c
L(A'
SCARCE MONOGKAPHS.-MODERN SERIES.
AN INAUGURAL DISSERTATION,
CONTAINING
SOME OBSERVATIONS
ON THE
PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA,
WHICH, FNDEE THE
PRESIDENCY OF J. F. H. AUTENREITH,
PEOFESSOE OF ANATOMY AND STJEGEEY,
WAS OFFERED FOR PUBLIC EXAMINATION
BY JOHN FI^CHj^R,
A CANDIDATE FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF MEDICINE,
TUBINGEN, SEPTEMBER, 1798.
MANCHESTER :
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM IRWIN,
39, OLDHAM-STEEET.
1848.
DEDICATION.
TO THE ILLUSTKIOUS
FREDERIC ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT,
ETC., ETC.
TEANSLATED BY EOBEET KNOX, ESQ., M.D., F.E.S.,
EXPEESSLY FOE THE
"BEITISH EECOED OF OBSTETEIC MEDICINE AND SUEGKEEY,'
EDITED BY CHAS. CLAY, M. D., MANCHESTEB.
As the first of our series of Modern Monographs, we offer no apology iu
presenting to our readers the celebrated Inaugural Dissertation of J. Fischer,
on the Pelvis of the Mammalia, — a work of great value, and extreme rarity.
In order to give the author's ideas with the greatest possible exactness, we
esteem ourselves happy in presenting a translation expressly prepared for the
British Eecord of Obstetric Medicine and Surgery, by EOBEET ZKOX, Esq.,
M. D., F. E. S., &c., &c. ; and have no doubt, under his able superintendence,
it will form a Monographic gem of the highest interest and value.
CHAELES CLAY, M. D., MANCHESTEB.
THE PRESIDENT
TO THE
DISTINGUISHED CANDIDATE,
S. P. D.
I return to you, unchanged, the dissertation you presented to me, adding
to it but a few observations, expressed in a different type, lest, any thing
unpleasant in the annotations might be attributed to you. This academical
dissertation is not only highly creditable to your learning, but proves your
mind to be untrammelled by the narrow limits of mere practical art and
doctrine, and therefore equal to the advancement of science. Permit me,
however, merely to remark to you, that you have neglected taking an enlarged
view of the whole material collected by you, although individual parts are
perfectly illustrated ; thus leaving to the reader the troublesome task of dis-
covering the fruit all the more difficult amidst a material by no means trite
or common. The following is all which a want of leisure and opportunity
permit me to effect towards remedying this difficulty.
There are two circumstances in which the pelvis of the mammalia chiefly
differs from the human ; first, the symphysis of the pubes is elongated back-
wards, so that the inferior wall of the smaller or true pelvis, forms a semi-
canal, extending much beyond the posterior termination of the bones of the
sacrum, and covered superiorly by ike moveable and slender coxygeal bones
only. I shall consider a little farther on the value and the importance of this
structure in the pelvis of the quadruped, in facilitating the efforts of birth.
In this place I shall consider the second peculiarity alluded to above ; this
has reference to the ossa ilium. It is known in man that a small portion of
the bone of the ilium extends upwards and backwards, above the level of
the base of the sacrum, giving an attachment by its inner surface to the
common origin of the long muscles of the trunk ; but that on the other hand,
the anterior portion of this bone, which is by much the larger portion, is ex-
tended by its lateral anterior margin forwards, anterior to the sacrum ;
covered by the iliac muscle, it supports the intestines firmly with the opposite
bone and the basis of the sacrum, the larger or so called upper or false
pelvis. The margin or crest of the ilium is angular mesially from the spot
where the ligament proceeds from it to the lumbar vertebra. But the su-
perior anterior ligament of the pelvis, which unites this angle of the crest to
the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and another ligament
placed lower down, the anterior inferior ligament of the pelvis, establish the
same distinction superiorly between the abdominal anterior portion of the
inner surface of the ilium and its posterior dorsal and smaller portion, which
lower down the broad symphysis called sacro-iliac has constituted. On the
other hand, many of the smaller animals want all that abdominal portion
B2
M371Q68
4 FISCHEE ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA ;
of the os ilium which forms the larger or upper pelvis, but have that portion
which towards the back projects beyond the os sacrum, long, although nar-
rower, and more parallel with the os sacrum. This is the reason chiefly why
the larger os ilium of the mammalia is so much narrower than the same bone
in man, and its crest especially narrow. Hence the greatest distinction arises
in the ratio of the muscles of the pelvis and trunk ; for instance, the dorsal
muscles are very large in the rabbit, and the quadratus lumborum and psoas
muscles of that animal which lie anteriorly on the longest transverse pro-
cesses. These muscles, on both sides, completely hide the anterior aspect of
the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae. There is no iliacus muscle, as there is
evidently no room for it ; but the quadratus lumborum being left on the
lateral and superior margin of the pelvis, it ascends above that, resting
almost on the anterior and lateral margin of the sacrum ; posteriorly it
appears to be joined in a manner to the pyriformus muscle of the true pelvis.
The abdominal muscles are inserted into the anterior elongated margin of
the ilium, Pouparts' ligaments being placed more at the side than in man, on
account of the very broad symphysis of the bones of the pubes and thigh
bones coming out from the sides of the pelvis, and placed chiefly in an
oblique position.
On account of the narrowness of the ilium, these ligaments almost touched
the inferior insertion of the quadratus lumborum, unless the psoas muscle
came between them. All the crest of the ilium rises backwards above the
os sacrum in the rabbits, and gives insertion to the dorsal muscles ; hence the
false pelvis is evidently wanting in that animal, and only the true pelvis is
present. In other mammalia, as in the moles, not even by its margin does the
os ilium look towards the cavity of the abdomen, the whole bone being re-
tracted towards the back superiorly ; other quadrupeds, as the horse, &c.,
at least possess some abdominal portion of the ilium ; others truly, as the
elephant, possess a very large portion, and which on this account resemble
man ; but I shall treat of these afterwards.
This absence of the false pelvis in most of the smaller animals, and the very
narrow os ilium, render the extremity of the body posteriorly so narrow
when compared to man, and by denying a broader place of insertion for the
gluteal muscles, render the haunches of mammalia very slender. The first
cause, in connection with the horizontal position of the trunk, easily explains
why herniae, which are of very frequent occurrence in man, are very rare
among quadruped mammals ; why no congenital hernia can occur in the
rabbit, although the processes of peritonaeum, which lead the testicle into the
scrotum, remain open even in the adult animal, so that the testicles can very
easily pass and re-pass from the cavity of the abdomen : why, moreover,
hernias are of more frequent occurrence among those animals which have
a certain kind of false pelvis, (as the horse,) which therefore have Pouparts'
ligaments and the abdominal rings more transverse, and less situated at the
side. It happens, indeed, that the thighs are bent towards the abdomen in
almost all mammals, and the bony symphysis of the pubes is broader than in
man ; therefore, the lowest part of the abdomen is better protected, while the
abdominal rings are at a greater distance from each other.
It is here worthy of remark, that the infant in the human race has the
AUTENREITH'S ADDKESS. 5
pelvis in reality narrow, as in most quadrupeds ; the abdomen elevated, or
amalgamated as it were, with the chest, and the umbilical region very broad
or ample. In the infant, also, I have found the abdominal portion of the bones
of the ilium much less than in the adult, as compared with the dorsal portion,
and that the ratio of the length of the dorsal portion to the abdominal, was,
in the infant not quite two years old, as ten to eleven, up to fourteen ;
whilst in the adult the ratio was as eleven to sixteen, up to twenty-two.
This narrowness in the pelvis of the infant explains the greater frequency in
them of umbilical and inguinal hernise to crural : as, on the other hand,
the breadth of the pelvis in grown women renders easy of explanation their
greater liability to crural herniae (and to hernise of the foramen ovale !) ; and,
generally, why it happens that hernise most frequently appear at a time when
the osseous pelvis has acquired its full development, than in early years when
the pelvis is still narrow. To this observation there is the exception of con-
genital and umbilical herniae. The strength of the dorsal muscles in the
mammalia, seems to assist the slenderness of the glutei. The more any
animal is fitted for leaping, and therefore for a more rapid elevation of the
trunk, in it do we find a larger portion of the os ilium surpassing the os
sacrum towards the back, and destined for the insertion of the dorsal muscles.
I have measured the pelvis of fifteen mammals, in their whole length : then
from the summit of the crest of the os ilium, as far as the anterior extremity
of the tuberosity of the os ischium ; then I multiplied the length of that
part of the os ilium (in its longest diameter), which passes beyond the os
sacrum, with the breadth of the same part measured in its middle height or
depth, and thus discovered the proportion of these numbers. The mole,
unable to raise its prostrate body from the ground, has the least space for
the insertion of the dorsal muscles ; the bat follows it, which cannot raise
itself so far on its abdominal extremities as to afford space for the unfolding
of its pectoral limbs ; the sluggish hedgehog follows the bat ; the mouse and
weasel the hedgehog ; next the rat ; then the stoat ; the squirrel ; the rabbit ;
then the martin cats ; the genus felis (cats) followed the martin, already
remarkable for its leaping, and its swiftness of motion ; then the short-haired
dog ; next the fox : the hare already excels the swift fox, living in the open
air, and on this head differing most widely from its co-gener, the troglodylic
rabbit. It is necessary merely to caution any one about to contemplate
this series, that in an absolutely larger animal, the osseous surface for the
insertion of the muscles, must not only be absolutely, but relatively larger.
In the skeleton of a certain cercopithecus, with a face resembling the
human, but with a very long tail, and measuring, from the vertex to the
calcaneum sixteen French inches, I found that portion of the os ilium which
projects beyond the level of the sacrum to be very small, although it had not,
properly speaking, any abdominal portion. Its place therefore in the series,
was between the bat and the hedgehog.
Nor is man himself remarkable for any great strength of the dorsal muscles ;
whilst resting on all four limbs, he cannot raise the trunk by leaps, unless the
knees be first under the abdomen, as in the case of the quadruped. His
dorsal muscles seem rather calculated to retain the trunk in its erect position,
than at every step to raise again the horizontal, (that is, to raise the trunk
6 FISCHEE OS THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA ;
rom the horizontal to the erect position, with the same ease as they retain it
when erect) ; the hands seem mainly given to him, as to the simise, for
assisting in raising the trunk.
The proportion of the numbers obtained by multiplying the length of the
dorsal portion of the ilium into the breadth of its middle portion, was to the
square of the whole length of the whole pelvis : — In the
Mole, as 72 to 10,000 Squirrel, as 383 to 10,000
Bat, ... 124
Cercopithecus, ... 149
Hedgehog, ... 179
Mouse, ... 183
Weasel, ... 204
Eat, ... 227
Eabbit, ... 422 ...
Martin, ... 467 ...
Cat, ... 538 ...
Short-haired dog ... 646 ...
Fox, ... 715 ...
Hare, ... 737 ...
Stoat, ... 309 ..:
I next measured several human pelves by a straight line, from the anterior
superior spine of the crest of the ilium to the angle which this crest makes
inwardly in that spot, where, by means of a ligament, it is joined to the trans-
verse process of the last lumbar vertebra ; and then leading the string or cord
from this angle to the posterior superior tubercle in which the dorsal portion
of the crest terminates ; by these measurements I found, for the most part,
that the dorsal portion was absolutely larger in those pelves in which the ab-
dominal part was smallest ; and, vice versa, the promontory (or rather the
last lumbar vertebra) projected more into the cavity of the pelvis the longer
the dorsal portion of the crest of the ilium really was. In a female pelvis, for
example, the abdominal portion was sixty-seven lines in length, in another only
fifty and a third ; in the former, the dorsal portion was only twenty-six lines
and two-thirds in length ; in the latter, it was thirty-two and a half. The
length of the whole crest was thus in both nearly the same ; for twenty-six and
two-thirds added to sixty-one make eighty-seven and two-thirds ; and fifty-
two and one-third added to thirty- two and a half give nearly eighty-five. The
fossa, or depression, moreover, between the dorsal portion of the crest of the
ilium, and the summits of the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae, was
less marked in that pelvis in which the dorsal portion was least, and in which
the promontory projected less acutely into the cavity of the pelvis ; but it was
deeper or better marked in that pelvis in which the promontory projected
more acutely into the cavity of the pelvis, and in which the dorsal portion
was larger. In the former pelvis this fossa, or depression, had a depth of
nine and one-third lines ; in the latter it equalled eleven and a quarter.
These observations seem to me to throw new light on an observation of the
distinguished Osiander,* who observed that "in women who, from their earliest
years were accustomed to carry burdens on their backs, the angle which the
conjugate diameter of the pelvis makes with the horizon becomes much
nearer the perpendicular, than in those accustomed to carry burdens in any
other way ; and that this greater inclination of the conjugate diameter is a
frequent cause of difficult parturition. For not only does this greater obli-
* Denkwurdig keiten fur die Heilkunde und Geburtshulfe, Zweyter Band ; Getting.,
1795; p. 340.
AUTENREITH'S ADDRESS. 7
quity of the conjugate diameter, arising from the flexion of the loins forward,
render parturition more difficult, but the strength, likewise, of the dorsal
muscles, increased by exercise, seems to be equal to the drawing backwards
the pelvis of a young person of. tender years, and of forcing the promontory
inwards, and in this way to alter the form of the pelvis, and to render it
narrower." At all events, the conjugate diameter of that pelvis whose dorsal
portion was the largest, was shorter by six lines than the conjugate of that
pelvis in which the dorsal fossa (already described) was least. Perhaps it is
hurtful, therefore, to women to carry heavy weights on their backs ; or even,
perhaps, to affect too upright a style of walking, wherein the back and shoul-
ders are drawn backwards, and the os sacrum elevated by the great vigour of
the dorsal muscles. The chests of females, also, rendered stiff with whalebone,
perhaps injure them in a similar way ; nor is it only the narrowing of the
pelvis from side to side, or transversely, which ought to be attended to when
female clothing is considered, or the application of machines to the body 5 its
impression from before backwards ought also to be attended to.
The dorsal portion of the crest of the ilium seems, for the most part, abso^
lutely larger in men than in women, and the abdominal portion smaller ; but
the strength of the muscles is greater in man than in woman.
I come now to the next remarkable difference between the pelvis of man
and other mammals, namely, the elongation of the symphysis of the pubis,
elongated into a semicanal, and to which Daubenton gave a proper name ; and
to the consideration of the fact of the inferior exit of the pelvis in quadrupeds
being directly opposed, or opposite, to the superior entrance or opening. In
the erect position, the human os sacrum is again bent forwards, which, from
its basis, on account of that very inclination of the superior aperture of the
pelvis, is curved backwards ; the coccygeal bones follow the forward curve
of the os sacrum, and complete it ; in this way the pendens-of the pelvis is
supported, the rectum and the vagina curved forwards, and a security is of-
fered against a prolapse, during any more violent effort. But the inferior
aperture of the pelvis would be too much narrowed by this curvature, were
the symphysis of the pubis not shortened, so that this shortest anterior wall
might be opposite to the longer curved wall ; together with this, the plane
of the superior aperture of the pelvis in man, is elevated much nearer to the
glance of the horizon than in the erect animal, Now the globular form of the
foetal head alone enables it to pass through this curved route, which leads
outwards around the symphysis of the pubis, as around an axis in the con-
cavity of the sacrum, from the superior or upper pelvis, through the inferior
exit ; and indeed so only that the short excavation of the mucha correspond
to the narrow symphisis of the os pubis ; and the long convexity of the
head, from the chin extending over the face to the vertex, correspond to the
long excavation of the pelvis, extending from the promontory to the apex
of the coccyx. The promontory which it must be admitted exists in infants,
and even in the foetus, though very obtuse and scarcely conspicuous, seems
attributable in point at least to the erect position of man, and to the contin-
uous efforts of the dorsal muscles. This promontory, narrowing or di-
minishing the conjugate diameter, and by its impression, as it would seem,
rendering the oblique diameter the larger, forces the head of the child to
8 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA;
enter the excavation of the pelvis obliquely ; and this indeed happens more
frequently with the occiput turned towards the left than the right acetab-
ulum, because the uterus in the commencement of pregnancy inclines sen-
sibly more and more towards the right side than the rectum, which is rather
placed towards the left side, proved perfectly by the examination of the
bodies of female infants. Now it was necessary that the head of the fcetus,
after it had entered the cavern, or cavity of the true pelvis, should again
slightly rotate ; because, as my measurements have at least taught me, the
diameter of the smaller pelvis extending from the middle of the os sacrum to
the middle length of the symphysis of the pubis, is a little longer than the
transverse diameter, measured in the same place ; which is otherwise in the
superior aperture of the true pelvis. The dimensions of the child's head
beautifully correspond to these diameters, for its transverse diameter through
the temples is shorter than its anterior posterior one. The lateral walls also
of the true pelvis, and especially the spine of the ischium, if examined care-
fully, seem so bent that the head of the child may of necessity be moved in
the manner just described. The human birth then is accomplished, as all are
agreed on, whilst the head of the child is turned in the pelvis by a semigyra-
tion, resembling the whirl of a univalve shell, and so escapes. But since the
effort which expels the child acts in a right line, and the immovable walls of
the pelvis at last produce these curved lines from a rectilinear motion, it
readily appears how much of the propelling force must be lost against the
walls by this oblique action, and how, from this cause, the human birth must
be difficult ; but this detriment is made up for by the erect stature, the
rounded head and larger brain of man, and by his elevated position above the
order of mammals.
All these things are quite differently arranged in animals ; it was necessary
that by far the greater number of them should walk on four feet, the pelvis,
in consequence, bv no means supports the intestines ; on the contrary, the
bowels descend rather from the pelvis towards the deepest part of the um-
bilical region, so that, in the smaller animals at least, when they are opened
n a supine position, the intestines are never found filling the cavity of the
pelvis, as in man, but are found rolled up, and occupying the middle of the
abdomen. Hence it happened that the os sacrum might be narrower, and
very narrow it is in most of them, and seems to have such a curve with the
coccygeal bones as the weight of the tail requires. There is not even so much
of a promontory as we find in the human foetus. The head of the foetus also,
which in animals is not spherical as in man, but straight and elongated, cor-
responds to the straight course through the pelvis ; and it easily escapes
through it, expeditiously propelled, the propelling forces meeting with no
resistance from its walls. In the gravid quadruped the fundus of the uterus
inclines downwards by its own weight ; and its orifice looking towards the
pelvis, rises somewhat upwards ; but in quadrupeds also, the posterior aper-
ture of the pelvis leads chiefly upwards, and is there covered by a very move-
able and narrow sacrum and coccyx, composed of several distinct and separate
vertebrae. That the fcetus of the lower animals escapes from the pelvis
chiefly by the yielding of the bones of the coccyx upwards, also become more
moveable at the period of parturition, is known to every country woman, who
AUTENREITH'S ADDKESS. 9
foretells the time of parturition in the cow by the greater mobility of the an-
terior coccygeal vertebrae, though concealed by their intimate relation to the
abdomen, and by the elevation of these bones. Harvey already had said in
the chapter on the exterior part of the uterus of the fowl, " in animals with
tails, the birth cannot take place without the elevation of the tail ;" these cir-
cumstances, however, in women, merely render the birth easier ; but a defi-
ciency, in this respect can in no way impede the birth in her. The elongated
head of the fetus in the lower mammals, its lengthened form generally, not
enclosed in spherical, but in a lengthened cylindrical shaped uterus, seems to
be the cause why the smaller pelvis of quadrupeds forms a semi- canal in many
species, the symphysis of the pubis being much prolonged, presenting merely
a smooth (inconsiderable) incision or fissure between the tuberosities of the
bones of the ischium to the chin (bent downwards) of the coming foetus. In
the genus mus the foetus is gross or thickheaded, and its general form is also
less elongated than in some other animals ; but in this genus it also happens
that the symphysis of the smaller pelvis is very short, and the so called
ascending branches of the os ischium are in it united at a right angle to the
descending branches of the os pubis, so that the smaller pelvis looks as if it
had been cut across with a knife, and to have attained to only a half of its
usual size.
It now remains that I say a few' words regarding the narrow and elongated
bones of the ilium, and which are more nearly parallel to the os sacrum in
their length than in man, present in those species of animals in which the an-
terior wall of the pelvis is very short, as in the genus mus, hedgehog, etc. ;
and which are found even in those animals which walk like man, supported on
two feet, as in the gigantic Didelphis. On the other hand, the elephant has
the bones of the ilium very short, but very broad, and strongly resembling the
human. The elephant and mankind agree not only in this respect, but also in
this other circumstance, that the foetus in both has a very large rounded head,
in which the jaws are withdrawn as it were beneath the basis of the cranium,
an arrangement of structure calculated to influence greatly the form of the
uterus, and hence perhaps rendering this form of pelvis necessary ; but these
two wisest of animals agree also in this, that they both have the thigh bones
disengaged or free of the trunk and straight, whilst in most other animals these
bones lie hid, as it were, enclosed entirely or partially within the abdominal
region, compressed and bent ; this happens even in the gigantic Didelphis. The
bear, in whom the thigh bones are more disengaged from the trunk than in
the other fervse, has the os ilium also broader than they have. The muscles
which proceed from the external surface of the os ilium to the trochanter
major of the femur, would either be too tense (as the remotest portion of the
gluteus maximus), or would sometimes be too short when contracted, some-
times too long in extension of the thigh (as the gluteus medius), if the os ilium
of animals, broad as in man, should, notwithstanding, coincide with a thigh
bone hid as it were in the abdominal region and bent as in them, no alteration
having taken place in the insertion of the muscles. But an elongated and
narrow os ilium, with its abdominal or inferior portion as it were entirely
wanting or deficient, does not interfere with this bent position of the thigh
bones. Moreover these bent, compressed, very broad, and closely approxi-
10 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
mated thighs, as they exist in the lower mammals, support the remote portion
of the lower belly, and no less prevent too forcible a protrusion of the intes-
tines against the abdominal walls, than do immoveable bones themselves ; so
also in man, it is safest when vomiting is about to occur, to bend the thighs
towards the abdomen, lest the effort of vomiting should give rise to a hernia,
through the abdominal rings or under Poupart's ligament. Hence also it
seems ill advised to extend with bandages the thighs of recently born children,
in whom the peritoneal processes leading into the scrotum have not yet be-
come contracted or closed. Nature has already taught them at that age to
draw the thighs towards the abdomen, and this may be the main prevention
against the passage of the intestines, through the abdominal rings, along with
the testes in children, whilst enclosed in the uterus. The lower an animal
walks with bended thighs, the narrower will be, in that animal, the os ilium,
and the more does it seem pressed hard as it were against the sacrum through-
out its whole length ; so that a series, perhaps uninterrupted, might be formed
or admitted, from man, in whom the broadest os ilium comparatively is united
with the os sacrum almost at a right angle, to the mole, in which animal an
extremely narrow os ilium evidently unites throughout its whole length with
the lateral margin of the os sacrum, the great ischiatic notch having entirely
disappeared.
I shall here stop, reserving all further observations for the distinct heads of
your dissertation, to which they may refer. It remains for me to express hopes
for your enjoyment of health ; that many may owe their health to you ; and
that you remain a steady cultivator of the sciences especially requiring support
in these times of trouble, commotion, and dreadful wars. Farewell.
FISCHER ON THE PELYIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
1st — Man. Section 1. — Nature has given to the human race the broadest and
most depressed pelvis of any animal, seemingly required by his erect position,
and by the size of the head of the foetus ; by the spreading out of the ossa
ilium the intestines are supported, and by the capacity of the female pelvis, a
ready exit is provided for the fully grown foetus.
Section 2. — The pelvis of other mammals is longer and narrower than the
human ; and the bones of the ilium scarcely diverge, but ascend almost
straight, or parallel.
Section 3. — In mankind, the superior aperture of the smaller, or true, pel-
vis, presents a plane, nearer the horizontal ; whilst in other animals, the line
drawn from the promontory of the os sacrum to the superior angle of the
symphysis of the pubis, called the conjugate diameter, descends more perpen-
dicularly ; hence, in mankind, the transverse is larger than the conjugate
diameter ; in other mammals it is less, with a few exceptions, as in the pelvis
of the horse, the buffalo, and the dromedary.
Section 4.— The quadrumana most nearly resemble the human structure,
and this holds also of the pelvis, and amongst these, chiefly the simia satyrus.
The Bellua follow these, chiefly the Elephant, &c.; then the solidungela,
FISCHEK ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA. 11
(horses) ; pecora (cattle, deer, &c.) ; bradipoda (ant eaters) ; cheiroptera,
(bats). The savage, or flesh-eating animals (carnivora), follow these ; and last
of all, the rodents. Note. The reader is cautioned here, that I adopt the
classification of my illustrious teacher, Blumenbach, as contained in his Com-
pendium of Natural History, fifth edition, Grottingen, 1797 ; and in measuring
the pelvis, I have used the Parisian foot.
2nd — Quadrumana. Section 5. — The os sacrum is narrower and plainer in
all the quadrumana than in mankind. Its external margins do not, as in the
latter, converge downwards, but continue parallel with itself. The excavation
of the pelvis in the quadrumana is less spherical than in the human race,
which seems to be proved by the observations just mentioned ; and that apes, so
like us in other respects, are ill adapted for the upright position in walking ;
and that the head of the foetus of the quadrumana is already more elongated,
after the manner of the brute animal, than globose, or rounded, as in man.
Even in the quadrumana, then, the pelvis has already assumed a character
wholly animal. That cercopithecus, mentioned above, shews a sacrum com-
posed of three vertebrae distinctly separated from each other, and evidently
resembliug those of the loins, and first coccygeal vertebrae, with the exception
of the lateral appendages. The os ilium is elongated, its abdominal portion
obviously defective, or wanting, unless you feel disposed to take for it the
broad anterior margin of the bone. The symphysis of the pubis is elongated,
and the tuberosities of the ischion bent outwards, so that the true pelvis
already shews that the fully formed semicanal, of which we have taken notice
above, and the entire pelvis, already strikingly resembles that of a small car-
nivorous animal, or of a squirrel. It is worth while recollecting how the
mode in this order of animals is changed, as regards the birth of the foetus,
which, in mankind, presents by the occiput ; in the mere animal, by the
face*. The spinous processes in man are not so prominent, neither do they
run together. In the quadrumana, they project more than in man, and in-
cline downwards. The number of sacral vertebrae varies in the quadrumana —
two in the cercopithecus paniscus ; three in the cercopithecus jacko ; three
also in the simia lar, sylvanus f, the papio mormon, and maimon, the
lemur rnongom, the simia sajou, apella (Lin.), have each respectively four J ;
The simia troglodytes has five. || ; and the sai, capucina (L), is said to
have six. The simia troglodytes then, as regards the sacrum, most resembles
man. The sacral foramina differ in number according to the varying number
of the vertebrae.
Section 6. — Os Coccygis. In respect of the number of coccygeal vertebrae,
the order simise, they may be divided into those with tails and those without.
The simia jannus has two coccygeal vertebrae ; the sylvanus and the lar three
each; the troglodytes and the satyrus four each, which is the number in
man ; but these vertebrae are broader and larger than the human, excepting
the first, which unites with the last vertebrae of the sacrum : nor do they
incline so much towards the cavity of the pelvis, but descend more directly,
* Ed. Tyson. Anat. Pigmy. Lond. 1699. 4. t P. Camper. Dusseldorf, 1791. 4 Tab. 3, fig.
7. Galen, Liber de ossib. Cap XL, in which book he has substituted the anatomy of the
ape to that of man. J W. Joseph!. Auatom. &c. Getting., 1787. Tab. 5, fig. 2 || Tyson
1. c. p. 89.
12 FISCHER ON THE PELYIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
and hence, according to Tyson, it arises that the coccyx in the troglodytes
forms a protuberance under the skin (in this respect) the human embryo
strongly resembles the simiae.* The Lemur tardigradus has five coccygeal
vertebrae ; the papio mormon eight ; the papio maimon twenty ; the circo-
pithecus jacho twenty- seven ; the lemur mongoz and cercopithecus saniscus
thirty-three. The number of coccygeal vertebrae is never so constant as in
man ; whence it happens that the numbers observed by different persons vary,
often very much even in the same species. " The reason of this variation is to
be sought for in the observers themselves, not in the animals ; and to be con-
tained in the difficulty of deciding amongst the separate vertebrae of the pelvis,
what vertebrae are to be assigned to the sacrum, and what to the coccyx.
Three vertebrae only in the cercopithecus I have described can be assigned to
the sacrum. The wing-shaped portion of the first vertebrae on each side is the
only one which has a distinct union with the os ilium, quite otherwise there-
fore than in man, in whom the symphysis with the ilium extends as far as
and includes the first, second, and third, spurious, that is sacral vertebrae.
The two vertebrae which in the circo-pithecus now follow, and which form
with the first coccygeal vertebrae a kind of obtuse promontary in the middle
of the pelvis, have broad thin transverse processes, truncated at their extre-
mities, which unite with each other and with the first vertebrae by the angles
of their apices, or summits, and by means of a cartilaginous substance and a
ligamentous expansion ; the same is effected by an osseous substance in the
schunk, musteta, &c. Next come four coccygeal vertebrae perforated, short,
with narrow transverse processes and oblique processes still rather large, the
first of which has still a vestage of the dorsal spinous process, but the second
first shews the abdominal spinous process to be described below. The sixth
coccygeal vertebrae still shows on its upper surface the remains of the excava-
vation (foramen pro medulla spinali) which almost immediately ceases." — •
Autenreith.
The first six vertebrae of the occyx in the cercopithecus-jacho, pa-
niscus, papio maimon, lemur mongoz, and briefly, in all the long-tailed
quadrumana, have true spinous processes which tend somewhat obliquely up-
wards ; from the same there proceed obliquely upwards on either side ascending
oblique processes, the rounded extremity of which is united to the posterior
surface of the descending oblique processes of the vertebrae above. Their
transverse processes are sufficiently long, inclining downwards and backwards.
These six superior vertebrae of the coccyx are perforated, which holds also in
the tail-less apes, in whom for the most part the os coccygis is composed of
three vertebrae, the simia troglodytes and satyrus excepted. In the last per-
forated vertebrae of the coccyx exists the end of the canal for the spinal
marrow, which Galen asserted also of man ; f but already this error had
been exposed by Vasalius, J who shewed that in man the canal for the spinal
marrow extended no farther than the os sacrum. The remaining coccygeal
vertebrae are longer, but towards the terminations they again become shorter
and more slender. The longest vertebrae of this region in the papio maimon
* P. Camper; 1. c. p. 186.
t Galen. Lib. de Ossibus. C. xi.
% Vasalii de corp. human, fabrica. Basil, 1555. Ejus epistola rationem modamque, &c.,
&c. Basil, 1546, p.p. 49.
FISCHER ON THE PELYIS OF THE MAMMALIA. 13
is 5'" ; in the cercopithecus paniscus, 1" 3'" ; in the lemur mongoz, 1" 6'".
Each vertebrae may be divided into a body, an inferior and a superior extre-
mity. The body is oblong, and includes four unequal surfaces. The upper
extremity, thicker than the inferior, has a rounded articular surface, uniting
to itself the preceding vertebrae. Around this surface there are tuberculous
processes. Two of these processes are divided, so that in the terminating ver-
tebrae there are six processes present. The lower extremity of the vertebrae
ends in an articular surface, around which three processes only are placed.
The tuberosities, placed around the joints or articulations, looking upwards,
evidently correspond to, or originate in, the oblique and transverse .processes of
the superior vertebrae, altered in their form.
In the cercopithecus, already so often mentioned, the elongated vertebrae of
the os coccygis are evidently similar to those described in the former para-
graph, at that place where they rise above the posterior margin of the pelvis.
In the tubercle placed around the superior articular surface, itself inferior and
bifid, the two first vertebra of the more distinct portion of the tail, properly
so called, as well as the three other vertebra?, placed between the beginning
of the distinct tail, and the sacral vertebrae, have a spinous process, quite
similar to that which, in the dorsal vertebrae, looks backwards. This little
bone is forked with two diverging crura, leaving between them a foramen,
resting on the tubercles around the articulation, and looking towards the ab-
domen with the apex downwards. These abdominal spinous processes are
united to the bodies of the vertebrae by a cartilage, or rather to the interme-
diate fibro-cartilage than to the vertebrae themselves. It is worthy of being
mentioned, that these same abdominal spinous processes are not only found in
the mus and the mustela, but also in the dolphin. Tyson, in his work on the
Anatomy of the Porpoise, describes them in these words — " Besides the pro-
cesses already mentioned, I find on the abdominal aspect of the vertebrae,
other processes opposite to the dorsal spinous processes, connected with their
intermediate fibro-cartilages. They consist of two slender little bones, joined
at one extremity, and separated at the other, so that their bases form a series
of foramina, through which run a number of blood vessels, in a manner quite
similar to the medulla spinalis in the canal formed by the dorsal spinous pro-
cesses. These processes, like all others of the vertebrae, gradually decrease
as they approach the first caudal vertebrae, until at last they entirely disap-
pear.— A^titenreith.
Section 7. — Ossa innominata. These bones, before they reach the adult
state, are composed, as all agree, each of three bones, — first, the os ilium ;
second, the os pubis ; third, the os ischium. 1. The os ilium, in the quadru-
niana differs widely from that of man.* For these bones do not diverge so
much, nor do they form a cavity so large and distinct as in man, but ascend,
diverging only a little as it were, upwards from the middle of the acetabulum ;
they have a triangular form, and are slender and much longer than in man.
The body of the os ilium, or at least that portion of it which, with the op
ischium and the pubis, assists in forming the acetabulum, is broader in the
quadrumana than in man, when compared with the superior crest, for the crest
in the quadrumana is broader than the body only by some lines ; whereas in
* W. Joseph! 1. c., Tab. v , Fig. 2. P. Camper 1. c., Tab. iii., Fig. 7.
D
14 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
man the crest is 7" 6"' broad, the body only 2" 6'". The external surface is
broad in man, and marked with separated fluctuating lines ; in the quadru-
mana it is narrow, almost perpendicular, and deeply excavated, especially
forwards behind the anterior margin ; this happens especially in the simia
sajou and sylvanus. The internal surface is composed, in many quadrumana, of
three smaller ones — first, an anterior ; second, a posterior and inferior ; and
third, a superior and posterior. The superior anterior surface is situated quite
anteriorly (this is the rudiment of the larger pelvis. — Autenreith.) The poste-
rior and inferior surface looks more inwards, (and assists in forming a smaller
pelvis. — Autenreith) The posterior and superior surface, rough and unequal,
forms the articular plane by which the os ilium is united to the os sacrum, and
embraces the superior, posterior, and broadest portion of the internal surface.
(In this surface is to be included that small portion which, at the back, overtops
the os sacrum. — Autenreith,) In man, three margins are assigned to the os
ilium, an anterior, a superior, and an inferior posterior ; in the quadrumana also,
three are present, the anterior, the superior and posterior, which is indeed the
inferior margin in man, though being more parallel to the anterior, ought rather
to be called the posterior. The anterior margin is comparatively longer than in
man, and as long again as the superior. The superior margin, which is very
short, runs from the anterior to the posterior spine ; this spine touches, supe-
riorly, the os sacrum ; it is straighter in the simise, in some almost horizontal,
in others somewhat convex, as in the simia satyrus.* (In the cercopithecus,
the superior margin posteriorly is strongly curved downwards, anteriorly
making almost a straight line, and passing into the anterior margin of the os
ilium almost at a right angle ; as if with a knife you had divided the human
os ilium in the middle. — Autenreith.) From the posterior spine there next
descends the posterior margin ; this is very long and composed of two equal
parts, the superior of which is perpendicular and joins the sacrum ; where
this articulation ceases the inferior portion of the posterior margin commences,
and is first curved anteriorly, then assumes a perpendicular direction as far as
the junction with the os ischium, and thus forms the incisura which in man is
called the superior ischiatic notch, without the aid of this bone. The varieties
in height, length, and breadth of the os ilium in different species of the quad-
rumana, may be seen in the annexed table of measurements.
Section 8.— 2. The os pubis does not differ so much in the simiae from the
same bone in man as the os ilium. It is also divided into a horizontal and a
descending branch. The horizontal branch, extending from the anterior part
of the acetabulum to the spinous tubercle of the symphysis pubis inclusive,
is in man longer than the descending branch ; in the quadrumana, however, it
is shorter, and on its external surface has no crest or fissure. The descending
branch commencing at the spinous tuberosity or tubercle, descends, and, with
its fellow forms the symphisis pubis, is in the quadrumana much longer ; the
symphisis pubis is increased, and at the same time the depth of the pelvis, for
the bones of the pubis are connected, not merely by the angles between the
descending and horizontal branches, but the descending branches themselves
are united throughout their whole length ; nevertheless this structure does not
prevail in all, for in the lemur tardigradus they meet only by the angles. By
this junction there arises in some that keel formed projection, which is clearly
* Camper 1. c., Tab. iii., Fig. 7. A.B.C.D.
FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA. 15
wanting in man. The greater length of the os ilium makes the conjugate dia-
meter of the pelvis greater than the transverse.
Section 9. — 3. The os ischium in them also consists of an ascending and a
descending ramus. In man, the ischiatic spine is in the descending ramus,
which according to Meyer,* and Josephi, f the quadrumana have not, but in
its place a rough protuberance (as perhaps in all animals. — Autenreith.) The
tuberosity of the ischium, on the other hand, is longer and broader in the
quadrumana, projecting more outwards and anteriorly, and especially remark-
able in the sirnia lar, the sylvanus, and the papio marmon. The ascending
ramus is more slender and narrower ; it ascends to the union with the os
pubis at a wider angle than in man.
Section 10. — The acetabulurn is composed of these three bones, the greater
part by the ilium and ischium, the smaller part by the pubis, and therefore it
might happen that, in some species, the os pubis haa no share in the formation
of the acetabulum. This fact is contended for by Cunauld J and Meyer, || but
Joseph! § doubts their opinion. (In the cercopithecus alluded to, the os pubis
.distinctly forms a portion of the acetabulum. — Autenreitn.) The acetabulum
in the quadrumana is much more distant from the crest of the os ilium and
nearer to the sacrum, (as in all animals, Autenreith), but in other respects
differs little from the human, unless it be that the incisura of the acetabulum
is deeper and extends further towards the os ischium.
Section 11. — Behind the acetabulum forwards, and downwards, the foramen
ovale is formed by the union of the os pubis and ischium. This foramen in
the quadrumana, with reference to the whole animal, is more and more oblong,
and is largest and almost round in the cercopithecus jaccho. The foramen ovale
can only be said to be larger in the quadrumana than in man, when the cavity
of the pelvis is compared with the area of the foramen, but it is less, if the size
of the whole animal be compared to it. Of all mammalia, man has the largest
pelvis, compared with the size of the whole body, and hence also it may arise
that he has the largest foramen ovale. It is still larger in woman, although
shorter than in man. In a male skeleton of elevated stature, I found the su-
perficies of the foramen ovale to be to the total length of the skeleton
as 991 to 1000;
In the female skeleton equally regular, as 1101 to 1000 ;
In the cercopithecus, already so often mentioned, as 357 to 1000 ;
In the rabbit, almost of the same size, as 392 to 1000.
It may be conjectured from these measurements by how much the smaller
pelvis in man exceeds that of animals, passing over here in silence the larger
pelvis ; this appears to be necessary, as well from his erect position as from
the larger size and rounder form of the foetal head. — Autenreith.)
Section 12.— 4. Bradypoda. The os sacrum of the bradypi-didactylus, and
myrmecophagus didactylus, is composed of four vertebrae. In the myrmeco-
phagus didactylus (L.) the spinous processes of the sacrum are of the same
* Augenehmer und nuzlicher Zeitbertreib mit Betrachtung curioser Vorstellungen aller-
hand Thiere, sowal nach ihrer gestalt als auch nach der Accuratess davon verfertigte Struk-
tur ihrer Scelete von Job. Dan. Meyer, Miniaturmahler. Niirnberg, 1748. 36. iii. Thle.
fol. p. 17.
t W. Josephi, A. D. S., p. 302. J Memoires de 1'acad. d. Scienc. de Paris. Anno
1735, p. 383. || Meyer 1. c., p. § Josephi 1. c., p. 305.
16 FISCHER ON THE PELYIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
height and thickness as those of the lumbar and dorsal vertebrae, so that the
passage of the one into the other cannot be perceived. The nine-banded Tatu
has three sacral vertebrae.
Section 13. — The os coccygis of the bradypi-didactylus has eight vertebral ;
the nine-banded tatu, 28 ; the myrmecophega didactylus, 42.
Section 14. — Ossa innominata. The internal surface of the os ilium is
curved in the middle, and has three smaller surfaces, a superior, inferior, and
internal ; the former are broad, the internal narrow. The external surface is
concave. The pubic bones of the myrmecophega didactylus have an opening
between them of a line and a half in extent. (Whether this hiatus, spoken of
as occupying the place of the symphysis pubis be real or not, is still to me very
doubtful ; in the skeleton of the European hedgehog, when freed of all soft
matter, the bones of the pubis have a gap between them of two lines and
more, but along a slender cartilage, which placed transversely forms the
symphysis in that animal, cannot escape the notice of the more careful observer.
The pelvis of the leasypus shews another form of the pelvis meriting notice,
and which will be described a little further on. — Autenreith.)
Section 15. — 4. Chiroptera. The vespertilio caninus, and the murinus, have
each four sacral vertebrae, but the caninus has three coccygeal vertebrae, the
murinus has ten. The seventh of these is larger than the others, and is four
lines long. Pallas * says of the vespertilio cephaloteide, that the bones of the
pelvis are slender, and do not meet at the pubis, lest this narrowness interfere
with the birth. In the caninus the os ilium is not three sided, as in the muri-
nus, but its external surface is very convex. Above the acetabulum there is a
very large spine. In the caninus the ossa pubis are slender, and meet each
other ; it is the same in the murinus. In the caninus the foramina ovalia are
broader than long. The bodies (tuberosities ?) of the bones of the ischium in
the vespertilio vampyre are plain, with cleft margins united together ; thus the
posterior aperture of the pelvis shut in by a continuous margin, is oval, the
horizontal branches of the bones of the pubis alone (angles between the hori-
zontal and descending branches alone ? A.) forming the symphisis and uniting
into a half circle, f The pelvis of the vespertilio murinus is remarkable for
the spinous tubercle of the os pubis extended into a very long spine. Accord-
ing to the drawing of Meyer this spine ascends still higher, so as to seem to
form a complete foramen, with a horizontal ramus of the os pubis, perhaps
joined by a ligament to the os ilum by its apex. To the spine the ligament of
Poupart is admitted by all to be attached. I could find neither this ligament
nor the perfect abdominal ring in the male masupialis didelphis ; the vessels
and crural nerves proceeded unprotected beneath the small accessory bones and
the margin of the acetabulum ; so that that little bone, which shuts in the ab-
dominal pouch in the didelphis, seems to me nothing else than the spine of the
pubis, composed of that little bone itself and its articulation with the hori-
zontal ramus of the pubis joined together. But this spine of the pubis seems
to arise simply from the ossification of the end of the ligament of Poupart, as
the tendons become ossified in the feet of birds, and so are united to the
* P. S. Pallas spicilegia zoologica. Fasc 3. Berol, 1787, p. 23.
t Cfr. G. F. Herman Disser. Observations et anecdota ex osteol, comp. Argent,
1792, 4. p. 12.
FISCHEE ON THE PELYIS OF THE MAMMALIA. 17
bone without a distinct termination. Perhaps it is not to be wondered at,
that the same abdominal pouch, which had hitherto been noticed only in the
genus didelphis, has lately been detected in a species of New Holland Bat,
since this genus has such distinct spines of the os pubis. The skin seems to
gape in these species between the spines, as it does in the human monstrosi-
ties, in whom the bones of the pubis gapes, being united by no symphysis ;
as likewise happens to those with hare lips, in whom the maxillary bones
are not united ; the skin of the head is also wanting in those foetuses, in which
a great portion of the vault of the cranium is deficient. Since it so happens
that in almost all animals the teats are placed in the lower part of the abdo-
men, it may be the more readily comprehended why they are placed in the ab-
dominal pouch. Nevertheless, all these considerations offer no sufficient ex-
planation of the peculiarities in the structure of the internal genital organs in
the didelphis.
Very broad, slender, and almost papyraceous ascending and descending
rami of the os ischium still further distinguish the pelvis of the vespertilio
murinus ; like that large osseous lamina in the situation of the manubriuin of
the sternum, and like the broad osseous terminations of the inferior ribs at
their sternal extremities. The foramen ovale is very small, but truly oval ; the
conjugate diameter is very long and oblique ; the bones of the ilium, elongated
and linear, are inclined backwards, triangular, with margins slightly winged ;
of the three surfaces of this bone, the anterior is the only one between which
the bodies of the sacral vertebrae project ; the other posterior is internal, the
third posterior external. The symphysis of the pubis is very short ; the de-
scending branches of this bone, and the ascending ramii of the ischium, proceed
as in man. Between those branches the inferior aperture of the pelvis is
narrow, perhaps in the male, but the greater pelvis, always broader, ascends
backwards, covered only by the very narrow sacrum and the still narrower os
coccyx, or perhaps rather longitudinally divided into a right and a left portion.
The anterior coccygeal vertebrae have very short and broad transverse processes,
cut short at the apex and the margins almost running together ; the vertebras
of the distinct portion of the tail are elongated, very slender and simple. The
pelvis viewed generally, with a reference to the thorax, is very small ; can it
be that the pelvis of the female bat is so narrow, lest the weight of a broader
pelvis should interfere with her flight ! or, that the mother may more easily
carry along with her in her flight the young, adhering to the jjiammge upon
her broad breast ? also; in a manner, as the young of the didelphis born in an
imperfect state, are finally developed after birth, whilst adhering to the
mammse. — Autenreith.
Section 16. — 5. Glire*. Rodentia, or Gnawers. In very many rodents the
os sacrum is composed of three vertebrae, as in the common mouse, the rat,
the woodmouse, the common squirrel, &c. ; four in the hare, the
guinea-pig, the aguti, and the crested porcupine ; five in the alpine marmot,
and in the beaver. In this order of the mammalia the lumbar vertebrae pass
gradually into the sacral, and the sacral into the coccygeal. The posterior
portion of the os sacrum is somewhat more slender than the anterior, yet in
some, as in the mouse, both portions have the same breadth.
Section 17. — In this natural family of animals, the coccygeal vertebra are
numerous ; the guinea-pig has six, the crested porcupine ten, the hare sixteen
18 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
the common squirrel twenty-one, the field-mouse twenty-four, the common
mouse twenty-eight, and the rat thirty-six.*
The very great diversity which affects the forms of the pelvis in this order
of animals, enjoins the necessity of separating animals of the hare from those
of the mouse and squirrel tribe, which are intermediate between each order.
The hare and the rabbit have the sacrum commencing by a broad ver-
tebra, then indeed already towards the second vertebra becoming acumi-
nated and extremely narrow throughout the rest of the vertebrae, sacral
and coccygeal. The transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae are de-
ficient, and in their place on each side a short-winged margin, unbroken,
accomparies all these vertebrae. The sacral vertebrae in the hare readily run
together. The sacrum of the hare is more curved than that of the rabbit, and
looks backwards. In the rat, however, and in the mouse, the os sacrum is
straight ; and although it be very narrow, it yet, by its broad and confluent
transverse processes, forms a covering for the pelvis, completed by the liga-
mentous expansions, so that, at the side, there scarcely remains a vestige of the
great sciatic notch. The transverse processes of the three anterior sacral ver-
tebrae in the mouse and the rat are nearly equal, excepting that the process of
the first vertebra is thicker and stronger than the others, and unites with the
os ilium. The transverse processes of the second and third sacral vertebrae
are broad, thin, and truncated, and they run together by the angles of their
extremities. The transverse processes of the six coccygeal vertebrae following
the last sacral are narrower, slender, free at their summits, enlarged, and bent
forwards. The elongated vertebrae of the distinct tail have much in common
with the coccygeal vertebrae of the cercopetheci. Between the third and
fourth, fourth and fifth, fifth and sixth, sixth and seventh coccygeal vertebra?,
abdominal spinous processes are also found in the rat and in the mouse ; these
are formed of a small hollow bone, having the figure of a pole-axe or halbert.
The squirrel, as regards the os sacrum, holds, as it were, a middle place between
the hare and the mouse ; for the transverse processes of its three sacral ver-
tebrae do not run together into a continuous margin, as in the hare, nor, has
the os sacrum so great a breadth as in the mouse genus ; but although it be
acuminated backwards, it does not become so narrow. It agrees, then, with
the rat in this respect, that the transverse processes of the first, and in the
squirrel of the first three coccygeal vertebrae, are broad, and so assist in com-
pleting the covering of the pelvis : on the other hand, they agree with the
rabbit in this* that transverse processes appear in some of the coccygeal ver-
tebrae in that place, where, finally the tail becomes distinct. — Autenreith.
Section 18. — The ossa innominata of the rodents are very long. The super-
fices of the os ilium in the beaver presents three surfaces, of which one, the
superior, is very broad ; a second, inferior and internal, is concave ; a third,
inferior, is external. The os ilium of the alpine marmot has also three sur-
faces— an internal and two external.
Concerning the bones of the mouse consult Merres.f " Das Darmbein ist
sehr lang und schmal, und hat an seiner oberu Flache einen erhabenen Strich
der gerade bis zum Hiiftbein fortlaiift, und daselbst iiber dor Pfanne des
Schenkelbeins eine kleine stumpfe Erhabenheit bildet. Das Hiiftbein wird
* Blasius Merrem vermischte Abhandlungen aus der Thiergeschichte' Gott. 1781,
p 6J. t HI. Merrem, 1. c.
FISCHER ON THE PELYIS OP THE MAMMALIA. 19
nachher sehr breit und bildet mit dem sclimalen Schambeine eine selir grosse
ingliclite Oeffnung."
The symphysis of the pubis is always osseous in the beaver (the symphysis
of the bones of the pubis is sometimes found osseous not only in the horse,
but also in the aged dog, and in the fox, which seems to prove that in these
animals, during parturition, there is no force acting against this symphysis
as in woman. — Autenreith.') The foramina ovalia are very large in this order,
especially in the common squirrel. The ossa innominata in the glires suffi-
ciently resemble each other, in as far as regards the os ilium : for they are
narrow, convex on their external surface, so as to appear obtusely carinated,
with an internal concave surface, almost canaliculated towards the apex, and
bent outwards with a rounded subacute summit. The hare alone has the
superior extremity of the os ilium larger and less convex than the rest. The
os ilium of the rabbit is shorter, but broader, according to the size of the
animal. There exists, however, this principal difference : that in the hare
and in the rabbit the symphysis of the pubis is very long, so as to form a
semi-canal, in the hare but little turned upwards ; and that the branches of
the os ischium meet under an acute angle, and the three-sided tuberosities of
the os ischium much extended backwards, so that there is a deep fissure of
the pelvis between them. On the other hand, as has been mentioned above,
the mures have a very short symphysis, and the branches of the os ischium
not only unite at a right angle in a very slender tuberosity, but also almost at
the same angle with the descending branches of the os pubis. The squirrel
holds, as it were, a medium between the mus and the hare ; it has a
distinct tuberosity of the os ischium, but like the rat, it has the branches of
the os ischium meeting almost at a right angle. — Autenreith.
Section 19. — 6. Ferae. The greatest variety of the bones of the pelvis ex-
ists in this artificial order of animals, both as regards size, as between the
shrew (sorex fodiens) and the polar bear ; and as regards form, as between
the european mole, the lion, and the gigantic didelphis. The os sacrum is
composed in most of the ferse of three vertebrae, which number is by no means
so constant and frequent in any ether order ;* in some species, however, there
are exceptions, as in the didelphis oppossum, and gigantea, in which the sacrum
has two vertebra ; in the european mole, and in the ursus arctos, the os sacrum
five vertebrae. Blumenbach f says of the os sacrum of the european mole —
" Beim Maulwurf hat es langst seiner Hinterseite statt der Dornfortsaze einen
ununterbrochenen schneidenden Riicken, der dem kleinen Thiere bei seiner
unterirrdischen Lebenstart besonders aber bei der Weise, wieer die mit den
Vorderfiissen losgegrabene Erde mit den Hinterfussen. hinter sich wirft, sehr
zu statten Kommt." Daubenton J says — " The first vertebra of the sacrum
has no spinous process ; those of the remaining four are united to each other,
forming an osseous crest."
Section 20. — In nearly all the ferse the tail is long, and the coccygeal
vertebra? are numerous ; the European mole has 12, the common weasel 14, the
stoat 16, the fox and the shrew 19, the civet cat 22, the common cat and the
leopard 23, the common otter 25, the genett cat 28, and the opossum 29.
The superior of these vertebrae are perforated by a canal for the spinal mar-
t T. F. Blumenbach, Beschreibung der Knochen. p. 305.
| Histoire Naturelle, Tom. viii. 4, p. 103.
20 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
row. The middle vertebrae are the longest, especially 7 of them ; in the lion
the length of the longest vertebra is 2", 2'", in the leopard I'1, 2"', in the
didelphis opossum 10'", in the common weasel (mustela vulgaris) 2"'. The
mustela vulgaris has abdominal spinous processes, like those of the rat, but
the mustela putorius has short broad abdominal spinous processes between
the first caudal vertebrae ; these processes have the summit bifid. The hedge-
hog seems rather to have sesamoid bones at the joints of the coccygeal verte-
brae, than true abdominal spinous processes. — Autewreith.
Section 21. — Ossa innominata. As the length and proportions of these
bones, whether compared with each other or with the other bones of the pelvis,
may be best seen by inspecting the table of dimensions at the end of the dis-
sertation, I shall here only speak of what seems most worthy of notice. The
pelvis of the genus didelphis, in addition to the usual number of bones, has
two which all other animals want. The didelphis, as is well known, has a
pouch in the lower part of the abdomen, in which the young live after they are
born until they have attained a fitting age. This pouch is supported by two
bones, which may be called its janitors. EdwardTysonf has left us an excellent
description of these bones of the pelvis in the opossum. " These marsupal
bones, or janitores marsupii, are two strong bones, in length about two
inches, and so united to the superior and inferior margins of the bones of the
pubis, that at their base, where they unite with the bones of the pubis, they
touch each other, whilst at their other extremity they are distant from each
other by about two and a half inches. At the basis, two heads may be seen,
about half an inch broad ; the larger one turned towards the symphysis of the
os pubis, the other, the smaller one, towards the haunch bone, together with
an intermediate sinus between these heads, in which is received a certain pro-
tuberance of the os pubis. (In the didelphis, the protuberance of the os pubis
does not correspond to the marsupial sinus, but a certain obtuse notch of
the margin of the os pubis corresponds to it. — AutenreitJi.) These bones,
which as they ascend from the bones of the pubis become more slender, and
about the middle do not exceed a quarter of an inch in length, cannot be
moved towards each other, nor from each other, but inwards, as it were towards
the spine, and outwards from it." Whilst, however, they are moved outwards,
they are of necessity widened, whilst inwards they are closed, because their
bases by turns form an angle. The bones of the pubis and of the ischium are
very large and long in the gigantic didelphis ; the os ischium is likewise as long
as the os ilium. The rami of the os pubis and ischium are so united that no
angle exists between the branches of the os ischium in the inferior aperture of
the pelvis. The foramina ovalia are very long, and the acetabulum placed in
the middle length of the pelvis has no notch. The ossa pubis of the European
mole are separated from each other ; in the shrew the distance is three lines.
BlumenbachJ says—" Unter den vierfiissigen saugthieren hat der Maulwurf
wol eins der sonderbarsten Beken. Es ist so eng und schmal, dass es ausser
einigen schlanken Muskeln, bios Kerven und Blutgefasse zu fassen, im stande
t Mich. Bernh. Valentin! amphitheatrum Zootomicum. Giesse 1720, fol. p. 132, et deli-
neatio horum ossium in Tab. xxvi., Fig. 5. Praestantissimam delineationem pelvis didelphidis
giganteae dedit E. Home, in commentatione sua: Observations on the mode of generation of
the Kangaroo in Philosophical Transactions, 1795 ; 4 Tab., xxi.
* T. F. Blumenbach, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Knochen, p. 328.
F1SCHEK ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALU. 21
ist, hingegen die Geburtstheile olerhalb tier Schambeiue sich offnen miissen.
The genital organs of tlie European mole by 110 means open above the sym-
physis of the pubis, but beneath it, as in all other mammals. There is this
important difference, however, that not only the vagina and urethra, but like-
wise the whole urinary bladder and the rectum, are placed beyond (extra) this
symphysis of the pubis ; almost as in those human monstrosities wherein the
ossa pubis not meeting mesially, the urinary bladder hangs beyond the sym-
physis. The ossa ilium of the mole, as has been already mentioned, are united
throughout their whole length to the os sacrum : but where the acetabula are
placed there commences a very narrow and scarcely perforated excavation of
the pelvis. The symphysis of the bones of the pubis, united, however, by no
intermediate cartilage, is there found behind the intestinum rectum. From
this incomplete symphysis, which is either very short or very long, the rami of
the bones of the pubis descend, gradually widening and becoming more distant
from the coccyx. There arises an oblong cavity anteriorly very narrow, ample
posteriorly, open inferiorly, in the exit of the pelvis, between the bones which
on each side form the foramina ovalia. Into this excavation there descends
the intestinum rectum after it has passed over and beyond the symphysis of
the pubis, and in the same excavation there lie a long vagina and double
horned uterus, with lenticular-shaped ovaria, all of which organs in the unim-
pregnated state are very small ; the urinary bladder with the urethra lies over
them. The recti muscles of the abdomen, divided as it were towards their
pelvic extremity, surround the neck of the bladder, and at their insertion into
the pelvis provide, as it were, a place for it. The angle which the descending
rami of the os pubis form with the ischium, differs from that of other mam-
mals, being acute, and descends much lower than the position of the tuberosi-
ties of the os ischium. (The pelvis of the sorex is very similar to that of the
mole, but its symphysis is still more open, and the pelvic excavation is larger,
as if to afford a space for containing the internal genital organs as in other
mammals. — Autenreith.) The following description of the ossa iunominata of
the hyena, has been taken from Daubenton. £ " The haunchbone of the wolf
is proportionally shorter and larger anteriorly than that of the leopard, but
the same bone in the hyena, is still shorter and larger than that of the wolf ;
the inferior part of this anterior extremity is greatly extended and spread out-
wards. The foramina ovalia differ from those of the leopard in this respect,
that they are as wide as long. The groove formed by the reunion of the bones
of the pubis, and of the ischium on each, side, is proportionally shorter than
in the leopard, and even than in the wolf." The structure of the pelvis might
safely be taken as a means for dividing the class ferae into two more natural
classes. The larger ferse, and which are truly carnivorous, as the felis, cards,
viverra, and mustela, have the ossa ilia smooth, excavated on their external
surface, and joined to the os sacrum by a very small portion on their inner
surface ; the symphysis of the bones of the pubis is in them elongated. But
in the smaller ferae living on a variety of food, vegetable as well as animal, as
in the opossum, hedgehog, sorex, mole, and bat, which are all distinguished
by their anterior teeth from the former, in these the ossa ilium are three-
sided, stick-shaped, and joined to tlie sacrum by almost their whole length.
1 Daubenton, Histoire uat. T. ix., p. 294.
22 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
The symphysis of the pubis is in them, with the exception of the didelphisj
either very short or sometimes evidently wanting ; the bones of the ischium,
as in the genus mus, are flattened, very broad, thin, and the position of the
tuberosities is nearer to the promontary, than are the angles in which the de-
scending rami of the pubis meet with those of the ischium. The pelvis of the
hedgehog, at the symphysis of the pubis, is remarkable for a wide hiatus be-
tween the bones, nor is this opposite to the acetabulum, but much lower down,
and seems to arise from a very acute union of the rami of the pubis and
ischium ; it remarkably resembles in form the pelvis of birds, as of the pigeon,
&c. ; on the other hand, the pelvis of the mole, by the union of the os
sacrum and ilium into a single osseous lamina, seems also to pass partly into
the form of the pelvis of the bird. We have already noticed the distinguish-
ing characters in the pelvis of the bats (Aiitenreith) .
Section 22. — 7. Solidungula. As the horse is the most important of all the
animals connected with the veterinary art, I shall dwell longer on the descrip-
tion of its pelvis. Five vertebra? compose the os sacrum, which in youth are
both separated and connected by cartilages ; by degrees, however, as the car-
tilages ossify they become contiguous, so that at last no vestiges of their
original separation remain. The os sacrum shows two margins, and two sur-
faces— a superior or external, and an inferior or internal ; also a base and apex
to be considered separately. The broad margins anteriorly show a consider-
able surface, full of tuberosities and little depressions, serving to unite it with
the os ilium ; this surface of the margins is called by some the sigmoid or
semilunar aspect. The external, or superior convex surface, is tuberous, and
furnished with several prominences : in the middle there arise five separate
and distinct spinous processes ; the second of these is the longest, but it is also
the slenderest : the rest gradually decrease in size and thickness, terminating
in a quadrangular little head in the apex. I have often found these spinous
processes united together. Between the bases of these processes there are
four foramina, communicating- with the vertebral canal. Close to these, on
each side, there are other four foramina, which also lead into the vertebral
canal. The inner, or inferior surface of the sacrum, is concave and without
tubercles. Near the margins it is perforated by four foramina ; between each
pair of these holes there is an elevated transverse line, the remains of the
former intermediate cartilages. The anterior portion of the base of the sacrum
is the broadest ; in the middle of this base is a broad, oval, articular surface.
Above this articular surface, is the triangular opening of the canal of the
sacrum passing throughout its whole length ; this is a continuation of the
vertebral canal. Close to the aperture of this canal, there arise two oblique
processes each an inch long, and having the same direction as the correspond-
ing processes of the lumbar vertebra?. On each side of the sacrum, and towards
the side of the articular surface, there arise two large prominences which unite
•with the transverse processes of the last lumbar vertebra ; by some these are
called the articular tuberosities. On the apex of the os sacrum may be ob-
served a small, oval, articular surface, connecting this bone to the first coccy-
geal vertebra.
Section 23. — The coccygeal vertebrae vary much in number. The usual
FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA. 23
number is 18 ; the eight anterior are the longest. The first and second
coccygeal vertebrae are composed of a body, a spinous process, and two promi-
nent transverse processes. Through these, and through the third, fourth, and
fifth vertebrae, the vertebral canal is prolonged, and there it terminates. The
last vertebras have no spinous processes, but only small tubercles in their
place. The coccygeal vertebrae ought to be divided into two distinct classes,
not only in the genus Equus and Simia, but in all mammal quadrupeds : into
the perforated, which contribute to the formation of the pelvis and contain
the termination of the medulla ; and the imperforated, which form the more .
distinct tail. The former are shorter than the latter, but for the most part
have spinous processes, often transverse processes, and always oblique pro-
cesses ; the posterior coccygeal vertebra are elongated, and in place of pro-
cesses, in every genus of animals with tails, have merely tubercles around the
articular surfaces. Man evidently wants the first kind and has the second.
— (Autenreith.} /
Section 24. — Ossa innominata. These bones in the young horse, as in all
other mammals, are composed of three — the os ilium, ischium, and pubis. The
os ilium is triangular, and outwards from that angle which is distant from the
sacrum, is bent ; the external aspect is concave and without tubercles : the
internal on the other hand, regarded as a whole, is convex, and hence from
the middle of the crest of the illium, as far as the superior spine, it is full of
tuberosities and impressions ; at this part the os ilium unites with the sacrum. '
Towards the lower part of the os ilium, almost about the middle of its inner
surface, a line begins to be formed, which passes obliquely as far as the inner
surface of the os pubis, and there terminates ; by which line the pelvis is divi-
ded into a greater, or anterior, and a smaller, or posterior, according to the
nomenclature of these parts in man. In the horse, the abdominal portion of
the os ilium is so small, that the greater pelvis can scarcely be described in
that animal. — (Autenreith.) The crest of the os ilium is not convex, but runs
almost in a straight line as far as the two tubercles, then suddenly contracts,
and descending again terminates in other two tubercles. The superior and
inferior margins of the os ilium are much excavated. The os ilium of the
horse is remarkable for its length, when compared with the horizontal
branches of the pubis which form the inferior margin of the pelvis, hence it
happens that in this very ample pelvis the acetabula and thigh-bones are never-
theless sufficiently near each other, and in this large animal a small space only
is observed between the thighs towards the lower part of the belly. — (Auten*
reith.) The external surface of the os pubis is convex, the internal, concave.
It is divided into an anterior branch and a posterior. The anterior ramus has
a prominent line on its anterior margin, but more towards its internal surface,
however, which is called the crest of the pubis. In the anterior margin there also
arise on each side two prominences, which are called the spines of the pubis.
The posterior margin of the anterior ramus assists in the formation of the
foramen ovale. The external surface of the posterior ramus is convex, the in-
ternal, concave ; the external margin of this ramus forms the largest portion
of the foramen ovale, The os ischium may be divided into a body and two
branches, and it is very large when compared with the os pubis ; its upper ramus
forms by its internal concave margin the external border of the foramen ovale.
FISCHER OX THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
The inferior rami of the os ischiura are often united together by a symphysis,
which is frequently ossified ; its internal surface is concave, its external, con-
yex. The rami of the os ischium posteriorly form together an obtuse angle,
which is named " the angle" of the bones of the ischium, and they end in a
protuberance about an inch long, called the tuberosity of the ischium.
The acetabulum is oval, and deeply notched towards the anterior margin of the
foramen ovale ; formed as usual of the three pelvic bones, the os ilium, however
contributing the largest portion. The foramen ovale is formed by the os pubis
and os ischium, chiefly however by the latter.*
Section 25. — 8. Pecora. In this order, or natural family, the os sacrum does
not present any great variety : in many species it is composed of four verte-
brae, as in the camelus, dromedarius, the cervus clephus, the antilope dor-
casete : in others, however, it has five vertebrae, as in the bos taurus, antilope
eupricapra, cervus dama, &c.
The external surface of the os sacrum in the ox is less convex ; its spinous
processes incline forward, and are united together, excepting the fifth, which
is very short, its length being only 9'", whilst the first of these processes
measures 2'1 6'". The anterior portion of the os sacrum is not so broad as in
the horse ; moreover, it is not united to the transverse processes of the last
lumbar vertebra, 'for which reason it has no articular tuberosity.
Section 26. — The coccygeal vertebrae are not so numerous in this class of
animals as in the preceding ; the antilope rupricapra (chamois) and the dorcas
have each ten vertebrae in the coccyx ; the goat twelve, according to Allamand ;f
in the giraffe there are eighteen ; in the buffalo fifteen, and in the ox eighteen.
In the ox the spinous processes, and on each side two transverse processes of
the seven anterior coccygeal vertebrae, are abated or withdrawn. The canal
for the spinal marrow extends in the ox to the eighth coccygeal vertebrae.
Section 27. — The ossa innominata of the ox differ widely from those of the
horse ; the superior crest (angular process) of the os ilium is larger, and ter-
minates externally in a large tuberosity, which is especially evident in lean
cows. This spine (angular process) in the ox approaches nearer to the trans-
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, and therefore the distance between
them is not so great in the ox as in the horse. The bones of the ischion are
larger than those of the horse, both in length and breadth, and are so con-
nected together that the angle is more obtuse, for the distance between the
tuberosities of the bones of the ischion is 4" 6'", and the incisura shews 2"
4"'. The symphysis of the ossa pubis terminates in an eminence, called the
spine of the bones of the pubis .£ The posterior superior branches of the
bones of the ischion terminate in two tuberosities — an upper one, to which is
attached the sacro-ischiatic ligament ; and an inferior, which is larger. I
need not speak of the other parts of the pelvis of the ox, as they so much
resemble those of the horse. The remaining group of this order have the
: * Delineationes ossium pelvis equini, vide, Ruini. Anatomia del Cavallo, Conf. Snape;
The Anatomy of the Horse; To idon. UiM. .o!.—Yv. Gibson. Cf. New Treatise on the Dis-
eases of Horses; London. 1751. 4:o. — -G. Stu'jbs; The Anatomv of the Horse. London. 1766.
fol.— La Fosse ; Cours d'Hippiatr.que. Paris. 1772. fol. Tab. 9. Figures 24, 25, 26, 41, 42.
t In Huffon. Hist. Nat. Supplcm. T. vii. 4 , p. 356.
J Vitcf. .Med. Veterin. Lyon 1771-S, Tom. i., p. 88.
FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA. 25
pelvis of a form greatly resembling that of the ox. I shall copy merely some
examples from Daubenton, who thus speaks of the buffalo : — " Of the three
tuberosities formed by the posterior part of each os ischium, the inferior is
much longer from above downwards than the two superior, the more anterior
of which (upper tuberosities) is placed higher than the corresponding one in
the ox, and which has been called a spine." Again, Daubenton speaking of
the dromedary, says — " The upper part of the haunch bone is very large, and
forms an acute angle by its anterior extremity ; the foramina ovalia are nearly
round." The pelvis of the goat presents some peculiarities worthy of notice :
the symphysis of the pubis, elongated, is somewhat bent in the middle into a
distinct angle superiorly, so that the exit of the true pelvis in this animal is
directly the opposite to what it is in man, in whom it bends forward, towards
the abdomen. The os sacrum of the fallow deer greatly resembles the narrow
sacral bone of the hare, in which there also exists a similar though less con-
spicuous flexion of the pelvic semi-canal, towards the coccygeal bones. In
this flexion may, perhaps^ be found the reason why amongst the glires (ro-
dents) animals are generally provided with lengthened tails ; the hare, and
amongst cattle, the deer, have the tail short ; both animals are remarkable
for their extraordinary leaps, in performing which the middle of the back is
bent downwards. The portion of the os ilium, which in the goat overtops
the plane of the os sacrum, is bent outwards, or externally is short, somewhat
broad, and with a sub-acute apex.
Section 28. — 9. Belluce. The os sacrum of the elephant is composed of three
vertebrae, separated by large intermediate cartilages, which late in life evi-
dently become ossified. The os sacrum of the pig is composed of four ver-
tebras, having very small spinous processes, and separated from each other by
large intervals. The os sacrum of the BUS tajarsu has five vertebrae.
Section 29. — The coccyx of the sus tajarsu has seven vertebra? ; that of
the common pig, sus scrofu, and of the elephant, thirty-one.*
Section 30. — The ossa ilia of the common pig greatly resemble those of the ox ;
the bones of the pubis and of the ischium are broader, hence the foramina
ovalia, and indeed the whole pelvis is wider than that of the ox, comparatively,
that is, regard being had to the difference in bulk of the animals. The ossa
inominata of the elephant greatly resemble the corresponding human bones,
especially the ossa ilia, which in the elephant are very broad, and not elonga-
ted, as in other mammals ; they reach merely the last lumbar vertebra. Their
inner surface is concave, their outer convex, as in man ; but the inferior spine
of the crest of the os ilium is terminated by a very large tuberosity ; the
diameter from one to the other, according to Perrault,f in an elephant seven-
teen years of age, was nearly 2' ; according to Blair,J in an elephant twenty-
six years old, 3' 6" English feet; and in the pelvis of an elephant eleven years
old, preserved in the Museum of Hesse-Cassel, I found the measurement to be
two feet four inches.
The annexed table of measurements has been compiled from the obser-
vations of Daubenton, Pallas, Merrem, Allemand, Blair, and my own : —
* Perrault. Mem. Paris. 1671-1676, fol. T 2.
t Mem., p. 5. Hist. Nat. : P. Blair on the Anat. of the Elephant. Philos.
Tr., vol. 5, Lond. 1732, p 82.
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26 FISCHER ON THE PELVIS OF THE MAMMALIA.
Section 31. — 10. Cetacece, The pelvis of the cetacese seems rather a rudi-
ment, and the last phalanz in the series of the diverse forms of the pelvis, in
like manner as the rudiment of the pelvis, in the anguis fragilis (slow-worm)
is said to connect the lizard tribe to serpents.
Merk,|] at least, does not venture to give a description of the pelvis of the
cetacese, without adding delineations to it, on account of the simplicity of the
structure. I have myself observed, during the coarse dissection of sailors,
that the delphinus phoceena (porpess dolphin) has a pelvis, or at least a
bone, which shuts in, as it were, the abdomen, in the situation of the bones
of the pubis. A.)
li Hessische, Beyti. zur Gelchrs. und Kunst. 1. Baud, 6, Stiik.
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