJoiisy  of  liiiiisclf,  }in<l  ap- 
parent uinvilliiignes.s  to  (liU'cr  liuui  liis  tutor,  if  the  lort-c 
of  argument  and  truth  did  not  constrain  him. 

VIII.  It  is  a  fr('(|in'iit  and  growing  folly  in  our  ago, 
tliat  pert  young  disciples  soon  fancy  thennselves 
wiser  than  those  who  teach  them  :  at  the  first  view, 
or  ui)on  a  very  little  thought,  they  can  discern  the  insig- 
nificaucy,  weakness,  and  mistake  of  what  their  teacher 
asserts.  The  youth  of  our  day,  by  an  early  jx'tulancy, 
and  pretended  liberty  of  thinking  for  themselves,  dare 
reject  at  once,  and  that  with  a  sort  of  scorn,  all  those 
sentiments  and  doctrines  which  their  teachers  have  de- 
termined, perhaps,  after  long  and  repeated  considera- 
tion, after  years  of  mature  study,  careful  observation, 
and  much  prudent  experience. 

IX.  It  is  true  teachers  and  masters  are  not  infallible, 
nor  are  they  always  in  the  right ;  and  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, it  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  for 
younger  minds  to  maintain  a  just  and  solemn  vener- 
ation for  the  authority  and  advice  of  their  j)arents  and 
the  instructions  of  their  tutors,  and  yet  at  the  san^e 
time  to  secure  to  themselves  a  just  freedom  in  their 
own  thoughts.  "SVe  are  sometimes  too  ready  to  imbibe 
all  their  sentiments  without  examination,  if  we  rever- 
ence and  love  them  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  take 
all  freedom  to  contest  their  opinions,  we  are  sometimes 
tempted  to  cast  off  that  love  and  reverence  for  their  per- 
sons which  God  and  nature  dictate.  Youth  is  ever  in 
danger  of  these  two  extremes. 

X.  But  I  think  I  may  safely  conclude  thus :  Though 
the  authority  of  a  teacher  must  not  absolutely  determine 
the  judgment  of  his  pupil,  yet  young  and  raw  and  un- 
experienced learners  should  pay  all  proper  deference 
that  can  be  to  the  instructions  of  their  parents  and 
teachers,  short  of  absolute  submission  to  their  dictates. 


OF   KXO"\VINrr  THE  SEXSE.  75 

Yet  still  we  must  maintain  this,  that  they  should  never 
receive  any  opinion  into  their  assent,  whether  it  be 
euufoiinable  or  contrary  to  the  tutor's  miud,  without 
sufficient  evidence  of  it  first  given  to  their  own  reason- 
ing powers. 


CHAPTER  Aai. 


OF  IXQUIRING  INTO  THE  SENSE  AND  MEANING  OF  ANY 
WRITER  OR  SPEAKER,  AND  ESPECIALLY  THE  SEXSE  OF 
THE  SACRED  WRITINGS. 

It  is  a  great  imhappiness  that  there  is  such  an  ambi- 
guity in  words  and  forms  of  speech,  that  the  same  sen- 
tence may  be  drawn  into  diflerent  significations  :  whereby 
it  comes  to  pass,  that  it  is  difficult  sometimes  for  the 
reader  exactly  to  hit  upon  the  ideas  which  the  writer  or 
speaker  had  in  his  mind.  iSome  of  the  best  rules  to 
direct  us  herein  are  such  as  these  : 

I.  Be  well  acquainted  with  the  tongue  itself,  or 
language,  wherein  the  author's  mind  is  expressed.  Learn 
not  only  the  true  meaning  of  each  woid,  but  the  sense 
which  those  words  obtain  when  placed  in  such  a  par- 
ticular situation  and  order.  Acc^uaint  yourself  with  the 
peculiar  power  and  emphasis  of  the  several  modes  of 
speech,  and  the  various  idioms  of  the  tongue.  The  S(>c- 
ondary  ideas  wliich  custom  luus  superadded  to  many 
words  should  also  be  known,  a,s  well  as  tlie  particular 
and  primary  meaning  of  them,  if  we  would  understand 
any  writer. 

II.  Consider  the  signification  of  those  words  and 
phrases,  more  esi)ecially  in  the  same  nation,  or  near  the 
same  age  in  which  tliat  writer  lived,  and  in  what  sense 
they  are  used  by  authors  of  the  same  nation,  opinion, 
sect,  party,  etc. 


76  oi'  KN()\vi.N<;  Tin;  sknsh 

ni.  Compare  the  words  and  phrases  in  oik*  ])laf'0 
of  an  author,  willi  (Ik^  saiiu^  or  kiii<li<'<l  woids  and 
])!irases  generally  called  parallel  places  ;  and  jus  one  ex- 
])lains  another  which  is  like;  it,  so  sometimes  a  contrary 
expression  will  e\i>lain  its  contrary. 

Kememher  always  that  a  writer  best  interprets  him- 
self: as  Me  l)elieve  the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  the  supreme 
aiicnt  in  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
;Ne\v,  he  can  best  explain  himself.  Hence  tlu^  theological 
rule  arises,  that  Scripture  is  the  best  interpreter  of 
Scripture ;  and  therefore  concordances,  which  show  us 
paiallel  ])laces,  are  of  excellent  use  for  interpretation. 

IV.  Consider  the  subject  on  which  the  author  is 
treating,  and  by  comparing  other  places  wliere  he 
treats  of  the  same  subject,  you  may  learn  his  sense  in 
the  place  which  you  are  reading,  though  some  of  the 
terms  Avhich  he  uses  in  those  two  places  may  be  very 
different. 

And  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  author  uses  the  same 
words  where  the  subject  of  which  he  treats  is  not  just 
the  same,  you  can  not  learn  his  sense  by  comparing  those 
two  places,  though  the  mere  words  may  seem  to  agree : 
for  some  authors,  when  they  are  treating  of  a  quite 
different  subject,  may  use  perhaps  the  same  words  in  a 
very  different  sense. 

V.  Observe  the  scope  and  design  of  the  v/riter; 
inquire  into  his  aim  and  end  in  that  book,  or  section,  or 
paragraph,  which  will  help  to  explain  particular  sen- 
tences ;  for  we  suppose  a  wise  and  judicious  writer  di- 
rects Ills  expressions  generally  toward  his  designed  end 

VI.  When  an  author  speaks  of  any  subject  occa- 
sionally, let  his  sense  be  explained  by  those  places  where 
he  treats  of  it  distinctly  and  professedly  :  where  he 
speaks  of  any  subject  in  mystical  or  metaphorical 
terms,  explain  them  by  other  places  where  he  treats  of 


OF   WRITERS  OR  SPEAKERS.  77 

the  same  subjects  in  terms  that  are  plain  and  literal : 
"Nvhere  he  speaks  in  an  oratorical,  alVectinj:-.  or  persuasive 
way,  let  this  be  explained  by  other  places  where  he 
treats  of  the  same  theme  in  a  doctrinal  or  instructive 
way  :  where  the  author  speaks  more  strictly  and  partic- 
ularly on  any  theme,  it  will  explain  the  more  loose  and 
general  expressions:  where  he  treats  more  largely,  it 
will  explain  the  shorter  hints  and  brief  intimations ;  and 
wheresoever  he  writes  more  obscurely,  search  out  some 
more  perspicuous  passages  in  the  same  writer,  by  which 
to  determine  the  sense  of  that  obscure  language. 

YII.  Consider  not  only  the  person  who  is  introduced 
speaking,  but  the  persons  to  whom  the  speech  is 
directed,  tlie  circumstancas  of  time  and  place,  the  tem- 
per and  spirit  of  the  sjicaker,  as  well  as  the  temper  and 
sjiirit  of  the  hearers:  in  order  to  interpret  Scripture 
well,  there  needs  a  good  acquaintance  with  the  Jewish 
customs,  some  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Roman  and 
Greek  times  and  manners,  which  sometimes  strike  a 
strange  and  suri^iising  light  ui^on  passages  which  were 
before  very  obscure. 

VIII.  In  particular  propositions,  the  sense  of  an 
author  may  sometimes  be  known  by  the  inferences 
which  he  draws  from  them  ;  and  all  those  senses  may 
be  excluded  which  will  not  allow  of  that  inference. 

Kote.  This  rule  indeed  is  not  always  certain,  in  read- 
ing and  interpreting  human  authors,  because  they  may 
mistake  in  drawing  their  inferences:  but  in  explaining 
Scripture  it  is  a  sure  rule;  f;)r  the  sacred  and  inspired 
writers  always  make  just  inferences  from  their  own 
propositions.  Yet  even  in  them,  we  must  take  heed  we 
do  not  mistake  an  allusion  for  an  inference,  which  is 
many  times  intro(hice(l  almost  in  the  same  miuiner. 

TX.  If  it  be  a  matter  of  contr()v«'rsy.  the  true  sense 
of  the  author  is  sometimes  known  by  the  objections 


78  OF  K\<)WiN<;  TFii;  sknhk. 

tliat  arc  brou.u:lit  against  it.     So  we  may  he  well  assured, 

the  apostle  speaks  a.t^^aiiist  our  "justification  in  the  sight 
of  (J()(l,  by  our  own  works  of  holiness,"  in  the  .'><1,  4th, 
and  nth  ehapters  of  the  Ei)istle  to  the  Konians,  because 
of  the  objection  brought  against  him  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Gth  chapter,  viz. :  "  What  shall  we  say  then  ?  shall 
we  continue  in  sin  that  grace  may  al)oun(l?"  which 
objection  could  never  have  been  raised,  if  In;  had 
been  proving  our  justification  bj^  our  own  works  of 
righteousness. 

X.  In  matters  of  dispute,  take  heed  of  v^^arping  the 
sense  of  the  writer  to  your  own  oi)inion,  by  any  latent 
prejudices  of  self-love  and  party  spiiit.  It  is  this  reign- 
ing principle  of  prejudice  and  party,  that  has  given 
such  a  variety  of  senses  both  to  the  sacred  writers  and 
others,  which  would  never  have  come  into  the  mind  of 
the  reader  if  he  had  labored  under  some  such  x^repos- 
sessions. 

XI.  For  the  same  reason  take  heed  of  the  prejudices 
of  passion,  malice,  envy,  pride,  or  opposition  to  an  au- 
thor, whereby  you  may  be  easily  tempted  to  put  a  false 
and  invidious  sense  upon  his  words.  Lay  aside  there- 
fore a  carping  spirit,  and  read  even  an  adversary  with 
attention  and  diligence,  with  an  honest  design  to  find 
out  his  true  meaning  ;  do  not  snatch  at  little  lapses  and 
appearances  of  mistake,  in  opposition  to  his  declared 
and  avowed  meaning ;  nor  impute  any  sense  or  opinion 
to  him  which  he  denies  to  be  his  opinion,  unless  it  be 
proved  by  the  most  plain  and  exj^ress  language. 

Lastly,  remember  that  you  treat  every  author,  writer, 
or  speaker,  just  as  you  yourselves  would  be  willing  to 
be  treated  by  others. 


OF  CONVERSATION.  70 


CHAPTER  VIIT. 

EULES  OF  IMPEOVEMENT  BY  CONVERSATION. 

I.  If  we  would  improve  our  minds  bj'  conversation, 
it  is  a  great  happiness  to  be  acquainted  with  persons 
wiser  than  ourselves.  It  is  a  piece  of  useful  advice 
tberel'ore  to  get  tbe  ftivor  of  tbeir  conversation  fre- 
quentl}',  as  far  as  circumstances  will  allow:  and  if  they 
happen  to  be  a  little  reserved,  use  all  obliging  methods 
to  draw  out  of  them  what  may  increase  your  ow]i 
knowledge. 

II.  Wliatsoever  comi^any  you  are  in,  waste  not  the 
time  in  trifle  and  impertinence.  If  you  spend  some 
hours  amongst  children,  talk  with  therii  according  to 
their  capacity  ;  mai-k  the  young  buddings  of  infant  I'ca- 
son  ;  observe  the  different  motions  and  distinct  workings 
of  the  animal  and  the  mind,  as  far  as  you  can  discern 
them ;  take  notice  by  what  degrees  the  little  creature 
glows  up  to  the  use  of  his  reasoning  powers,  aiid  what 
eaily  i)rejudices  beset  and  endanger  his  understanding. 
By  this  means  you  will  learn  to  address  yourself  to 
children  for  their  l)enelit,  and  perhaps  you  may  derive 
some  useful  philosophemes  or  theorems  for  your  own 
entertainment. 

III.  If  you  hapi^en  to  be  in  company  with  a  nierchanl 
or  a  sailor,  a  fai-mer  or  a  mechanic,  a  milk-nuiid  or  a 
spinster,  lead  them  into  a  discourse  of  the  matters 
of  their  own  peculiar  province  or  profession;  for 
every  one  knows,  or  should  know,  their  own  business 
best.  In  this  sense  a  common  nu'chanic  is  wiser  than  the 
philosopher.  By  this  means  you  may  gain  some  im- 
provement in  knowledge  from  every  one  you  meet. 


80  OF   rONVKIiSATIOX. 

IV.  ('online,  not  yourstilf  always  lo  ono  sort  of  com- 
pany, or  to  persons  of  tlie  same  party  or  opinion,  cither 
in  mutters  of  learning,  reli;;ion,  or  civil  lile,  h-,s\,  if  you 
should  liappen  to  l)e  nursed  up  oi*  e(lueated  in  early 
mistake,  you  should  be  confirmed  and  established  in  the 
same  mistake,  by  conversing  only  Avith  ])ersons  of  the 
same  sentiments,  A  free  and  p;<'neral  conversation  with 
men  of  very  various  countries  and  of  dilferent  parties, 
()l)inions,  and  i»ractices,  so  far  as  it  may  be  done  safely, 
is  of  excellent  use  to  undeceive  us  in  many  ■wrong 
jud:j;ments  "whicli  "vve  may  have  fiamed,  and  to  lea<l  us 
into  juster  thou.i;lits. 

It  is  said,  when  tho  kinc:  of  Siam,  near  China,  first  con- 
versed with  some  lOuropean  nierehants,  wlio  souglit  the  favor 
of  tradiui^  on  Ills  coast,  lie  inqiiireil  of  tliein  soine  of  the  com- 
mon ajjiicarances  of  summer  and  winter  in  their  country  ;  and 
wiien  tliey  tohl  liim  of  Mater  growing  so  hard  in  tluir  rivers. 
that  men  and  horses  and  hiden  carriages  i)assed  ovrr  it,  and 
tliat  rain  S(mietimes  fell  down  as  wliite  and  liglit  as  feathers, 
ami  sometimes  almost  as  liaril  as  stones,  lie  would  not  believe 
a  syllable  they  said  ;  for  ice,  snow,  and  hail,  were  names  and 
things  utterly  imknown  to  him  and  to  his  sul)jeets  in  that  hot 
climate  ;  he  renounced  all  tratlie  with  suehsiuuueful  liar.-,  aud 

would  not  sutfer  them  to  trade  with  his  people. 

t 

Y.  In  mixed  company,  among  acquaintances  and 
strangers  endeavor  to  learn  something  from  all.  Be 
swift  to  hear  ;  but  be  cautious  of  your  tongue,  lest  you 
betray  your  ignorance,  and  perhaps  offend  some  of  those 
•who  are  present  too.  The  Scripture  severely  censures 
those  who  speak  evil  of  the  things  they  know  not.  Ac- 
(piaint  yourself  therefore  sometimes  with  persons  and 
l^arties  which  are  far  distant  from  your  common  life  and 
customs :  this  is  a  way  whereby  you  may  form  a  wiser 
opinion  of  men  and  things.  Prove  all  things,  and  hold 
fast  that  Avhich  is  good,  is  a  divine  rule,  and  it  comes 
from  the  Father  of  light  and  truth.  But  young  persons 
should  practice  it  indeed  with  due  limitation,  and  under 
the  eye  of  their  elders. 


OF  CONVERSATION.  SI 

YT.  Be  not  frighted  nor  provoked  at  opinions  dif- 
ferent from  your  own.  Sonic  i)ei-sun.s  are  so  coiilideiit 
they  are  in  the  rif^ht,  that  they  will  not  come  witliin  the 
lu'arinjjj  of  any  notions  bat  their  own:  they  canton  ont 
to  themselves  a  little  province  in  the  intellectnal  world, 
where  they  fancy  the  light  shines  ;  and  all  the  rest  is  in 
darkness.  They  never  venture  into  the  ocean  of  knowl- 
edge, nor  survey  the  riches  of  other  minds,  which  are 
as  solid  and  as  useful,  and  perhaps  are  liner  gold  than 
M'hat  they  ever  possessed.  Let  not  men  imagine  there 
is  no  certain  truth  but  in  the  sciences  which  they  study, 
and  amongst  that  party  in  which  they  were  born  and 
edncaled. 

VI r.  Believe  tliat  it  is  ]>ossible  to  learn  something 
from  persons  much  below  yourself.  We  are  all  short- 
sighted creatures  ;  our  views  are  also  narrow  and  limited ; 
we  often  see  but  one  side  of  a  matter,  and  do  not  extend 
our  siglit  far  and  wide  enough  to  reach  every  thing  that 
has  a  connection  with  the  thing  we  talk  of;  we  see  but 
in  part,  and  know  but  in  part ;  therefore  it  is  no  wonder 
we  form  not  right  conclusions ;  because  we  do  not  sui-vey 
the  whole  of  any  subject  or  argument.  Even  the  ])r()ud- 
est  admirer  of  his  own  parts  might  find  it  uscl'ul  to 
consult  with  others,  though  of  inferior  capacity  and 
penetration.  We  have  a  diti"crent  i)ros])ect  of  the  same 
thing  (if  I  may  so  sp;'ak)  according  to  the  dilfei-cnt  i)osi- 
tions  of  our  nndei'standing  towards  it  :  a  weaker  man 
may  sometimes  light  on  notions  which  have  escaped  a 
wiser,  and  which  the  wiser  man  might  make  a  hai)i)y 
use  of,  if  he  would  condcs('(Mid  to  take  notion  of  Ihein. 

VI II.  It  is  of  considcrahlci  advantage,  when  we  are 
pursuing  any  difficult  point  of  kno\A^ldege,  to  have  a 
society  of  ingenious  (^orrespondtMits  at  hand,  to  wiiom 
Ave  may  piopose  it  :  for  every  man  has  something  of  a 
different  genius  and  a  vaiions  turn  of  mind,  whereby 


82  OF  fONVERSATIOX. 

lilt'  subjoct  proposed  will  be  shown  in  all  its  lights,  it 
Avill  be  roprc'senU'd  in  all  its  luriiis,  and  e\(  ry  hide  of 
it  be  turned  to  view,  that  a  juster  judgment  may  be 
framed. 

IX.  To  mak(^  conversation  more  valuable  and  useful, 
w'lielher  it  be  in  a  designed  or  accidental  visit,  among 
persons  of  the  same  or  of  dilferent  sexes,  after  the 
necessary  salutations  are  finished,  and  the  stream  of  com- 
mon talk  begins  to  liesitalc,  or  runs  flat  and  h)w,  let 
some  ono  person  take  a  book  Avhieh  may  be  agreeable 
to  the  whole  company,  and  by  common  consent  let  him 
read  in  it  ten  lines,  or  a  paragraph  or  two,  or  a  few 
pages,  till  some  word  or  sentence  gives  an  occasion  for 
any  of  the  companj^  to  offer  a  thought  or  two  relating  to 
that  subject :  interruption  of  the  reader  should  be  no 
blame  ;  for  conversation  isJ;he  business :  whether  it  be  to 
confirm  what  the  author  says,  or  to  improve  it,  to  enlarge 
upon  or  to  correct  it,  to  object  against  it,  or  to  ask  any 
question  that  is  akin  to  it ;  and  let  every  one  that 
please  add  their  opinion  and  promote  the  conver- 
sation. , 

Observe  this  rule  in  general,  whensoever  it  lies  in  your 
power  to  lead  the  conversation,  let  it  be  directed  to 
some  profitable  point  of  knowledge  or  practice,  so  far 
as  may  be  done  with  decency  ;  and  let  not  the  discoui'se 
and  the  hours  be  suffered  to  run  loose  without  aim  or 
design :  and  when  a  subject  is  started,  pass  not  ha4ily 
to  another,  before  you  have  brought  the  present  theme 
of  discourse  to  some  tolerable  issue,  or  a  joint  consent  to 
drop  it. 

X.  Attend  with  sincere  diligence,  while  any  one  of 
the  company  is  declaring  his  sense  of  the  (piestion  pro- 
posed: hear  the  argument  with  patience,  though  it 
differ  ever  so  much  from  your  sentiments,  for  you  your- 
self are  very  desirous  to  be  heard  with  patience  l,)y 


OF  CONVERSATION.  83 

others  who  differ  fiom  yon.  Let  not  your  thou{>:hts  be 
active  and  busy  all  the  a\  hilc  to  find  out  something?  to 
contradict,  and  by  what  means  to  oppose  the  speaker, 
especially  in  matters  which  are  not  brought  to  an  issue. 
This  is  a  frequent  and  unhai)py  temi^er  and  liractice. 
You  should  rather  be  intent  and  solicitous  to  take  uj)  the 
mind  and  meaning  of  the  speaker,  zealous  to  seize  and 
approve  all  that  is  true  in  his  discouise  ;  nor  yet  should 
you  want  courage  to  opi^ose  where  it  is  necessary ;  but 
let  your  modesty  and  patience,  and  a  friendly  temi)er, 
be  as  conspicuous  as  your  zeal. 

XL  When  a  man  speaks  with  much  fieedom  and 
ease,  and  gives  his  ojjinion  in  the  plainest  language  of 
connnon  sense,  do  not  presently  imagine  you  shall 
gain  nothing  by  his  company.  Sometimes  you  will 
Ihid  a  person  who,  in  his  conversation  or  his  writings, 
delivers  his  thoughts  in  so  plain,  so  easy,  so  familiar-, 
and  perspicuous  a  manner,  that  you  both  understand 
and  assent  to  every  thing  he  saith,  as  fast  as  you  read  or 
hear  it :  hereupon  some  hearers  have  been  ready  to  con- 
clude in  haste,  Surely  this  man  saith  none  but  common 
things ;  I  knew  as  much  before,  or,  I  would  have  said  all 
this  myself.     This  is  a  frequent  mistake. 

Pelhicido  was  a  very  great  genius;  when  he  spoko  in  Iho 
senato,  lie  was  wont  to  convey  his  ideas  in  so  simple  and  hapi>y 
a  manner  as  to  instruct  and  convince  every  heaver,  and  t<>  (  n- 
Ibree  (he  conviction  tlirouuh  the  whole  illustiions  assiinlilv  ; 
and  that  with  so  much  evidence,  that  you  would  have  liecn 
I'eady  to  wonder,  that  evei'v  one  who  spoke  liad  not  said  the 
same  thinjis:  luil  ]\'lhici(lo  was  the  only  man  that  could  do 
it  ;  tile  only  si)eakei'  who  had  attaiiud  this  art  and  honor. 

XII.  If  any  thing  seem  dark  in  the  discourse  of 
your  companion,  so  that  you  have  not  a  clear  idea  of 
what  is  spoken,  endeavor  to  olilaiu  a  clearer  concei)tion 
of  it  by  a  decent  manner  of  impiiry.  Do  not  charge  the 
speaker  with  obscurity,  either  in  his  sense  or  his  words, 


84  OF   CONVKRSATIOX. 

but  entreat  his  favor  to  relieve  your  own  want  of 
penetration,  or  lo  add  an  ciili^^litfniii;^  \v(ir<l  <»!•  t  w<»,  that 
you  may  take  up  liis  whole  meaning. 

Jf  difficulties  aiisc  in  your  mind,  and  constrain  your 
dissent  to  the  things  spoken,  represent  what  objection 
some  persons  would  be  ready  to  make  against  the  senti- 
ments of  the  speaker,  without  telling  him  you  oppose. 
This  manner  of  address  carries  something  more  modest 
and  obliging  in  it,  than  to  appear  to  raise  objections  of 
your  own  by  way  of  contradiction  to  him  that  spoke. 

XIII.  "When  you  are  forced  to  diliVr  from  him  who 
delivers  his  sense  on  any  jtoiut,  yet  agree  as  far  as  you 
can,  and  represent  how  far  you  agree;  and  if  there  be 
any  room  for  it,  exj^lain  the  words  of  the  speaker  in 
such  a  sense  to  which  you  can  in  general  assent,  and  so 
agree  with  him,  or  at  least,  by  a  small  addition  or  alter- 
ation of  his  sentiments,  show  your  own  sense  of  things. 
It  is  the  practice  and  delight  of  a  candid  hearer,  to  make 
it  api^ear  how  unwilling  he  is  to  differ  from  him  that 
speaks.  Let  the  speaker  know  that  it  is  nothing  but 
truth  constrains  you  to  oppose  him;  and  let  that  dif- 
ference be  always  expressed  in  few,  and  civil,  and  chosen 
words,  such  as  may  give  the  least  offense. 

And  be  careful  always  to  take  Solomon's  rule  with 
you,  and  let  your  correspondent  fairly  linish  his  speech 
before  you  reply;  ''for  he  that  answereth  a  matter 
before  he  heareth  it,  it  is  folly  and  shame  unto  him.'' 
Pro  v.  18  :  13. 

A  little  watchfulness,  care,  and  practice  in  younger 
life,  will  render  all  these  things  more  easy,  familiar,  and 
natural  to  you,  and  will  grow  into  habit. 

XIV.  As  you  should  carry  about  with  yon  a  constant 
and  sincere  sense  of  your  own  ignorance,  so  you  should 
not  be  afraid  nor  ashamed  to  confess  this  ignorance, 
by  taking  all  i)roper  opi)ortmiities  to  ask  and  inquire  for 


OF  CONVERvSATIOX.  85 

farther  information ;  whotbor  it  be  the  meaning  of  a 
word,  the  nature  of  a  thin;;-,  the  reason  of  a  proposition, 
the  custom  of  a  nation,  etc.,  never  remaining  in  ignor- 
ance for  Avant  of  asking. 

Many  a  person  liad  ariivfd  at  some  considerable 
degree  of  knowledge,  if  he  had  not  been  full  of  self-eon- 
teut,  and  imagined  tliat  he  had  known  enough  already, 
or  else  was  ashamed  to  let  others  know  that  he  was 
iTuacquainted  with  it.  God  and  man  are  ready  to  teach 
the  nu'ek,  the  humbh',  and  the  ignorant;  but  he  that 
fancies  himself  to  know  any  particular  subject  well,  or 
that  will  not  venture  to  ask  a  (juestiou  about  it,  sucli  a 
one  will  not  put  himself  into  the  way  of  improvement 
by  inquiry  and  diligence.  A  fool  may  be  "wiser  in  his 
own  conceit  than  ten  men  who  can  render  a  reason;'' 
and  such  a  one  is  very  likely  to  be  an  everlasting  fool ; 
and  perhaps  also  it  is  a  silly  shame  renders  his  folly 
incurable. 

Stultoruni  incurata  pudor  nialus  ulcora  celat. 

—Ilur.  Epid.  IG.     Lib.  1. 

In  English  thus  :  ___, 

If  fools  have  ulcers,  and  their  pride  conceal  them, 
They  must  have  ulcers  still,  for  noue  can  heal  theiii. 

XV.  Be  not  too  forward,  especially  in  the  younger 
part  of  life,  to  determine  any  question  in  company  with 
an  infallible  and  peremptory  sentence,  nor  speak  with 
assuming  airs,  and  with  a  decisive  tone  of  voice.  A 
young  man,  in  the  presence  of  his  elders,  should 
rather  hear  and  attend,  and  weigh  the  aigunu'uts 
which  are  brouglit  for  tlie  jiroof  or  refutation  of  any 
doubtful  proposition  ;  and  when  it  is  your  turn  to  speak, 
]v;'opose  your  tlu)ughts  lather  in  the  way  of  iiKpiiiy.  I>y 
this  means  your  mind  will  be  kept  in  a  litter  temper  to 
receive  truth,  and  you  will  be  more  ready  to  correct  and 
improve  your  own  sentiments,  where  you  have  not  been 


86  or  rnxvr.KSATiox. 

too  positive  in  iiflinniii';- llu'iii.  But  it' you  Imve  ina;xi'^- 
tcrially  decided  the  point,  you  'will  iind  a  secret  nnwil- 
lin.<;:ness  to  retract,  though  you  sliould  I'eei  an  inward 
conviction  tliat  you  ■were  in  the  wronjjj. 

XVI.  It  is  granted,  indeed,  tliat  a  season  may  happen, 
when  some  bold  pretender  to  science  may  assume 
haughty  and  positive  airs,  to  asseil  and  vindicate  a 
gross  and  dangerous  erroi-,  <jr  to  renounce  and  vilify 
some  very  important  trutli:  and  if  he  has  a  pofjular 
talent  of  talkin*;-,  and  there  be  no  remonstrance  made 
a.u:ainst  him,  the  comi)ajiy  may  be  tempted  too  ea-sily  to 
give  their  assent  to  the  imprudence  and  infallibility  of 
the  presumer.  They  may  imagine  a  proposition  so  much 
vilified  can  never  be  true,  and  that  a  doctrine  which  is 
so  boldly  censured  and  renounced  can  never  be  defended. 
"Weak  minds  are  too  ready  to  persuade  themselves,  that 
a  man  would  never  talk  "with  so  mnch  assurance  nnless 
lie  were  certainly  in  the  right,  and  could  well  maintain 
and  prove  what  he  said.  By  this  means  truth  itself  is 
in  danger  of  being  betrayed  or  lost,  if  there  be  no  opjjo 
sition  made  to  such  a  pretending  talker. 

Now  in  such  a  case,  even  a  wise  and  a  modest 
man  may  assume  airs  too,  and  rei)el  insok-nee  with  its 
OAvn  weai:)ons.  There  is  a  time,  as  Solomon,  the  wisest 
of  men,  teaches  us,  "  \vhen  a  fool  should  be  answered 
according  to  his  folly,  lest  he  be  wise  in  his  own  con- 
ceit,'' and  lest  others  too  easily  yield  uji  their  faith  and 
reason  to  his  imj^erious  dictates.  Courage  and  posi- 
tivity  are  never  more  necessary  than  on  such  an  occasion. 
But  it  is  good  to  join  some  argument  with  them  of  real 
and  convincing  force,  and  let  it  be  strongly  pronounce  d 
too. 

When  such  a  resistance  is  made,  you  shall  find  some 
of  those  bold  talkers  will  draw  in  their  horns,  when  their 
fierce   and  feeble  pushes  against  truth  and  reason  are 


or   CONYERSATIOX.  87 

repelled  with  piisliinc;  and  confidence.  It  is  pity  indeed 
that  truth  should  e\'er  need  such  sort  of  defenses ;  l)ut 
we  know  that  a  triumphant  assurance  hath  sometimes 
supported  gross  falsehoods,  and  a  whole  companj'  have 
been  captivated  to  error  by  this  means,  till  some  man 
with  equal  assurance  has  rescued  them.  It  is  pity  that 
any  momentous  point  of  doctrine  should  happen  to  fall 
under  such  reproaches,  and  require  such  a  mode  of  vin- 
dication :  thoujih  if  I  happen  to  hear  it,  I  ought  not  to 
turn  my  back  and  to  sneak  off  in  silence,  and  leave  tht; 
truth  to  lie  baffled,  bleeding,  and  slain.  Yet  I  must 
confess,  I  should  be  glad  to  have  no  occasion  ever  given 
me  to  fight  with  any  man  at  this  sort  of  weapons,  even 
though  I  should  be  so  happy  as  to  silence  his  insolence 
and  to  obtain  an  evident  victory. 

XVII.  Be  not  fond  of  disputing  every  thing  jvo  and 
con,  nor  indulge  yourself  to  show  your  talent  of 
attacking  and  defending.  A  logic  which  teaches  nothing 
else  is  little  worth.  This  temper  and  practice  will  lead 
you  just  so  far  out  of  the  way  of  knowledge,  and  divert 
your  honest  inquiry  after  the  truth  which  is  debated  or 
sought.  In  set  disputes,  every  little  straw  is  often  laid 
hold  on  to  support  our  own  cause ;  every  thing  that  can 
be  drawn  in  any  Avay  to  give  color  to  our  argument  is 
advanced,  and  that  perhaps  with  vanity  and  ostentation. 
This  puts  the  mind  out  of  a  proper  ijosture  to  seek  and 
receive  the  tiutli. 

XYIII.  Do  not  bring  a  warm  party  spirit  into  a 
free  conversation  which  is  designed  for  mutual  im- 
provement in  the  search  of  truth.  Take  heed  of  allow- 
ing yourself  in  those  self-satisfied  assurances  which  keep 
the  doors  of  the  understanding  barred  fast  against  tht^ 
admission  of  any  ni'W  sentiim'uts.  Let  your  soul  be 
ever  ready  to  hearken  to  farther  discoveries,  from  a  con- 
stant and  ruling  consciousness  of  our  present  fallible  and 


88  OF   COX^'ICRSATIOX, 

im]icifcct  state;  und  make  it  appear  to  your  friends,  that 
it  is  no  liard  tjisk  to  you  to  l(;arn  and  i)ronounee  those 
lillle  words,  "  I  was  mistaken,"  liow  liar<l  soever  it  Ix; 
lor  the  bulk  of  mankind  to  i)ronounee  them. 

XIX.  As  you  may  sometimes  raise  inquiries  for  your 
own  instruction  and  improvement,  and  draw  out  the 
learning;,  wisdom,  and  line  sentiments  of  your  friends, 
Avho  perhaps  may  be  too  reserved  or  modest ;  so,  at 
otlier  times,  if  you  perceive  a  person  unskillful  in  the 
matter  of  debate,  you  may,  by  questions  aptly  pro- 
posed in  the  Socratic  method,  lead  him  into  a  clearer 
knowledge  of  tlie  subject:  then  y<»u  Ix'conie  his  in- 
structor, in  such  a  manner  as  may  not  appear  to  make 
yourself  his  superior. 

XX.  Take  heed  of  affecting  always  to  shine  in 
company  above  the  rest,  and  to  display  the  riches  of 
your  own  understanding  or  your  oratoiy,  as  though  y<ju 
would  render  yourself  admirable  to  all  that  are  present. 
This  is  seldom  well  taken  in  polite  company ;  much  less 
should  you  see  such  forms  of  speech  as  should  insinuate 
the  ignorance  or  dullness  of  those  with  whom  you  con- 
verse. 

XXI.  Though  you  should  not  affect  to  flourish  in  a 
copious  harangue  and  a  diffusive  style  in  company,  yet 
neither  should  you  rudely  interrupt  and  reproach  him 
that  happens  to  use  it :  but  when  he  has  done  speaking, 
reduce  his  sentiments  into  a  more  contracted  form  ;  not 
with  a  show  of  correcting,  but  a$  one  who  is  doubtful 
whether  you  hit  upon  his  true  sense  or  not.  Thus  mat- 
ters may  be  brought  more  easily  from  a  wild  confusion 
into  a  single  point,  questions  may  be  sooner  determined 
and  difficulties  more  easily  removed. 

XXII.  Be  not  so  ready  to  charge  ignorance,  prejudice, 
and  mistake  upon  others,  as  you  are  to  suspect  yourself 
of  it :  and  in  order  to  show  how  free  you  are  from  preju- 


OF   COXVERSATIOX.  89 

dices,  learn  to  bear  contradiction  with  patience  ;  let  it 
be  eusy  to  you  to  hear  your  own  opinion  strongly  op- 
posed, especially  in  matters  which  are  doubtful  and  dis- 
putable, amongst  men  of  sobriety  and  virtue.  Give  a 
patient  hearing  to  ari,aiinents  on  all  sides  ;  otherwise  you 
give  the  company  occasion  to  siLspect  that  it  is  not  the 
evidence  of  truth  has  led  you  into  this  opinion,  but  some 
lazy  anticipation  of  judgment,  some  beloved  presumption, 
some  long  and  rash  possession  of  a  party  scheme,  in 
which  you  desire  to  rest  undistuiljed.  If  your  assent  has 
been  established  upon  just  and  sufficient  grounds,  why 
should  you  be  afraid  to  let  the  truth  be  put  to  the  trial 
of  argument? 

XXIII.  Banish  utterly  out  of  all  conversation,  and 
especially  out  of  all  learned  and  intellectual  conference, 
every  thing  that  tends  to  provoke  passion  or  raise  a 
fire  in  the  blood.  Let  no  sharp  language,  no  noisy  ex- 
clamations, no  sarcasms,  no  biting  jests  be  heard  among 
you  ;  no  perverse  or  invidious  consequences  be  drawn 
from  each  other's  opinions,  and  imputed  to  the  person  : 
let  there  be  no  willful  perversion  of  an  other's  meaning  ; 
no  sudden  seizure  of  a  lapsed  syllable  to  play  upon  it, 
nor  any  abused  construction  of  an  innocent  mistake  : 
suffer  not  your  tongue  to  insult  a  modest  opponent  that 
begins  to  yield ;  let  there  be  no  croM'ing  and  triumph, 
even  where  there  is  evident  victory  on  your  side.  All 
these  tilings  arc  enemies  to  friendship,  and  the  ruin  of 
free  conversation.  Theimiiartial  search  of  truth  re(piires 
all  calmness  and  serenity,  all  temper  and  candor  ;  mutual 
instructions  can  never  be  attained  in  the  midst  of  i)a.s- 
sion,  ])iide,  and  clamor,  unless  we  suiipose,  in  the  midst 
of  such  a  scene,  there  is  a  loud  and  penetrating  lecture 
read  by  both  sides,  on  the  folly  and  shameful  inlirmitie^ 
of  human  nature. 

XXIV.  Whensoever,    therefore,  any   unhappy-    word 


90  OF  CONVERSATION. 

shall  arise  in  conipaiiy.  that  iiii<;lit  ^nvo  you  a  reasonable 
disj;ust,  quash  the  rising  resentment,  be  it  ever  so  just, 
and  command  your  soul  and  your  tonj^ue  into  silence, 
lest  you  cancel  tlic  Iio])('s  ol"  all  im])rov('mcnt  for  that 
hour,  and  transform  the  learned  conversation  into  the 
mean  and  vulgar  form  of  reproaches  and  railing.  The  man 
"Nvho  began  to  break  the  peace  in  such  a  society,  Mill  fall 
under  the  shame  and  conviction  of  such  a  silent  reproof, 
if  he  has  any  thing  ingenuous  about  him.  If  this  shonld 
not  be  suflicient,  let  a  grave  admonition,  or  a  soft  and 
gentle  turn  of  wit,  with  an  air  of  pleasantry,  give  the 
waim  disputeran  occasion  to  stop  the  progress  of  his  in- 
decent fire ;  if  not,  to  retract  the  indecency  and  quench 
the  ilame. 

XXV.  Inure  yourself  to  a  candid  and  obliging  man- 
ner in  your  conversation,  and  acquire  the  art  of  ])leasing 
address,  even  when  you  teach,  as  well  as  when  you  learn: 
and  when  j^ou  opjiose,  as  well  as  when  you  assert  or 
prove.  This  degree  of  politeness  is  not  to  be  attained 
without  a  diligent  attention  to  such  kind  of  directions  as 
are  here  laid  down,  and  a  frequent  exercise  and  practice 
of  them. 

XXVI.  If  y(m  would  know  what  sort  of  companions 
you  should  select  for  the  cultivation  and  advantage  of 
the  mind,  the  general  rule  is,  choose  such  as,  by  their 
brightness  of  parts,  and  their  diligence  in  study,  or  by 
their  superior  advancement  in  learning,  or  peculiar  ex- 
cellence in  any  art,  science,  or  accomplishment,  divine 
or  human,  may  be  capable  of  administering  to  your 
improvement;  and  be  sure  to  maintain  and  keep  some 
due  regard  to  their  moral  character  always,  lest  while 
you  wander  in  quest  of  intellectual  gain  you  fall  into  the 
contagion  of  irreligion  and  vice.  Xo  wise  man  can  ven- 
ture into  a  house  infected  with  the  plague,  in  order  to 
see  the  finest  collections  of  any  virtuoso  in  Em-ope. 


OF  CONVEESATIOX.  91 

XXVII.  Xor  is  it  every  sober  pei.son  of  your  acquaint- 
ance, no,  nor  every  man  of  bright  parts,  or  rich  in 
learning,  tliat  is  fit  to  engage  in  free  conversation  for  the 
inquiry  after  trutli.  Let  a  person  have  ever  so  iUustrions 
talents,  yet  he  is  not  a  proper  associate  for  such  a  pur- 
pose, if  he  lie  under  any  of  the  following  infirmities  : 

1.  Jf  lie  he  exceedinghj  reserved,  and  hath  either  no  in- 
clination to  discourse,  or  no  tolerable  capacity  of  speech 
and  language  for  the  communication  of  his  sentiments. 

2.  If  he  be  haughty  and  proud  of  his  knowledge,  im- 
perious in  his  airs,  and  always  fond  of  imposing  his 
sentiments  on  all  the  company. 

3.  If  he  he  2)o.sit ire  and  dogmatieal  in  his  own  opinions, 
and  will  dispute  to  the  end  ;  if  he  will  resist  the  brightest 
evidence  of  truth,  rather  than  suffer  himself  to  be  over- 
come, or  yield  to  the  plainest  and  strongest  reasonings. 

4.  If  he  be  one  who  always  affeets  to  outshine  all  the  com- 
pany', and  delights  to  hear  himself  talk  and  flourish  upon 
a  subject,  and  make  long  harangues,  while  the  rest  must 
all  be  silent  and  attentive. 

5.  If  he  be  a  person  of  whiffling  and  unsteady  turn  of 
mind,  who  can  not  keep  close  to  a  point  of  controversy, 
but  wanders  from  it  perpetually,  and  is  always  solicitous 
to  say  something,  whether  it  be  pertinent  to  the  question 
or  not. 

().  If  he  ha  fretful  and  peevish,  and  given  lo  resentment 
upon  all  occasions  :  if  he  knows  not  how  to  bear  contra- 
diction, or  is  ready  to  take  things  in  a  wrong  sense  ;  if 
lie  is  swift  to  feel  a  supposed  offense,  or  to  imagine  him- 
self i.tlVonled,  and  then  break  out  into  a  sudden  passion, 
or  retain  silent  and  sullen  wrath. 

7.  If  he  affects  icit  on  all  oceasions,  and  is  full  of  his  con- 
ceits and  puns,  quirks  or  quil)bles,  jests  and  rei^artees  ; 
these  may  agreeably  entertain  and  animate  an  hour  of 
mirth,  but  they  have  no  place  in  the  search  after  truth. 


92  or   COWllKSATION. 

8.  If  lio  oan-y  always  al)oiit  liini  a  sort  of  crnfl,  and  fun- 
ning, and  disguise,  and  act  rather  like  a  xpij  tlutn  a  J'rUnd. 
Have  a  care  of  such  a  one  as  will  make  an  ill  use  of  free- 
dom in  conversation,  and  immediately  charge  heresy 
upon  you,  when  you  happen  to  dilfer  IVom  those  senti- 
ments -which  authority  or  custom  has  estahlished. 

In  short,  you  should  avoid  the  man,  iu  such  select  con- 
versation, who  practices  any  thing  that  is  unbecoming 
the  character  of  a  sincere,  free,  and  open  searcher  after 
truth. 

Now,  though  you  may  pay  all  the  relative  duties  of 
life  to  persons  of  these  uuliappy  qualifications,  and  treat 
them  with  decency  and  love,  so  far  as  religion  and 
humanity  oblige  you,  yet  take  care  of  entering  into  a  free 
debate  on  matters  of  truth  or  falsehood  in  their  company, 
and  especially  about  the  principles  of  religion.  I  con- 
fess, if  a  person  of  such  a  temper  happens  to  judge  and 
talk  well  on  such  a  subject,  you  may  hear  him  with  at- 
tention, and  derive  what  profb  you  can  from  his  dis- 
course ;  but  he  is  by  no  means  to  be  chosen  for  a  free 
conference  in  matters  of  learning  and  knowledge.  t 

XXVIII.  "While  I  would  persuade  you  to  beware  of 
such  persons  and  abstain  from  too  much  fri'edom  of  dis- 
course amongst  them,  it  is  very  natural  to  infer  that  you 
should  watch  against  the  working  of  these  evil  qual- 
ities in  your  own  breast,  if  you  hai)pen  to  be  tainted 
with  any  of  them  yourself.  ]Men  of  learning  and  in- 
genuity will  justly  avoid  your  acquaintance,  when  they 
find  such  an  unhappy  and  unsocial  temper  prevailing  in 
you. 

XXTX.  To  conclude,  when  you  retire  from  com- 
pany, then  converse  with  yourself  in  solitude,  and 
inquire  what  you  have  learned  for  the  improvement  of 
your  understanding,  or  for  the  rectifying  your  inclina- 
tions, for  the  increase  of  your  virtues,  or  the  ameliorat- 


OF  COXVEESATION.  93 

ing  your  conduct  and  behavior  in  any  future  parts  of 
life.  If  you  have  seen  some  of  your  company  candid, 
modest,  humble  in  their  manner,  wise  and  sagacious, 
just  and  pious  in  their  sentiments,  polite  and  graceful,  as 
well  as  clear  and  strong  in  their  expression,  and  univer- 
sally acceptable  and  lovely  in  their  behavior,  endeavor 
to  impress  the  idea  of  all  these  upon  your  memory,  and 
treasure  them  up  for  your  imitation. 

XXX.  If  the  laws  of  reason,  decency,  and  civilitj',  have 
not  been  well  observed  amongst  your  associates,  take 
notice  of  those  defects  for  your  own  improvement: 
aiul  from  every  occurrence  of  this  kind  remark  something 
to  imitate  or  to  avoid,  in  elegant,  polite,  and  useful  con- 
versation. Perhaps  you  will  find  that  some  persons 
present  have  really  disi)leased  the  company,  by  an  ex- 
cessive and  too  visible  an  aifectation  to  please,  i.  e.,  by 
giving  loose  to  servile  flattery  or  promiscuous  praise ; 
while  others  were  as  ready  to  oppose  and  contradict 
every  thing  that  was  said.  Some  have  deserved  just  cen- 
sure for  a  morose  and  affected  taciturnity  ;  and  others 
have  been  anxious  and  careful  lest  their  silence  should 
be  interpreted  a  want  of  sense,  and  therefore  they  have 
ventured  to  make  speeches,  though  they  hud  nothing  to 
say  which  was  worth  hearing.  Perhaps  you  will  observe 
tliat  one  was  ingenious  in  his  thoughts  and  bright  in  his 
language,  but  he  was  so  topfnl  of  himself  that  he  let  it 
spill  on  all  the  company  ;  that  he  spoke  well,  indeed,  bnt 
that  he  spoke  too  long,  and  did  not  allow  equal  libeity 
or  time  to  his  associates.  You  will  remark  that  another 
was  full  charged,  to  let  out  his  words  before  his  friend 
had  done  speaking,  or  impatient  of  the  least  opposition 
to  any  thing  he  said.  You  will  reniciuber  that  some  per- 
sons have  talked  at  large,  and  with  great  confidence,  of 
things  which  they  understood  not,  and  others  counted 
every  thing  tedious  and  intolerable  that  wa.s  spoken  upon 


94  OF    DISPUTES    I\   CKNKRAL. 

subjects  out  of  their  s])liei<',  iiiid  tlicy  would  tUin  confine 
the  confereuee  entirely  witliiu  th<!  limits  of  Ihcir  own 
narrow  kn(/Wledge  au«l  study.  The  errors  of  conver- 
satiou  are  almost  infinite. 

XXXI.  By  a  revi(nv  of  such  irrcf^ularities  as  these, 
you  may  learn  to  avoid  those  follies  and  i)iec('S  of  ill 
TConduct  which  spoil  <;ood  convcrsatii>n,  or  make  it  less 
agreeable  and  less  useful  ;  and  by  degrees  you  will  ac- 
quire that  delightful  and  easy  manner  of  address  and 
behavior  in  all  useful  coi  lespondeiiccs,  which  may 
render  your  company  every  where  desired  and  be- 
loved ;  and  at  the  saiue  time,  among  the  best  of  your 
companions,  you  may  make  the  highest  improvement,  in 
your  own  intellectual  acquisitions. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF  DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

I.  Under  the  general  head  of  conversation  for  tjie 
improvement  of  the  mind,  we  may  rank  the  practice  of 
disputing  ;  that  is,  when  two  or  more  persons  ajipear 
to  maintain  ditferent  sentiments,  and  defend  their  own  or 
oppose  the  other's  opinion,  in  alternate  discourse,  by 
some  methods  of  argument. 

II.  As  these  disputes  often  arise  in  good  earnest,  where 
the  two  contenders  do  reallj-  believe  the  ditferent  proposi- 
tions which  they  support ;  so  sometimes  they  are  ap- 
pointed as  mere  trials  of  skill  in  academies  or  schools 
by  the  students  ;  sometimes  they  are  jjractices,  and  that 
with  apparent  fervor,  in  courts  of  judicature  b}- la wy el's, 
in  order  to  gain  the  fees  of  their  dili'erent  clients,  while 
both  sides  perhaps  are  really  of  the  same  sentiment  with 
regard  to  the  cause  which  is  tried. 


OF   DISPUTES  IN   GENERAL.  95 

TIT.  Til  common  convorsatiou  disputes  are  often 
managed  without  any  forms  of  regularity  or  order, 
ami  they  turn  to  good  or  evil  jjurposes,  cbiclly  aecuiding 
to  the  temper  of  disputants.  They  may  sometimes  be 
successful  to  search  out  truth,  sometimes  effectual  to 
maintain  truth  and  convince  the  nnstaken;  but  at  other 
times  a  dispute  is  a  mere  scene  of  battle  in  order  to  vic- 
tory and  vain  triumi)li. 

TV.  There  are  some  few  general  rules  which  should 
be  observed  in  all  debates  -whatsoever,  if  Ave  Muuld  liud 
out  truth  by  them,  or  convince  a  friend  of  his  error,  e\en 
though  they  be  not  managed  according  to  any  settled 
forms  of  disputation ;  and  as  there  are  almost  as  many 
opinions  and  judgments  of  things  as  there  are  persons, 
so  Avhen  several  persons  happen  to  meet  and  confer  to- 
gether upon  any  subject,  they  are  ready  to  declare  their 
different  sentiments,  and  support  them  by  such  reason- 
ings as  they  are  capable  of.  This  is  called  debating  or 
dispnting,  as  is  above  descriljed. 

V.  ^A^hen  persons  begin  a  debate  they  should  al- 
ways take  care  that  they  are  agreed  in  some  general 
principles  or  propositions,  Avhieh  either  more  nearly  or 
remotely  ali'ect  the  question  in  hand;  for  otherwise  they 
have  no  foundation  or  hope  of  convincing  each  other; 
they  must  have  some  conunon  ground  to  stand  upon, 
while  they  nmintain  the  contest. 

When  they  find  they  agree  in  some  remote  pro]iosi- 
tions,  then  let  them  search  farther,  and  inquire  how 
near  they  approach  to  each  other's  sentiments,  and 
whatsoever  propositions  they  agree  in,  let  these  lay  a 
foundation  for  the  ]uutual  hope  of  conviction.  Hereby 
you  Mill  be  prevented  from  running  at  every  turn  to 
some  original  and  remote  X)ropositions  and  axioms,  which 
practice  both  entangles  and  prolongs  dispute.  As  for 
instance,  if  there  was  a  debate  proi^osed  betwixt  a  Prot- 


90  OF    DIKPUTKH    IN   CJKNKUAL. 

<'sl:iti(  and  a  Papist,  wlicllicr  there  Ix-  such  a  phic^  as 
J*iirj;at()ry  ?  Let  them  i-eiiieiiil»er  that  they  hoth  a;;ree  in 
tliis  ])()int,  that  Christ  lias  ma<h;  satistaet  ion  or  atone- 
ment for  sin,  and  upon  this  j^ronnd  h-t  thein  stand,  while 
they  search  out  the  controv^erted  doctrine  of  ]*ur^atory 
by  "svay  of  (•(•nlVi-eiiee  or  dehate. 

YJ.  The  question  should  be  cleared  from  all  doubt- 
ful terms  and  needless  additions;  and  all  thinj^sthat  be- 
long to  the  question  should  l)e  expressed  in  plain  and  in- 
tellii^ible  lan_nua,<;e.  This  is  so  nee<'ssary  a  thini;,  that 
without  it  men  Avill  be  exposed  to  such  sort  of  ridiculous 
contests  as  were  found  one  day  between  the  two  anlearned 
combatants  Sartor  and  Sutor,  who  assaulted  and  de- 
fended the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  with  much 
zeal  and  violence;  but  Latino  hapi)enin.i;  to  come  into 
their  company  and  inquiring  the  subject  of  their  dispute, 
asked  each  of  them  what  he  meant  by  that  lon.cr  hard  word 
transubstantiation,  8utor  readily  informed  him  that  he 
understood — bowing  at  the  name  Jesus:  but  Sartor  as- 
sured him  that  he  meant  nothing  but  bowing  at  the  high 
altar,  "l^o  wonder,  then,"  said  Latino,  "that  you  can 
not  agree  when  you  neither  understand  one  another,  nor 
the  word  about  Avliich  you  contend/' 

I  think  the  wlink^  family  of  the  Sartors  and  Sutors  would  ho 
wiser  if  they  avoided  such  kind  of  debates  till  they  understood 
the  terms  better.  But  alas!  even  their  wives  carry  on  sueh 
conferenees:  the  other  day  one  was  heard  in  the  street  explain- 
ing to  her  less  learned  neighbor  the  meaning  of  nietaj^hysieal 
science;  and  she  assured  her,  that  as  physics  were  nu-dieines 
for  the  body,  so  metaphysics  were  physics  for  the  soul;  upon 
this  they  went  on  to  dispute  the  point — how  far  the  divine  ex- 
celled tiie  doctor. 

Auditum  admissi  risuTU  teneatis,  amici? 
Rideutem  dicere  verum  (]uid  vetat  ? 

Can  it  be  faulty  to  repeat 

A  dialogue  that  walk\l  the  street? 

Or  can  my  gravest  friends  forbear 

A  laugh,  when  sueh  disputes  they  hear  ? 


OF   DISPUTES   IX   GEXEE.VL.  97 

VTT.  And  not  only  the  sense  and  nieaninj:^  of  the  words 
nscd  in  the  qnestion  shonhl  be  setth'd  and  adjusted  I)e- 
tween  the  disputants,  but  the  precise  point  of  inquiry 
should  be  distinctly  fixed;  tlu?  (pii'stiou  in  debate 
slionld  l>e  limited  i)recisely  to  its  special  extent,  or  de- 
clared to  be  taken  in  its  more  general  sense.  This  sort 
of  specification  or  limitation  of  the  question  hinders 
and  prevents  the  disputants  from  wandering  away 
from  the  precise  point  of  inquiry. 

It  is  this  trifling  humor  or  dishonest  artifice  of 
changing  the  question  and  wandering  away  fn)m  the 
fiist  point  of  debate,  which  gives  endless  length  to  dis- 
putes and  causes  both  disputants  to  part  without  any 
satisfaction.  And  one  chief  occasion  of  it  is  this:  whiMi 
one  of  the  combatants  feels  his  cause  run  low  and  fail, 
and  is  just  ready  to  be  confuted  and  demolished,  he  is 
tempted  to  step  aside  to  avoid  the  blow,  and  betakes  him 
to  a  different  question  :  thus,  if  his  adversary  be  not  well 
aware  of  him,  he  begins  to  entrench  himself  in  a  new 
fastness,  and  holds  out  the  siege  with  :i  new  artillery  of 
thoughts  and  words.  It  is  the  pride  of  man  which  is  the 
sjiring  of  this  evil,  and  an  unwillingness  to  yield  up  their 
own  opinions  even  to  be  overcome  bj' truth,  itself. 

VIII.  Keep  this  always,  therefore,  upon  your  mind  as 
an  everlasting  rule  of  conduct  ii^  your  debates  to  find 
out  truth,  that  a  resolute  design,  or  even  a  warm  affec- 
tation of  victory,  is  the  bane  of  all  real  iiu[)ro\'eme:it, 
and  an  eff"ectual  bar  against  the  admission  of  the 
truth  which  you  profess  to  seek.  This  works  with  a 
secret,  but  a  powerful  and  mischievous  influenci'  in  every 
dispute,  unless  we  arc  much  upon  our  guard.  It  appi-ars 
in  frequent  conversation  ;  every  age,  every  sex,  and  each 
l)arty  of  mankind,  are  so  fond  of  being  in  the  rii;hl.  that 
they  know  not  how  to  renounce  this  unhappy  prejudice, 

this  vain  love  of  victorv. 
7 


98  OF   DISPUTKS   IN  GEKERAL. 

Wlinii  triitli  with  bi-ij^lit  ovidonce  is  roady  to  break  in 
upon  a  disputant,  and  lo  ovcn-oiue  his  objections  and 
mistakes,  how  swift  and  ready  is  the  mind  to  •■n;^a;;<; 
wit  and  fancy,  craft  and  subLlcly,  to  cloud  and  perplex 
and  puzzle  the  truth,  if  possible  !  How  ea<^cr  is  he  to 
tiirow  in  some  impertinent  (luestion  to  divert  fiom  the 
main  sul)ject!  How  swift  to  tak<?  hold  of  some  occa- 
sional word,  thereby  to  lead  the  discourse  off  from  the 
point  iu  hand  !  So  much  afraid  is  human  nature  of  part- 
ing with  its  errors  and  being  overcome  by  truth. 

Ju.st  thus  u  hunted  hare  calls  up  all  the  shifts  that  nature 
hath  taught  her  :  she  treads  back  lier  mazes,  crosses  and  eon- 
founds  her  former  track,  and  uses  all  possible  methods  to  di- 
vert the  scent,  when  she  is  in  danger  of  l)LMng  seized  and  taken. 
Let  puss  practice  what  nature  teai;hes ;  ijut  would  one  imagine 
that  any  rational  being  should  take  sucli  pains  to  avoid  truth 
and  to  escape  the  improvement  of  its  understanding? 

IX.  When  you  come  to  a  dispute  in  order  to  find  out 
truth,  do  not  presume  that  you  are  certainly  possessed 
of  it  beforehand.  Enter  the  debate  with  a  sincere 
design  of  yielding  to  reason,  on  which  side  soever  it 
appears.  Use  no  subtle  arts  to  cloud  and  entangle  the 
question;  hide  not  yourself  in  doubtful  words  anU 
phrases;  do  not  affect  little  shifts  and  subterfuges  to 
avoid  the  force  of  an  argument ;  take  a  generous 
pleasure  to  espy  the  first  rising  beams  of  truth,  though 
it  be  on  the  side  of  your  opponent ;  endeavor  to  remove 
the  little  obscurities  that  hang  about  it.  and  suffer  and 
encourage  it  to  break  out  into  open  and  convincing  light ; 
that  while  your  opponent  perhaps  may  gain  the  better 
of  your  reiisonings,  yet  you  yourself  may  triumph  over 
error ;  and  I  am  sure  that  is  a  much  more  valuable  acqui- 
sition and  victory. 

X.  \Vatch  narrowly  in  every  dispute,  that  your 
opponent  does  not  lead  you  unwarily  to  grant  some 
principle  of  the  proposition,  which  will  bring  with  it 


OF   DISPUTES   IN   GENERAL.  09 

a  fatal  consequence,  and  lead  you  insensibly  into  his 
sentiment,  though  it  be  far  astray  from  the  truth;  anil 
by  this  wrong  step  you  will  be,  as  it  were,  plunged  into 
dangerous  errors  before  you  are  awai-e. 

Remember  this  short  and  plain  caution  of  the  subtle 
errors  of  men.  Let  a  snake  but  once  thrust  in  Lis  head 
at  some  small  unguarded  fold  of  your  garment,  and  he 
will  insensibly  and  unavoidably  wind  his  whole  Ixxly 
into  your  bosom,  and  give  you  a  peiiiicions  wound. 

XI.  On  the  other  hand,  when  you  have  found  your 
opponent  make  any  such  concession  as  may  turn  to 
your  leal  advantage  in  maintaining  the  truth,  be  wise 
and  watchful  to  observe  it,  and  make  a  hapj)y  improve- 
ment of  it. 

XII.  When  you  are  engaged  in  a  dis])nte  with  a  per- 
son of  very  different  principles  from  yourself,  and  you 
can  not  find  any  ready  way  to  picvail  with  him  to 
embrace  the  truth  by  princii^les  which  you  ])()th  frei'ly 
acknowledge,  you  may  fairly  make  use  of  his  own 
principles  to  show  him  his  mistake,  and  thus  convince 
or  silencii  him  from  his  own  concessions. 

If  your  opponent  sliould  be  a  Stoic  philosopher  or  a  .Tew, 
you  may  ])ursue  your  argument  in  defense  of  some  Christian 
doctrine  or  duty  against  sueli  a  disputant,  by  axioms  or  laws 
borrowed  either  from  Zeno  or  Moses.  And  though  you  do  not 
enter  into  tiie  incjuiiy  how  many  of  the  laws  of  Mose.s  are  ab- 
rogated, or  wiu'ther  Zeno  was  right  or  wrongin  his  philosopiiy, 
yet  if  from  tlie  principles  and  concessions  of  your  (.pixment, 
you  can  sui)i)ort  your  argument  for  tlie  (Jospelof  ("iirist,  this 
has  l)een  always  counted  a  fair  treatment  of  an  adversary,  and 
it  is  eallt'd  (tr(/inii<iiti(in  <t(l  /loniiiK  in,  or  ratio  t  .r  co/icjssis.  St. 
I*aul  sometimes  makes  use  of  tliis  sort  of  disputation,  when  he 
tallvH  with  Jews  or  heathen  philosophers;  and  at  last  he 
silences  if  not  convinces  them  :  whicii  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  be  done  against  an  obstinate  and  clamorous  adversary,  tiiat 
just  honor  miglit  be  paid  to  truths  whieii  he  kiu'w  were  divine, 
and  tiiat  tlie  oidytrut'  doctrine  of  salvation  might  be  eonlirmed 
and  propagated  amimg  sinful  and  dying  men. 

XIII.  Yet  great   care   must    be   taken,  lest    your 


100  OF   DISPUTES  IN  GENERAL. 

debates  break  in  upon  your  passions,  and  awaken 
llu'iii  to  lake  pait  in  the  controveisy.  ^\'ll(•Il  tlie  oppo- 
nent ])Ms1ics  liaitl,  and  ^ives  jnst  and  mortal  wounds  to 
our  own  opinions,  our  i)assions  are  very  apt  to  ffcl  lln; 
strokes,  and  to  rise  in  resentment  and  defense.  Self  is 
so  mingled  with  the  sentiments  which  we  have  chosen, 
and  has  such  a  tender  feeling  of  all  the  opposition  which 
is  made  to  them,  that  personal  brawls  are  very  ready  to 
come  in  as  seconds,  to  succeed  and  finish  the  dispute  of 
opinions.  Then  noise,  and  clamor,  and  folly,  appear 
in  all  their  shapes,  and  chase  reason  and  truth  out  of 
sight. 

How  unhappy  is  the  case  of  frail  and  wretched  man- 
kind in  this  dark  or  dusky  state  of  strong  passion  and 
glimmering  reason !  How  ready  are  we,  when  our  pas- 
sions are  engaged  in  the  dispute,  to  consider  more  what 
loads  of  nonsense  and  reproach  we  can  lay  ui)on  our 
opponent,  than  what  reason  and  truth  require  in  the 
controversy  itself !  Dismal  are  the  consequences  man- 
kind are  too  often  involved  in  by  this  evil  principle;  it 
is  this  common  and  dangerous  i)raeli('e  that  carries  the 
heart  aside  from  all  that  is  fair  and  honest  in  our  search 
after  truth,  or  the  propagation  of  it  in  the  world. 
Happy  souls,  who  keep  such  a  sacred  dominion  over 
their  inferior  and  animal  powers,  and  all  the  influences 
of  pride  and  secular  interest,  that  the  sensitive  tumults, 
or  these  vicious  infiueuces,  never  rise  to  disturb  the 
superior  and  lietter  operations  of  the  reasoning  mind! 

XIV,  These  general  directions  are  necess;iry,  or  at 
least  useful,  in  all  debates  whatsoever,  whether  they 
arise  in  occasional  conversation,  or  are  api)ointed  at  any 
certain  time  or  place :  whether  they  are  managed  with  or 
without  any  formal  rules  to  govern  them. 


CHAPTER  X. 

OF  STUDY  OR  MEDITATION. 

I.  It  has  been  proved  and  establislied  in  some  of  the 
foregoing  chapters,  that  neither  our  own  observa- 
tions, nor  our  reading  the  labors  of  the  h^iriu'd,  nor 
the  altendance  on  tlic  best  lectures  of  instruction,  nor 
enjoying  the  brightest  conversation,  can  ever  make  a 
man  truly  knowing  and  wise,  "without  the  labors  of  his 
own  reason  in  surveying,  examining,  and  judging  con- 
cerning all  subjects  upon  the  best  evidence  he  can  ac- 
quire. A  good  genius,  or  sagacity  of  thought,  a  happy 
judgment,  a  capacious  memory,  and  large  opportunities 
of  observation  and  converse,  will  do  much  of  themselves 
towards  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  where  th(»y  are  well 
imjiroved;  but  where,  to  the  advantage  of  learned 
lecturers,  living  instructions,  and  well  chosen  books, 
diligence  and  study  are  superadded,  this  man  has  all 
human  aids  concurring  to  raise  him  to  a  superior  degree 
of  wisdom  and  knowledge. 

Under  the  preceding  heads  of  discourse  it  has  been  already  do- 
clarod  how  our  own  nioditation  and  reflection  should  examine, 
cuUivate,  aiul  iniprovf  all  othcT  lucthoils  and  advanlairc-*  of 
enriching  the  understamling.  What  winaiiis  in  this  chapter 
is  to  give  some  further  oeeaslona I  hints  jiow  to  employ  our  own 
thoughts,  Mhatsort  of  suhjeets  we  should  mi'ditate  on,  and  in 
what  manner  Me  shouM  regulate  our  studies,  and  liow  we  may 
imi)rove  our  juiigment,  so  as  in  the  most  ellectual  and  com- 
^K'udious  way  to  attain  such  knowledge  as  nuiy  l>e  most  usrlid 
for  every  man  in  his  circumstances  of  life,  and  particularly 
for  those  of  the  learned  professions. 

IT,  The  first  direction  for  youth  is  this — learn  be- 
times to  distinguish  between  ^vo^ds  and  things.  (»ct 
clear  and  plain  ideas  of  the  things  you  are  set  to  study. 

101 


102  OF  STUDY   OR   ^rKDITATIOX. 

Do  not  rontont  yourselves  witli  inorc  words  and  namos, 
lest  your  l:il)()re<l  iniprovenients  only  amass  a  lieai>  of 
iinintclli*j^ible  plinises,  and  you  feed  upon  husks  instead 
of  kernels.     This  rule  is  of  unknown  use  in  every  seienee. 

III.  Let  not  your  students  apply  themselves  to 
search  out  deep,  dark,  and  abstruse  matters,  far 
above  their  reach,  or  spend  their  labor  in  any  peculiar 
subjects,  for  which  they  have  not  the  advantaj^es  of 
necessary  antecedent  learning,  or  books,  or  observations. 
Let  them  not  be  too  hasty  to  know  things  above  their 
present  powers,  nor  plunge  their  inquiries  at  once  into 
the  depths  of  knowledge,  nor  begin  to  study  any  science 
in  the  middle  of  it ;  this  will  confound  rather  than  en- 
lighten the  understanding ;  such  practices  may  happen  to 
discourage  and  jade  the  mind  l)y  an  attempt  above  its 
power;  it  may  balk  the  understanding,  and  create  an 
aversion  to  future  diligence,  and  perhaps  by  despair 
may  forbid  the  joursuit  of  that  subject  forever  afterwards: 
as  a  limb  overstrained  hy  lifting  a  weight  above  its  power 
may  never  recover  its  former  agility  and  vigor ;  or  if 
it  does,  the  man  may  be  frighted  from  ever  exerting  its, 
strength  again. 

IV.  Nor  yet  let  any  student,  on  the  other  hand, 
fright  himself  at  every  turn  with  insurmountable 
difficulties,  nor  imagine  that  the  truth  is  wrapt  up  in 
impenetrable  darkness.  These  are  formidable  specters 
which  the  understanding  raises  sometimes  to  flatter  its 
own  laziness.  Those  things  which  in  a  remote  and  con- 
fused view  seem  very  obscure  and  perplexed  may  be  ap- 
proached by  gentle  and  regular  steps,  and  may  then  un- 
fold and  explain  themselves  at  large  to  the  eye.  The 
hardest  problems  in  geometry,  and  the  most  intricate 
schemes  or  diagrams,  may  be  explicated  and  understood 
step  by  step;  every  great  mathematician  bears  a  constant 
witness  to  the  observation. 


OF  STUDY  OK   :MEDTTATI0N-.  lO.'i 

V.  In  learning  any  new  thing,  there  should  be  as 
little  as  possible  first  proposed  to  the  mind  at  once, 
and  that  being  understood  and  fully  mastered,  i)roc('ed 
then  to  the  next  adjoininij,-  i)art  yet  unknown.  This  is  a 
slow,  but  safe  and  sure  way  to  arrive  at  knowledge.  If 
the  mind  apply  itself  at  first  to  easier  subjects,  and  things 
near  akin  to  what  is  already  known,  and  then  advance  to 
the  more  remote  and  knotty  parts  of  knowledge  by  slow 
degrees,  it  would  be  able  in  this  manner  to  cope  with 
great  difficulties,  and  prevail  over  them  with  amazing 
and  happy  success. 

INlathon  liapponcMl  to  dip  into  the  last  two  chapters  of  a  now 
book  of  f^e()]m>try  and  mensuration  as  soon  as  he  saw  it,  and 
was  frisjhtened  witli  tlie  eomjilicated  diagrams  whieh  he  found 
tiK'i-(>,  ai)<)Ut  tlie  frustums  of  cones  and  pyramids,  et<-.,  and 
some  deep  demonstrations  among  conic  sections;  he  shut  the 
book  again  in  despair  and  imagined  none  but  a  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  wasever  tit  (oread  it.  Jiut  his  tutor  happily  persuaded 
liini  to  begin  tlie  tirst  pagi's  about  lines  and  an.iihs;  juid  he 
found  such  surprising  pleasure  in  three  weeks'  time  in  the 
victories  he  daily  ol)tained,  that  at  last  he  became  one  of  the 
chief  geometers  of  his  age. 

VI.  Engage  not  the  mind  in  the  intense  pursuit  of 
too  many  things  at  once  ;  especially  such  as  have  no 
relation  to  one  another.  This  will  be  ready  to  distract 
the  understanding  and  hinder  it  from  attaining  perfec- 
tion in  any  one  subject  of  study.  Snch  a  practice  gives 
a  slight  smattering  of  several  sciences,  without  any  soli«l 
and  substantial  knowledge  of  them,  and  without  any  real 
and  valuable  improvement;  and  though  two  or  three  sorts 
of  study  may  be  usefully  carried  on  at  once,  to  entertain 
th(i  mind  with  varietj^,  that  it  may  not  be  overtire(l  with 
one  sort  of  thoughts,  yet  a  multitude  of  subjects  will  lo  > 
much  distract  the  attention  and  weaken  the  application 
of  the  mind  to  any  one  of  them. 

Where  two  or  three  sciences  are  pursued  at  the  same 
time,  if  one  of  them  be  dry,  abstracted,  and  unpleasant, 


104  OF   STUDY   OK    MI'DITATIOX. 

as  lo.uic,  motapliysics,  law,  lanj;naf;os,  let  ariotlir'rbomore 
entertaining^  and  aj^reeable,  to  .secrurii  tli<'  niiixl  Irorn 
weariness  and  aversion  to  study.  Delight  should  be  in- 
termingled with  labor  as  far  as  possible,  to  allnre  as 
to  bear  tlu;  faiit,nie  of  dry  studies  the  l^etter.  Poetry, 
praetieal  matliematies,  liLstory,  etc.,  are  generally  es- 
teemed entertaining  studies  and  may  be  happily  used  for 
this  j)urpose.  ThiLS  while  we  relieve  a  dull  and  heavy 
hour  by  some  alluring  employments  of  the  mind,  our  very 
diversions  enrieh  our  uuderstandiugs,  and  our  pleasure 
is  turned  to  profit. 

YII.  In  the  pursuit  of  every  valuable  subject  of  knowl- 
edge, keep  the  end  always  in  your  eye,  and  be  not  di- 
verted from  it  by  every  petty  tritle  you  meet  with  in  the 
way.  Some  persons  have  such  a  wandering  genius  that 
they  are  ready  to  pursue  every  incidental  theme  or  occa- 
sional idea,  till  they  have  lost  sight  of  the  original  sub- 
ject. These  are  the  men  who,  Mhon  they  are  eng-aged  in 
conversation,  prolong  their  story  by  dwelling  on  every 
incident,  and  swell  their  narrative  with  long  parentheses, 
till  they  have  lost  their  first  designs  ;  like  a  man  who  is, 
sent  in  quest  of  some  great  treasure,  but  he  steps  aside  to 
gather  every  flower  he  finds,  or  stands  still  to  dig  up 
every  shining  pebble  he  meets  with  in  his  way,  till  the 
treasure  is  forgotten  and  never  found. 

YIII.  Exert  your  care,  skill,  and  diligence,  about 
every  subject  and  every  question,  in  a  just  propor- 
tion to  the  importance  of  it,  together  with  the  danger 
and  bad  consequences  of  ignorance  or  error  therein. 
Many  excellent  advantages  flow  from  this  one  direction, 

1.  This  rule  will  teach  you  to  be  very  careful  in  gaining 
some  genei'al  and  fundamental  truth  in  philosophy,  and 
religion,  and  in  human  life ;  because  they  are  of  the 
highest  moment,  and  conduct  our  thoughts  with  ease  into 
a  thousand  inferior  and  particular  propositions. 


OF   STUDY   OR   MEDITATION'.  105 

2,  This  rule  will  direct  lis  to  be  more  careful  about 
jyractical  points  tluiii  more  speculations,  since  they  are 
commonly  of  much  gieater  use  and  conseiiuiMUH^ 

3,  In  matters  of  practice  Ave  should  be  most  careful  to 
fix  our  end  right,  aud  wisely  to  determine  the  scope  at 
which  we  aim,  because  that  is  to  diicct  us  in  the  choice 
and  use  of  all  the  means  to  attain  it.  If  our  end  be  wnjug, 
all  our  labor  in  the  means  will  be  vain,  or  perhaps  so 
much  the  more  pernicious  as  they  are  better  suited  to  at- 
tain that  mistaken  end.  If  mere  sensible  pleasure,  or 
human  j^randeur,  or  wealth,  be  our  chief  end,  Ave  shall 
choose  means  contrary  to  piety  and  viitue,  and  proceed 
apace  towards  real  misery. 

4.  This  rule  will  euG^ajje  our  best  powers  and  deepest  at- 
tention in  the  affairs  of  reliffion,  and  things  that  relate  to  a 
future  world  :  for  those  propositions  Avhich  extend  only 
to  the  interest  of  the  present  life,  are  but  of  small  im- 
portance when  compared  with  those  that  have  influence 
upon  our  cverlastinjjj  concernments. 

5.  And  even  in  the  alfairs  of  religion,  if  Ave  walk  by 
the  conduct  of  this  rule,  Ave  shall  be  much  more  laborious 
ill  our  inquiries  into  the  necessary  and  fundamental 
articles  of  faith  and  practice,  than  the  lesser  appendices  of 
Christianity.  The  great  doctrines  of  lopentance  towards 
God,  faith  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Avilh  love  to  men, 
and  universal  holiness,  will  employ  our  best  and  brightest 
hours  and  meditations,  Avhile  the  mint,  anise,  and  cum- 
min, the  gestures,  and  vestures,  and  fringes  of  religion, 
will  be  regarded  no  farther  than  they  lune  a  plain  an<l 
evident  connection  with  faith  and  love,  Avith  holiness  and 
peace. 

G.  This  rule  Avill  mak(^  us  solicitous  not  only  to  avoid 
such  errors,  Avhose  inlluence  Avould  spread  Avide  into  the 
Avhole  scheme  of  our  own  knoAvledgo  and  ])ractice,  but 
(fuch  mistakes  also  Avhose  influence  Avould  be  yet  more  ex- 


106  OF   STUDY    OR    MrDITATIOX. 

lonsivc  and  injurious  to  othrrs  as  woll  as  to  ourselves :  per- 
haps to  many  jxTSonsorniany  families,  to  a  \vlM)loehnicli, 
a  town,  a  country,  or  a  kin^Mlom.  Upon  this  account, 
l)crHons  who  are  called  to  instruct  others,  who  are  raised 
to  any  eminence  either  in  Church  or  State,  ouj^ht  to  be 
careful  in  settling  theii-  jninciples  in  matteis  relatinj^  to 
the  civil,  the  moral,  or  the  relijiious  life,  lest  a  mistake 
of  theiis  should  diffuse  wide  mischief,  should  draw  along 
with  it  most  pernicious  consequences,  and  perhaps  ex- 
tend to  following  generations. 

These  are  some  of  the  advantages  which  arise  from  the 
eighth  rule,  viz.:  Pursue  e\ery  inquiry  and  studj-  in  pro- 
portion to  its  real  value  and  importance. 

IX.  Have  care  lest  some  beloved  notion,  or  some 
darling  science,  so  far  prevail  over  your  mind  as  to  give 
a  sovereign  tincture  to  all  your  other  studies  and 
discolor  all  your  ideas,  like  a  person  in  the  jaundice,  who 
spreads  a  yellow  scene  with  his  eyes  over  all  the  objects 
which  he  meets.  I  have  known  a  man  of  peculiar  skill  in 
music,  and  much  devoted  to  that  science,  who  found  out 
a  great  resemblance  of  the  Athanasian  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  in  every  single  note,  and  he  thought  it  carried  ' 
something  of  argument  in  it  to  prove  that  doctrine.  I 
have  read  of  another  who  accommodated  the  seven  days 
of  the  first  week  of  creation  to  seven  notes  of  music,  and 
thus  the  whole  creation  became  harmonious. 

Under  this  influence,  derived  from  mathematical 
studies,  some  have  been  tempted  to  ca.st  all  their  logical, 
their  metaphysical,  and  their  theological  and  moral 
learning  into  the  method  of  mathematicians,  and  bring 
every  thing  relating  to  those  abstracted,  or  those  prac- 
tical sciences,  under  theorems,  problems,  postulates, 
scholiums,  corollaries,  etc.,  whereas,  the  matter  ought 
always  to  direct  the  method  ;  for  all  subjects  or  matters 
of  thought  can  not  be  moulded  or  subdued  to  one  form. 


OF  PTITDY   on   MEDlTATfON.  107 

Neither  the  rules  for  the  conduct  of  the  understanding, 
nor  the  doctrines  nor  duties  of  reli.2:ion  and  virtue,  can 
be  exhibited  naturally  in  fi^^ures  and  dia;:;rams.  Things 
are  to  be  considered  as  they  are  in  themselves;  their  na- 
tures are  inflexible,  and  their  natm-al  relations  unalter- 
able ;  and  therefore,  in  order  to  conceive  them  aright,  we 
must  bring  our  understanding  to  things,  and  nctt  pretend 
to  bend  and  strain  things  to  compcjrt  with  our  fancies 
and  forms. 

X.  Suffer  not  any  .beloved  study  to  prejudice  your 
mind  so  far  in  favor  of  it  as  to  despise  all  other  learn- 
ing. This  is  a  fault  of  some  little  souls,  who  have  got  a 
smattering  of  astronomy,  chemistrj^,  metaphysics,  his- 
tory, etc.,  and  for  want  of  a  due  acquaintance  with  other 
sciences,  make  a  scolf  at  them  all  in  comparison  of  their 
favorite  science.  Their  understandings'are  hereby  cooped 
up  in  narroAV  l>oun<ls,  so  that  they  never  look  abroad  into 
other  provinces  of  the  intellectual  world,  Mhich  are  more 
beautiful,  i)erhaps,  and  more  fruitful  than  their  own  :  if 
they  would  search  a  little  into  other  sciences,  they  might 
not  only  liiid  treasures  of  new  knowledge,  but  might  be 
furnished  also  with  rich  hints  of  tliought  and  glorious 
assistances  to  cultivate  that  very  province  to  which  they 
have  confined  themselves. 

XL  Let  every  particular  study  have  due  and 
proper  time  assigned  it,  and  let  not  a  favorite  science 
prevail  with  you  to  lay  out  such  hours  upon  it,  as  ought, 
to  be  employed  upon  the  more  necessaiy  and  more  impor- 
tant affairs  or  studies  of  yoUr  profession.  When  you  have, 
according  to  the  best  of  your  discretion,  and  aecordini: 
to  the  circumstances  of  your  lite,  fixed  i>roj»ei  hours  for 
particular  studies,  endeavor  to  Ueei)  to  liiosr  luh-s  ;  not 
indeed,  with  a  superstitious  i)i-eeisene.;s,  but  with  some 
good  degrees  of  a  regular  constancy.  Order  and  method 
in  a  course  of  study  saves  much  time  and  makes  largo 


108  OF  sTrnv  or  mkditatiox. 

iiiiproveinents.  Su<-li  :i  li\;itioii  of  fs-rtairi  liours  will 
h;i\c  a  ]i;ii)py  induciicc,  to  secure  you  IVoiu  trilling;  and 
"wasting  away  your  iniuutt-s  iu  iiajxTtincncc. 

XII.  Do  not  apply  yourself  to  any  one  study  at 
one  time  longer  than  the  mind  is  capable  of  giving  a 
close  attention  to  it  williout  weaiiucss  or  wandt-iing. 
1)0  uot  overfatigue  the  spirits  at  any  time,  lest  the 
mind  be  seized  with  a  hissitude,  and  thereby  be  tempted 
to  nauseate  and  grow  tired  of  a  particular  suljject  before 
you  have  finished  it. 

XIII.  In  the  beginning  of  your  application  to  any 
newsubjeetbe  not  too  uneasy  under  present  difficulties 
that  occur,  nor  too  importunate  and  impatient  for  answers 
and  solutions  to  any  questions  that  arise.  Perhaps  a 
little  more  study,  a  little  further  "acquaintance  with  the 
subject,  a  little  time  and  experience  will  solve  those 
difficulties,  untie  the  knot,  and  make  your  doul)ts 
vanish  :  esiiccially  if  you  are  under  the  instruction  of  a 
tutor,  he  can  inform  you  that  your  inquiries  are  i)erhaps 
too  early,  and  that  you  have  not  yet  learned  those  prin- 
ciples upon  which  the  solution  of  such  a  difficulty 
depends. 

XIY.  Do  not  expect  to  arrive  at  certainty  in  every 
subject  which  you  pursue.  There  are  a  hundred  things 
wherein  we  mortals  in  this  dark  and  imperfect  state  miLSt 
be  content  with  probability,  where  our  best  light  and 
reasonings  will  reach  no  farther,  ^^'e  must  balance  argu- 
ments as  justly  as  we  can,  and  where  we  can  not  find 
weight  enough  on  either  side  to  determine  the  scale  with 
sovereign  force  and  assurance,  we  must  content  ourselves, 
perhaps,  with  a  small  preponderation.  This  will  give  us 
a  probable  opinion,  and  those  probabilities  are  sullicient 
for  the  dailj^  det-umination  of  a  thousand  actions  in 
humau  life,  and  mary  times  even  in  matters  of  religion. 

It  is  admirably  well  expressed  by  a  late  writer — 


OF  STUDY   OR  MEDITATION.  109 

"When  there  is  a  great  strength  of  argument  set  before 
lis,  if  we  will  refuse  to  do  what  appears  most  fit  for  us, 
till  every  little  objection  is  removed,  we  shall  never  take 
one  wise  resolution  as  long  as  Me  live." 

Suppose  I  had  been  honestly  and  long  searching  what 
religion  I  should  choose,  and  yet  I  could  not  lind  that  1  he 
argument  in  defense  of  Christianity  arose  to  c<)ni])lele 
certainty,  but  went  only  so  far  as  to  give  me  a  probable 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  it :  though  many  dilliculties  still 
remain,  yet  I  should  think  myself  obliged  to  receive  and 
practice  that  religion  ;  for  the  God  of  nature  and  reason 
has  bound  us  to  assent  and  act  according  to  the  best  evi- 
dence we  have,  even  though  it  be  not  absolute  and  com- 
plete, and  as  lie  is  our  Supreme  Judge,  His  abounding 
goodness  and  equity  will  apj^rove  and  acquit  the  man 
whose  conscience  honestly  and  willingly  seeks  the  best 
light   and  obeys  it  as  far  as  he  can  discover  it. 

But  in  matters  of  great  importance  in  religion,  let  him 
join  all  due  diligence  with  earnest  and  humble  prayers 
for  divine  aid  in  his  inciuiries;  such  pi-aycr  and  such 
diligence  as  eternal  concerns  require,  and  such  as  he  may 
plead  with  courage  betoie  the  Judge  of  all. 

XV.  Endeavor  to  apply  every  speculative  study  as 
far  as  possible,  to  some  practical  use,  that  both  your- 
self and  others  may  be  the  Ijctter  for  it.  Jn(|uiries  vwn 
in  natural  jjliilosophy  should  not  be  mere  amusement, 
and  much  less  in  the  atl'aiis  of  religion.  Kesearchcsinto 
the  springs  of  natural  bodies  and  their  motions  should 
lead  men  to  invent  h:ii)py  methods  for  the  ease  and  con- 
venience of  human  life  ;  or  at  least  they  should  be  im- 
proved to  awaken  us  to  admire  the  wondrous  wisdom 
and  contrivances  of  God  our  creator  in  all  the  works  of 
Nature. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

OF   FIXING   THE   ATTENTION. 

I.  A  Student  should  labor,  by  all  proper  methods, 
to  acquire  a  steady  fixation  of  thought.  Attention  is 
a  very  necessary  tliini;-  in  order  to  improve  our  minds. 
The  evidence  of  trutli  does  not  always  appear  immedi- 
ately, nor  shike  the  soul  at  first  si^lit.  It  is  by  long 
attention  and  ins])ection  that  we  arriv<>  at  evidence,  and 
it  is  for  want  of  it  we  judge  falsely  of  many  things.  AVe 
make  haste  to  determine  upon  a  slight  and  a  sudden 
view,  we  confirm  our  guesses  which  arise  from  a  glance, 
we  pass  a  judgment  while  we  have  l)ut  a  confused  or 
obscure  perception,  and  thus  i)lunge  ourselves  into  mis- 
takes. This  is  like  a  man  who,  walking  in  a  mist,  or 
being  at  a  great  distance  from  any  visible  object  (sup- 
pose a  tree,  a  man,  a  horse,  or  a  church, )  judges  nuich 
amiss  of  the  figure,  and  situation,  and  colors  of  it.  and^ 
sometimes  takes  one  for  the  other;  whereas,  if  he  would 
but  withhold  his  judgment  till  he  came  nearer  to  it.  or 
stay  till  clearer  light  comes,  and  then  would  fix  his  eyes 
longer  upon  it,  he  would  secure  himself  from  those 
mistakes. 

II.  Now,  in  order  to  gain  a  greater  facility  of  atten- 
tion, we  may  observe  these  rules : 

1.  Get  a  good  liking  to  the  stiidi/  of  knoxdedge  you  icoidd 
pursue.  AVe  may  observe,  that  there  is  not  mucli  dilti- 
culty  in  confining  the  mind  to  contemplate  what  we  have 
a  great  desire  to  know  ;  and  especially  if  they  are  mattei's 
of  sense,  or  ideas  which  paint  themselves  upon  the 
fancy.  It  is  but  acquiring  a  hearty  good  will  and  reso- 
lution to  search  out  and  survey  the  various  properties 


OF    FIXING   THE   ATTENTION.  HI 

and  parts  of  such  objects,  and  our  attention  Mill  be 
engaged,  if  there  be  any  delight  or  diversion  in  the 
study  or  contemplation  of  tlicni.  Thcieforo.  mathrmaiical 
studies  have  a  strange  influence  towards  lixing  (lie  atten- 
tion of  the  mind  and  giving  a  steadiness  to  a  wandering 
disposition,  because  they  ileal  much  in  lines,  figures,  and 
numbers,  which  affect  and  please  the  sense  and  imagina- 
tion. Histories  have  a  strong  tendency  the  same  way, 
for  they  engage  the  soul  by  a  variety  of  sensibh^  occur- 
rences ;  when  it  hath  begun,  it  knows  not  how  to  leave 
ofl';  it  longs  to  know  the  final  event,  through  a  natural 
curiosity  that  belongs  to  mankind.  Voyages  and  travels, 
and  accounts  of  strange  countries  and  strange  appear- 
ances, will  assist  in  this  work.  This  sort  of  study 
detains  the  mind  by  the  perpetual  occurrence  and  expec- 
tation of  something  new,  and  that  which  may  gratefully 
strike  the  imagination. 

2.  Sometimes  we  may  maJce  use  of  sensible  things  and 
corporeal  images  for  the  illustration  of  those  notions, 
which  are  more  abstracted  and  intellectual.  Therefore, 
diagrams  greatly  assist  the  mind  in  astronomy  and 
philosophy;  and  the  emblems  of  virtues  and  vices  may 
happily  teach  children,  and  pleasingly  impress  those 
useful  moral  ideas  on  young  minds,  which  perhaps  might 
be  conveyed  to  them  with  much  more  diflQculty  by  mere 
moral  and  abstracted  discourses. 

I  confopp,  in  this  practice  of  representing  moral  sulijeets  by 
pictuns,  wo  should  be  cautious  h'st  wi"  so  far  iniuursc  llu- 
mind  in  corporeal  iniajiis,  as  to  render  it  inifit  to  take  in  an 
abstracted  and  intellectual  idea,  or  C!)U*^e  it  to  form  wrong  con- 
ceptions of  immaterial  things.  Tliis  i)ractice,  thert^forc,  is 
rather  to  be  used  at  first,  in  order  to  get  a  fixed  habit  of  atten- 
tion, and  in  some  eases  only  ;  but  it  can  never  be  our  constant 
way  and  method  of  pursuing  all  moral,  abstracted,  and 
spiritual  themes. 

3.  Api)ly  yourself  to  those  studies,  and  nad  those 
authors  who  draw  out  their  subjects  into  a  perpetual  chain  of 


112  OF   FIXING   Tin:   ATTENTION. 

connected  reawnhu/.s,  wlicreiu  Uw,  foUowiii;^  parts  of  the 
discourse  are  naturally  and  easily  derived  from  those 
wliich  fjo  bef<)n\  Several  of  tln^  niatlu'iiiatical  sciences, 
if  not  all,  are  ha])i)ily  useful  for  this  jmrpose.  This  will 
render  the  labor  of  study  delij^htful  to  a  rational  mind, 
and  will  fix  the  powers  of  the  understandinj^  with  stronj^ 
attention  to  their  proper  operations  by  the  very  pleasure 
of  it.  Labor  ipne  i-ohiptas  is  a  happy  proposition  where- 
soever it  can  be  applied. 

4.  Do  not  choose  your  constant  place  of  stiuly  by  the  finery 
of  the  jyrospects,  or  the  most  various  and  entertaining 
scenes  of  sensible  things.  Too  much  light,  or  a  variety 
of  objects  which  strike  the  eye  or  the  ear,  especially 
while  they  are  ever  in  motion  or  often  changing,  have  a 
natural  and  powerful  tendency  to  steal  away  the  mind 
too  often  from  its  steady  pursuit  of  any  subject  which 
we  contemplate ;  and  thereby  the  soul  gets  a  ha1)it  of 
silly  curiosity  and  impertinence,  of  trilling  and  wan- 
dering. 

Va.scario  thoujjht  liiin:=*olf  furnished  with  tlio  best  closet  for 
his  studies  among  the  beauties,  gaieties,  and  divei*sions  of  Ken- 
sington or  Hampton  Court  ;  but  after  seven  years  professing  tQ 
pursue  learning,  he  was  a  mere  novice  still. 

5.  Be  not  in  too  much  haste  to  come  to  the  determination 
of  a  difficult  or  important  point.  Think  it  worth  your 
waiting  to  find  out  truth.  Do  not  give  your  assent  up  to 
either  side  of  a  ciuestion  too  soon,  merely  on  this  account, 
that  the  study  of  it  is  long  and  difficult.  Eather  be  con- 
tented with  ignorance  for  a  season,  and  continue  in  sus- 
pense till  your  attention,  and  meditation,  and  due  labor, 
have  found  out  sufficient  evidence  on  one  side.  Some 
are  so  fond  to  know  a  great  deal  at  once,  and  love  to  talk 
of  things  with  freedom  and  Ixildness  before  they  truly 
understand  them,  that  they  scarcely  ever  allow  them- 
selves attention  enough  to  search  the  matter  through  and 
through. 


OF   FIXING   THE    ATTENTIOX.  113 

G.  Have  a  care  of  indulging  the  more  sensnal  passions  and 
appetites  of  animal  nature;  they  are  great  enemies  to 
attention.  Let  not  the  mind  of  a  shident  be  untler  the 
influence  of  any  -svarm  alfeotion  to  things  of  sense,  when 
he  comes  to  engage  in  the  search  of  truth  or  the  im- 
provement of  his  understanding.  A  person  under  the 
l^ower  of  love,  or  fear,  or  anger,  great  pain,  or  deep 
sorrow,  hath  so  little  government  of  his  soul,  that  he 
can  not  keep  it  attentive  to  the  proper  su])ject  of  liis 
meditation.  The  passions  call  away  the  thoughts  with 
incessant  importunity  towards  the  object  that  excited 
them  ;  and  if  we  indulge  the  frequ<'nt  rise  and  roAing  of 
passions,  we  shall  thereby  procure  an  unsteady  and 
unaftentive  habit  of  mind. 

Yet  this  one  exception  must  be  admitted,  viz. :  If  we 
can  be  so  happy  as  to  engage  any  passion  of  the  soiil  on 
the  side  of  the  particular  study  which  we  are  pursuing, 
it  may  have  great  influence  to  fix  the  attention  more 
strongly  to  it. 

7.  It  is,  therefore,  very  useful  to  Jix  and  engage  the 
mind  in  the  j^ursuit  of  any  study  by  a  consideration  of  the 
dirine  jjh-asures  of  truth  and  knowledge — by  a  sense  of  our 
duty  to  God — by  a  delight  in  the  exercise  of  our  intel- 
lectual faculties — by  the  hope  of  future  service  to  our 
fellow  creatures,  and  glorious  advantage  to  ourselves 
both  in  this  world  and  that  which  is  to  come.  These 
Ihouglits,  though  they  may  move  our  aflections,  yet  they 
do  it  with  a  proper  influence :  these  will  rather  assist  and 
promote  our  attention,  than  disturb  or  divert  it  from  the 
subject  of  our  present  and  ])roper  meditations. 

A  soul  inspired  with  the  fondest  love  of  truth   and 

the  warmest  aspirations  after  sincere  felicity  and  celestial 

beatitude,  will  keep  all  its  powers   attentive  to  the 

incessant  ])ursuit  of  tliem  :  passion  is  then  refined  and 

consecrated  to  its  divinest  purposes.  i 

8 


CHAPTER  XII. 

OF  ENLARGING  THE   CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND. 

There  are  three  things  which  in  an  cspcoial  nianiior 
go  to  make  up  that  ampUtude  or  capacity  of  mind 
which  is  one  of  the  noblest  characters  belonging  to  the 
understanding. 

1.  When  the  mind  is  ready  to  take  in  great  and  sublime  ideas 
icithout  pain  or  diffirnltij. 

2.  When  the  mind  is  free  to  reeeive  new  and  strange  ideas, 
upon  just  evidence,  without  great  surprise  or  aversion. 

3.  When  the  mind  is  able  to  conecive  or  survey  many  ideas 
at  once  without  eonfusion,  and  to  form  a  true  judgment  de- 
rived from  that  extensive  survey. 

The  person  who  wants  either  of  these  characters  may, 
in  that  respect,  be  said  to  have  a  narrow  genius.  Let  us 
diffnse  our  meditations  a  little  upon  this  subject. 

I.  That  is  an  ample  and  capacious  mind  which  is' 
ready  to  take  in  vast  and  sublime  ideas  without  pain 
or  difficulty.  Persons  who  have  never  been  used  to 
convei'se  with  any  thing  but  the  common,  little,  and 
obvious  affairs  of  life,  have  acquired  such  a  narrow  or 
contracted  habit  of  soul,  that  they  are  not  able  to  stretch 
their  intellects  wide  enough  to  admit  large  and  noble 
thoughts ;  thi'v  are  ready  to  make  their  domestic,  daily, 
and  familiar  images  of  things  the  measure  of  all  that  is, 
and  all  that  can  be. 

II.  I  proceed  now  to  consider  the  next  thing  wherein 
the  cai:)acity  or  amplitude  of  the  mind  consists,  and  that 
is,  when  the  mind  is  free  to  receive  new  and  strange 
ideas  and  propositions  upon  just  evidence  witliout 
any  great  surprise  or  aversion.     Those  who  confine  them- 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  :NrTND.  115 

selves  within  the  circle  of  their  own  hereditary  ideas  and 
opinions,  and  who  never  give  themselves  leave  so  much 
as  to  examine  or  believe  any  thing  besides  the  dictates 
of  their  own  family,  or  sect,  or  party,  are  jnstly  eharjicd 
with  a  narrowness  of  sonl.  Let  ns  sni-vey  some  in- 
stances of  this  imperfection,  and  then  direct  to  the 
cure  of  it. 

1.  Persons  who  have  been  bred  up  all  their  days  tciihin  the 
smoJie  of  their  father\s  chimney,  or  within  the  liniits  of  tlieir 
native  town  or  village,  are  surprised  at  every  new  sight 
that  appears,  when  they  travel  a  few  miles  from  home. 

This  narrowness  of  mind  should  be  cured  by  hearing 
and  reading  of  accounts  of  ditl'erent  ixirts  of  the  workl, 
and  the  histories  of  past  ages,  and  of  nations  and  coun- 
tries distant  from  our  own,  especially  the  more  polite 
parts  of  mankind.  K'othing  tends  in  this  respect  so 
much  to  enlarge  the  mind  as  traveling,  i.  e.,  making  a 
visit  to  other  towns,  cities,  or  countries,  besides  those  in 
which  we  were  born  and  educated;  and  where  our  con- 
dition of  life  does  not  grant  us  this  privilege,  we  must 
endeavor  to  supply  the  want  of  it  by  books. 

2.  It  is  the  Srtwe  narroicness  of  mind  that  awakens  the 
surprise  and  aversion  of  some  jycrsons,  when  they  hear  <>)f 
doctrines  and  schemes  in  human  affairs,  or  in  religion, 
quite  different  from  what  they  have  embiaced.  Perhaps 
they  have  been  trained  vp  from  their  infancy  in  one  set  of 
notions,  and  their  thoughts  have  been  confined  to  one 
single  track  both  in  the  civil  or  religious  life,  without 
ever  hearing  or  knowing  what  other  opinions  are  cm-rent 
among  mankind:  or  at  least  they  have  seen  all  oilier 
notions  besides  their  own  represented  in  a  false  and 
malignant  light;  whereupon  thej^  judge  and  condemn 
at  once  every  sentiment  but  what  their  own  party  re- 
ceives; and  they  think  it  a  ])iece  of  justice  and  truth  to 
lay  heavy  censures  upon  the  practice  of  every  sect   in 


IK)  OF  i:xi.AHr,ixf;  the 

( 'hiistiniiity  or  polil  ics.  They  liiivc;  so  rootod  tliom  solves 
in  the  opiuioiis  ofllirir  parly,  that  they  cau  nut  liear  an 
objection  with  patience,  nor  can  they  bear  a  vindication, 
or  so  much  as  an  apolo^Q',  for  any  set  of  j)rin(;ij)h'S  l>esi«le 
their  own;  all  the  rest  is  nonsense  or  heresy,  lolly  or 
blas[)heniy. 

This  defect  also  is  to  be  relieved  by  free  conversation 
with  persons  of  different  sentiments  :  this  will  teach  us 
to  Ijear  with  patience  a  defense  of  opinions  contrary  to 
our  own.  If  we  are  scholars,  we  should  also  read  the 
objecfeious  against  our  own  tenets  and  view  the  prin- 
ciples of  other  parties,  as  they  are  represented  in  their 
own  authors,  and  not  merely  in  the  citations  of  those 
who  would  confute  them,  '\^'e  should  take  an  honest 
and  unbiased  survey  of  the  force  of  reasoning  on  all 
sides,  and  bring  all  to  the  test  of  unprejudiced  reasoning 
and  divine  revelation.  Kote,  this  is  not  to  be  done  in  a 
rash  and  self-sufficient  manner;  but  with  an  humble  de- 
l>endence  on  divine  wisdom  and  grace,  while  we  walk 
among  snares  and  dangers. 

By  such  a  free  converse  with  persons  of  different  sects  t 
(especially  those  who  differ  only  in  particular  forms  of 
Christianity,  but  agree  in  the  great  and  necessary  doc- 
trines of  it)  we  shall  find  that  there  are  persons  of  good 
sense  and  virtue,  persons  of  piety  and  worth,  ])crsons 
of  much  candor  and  goodness,  who  belong  to  different 
parties  and  have  imbibed  sentiments  opposite  to  each 
other.  This  will  soften  the  roughness  of  an  unpolished 
soul,  and  enlarge  the  avenues  of  our  charity  towards 
others,  and  incline  us  to  receiAC  them  into  all  the  de- 
grees of  unity  and  affection  which  the  word  of  God  re- 
quires. 

Ill,  The  capacity  of  the  understanding  includes  yet 
another  qualification  in  it.  and  that  is.  an  ability  to  re- 
ceive many  ideas  at  once  without  confusion.     The 


CAPACITY  OF  THE  MIND,  117 

ample  mind  takes  a  survey  of  several  objects  with  one 
glance,  keeps  them  all  within  sight  and  present  to  the 
soul,  that  they  maybe  compared  together  in  their  mutual 
respects;  it  forms  just  judgments,  and  it  draws  i)roper 
inferences  from  this  compaiison,  even  to  a  great  length 
of  argument,  and  a  chain  of  demonstrations. 

1.  The  narrowness  that  belongs  to  human  souls  in 
general  is  a  great  imperfection  and  impediment  to  ivisdom 
and  happiness.  There  are  but  few  persons  who  can  con- 
temj)late  or  practice  several  things  at  once ;  our  faculties 
are  very  limited,  and  while  we  are  intent  upon  one 
part  or  property  of  a  subject,  we  have  but  a  slight 
glimpse  of  the  rest,  or  we  lose  it  out  of  sight.  But  it 
is  a  sign  of  a  large  and  capacious  min<l,  if  we  can  with 
one  single  view  take  in  a  variety  of  objects;  or  at  least 
when  the  mind  can  apply  itself  to  several  objects  with  so 
swift  a  succession,  and  in  so  few  moments,  as  attains 
almost  the  same  ends  as  if  it  were  doue  in  the  same 
instant. 

2.  This  is  a  necessary  qualification  in  order  to  great  knowl- 
edge and  good  judgment;  for  there  are  several  things 
in  human  life,  in  religion,  and  in  the  sciences, 
whieli  have  various  circumstances,  appendices,  and 
relations  attending  them ;  and  without  a  survey  of  all 
those  ideas  which  stand  in  connection  witli  and  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  we  are  often  in  danger  of  passing  a 
false  judgment  on  tiio  sul)ject  proposed.  It  is  for  tliis 
reason  there  are  so  numennis  controversies  found  among 
the  learned  and  unlearned  world,  in  matters  of  religion 
as  well  as  in  the  aifairs  of  civil  government. 

3.  It  is  owing  to  the;  narrowness  of  our  minds  that  irr 
are  exposed  to  the  same  peril  in  the  matters  of  human 
duty  and  prudence.  In  many  things  which  we  do, 
we  ought  not  only  to  consider  the  mere  naked  action 
itself,    but  the  persons   who   act,   the   i)ersons   towanls 


118  OF   ENLAKGING   TUE 

Avlioiii,  Ihetiino  when,  th(>  ])liic(i  whore,  the  maiuior  how, 
llie  end  lor  which  Uw  ;u;lioii  is  (loiic,  toj^ethor  witli  the 
edV'cls  that  must  or  that  may  follow,  and  all  other  sur- 
roiiiidiug  circumstances :  those  thiu<;s  must  necessarily 
be  taken  into  our  view,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the 
action,  which  is  indifferent  in  itself,  be  either  Liwful  or 
unlawful,  good  or  evil,  wise  or  foolish,  decent  or  indecent, 
proper  or  improper,  as  it  is  so  circumstantiated. 

Let  me  ^ivo  a  plain  instaneo  for  the  ilhistratioii  of  thia 
matter.  Mario  kills  a  doj^,  whieli,  consiilcred  merely  in  itself, 
seems  to  he  an  iudifrerent  aetion  :  now,  the  doj^  was  Timon's, 
and  not  his  own;  tills  makes  it  lor)k  uidawful.  IJut  Timon 
bid  him  do  it  ;  this  ^Ives  it  an  appearanee  of  lawfulness  aj^ain. 
It  Avas  done  at  ehureh,  and  in  time  of  divine  service;  these 
circumstances  added,  cast  on  it  an  air  of  irrelifrifm.  But  the 
dog  flow  at  Mario,  and  put  him  in  danger  of  his  life;  this 
relieves  the  seeming  impiety  of  the  aetion.  Yet  ^lario  might 
have  escaped  by  Hying  thence;  therefore'tlie  action  ajjpears  to 
be  improper.  Jiut  the  dog  was  known  to  be  mad  ;  this  farther 
circumstance  makes  it  almost  necessary  that  the  dog  should  be 
slain,  lest  he  might  worry  the  assembly  and  do  mueii  mischief. 
Yet  again,  Mario  killed  him  with  a  pistol,  wliich  he  happened 
to  have  in  his  pocket  since  yesterday's  journey  ;  now  hereby 
the  whole  congregation  was  terrified  and  disct^mposed,  and 
divine  service  was  I)roken  off:  this  carries  an  apjiearanee  of 
gi'eat  indecency  and  impropriety  in  it  :  but  after  ail,  when  wa 
consider  a  further  circumstance,  tiiat  Mario,  being  thus 
violently  assaulted  I)y  a  nuid  dog,  had  no  way  of  escape,  and 
no  other  weapon  about  him,  it  seems  to  take  away  all  the 
colors  of  impropriety,  indecency,  or  unlawfulness,  and  to  allow 
that  the  preservation  of  one  or  many  lives  will  justify  the  act 
as  wise  and  good.  Now,  all  these  concurrent  appentliees  of  the 
action  ought  to  bo  surveyed,  in  order  to  pronounce  with  justice 
and  truth  concerning  it. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  human  actions  in  private 
life,  in  domestic  affairs,  in  traffic,  in  civil  governments, 
in  courts  of  justice,  in  schools  of  learning,  etc.,  which 
have  so  many  complicated  circumstances,  aspects,  and 
situations,  with  regard  to  time  and  place,  persons  and* 
things,  that  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  pass  a  right 
judgment  concerning  them,  withotit  entering  into  most 
of  these  circumstances,  and  surveying  thom  extensively, 
and  comparing  and  balancing  them  all  right. 


CAPACITY    OF   THE   MIND.  119 

4.  Whence  by  the  way  I  may  take  occasion  to  say, 
how  many  tJioiisands  are  there  who  take  upon  them  to 
pass  their  censures  on  the  personal  and  the  domestic 
actions  of  others,  who  pronounce  holdbj  on  the  affairs 
of  the  public,  and  determine  the  justice  or  madness,  the 
wisdom  or  folly  of  national  administrations,  of  peace  and 
wai,  etc.,  whom  neither  God  nor  men  ever  qualified  for 
such  a  post  of  judgment !  They  were  not  capable 
of  entering  into  the  numerous  concurring  springs  of 
action,  nor  had  they  ever  taken  a  survey  of  the  twentieth 
part  of  the  circumstances  Avhich  were  necessary  for  such 
judgments  or  censures. 

5.  It  is  the  narrowness  of  our  minds,  as  well  as  the 
vices  of  the  will,  that  oftentimes  prevents  from  taldng 
a  full  view  of  all  the  complicated  and  concurring  appen- 
dices that  belong  to  human  actions :  thence  it  comes  to 
pass  that  there  is  so  little  right  judgment,  so  little  justice, 
prudence,  or  decency,  practiced  among  the  bulk  of  man- 
kind ;  thence  arise  infinite  reproaches  and  censures — 
alike  foolish  and  unrighteous.  You  see,  therefore,  how 
needful  and  happy  a  thing  it  is  to  be  possessed  of  some 
measure  of  this  ami)litude  of  soul,  in  order  to  make  us 
very  wise,  or  knowing,  or  just,  or  prudent,  or  happy. 

G.  I  confess  this  sort  of  amplitude  or  capacity  of 
mind  is  in  a  great  measure  the  gift  of  Nature,  for  some 
are  born  with  much  more  capacious  souls  than  others. 

The  genius  of  some  persons  is  so  poor  and  limited,  that 
they  can  hardly  take  in  the  connection  of  two  or  tlireo 
propositions,  unless  it  be  in  matters  of  sense,  and  wliieh 
they  have  learned  by  experience  :  they  are  utterly  unfit 
for  speculative  studies;  it  is  hard  for  them  to  discern  the 
difTerence  betwixt  right  and  wrong  in  malt. -is  <»f  reason 
on  any  abstractt^l  subjects  ;  these  ouglit  ne\'er  to  set  up 
for  scholars,  but  apply  themselves  to  those  arts  and  pro- 
fessions of  life  which  are  to  be  learned  at  an  e;isier  rate 
by  slow  degrees  and  daily  experience. 


1L*0  OF   KNLAUGING    TUT, 

Otiirrs  hare  a  Houl  a  little  more  eaparions  and  thoy 
can  lake  in  the  conlu^('ti<)n  of  a  few  i)roj>(>silion.s  pretty 
M'cll  ;  but  if  tliecliainof  c<)nse([uences  be  a  little  prolix, 
here  they  stick  and  are  confounded.  If  persons  of  this 
make  ever  devote  themselves  to  science,  they  should  be 
well  assured  of  a  solid  and  strong  constitution  of  body,  and 
M'cU  resolved  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  hard  labor  and 
diligence  in  study  :  if  the  irou  be  bent,  King  Solomon 
tells  us,  we  must  put  more  strength. 

But,  in  the  third  place,  there  are  some  of  so  bright 
and  happy  a  genius  and  so  ample  a  mind,  that  they 
can  take  in  a  long  train  of  propositions,  if  not  at  once, 
yet  in  a  very  few  moments,  and  judge  well  concerning 
the  dependence  of  them.  They  cau  survey  a  variety  of 
complicated  ideas  without  fatigue  or  disturbance;  and 
a  number  of  truths  offering  themselves  as  it  were  at  one 
view  to  their  understanding,  doth  not  perplex  or  con- 
found them.     This  makes  a  great  man. 

lY.  Kow,  though  there  may  be  much  owing  to  nature 
in  this  case,  yet  experience  assures  us,  that  even  a  lower 
degree  of  this  capacity  and  extent  of  thought  may  be 
increased  by  diligence  and  application,  by  frequent 
exercise,  and  b}'  the  observation  of  such  rules  as  these: 

1.  Labor,  by  all  mea)is,  to  gain  an  attentive  and  patient 
temper  of  mind,  a  power  of  confining  and  fixing  your 
thoughts  so  long  on  any  one  appointed  subject,  till 
you  have  surveyed  it  on  every  side  and  in  eveiy  sit  nation, 
and  run  through  the  several  jiowers,  parts,  i)roperties 
and  relations,  effects  and  consequences  of  it.  He  whose 
thoughts  are  very  fluttering  and  wandering,  and  can  not 
be  fixed  attentively  to  a  few  ideas  successively,  will 
never  be  able  to  survey  many  and  various  objects  dis- 
tinctly at  once,  but  will  certainly  l>e  overwhelmed  and 
confounded  with  the  multiplicity  of  them.  The  rules  for 
fixing  the  attention  in  the  former  chapter  are  proper  to 
be  consulted  here. 


CAPACITY   OF   THE   MIXD.  121 

2.  Accustom  yourself  to  clear  and  distinct  ideas  in  every 
thing  you  think  of.  B^  not  satisliiid  ^vith  obscure 
and  confused  conceptions  of  things,  especially  where 
clearer  may  bo  ol)lain('d  ;  for  one  ol)scure  or  con- 
fused idea,  especially  if  it  be  of  great  importance  in  the 
question,  intermingled  with  many  clear  ones  and  placed 
in  its  variety  of  aspects  towards  them,  will  be  in  danger 
of  spreading  confusion  over  the  whole  scene  of  ideas,  and 
thus  may  have  an  unhappy  inlluenee  to  overwhelm  the 
understanding  with  darkness  and  pervert  the  jud.^ment. 
A  little  black  paint  will  shamefully  tincture  and  spoil 
twenty  gay  colors. 

Consider  yet  further,  that  if  you  content  yourself 
frequently  with  words  instead  of  ideas,  or  with  cloudy 
and  c jnfused  notions  of  things,  how  impenetrable  will 
that  darkness  be,  and  how  vast  and  endless  that  confu- 
sion which  must  surround  and  involve  the  understanding, 
when  many  of  these  obscure  and  confused  ideas  come  to 
bo  set  before  the  soul  at  once  ;  and  how  impossible  will  it 
be  to  forma  clear  and  just  judgment  about  them. 

3.  Use  all  diligence  to  acquire  and  treasure  tip  a 
large  store  of  ideas  and  notions:  take  every  opportunity 
to  add  something  to  your  stock :  and  by  frequent 
recollection  fix  them  in  your  memory;  nothing  tends  to 
confirm  and  enlarge  the  memory  like  a  frequent  review 
of  its  possessions.  Then  the  brain  being  well  furnislied 
with  variv)us  traces,  signatures,  and  images,  will  have  a 
rich  treasure  always  ready  to  hi  proposed  or  offered  to 
the  soul,  when  it  directs  its  thoughts  towards  any  par- 
ticular subject.  This  will  gradually  give  the  mind  a 
faculty  of  surveying  many  objects  at  once,  as  a  room  that 
is  richly  adorned  and  hung  round  with  a  great  variety 
of  pictures  strikes  the  eye  almost  at  once  with  all  tliat 
variety,  especially  if  they  have  been  well  surveyed  one 
by  one  at  first:   this  makes  it  habitual  and  more  easy  to 


122  OF    KNI.ARGTNO    THE 

th(^  inhabitants  to  take  in  many  of  those  painted  scenes 
with  a  single  ghince  or  tAvo. 

Here  note,  that  by  ac<£uiring  a  rich  treasure  of  notions, 
I  do  not  mean  only  single  ideas,  but  also  propositions, 
observations,  and  experiences,  with  reasonings  and 
arguments  upon  the  various  subjects  that  occur  among 
natural  and  moral,  common  or  sacred  affairs;  that  when 
you  are  called  to  judge  concerning  any  question,  you  will 
have  some  prineii)les  of  truth,  some  useful  axioms  and 
observations,  always  ready  at  hand  to  direct  and  assist 
your  judgment. 

4.  It  is  necessary  that  we  should  as  far  as  possible 
entertain  and  lay  up  our  daily  new  ideas  in  a  regular 
order,  and  range  the  acquisitions  of  our  souls  under 
proper  heads,  whether  of  divinity,  law,  phj'si&s, 
mathematics,  morality,  politics,  trade,  domestic  life, 
civility,  decency,  etc.,  whether  of  cause,  effect,  substance, 
mode,  power,  property,  body,  spirit,  etc..  We 
should  inure  our  minds  to  methods  and  order  continually ; 
and  when  we  take  in  any  fresh  ideas,  occur- 
rences, and  observations,  we  should  dispose  of  them  in 
their  proper  jilaces,  and  see  how  they  stand  and  agree 
with  the  rest  of  our  notions  on  the  same  subjects:  as  a 
scholar  would  dispose  of  a  new  book  on  a  jjroper  shelf 
among  its  kindred  authors;  or  as  an  oflQcer  at  the  post- 
house  in  London  disposes  of  every  letter  he  takes  in, 
placing  it  in  the  box  that  belongs  to  the  proper  road  or 
county. 

In  any  of  these  cases,  if  things  lie  all  in  a  heap,  the 
addition  of  any  new  object  would  increase  the  confusion, 
but  method  gives  a  sj^eedy  and  short  survey  of  them 
with  ease  and  pleasure.  Method  is  of  admirable  advan- 
tage to  keep  our  ideas  from  a  confused  mixture,  and  to 
preserve  them  ready  for  every  use.  The  science  of  on- 
tology, Mhich  distributes  all  beings,  and  all  the  affections 


CAPACITY  or  THE  :\riXD.  123 

of  being,  whether  absolute  or  relative,  under  i^roi^er 
classes,  is  of  good  service  to  keep  our  intellectual  acqui- 
sitions in  such  order  as  that  the  mind  may  survey  them 
at  once. 

5.  As  method  is  necessary  for  the  improvement  of  the 
mind,  in  order  to  make  your  treasure  of  ideas  most  use- 
ful, so  in  all  your  further  pursuits  of  truth  and  acquire- 
ments of  rational  knowledge,  observe  a  regular  j^ro- 
gressive  method.  Begin  with  the  most  simple,  easy, 
and  obvious  ideas;  then  by  degrees  join  two,  and  three, 
and  more  of  them  together  :  thus  the  complicated  ideas, 
growing  up  under  your  eye  and  observation,  will  not 
give  the  same  confusion  of  thought  as  they  would  do  if 
thej'  were  all  otfered  to  the  mind  at  once,  without  your 
observing  the  original  and  formation  of  them. 

An  eminent  example  of  this  appears  in  the  study  of  arithme- 
tie.  If  11  scholar,  just  admitted  into  tlie  school,  observes  liis 
master  perfoniiing  an  operation  in  the  rule  of  division,  his 
head  is  at  once  disturbed  and  confounded  with  the  manifold 
conijiarisons  of  the  nunii)ers  of  the  divisor  and  dividend,  and 
the  inultiplicatiou  of  the  one  and  sulttraction  of  it  from  tlie 
other;  but  if  he  besjiu  reiiularly  at  addition,  and  so  proceed  i»y 
subtraction  and  luultiiilication,  lie  will  then  in  a  (v\v  weeks  be 
able  to  take  in  an  intelligent  survey  of  all  those  operations  in 
division,  and  to  practice  them  himself  Mith  ease  and  pleasure, 
each  of  which  at  lirst  seemed  all  intricacy  and  confusion. 

Beglnnin.i?  with  A,  ]i,  C,  andlnakinj^  syllai)les  out  of  letters, 
and  words  out  of  syllables,  has  been  the  foundation  of  all  that 
frlorious  sui)erstrueturc  of  art  and  science  which  have  enriched 
theiuindsand  lil)raries  of  the  learneil  world  in  several  a.iies. 
These  are  tlie  first  ste])S  by  which  the  anii)le  and  capacious 
souls  anionic  mankind  iiave  arrived  at  that  jirodij^ious  extent 
of  knowledge,  which  renders  them  the  wonder  and  glory  of 
the  nation  where  they  live.  Though  Plato  and  Cicero, 
Descartes  an<l  Mr.  Jioyie,  ]Mr.  Locke  and  Sir  Isaac  Xi'wton, 
were  doubtless  favored  by  nature  with  a  genius  ofunconinion 
amplitude;  yet,  in  their  early  years,  and  lirst  attempts  with 
science,  this  was  but  limited  ami  narrow,  in  comparison  with 
what  tiiey  attained  at  last.  l*>iit  how  vast  and  capacious  wi're 
those  powers  which  they  afterwards  ac(iuired  by  patient  at- 
tention and  watchful  observation,  by  the  pursuit  of  clear  ideU8, 
and  a  regular  methud  of  thinking. 


124  OF   IMPROVINf;   THE   M]:^roRY. 

(5.  Another  mraiiH  ol'  iU'ijuiiiiii^  tiiis  iiiiiplitudu  and 
capacity  of  mind,  is  ajijcrmdl  of  dIJ/irult  eutouijlnl  (jucfUoius 
iind  of  the  solution  of  them  in  any  scienci'.  Si);'Cuhilivo 
and  casuistical  divinity  will  furnish  us  with  many  such 
cases  and  controversies, 

In  nioial  and  political  subjects,  PuffcndorlT's  Xajc  of 
Nalare  and  Natiom,  and  several  ds-terniinatiuns  therein. 
will  promote  the  same  amplitude  of  mind.  An  attend- 
ance on  public  trials,  and  art^uments  in  the  civil  courts 
of  justicL',  will  be  of  good  advantaj,'e  for  this  purpose, 
and  after  a  man  has  studied  the  general  principles  of  the 
law  of  o^ature,  and  the  laws  of  England,  in  i)roi)er  books, 
the  reading  the  reports  of  adjudged  cases,  collected  by 
men  of  great  sagacity  and  judgment,  will  richly  improve 
his  mind  toward  acquiring  this  desirable  amplitude  and 
extent  of  thought,  and  more  especially  in  persons  of  that 
profession. 


CHAPTER  Xin. 

f 

OF   IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY. 

I.  Me:mory  is  a  distinct,  faculty  of  the  mind  of  man, 
very  diffei'ent  from  perception,  judgment,  and  reasoning, 
and  its  other  powers.  Then  we  are  said  to  remember 
any  thing,  when  the  idea  of  it  arises  in  the  mind  with  a 
consciousness  at  the  same  time  that  we  have  had  this 
idea  before.  Our  memory  is  our  natural  power  of 
retaining  what  we  learn,  and  of  recalling  it  on  every 
occasion.  Therefore  we  can  never  be  said  to  remember 
any  thing,  whether  it  be  ideas  or  propositions,  words  or 
things,  notions  or  arguments,  of  which  we  have  not  had 
some  former  idea  or  perception,  either  by  sense  or  im- 
agination, thought  or  reflection ;  but  whatsoever  we  learn 


OF   IMPEOVING  THE  MEMORY.  125 

from  observation,  books,  or  conversation,  etc.,  it  must 
all  be  laid  up  aud  preserved  iu  the  memory,  IT  wc  would 
make  it  really  useful. 

II.  So  necessary  and  so  excellent  a  faculty  is  the 
memory  of  man,  that  all  other  abilities  of  the  mind 
borrov/ from  hence  their  beauty  and  perfection  ;  lur 
the  other  capacities  of  the  soul  are  almost  usch'ris  wilh- 
outthis.  To  what  purpose  are  all  our  labors  iu  knowl- 
edge and  wisdom,  if  we  want  memory  to  preserve  and 
use  what  we  have  acquired?  What  sii:;uify  all  other 
intellectual  aud  spiritual  improvements,  if  they  are  lost 
as  soon  as  they  are  obtained  ?  It  is  memory  alone  tliat 
enriches  the  mind,  by  preserving  what  our  labor  and  in- 
dustry daily  collect.  In  a  word,  there  can  be  neitlier 
kjiowledge,  nor  arts,  nor  sciences,  Nvithout  memory;  nor 
can  there  be  any  improvx'meut  of  mankind  iu  virtue  or 
morals,  or  the  practice  of  religion,  without  the  assistance 
and  influen<'e  of  this  power.  Without  memory  the  soul 
of  man  would  be  but  a  poor,  destitute,  naked  being,  with 
an  everlasting  blank  S[)read  over  it,  except  the  tieetiug 
ideas  of  the  present  moment. 

III.  Memory  is  very  useful  to  those  who  speak  as 
well  as  to  those  who  learn  ;  it  assists  the  teacher  and 
tlu'-  orator,  as  well  as  the  scholar  or  the  hearer.  The 
best  speeches  and  instructions  are  abnost  lost,  if  those 
who  hear  them  immediately  forget  them.  And  those 
who  are  called  to  speak  in  public  are  much  better  heard 
and  accepted,  when  they  can  <leli\"er  their  discourse  by 
the  help  of  a  lively  genius  and  a  ready  memory,  than 
when  they  are  forced  to  read  all  that  they  would  com- 
municate to  their  hearers.  Beading  is  certainly  a  heavier 
way  of  conveyance  of  our  sentiments;  and  there  are  few 
mere  readers  who  have  the  felicity  of  ixMietratiiig  llie 
soul  and  awakening  the  passions  of  those  who  hear,  by 
such  a  grace  and  power  of  oratory,  as  the  man  who  seems 


126  OF  iMPRoviN(;  Tin;  memory. 

to  talk  every  word  from  liis  very  lieart,  and  pours  out 
the  very  liches  of  liis  own  knowled^'e  npon  the  people 
ronnd  about  liiin  by  the  help  of  a  free  and  copious 
memory.  This  gives  life  and  spirit  to  every  thing  that 
is  spoken,  and  has  a  natural  tiaideney  to  make  a  deeper 
impression  on  the  minds  of  men:  it  awakens  the  dulh'st 
spirits,  causes  them  to  receive  a  discourse  with  more 
afifection  and  jjleasure,  and  adds  a  singular  grace  and  ex- 
cellence, both  to  the  person  and  his  oiation. 

IV,  A  good  judgment  and  a  good  memory  are  very 
different  qualifications.  A  person  may  have  a  very 
strong,  capacious,  and  retentive  memory,  where  the 
judgment  is  very  poor  and  weak;  as  some  times  it  hap- 
pens in  those  who  are  but  one  degree  above  an  idiot, 
who  have  manifested  an  amazing  strength  and  extent  of 
memorj^,  but  have  hardly  been  able  to  join  or  disjoin 
two  or  three  ideas  in  a  wise  and  happy  manner  to  make 
a  solid  rational  proposition. 

There  have  been  instances  of  others  who  have  had  but 
a  very  tolerable  power  of  memory,  yet  their  judgment 
has  been  of  a  much  suj)erior  degree,  just  and  wise,  solid' 
and  excellent. 

V.  Yet  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  where  a  happy 
memory  is  found  in  any  person,  there  is  one  good 
foundation  laid  for  a  %vise  and  just  judgment  of  things, 
wheresoever  the  natural  genius  has  any  thing  of  sagacity 
and  brightness  to  make  a  right  use  of  it.  A  good  judg- 
ment must  always  in  some  measure  dej^end  upon  a  survey 
and  comparison  of  several  things  together  in  the  mind, 
and  determining  the  truth  of  some  doubtful  ijroposition 
by  that  survey  and  comparison.  "Wlien  the  mind  has, 
as  it  were,  set  all  those  various  objects  present  before  it, 
which  are  necessary  to  form  a  true  i)roposition  of  judg- 
ment concerning  any  thing,  it  then  determines  that  such 
and  such  ideas  are  to  be  joined  or  disjoined,  be  affirmed 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  127 

or  denied;  and  this  is  a  consistency  and  correspond- 
ence with  all  those  other  ideas  and  propositions  which 
any  way  relate  or  belong  to  the  same  subject.  Now,  there 
can  be  no  such  comprehensive  survey  of  many  thiii.iijjs 
without  a  tolerable  degree  of  memory;  it  is  by  reviewing 
things  past  we  learn  to  judge  of  the  future:  and  it  hap- 
pens some  times  that  if  one  needful  or  important  object 
or  idea  be  absent,  the  judgment  concerning  the  thing  in- 
quired will  thereby  become  false  or  mistaken. 

VI.  You  will  inquire  then,  How  comes  it  to  pass  tliat 
there  are  some  persons  who  appear  in  the  world  of 
business,  as  well  as  the  world  of  learning,  to  have  a 
good  judgment,  and  have  acquired  the  just  character  of 
prudence  and  wisdom,  and  yet  have  neither  a  very 
bright  genius  or  sagacity  of  thought,  nor  a  very 
happy  memory,  so  that  they  can  not  set  before  their 
minds  at  once  a  large  scene  of  ideas  in  order  to  i)ass  a 
judgment. 

Now,  we  may  learn  from  Penseroso  some  accounts  of  this 
difttculty.  You  shall  scarcely  ever  lind  this  man  forward  in 
judi^iii^aiiddeteriniuingtliiiigs  proposed  (<>  him;  Imt  healways 
takes  time,  ami  delays,  and  suspends,  and  ponders  thinj^ 
maturely,  hefore  ho  passes  his  judgment:  then  he  practices  a 
slow  meditation,  ruminates  on  the  sul)ject,  anil  thus  perhaps 
in  two  or  three  nights  and  days  rouses  and  awakens  those 
several  ideas,  one  after  another,  "as  he  can,  which  are  necessary 
in  order  to  judge  aright  of  tlie  tiling  i)ropost'd,  ami  makes 
them  pass  before  his  review  in  succession:  tiiis  lie  dolli  to  re- 
lieve the  want  holii  of  a  (piick  sagacity  of  tiiought  and  of  a 
ready  memory  and  speedy  rei-olieel ion;  and  tliis  caution  ami 
practice  lavs"  the  foundation  of  his  just  judgment  and  wise 
conduct.    He  surveys  well  before  he  judges. 

Whence  I  can  not  but  take  occasion  to  infer  one  good 
rule  of  advice  to  persons  of  higher  as  wvU  as  lower 
genius,  and  of  large  as  well  as  narrow  memories,  viz.: 
That  they  do  not  too  hastily  pronounce  concerning 
matters  of  doubt  or  inquiry,  where  there  is  not  an 
urgent  necessity  of  present  action.     The  Itright  genius 


128  OF  iMPT?ovi\(;  Tin;  memory. 

is  roady  to  be  so  forward  as  often  betrays  itself  into 
.i^reat  errors  in  judj,Mnenl,  speech,  and  conduct,  without 
a  continual  guard  upon  itself,  and  usinj^  the  bridle  of 
the  tongue.  And  it  is  by  this  delay  and  iireeantion  that 
many  a  person  of  much  lower  natural  abilities  shall  often 
excel  persons  of  the  brightest  genius  in  wisdom  and 
prudence. 

VII.  It  is  often  found  that  a  fine  genius  has  but  a 
feeble  memory;  for  where  the  genius  is  bright  and  the 
iniaginatiuu  vivid,  the  power  of  memory  may  be  too  much 
neglected  and  lose  its  improvement.  An  active  fancy- 
readily  wanders  over  a  multitude  of  objects  and  is  con- 
tinually entertaining  itself  with  new  flying  images;  it 
runs  through  a  number  of  new  scenes  or  new  pages  with 
l)leasure,  but  without  due  attention,  and  seldom  suffers 
itself  to  dwell  long  enough  upon  any  one  of  them,  to 
make  a  deep  impression  thereof  upon  the  mind  and 
commit  it  to  lasting  remembrance.  This  is  one  plain 
and  obvious  reason  why  there  are  some  persons  of  veiy 
bright  parts  and  active  spirits,  who  have  but  short  and 
narrow  pov.ers  of  remembrance  :  for  having  riches  of  < 
their  own,  thej^  are  not  solicitous  to  borrow. 

YIII.  And  as  such  a  quick  and  various  fancy  and  in- 
vention may  be  some  hindrance  to  the  attention  and 
memory,  so  a  mind  of  a  good  retentive  ability,  and  which 
is  ever  crowding  its  memory  with  things  which  it  learns 
and  reads  continually,  may  prevent,  restrain,  and 
cramp  the  invention  itself. 

The  memory  of  Lectoridcs  is  ever  ready,  upon  all  occasions, 
to  offer  to  his  mind  some  tbina:  out  of  otlier  men's  writiuirs  or 
conversations,  and  is  prcsentins:  him  Mith  tlie  thoughts  of 
other  persons  perpetually;  thus  the  man  who  had  naturally  a 
good  llowinsc  invention,  does  not  suffer  himself  to  pursue  his 
own  thoughts.  Some  persons  who  have  been  blessed  by  nature 
v.ith  sagacity  and  no  contemptible  genius,  have  too  often  for- 
bid the  exercise  of  it,  by  tying  themselves  down  to  the  memory 
of  the  volumes  they  have  read  and  the  sentiments  of  other 
men  contained  in  them. 


OF   IMPEOVTXG    THE   :\rEMOKT.  129 

Where  tlie  memory  has  1>een  almost  coiistanlly  employ- 
ing itself  ill  scraping  together  new  acciuirements,  and 
Avhere  there  has  not  been  a  judgment  sufficient  to  dis- 
tinguish what  things  were  fit  to  be  recommended  and 
treasured  up  in  the  memory,  and  what  things  were  idle, 
useless,  or  needless,  tlie  mind  has  been  filled  with  a 
wretched  heap  of  hodgepotch  of  words  or  ideas;  and  the 
soul  may  be  said  to  have  had  large  possessions,  but  no 
true  riches. 

IX.  I  have  read  in  some  of  Mi*.  Milton's  writings  a 
very  beautiful  simile,  whereby  he  represents  the  books 
of  the  Fathers,  as  they  are  called  in  the  Christian  Church. 
"Whatsoever,  saith  he,  Old  Time  with  his  huge  drag- 
net has  conveyed  down  to  us  along  the  stream  of  ages, 
whether  it  be  shells  or  shell-fish,  jewels  or  pebbles,  sticks 
or  straws,  sea-weeds  or  mud,  these  are  the  ancients, 
these  are  the  fathers.  The  case  is  much  the  same  witli 
the  memorial  possessions  of  the  greater  part  of  mankind. 
A  few  useful  things,  perhai)s,  mixed  and  confounded 
.with  many  trifles,  and  all  manner  of  rubbish,  fill  up  their 
memories  and  compose  their  intellectual  possessions.  It 
is  a  great  happiness  therefore  to  distinguish  things  aright. 
an<l  to  lay  up  nothing  in  the  memory  but  what  has 
some  just  value  in  it  and  is  worth}'  to  be  numbered  as 
apart  of  our  treasure. 

X.  Whatsoever  improvements  arise  to  the  mind  of  nmn 
from  the  wise  exercise  of  his  own  reasoning  ])owers, 
these  may  be  called  Ins  proper  manufactures ;  and 
whatsoever  he  borrows  from  abroad,  these  may  be  termed 
his  ])i()])er  treasnres;  both  together  make  a  wealthy 
and  a  happy  mind. 

XL  How  many  excellent  judgments  and  reasonings 
are  framed  in  the  jnind  of  a  man  of  wisdom  and  study  in 
a  length  of  years  !  IIow  many  worthy  and  admirable 
notions  lias  he  been  possessed  of  in  life,  bt»th  by  his  own 


IMO  OF   IMPROVIXO   THE   MEMORY. 

reawoningR,  and  his  prudent  and  laborious  collections  in 
the  course  of  his  readinj;  !  But,  alas  I  how  niauy  thou- 
sands of  them  vanish  away  ajjain  and  are  lost  in  empty 
air.  for  want  of  a  stronger  and  more  retentive 
memory!  W'licn  a  youn^^  praclioncr  in  the  law  wius 
once  said  to  contest  a  point  of  debate  with  that  great 
lawyer  in  the  last  age,  Sergeant  Maynard,  he  is  reported 
to  have  answered  him,  "Alas  I  youiiir  man,  I  have  forgot 
much  more  law  than  everlhou  hast  Icaiiit  <»r  icad." 

XII.  What  an  unknown  and  unspeakable  happiness 
would  it  be  to  a  man  of  judgment,  and  who  is  engaged  in 
the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  if  he  had  but  a  power  of  stamp- 
ing all  his  own  best  sentiments  upon  his  memory  in  some 
indelible  characters ;  and  if  he  could  but  imprint  every 
valuable  paragraph  and  sentiment  of  the  most  excellent 
authors  he  hiUi  read,  upon  his  mind,  with  the  same 
speed  and  facility  with  which  he  read  them  !  If  a 
]uan  of  good  genius  and  sagacity  could  but  retain  and 
survey  all  those  numerous,  those  wise  and  beautiful  ideas 
at  once,  which  have  ever  passed  through  his  thoughts 
upon  any  one  subject,  how  admirably  would  he  be 
furnished  to  pavSS  a  just  judgment  about  all  present 
objects  and  occurrences  1  "What  a  glorious  entertain- 
ment and  pleasure  would  felicitate  his  spirit,  if  he  could 
grasp  all  these  in  a  single  survey,  as  the  skillful  eye  of  a 
painter  runs  over  a  fine  and  complicate  piece  of  history 
wrought  by  the  hand  of  a  Titian  or  a  Eaphael,  views  the 
whole  scene  at  once,  andfeedshimself  with  the  extensive 
delight  I  But  these  are  joys  that  do  not  belong  to 
mortality. 

XIII.  Thus  far  I  have  indulged  some  loose  and  uncon- 
nected thoughts  and  remarks  with  regard  to  the  different 
powers  of  wit,  memory,  and  judgment.  For  it  was  very 
difficult  to  throw  them  into  a  regular  form  or  method 
witliout  more  room.  Let  us  now  with  more  regularity 
treat  of  the  memorv  alone. 


OF   IMPEOTING   THE  MEMORY.  131 

"Thoup:h  the  memory  be  a  natural  laculty  of  the  mind 
of  man,  and  belongs  to  spirits  -which  ai-e  not  incarnate — 
though  the  mind  itself  is  immaterial — a  principle 
superadded  to  matter,  yet  the  brain  is  the  instrument 
which  it  employs  in  all  its  operations.  Though  it  is 
not  matter,  yet  it  works  by  means  of  matter,  and  its 
operations  are  materially  affected  by  the  condition  of  the 
brain,  its  principal  organ.  Through  the  medium  of  the 
brain  and  nervous  system  the  mind  obtains  a  knowledge 
of  the  external  world.  The  memory  receives  imi)res- 
sions  of  facts  and  events,  and  treasures  up  their  images; 
and  it  also  becomes  the  retentive  receptacle  of  the  ideas 
and  conclusions  derived  from  meditation  and  reflection. 

XIV.  The  immaturity  of  the  brain  in  early  life  renders 
it  incapable  of  becoming  the  instrument  of  powerful 
mental  actions,  and  the  images  which  are  then  impressed 
upon  the  memory  are  chiefly  those  of  facts  and  events. 
The  memory  grows  from  the  period  of  infancy  and 
may  be  greatly  improved  by  proper  exercise,  or  injured 
by  sloth. 

XV.  The  improvement  of  the  memory  requires  the 
cultivation  of  habits  of  attention,  or  of  intense  applica- 
tion of  the  mind  to  whatever  is,  at  the  time,  its  more 
immediate  object  of  pursuit.  Slight  impressions  are 
soon  forgotten,  but  whatever  is  impressed  upon  the 
mind  by  fixed  attention  and  close  thought,  is  indelibly 
stamped  upon  the  memory  and  becomes  as  durable  as 
the  mind  itself. 

Many  persons  of  advanced  age  will  tell  long  stories  of 
things  which  occurred  during  the  early  peiiod  of  their 
lives,  and  were  so  deei^ly  engiaven  upon  the  memoiy  as 
to  be  retained  in  their  most  minute  particulars  through  a 
long  succession  of  years. 

XVI.  The  memory  is  more  or  less  affected  by 
various  diseases  of  the  body  ;  chiefly  from  iryuries  of 


132  OF   TMPROVIXG    THE   MEMORY. 

Ihc  head,  alfcclions  of  the  luaiii,  fy^v(rr,  and  disoasos  of 
extreme  debility.  Xuinerous  cases  are  on  record  of  per- 
sons ■who,  from  the  influence  of  disease,  have  recovered 
aknowledji^e  of  things  loni^  forj^otton;  and  of  others  who 
liavelost  all  knowledge  of  persons  and  things. 

A  man  wlio  was  born  in  Franco,  but  had  spent  most  of  his 
lif'  ill  lOiiujland  and  ontirrly  lost  the  habit  of  spoakiuf:^  Frcu'^'h, 
ret  rived  an  iiijuiy  on  the  luad,  and,  duriiiLC  tiie  iHticss  wiiich 
followed,  always  spoilt'  in  tlie  French  language.  Another, 
when  recovering  from  an  injury  of  tlie  head,  spoke  the  \Velsh 
hmguage,  wincii  he  leanicfi  in  cliildiiood,  imt  hadsubso(|Uently 
entirely  forgotten.  Another  entiri'ly  lost  his  mental  faculties 
during  a  severe  illness.  For  several  weeks  subsequent  to  his 
rei'overy  he  remembered  nothing  and  understood  nothing; 
but  at  the  expiration  of  two  or  three  mouths  he  gradually 
recovered  his  memory  and  other  faculties. 

Impressions  which  are  deeply  engraven  upon  the  mind 
appear  never  to  be  effaced;  but  the  power  of  calling 
them  up  is  sometimes  lost,  until  sickness  or  some  other 
cause  restores  that  power.  The  faculties  of  the  mind 
are  greatly  assisted  or  injured  by  the  condition  of  the 
brain,  which  in  most  aged  people  relaxes  its  energies, 
and  a  want  of  close  attention  to  pavSsing  events  prevents, 
lasting  impressions  from  being  made  on  the  memory. 

XYII.  The  brain  being  the  chief  instrument  of  the 
mind,  whatever  tends  to  promote  a  healthful  and  vigor- 
ous condition  of  that  organ  maj*  help  to  preserve  the 
memory;  but  excess  of  wine,  or  luxury  of  any  kind,  as 
well  as  excess  in  study  and  application  to  the  lousiness 
of  life,  may  injure  the  memory  by  overstraining  and 
weakening  the  brain. 

XVITT.  A  good  memory  has  these  several  qualifica- 
tions: 

1.  It  is  ready  to  receive  and  admit,  with  great  ease, 
the  various  ideas  both  of  words  and  things  which  are 
learned  or  taught.  2.  It  is  large  and  copious  to 
treasure  up  these  ideas  in  great  number  and  variety. 


OF  i:\rrEOYTXG  the  ME:\roEY.  133 

3.  It  is  strong  and  durable  to  rotaiii  for  a  considerable 
time  those  woi-ds  oi-  thoughts  Avhich  are  committed  to  it. 

4.  It  is  faithful  and  active  to  suggest  and  recollect,  upon 
every  proper  occasion,  all  those  words  or  thoughts  which 
have  been  recommended  to  its  care,  or  treasured  up  in  it. 

XIX.  Xow  in  every  one  of  these  qualifications  a 
memory  may  be  injured  or  may  be  improved :  yet  I 
shall  not  insist  distinctly  on  these  particulars,  but  only 
in  general  propose  a  few  rules  or  directions  whereby 
this  noble  faculty  of  memory,  in  all  its  branches  and 
qualifications,  may  be  preserved  or  assisted,  and  show 
what  are  the  practices  that  both  by  reason  and  experi- 
ence have  been  found  of  hapi^y  influence  to  this  purpose. 

XX.  There  is  one  great  and  general  direction  which 
belongs  to  the  improvement  of  other  powers  <^s  wi'll  as  of 
the  memory,  and  that  is  to  keep  it  always  in  due  and 
proper  exercise.  Many  acts  by  degrees  form  a  habit, 
and  thei-eby  the  ability  or  power  is  strengthened  and 
made  more  ready  to  appear  again  in  action.  Our 
memories  should  be  used  and  inured  from  childhood  to 
liear  a  moderate  quantity  of  knowledge  let  into  them 
early,  and  they  will  thereby  become  strong  for  use  and 
service.  As  any  liml)  well  and  duly  exercised  grows 
stronger,  the  nerves  of  the  body  are  corroborated  thereby. 
Milo  took  up  a  calf  and  daily  cairied  it  on  his  shoulders ; 
as  the  calf  grew,  his  strength  grew  also,  and  he  at  last, 
arrived  at  firmness  of  joints  enough  to  bear  the  bull. 

XXI.  Our  memories  will  be  in  a  great  measure 
moulded  and  formed,  improved  or  injured,  according 
to  the  exercise  of  them.  If  we  never  use  them,  they 
v.ill  be  almost  lost.  Tliose  who  are  wont  to  converse  or 
lead  but  a  few  things  only,  will  retain  but  a  few  in  their 
memory  ;  those  who  are  used  to  remember  things  but  for 
an  hour,  and  charge  their  memories  with  it  no  longer, 
will  retain  them  but  an  hour  before  they  vanish.     And 


134  OF  niPKoviXf;  Tin;  mi;:\iory. 

let  woids  he  rciiic'iiilu'rcd  as  well  as  tliiiiKH,  that  so  you 
may  ac(iuire  a  rojxa  verborum  as  well  as  rerum,  and  be 
more  r('a<ly  to  express  your  mind  on  all  oecjisious. 

XXII.  \vi  there  sliould  Ix'  a  caution  jriven  in  sueh  cases: 
the  memory  of  a  child  or  any  infirm  person  should  not 
be  overburdened  ;  lor  a  limb  or  a  joint  may  be  over- 
strained l)y  bein<^  toonnu-li  loaded,  and  its  natural  power 
never  be  recovered.  l'<'a<-hers  should  wisely  ju<l;.je  of 
the  power  and  constitution  ol"  youth,  and  imi)osenomore 
on  them  than  they  are  able  to  bear  with  cheerfulness  and 
improvement. 

And  particularly  they  should  take  carethat  the  memory 
of  the  learner  be  not  too  much  crowded  with  a  tumultu- 
ous heap  or  overbearing  multitude  of  documents  or 
ideas  at  one  time ;  this  is  the  way  to  remember  nothing, 
one  idea  effaces  another.  An  overgreedy  grasp  does  not 
retain  the  largest  handful.  But  it  is  the  exercise  of 
memory  with  a  due  moderation,  that  is  one  general  rule 
towards  the  improvement  of  it. 

XXIII.  The  particular  rules  are  such  as  these  : 

1.  Due  atfenfion  and  ilUif/ence  to  learn  and  know  things, 
which  we  avouUI  commit  to  our  remembrance,  is  a  rule' 
of  great  necessity  in  this  case.  "When  the  attention  is 
strongly  fixed  to  any  particular  subject,  all  that  is  said 
concerning  it  makes  a  deeper  impression  upon  the  mind. 
There  are  some  persons  who  complain  they  can  not 
remember  divine  or  human  discourses  Mhich  they  hear, 
■when,  in  truth,  their  thoughts  are  wandering  half  the 
time,  or  they  hear  with  such  coldness  and  indifference, 
and  a  trifling  temper  of  spirit,  that  it  is  no  wonder  the 
things  which  are  read  or  spoken  make  l>ut  a  slight 
impression  on  the  mind  and  get  no  firm  f<»oting  in  the 
seat  of  memory,  but  soon  vanish  and  are  lost. 

It  is  needful,  therefore,  if  avc  would  maintain  a  long 
remembrance  of  the  things  which  we  read,  or  hear,  that 


OF  IMPROYIXG  THE  MEMORY.  135 

tee  should  engage  our  delight  and  pleasure  in  those  subjects, 
and  use  the  other  methods  which  are  before  prescribed 
in  order  to  fix  the  attention.  Sloth,  indolence,  and  idleness, 
will  no  more  bless  the  mind  with  intellectual  riches,  than 
it  will  fill  the  hand  with  gain,  the  field  with  corn,  or  the 
purse  with  treasure. 

Let  it  be  added  also,  that  not  only  the  slothful  and  the 
negligent  dei)rive  themsehcs  of  proper  knowledge  for  the 
furniture  of  their  memory,  but  such  as  apj^ear  to  have 
active  spirits,  who  are  ever  skimming  over  the  surface 
of  things  with  a  volatile  temper,  will  fix  nothing  in  their 
minds.  Yario  will  spend  whole  mornings  in  running 
over  loose  and  unconnected  pages,  and  with  fresh 
curiosity  is  ever  glancing  over  new  words  and  ideas  that 
strike  his  present  fancy  ;  he  is  fluttering  over  a  thousand 
objects  of  art  and  science,  and  yet  treasures  up  but  little 
knowledge.  There  must  be  the  labor  and  the  diligence 
of  close  attention  to  particular  subjects  of  thought  and 
inquiry,  which  only  can  impress  what  we  read  or  think 
of  upon  the  remembering  faculty  of  man. 

2.  Clear  and  distinct  aj)j)rehension  of  the  things  which  we 
commit  to  memory  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  them  stick 
and  dwell  there.  If  we  would  remember  words,  or  learn 
the  names  of  persons  or  things,  we  should  have  them 
recommended  to  our  memory  by  a  clear  and  distinct 
pronunciation,  spelling,  or  writing.  If  we  would  treasure 
up  the  ideas  of  things,  notions,  propositions,  arguments, 
and  sciences,  these  should  be  recommended  also  to  our 
memory  by  a  clear  and  distinct  perception  of  them. 
Faint,  glimmering,  and  confused  ideas  will  vanish  like 
images  seen  in  twilight.  Every  thing  which  we  learn 
should  be  conveyed  to  the  understanding  in.  the  ])lainest 
expressions,  Mithout  any  ambiguity,  that  we  may  not  jnis- 
take  what  we  desire  to  reniemln'r.  This  is  a  general  rule, 
whether  we  would  employ  the  memory  about  words  or 


IHG  OF    TMPTlOVIXr,    TTTF,    MTMORY. 

tliiii^^s,  lli<»u<;h  it  must  ]ui  confessed  lliat  mere  sounds 
and  Moi'ds  are  nuich  harder  to  get  l»y  li<*art  llian  the 
knowledj^ii  of  things  and  real  images. 

For  thin  reason  fake  herd  (;is  I  have  often  Ix-fore  warned; 
that  you  do  not  take  vp  with  icorda  irnftcad  of  things,  nor  mere 
sounds  instead  of  real  sentiments  and  ideas.  Many  alad 
forgets  what  has  been  taught  him,  merely  Ix'cause  he 
never  well  understood  it;  he  never  clearly  and  distinctly 
took  in  the  meaning  of  those  sounds  and  syllables  which 
he  was  required  to  get  by  heart. 

3.  Method  and  rrf/iil<(rili/  in  the  things  ice  eommit  to  memory, 
is  necessary  in  order  to  make  them  take  more  effectual 
possession  of  the  mind  and  abide  there  long.  As  much 
as  systematical  learning  is  decried  by  some  vain  and 
humorous  tritlers  of  the  age,  it  is  certainly  the  happiest 
Avay  to  furnish  the  mind  with  a  variety  of  knowledge. 

Whatsoever  you  Avould  trust  to  your  memory,  let  it  be 
disjwscd  in  a  proper  method,  connected  well  together,  and 
referred  to  distinct  and  particular  heads  or  classes,  both 
general  and  i)articular. 

An  apothecary's  boy  will  much  sooner  learn  all  the  medicines  ♦ 

in  his  mastery's  shop,  when  tliey  arc  raiifrrd  in  boxes  or  on 
shi'lves  aecordiii'r  to  llieir  distinct  natures,  whether  herbs, 
(hugs,  or  minerals,  wlietlier  leaves  or  roots,  whether  chemical 
or  galenical  preparations,  Mhether  simple  or  compound,  etc., 
and  ^\•hl>n  they  are  placed  in  some  order  according  to  their 
nature,  their  tluidity,  or  their  consistence,  etc.,  in  phials, 
bottles,  gallipots,  cases,  drawers,  etc.;  so  the  genealogy  of  a 
family  is  more  easily  learned  when  you  begin  at  some'great- 
graniU'ather  as  the  root,  and  distinguish  the  stock,  the  large 
boughs,  the  lesser  braiuhes,  the  twigs,  and  the  buds,  till  you 
come  dowu  to  tiic  prrscut  infants  of  the  house.  And,  indeed, 
all  sorts  of  arts  and  seienees  taught  in  a  ui(>tho(l  something  of 
this  kind  are  more  happily  committed  to  the  mind  or  memory. 

4.  A  frequent  review,  and  careful  repetition  of  the  things 
we  would  learn,  and  an  abridgment  of  them  in  a  narrow 
compass  for  this  end,  has  a  great  injluenec  to  fix  them  in  the 
memory :  therefore  it  is  that  the  rules  of  grammar,  and 


OF   IMPROVIXG   THE   MEMORY.  137 

aseful  examples  of  the  vaiialion  of  words,  and  llio 
peculiar  forms  of  speech  in  any  lanffuage,  are  so  often 
appointed  bj'  the  masters  as  lessons  for  the  scholars  to 
be  frequently  repeated ;  and  they  arc  contracted  into 
tables  for  frequent  review,  that  what  is  not  fixed  in  the 
mind  at  first,  may  be  stamped  upon  the  memory  by  a 
peipetual  survey  and  rehearsal. 

Kc'petition  is  so  very  useful  a  practice,  that  ]Mnemon,  even 
from  his  youtli  to  his  old  age,  never  read  a  book  without 
making  sonic  small  points,  dashes,  or  hooks,  in  the 
margin,  to  mark  what  parts  of  tlie  discourse  were  proper  for 
review:  and  when  he  came  to  tlie  end  of  a  section  or  chapter; 
he  always  shut  his  l)Ook  and  recollected  all  the  sentiments  or 
expressions  he  had  remarked,  so  that  he  could  give  a  tolerable 
analysis  and  abstract  of  every  treatise  he  had  read,  just  after  he 
had  finished  it.  Thence  he  became  so  well  furnished  with  a 
rich  variety  of  knowledge. 

Even  when  a  person  is  hearing  a  sermon  or  a  lecture, 
he  may  give  his  thoughts  leave  now  and  then  to  step 
back  so  far  as  to  recollect  the  several  heads  of  it  from  the 
beginning,  two  or  three  times  before  the  lecture  or 
sermon  is  finished:  the  omission  or  the  loss  of  a  sentence 
or  tMo  among  the  amplifications  is  richly  compensated 
by  preserving  in  the  mind  the  method  and  order  of  the 
whole  discourse  in  the  most  important  branches  of  it. 

If  we  would  fix  in  the  memoiy  the  discourses  Ave 
hear,  or  M'hat  we  design  to  speak,  let  us  abstract  them 
into  brief  ct)mpends,  and  review  them  often.  Lawyers 
and  divines  have  need  of  such  assistances:  they  write 
down  short  notes  or  hiids  of  the  priiuMpal  lieads  of  Avliat 
they  desire  to  commit  to  theirmemory  in  ordcrto  pr<'ach 
or  plead,  for  such  abstracts  or  epitomes  may  be  reviewed 
much  sooner,  and  the  several  amplifying  sentiments  or 
sentences  will  be  more  easily  invented  or  recollected  in 
their  proper  places.  The  art  of  short-lmnd  is  of  cxrrUcnt 
use  for  this  as  well  as  other  purposes.  It  must  be 
acknowledged,  that  those  who  scarcely  ever  take  a  i)en. 


138  OF   IMPEOVIXG   THE   MEMORY. 

in  tlioir  luind  to  write  slioi-t  notes  or  hints  of  wliat  thoy 
are  to  speak  or  learn,  who  never  try  to  cast  things  into 
method  or  to  contract  the  survey  of  them  in  order  to 
conunit  them  to  their  menioiy,  had  need  liave  a  double 
degree  of  that  natural  power  of  retaining  and  recollect- 
ing what  they  read,  or  hear,  or  intend  to  speak. 

Do  not  plunge  yourself  into  other  business  or  studies, 
amu.senu'nts  or  recreations,  inmiediately  after  you  have 
attended  upon  instruction,  if  you  can  well  avoid  it. 
Get  time,  if  possible,  to  recollect  the  things  you  have  heard, 
that  they  may  not  be  washed  all  away  from  the  mind  by 
a  torrent  of  other  occurrences  or  engagements,  nor  lost 
in  the  croAvd  or  clamor  of  other  loud  or  importunate 
affairs. 

Talking  over  the  things  which  you  have  read  with 
your  companions  on  the  first  proper  opportunity'  you 
have  for  it,  is  a  most  useful  manner  of  review  or  repeti- 
tion, in  order  to  fix  tliem  upon  the  mind.  Teach  them 
your  younger  friends,  in  order  to  establish  your  own 
'knowledge  while  you  communicate  it  to  them.  The 
animal  powers  of  youi'  tongue  and  of  your  ear,  as  wella^ 
your  intellectual  faculties,  will  all  join  together  to  help 
the  memory.  Hermet as  studied  hard  in  a  remote  corner 
of  the  land,  and  in  solitude,  yet  he  became  a  very  learned 
man.  He  seldom  was  so  happy  as  to  enjoy  suitable 
society  at  home,  and  therefore  he  talked  over  to  the 
fields  and  the  woods  in  the  evening  what  he  had  been 
reading  in  the  day,  and  found  so  considerable  advantage 
by  this  practice  that  he  recommended  it  to  all  his  friends 
since  he  could  set  his  probatum  to  it  for  seventeen  years. 

5.  Flcasnre  and  delight  in  the  things  ice  learn  give  great 
assistance  towards  the  remembrance  of  them.  Whatsoever 
therefore  we  desire  that  a  child  should  commit  to  his 
memory,  make  it  as  pleasant  to  him  as  possible;  endeavor 
to  search  his  genius  and  his  temper,  and  let  him  take  in 


OF  IMPROVING  THE  MEMORY.  139 

the  instnic'tions  you  give  him  or  the  lessons  you  appoint 
him,  as  far  as  may  be,  in  a  way  suited  to  his  natural 
inclination. 

Fabcllus  would  never  learn  any  moral  lessons  till  they  were 
moulded  into  the  form  of  some  liction  or  fable  like  those  of 
^sop,  or  till  they  put  on  tlie  appearance  of  a  parable,  lilce 
those  wherein  our  blessed  Saviour  tauglit  the  ignorant  world  ; 
then  he  remembered  well  the  end)leiuatieal  instructions  that 
were  given  liim,  an<l  leanu'd  to  practice  the  moral  sense  and 
meaning  of  them.  Young  Spectorius  was  taught  virtue  by  set- 
ting i)ef()re  him  a  variety  of  examples  of  the  various  good 
qualities  in  human  life  ;  and  he  was  appointed  daily  to  rejjcat 
some  story  of  this  kind  out  of  Valerius  JUaximus.  The  same  lad 
was  early  instructed  to  avoid  the  common  vices  and  follies  of 
youth  in  the  same  manner.  This  is  akin  to  the  method  where- 
by the  Ijaced;emonians  trained  up  their  children  to  hate  drunk- 
enness and  intemperance,  viz.,  by  bringing  a  drunken  man 
into  their  company  and  showing  tliem  what  a  beast  he  had 
made  of  him.self.  Such  visilile  and  sensible  forms  of  instruc- 
tion will  make  long  and  useful  impressions  ujjon  the  memory. 

Cliildien  may  be  tauglit  to  remember  many  thinfis  in 
a  way  of  sport  and  play.  Some  young  creatures  have 
learned  their  letters  and  syllables,  and  the  pronouncing 
and  spelling  of  words,  by  having  them  pasted  or  written 
upon  many  little  flat  tablets  or  dies.  Some  have  been 
taught  vocabularies  of  different  languages,  having  a  word 
in  one  tongue  written  on  one  side  of  these  tablets,  and 
the  same  word  in  another  tongue  on  the  other  side  of 
them. 

There  might  be  also  many  entertaining  contrivances 
for  the  instruction  of  children  in  several  things  relating 
to  geometry,  geography,  and  astronomj",  in  such  alluring 
and  illusory  methods,  which  would  make  a  mo.st  agree- 
able and  lasting  impression  on  their  minds. 

6.  The  memori/  of  useful  things  may  receive  considerable  aid 
if  they  are  throicn  into  verse  ;  for  the  numbers  and  measures 
and  rhyme,  according  tothepoesy  of  different  languages, 
have  a  considerable  influence  upon  mankind,  both  to 
make  them  receive  with  more  ease  the  things  projiosed 


140  OF  TMr"RoviNc;  Tin:  MK>ronY. 

totlicii-  (»l)S('iv;iti(m.  iiiid  jucscin  <■  llirni  l»»nj;cr  in  tlicir 
rcmcmhraiMM'.  How  iiiaiiy  an'  tlicic  of  llic  conmion 
allaiis  of  liimian  life  whicli  liave  1)<'«mi  tau;ilit  in  rarly 
years  by  the  belp  of  rhyme,  and  have  been  like  nails 
fastened  in  a  sure  plaee  and  riveted  by  daily  use. 

So  the  number  of  the  days  of  each  month  aie  engraven 
on  the  u:^emory  of  thousands  by  these  foiii-  lines  : 

Thirty  days  hatli  Scptonilxr, 
.Tiiiir,  and  April,  ami  November; 
F»'l»ruary  twcnty-eifrht  alone; 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one. 

So  have  rules  of  health  been  prescribed  in  the  book 
called  iSchola  Saleniitani,  and  many  a  person  has  preserved 
himself  doubtless  from  evening  gluttony,  and  the  pains 
and  diseases  consequent  upon  it,  by  these  two  lines: 

Ex  magna  ca^na  stoniacho  fit  maxima  poena: 
Ut  sis  nocte  levis,  sit  tibi  coena  brevis. 

Englished  : 

To  be  easy  all  nifrht 

I^et  your  sui)per  be  lisfht; 

Or  else  you'll  eoni]ilaiu  ' 

Of  a  stomach  in  pain. 

And  a  hundred  proverl>ial  sentences  in  various  lan- 
guages are  formed  into  rhyme  or  a  verse,  whereby  they 
are  made  to  stick  upon  the  memory  of  old  and  young, 

It  is  from  this  ]>rineii)l('  that  moral  rules  have  been  cast  into 
a  poetic  mould  from  all  anticpnty.  So  the  golden  verst's  of  the 
Pythagoreans  in  Cirrek;  C'ato's  tlistiches  Ih  Moi-ihu.^  in  I>atin, 
Lilly's  precejits  to  scholars,  called  (^fi'i  Mi/ii,  with  many  others; 
and  this  has  been  done  with  very  good  success.  A  line  or  two 
of  this  kind,  recurring  on  the  memory,  have  often  guarded 
youth  from  a  temptation  to  vice  and  folly,  as  well  as  put  them 
in  mind  of  their  present  duty. 

7.  It  is  also  by  this  association  of  ideas  that  we  may 
better  imprint  any  new  ideas  upon  the  memory,  by  Join- 
ing icith  it  some  circumstance  of  the  time,  place,  company,  etc., 


OF   i:\rPROVING   THE   MEMORY.  141 

wherein  we  first  observed,  heard,  or  learned  it.  If  we 
would  reeovei"  an  absent  idea,  it  is  useful  to  reeollect 
those  cireunistances  of  time,  place,  etc.  The  substance 
will  many  times  be  recovered  and  brought  to  the  thoughts 
by  recollecting  the  shadow  :  a  man  recurs  to  our  fancy 
by  remembering  his  garment,  his  size  or  stature,  his 
office  or  emi)l()yment,  etc.  A  beast,  bird,  or  fijsh,  by  its 
color,  figure  or  motion,  by  the  cage,  court-yard,  or  cistern 
wherein  it  was  kept. 

To  this  head  also  we  may  refer  that  remembrance  of 
names  and  things  which  may  be  derived  from  our  recol- 
lection of  their  likeness  to  other  things  which  we  know  ; 
either  their  resemblance  in  name,  character,  form, 
accident,  or  anj^  thing  that  belongs  to  them.  An  idea  or 
word  which  has  been  lost  or  forgotten,  has  been  often 
recovered  by  hitting  upon  some  other  kindred  word  or 
idea  which  has  the  nearest  resemblance  to  it,  and  that  in 
letters,  syllables,  or  sound  of  the  name,  as  well  as  proper- 
ties of  the  thing. 

If  we  would  remember  Hippocrates,  or  Galen,  or 
Paracelsus,  think  of  a  physician' s  name  beginning  with  H, 
G,  or  P.  If  we  will  remember  Ovidius  Naso,  wo  may 
lepresent  a  man  with  a  large  nose;  if  I*lato,  we  may  think 
ui)on  a  ])erson  with  large  shoulders,  if  Crispus,  we  shall 
fancy  another  with  curled  hair,  and  so  of  other  things. 

And  some  times  a  new  or  strange  idea  may  be  fixed  in 
the  memory  by  considering  its  contrary  or  opposite'.  So 
if  we  can  not  hit  on  the  word  Goliath,  the  remembrance 
of  David  may  recover  it;  or  the  name  of  a  Trojan  may  be 
recovered  by  thinking  of  a  Greek,  etc. 

8.  In  such  cases  wherein  it  may  be  done,  seek  after  a 
loeal  viernofj/,  or  a  remembrance  of  Avhat  you  have  read  by 
the  side  or  page  Avhere  it  is  written  or  printetl;  Avliether 
the  right  or  the  left,  whether  at  the  top,  the  middle,  or 
the  bottom,  whether  at  the  beginning  of  a  chapter  or  a 


142  OF   IMPT^OYING   THE   MEMORY. 

parn^^'apli,  or  at  Iho  end  of  it.  It  liaslx'cn  some  advan- 
tage, lor  llii.s  reason,  to  accustom  oneself  to  l)ooks  of  the 
same  edition;  and  it  has  been  of  constant  and  special  use 
to  divines  and  private  Christians  to  bo  furnished  with 
several  Bil)les  of  the  same  edition;  that  Mhei-esoeverthey 
are,  wliether  in  their  chamber,  j)arlor,  or  stu«ly.  in  the 
younger  or  elder  years  of  lite,  they  may  find  the  chaptera 
and  verses  standing  in  the  parts  of  the  page. 

This  is  also  a  great  convenience  to  be  observed  by 
printers  in  the  new  editions  of  grammars,  psalms,  Testa- 
ments, etc.,  to  print  every  chapter,  paragraph,  or  verse, 
in  the  same  part  of  the  page  as  the  former,  that  so  it  may 
yield  a  happy  assistance  to  those  young  learners  who 
find,  and  even  feel,  the  advantages  of  a  local  memory. 

9.  Let  every  thing  we  desire  to  remember  be  fairly  and 
distinctly  loritten  and  divided  into  periods,  with  large  charac- 
ters in  the  beginnihg,  for  by  this  means  we  shall  the  more 
readily  imprint  the  matter  and  words  on  our  minds,  and 
recollect  them  with  a  glance,  the  more  remarkal)le  the 
writing  appears  to  the  eye.  This  sense  conveys  the  ideas 
to  the  fancy  better  than  any  other;  and  what  we  haye 
seen  is  not  so  soon  forgotten  as  what  we  have  only 
heard.  A\'hat.  Horace  aliiirms  of  the  mind  or  passions 
may  be  said  also  of  the  memory  : 

Segnius  irritant  animos  domif=sa  per  aurem, 
Quam  quio  sunt  oculis  sulyecta  fldelibus,  et  quae 
Ipse  sibi  tradit  spectator. 

Applied  thus  in  English  : 

Sounds  which  address  the  ear  are  lost  and  die 
In  one  short  hour;  but  that  whieli  strikes  the  eye 
Lives  long  upon  the  mind;  the  faithful  sight 
Engraves  the  knowledge  with  a  beam  of  light. 

For  the  assistance  of  weak  memories  the  first  letters  or 
words  of  every  period,  in  every  page,  may  be  written  in 
distinct  colors:  yellow,  green,  red.  black,  etc. ;  and  if  you 


OF    i:\rPROVING   THE   MEMORY.  1-43 

observe  the  same  order  of  colors  in  the  follo-uino;  sen- 
tences, it  will  be  still  tlie  better.  This  will  make  a 
greater  impression   and  may  much  aid  the  memory. 

Under  this  head  we  may  take  notice  of  the  advantage 
which  the  memory  ffai)is  hi/  having  the  several  ohjeetn  of  our 
harning  dratni  out  into  seheines  and  tables:  niattors  of 
mathematical  science  and  natural  philost)phy  arenotonly 
let  into  the  understanding, but  preservediu  thememory  by 
figures  and  diagrams.  The  situation  of  the  several  i)arts 
of  the  eaith  aie  better  learned  by  one  day's  conversing 
with  Vj  map  or  a  sea-chart,  than  by  merely  reading  the 
description  of  their  situation  a  hundred  times  over  in 
books  of  geography.  So  the  constellations  in  astronomy, 
and  their  positicm  in  the  heavens,  are  more  easily 
remembered  by  hemispheres  of  the  stars  well  drawn.  It 
is  by  having  such  sort  of  memorials,  figures,  and  tables, 
hung  round  our  studies  or  places  of  residence  or  resort, 
that  our  memory  of  these  things  will  be  greatly  assisted 
and  improved,  as  I  have  shown  at  large  in  the  twentieth 
chaptei". 

I  might  add  here  also,  that  once  writing  over  what  we 
design  to  remember,  and  giving  due  attention  to  what 
we  write,  xcill  fix  it  more  in  the  mind  than  reading  d  far 
times.  And  in  the  same  manner,  if  we  had  a  plan  of  the 
naked  lines  of  longitude  and  latitude  projected  on  the 
meridian  printed  for  this  use,  a  learner  might  much 
more  sjx'edily  advance  himself  in  the  knowledge  of 
geography  by  his  own  drawing  the  figures  of  all  the 
parts  of  the  world  upon  it  by  imitation,  than  by  many 
days'  survey  of  a  map  of  the  world  so  printed.  The 
same  may  be  said  also  concerning  the  constellations  of 
heaven,  drawn  by  the  learner  on  a  naked  projection  of 
the  circles  of  the  sphere  upon  the  plane  of  the  eiiuator. 

10.  It  has  sometimes  been  the  practice  of  men  to  im- 
print names  or  sentences  on  their  memory  by  talcing  the 


141  OF   IMI'IiUVlNU   TIU:   MJ'MOEY. 

firnl  k'ltcrs  of  every  word  of  lliut  sentence,  or  of  those 
names,  and  luak'nig  anew  xrord  of  thmi.  So  llie  name  (jf 
tlie  jMaeeabees  is  l)oii()W(<l  from  llie  fiist  letters  of  tlie 
Hebrew  woids,  wliieh  make  llie  sentence  jMI  Camoka 
Bealim  Jehovah,  i.  c,  Who  is  like  thee  among  the  godst 
which  was  written  on  their  banners.  Jesus  Christ  our 
Saviour  has  been  called  a  lish,  in  Greek  ixeii;  by  the 
fathers,  because  these  are  the  first  letters  in  those  Greek 
words,  Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  the  Saviour.  So  the 
word  Vibgyor  teaches  us  to  remember  the  order  of  the 
seven  original  colors,  as  they  appear  by  the  sunbeams 
cast  through  a  prism  on  white  paper,  or  formed  by  the 
sun  in  a  rainbow,  according  to  the  dilTerent  refrangi- 
bility  of  the  rays,  viz.,  violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,  j'ellow, 
orange,  and  red. 

Other  artificial  helps  to  memory  may  be  just  men- 
tioned here. 

Dr.  Grey,  in  his  bonk  called  Mrmnria  Tcr/tnira,  has  ox- 
changed  the  ligurcs  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  (i,  7,  S,  9,  for  some  consonants, 
Ij,  (/,  t,f,  /,  jj,  ]h  k,  n,  and  some  vowels,  ft,  r,  /,  o,  ?/,  an<l  several 
diphtliong!^,  and  tlRMel)y  formed  Mords  that  denote  nunibei-s, 
M'liieh  may  l)e  more  easily  renieml)ered  :  aud  ^Ir.  Lowe  has 
imi)roved  his  scheme  in  a  small  pamphlet  called  Mitrmonics* 
J)(rn}( at( d ;  whereby  in  seven  leaves  he  has  comprised  almost 
an  intinity  of  things,  in  science  and  in  common  life,  and  re- 
duced them  to  a  sort  of  measure  like  Latin  verse  ;  though  the 
words  may  be  supposed  to  be  very  barbarous,  being  such  a 
mixture  of  vowels  and  consonants  as  are  very  unfit  for 
harmony. 

But  after  all,  the  very  writers  on  this  subject  have 
confessed  that  several  of  those  artificial  helps  of  memory 
are  so  cumbersome  as  not  to  be  suitable  to  every  temper 
or  person;  nor  are  they  of  any  use  for  the  delivery  of 
a  discourse  by  memory,  nor  of  much  service  in  learning 
the  sciences:  but  they  may  be  sometimes  practiced  for 
the  assisting  our  remembrance  of  certain  sentences, 
numbers,  aud  names. 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 

OF  DETERMINING  A  QUESTION. 

I.  AViiEX  a  subject  is  pioposed  to  your  thoughts,  con- 
sider whether  it  be  knowable  at  all,  or  not ;  and  then 
whether  it  be  not  above  the  reach  of  your  inquirj'  and 
knowledge  in  the  piesent  state ;  and  remember,  that  it 
is  great  waste  of  time  to  busy  yourselves  too  much 
amongst  unsearohables ;  the  chief  use  of  these  studies  is 
to  keep  the  mind  humble,  by  finding  its  own  ignorance 
and  weakness, 

II.  Consider  again  whether  the  matter  be  worthy 
of  your  inquiry  at  all;  and  then  how  far  it  may  be 
worthy  of  your  present  search  and  labor  according  to 
your  ago,  your  time  of  life,  your  station  in  tbe  world, 
your  capacity,  your  profession,  your  chief  design  and 
end.  There  are  many  things  worth  inquiry  to  one  man, 
which  are  not  so  to  another;  and  there  are  things  that 
may  deserve  the  study  of  the  same  person  in  one  part 
of  life,  which  would  be  improper  or  impertinent  at 
another.  To  read  books  of  the  art  of  preaching,  or  dis- 
X)utes  about  church  discipline,  are  proper  for  a  theolog- 
ical student  in  the  end  of  his  academical  studies,  but  not 
at  the  beginning  of  them.  To  pursue  mathematical 
studies  very  largely  may  be  useful  for  a  professor  of 
philosophy,  but  not  for  a  divine. 

III.  Consider  whether  the  subject  of  your  inquiry 
be  easy  or  difficult ;  whether  you  have  snlllcient  foun- 
dation or  skill,  furniture  and  advantage  for  the  pursuit 
of  it.  It  would  be  madness  for  a  young  statuaiy  to  at- 
tempt at  first  to  carve  a  Venus  or  a  Mercury,  and  espe- 
cially without  proper  tools.     And  it  is  equal  folly  for  a 

10 


]  10  OF   DF,TET?^^TXT\fJ    A    QUESTION. 

man  to  preleud  to  uiiike  great  iiiipiovenieiits  in  natural 
I)liilosoi)liy  Avithout  due  exixTiniciils. 

IV.  Consider  whether  the  subject  be  any  ways 
useful  or  not  IxTore  you  enga^ije  inthc  study  of  it:  often 
put  this  qiu'stiou  to  yourselves  :  C'ui  bono?  To  what  pur- 
pose? Wliat  end  will  it  attain!  Is  it  for  the  gloiy  of 
God,  for  the  good  of  men,  for  your  own  advantage,  for 
the  removal  of  any  natural  or  moral  evil,  for  the  attain- 
ment of  any  natural  or  moral  good?  Will  the  profit  be 
equal  to  the  labor?  There  are  many  subtle  imperti- 
nences learned  in  the  schools;  many  painful  trifles,  even 
among  the  mathematical  theorems  and  problems;  many 
dijfficik's  ni((/a',  or  laborious  follies  of  varioiLS  kinds,  which 
some  ingenious  men  have  been  engaged  in.  A  due  reflec- 
tion upon  these  things  will  call  the  mind  away  from  vain 
amusements,  and  save  much  time. 

A".  Consider  what  tendency  it  has  to  make  you 
wiser  and  better,  as  well  as  to  make  you  more  learned  ; 
and  those  questions  which  tend  to  wisdom  and  prudence 
in  our  conduct  among  men,  as  well  as  piety  toward  God, 
are  doubtless  more  important,  and  preferable  beyond  all 
those  inquiries  which  only  improve  oui-  knowledge  in 
mere  speculations. 

VI.  If  the  question  appear  to  be  well  worth  your  dili- 
gent application,  and  you  are  furnished  with  the  neces- 
sary requisites  to  pursue  it,  then  consider  whether  it 
be  dressed  up  and  entangled  in  more  words  than  is 
needful,  and  contain  or  include  more  complicated  ideas 
than  is  necessary  ;  and  if  so,  endeavor  to  reduce  it  to  a 
greater  simi^licity  and  plainness,  which  will  make  the 
inquiry  and  argument  easier  and  plainer  all  the  way. 

VII.  If  it  be  stated  in  an  improper,  obscure,  or  irreg- 
ular form,  it  may  be  meliorated  by  changing  the  phrase, 
or  traus])osing  the  i)arts  of  it;  but  be  careful  always  to 
keep   the  grand    and  important  point  of  inquiry  the 


OF  DETEEMINlXG  A  QUESTION.  147 

same  in  your  new  statinj^  the  question.  Little  trieks 
and  deceits  of  sophistry,  by  sliding  in  or  leaving  out  such 
words  as  entirely  change  the  question  should  be  al)an- 
doned  and  renounced  by  all  fair  disputants  and  honest 
searchei-s  after  truth. 

The  stating  a  question  with  clearness  and  justice  goes 
a  great  way  many  times  towards  the  answering  it.  The 
greatest  part  of  true  knoMicdge  lies  in  a  distinct  i)ercep- 
tion  of  things  which  are  in  themselves  distinct  ;  and 
some  men  give  more  light  and  knowledge  by  the  bare 
stating  of  the  question  with  persi)icuity  and  justice,  than 
others  l>y  talking  of  it  in  gi-oss  confusion  for  Avhole  hours 
together.  To  state  a  question  is  but  to  separate  and 
disentangle  the  jiarts  of  it  tiom  one  anothei-,  as  well  as 
from  every  thing  which  does  not  concern  the  question, 
and  then  lay  the  disentangled  parts  of  the  question  indue 
oi'der  and  nielhod  ;  oftentimes,  without  more  ado,  this 
fully  resolves  the  doubt,  and  shows  the  mind  where 
the  truth  lies,  without  argument  or  dispute. 

VIII.  If  the  question  relate  to  an  axiom,  or  first 
principle  of  truth,  remember  that  a  long  tiain  of  conse- 
quences may  depend  upon  it  ;  therefore  it  should  not 
be  suddenly  admitted  or  received. 

It  is  not  enough  to  determine  tlie  truth  of  a  proi)osi- 
tion,  much  less  to  raise  it  to  the  honor  of  an  axiom  or 
first  piin('ii)k%  to  say  that  it  has  been  believed  through 
many  ages,  that  it  has  been  received  by  many  nations, 
that  it  is  almost  universally  acknowledged,  or  nobody 
denies  it,  that  it  is  established  by  human  laws,  or  that 
temporal  penalties  or  reproaches  will  attend  the  dis- 
belief of  it. 

IX.  Kor  is  it  enough  to  forbid  any  i^roposition  the 
title  of  axiom,  because  it  has  been  denied  by  some  per- 
sons and  doubted  of  by  othei's;  for  some  ])ersons  have 
been  unreasonably  credulous,  and  others  have  been  ius 


148  OF   DETERMINING   A   QUESTION. 

unreasonably  skeptical.  Then  only  should  a  proposi- 
tion be  called  an  axiom,  or  a  Kell'-evident  truth,  vIhd, 
by  a  nioderalt^  att«'nti<)n  to  the  subject  and  jtH-dicate, 
their  connection  appears  in  so  plain  a  li^dit,  and  so  clear 
an  evidence,  as  needs  no  third  idea,  or  middle  term, 
to  prove  them  to  be  connected. 

X.  While  you  are  in  search  after  trntii  in  questions  of 
a  doubt  Cul  nature,  or  such  as  you  lia\  e  not  yet  thor<>nj:ldy 
examined,  keep  up  a  just  indifference  to  either  side  of 
the  question,  if  you  wouldlie  led  honestly  into  the  truth: 
for  a  ilesire  or  incliuation  leaning  to  either  side  biases 
the  judji^ment  strangely:  whereas  by  this  indifiCereuce  for 
every  thing  but  truth,  you  will  be  excited  to  examine 
fairly  instead  of  i>re-^iiii'i"^  and  your  assent  will  be 
secured  from  going  beyond  your  evidence. 

XI.  For  the  most  part  people  are  born  to  their 
opinions,  and  never  question  the  truth  of  what  their 
family,  or  country,  or  their  party  profess.  The}'  clothe 
their  minds  as  they  do  their  bodies,  after  the  fiishion  in 
vogue,  nor  one  of  a  hundred  ever  examined  their  prin- 
ciples. It  is  suspected  of  lukewarniness  to  suppose  ex- 
amination necessary;  and  it  will  be  charged  as  a  tendency 
to  apostasy,  if  we  go  about  to  examine  them.  Persons 
are  applauded  for  presuming  they  are  in  the  right,  and, 
as  Mr.  Locke  saitli,  he  that  considers  and  inquires  into 
the  reason  of  things  is  counted  a  foe  to  orthodoxy,  be- 
cause possibly  he  may  deviate  from  some  of  the  recei\ed 
doctrines.  And  thus  men,  without  any  industry  or 
acquisition  of  their  own  (lazy  and  idle  as  they  are  >  in- 
herit local  truths,  i.  c,  the  truths  of  that  place  Avherethey 
live,  and  are  inured  to  assent  without  evidence. 

This  hath  a  long  and  unhappy  induence;  for  if  a  man 
can  bring  his  mind  once  to  be  positive  and  fierce  for 
propositions  whose  evidence  he  hath  never  examined, 
and  that  in  matters  of  the  greatest  concernment,  he  will 


OF   DETEEMIXIXG    A    QUESTIOX.  149 

naturally  follow  this  short  and  easy  way  of  jnduinci:  and 
believing  in  cases  of  less  moment,  and  buihl  all  his 
opinions  upon  insufficient  grounds. 

XII.  In  determining  a  question,  especially  when  it  is 
a  matter  of  difficulty  and  importance,  do  not  take  up 
with  partial  examination,  but  turn  your  thoughts  on 
all  sides,  to  gather  iu  all  the  light  you  can  towards  the 
solution  of  it.  Take  time  and  use  all  the  helps  that  are 
to  be  attained,  before  you  fully  determine,  except  only 
where  i)resent  necessity  of  action  calls  for  speedy  deter- 
mination. 

If  you  would  know  what  may  be  called  a  partial  exam- 
ination, take  these  instances,  viz.: 

1.  W/ioi  you  examine  an  object  of  sense  or  inquire  into 
some  matter  of  sensation  at  too  great  a  distance  from  the 
object,  or  in  an  inconvenient  situation  of  it,  or  under  any 
indisposition  of  the  organs  or  any  disguise  whatsoever 
relating  to  the  medium  or  the  organ  of  the  object  itself, 
or  when  you  examine  it  by  one  sense  only,  where  others 
might  be  employed;  or  when  you  inquire  into  it  by 
sense  only,  without  the  use  of  the  understanding,  and 
judgment,  and  reason. 

2.  If  it  be  a  (piestion  which  is  to  be  determined  by 
reason  and  argument,  then  your  examination  is 
partial  iclien  you  turn  the  question  only  in  one  light  and  do 
not  turn  it  on  all  sides:  when  you  look  upon  it  only  in 
its  relations  and  aspects  to  one  sort  of  object,  and  not  to 
another;  when  you  consider  only  the  advantages  of  it, 
and  the  reasons  for  it,  and  neglect  to  think  of  the  reasons 
against  it,  and  never  survey  its  inconveniences  too;  wlien 
you  determine  on  a  sudden,  l)efore  you  have  given  your- 
self a  due  time  for  weighing  all  circumstances,  etc. 

3.  Again,  if  it  be  a  question  of  fact,  depending  upon 
the  report  or  testimony  of  men,  your  examination  is  but 
partial  when  you  incjuire  only  what  one  man  or  a  few 


150  OF   DETKKMIMNG   A   QUE.STION. 

say,  an<l  aAoid  llie  testimony  of  others  ;  vhcn  yotionhjnsk 
vli((l  those  nport  who  vrrc  not  ci/cor  car  witnensrs,  and  tiff/Irct 
those  who  saw  and  heard  it ;  ^vll(•Il  yon  content  yonrself  with 
mere  loose  and  general  talk  about  it,  and  never  enter 
into  particulars  ;  or  when  there  are  many  who  deny  the 
fact,  aiul  you  never  concern  yonself  about  their  reasons 
for  denying  it,  but  resolve  to  believe  only  those  who 
aflirm  it. 

4.  There  is  yet  a  fuHher  fault  in  your  partial  examina- 
tion of  any  question,  when  you  resolve  to  determine  it 
1)1/  natural  reason  o)dy,  where  you  might  be  assisted  by 
suj)ernatural  revelation  ;  or  when  you  decide  the  point 
by  some  word  or  sentence,  or  by  some  part  of.  revelation 
without  comparing  it  with  other  parts,  which  might  give 
further  light   and  better  help  to  determine  the  meaning. 

5.  It  is  also  a  culpable  partUditu,  if  you  examine  some 
doubtful  or  pretended  vision,  or  revelation,  without  the  use 
of  reason^  or  without  the  use  of  that  revelation  which  is 
nndoiibted  and  sulhciently  proved  to  be  di\  ine.  These 
are  all  instances  of  imperfect  examination:  and  we 
should  never  determine  a  question  by  one  or  two  lights, 
where  we  may  have  the  advantage  of  three  or  four. 

XITI.  Take  heed  lest  some  darling  notion,  some 
favorite  hypothesis,  some  beloved  doctrine,  or  some  com- 
mon but  unexamined  opinion,  be  made  a  test  of  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  all  other  propositions  about  the 
same  subject.  Dare  not  build  much  upon  such  a 
notion  or  doctrine  till  it  be  very  fully  examined,  accu- 
rately adjusted,  and  sufficiently  confirmed.  Some  per- 
sons, indulging  such  a  practice,  have  been  led  into  long 
ranks  of  errors ;  they  have  found  themselves  involved  in 
a  train  of  mistakes,  by  taking  up  some  petty  h^iiothesis 
or  i)rinciple,  either  in  philosophy,  politics,  or  religion, 
upon  slight  and  insufficient  grounds,  and  establishing 
that  as  a  test  and  rule  by  which  to  judge  of  all  other 
things. 


OF  DETERMINING   A  QUESTION.  151 

XIV.  For  the  same  reason,  have  a  care  of  suddenly 
determining  any  one  question,  on  which  the  determi- 
nation of  any  kindred  or  parallel  ca«e  will  easily  or 
naturally  follow.  Take  heed  of  receiving  any  wr(  m<x  t  urn 
in  your  early  judgment  of  things  ;  be  watchful  as  far  as 
possible  against  any  false  bias,  which  may  be  given  to 
the  understanding,  esi^ecially  in  younger  -years.  The 
indulgence  of  some  one  silly  oi^inioii,  or  the  giving  credit 
to  one  foolish  fable,  lays  the  mind  opt-n  to  be  imposed 
upon  by  many. 

The  ancient  Romans  Avero  taught  to  believe  that  Eomulus 
and  Renins,  tlie  founders  of  their  state  and  empire,  were  ex- 
pos('d  ill  tlie-Avoods  and  nursed  l)y  a  Avolf  :  tliis  story  prepared 
tlieir  nunds  for  tlie  reeeption  of  any  tales  of  tlie  lilie  nature  re- 
I'lting  to  other  eountries.  Trojus  Ponipeius  would  enforee  the 
bi'lief,  tliat  one  of  the  aneieut  kiutis  of  Spain  was  also  nursed 
and  suekled  by  a  hart,  from  the  I'ahle  of  Romulus  and  Remus. 
It  was  by  the  same  inlluenee  tliey  learned  to  give  up  their 
hopes  and  fears  to  omens  and  soothsaying,  when  they  were 
onee  persuaded  that  tiie  greatness  of  their  empire  and  the  glory 
of  Ronudus  their  founder,  were  predieted  l)y  the  liai)py  omen 
of  twelve  vultures  appearing  to  him  when  he  sought  where  to 
build  the  eity.  They  readily  received  all  the  following  legends, 
of  prodigies,  auguries,  and  prognostics,  for  many  ages  together, 
Avith  whieh  Livy  has  furnished  his  huge  history. 

80  th(;  child  who  is  once  taught  to  believe  any  one 
occurrence  to  be  a  good  or  evil  omen,  or  any  day  of  the 
month  or  week  to  be  lucky  or  unlucky,  hath  a  wide 
inroad  made  on  the  soundness  of  his  understanding  in  the 
following  judgments  of  his  life  ;  he  lies  ever  open  to  all 
the  silly  imi)ressions  and  idle  tales  of  nurses,  and  imbibes 
many  a  foolish  story  with  greediness,  which  In'  must 
unlearn  again  if  he  ever  becomes  acquainted  with  truth 
and  Avisdom. 

XV.  Have  a  care  of  interesting  your  warm  and  re- 
ligious zeal  in  those  matters  which  arc  not  suflTiciently 
evident  in  themselves,  or  Avhich  are  not  fully  and  thor- 
oughly examined  and  proved  ;  for  this  zeal,    whether 


152  OF    DKTEKMTNIXG    A    QT'ESTIOX. 

liinlil  or  wn»n;,f,  wlicn  it  is  oiu'c  oii^^a^^cd  ■will  have  a 
powerful  influence  to  ('stiil)lisli  your  own  iniiids  in  llioso 
(loct lines  Avliicii  are  really  (louhtful,  and  to  stop  up  all 
the  avenues  of  further  light.  This  will  bring  upon  the 
Koul  a  sort  of  sacred  awe  and  dread  of  heresy,  with  a 
divine  coneern  to  maintain  wliatever  opinion  you  have 
espoused  as  divine,  though  perhaps  you  have  espoused 
it  without  any  just  evidence,  and  ought  to  have  re- 
nounced it  as  false  and  pernicious. 

"We  ought  to  be  zealous  for  the  most  important  points 
of  our  religion,  and  to  contend  earnestly  for  the  faith 
once  delivered  to  the  saints  ;  but  we  ought  not  to  employ 
this  sacred  fervor  of  spirit  in  the  ser^^ce  of  any  article 
till  we  have  s<hmi  it  made  out  with  plain  and  strong  con- 
viction, that  it  is  a  necessary  or  important  point  of  faith 
or  practice,  and  is  either  an  evident  dictate  of  the  light 
of  nature,  or  an  assured  article  of  revelation.  Zeal 
must  not  reign  over  the  powers  of  our  understanding, 
but  obey  them  :  God  is  the  God  of  light  and  truth,  a  ( Jud 
of  reason  and  order,  and  He  never  requires  mankind  to 
use  their  natural  faculties  amiss  for  the  support  of  His, 
cause.  Even  the  most  mysterious  and  sublime  doctrines 
of  revelation  are  not  to  be  believed  without  a  just  rejison 
for  it ;  nor  should  our  pious  affections  be  engaged  in  the 
defense  of  them  till  we  have  plain  and  convincing  proof 
that  they  are  certainly  revealed,  though  perhaps  we  may 
never  in  this  world  attain  to  such  clear  and  distinct  ideas 
of  them  as  we  desire. 

XVI.  As  a  warm  zeal  ought  never  to  be  employed  in 
the  defense  of  any  revealed  truth,  till  our  reason  be  well 
convinced  of  the  revelation  :  so  neither  should  wit  and 
banter,  jest  and  ridicule,  ever  be  indulged  to  oppose 
or  assault  any  doctrines  of  professed  revelation,  till 
reason  has  proved  that  they  are  not  really  revealed;  and 
even  then  these  methods  should  be  used  very  seldom,  and 


OF   DETEEMIXIXG   A   QUESTION.  153 

with  the  utmost  caution  and  prudi'ncc.  Eaillery  and  wit 
were  never  made  to  answer  our  inquiries  after  truth,  and 
to  determine  a  question  of  rational  controversy  ;  thou<;h 
they  may  sometimes  be  serviceable  to  expose  to  con- 
tempt those  inconsistent  follies  which  have  been  first 
abundantly  refuted  by  ai'<inment ;  they  serve  indeed  only 
to  cover  nonsense  with  shame,  when  reason  has  first 
proved  it  to  be  mere  nonsensi'. 

It  is  therefore  a  silly  and  most  unreasonable  test 
which  some  of  our  deists  have  intioduccd  to  judjic  of 
divin('  revelation,  viz.,  to  try  if  it  'vill  bear  ridicule  and 
laughter.  They  are  elfectually  beaten  in  all  their  com- 
bats at  the  weapons  of  men,  that  is,  reason  and  arjj^u- 
ment  ;  and  it  would  not  l)e  unjust  (tliough  it  is  a  little 
uncourtly)  to  say  that  they  would  now  attack  our  re- 
ligion with  the  talents  of  a  vile  animal,  that  is,  grin  and 
grimace. 

I  can  not  think  that  a  jester  or  a  monkey,  a  droll 
or  a  pupi^et,  can  be  proper  judges  or  deciders  of  con- 
troversy. That  which  dresses  up  all  things  in  disguise 
is  not  likely  to  lead  us  into  any  just  sentiments  about 
them.  Plato  or  Socrates,  Ciesar  or  Alexander,  might 
have  a  fool's  coat  clapped  upon  any  of  them,  and  jier- 
haps,  in  this  disguise,  neither  the  wisdom  of  the  one, 
nor  the  majesty  of  the  other,  would  secure  them  from  a 
sneer ;  this  treatment  would  never  inform  us  whether 
they  were  kings  or  slaves,  whether  they  weie  fools  (»r 
philosophers.  The  strongest  reasoning,  the  best  sense, 
and  the  i)olitest  thoughts,  may  be  set  in  a  most  ridicu- 
lous light  by  this  grinning  faculty:  the  most  obvious 
axioms  of  eternal  truth  may  be  dressed  in  a  very  foolish 
form,  ami  wraj>i)ed  up  in  artl'ul  absur<lities  by  this  tal- 
ent ;  but  they  are  truth,  and  reason,  and  good  sense;  still. 
Euclid,  with  all  his  demonstrations,  might  be  so  covered 
and  overwhelmed  with  banter,  that  a  beginner  in  the 


154  OF   DETERMININ(J   A   QUESTION. 

imitlunuitics  mif^ht  be  tcmpU'd  to  doubt  whctlicr  liis 
tlu'oivms  were  true  or  not,  ;uk1  to  ini;i;;inc  tlioy  could 
never  be  useful.  So,  weakei'  minds  nii^ht  be  easily  ju-e- 
judieed  aj^ainst  the  noblest  piiiiciples  of  truth  aud;;(Mtd- 
ness;  and  the  younger  i)art  of  mankind  might  be  beat 
otF  from  the  belief  of  the  most  serious,  the  most  rational 
and  important  i)oints,  even  of  natural  religion,  by  the 
imi)ndent  jests  of  a  i)rofane  ^vit.  The  moral  duties  (»f 
the  civil  life,  as  well  as  the  articles  of  Christianity,  may 
be  painted  over  with  the  colors  of  folly,  and  exposed 
upon  a  stage,  so  as  to  ruin  all  social  and  personal  virtue 
among  the  gay  and  thoughtless  part  of  the  world. 

XVII.  It  should  be  observed  also,  that  these  very 
men  cry  out  loudly  against  the  use  of  all  severe  railing 
and  reproach  in  debates,  and  all  penalties  and  perse- 
cutions of  the  state,  in  order  to  convince  the  minds 
and  consciences  of  men,  and  determine  i)oints  of  truth 
and  error.  Now  I  renounce  these  penal  and  smarting 
methods  of  conviction  as  mucli  as  they  do,  and  yet  I 
think  still  these  are  every  whit  as  wise,  as  just,  and  as 
good  for  this  puipose  as  banter  and  ridicule.  Why 
should  public  mockery  in  print,  or  a  merry  joke  upon  a 
stage,  be  a  better  test  of  truth  than  severe,  railing  s;ir- 
casm,  and  public  persecutions  and  penalties?  Why 
should  more  light  be  derived  to  the  understanding  by  a 
song  of  scurrilous  mirth,  or  a  witty  ballad,  than  there  is 
by  a  rude  cudgel?  When  a  professor  of  any  religion  is 
set  up  to  be  laughed  at,  I  cau  not  see  how  this  should 
help  us  to  judge  of  the  truth  of  his  faith  any  better  than 
if  he  were  scourged.  The  jeers  of  a  theater,  the  pil- 
lory, and  the  whij)ping-post  are  very  near  akin.  A\Tien 
the  person  or  his  opinion  is  made  the  jest  of  the  mob,  or 
his  back  the  shambles  of  the  executioner,  I  think  there  is 
no  more  conviction  in  the  one  than  in  the  other. 

XVm.  Besides,  supposing  it  is  but  barely  possible 


OF   DETERMINING   A   QUESTION.  155 

that  the  groat  God  shouUl  reveal  His  iniiid  and  will  1o 
men  by  miracle,  vision,  or  inspiration,  it  is  a  piece  of 
contempt  and  profane  insolence  to  treat  any  toler- 
able or  rational  appearance  of  such  a  revelation  with 
jest  and  laughter,  in  order  to  lind  whether  it  \)v  di\  ino 
or  not.  And  yet,  if  this  be  a  i)roi)er  test  of  revelation, 
it  may  be  proi^erly  applied  to  the  true  as  well  as  the 
false,  in  order  to  distinguish  it.  Suppose  a  royal  procla- 
mation was  sent  to  a  distant  part  of  the  kingdom,  and 
some  of  the  subjects  should  doubt  whether  it  came 
from  the  king  or  not ;  is  it  possible  that  wit  and  ridicule 
should  ever  decide  the  points  Or  would  the  prince  ever 
think  himself  treated  with  just  honor  tt)  have  his  procla- 
mation canvassed  in  this  manner  on  a  public  stage,  and 
become  the  s^jort  of  buffoons,  in  order  to  determine  the 
question.  Whether  it  is  the  word  of  a  king  or  not? 

Let  such  a  sort  of  writers  go  on  at  their  dearest 
l)eril,  and  spoit  themselves  in  their  own  deceivings  ;  let 
them  at  their  i)eril  make  a  jest  at  the  Bil)le,  and  treat 
the  sacred  articles  of  Christianity  with  scolf  and  merri- 
ment :  but  then  let  them  lay  aside  all  their  pretences  to 
reason  as  well  as  religion. 

XIX.  In  reading  philosophical,  moral,  or  religious 
controversies,  nj^ver  raise  your  esteem  of  any  ojiiniou 
by  the  assurance  and  zeal  wherewith  the  author  asserts 
it,  nor  by  the  highest  praises  he  bestows  upon  it ;  nor, 
on  the  other  hand,  let  your  esteem  of  an  oi)inion  be 
abated,  nor  your  aversion  to  it  laised  by  the  supercilious 
contempt  cast  upon  it  by  a  warm  writer,  nor  by  the  sov- 
eueigu  airs  with  which  lu'  condemns  it.  Let  the  force 
of  argument  alone  influence  your  assent  or  dissent. 
Take  care  that  your  soul  be  not  warped  or  biased  on 
one  side  or  the  other  by  any  strains  of  llatteiiug  or 
abusive  language ;  for  there  is  no  question  whatsoever 
but  what  hath  some  such  sort  of  defendei*s  and  opposers. 


156  OF   DETi:UMI.MNG    A    QUKSTION. 

Loavc  tliosc  writers  to  their  own  follies  who  practice 
thus  upon  the  weakness  of  their  readers  without  arj^u- 
menl  ;  leave  them  to  triuin])h  in  their  own  fancied  pos- 
sessions and  victories  :  it  is  oftentimes  found  that  their 
possessions  are  but  a  heap  of  errors,  and  their  boasted 
victories  are  but  overbearing  noise  and  clamor  to  silence 
the  voice  of  truth. 

J u  philosophy  and  i'elif|^ion  the  bigots  of  all  paities 
are  generally  the  most  positive,  and  deal  much  in  this 
sort  of  argunu'ut.  Sometimes  these  are  the  weapons  of 
l)iide,  for  a  hau<ihty  man  supposes  all  his  opinions  to  be 
infallible,  and  imagines  the  contrary  sentiments  are  ever 
ridiculous  and  not  worthy  of  notice.  Sometimes  these 
ways  of  talking  are  the  mere  arms  of  ignorance:  the 
men  who  use  them  know  little  of  the  opjiosite  side  of  the 
question,  and  therefore  they  exult  in  their  ov\n  vain  pre- 
tenses to  knowledge,  as  though  no  man  of  sense  could 
oppose  their  opinions.  They  rail  at  an  objection  against 
their  own  sentiments,  because  they  can  find  no  other 
answer  to  it  but  railing.  And  men  of  learning,  by  their 
excessive  vanity,  have  been  sometimes  tempted  into  the 
same  insolent  practice  as  well  as  the  ignorant. 

Yet  let  it  be  remembered  too,  that  there  are  some 
truths  so  plain  and  evident,  that  the  opposition  to  them 
is  strange,  unaccountable,  and  almost  monstrous ;  and  in 
vindication  of  such  truths  a  writer  of  good  sense  may 
sometimes  be  allowed  to  use  a  degree  of  assurance,  and 
pronounce  them  strongly  with  an  air  of  contidence, 
Avhile  he  defends  them  with  reasons  of  convincing  force. 

XX.  Sometimes  a  question  may  be  proposed  whicii 
is  of  so  large  and  extensive  a  nature,  and  refers  to  such 
a  multitude  of  subjects,  as  ought  not  in  justice  to  be 
determined  at  once  by  a  single  aigunu-nt  or  answer  :  as 
if  one  should  ask  me.  Are  you  a  professed  disciple  of  the 
Stoics  or  the  Platonists  ?    Do  you  receive  an  assent  to 


OF  DETERillNING   A   QUESTION.  157 

the  principles  of  Gassendus,  Descartes,  or  Sir  Isaac 
Kewton  ?  Have  you  chosen  the  hypothesis  of  Tycho  or 
Coi)eniicus?  Have  you  devoted  yourself  to  the  senti- 
ments of  Arminius,  or  Calvin  i  Are  your  notions  ei)is- 
copal,  presbyterian,  or  independent,  etc.  ?  I  think  it 
may  be  very  proper  in  such  cases  not  to  give  an  aiLSM'er 
in  the  gross,  but  rather  to  enter  into  a  detail  of  particu- 
lars and  explain  one's  own  sentiments.  Perhaps  there 
is  no  man,  nor  set  of  men  upou  earth,  whose  sentiments 
I  entirely  follow.  God  has  given  me  reason  to  judge  for 
myself;  and  though  I  may  see  sufficient  ground  to  agree 
to  the  greatest  part  of  the  opinions  of  one  person  or 
party,  yet  it  does  by  no  means  follow  that  I  should  re- 
ceive them  all.  Truth  does  not  always  go  by  the  lump, 
nor  does  error  tincture  and  spoil  all  the  articles  of  belief 
that  some  one  party  professes. 

Since  there  are  difficulties  attending  every  science  of 
human  knowledge,  it  is  enough  for  me  in  the  main  to 
incline  to  that  side  which  has  the  fewest  difficulties ; 
and  I  would  endeavor,  as  far  as  jjossible,  to  correct  the 
mistakes  or  the  harsh  expressions  of  one  ])arty,  by  soft- 
ening and  reconciling  methods,  by  reducing  the  extremes, 
and  by  borrowing  some  of  the  best  principles  or  phrases 
from  another.  Cicero  was  one  of  the  greatest  nuMi  of 
antiquity,  and  gives  us  an  account  of  the  various  oi»inions 
of  i)hiloso])hers  in  his  age  ;  but  he  himself  was  of  the 
eclectic  sect,  and  chose  out  of  each  of  them  such  positions 
as  in  his  wisest  judgment  came  nearest  to  the  truth. 

XXI.  ^\'llen  you  ai-e  called  in  the  course  of  life  or  re- 
ligion to  judge  and  (leteimine  concerning  any  (piestion, 
and  to  affirm  or  deny  it,  take  a  full  survey  of  the  objec- 
tions against  it,  as  well  as  the  arguments  for  it,  as  fai- 
as  your  lime  and  circumstances  admit,  and  see  on  which 
side  the  i)reponderati(»n  falls,  if  either  the  objections 
against  any  proposition,  or  the  arguments  for  the  defense 


158  OF    DKTKKMINIXG    A    QUEHTION. 

ofil,  carry  in  tliciii  iiiosl  undouldcd  evidence,  and  are 
l)laiidy  unaiisworal)l<',  they  will  and  ought  to  constrain 
the  assent,  though  there  may  be  many  seeming  jtrob- 
al»i lilies  on  the  other  side,  "which  at  lirst  sight  ■\voidd 
liattcr  the  judgment  to  favor  it.  But  where  the  reascnis 
on  both  siiles  art^  very  near  of  e(|ual  weight,  there  sus- 
])ension  or  doubt  is  our  duty,  unless  in  cases  wherein 
])resent  detenninal  ion  oi'  ])ractice  is  required,  and  theie 
we  must  act  acc<)iding  to  the  i)resent  ai)i)eaiiug  prepon- 
deration  of  reasons. 

XXII.  In  matters  of  moment  and  importance,  it  is 
our  duty  indeed  to  seek  after  certain  and  conclusive 
arguments  ( iflliey  can  be  found  )  in  oider  to  determine 
a  (question  ;  but  where  the  matter  is  of  little  consequence, 
it  is  not  worth  our  labor  to  spend  much  time  in  seeking 
after  certainties ;  it  is  sufficient  here,  if  probable  reasons 
offer  themselves.  And  even  in  matters  of  greater  ini- 
l)oitance,  especially  where  daily  practice  is  necessary, 
and  where  we  can  not  attain  any  sufficient  or  certain 
grounds  to  determine  a  question  on  either  side,  we  must 
then  take  up  with  such  probable  arguments  as  we  can 
arrive  at.  But  this  general  rule  should  be  observed,  viz. 
to  take  heed  that  our  assent  be  no  stronger,  or  rise  no 
higher  in  the  degree  of  it,  than  the  probable  argument 
will  support. 

XXIII.  There  are  many  things  even  in  religion,  as 
well  as  in  philosophy  and  civil  life,  which  we  believe 
with  very  different  degrees  of  assent;  and  this  is,  or 
should  be.  always  regulated  according  to  the  different 
degrees  of  evidence  which  we  enjoy:  and  ])erhaps  there 
are  a  thousand  gradations  in  our  assent  to  the  things  we 
believe,  because  there  are  thousands  of  circumstances 
relating  to  ditferent  questions,  which  increase  or  diminish 
the  evidence  Ave  ha^  e  concerning  them,  and  that  in  mat- 
ters both  of  reason  and  revelation. 


OF   DETERMINING  A   QUESTION.  159 

This  direction  can  not  be  too  often  repeated,  that  our 
assent  ought  always  to  keep  pace  with  our  evidence ; 
and  our  belief  of  any  proposition  should  never  rise 
higher  tlian  the  proof  or  evidence  we  have  to  support  it, 
nor  should  our  faith  run  faster  than  right  reason  can 
encourage  it. 

XXIV.  Perhaps  it  will  be  objected  here,  W^hy  then 
does  our  Saviour,  in  tlie  liistories  of  the  Gosjiel  so 
much  commend  a  strong  faith,  and  lay  out  both  His 
miraculous  benetits  and  His  praises  upon  some  of  those 
poor  creatures  of  little  reasoning  who  professed  an  as- 
sured belief  of  His  commission  and  power  to  heal  tlieni  ? 

I  answer  the  God  of  nature  has  given  every  man  his 
own  reason  to  be  the  judge  of  e\  idenee  to  himself  in 
particular,  and  to  direct  his  assent  in  all  things  about 
which  he  is  called  to  judge  ;  and  even  the  matters  of 
revelation  are  to  be  believed  by  us  because  our  reason 
pronounces  the  revelation  to  be  true.  Therefoie,  the 
great  God  will  not,  or  can  not,  in  any  instance,  require 
us  to  assent  to  any  thing  without  reasonable  or  suffi- 
cient evidence;  nor  to  believe  anj^  i)roi)osition  more 
strongly  than  what  our  evidence  for  it  will  support.  We 
have  therefore  abundant  ground  to  believe,  that  those 
persons  of  whom  our  Saviour  requires  such  strong  l\iith, 
or  whom  He  commends  for  their  strong  faith,  had  as 
strong  and  certain  evi(U'nce  of  His  power  and  commission 
from  the  credible  and  incontestable  reports  they  had 
heard  of  His  miracles,  which  were  wrought  on  purpose 
to  give  eviden(;e  to  His  commission.  Now  in  sucli  a 
case,  both  this  strong  faith  and  the  open  profession  of  it 
were  very  worthy  of  public  encouragement  and  praise 
from  our  Saviour,  because  of  the  great  and  ]niblic  op- 
position which  the  magistrates,  and  the  i)riests,  and 
the  doctors  of  tln^  age  made  against  Jesus,  the  man  of 
Kazareth,  when  He  appeared  as  the  Messiah. 


160  OF  DETERMINING   A   QUESTION. 

And  besides  this  it  may  be  irjisoiialjly  sujiftosed,  wilh 
regard  to  some  of  those  strong  exercises  of  faith  which 
are  required  and  commended,  that  these  belii'vers  had 
some;  further  liints  of  inward  evidence  and  immediate 
rcvehilion  from  (Jod  Himself;  as  wlien  St.  Peter  con- 
fesses Christ  to  be  the  ^oii  of  God,  Mutt.  Hi  :  1(>,  17,  our 
blessed  Saviour  commends  him  saying,  "Blessed  art 
thou,  Simon  r)arjona  ;  "  but  lie  adds,  "  Flesh  and  l)lood 
hath  n<.t  revealed  it  unto  thee,  but  my  Father  who  is  in 
heaven." 

And  the  same  may  be  said  concerning  the  faith  of 
miracles,  the  exercise  whereof  was  sometimes  recjuired 
of  the  discipUs  and  others,  ?.  e.,  when  by  inward  and 
divine  inlluences  (iod  assured  them  such  miracles  should 
be  wrought,  their  obedience  to  and  compliance  with 
these  divine  illuminations  was  expected  and  commended. 
!Now  this  supernatural  inspiration  carried  suflieient  evi- 
dence with  it  to  them,  as  well  as  to  the  ancient  i>rophets, 
though  we  who  never  felt  it  are  not  so  capable  to  judge 
and  distinguish  it. 

XXV.  What  is  said  before  concerning  truth  or  doc- 
trines, may  be  also  confirmed  concerning  duties ;  the" 
reason  of  both  is  the  same;  as  the  one  are  truths  for 
our  speculation,  the  others  are  truths  for  our  practice. 
Duties  which  are  expressly  required  in  the  plain  lan- 
guage of  Scripture  or  dictated  by  the  most  evident 
reasoning  upon  first  principles,  ought  to  bind  our  con- 
sciences more  than  those  which  are  but  dubiously  in- 
ferred, and  that  only  from  occasional  occurrences,  in- 
cidents, and  circumstances:  as  for  instance.  I  am  certain 
that  I  ought  to  pray  to  God;  my  conscience  is  bound  to 
tliis,  because  there  are  most  evident  conmiands  for  it  to 
be  found  in  Scripture,  as  well  as  to  be  derived  from  rea- 
son. I  believe  also,  that  I  may  ])ray  to  God  either  by  a 
written  form  or  without  one,  because  neither  reason  nor 


OF    DETERMIXrXa    A    QUESTIOX.  161 

revelation  expressly  requires  either  of  these  modes  of 
prayer  at  all  times,  or  forbids  the  other.  I  eaii  not, 
therefore,  bind  my  conscience  to  practice  the  one  so  as 
utterly  to  renounce  the  other;  but  I  ■would  practice 
either  of  them  as  my  reason  and  other  circumstances 
direct  me. 

XXYI.  ATe  may  observe  these  three  rules  in  judging 
of  probabilities  which  are  to  be  determined  by  reason, 
relalinc^  either  to  things  past  or  things  to  come, 

1.  TJud  icJiich  agrees  most  with  the  eonstUntion  of  nature 
carries  the  greatest  probability  in  it,  Avnere  no  other 
circumstance  appears  to  counterpoise  it:  as  if  I  let  loose 
a  greyhound  within  sight  of  a  hare  upon  a  large  plain, 
there  is  great  probability  the  greyhound  will  seize  her  ; 
a  thousand  sparrows  will  fly  away  at  the  sight  of  a 
hawk  among  them. 

2.  That  ichich  is  most  eomformable  to  the  constant  observation 
of  men,  or  to  exj^cn-iment  frequently  rejieated,  is  most 
likely  to  be  true:  as  that  a  winter  will  not  pass  awaj'  in 
England  without  some  frost  and  snow;  that  if  you  deal 
out  great  quantities  of  strong  liquor  to  the  mob,  there 
will  l)e  many  drunk;  that  a  large  assembly  of  men  will 
be  of  dillerent  opinions  in  any  doubtful  point  ;  that  a 
thief  will  make  his  escape  out  of  prison  if  the  doors  of  it 
are  unguarded  at  midnight. 

3.  In  matters  of  fact,  which  are  past  or  present,  where 
neither  nature,  nor  observation,  ntu-  custom,  gives  us 
any  suihcient  infcuniation  on  either  side  of  the  question, 
there  ice  may  derive  a  probability  from  the  attestation  of  ivise 
and  honest  men,  by  word  or  writing,  or  the  concurring 
witnesses  of  multitudes  who  have  seen  and  known  what 
they  relate,  etc.  This  testimony  in  many  cases  will  arise 
to  the  degree  of  moral  certainty.  So  we  believe  that  the 
tea-plant  grows  in  China  ;  and  that  the  Emperor  of  the 
Turks  lives  at  Constantinople ;  that  Julius  Ciesar  con- 

11 


102  OF    DETEKMTXTNf;    A    «,>n:STIOX, 

(|U('ro(l  France;  that  .Icsus  our  Saviour  lived  and  died 
in  Judea;  that  thousands  Aveje  convert(;d  to  th<-  Chris- 
tian faith  in  a  century  after  the  death  of  Christ ;  and  that 
the  books  -wliich  contain  the  Christian  relij^ion  are  cer- 
tain histories  and  ei)isth'S  which  were  written  above  a 
thousand  years  aj?o  Tliere  is  an  infinite  vaii«'ty  of  sucli 
propositions  which  can  admit  of  no  reasonable  doubt, 
thouj^li  they  are  not  matters  which  are  directly  evident 
to  our  own  senses  or  our  mei-e  n'asoniufj  powers. 

XXYII.  "When  a  i)oint  hath  been  well  examined,  and 
our  own  judgment  settled  upon  just  arguments  in  our 
manly  age,  and  after  a  large  survey  of  the  merits  of  the 
cause,  it  would  be  a  weakness  for  us  always  to  continue 
iluttering  in  suspense.  We  ought  therefore  to  stand 
firm  in  such  well-established  principles,  and  not  1)6 
tempted  to  change  and  alter  for  the  sake  of  every  diffi- 
culty, or  every  occasional  objection.  We  are  not  to  be 
carried  about  with  eveiy  Hying  doctrine,  like  children 
tossed  to  and  fro,  and  wavering  with  the  wind.  It  is  a 
good  thing  to  have  the  heart  established  with  grace,  not 
wdth  meats ;  that  is,  in  the  great  doctrines  of  the  Gosp^ 
of  grace,  and  in  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  the  same  yesterday, 
to-day,  and  for  ever;  but  it  is  not  so  necessary  in  the 
more  minute  matters  of  religion,  such  as  meats  and  drink, 
forms  and  ceremonies,  which  are  of  less  importance,  and 
for  which  Scrii^ture  has  not  given  such  express  directions. 
This  is  the  advice  of  the  great  apostle,  Eph.  14;  Heb. 
13 :  8,  9. 

In  short,  those  truths  which  are  the  springs  of  daily 
practice  should  be  settled  as  soon  as  we  can  with  the 
exercise  of  our  best  powers  after  the  state  of  manhood  : 
but  tlnxse  things  wherein  we  may  possibly  mistake  should 
never  be  so  absolutely  and  finally  established  and  deter- 
mined as  though  we  were  infallible. 

XXYIII.  But  let  us  remember  also,  that  though  the 


CAUSES   AND  EFFECTS.  1G3 

Gospel  be  an  infallible  revelation,  we  are  but  fallible  in- 
terpreters when  we  determine  tlie  sense  even  of  some 
important  propositions  written  there ;  and.  therefore, 
though  M'C  seem  to  .be  established  in  {he  belief  of  any 
partieular  sense  of  Scripture  and  though  there  may  be 
just  calls  of  Pi()\'i(lence  to  profess  and  snljscribe  it,  yet 
there  is  no  need  that  we  should  resolve  or  promise, 
subscribe  or  swear,  never  to  change  our  mind,  since  it 
is  ])ossible,  in  the  natuic  and  couise  of  things,  we  may 
uieet  with  such  a  solid  and  substantial  objection  as  may 
give  us  a  quite  different  view  of  things  from  what  we 
once  imagined,  and  we  may  lay  before  us  sulhcieut 
evidence  of  the  contrarj'.  "NVe  may  happen  to  find  a  fairer 
light  cast  over  the  same  Scriptures  and  sec  reason  to 
alter  our  sentiments  even  in  some  points  of  moment. 
Sic  sentio,  sic  sentiam,  1.  e.,  so  I  believe,  aud  so  I  will  be- 
lieve, is  the  prison  of  the  soul  for  life-time  and  a  bar 
against  all  the  improvements  of  the  mind.  To  impose 
such  a  profession  on  other  men  in  matters  not  absolulely 
necessary,  and  not  absolutely  certain,  is  a  criminal  usur- 
pation and  tyranny  over  faith  and  conscience,  and  which 
none  has  power  to  require  but  an  infallil)le  dictator. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

OF  INQUIRING  INTO  CAUSES  AND  EFFECTS. 

Some  effects  are  found  out  by  their  causes,  and  some 
causes  by  their  cilecls.     Let  us  consider  both  these. 

J.  When  we  are  inquiring  into  the  cause  of  any 
particular  effect  or  api)earance,  either  in  the  woild  of 
nature,  or  in  the  civil  or  moral  concerns  of  men,  we  may 
follow  this  method: 

1.  Consider  w7/rt/  effects  or  appearances  yoM //rnr  A«ojr« 
of  a  kindred  nature,  and  what  have  been  the  certain  and 


164  CAUSES    AND    EFFIXTS. 

real  causes  of  tlirm  ;  for  like;  cfiecls  liave  generally  like 
causes,  especially  ^vllen  Ihcy  aie  found  in  (he  same  sort 
of  sul)jccts. 

2.  Consider  ic/uil  arc  the  ncvcral po^miblc  camc.H  whicli  may 
produce  such  an  effect,  and  find  out  bj-  some  circum- 
stances lioM"  many  of  thos(;  possible;  causes  are  excluded 
in  this  particular  case :  Thence  proceed  by  degrees  to  the 
probable  causes,  till  a  more  close  attention  and  inspec- 
tion shall  exclude  some  of  them  also,  and  lead  you 
gradually  to  the  real  and  certain  cause. 

3.  Consider  ichat  ihingH  i^rereded  such  an  event  or 
appearance,  which  might  have  any  inlluence  upon  it; 
and  though  we  can  not  certainly  determine  the  cause 
of  any  thing  only  from  its  going  before  the  effect,  yet 
among  the  many  forerunners  -we  may  probably  light  upon 
the  true  cause  by  further  and  more  particular  inquiry. 

4.  Consider  whether  o)ie  cause  be  sufficient  to  produce  the 
effect,  or  whether  it  does  not  require  a  concurrence  of 
several  causes;  and  then  endeavor  as  far  as  possible  to 
adjust  the  degrees  of  influence  that  each  cause  might 
have  in  producing  the  effect,  and  the  proper  agency  and 
influence  of  each  of  them  therein. 

So  in  natural phiUtsophy^  if  I  would  tind  what  are  prin- 
ciples or  causes  of  that  sensation  which  we  call  heat 
when  I  stand  near  the  fire;  here  I  shall  find  it  is  necessary 
that  there  be  an  agency  of  the  particles  of  fire  on  my 
flesh,  either  mediately  by  themselves,  or  at  least  bj'  the 
intermediate  air;  there  must  be  a  particular  sort  of 
motion  and  vellication  impressed  upon  my  nerves ;  there 
must  be  a  derivation  of  that  motion  to  the  brain;  and 
there  must  be  an  attention  of  my  soul  to  this  motion;  if 
either  of  these  are  wanting,  the  sensation  of  heat  will  not 
be  i^roduced. 

So  in  the  moral  icorld,  if  I  inquire  into  the  revolution  of 
a  state  or  kingdom,  perhaps  I  find  it  brought  about  by 


CAUSES   AND   EFFECTS.  165 

the  tyranny  and  folly  of  a  prince,  or  by  the  disaffection 
of  his  own  subjects;  and  this  disaffection  and  oi)position 
may  arise  either  ni^on  the  account  of  inix)ositioiis  in 
religion,  or  injuries  relating  to  their  civil  rights;  or  the 
revolution  may  be  effected  by  the  invasion  of  a  foreign 
army,  or  by  the  opposition  of  some  peison  at  home  or 
abroad  that  lays  claim  to  the  government,  etc.,  or  a  hero 
M'ho  would  guard  the  liberties  of  the  people;  or  by  many 
of  these  concurring  together:  then  we  must  adjust  the 
influences  of  each  as  wisely  as  we  can,  and  not  ascribe 
the  whole  event  to  one  of  them  alone. 

11.  'When  we  are  inquiring  into  the  effects  of  any 
particular  cause  or  causes,  we  may  follow  this  method: 

1.  Consider  diligently  the  nature  of  every  cause  ajxni, 
and  observe  what  effect  every  j^art  or  property  of  it  will 
tend  to  produce. 

2.  Consider  the  causes  united  together  in  their  several 
natures,  and  ways  of  operation:  inquire  how  far  tlic 
powers  or  proj^erties  of  one  will  hinder  or  promote  the 
effects  of  the  other,  and  wisely  balance  the  propositions 
of  their  influence. 

3.  Consider  what  the  subject  is,  in  or  upon  which  the 
cause  is  to  operate  :  for  the  same  cause  on  different  sub- 
jects Mill  oftentimes  produce  different  effects;  as  the  sun 
which  softens  wax  will  harden  clay. 

4.  Be  frequent  and  diligent  in  making  all  proper  ex- 
periments, in  setting  such  causes  at  tcorJc,  ichose  effects  yon 
desire  to  know,  and  putting  together  in  an  oiderly  mauiuT 
such  things  as  are  most  likely  to  i^roduce  some  useful 
effects,  according  to  the  best  survey  you  can  take  of  all 
the  concurring  causes  and  circumstances. 

5.  Observe  carefully  all  the  events  which  happ<'n  either 
by  an  occasional  concurrence  of  various  causes,  or  by 
the  industrious  applications  of  knowing  men  :  and  when 
you  see  any  happy  effect  certainly  ijroduced,  and  often  re- 


V 


1C6  CAUSES  AND   KFFEf'TS. 

pcatod,  frrasiirr  it  vp,  lo^jetlxT  Avilli  Um;  known  causes 
of  it,  imionj;st  yi»ur  iniprovcnicnts, 

(>.  Take  a  just  unrvnj  of  all  t/ie  circunvftancrs  which  at- 
tend tlie  operation  of  any  cause  or  causes,  whereby  any 
special  effect  is  j^roduced  :  and  find  out  as  far  as  pc^ssible 
how  far  any  of  those  circumstances  had  a  tendency 
either  to  obstruct,  promote  or  chant^c  those  operations, 
and  consequently  how  fur  the  effect  might  be  inlluenced 
by  them. 

1)1  this  maniujr  physicicois  practice  and  improve  their 
skill.  They  consider  the  vai-ioiLS  known  effects  of  par- 
ticular herbs  or  drugs,  they  meditate  what  will  be  the 
effects  of  their  composition,  and  whether  the  virtues  of 
the  one  "will  exalt  or  diminish  the  force  of  the  other,  or 
correct  any  of  its  noceut  fiualities.  Then  they  observe 
the  native  constitution,  and  the  present  temper  or  cir- 
cumstances of  the  patient,  and  what  is  likely  to  be  the 
effect  of  such  a  medicine  on  such  a  patient.  And  in  all 
uncommon  cases  they  make  wise  and  cautioiLS  experi- 
ments, and  nicely  observe  the  effects  of  i)articular  com- 
pomid  medicines  on  different  constitutions  and  in  differ- 
ent diseases,  and  by  these  treasures  of  just  observations 
they  grow  up  to  an  honorable  degree  of  skill  in  the  art 
of  healing.  So  the  j)reacher  considers  the  doctrines  and 
reasons,  the  precepts,  the  promises  and  threatenings  of 
the  word  of  God,  and  Avhat  are  the  natural  effects  of  them 
upon  the  mind ;  he  considers  what  is  the  natural  ten- 
dency of  such  a  virtue,  or  such  a  vice;  he  is  well  ap- 
prised that  the  representation  of  some  of  these  things 
may  convince  the  understanding,  some  may  terrify  the 
conscience,  some  may  allure  the  slothful,  and  some  en- 
couiage  the  desponding  mind ;  he  observes  the  temper 
of  his  heareis,  or  of  any  particular  person  that  converses 
with  him  about  things  sacred,  and  he  judges  what  will 
be  the  effects  of  each  representation  on  such  pei-sons ;  he 


METHODS  OF  TEArilTNO,  1G7 

reviews  and  recollects  what  have  been  the  effects  of  some 
Kl^ecial  parts  and  methods  of  his  ministry;  and  by  a 
careful  survey  of  all  these  he  attains  greater  degrees  of 
skill  in  his  sacred  employment. 

Xote:  In  all  these  cases  we  must  distinguish  those 
causes  and  effects  which  are  naturally  and  necessarily 
connected  with  each  other,  from  those  Mliich  have  only 
an  accidental  or  contingent  connection.  Even  in  those 
causes  where  the  effect  is  but  contingent,  we  may  some- 
times arrive  at  a  very  high  degree  of  probability ;  yet 
we  can  not  arrive  at  such  certainty  as  where  the  causes 
operate  l)y  an  evident  and  natuial  necessity,  and  the 
effects  necessarily  follow  the  operation. 


CHAPTER   XYI. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  AND  READING  LECTURES. 

I.  He  that  has  learned  any  thing  thoroughly,  in  a 
clear  and  methodical  maniici-,  and  lias  attained  a  distinct 
perception,  and  an  amijle  survey  of  the  whole  subject, 
is  generally  best  prepared  to  teach  the  same  subject 
in  a  dear  and  easy  method  :  for  having  acquired  a 
large  and  distinct  idea  of  it  himself,  and  made  it  familiar 
to  him  by  frequent  meditation,  reading,  and  occasional 
discourse,  he  is  supposed  to  see  on  all  sides,  to  grasp  it, 
with  all  its  appendices  and  relations,  in  one  survey,  and 
is  better  able  to  represent  it  to  the  learner  in  all  its 
views,  with  all  its  properties,  relations,  and  conse- 
quences, lie  knows  which  view  or  side  of  a  subject  to 
hold  out  first  to  his  disciple,  and  how  to  projiose  to  his 
nnderslanding  that  i)art  of  it  which  is  easiest  to  appr<'- 
hend;  and  also  knows  how  to  set  it  in  such  a  light  as  is 
most  likely  to  allure  and  to  assist  his  liulher  iiuiuiry. 


168  METHODS  OF  TF,AfnTXO. 

TI.  But  it  is  not  ovory  one  who  is  a  f^roat  scliolar  that 
always  becomes  the  Iiappiest  teacher,  even  thouj^h  lie 
may  have  a  clear  conc<'ption,  and  a  methodical  as  well 
as  ail  e\teiisi\-e  survey  of  llui  l)i"incli('s  of  any  science. 
He  must  also  be  well  acquainted  with  words,  as  well 
as  ideas,  in  a  proper  variety,  that  when  his  disciple  does 
not  take  in  the  ideas  of  one  form  of  expression,  he  may 
change  the  j^hrase  into  several  forms,  till  at  last  he  hits 
the  understanding  of  his  scholar  and  enlightens  it  in 
the  just  idea  of  truth. 

III.  Besides  this,  a  tutor  should  be  a  person  of  a 
happy  and  condescending  temper,  who  has  jiatience  to 
bear  with  a  slowness  of  perception  or  want  of  sagacity 
in  some  learners.  He  should  also  have  much  candor 
of  soul  to  pass  a  gentle  censure  on  their  impertinences, 
and  to  pity  them  in  their  mistakes,  and  use  every  mild 
and  engaging  method  for  insinuating  knowledge  into 
those  who  are  willing  and  delight  in  seeking  truth,  as 
well  as  reclaiming  those  who  are  wandering  in  error. 

But  of  this  I  have  spoken  somewhat  already  in  a 
former  chapter,  and  shall  have  occasion  to  exj^ress  some-» 
what  more  of  it  shortly. 

IV.  A  very  pretty  and  useful  way  to  lead  a  person 
into  any  particular  truth  is,  by  questions  and  answers, 
which  is  the  Socratical  method  of  disputation.  On 
this  account  dialogues  are  used  as  a  polite  and  pleasant 
mode  of  leading  gentlemen  and  ladies  into  some  of  the 
sciences,  who  seek  not  the  most  accurate  and  methodical 
measure  of  learning. 

Xow,  the  advantages  of  this  method  are  very  con- 
siderable. 

1.  It  represents  the  form  of  a  dialogue  or  common 
conversation,  which  is  a  much  more  easy,  more  pleasant, 
and  a  more  sprightly  way  of  instruction,  and  more  fit  to 
excite  the  attention  and  sharpen  the  penetration  of  the 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING.  IGO 

learner,  tlian  solitary  readini?  or  silent  attention  to  a 
lecture.  Man,  beinjj^  a  sociable  creature,  delij;Lts  more 
in  conversation,  and  learns  better  this  way,  if  it  could 
always  be  wisely  and  happily  practiced. 

2.  This  method  hath  nomdhing  very  ohliging  in  ?7,  and 
carries  a  very  humble  and  condescending  air,  when  lie 
that  instructs  seems  to  be  the  inquirer,  and  seeks  inlbr- 
matiou  from  him  who  learns. 

3.  It  leads  the  learner  into  the  knowledge  of  ti-uth  as 
It  were  by  his  own  invention,  which  is  a  very  pleasing 
thing  to  human  nature:  and  by  c[uestions  pertinently 
and  artificially  projiosed,  it  does  as  effectually  draw  him 
on  to  discover  his  own  mistakes,  which  he  is  much  more 
easily  i:)ersuadcd  to  relinquish  when  he  seems  to  have 
discovered  them  himself. 

4.  It  is  managed  in  a  great  measure  in  the  form  of  the 
most  easy  reasoning,  always  arising  from  something  as- 
serted or  knoMii  in  the  foregoing  answer,  and  so  i)ro- 
cceding  to  incpiire  something  unknown  in  the  following 
question,  which  again  makes  way  for  the  next  answer. 
Kow,  such  an  exercise  is  very  alluring  and  entertaining 
to  the  understanding,  while  its  own  leasuning  p()w<'i's 
are  all  along  employed,  and  that  without  labor  or  dilU- 
culty,  because,  the  querist  finds  out  and  proposes  all  the 
intermediate  ideas  or  middle  terms. 

V.  But  the  most  useful,  and  perhaps  the  most  ex- 
cellent way  of  instructing  students  in  any  of  the  sciences, 
is  by  reading  lectures,  as  tutors  in  the  academy  do  to 
their  i)upils. 

The  first  work  is  to  choose  a  book  well  written,  which 
contains  a  short  scheme  or  abstract  of  that  science,  or 
at  least  it  should  not  be  a  very  copious  and  diffusive 
treatise.  Or  if  the  tutor  knows  not  any  such  book  al- 
ready written,  he  should  draw  up  an  abstract  of  that 
science  himself,  containing  the  most  substantial  and  ini- 


170  METIIODK  OF  Ti:.uiii.\<;. 

portaut  parts  of  it,  disposed  in  such  a  method  as  he  best 
ai)pioves. 

Let  a  chapter  or  section  of  this  be  read  daily  by  the 
learner,  on  uliich  the  tntor  shonld  i)araphja.se  in  lliis 
manner,  namely  : 

VI.  He  should  explain  both  words  and  ideas  more 
largely ;  and  especially  what  is  dark  and  difficult 
should  be  opened  and  illustrated,  i)artly  by  various 
forms  of  speech,  and  partly  by  ai)t  similitnd«*s  and  ex- 
amples. Where  the  sense  of  the  author  is  dubious,  it 
must  also  be  fixed  and  determined. 

Where  the  arguments  are  strong  and  cogent,  they 
should  be  enforced  by  some  further  paraphrase,  and  the 
truth  of  the  inferences  should  be  made  i)lainly  to  appear. 
Where  the  arguments  are  weak  and  insutheient,  they 
should  be  either  confirmed  or  rejected  as  useless ;  and 
new  arguments,  if  need  be,  should  be  added  to  support 
that  doctrine. 

AVhat  is  treated  veiy  concisely  in  the  author  should 
be  amplified  :  and  where  several  things  are  laid  closely 
together,  they  must  be  taken  to  pieces  and  opened  by 
parts.  • 

Where  the  tutor  differs  from  the  author  which  he 
reads,  he  should  gently  point  out  and  confute  his  mis- 
takes. 

Where  the  method  and  order  of  the  book  is  just  and 
happy,  it  should  be  pursued  and  commended  ;  where  it 
is  defective  and  irregular,  it  should  be  corrected. 

The  most  necessary,  the  most  remarkable  and  useful 
parts  of  that  treatise,  or  of  that  science,  should  be  pecu- 
liarly recommended  to  the  learners  and  pressed  upon 
them  that  they  would  retain  it  in  memory  ;  antl  what  is 
more  necessary  or  superfluous  shouhl  be  distinguished, 
lest  the  learner  should  spend  too  much  time  in  the  more 
needless  parts  of  a  science. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHIXG.  171 

The  various  ends,  uses,  and  services  of  that  science, 
or  of  any  part  of  it,  sliould  also  be  declared  and  exem- 
l)lified,  as  far  as  the  tutor  hath  «i)p()rtunity  and  furni- 
ture to  doit;  i)articularly  in  mathematics  and  natural 
X)hilosopliy. 

Ami  if  there  be  any  thinj?  remarkably  beautiful  or 
defective  in  the  style  of  the  writer,  it  is  proj)er  for  the 
tutor  to  make  a  just  remark  ui)on  it. 

While  he  is  reading  and  exijlaining  any  particular 
treatise  to  his  pupils,  he  may  compare  the  different  edi- 
tions of  the  same  book,  or  diffeient  writers  upon  the 
same  subject ;  he  should  inform  them  wheie  that  subject 
is  treated  by  other  authors  which  they  may  peruse,  and 
lead  his  disciples  thereby  to  a  further  elucidation,  con- 
firmation, or  improvement  of  that  theme  of  discourse  in 
which  he  is  instructing  them. 

VII.  It  is  alluring  and  agreeable  to  the  learner  also, 
now  and  then,  to  be  entertained  with  some  historical  re- 
marks on  any  occurrences  or  useful  stories  -which  the 
tutor  has  met  with,  relating  to  the  se\'eral  i)arts  of  such 
a  science  ;  provided  he  does  not  put  olf  his  pupils  merely 
with  such  stories,  and  neglect  to  give  them  a  solid  and 
rational  information  of  the  theme  in  hand.  Teachers 
should  endeavor,  as  far  as  jjossible,  to  join  profit  and 
pleasure  together,  an<l  mingle  delight  with  tlu-ir  in- 
structions, but  at  the  same  time  they  must  take  heed 
that  they  do  not  merely  amuse  the  ears  and  gi-atify  the 
fancy  of  their  disci[)les  without  enricliing  their  minds. 

In  reading  lectui'cs  of  inst luction,  let  the  teacher  be 
very  solicitous  that  the  learners  take  up  his  meaning ; 
and  therefore  he  should  frequently  impiire  whether  he 
expresses  himself  intelligibly?  Avhether  they  understand 
his  sense,  and  take  in  all  his  ideas  as  he  endcaxors  to 
convey  them  in  his  own  forms  of  speech  f 

VIII.  It  is  necessary  that  he  who  instructs  others 


172  METHODS   OF   TEAflTINT,. 

should  use  the  most  proper  style  for  the  conveyance 
of  liis  ideas  easily  into  the  minds  of  those  who  hear  him; 
and  thon.u^h  in  tcachint^  the  sciences,  a  jxTSfin  is  not  con- 
lined  to  the  same  rnles  l)y  which  we  must  govern  our 
language  in  conversation,  for  he  must  necessarily  make 
use  of  many  terms  of  art  and  hard  words,  yet  he  should 
never  use  them  merely  to  show  his  leiirning,  n(jr  affect 
sounding  language  witliout  necessity,  a  caution  which  we 
shall  further  inculcate  anon. 

I  think  it  very  convenient  and  proper,  if  not  absolutely 
necessary,  that  wlien  a  tutor  reads  a  following  lecture  to 
his  pupils,  he  should  run  over  the  foregoing  lecture 
in  questions  proposed  to  them,  and  by  this  means 
acquaint  himself  with  their  daily  proficiency.  It  is  in 
vain  for  the  learner  to  object.  Surely  we  are  not  school- 
boys, to  say  our  lessons  again  ;  we  came  to  be  taught,  not 
to  be  catechised  and  examined.  But,  alas  !  how  is  it 
possible  for  a  teacher  to  proceed  in  his  instructions,  if  he 
knows  not  how  far  the  learner  takes  in  and  remembers 
what  he  has  been  taught  ? 

Besides,  I  must  generally  believe  it  is  sloth  or  idleness, 
it  is  real  ignorance,  incai^acity,  or  unreasonable  pride, 
that  makes  a  learner  refuse  to  give  his  teacher  an  account 
how  far  he  has  profited  by  his  last  iiLstructions.  For 
want  of  this  constant  examination  young  gentlemen  have 
spent  some  idle  and  useless  years,  even  under  daily  labors 
and  inspections  of  a  learned  teacher  ;  and  they  have  re- 
turned from  the  academy  without  the  gain  of  any  one 
science,  and  even  Mith  the  shameful  loss  of  their  cla'^sical 
learning,  that  is,  the  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin, 
which  they  had  learned  in  the  grammar  school. 

IX.  Let  the  teacher  always  accommodate  himself 
to  the  genius,  temper,  and  capacity  of  his  disciples, 
and  practice  various  methods  of  prudence  to  allure, 
persuade,  and  assist  every  one  of  them  in  their  pursuit 
of  knowledge. 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING.  173 

A^Tiere  the  scholar  has  less  capacity,  let  tlu;  teacher 
enlarge  his  illustrations ;  let  him  searcli  and  find  out 
■where  the  learner  sticks,  -vvhat  is  the  difficulty,  and  thus 
let  him  help  the  laborin;j^  intellect. 

When  the  learner  manifests  a  forward  genius  and  a 
sprightly  curiosity  by  frequent  inquiries,  let  the  teacher 
oblige  such  an  inquisitive  soul  by  satisfying  those  ques- 
tions as  far  as  may  be  done  with  decency  and  con- 
venience ;  and  when  these  incjuiries  are  unseasonal)le, 
let  him  not  silence  the  young  inquirer  with  a  magisterial 
rebuff,  but  with  much  candor  and  gentleness  postpone 
those  questions,  and  refer  them  to  a  proper  hour. 

X.  Curiosity  is  a  useful  spring  of  knowledge  :  it 
should  be  encouraged  in  children,  and  awakened  by 
frequent  and  familiar  methods  of  talking  with  them.  It 
should  be  indulged  in  youth,  but  not  without  a  prudent 
moderation.  In  those  who  have  too  much,  it  shonld  be 
limited  by  a  wise  and  gentle  restraint  or  delay,  lest  by 
wandering  after  every  thing,  they  learn  nothing  to  per- 
fection. In  those  wiio  have  too  little,  it  should  be 
excited,  lest  they  grow  stupid,  narrow-spirited,  self-satis- 
fied, and  never  attain  a  treasure  of  ideas,  or  an  amplitude 
of  understanding. 

Let  not  the  teacher  demand  or  expect  things  too 
sublime  and  diflicult  fi-om  the  humble,  modest,  and 
f.'arful  disciple  :  and  where  such  a  one  gives  a  just  and 
hajipy  ansAver,  even  to  plain  and  easj'  questions,  let  him 
have  Avords  of  commendation  and  love  ready  for  him. 
Let  him  encourage  every  sjjark  of  kindling  light,  till  it 
grows  np  to  bi'ight  evidence  and  contirmed  knowk'dge. 

XL  When  he  finds  a  lad  pert,  j^ositive,  and  pre- 
suming, let  the  tutor  take  every  just  occasion  to  show 
him  his  error;  let  him  set  the  absurdity  in  com])leto 
light  before  him,  and  convince  him  l)y  a  fnll  demon- 
stration of  his  mistake,  till  he  sees  and  feels  it,  and  h'aras 
to  be  modest  and  humble. 


174  METHODS  OF  TEACfflNG. 

XTT.  A  toachor  sliould  not  only  ()l)S('rv«'  tli<- difTfroTit 
spirit  and  liunior  anionj^  liis  scliolars,  but  he  should 
watch  the  various  cfVorts  of  thoir  reason  and  growth  of 
their  understanding.  He;  should  practice  in  liis  yoiin;; 
nursery  of  Icainin^'  as  a  skillful  gardener  <locs  in  liis 
vcijctalde  dominions,  and  apply  prudent  methods  of 
cultivation  to  every  plant.  Let  him  with  a  discreet  and 
genlle  hand  nip  or  prune  the  irre<,Milar  shoots  ;  let  him 
guard  and  encourage  the  tender  buddings  of  tiie 
understandinj^,  till  they  be  raised  to  a  blossom,  and  let 
him  kindly  cherish  the  younger  fruits. 

The  tutor  should  take  every  occasion  to  instill  knowl- 
edge into  his  disciples,  and  make  use  of  every  occurrence 
•f  life  to  raise  some  i)rolltable  conversation  upon  it  ;  he 
should  frequently  inquire  something  of  his  disciples  that 
may  set  their  young  reason  to  work,  and  teach  thorn  how 
to  form  inferences  and  to  draw  one  proposition  out  of 
anotlier. 

Xm.  Reason  being  that  faculty  of  the  mind  which 
he  has  to  deal  with  in  his  pupils,  let  him  endeavor  by  all 
proper  and  familiar  methods  to  call  it  into  exercise, 
and  to  enlarge  the  i)Owers  of  it.  He  should  take  fre(|uent 
opportunities  to  show  them  when  an  idea  is  clear  or  con- 
fused, when  the  proposition  is  evident  or  doubtful,  and 
when  an  argument  is  feeble  or  strong.  And  by  this 
means  their  minds  will  be  so  formed,  that  whatsoever  he 
proposes  with  evidence  and  strength  of  reason  they  will 
readily  receive. 

"When  any  uncommon  appearance  arise  in  the  natural, 
moral,  or  political  world,  he  should  invite  and  instruct 
them  to  make  their  remarks  on  it,  and  give  them  the 
best  reflections  of  his  own  for  the  imi^rovement  of  their 
minds. 

XIY.  He  should  by  all  means  make  it  appear  that 
he  loves   his  pupils,  and  that  he   seeks   nothing  so 


OF  AX  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE.  ]  7.") 

much  as  their  increase  of  knowledge  and  their 
j^roAvth  ill  all  valuable  acquiieiin'iits  ;  this  will  ciipijj;o 
their  affectioii  to  his  person,  aud  procure  a  just  atteutioii 
to  his  lectures. 

XV.  Aud  iudced  there  is  but  little  hope  that  a  teacher 
should  obtain  any  success  in  his  instructions,  unless 
those  that  hear  him  have  some  good  degree  of 
esteem  and  respect  for  his  person  and  character. 
And  here  1  can  not  but  take  notice  by  the  way,  th;it  it  is 
a  matter  of  infinite  and  unspeakable  injury  to  the  i^eople 
of  any  town  or  parish  where  the  minister  lies  under  con- 
tempt. If  he  has  procured  it  by  his  own  conduct  he  i.s 
doubly  criminal,  because  of  the  injury  he  does  to  the 
souls  of  them  that  hear  him :  but  if  this  contempt  and 
reproach  be  cast  upon  him  by  the  wicked,  malicious,  and 
unjust  censures  of  men,  they  must  bear  all  the  ill  conse- 
quences of  receiving  no  good  by  his  labors,  and  will  be 
accoimtable  hereafter  to  the  great  and  divine  Judge 
of  all. 

It  would  be  very  necessaiy  to  add  in  this  place  (if 
tutors  were  not  well  api^rised  of  it  before)  thiit  since 
learners  are  obliged  to  seek  a  divine  blessing  on  their 
studies  by  frequent  prayer  to  the  God  of  all  wisdom, 
their  tutors  should  go  before  them  in  this  pious  practice 
and  make  daily  addresses  to  Heaven  for  the  success  of 
their  instructions 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

OF  AX  INSTRUCTIVE  STYLE. 

I.  The  most  necessary  and  useful  character  of  a 
style  fit  for  instruction  is  that  it  be  plain,  perspicuous 
and  easy.  And  here  1  shall  lirst  i)oint  out  all  tliose 
errors  in  a  style  which  diminish  or  destroy  the  perspicuity 


176  OF   AX   INSTRUCTIVE  STYl^E. 

of  it,  and  tlion  mention  a  few  directions  how  to  obtain  a 
perspicuous  and  easy  slylo. 

II.  The  errors  of  style,  wliicli  must  be  avoided  l)y 
teachers,  are  these  that  iollow: 

1.  The  iise  of  many  JorcUjn  words,  which  are  not  suf- 
ficiently naturalized  and  mingled  with  the  language 
which  we  speak  or  write.  It  is  true,  that  in  teaching  the 
sciences  in  English,  we  must  sometimes  use  words  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greek  and  Latin;  for  we  have  not  in 
English,  names  for  a  variety  of  subjects  which  belong  to 
learning;  but  when  a  man  affects,  upon  all  occasions,  to 
bring  in  long-sounding  words  from  the  ancient  languages, 
without  necessit}-,  and  mingles  French  and  other  out  landish 
terms  and  phrases,  where  plain  English  would  serve  as 
well,  he  betrays  a  vain  and  foolish  genius,  unbecoming  a 
teacher. 

2.  Avoid  a  fantastic  learned  style,  borrowed  from  the 
various  sciences,  where  the  subject  and  matter  do  not 
require  the  use  of  them.  Do  not  affect  terms  of  art  on 
every  occasion,  nor  seek  toshowyour  learning  by  sound- 
ing wor'ds  and  dark  j^hrases;  this  is  properly  called 
pedantry.  It  would  be  well  if  the  quacks  alone  had  a 
patent  for  this  language. 

3.  There  are  some  line  affected  words  that  are  tised  only  at 
couii ;  and  some  peculiar  phrases  that  are  sounding  or 
gaudy,  and  belong  only  to  the  theater;  these  should  not 
come  into  the  lectures  of  instruction ;  the  language  of 
poets  has  too  much  of  metaphor  in  it  to  lead  mankind 
into  clear  and  distinct  ideas  of  things:  the  business  of 
poesy  is  to  strike  the  soul  with  a  glaring  light,  and  to 
urge  the  passions  into  a  flame  by  splendid  shows,  by 
strong  images,  and  a  pathetic  vehemence  of  style:  but  it 
is  another  sort  of  speech  that  is  best  suited  to  lead  the 
calm  inquirer  into  just  conceptions  of  things. 

4.  There  is  a  mean  vulgar  style,  borrowed  from  the  lower 


OF   AN  IXSTRUCTIVE  STYLE.  177 

ranks  of  mankind,  tlie  ba.sest  characters',  and  meanest 
affairs  of  life;  this  is  also  to  be  avoided;  for  it  should  be 
supposed,  that  persons  of  libei-al  education  have  not  been 
bred  up  ^itliin  the  hearing  of  such  lan<;;uai;(',  and  con- 
sequently they  can  not  understand  it;  besides  that  it 
would  create  very  offensive  ideas,  should  we  borrow 
even  similes  for  illustration  from  the  scullery,  the  dung- 
hill, and  the  Jakes. 

5.  An  obscure  and  mysterious  manner  of  expression  and 
cloudy  language  is  to  be  avoided.  Some  persons  have 
been  led  by  education,  or  by  some  foolish  prejudices,  into 
a  dark  and  unintelligible  way  of  thinking  and  speaking; 
and  this  continues  with  them  all  their  lives,  and  clouds 
and  confounds  their  ideas. 

Perhaps  some  of  these  may  have  been  blessed 
with  a  great  and  comprehensive  genius,  with  sub- 
lime natural  parts,  and  a  torrent  of  ideas  tlijwing 
in  upon  them;  yet  for  want  of  clearness  in  the  manner 
of  their  conception  and  language,  they  sometimes  drown 
their  own  sul)ject  of  discourse,  and  overwhelm  their 
argument  in  darkness  and  perplexity:  such  preachers  as 
have  read  much  of  the  mystical  divinity  of  the  papists 
and  imitated  their  manner  of  expression,  have  many 
times  buried  a  line  understanding  under  the  obscurity 
of  such  a  style. 

6.  A  long  and  tedious  stj/Je  is  verj'  improper  for  a  teacher, 
for  this  also  lessens  the  perspicuity  of  it. 

He  that  would  gain  a  happy  talent  for  the  instruction 
of  othei'S  must  know  how  to  ilisenlaiigle  and  divide  liis 
thoughts,  if  too  many  of  them  are  ready  to  crowd  into 
one  i^aragraph ;.  and  let  him  rather  speak  three  sentences 
distinctly  and  perspicuously,  which  the  hearer  receives 
at  once  with  his  ears  and  his  soul,  than  crowd  all  the 
thoughts  into  one  sentence,  which  the  hearer  has  for- 
got* en  before  he  can  understand  it. 
^  12 


17.S  OF   AN   INSTRUCTIVE  PTYLE. 

IIT.  P>u(  tliis  leads  mo  lo  tlio,  iicxi  lliiiij;  T  proposed, 
^vhit'h  was  to  mention  some  methods  whereby  suclj  a 
]K'iKi)ic'nity  of  style  may  be  obtained  as  is  proper  for 
instruction. 

1.  AccuHlom  yoKr.srIf  in  rrad  fliosr  antliors  ir/io  i/iiith  and 
write  with  great  clearness  and  evidence,  such  as  convey  their 
ideas  into  your  understanding  as  fast  as  your  eye  or 
tongue  can  run  over  their  sentences :  this  will  imprint 
upon  the  mind  a  habit  of  imitation  ;  we  shall  leain  the 
style  with  which  we  are  very  conversant,  and  practice 
it  with  ease  and  success. 

2.  Get  a  distinct  and  comprehensive  Jcnowledge  of  the  subject 

which  you  treat  of,  survey  it  on  all  sides,  and  make 

yourself  perfect  master  of  it ;  then  you  will  have  all  the 

sentiments  that  relate  to  it  in  your  view  and  under  your 

command ;  and  your  tongue  will  very  easily  clothe  those 

ideas  with  words  which   your  mind  has  first  made  so 

familiar  and  easy  to  itself. 

Scribondi  recte  sapere  est  et  principium  ct  fons : 
Verbaque  provisam  rem  non  invita  sequontur. 

Jlor.  dc  Art  Poctica. 

Good  teaching  from  good  knowledge  springs; 
Words  will  make  haste  to  follow  things. 

3.  Be  icell  skilled  in  the  language  which  you  speak,  ac- 
quaint yourself  with  all  the  idioms  and  special  phrases  of 
it,  which  are  necessary  to  convey  the  needful  ideas  on  the 
subject  of  which  you  treat  in  the  most  various  and  most 
easy  manner  to  the  understanding  of  the  hearer :  the 
variation  of  a  phrase  in  several  forms  is  of  admirable  use 
to  instruct ;  it  is  like  turning  all  sides  of  the  subject  to 
view ;  and  if  the  learner  happen  not  to  take  in  the  ideas 
in  one  form  of  speech,  probably  another  may  be  success- 
ful for  that  end. 

Upon  this  account  I  have  always  thought  it  a  useful  manner 
of  instruction,  wliich  is  used  in  some  Latin  schools,  wliiih 
they  call  variation.    Take  some  plain  sentence  in  the  English 


OF  AX  IXSTRrcTlVE  STYLE.  179 

tonguo,  and  turn  it  into  many  forms  in  Latin  ;  as  for  Instance, 
A  wolf  let  into  tlic  slieepfold  will  (lovour  the  shoep  ;  If  you  let 
a  wolf  into  tlie  fold,  the  sheej)  will  be  devoured:  The  wolf 
will  devour  the  sheep,  if  the  slnei)fold  he  li'ft  ojieu  :  If  the  fold 
be  not  shut  carefully,  the  wolf  will  devour  the  sheep.  The 
sheei)  will  be  devoured  by  the  wolf,  if  it  find  the  way  into  the 
fold  o^ien  :  There  is  no  defense  of  the  sheep  from  the  wolf,  un- 
less it  be  kept  out  of  the  fold  :  Aslaujjhter  will  be  made  amonj; 
the  sheep,  if  the  wolf  can  get  into  the  fold.  Thus  by  turning 
the  active  voiee  of  verbs  into  the  passive,  and  the  nomiiui- 
tive  case  of  nouns  into  the  accusative,  and  altering  tbe  connec- 
tion of  short  sentences  by  dilferent  adverbs  or  conjunctions, 
and  by  ablative  cases  with  a  preposition  brought  instead  of  the 
nominative,  or  by  ))articiples  sometimes  i)ut  insti'ad  of  the  verits, 
the  negation  of  the  contrary  instead  of  the  assertion  of  the 
thing  first  i)roposed,  a  great  variety  of  forms  of  speech  will  be 
created  which  shall  express  the  same  sense. 

4.  Acquire  a  variety  of  tear ds,  i\>copiaverborum.  Let  your 
memory  l)e  rich  in  synonymotis  terms,  or  words  express- 
ing the  same  thing :  this  will  not  only  attain  tlie  same 
happy  effect  with  its  varation  of  phrases  in  the  foregoing 
direction,  but  it  will  add  a  beauty  also  to  your  style,  by 
securing  you  from  an  appearance  of  tatitology,  orrejieat- 
ing  tlie  same  words  too  ofteu,  which  sometimes  may  dis- 
gust the  ear  of  the  learner. 

5.  Learn  the  art  of  slwHening  your  sentences  by  dividing  a 
long  complicated  period  into  two  or  three  small  ones: 
^^'heu  olheis  connect  and  join  two  other  sentences  iu 
one  by  relative  pronotms,  as,  which,  ichcrcof  tchercin, 
whereto,  etc.,  and  by  parentheses  frequently  inserted,  do 
you  rather  divide  them  into  distinct  periods ;  or  at  least, 
if  they  must  be  united,  let  it  be  doiu'  rather  by  conjunc- 
tions and  coi)ulative,  that  they  may  appear  like  distinct 
sentences,  and  give  less  confusion  to  the  hearer  or  reader. 

I  know  no  method  so  effectual  to  learn  what  I  nieau 
as  to  take  now  and  then  some  page  of  an  author,  wlio  is 
guilty  of  such  a  long  involved  ])arentlu"ti('al  style,  and 
transhito  it  into  plainer  lOiiglish,  by  dividing  the  ideas  or 
the  sentences  asunder,  and  multiplying  the  periods,  till 


180  OF  CONVINCING   OF  TRUXn, 

llic  laii^iia-xo  becomes  smooth  :in(l  eiisy,  and  intelligible 
at  first  rcadiniLC. 

(J.  Dillc  frcqncnlbj  to  yoioif/  and  ignorant  jtcrsonn  upon 
subjects  which  are  new  and  unknown  to  them,  and  be 
diligent  to  incjuire  whether  they  understand  you  or  not: 
this  will  put  you  upon  changing  your  i)hrases  and  forms 
of  s])(M'ch  in  a  variety,  till  you  can  hit  their  capacity,  and 
convey  your  idea  into  their  uuder.standing. 


CHAPTEK  XVIIT. 

OF  CONYIXCINfT  OTHER  PERSONS  OF  ANY  TRUTH,    OR    DE- 
LIVERING THEil  FROM  ERRORS  AND  3IISTAKES, 

I.  When  we  are  arrived  at  a  j  ust  and  rational  estab- 
lishment iu  an  opinion,  whether  it  relate  to  religion  or 
common  life,  we  are  naturally  desirous  of  bringing  all 
the  world  into  our  sentiments  ;  and  this  pi-oceeds 
from  the  affectation  and  pride  of  superior  influence  upon 
the  judgment  of  our  fellow  creatures,  much  mo?e 
frequently  than  it  does  from  a  sense  of  duty,  or  a  love 
of  truth  ;  so  vicious  and  corrupt  is  human  nature.  Yet 
there  is  such  a  thing  to  be  found  as  an  honest  and  sincere 
delight  in  propagating  truth,  arising  from  a  dutiful  re- 
gard to  the  honors  of  our  Maker,  and  a  hearty  love  to 
mankind.  Now,  if  we  would  be  successful  in  our  at- 
tempts to  convince  men  of  their  errors  and  promote  the 
truth,  let  us  divest  ourselves,  as  far  as  possible,  of  that 
pride  and  affectation  which  I  mentioned  before  ;  and 
seek  to  acquire  that  disinterested  love  to  men,  and  zeal 
for  the  truth,  which  will  naturally  lead  us  into  the  best 
methods  to  promote  it. 

TI.  And  here  the  following  directions  may  be 
useful : 


OR    DELIVERING    FROM   ERROR.  ISl 

1.  If  yon  would  convinco  a  person  of  liis  mistake, 
choose  a  proper  place,  a  happy  hour,  and  the  fitlcHt  concur  rent 
circumstance  for  this  purpose.  Dp  not  unseasonably  set 
upon  him  when  lie  is  engaged  in  the  midst  of  other 
affairs,  but  wiien  his  soul  is  at  liberty  and  at  leisure  to 
hear  and  attend.  Aecost  liiiu  not  uixm  that  siil)jeet 
when  his  spirit  is  rui'lled  or  discomposed  with  any  occur- 
rences of  life,  and  especially  when  he  has  heated  his 
passions  in  the  defense  of  a  contrary  opinion  ;  but  rather 
seize  some  golden  oppoi't unity,  when  some  occurrences 
of  life  may  cast  a  favorable  aspect  upon  the  truth  of 
which  you  will  convince  him,  or  which  may  throw  some 
dark  and  unhaijpy  color  or  consequences  upon  that  error 
from  which  you  would  fain  deliver  him.  There  are  in 
life  some  moUisHhna  tempora  fa)idi,  some  very  agreeable 
moments  of  addressing  a  person,  which,  if  rightly  man- 
aged, may  render  your  attempts  much  more  successful, 
and  his  conviction  easy  and  pleasant. 

2.  Male  it  appear,  by  your  whole  conduct  to  the  person 
you  would  teach,  that  you  mean  him  well ;  that  your  design 
is  not  to  triumph  over  his  opinion,  nor  expose  his  ignor- 
ance, or  his  incapacity  of  defending  what  he  asserts. 
Let  him  see  that  it  is  not  your  aim  to  advance  your  own 
character  as  a  disputant ;  nor  to  set  yourself  up  for  an 
instructor  of  mankind  ;  but  that  you  love  him  and  seek 
his  true  interest  ;  and  do  not  only  assure  him  of  this  in 
words,  wlien  you  are  entering  on  an  ai-gunient  with  liim, 
but  let  the  whole  of  your  conduct  io  him  at  all  times 
demonstrate  your  real  friendshij)  for  him.  Truth  and 
argument  come  with  particidar  force  from  the  mouth  of 
one  whom  we  trust  and  love. 

3.  The  softest  and  f/entlest  address  to  the  erroneous  /.s  the 
best  way  to  cuncince  them  of  their  mistake.  ►Sometimes  it 
is  necessary  to  represent  to  your  opponent  that  he  is  not 
far  from  the  truth,  and  that  you  would  fain  draw  him  a 


182  OF  f'ONVIXCIXG   OF   TRUTH, 

lilllo  noarer  to  it.  Commend  and  establish  wliatovrr  lio 
says  that  is  just  and  tiuo,  as  our  bh'sscd  Saviour  treated 
tlie  youn;^  scribe,  Avlieu  lie  answered  well  eoneernin;^  tin* 
two  ^reat  coniniandiuents,  "  Thou  art  not  far/'  says  our 
Lord,  "from  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  Mark  12:  34. 
Imitate  the  mildness  and  conduct  of  the  blessed  Jesus. 

Come  as  lU'ar  your  opponent  as  you  can  in  all  your 
propositions,  and  yield  to  him  as  much  as  you  dare  in  a 
consisteuce  with  truth  and  justice. 

It  is  a  very  great  and  fatal  mistaJce  in  persons  who  at- 
tempt to  convince  and  reconcile  others  to  their  party, 
when  iJu'i/  make  the  difference  appear  as  wide  as  iwssible ; 
this  is  shocking  to  any  person  who  is  to  be  convinced  ; 
he  will  choose  ratlier  to  keep  and  maintain  his  own 
opinions,  if  he  can  not  come  into  yours  without  re- 
nouncing and  abandoning  every  thing  that  he  believed 
before.  Human  nature  must  he  flattered  a  little  as  well  as 
reasoned  wnth,  that  so  the  argument  may  be  able  to  come 
at  his  understanding,  which  otherwise  will  l)e  thrust  off 
at  a  distance.  If  you  charge  a  man  with  nonsense  and 
absurdities,  with  heresy  and  self-contradiction,  you  take 
a  very  wrong  step  toward  convincing  him. 

Always  remember  that  error  is  not  to  be  rooted  out  of 
the  mind  of  man  by  reproaches  and  railing,  by  flashes  of 
wit  and  biting  jests,  by  loud  exclamations  of  sharp  ridi- 
cule :  long  declamations,  and  triumph  over  our  neigh- 
bor's mistake,  will  not  prove  the  way  to  convince  him  ; 
these  are  signs  either  of  a  bad  cause,  or  a  want  of  argu- 
ments or  capacity  for  the  defense  of  a  good  one. 

4.  Set  therefore  a  constant  icateh  over  yourself,  lest  you 
grow  warm  in  dispute  before  you  are  aware.  The  passions 
never  clear  the  understanding,  but  i"aise  darkness,  clouds, 
and  confusion  in  the  soul  :  human  nature  is  like  water 
which  has  mud  at  the  bottom  of  it ;  it  may  be  clear  Avhen 
it  is  calm  and  undisturbed,  and  the  ideas,  like  pebbles, 


OR  DELIVEKIXG  FROM   ERROR.  183 

appear  bright  at  the  bottom  ;  but  when  once  it  is  stirred 
aiul  moved  by  passion,  the  mud  rises  uppermost,  and 
si)reads  confusion  and  darkness  over  all  the  ideas  :  you 
can  not  set  things  in  so  just  and  so  clear  a  light  before 
the  eyes  of  your  neiglibor,  while  your  own  conceptions 
are  clouded  "with  heat  and  i)assion. 

Besides,  when  your  own  spirits  are  a  little  disturbed, 
and  your  wrath  is  awakened,  this  naturally  kindles  the 
same  fire  in  your  correspondent  and  i)revents  him  from 
taking  in  your  ideas,  were  they  ever  so  clear  ;  for  his 
passions  are  engaged  all  on  a  slidden  for  the  defense  of 
his  own  mistakes,  and  they  combat  as  fiercely  as  yours 
do,  which  perhaps  may  be  awakened  on  the  side  of  truth. 

To  provoke  a  person  whom  you  would  convince,  not 
only  arouses  his  anger  and  sets  it  against  your  doctrine, 
but  it  directs  its  resentment  against  your  person,  as  well 
as  against  all  your  instructions  and  arguments.  You 
))iu,st  treat  an  opponent  like  a  friend,  if  you  would  jiersuade 
Jiim  to  learn  any  thing  from  you  ;  and  this  is  one  great 
reason  why  there  is  so  little  success  on  either  side 
between  two  disputants,  or  controversial  writei-s,  because 
they  are  so  ready  to  interest  their  passions  in  the  sul)ject 
of  contest,  and  thereby  to  prevent  the  mutual  light  that 
might  be  given  and  received  on  either  side:  ambition, 
indignation,  and  a  i)rofessional  zeal,  reign  on  both  sides; 
victoiy  is  the  ])oint  designed,  while  truth  is  j)relendt'(l ; 
and  truth  oftentimen  perishes  in  the  fray,  or  retires  fiom  the 
field  of  battle  ;  the  combatants  end  just  where  they 
began,  their  understandings  hold  fast  the  same  opinions, 
perliai)s  with  this  disadvantage,  that  they  are  a  Utile 
more  obstinate  andi'ooted  in  them,  without  fresh  reason  ; 
and  they  generally  come  olT  Avith  the  loss  of  temper  and 
charit  y . 

T).  Neither  attempt  nor  hoj^e  to  convince  a  person  of  his 
mistake  by  any pe mil  ineihods  or  severe  usaye.     There  is  no 


ISi  OF   f'OXVINCING    OF   TRT'TR, 

li^'ht  bron;;lit  into  llu'  iiiiiHl  l)y  :ill  tli<'  rirc  and  sword, 
and  bloody  persecutions,  that  were  ever  introduced  into 
the  world.  One  would  think  both  the  princes,  tho 
priests,  and  the  pe<)])l«N  the  Icarnc*!  and  the  unlearned, 
the  fijreat  and  the  mean,  should  have  all  by  this  time  seen 
the  folly  and  madness  of  seeking  to  piopa^^ate  the  truth 
by  the  laws  of  cruelty :  we  compel  a  beast  to  the  yoke 
by  blows,  because  the  ox  and  the  ;iss  have  no  under- 
standing: but  intellectual  pow<'rs  are  not  to  be  fettered 
and  compelled  at  this  rate.  Men  can  not  believe  what 
they  will,  nor  change  their  religion  and  their  sentiments 
as  they  please  :  they  may  be  made  hypocrites  by  the 
forms  of  severity  and  constrained  to  profess  what  they 
do  not  believe ;  they  may  be  forced  to  comply  with  ex- 
ternal practices  and  ceremonies  contrary  to  their  own  con- 
sciences ;  but  this  can  never  please  God,  nor  profit  men. 

6.  In  order  to  convince  another,  you  should  always 
mahe  choice  of  those  arr/umruts  that  are  best  suited  to  hi.s  un- 
derstanding and  capacity,  his  genius  and  temper,  his  state, 
station,  and  circumstances.  If  I  were  to  persuade  a 
X^loughman  of  the  truth  of  any  form  of  church  govern- 
ment, it  should  not  be  attempted  liy  the  use  of  Gret*: 
and  Latin  fathers  ;  but  from  the  word  of  God,  the  light 
of  nature,  and  tbe  common  reason  of  things. 

7.  Arguments  should  always  be  proposed  in  such  a 
manner  as  may  Jead  the  mind  onward  to  perceive  the  truth  in 
a  clear  and  agreeable  light,  as  well  as  to  constrain  the  as- 
sent by  the  power  of  reasoning.  Clear  ideas,  in  many 
cases,  are  as  useful  towards  conviction  as  a  well-formed 
and  unanswerable  syllogism. 

8.  Allow  the  person  you  desire  to  instruct  a  reawnable 
time  to  enter  into  the  force  of  your  arguments.  When  you 
have  declared  your  own  sentiments  in  the  brightest  man- 
ner of  illustration  and  enforced  them  with  the  most 
couviucing  argumeuts,  you  are  not  to  suppose  that  your 


OR  DELIVEEIXG  FROM  ERROR.  185 

friend  .should  be  immediately  convinced  and  receive  the 
truth  :  habitude  in  a  particular  way  of  thinking,  as  well 
as  in  most  other  thin<js,  obtains  the  force  of  nature  ;  and 
you  can  not  expect  to  wean  a  man  from  his  accustomed 
cj-iors  but  by  slow  degrees  and  by  his  own  assistance  ; 
entreat  him  therefore  not  to  judge  on  the  sudden,  nor 
deteimine  against  you  at  once ;  but  that  he  would  please 
to  review  your  scheme,  reflect  upon  your  arguments 
with  all  the  imj^artiality  he  is  capable  of,  and  take  time 
to  think  these  over  again  at  large;  at  least,  that  he 
would  be  disposed  to  hear  you  speak  yet  further  on  this 
subject  without  pain  or  aversion. 

Address  hhii  therefore  in  an  ohl'iging  manner  and  say,  I 
am  not  so  fond  as  to  think  I  have  placed  the  subject  in 
such  lights  as  to  throw  you  on  a  sudden  into  anew  track 
of  flunking,  or  to  make  you  immediately  lay  aside  your 
])reseiit  opinions  or  designs ;  all  that  I  hope  is,  that  some 
hint  or  other  which  I  have  given  is  capable  of  being 
improved  by  you  to  your  own  conviction,  or  possibly  it 
may  lead  you  to  such  a  train  of  reasoning,  as  in  time  to 
effect  a  change  in  your  thoughts.  AVhich  hint  leads  me 
to  add : 

9.  Labor  as  much  as  possible  to  vuikc  the  person  you 
icoidd  teach  his  own  instructor.  Human  nature  may  be 
allured,  by  a  secret  ])leasure  and  i)ride  in  its  own  reason- 
ing, to  seem  to  find  out  by  itself  the  very  thing  that  you 
would  teach ;  and  there  are  some  persons  that  have  so 
much  of  this  natural  bias  toward  self  rooted  in  them 
that  they  can  never  be  convicned  of  a  mistake  by  tlie 
I)lainest  and  strongest  arguments  to  the  contrary,  tliougli 
the  demonstration  glare  in  their  faces;  but  tliey  may  be 
tempted,  by  such  gentle  insinuations,  to  follow  a  track 
of  thought  which  you  propose,  till  they  have  wound 
themselves  out  of  their  own  error  and  led  themselves 
hereby  into  your  own  opinion,  if  you  do  but  let  it  appear 


186  OF  coxviNciXf;  of  TKrrir, 

that  they  are  under  tlieir  own  {iiiidaiiee  rather  than 
yours.  And  perhaps  there  is  nothing  wliich  shows  more 
dexterity  of  address  than  this  secret  influence  over  the 
minds  of  otliers,  which  they  do  not  discern  even  while 
they  follow  it. 

10.  If  you  can  gain  the  main  point  in  question,  be  not 
very  soUciious  about  the  nicety  with  which  it  shall  be  exprcHsed. 
Mankind  is  so  vain  a  thing,  that  it  is  not  willing  to  derive 
from  another;  and  though  it  can  not  have  every  tiling 
from  itself, yet  it  would  seem  at  least  to  mingle  something 
of  its  own  with  what  it  derives  elsewhere :  therefore, 
when  you  have  set  your  sentiment  in  the  fullest  light, 
and  proved  in  the  most  effectual  manner,  an  opponent 
will  bring  in  some  frivilous  and  useless  distinction,  on 
purpose  to  change  the  form  of  words  in  the  question, 
and  acknowledge  that  he  receives  your  propositions  in 
such  a  sense,  and  in  such  a  manner  of  expression, 
though  he  can  not  receive  it  in  youi'  terms  and  phrases. 

Vanillus  will  confess  he  is  now  convinced,  that  a  man  who 
behaves  well  in  tlie  state  ought  not  to  be  punished  for  liis  re- 
ligion, but  yet  he  will  not  consent  to  allow  a  universal  tolera- ^ 
tion  of  all  religions  whicli  do  not  injure  tlie  state,  which  is  the 
proposition  I  had  been  proving.  Well,  let  Vanillus,  therefore, 
use  his  own  language  ;  I  am  glad  he  is  convinced  t)f  the  truth  ; 
he  shall  have  leave  to  dress  it  in  his  own  way. 

11.  When  you  have  labored  to  instruct  a  person  in 
some  controverted  truth,  and  yet  he  retains  some  preju- 
dice against  it,  so  that  he  doth  not  yield  to  the  convincing 
force  of  j'our  arguments,  you  may  sometimes  have  happy 
success  in  convincing  him  of  that  truth,  by  setting  him  to 
read  a  \ceak  author  tcho  writes  against  it;  a  young  reader 
will  find  such  pleasure  in  being  able  to  answer  the  argu- 
ments of  the  opposer,  that  he  will  drop  his  former  pre- 
judices against  the  truth  and  yield  to  the  power  and 
evidence  of  your  reason.  I  confess  this  looks  like  setting 
up  one  prejudice  to  overthrow  another;  but  where  pre- 


OR  DELIVERING  FROM   ERROR.  187 

judiccs  cau  not  be  fairly  removod  by  the  dint  of  reason, 
the  Avise.st  and  best  of  teachers  will  pouictinus  lind  it 
necessary  to  make  a  way  for  reason  and  truth  to  take 
place,  by  this  contrast  of  prejudices. 

12,  "When  our  design  is  to  convince  a  ichole  famiJj/  or 
communiiy  of  persons  of  any  mistake  and  to  lead  tluMu 
into  any  truth,  we  may  justly  suj^pose  there  are  various 
reigning  prejudices  among  them ;  and  therefore  it  is  not 
safe  to  attempt,  nor  so  easy  to  effect  it,  by  addressing  the 
Avhole  number  at  once.  Such  a  method  has  been  ollen 
found  to  raise  a  sudden  alarm  and  has  producetl  a 
violejit  opi^osition  even  to  the  most  fair,  pious,  and  use- 
ful proposal ;  so  that  he  who  made  the  motion  could 
never  carry  his  point. 

AVe  must  {^xorviorQ  first  make  as  sure  as  ve  can  of  the  most 
inteUlgcnt  and  hamrdj  at  least  the  most  leading  persons 
among  them,  by  addressing  them  apart  prudentlj'  and 
offering  proper  reasons,  till  they  are  convinced  and 
engaged  on  the  side  of  truth  ;  and  these  may  with  more 
success-apply  themselves  to  others  of  the  same  conun u n  i  1  y : 
yet  the  original  proposer  should  not  neglect  to  make  a 
distinct  application  to  all  the  rest,  so  far  as  circumstances 
admit. 

AVherc  a  thing  is  to  be  determined  by  a  number  of 
votes,  he  should  labor  to  secure  a  good  majority  ;  and 
then  take  care  that  the  most  proper  persons  should  move 
and  argue  the  matter  in  public,  lest  it  be  (fUiished  in  the 
very  first  proposal  by  some  prejudice  again.-.t  the 
proposer. 

So  unhappily  are  our  circumstances  situated  in  this 
world,  that  if  truth,  and  justice,  and  goodness,  could  put 
on  human  forms,  and  descend  iVoin  hcavcnto  piopose  the 
most  divine  and  useful  doctrines,  and  bring  wit ii  them 
the  clearest  evidence,  and  publish  them  at  once  to  a 
multitude  whose  prejudices  are  engaged  against  them, 


188  I'SE    AND    ARl'SE   OF    AI'TIIOKITY. 

tho  in'oposal  would  bn  v:iin  uud  fruitless,  and  would 
neither  eonxinee  nor  ])ersua<le;  so  necessary  it  is  to  join 
art  and  dexterity,  tofiether  with  the  force  of  reason,  to 
convinee  mankind  of  truth,  unless  we  came  furnished 
with  miracles  or  omnipotence  to  create  a  conviction. 


CHAPTEE  XIX. 

OF  AUTHORITY.   OF  THE  ABUSE  OF  IT:  AND  OF  ITS  REAL 
AND  PROPER  USE  AND  SERVICE. 

T.  The  influence  which  other  persons  have  upon 
our  opinions  is  usually  called  authority.  The  jjower 
of  it  is  so  great  and  widely  extensive,  that  there  is  scarce 
any  person  in  the  world  entirely  free  from  the  impres- 
sions of  it,  even  after  their  utmost  watchfulness  and  care 
to  avoid  it.  Our  parents  and  tutors,  yea,  our  very 
nurses,  determine  a  multitude  of  our  sentiments,  our 
friends,  our  neighbors,  the  custom  of  the  country  where 
w^e  dwell,  and  the  established  opinions  of  mankind,  form 
our  belief;  the  great,  the  wise,  the  pious,  the  learned, 
and  the  ancient;  the  king,  the  priest,  and  the  philosopher, 
are  characters  of  mighty  efficacy  to  persuade  us  to  re- 
ceive what  they  dictate.  These  may  be  ranked  under 
dilferent  heads  of  prejudice,  but  they  are  all  of  a  kin- 
dred nature,  and  may  be  reduced  to  this  one  spring  or 
head  of  authority. 

Cicero  was  well  acquainted  with  tlie  unhappy  influences  of 
authority,  and  coniplain.s  of  it  in  his  first  hook  !)<•  Xatnrd 
Donitn:  "In  disputes  and  controversies  (^says  lie)  it  is  not  so 
nuich  the  autliorsor  patrous  of  anj*  opinion,  a:s  tlie  weitrht  and 
force  of  argument,  whieli  sliould  intluence  the  mind.  Tiie 
autliority  of  those  wlio  teach  is  a  frequent  hindrance  to  those 
wlio  learn,  l)ecause  they  utterly  neglect  to  exercise  their  own 
judsrment,  taking  for  granted  whatsoever  others  whom  they 
reverence  have  judged  for  them.  I  can  by  no  means  approve 
what  we  learn  from  the  Pythagoreans,  that  if  any  thing  as- 


USE   AND   ABUSE  OF   AUTHORITY.  189 

serted  in  disputation  was  questioned,  they  were  wont  to  answer, 
I]>sc  dixit,  that  is,  He  himself  said  so,  nieaniiif^  I'ythajjoras. 
So  far  did  prejudiee  i)revail,  tluit  authority  witiiout  reason  was 
sufRcient  to  determine  disputes  and  to  estahlisli  truth." 

All  Imman  authority,  though  it  be  never  so  ancient, 
though  it  liath  had  universal  sovereignty,  and  swayed  all 
the  learned  and  vulgar  world  lor  some  thousands  ofyears, 
yet  has  no  certain  and  undoubted  claim  to  truth  :  nor  is 
it  any  violation  of  good  manners  to  enter  a  caveat  with 
due  decency  against  its  pretended  dominion. 

II.  Though  it  be  necessary  to  guard  against  the  evil 
influences  of  authority  and  the  prejudices  derived 
thence,  because  it  has  introduced  thousands  of  errors 
and  mischiefs  into  the  world,  yet  there  are  three  em- 
inent and  remarkable  cases  wherein  authority  or  the 
s<nitim('nts  of  oilier  jx-i'soiis  must  or  will  determine 
the  judgment  and  practice  of  mankind. 

1.  Parents  are  appointed  to  judge  for  their  children  in  their 
younger  years,  and  instruct  them  what  they  should 
X)ractice  in  civil  and  religious  life.  Thin  is  a  dictate  of 
nature,  and  doubtless  it  would  have  been  so  in  a  state  of 
innocence.  It  is  impossible  that  children  should  be 
callable  of  judging  for  themselves  before  their  minds  are 
furnished  with  a  competent  number  of  ideas,  before  they 
are  acquainted  Avilh  any  principles  and  rules  of  just 
judgment,  and  before  their  reason  is  grown  up  to  any 
degrees  of  maturity  and  proper  exercises  ujjou  such 
subjects. 

I  will  not  say  (hat  a  child  ought  to  believe  nonsense  and 
impossibility  because  his  father  bids  him;  for  so  fara> 
the  impossibillity  appears  he  can  not  believe  it :  nor  will 
I  say  he  ought  to  assent  to  all  the  false  o])inions  of  his 
pai'ents,  or  lo  practice  idolatry  and  muider,  or  miscliicf, 
at  their  connnand  ;  yet  a  child  knows  not  any  better  way 
to  find  out  what  he  should  believe,  and  what  he  should 
practice,  before  he  can  possibly  judge  for  himself,  than 


190  USE  AND   ABUSE  OF  AUTHORITY. 

to  mil  to  liis  parents  and  receive  their  sentiments  and 
their  directions. 

You  will  say  this  is  liard  indeed,  tliat  the  child  of  a 
heathen  idolater,  or  a  cruel  cannibal,  is  laid  under  a  sort 
of  necessity  by  nature  of  sinning  aj^ainst  the  light  of 
nature  ;  I  grant  it  is  hard  indeed,  but  it  is  the  law  of 
nature,  namely,  That  a  parent  should  judge  lor  his  child  ; 
but  if  the  jiarent  judges  ill,  the  child  is  greatly  exposed 
by  it;  and  from  the  equity  and  goodness  of  God,  we  may 
reasonably  infer,  that  the  great  Judge  of  all  will  do  right : 
he  will  balance  the  ignorance  and  incapacity  of  the  child 
with  the  criminal  nature  of  the  olTense  in  those  puerile 
instances,  and  ic'dl  not  punish  beyond  just  demerit. 

Besides,  what  could  God,  as  a  Creator,  do  better  for 
children  in  their  minority,  than  to  commit  them  to  the 
care  and  instruction  of  parents?  None  are  supposed  to 
be  so  much  concerned  for  the  happiness  of  children  as 
their  parents  are ;  therefore  it  is  the  safest  step  to 
happiness,  according  to  the  original  law  of  creation,  to 
folloM^  their  directions,  their  parents'  reason  acting  for 
them  before  they  had  reason  of  their  own  in  proper  ex- 
ercise; nor  indeed  is  there  any  better  general  rule  by 
which  children  are  capable  of  being  governed,  though  in 
many  particular  cases  it  may  lead  them  far  astray  from 
virtue  and  happiness. 

If  chililren  by  Providence  be  cast  under  some  happier 
instructions,  contrary  to  their  parents'  erroneous  opinion, 
I  can  not  say  it  is  the  duty  of  such  children  to  follow 
error  when  they  discern  it  to  be  error,  because  their 
father  believes  it  :  what  I  said  before  is  to  be  interpreted 
only  of  those  that  are  under  the  immediate  care  and  edu- 
cation of  their  parents,  and  not  yet  arrived  at  yeai*s 
capable  of  examination.  I  know  not  how  these  can  be 
freed  from  receiving  the  dictates  of  parental  authority  in 
their  youngest  years,  except  by  immediate  or  divine 
inspiration. 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF   AUTIIORITY.  131 

It  is  hard  to  say  at  icliat  exact  time  of  life  the  child  is 
exempted  from  the  sovereignty  of  parental  dictates.  Perliaps 
it  is  much  juster  to  suppose  that  tliis  sovereignty 
diniiiiislios  l)y  degrees,  as  tlie  eliild  grows  in  under- 
standing and  cai)aeity,  and  is  more  and  mnve  capable  of 
exerting  his  own  intellectual  powers,  than  to  limit  this 
matter  by  months  and  years. 

When  childhood  and  youtli  are  so  far  expired  that  the 
reasoning  faculties  are  grown  up  to  any  just  measures  of 
maturity,  it  is  certain  that  persons  ought  to  begin  to  in- 
quire into  the  reasons  of  their  own  faith  and  practice  in 
all  the  affairs  of  life  and  religion  :  but  as  reason  does  not 
arrive  at  this  power  and  self-sufQciency  in  any  single 
moment  of  time,  so  there  is  no  single  moment  Avhen  a  child 
should  at  once  cast  off  all  his  former  beliefs  and  practices; 
but  by  degrees,  and  in  slow  succession,  he  should  examine 
them,  as  opportunity  and  advantage  offer,  and  cither  con- 
firm, or  doubt  of,  or  ehange  them,  according  to  tlie  leading  of 
conscience  and  reason,  with  all  its  advantages  of  information. 

When  we  are  arrived  at  manly  age,  there  is  no  person 
on  earth,  no  set  or  society  of  men  whatsoever,  that  have 
power  and  authority  gi^en  them  by  God,  the  Creator  and 
Governor  of  the  world,  absolutely  to  dictate  to  others 
their  oi^inions  or  practices  in  moral  and  religious  life. 
God  lias  given  every  man  leason  to  judge  for  himself,  in 
higher  or  lower  degi-ees.  AN'here  less  is  given,  less  will 
be  required.  But  we  are  justly  chargeable  with  criminal 
sloth  and  improveuu'ut  of  the  talents  with  which  our 
Creator  has  instructed  us,  if  we  take  all  things  for 
gi'anted  which  others  assert,  and  believe  and  ])iaelice  all 
things  which  they  dictate  withont  due  examination. 

2.  Another  case  •wherein  authority  nnist  govern  our 
assent  is  in  many  matters  of  fact.  Here  we  may  and  ought 
to  be  determined  ////  the  declaration  or  narratin'S  if  other 
men;  though  I  confess  this  is  usually  called  testimony 


192  USE  AND   ABI'SE  OF   AUTHORITY. 

rather  than  aiifli<»rity.  It  is  upon  this  foot  tliat  ovcry 
sou  or  daughter  uiuoii;^  mankind  are  required  to  believe 
that  Biich  and  such  persons  are  their  i)arents,  for  they 
can  never  be  infornuid  of  it  by  the  dictates  of  othei'S.  It 
is  by  testimony  tliat  we  are  to  believe  the  laws  of  our 
countrj',  and  to  pay  all  proper  deference  to  the  princt; 
and  to  magistrates  in  subordinate  degrees  of  authority, 
though  we  did  not  actually  see  them  chosen,  crowned,  or 
invested  with  their  title  and  character.  It  is  by  testi- 
mony that  we  are  necessitated  to  believe  there  is  such  a 
city  as  Canterbury  or  York,  though  perhaps  we  have 
never  been  at  either ;  that  there  are  such  persons  as 
papists  at  Paris  and  Eome,  and  that  there  are  many 
sottish  and  cruel  tenets  in  their  religion.  It  is  by  testi- 
mony that  we  believe  that  Christianity  and  the  books  of 
the  Bible,  have  been  faithfully  delivered  down  to  us 
through  many  generations ;  that  there  was  such  a  person 
as  Christ  our  Saviour,  that  He  wronght  miracles  and 
died  on  the  cross,  that  He  rose  again  and  ascended  to 
heaven. 

The  mithoniy  or  testimony  of  mnu  if  they  are  wise  an^ 
honest,  if  they  had  full  opportunities  and  capacities  of 
knowing  the  truth,  and  are  free  from  all  suspicion  of 
deceit  in  relating  it,  ouffht  to  sway  our  assent ;  especially 
icJicn  multitudes  concur  VI  the  some  testimony,  and  when  there 
are  many  other  attending  circumstances  which  raise  the 
proposition  which  they  dictate  to  the  degree  of  moral 
certainty. 

But  in  this  very  case,  even  in  matters  of  fact  and 
affairs  of  history,  we  should  not  too  easily  give  into  all 
the  dictates  of  tradition,  and  the  pompous  pretenses  to 
the  testimony  of  men  till  we  have  fairly  examined  the 
several  things  which  are  necessary  to  make  up  credible 
testimony,  and  to  lay  a  just  foundation  for  our  belief. 
There  are  and  have  been  so  many  falsehoods  imposed,  upon 


USE   AND   ABUSE   OF   AUTHORITY.  10.'} 

mankind  \rith  specious  pretenses  of  eye  and  ear  wit- 
nesses, that  should  male  us  wisely  cautious  and  jiLstly  sus- 
picious of  reports  ;  wiiere  the  concurrent  signs  of  truth  do 
not  fairly  ai)pear,  and  esi)ecially  wliere  the  matter  is  of 
considerable  importance.  And  the  less  probable  the  fact 
testified  is  in  itself,  the  greater  evidence  justly  we  may 
demand  of  the  veracity  of  that  testimony  on  which  it 
claims  to  be  admitted. 

3.  The  last  Ciuse  wherein  authority  must  govern  us  is 
when  we  are  called  to  bdicve  ichat  persons  nudcr  inspiration 
have  dictated  to  us.  This  is  not  properly  the  authority  of 
men,  but  of  God  Himself ;  and  we  are  obliged  to  believe 
what  that  authority  asserts,  though  our  reason  at  present 
may  not  be  able,  any  other  way,  to  discover  the  certainty 
or  evidence  of  the  proposition  ;  it  is  enough  if  our  faculty 
of  reason,  in  its  best  exercise,  can  discover  the  divine 
authority  which  has  proposed  it.  ^^'here  doctrines  of 
divine  revelation  are  plainly  published,  together  with 
sufficient  proofs  of  their  revelation,  all  mankind  are 
bound  to  receive  them,  though  they  can  not  perfectly 
understand  them,  for  we  know  that  God  is  true  and  can 
not  dictate  falsehood. 

But  if  these  pretended  dictates  are  directly  contrary 
to  the  natural  faculties  of  understanding  and  reason 
which  God  has  given  us,  w<;  may  be  well  assuied  these 
dictates  were  never  revealed  to  us  by  (iod  Himself. 
When  persons  are  really  influenced  by  authority  to 
believe  pretended  mysteries  in  plain  oi)position  to 
reason,  and  yet  pretend  reason  for  what  they  believe, 
this  is  but  a  vain  amusement. 

HI.  I  have  mentioned  three  classes  wherein  mankind 
must  or  will  be  determined  in  their  sentiments,  by 
authority;  that  is  the  case  of  children  in  their  minority, 
in  regard  of  the  commands  of  their  ])arents;  the  case 
of  all  men,  with  regard  to  universal,  and  complete,  and 
13 


194  USE   AND  ABUSE  OF   AUTHORITY. 

snflficiciit  teslimony  of  matter  of  fact;  and  the  case  of 
every  person,  with  regard  to  the  authority  of  divine 
revelation,  and  of  men  divinely  inspired  ;  and  under 
each  of  these  I  have  given  some  such  limitations  and 
cautions  as  were  necessary.  I  jiroceed  now  to  mention 
some  other  cases  wherein  we  ought  to  pay  a  great 
deference  to  the  authority  and  sentiments  of  others, 
thouj;li  we  are  not  absolutt'ly  (concluded  and  determined 
by  their  opinions. 

1.  AVTien  we  begin  to  pass  out  of  our  minority,  and  to 
judge  for  ourselves  in  the  matters  of  civil  and  religioas 
life,  ice  ought  to  pay  very  great  deference  to  the  sentiments  of 
our  parents,  who  in  time  of  our  minority  were  our  natural 
guides  and  directors  in  these  matters.  So  in  matters  of 
science,  an  ignorant  and  unexperienced  youth  should 
pay  great  deference  to  the  opinions  of  his  iastructors ; 
and  though  he  may  justly  suspend  his  judgment  in  mat- 
ters which  his  tutors  dictate  till  he  perceives  sufficient 
evidence  for  them,  yet  neither  parents  nor  tutors  should 
be  directly  opposed  without  great  and  most  evident  rea- 
sons, such  as  constrain  the  understanding  or  conscience, 
of  those  concerned. 

2.  Persons^of  years  and  long  expeinence  in  human  affairs, 
when  they  give  advice  in  matters  of  prudence  or  civil 
conduct,  ought  to  have  a  considerable  deference  paid  to 
their  authority  by  those  that  are  young  and  have  not 
seen  the  world,  for  it  is  more  i:)robable  that  the  elder 
persons  are  in  the  right. 

3.  In  the  affairs  of  practical  godliness  there  should  be 
much  deference  paid  to  jx't'sons  of  long  standing  in  vitiue 
and  piety.  I  confess,  in  the  particular  forms  and  cere- 
monies of  religion,  there  may  be  as  much  bigot  rj^  and 
superstition  among  the  old  as  the  young ;  but  in  ques- 
tions of  inward  religion,  and  pure  devotion  or  virtue, 
a  man  who  has  been  long  engaged  in  the  sincere  practice 


OF  MAXAGIXG  PEEJtJDICES.  195 

of  these  things,  is  justly  presumert  to  know  more  than  a 
youth  with  all  liis  ungo veined  passions,  appetites,  and 
prejudices  al)Out  liim. 

4.  3Icn  in  their  several  profrfisirnis  and  mis  in  wliich  tliey 
have  been  echicated,  and  in  whieh  they  liave  employed 
themselves  all  their  days,  must  be  supposed  to  have  a 
greater  knowledge  and  skill  than  others ;  and  then'fore 
there  is  due  respect  to  be  paid  to  their  judgments  in 
those  matters. 

5.  In  matters  of  fact,  where  there  is  not  suflicient  tes- 
timony to  constrain  our  assent,  yet  there  ought  to  be  due 
deference  paid  to  the  nnrratires  of  persons  ttise  and  sober, 
according  to  the  degrees  of  their  honesty,  skill,  and  op- 
portunity, to  acquaint  themselves  therewith. 

I  confess,  in  many  of  these  cases,  where  the  proposi- 
tion is  a  mere  matter  of  spe<iulation,  and  doth  not  neces- 
sarily draw  practice  along  with  it,  wo  may  delay  our 
assent  till  better  evidence  api^ear  ;  but  where  tlie  matter 
is  of  a  practical  nature,  and  requires  us  to  act  one  way 
or  another,  we  ought  to  pay  much  deference  to  aulliority 
or  testimony,  aiul  follow  such  prol)abili(ies  where  we 
have  no  certainty  ;  for  this  is  the  best  light  we  have ;  and 
surely  it  is  better  to  follow  such  sort  of  guidance,  where 
we  can  have  no  better,  than  to  wander  and  fluctuate  in 
absolute  uncertainty.  It  is  not  reasonable  to  ])ut  out 
our  caiullc  and  sit  still  in  the  dark,  because  we  have  not 
the  light  of  sun-beams. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

OF  TREATING  AND  MANAGING  THE  PREJUDICES  OF  MEN. 

I.  If  we  had  nothing  but  the  reason  of  men  lo  deal 
with,  and  that  reason  were  jjure  and  uncorrupted,  it 
would  then  be  a  matter  of  uo  great  skill  or  labor  to  con- 


196  or  MANAcixr;  the 

vinco  anotlier  person  of  common  mistakes,  or  to  persuade 
liim  1o  assent  to  plain  and  ()l)vi()ns  1  ml  lis.  ]Jnl  alas  I 
mankind  stands  wrapped  round  in  errors,  and  en- 
trenched in  piejudices;  and  every  one  of  llu'ir  opinions 
is  snppoiled  and  [;narded  by  some  liiinj;  else  besides 
reason.  A  young  bright  genius,  Avho  has  furnished 
himself  witli  a  variety  of  truths  and  strong  arguments, 
but  is  yet  unacquainted  with  the  worhl,  goes  fuith  from 
the  seliools,  like  a  knight-eiiant,  jiiesuming  bravely  to 
vanquish  the  follies  of  men,  and  to  scatter  light  and  t  inl  h 
through  all  their  acquaintance :  but  he  meets  with 
huge  giants  and  enchanted  castles,  strong  preposses- 
sions of  mind,  habits,  customs,  education,  authority, 
interest,  together  with  all  the  various  passions  of  men, 
armed  and  obstinate  to  defend  their  old  opinions ; 
and  he  is  strangely  disappointed  in  his  generous  at  tt'Jii]»ts. 
He  finds  now  that  he  must  not  trust  to  the  sharpness  of 
his  steel  and  to  the  strength  of  his  arm,  but  he  must 
manage  the  weapons  of  his  reason  with  much  dex- 
terity and  artifice,  with  skill  and  address,  or  he  shall 
never  be  able  to  subdue  errors  and  to  convince  » 
mankind. 

11.  AVhere  prejudices  are  strong,  there  are  these 
several  methods  to  be  practiced  in  order  to  convince 
])ersons  of  their  mistakes  and  make  a  way  for  truth  to 
enter  into  their  mind. 

1.  By  avoiding  the  power  and  injhtencc  of  the  prejudice  irith- 
out  any  direct  attack  upon  it ;  and  this  is  done  by  choosing 
all  the  slow,  soft,  and  distant  methods  of  proposing  your 
own  sentiments  and  your  arguments  for  them,  and  by 
degrees  leading  the  person  step  by  step  into  those  truths 
which  his  prejudices  would  not  bear  if  they  were  pro- 
posed at  once. 

Perhaps  your  neighbor  is  under  the  influence  of  super- 
stition and  bigotry  in  the  simplicity  of  his  soul :  you 


PREJUDICES  OF  MEN.  197 

must  not  immediately  run  upon  him  with  violence  and 
show  him  the  absurdity  or  folly  of  his  own  opinions, 
though  you  might  be  abUi  to  set  them  in  a  glaring  light  ; 
but  you  must  rather  h<>(jin  at  a  dintance  and  establish  his 
assent  to  some  familiar  and  ea^sy  projiositious  which  have 
a  tendency  to  refute  his  mistakes  and  to  confirm  tlie 
truth  ;  and  then  HiJenthj  observe  irhat  impression  this  makes 
upon  him,  and  proceed  by  slow  degrees  as  he  is  able  to 
bear ;  and  you  must  carry  on  the  work,  perhaps  at  dis- 
tant seasons  of  conversation  :  the  tender  or  diseased  eye 
can  not  bear  a  deluge  of  light  at  once. 

Therefore,  we  are  not  to  consider  our  arguments  merely 
according  to  our  own  notions  of  their  force,  and  from 
thence  expect  the  immediate  conviction  of  others ;  but 
we  should  regard  how  they  are  likely  to  be  received  by 
the  persons  we  converse  with ;  and  thus  manage  our 
reasoning,  as  the  nurse  gives  a  child  drink  by  slow 
degrees,  lest  the  infant  should  be  choked,  or  return  it  all 
back  again,  if  poured  in  too  hastily.  If  your  wine  he  ever 
so  good,  and  you  are  ever  so  liberal  in  bestowing  it  on 
your  neighbor,  yet  if  his  bottk'Anto  which  you  pour  it  with 
freedom,  has  a  narrow  month,  you  will  sooner  overset  the 
bottle  than  fill  it  with  wine. 

2.  We  may  expressly  allow  and  indidge  those  prejndices  for 
a  season  which  seem  to  stand  against  the  tmith,  and 
endeavor  to  introduce  the  truth  by  degrees,  while  those 
prejudices  are  expressly  allowed,  till  by  degrees  the 
advanced  truth  may  of  itself  wear  out  the  prejudice. 

When  the  itrejudices  of  mankind  ean  not  he  conquered  at 
once,  but  they  will  rise  up  in  arms  against  the  evidcnci* 
of  truth,  there  we  must  make  some  allowances  and  yield 
to  them  for  the  present,  as  far  as  we  can  safely  do  it 
without  leal  injuiy  to  truth  :  and  if  we  wonld  have  any 
success  in  our  endeavors  to  convince  the  world,  we  must 
practice  this  complaisance  for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 


198  or    MAXAfJINU   TIIK 

Take  a  studont  who  has  dwply  iiuliilx-d  the  prinfipli^s  of  iho 
Pciipatotics,  and  iiiia<;iiu's  certain  iiiiniatfrial  ln-injis  called 
sulistaiitial  forms  to  iiihaltit  every  herh,  flower,  mineral,  metal, 
lir>',  water,  etc.,  and  to  1)0  llioHprin)^  of  all  its  jiroperties  ami 
operations  ;  or  take  a  I'latonist,  who  l)elieves  an  iin'initi  inuiidi, 
a  nniversal  soul  of  the  world  to  pervade  all  liodies,  to  act  in 
and  hy  them  according  to  their  nature,  and  in<leed  to  jrivc 
them  their  nature  and  their  special  poweis  ;  perhaps  it  may 
be  very  hard  to  convince  these  persons  by  argument,  and  con- 
strain them  to  yiild  up  these  fancies.  Well  tlien,  let  the  one 
believe  liis  universal  soul,  and  the  otlier  fr<»  <>n  with  liis  notion 
of  substantial  forms,  and  at  the  same  time  teach  them  how 
by  certain  original  laws  of  )notion,  and  tlie  various  sizes, 
shapes,  and  situations  of  the  parts  of  matter,  allowing  a  con- 
tinued divine  concourse  in  and  witli  all,  the  several  ai)pear- 
ances  in  nature  may  be  solve<l,  and  tlie  variety  of  effects  iiro- 
duced,  accortlinyc  to  the  corpuscular  ])hilosophy  improve(f  by 
Descartes,  Mr.  Boyle,  and  Sir  Isaac  Xewton  ;  and  when  they 
have  attained  a  degree  of  skill  in  this  science, they  will  see  these 
airy  notions  of  theirs,  these  imaginary  powers,  to  be  Houseless 
and  unnecessary,  that  they  will  drop  them  of  their  own  ac- 
c  )rd  :  the  Peripatetic  forms  will  vanish  from  the  mind  like  a 
dream,  and  the  Platonic  soul  of  the  world  will  expire. 

I  may  give  another  instance  of  the  same  practice, 
■where  there  is  a  prejudicate  fondness  of  particular 
words  and  phrases.  Suppose  a  man  is  educated  in  an 
unhappy  form  of  speech,  whereby  lie  explains  some, 
great  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  and  by  the  means  of  this 
phrase  he  has  imbibed  a  very  false  idea  of  that  doctrine : 
yet  he  is  so  bigoted  to  his  form  of  words,  that  he 
imagines  if  those  words  are  omitted,  the  doctrine  is  lost. 
Is'ow  if  I  can  not  possibly  persuade  him  to  part  with  liis 
improper  terms,  I  will  indulge  them  a  little,  and  try  to 
exiilaiu  them  in  a  Scriptural  sense,  rather  than  let  him 
go  on  in  his  mistaken  ideas. 

I  grant  it  is  most  proper  there  sliould  be  different 
Avords  (as  far  as  possible)  applied  to  ditferent  ideas;  and 
this  rule  should  never  be  dispensed  with,  if  we  had  to 
do  only  with  the  reason  of  mankind  :  but  their  various 
prejudices  and  zeal  for  some  party  i)hrases  sometimes 
make  it  necessary  that  we  should  lead  them  into  truth 


PREJUDICES  OF   MEN".  lOf) 

under  the  covert  of  their  own  beh)ve(l  forms  of  speecli. 
rather  than  permit  them  to  live  and  die  obstinate  and 
unconvincible  in  any  dangerous  mistake :  whereius  an 
attempt  to  deprive  them  of  tlieir  ohl-establislied  words 
woukl  raise  such  a  tiunult  within  Ihem,  as  to  render  their 
conviction  hopek'ss. 

3.  Sometimes  we  may  make  use  of  the  very  prejudiees 
under  wkleh  a  person,  labors  in  order  to  convince  him  of  some 
particuhir  truth,  and  art^ue  with  him  upon  his  own 
professed  principles  as  though  tlicy  AM-re  true.  This  is 
called  argumentuni  ad  hominem,  and  i.i  another  way  o\ 
dealing  with  the  prejudices  of  men. 

8upposoa  Jew  lies  sick  of  a  fever  and  is  forhiddoii  llcsli  I>y  liis 
pliysiciau  ;  l)Ut  hcarinsj:  tliat  rabVtits  were  jjrovided  for  tln' 
dinner  of  the  family,  desired  earnestly  to  eat  of  tliem  ;  and 
8Ui)p<)se  he  became  impatient  because  \\\a  physician  did  not 
permit  liim,  and  hi'  insisted  upon  it  tiiat  it  could  do  liim  no 
hurt.  Surely  rathir  tban  kt  him  persist  in  that  faiu-y  and 
that  desire,  to  the  danj^er  of  his  life,  I  Avould  tell  him  that 
those  animals  were  stran<rled,  which  sort  of  food  was  forbidden 
by  the  .Jewish  law,  though  I  myself  may  beUeve  that  law  is 
now  al)olished. 

In  the  same  manner  was  Tenerilla  jiersuaded  to  let  Damon, 
h-'r  liusi)and,  prosecute  a  thief  who  broke  open  their  house  on 
a  Sunday.  At  first  she  abhorred  the  thoughts  of  it,  and  n-- 
fused  it  utterly,  because,  if  the  thief  were  coiulemiud,  ac- 
cording to  the  Knglish  law  lie  nuist  be  hanged,  whereas  (said 
slie)  the  law  of  Gixi,  in  the  Mritings  of  Moses,  doth  not  appoint 
death  to  be  the  punishment  of  such  criminals,  but  tells  us  liuU 
a  thief  sliould  be  sold  for  his  tlieft. — Kxod.  I'l:  ;^.  lint  when 
Damon  could  not  otherwise  convince  her  that  the  thief  ought 
to  be  prosecuted,  be  ])Ut  her  in  mind  that  the  theft  w;is  com- 
mitted on  Smulay  morning:  now  the  same  law  of  Moses  re- 
quires that  the  S;iltbath-I)reak(  r  shall  surely  be  i)Ut  to  death. — 
Kxod.  HI:  M;  Numb,  b"):  ;>').  This  argument  prevailed  with 
Tenerilla,  an<l  she  consented  to  the  prosecution. 

Kncrates  used  the  same  means  of  conviction  -when  he  saw  a 
Mahommedan  drink  wiiu'  to  excess,  and  heard  him  nuiintain 
the  lawfulness  aiul  jileasure  of  druidvcnness  ;  Kncrates  re- 
minded him  that  bis  own  i)rophet  ^fahomet  had  utterly  for- 
bidden all  wine  to  his  followers,  and  thegooil  man  restrained 
his  vicious  appetite  l>y  this  superstition,  when  be  could  not 
otherwise  convince  him  that  drunkenness  was  unlawful,  nor 
withliokl  him  from  excess. 


200  OF  MA\A(a\(;  iM;F,.n'i)iri:s. 

When  wo  find  any  person  oli.stiiiatcly  p«'rsistinf;  in  a 
niistakc  in  oi)])()sit  ion  to  all  reason,  especially  if  the  mis- 
take be  very  injurious  or  pernicious,  and  we  know  this 
person  will  hearken  to  the  sentiment  or  authoiity  of 
some  favoiite  name,  it  is  needful  sonu-times  to  use  the 
opinion  and  authority  of  that  fa\orite  jx-rson,  sinee  that 
is  likely  to  be  regarded  much  more  than  reason.  I  con- 
fess I  am  almost  ashamed  to  speak  of  usinf;:  any  influence 
of  authority  while  I  would  teach  the  art  of  reasoning. 
But  in  some  cases  it  is  better  that  jtoor,  silly,  perverse, 
obstinate  creatures  should  be  persuaded  to  judge  and  act 
aright,  by  a  veneration  for  the  sense  of  otheis,  than  to  be 
left  to  wander  in  ])ernicious  errors,  and  continue  deaf  to 
all  argument  and  blind  to  all  evidence.  Thn/  are  hut 
children  of  a  larger  si::e,  and  since  they  persist  all  their 
lives  in  their  minority  and  reject  all  true  reasoning, 
sui-ely  we  may  try  to  persuade  them  to  practice  wliat  is 
for  their  own  interest  by  such  childish  reasons  as  they 
will  hearken  to  :  we  may  overawe  them  from  pursuing 
their  own  ruin  bj^  the  terrors  of  a  solemn  shadow,  or 
allure  them  by  a  sugar-plum  to  their  own  happiness. 

But  after  all,  we  must  conclude  that  wheresoever  it  can 
be  done,  it  is  best  to  remove  and  root  out  those  preju- 
dices which  obstruct  the  entrance  of  truth  into  the  mind, 
rather  than  to  palliate,  humor,  or  indulge  them  :  and 
sometimes  this  must  necessarily  be  done  before  you  can 
make  a  person  jiart  with  some  beloved  error,  and  lead 
him  into  better  seutimeuts. 


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