78th Congress, 2d Session - - - - House Document No. 379
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
MESSAGE
FROM
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES
TRANSMITTING
A REPORT OF THE NATIONAL INTERREGIONAL
HIGHWAY COMMITTEE, OUTLINING AND
RECOMMENDING A NATIONAL SYSTEM
OF INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
JANUARY 12, 1944.—Referred to the Committee on Roads
and ordered to be printed with illustrations
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1944
ULcPOSITED BY THE
WNITED STATES OF AMERICA
&Y f0-~A-94
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT
To the Congress of the United States:
On April 14, 1941, I appointed a committee, known as the National
Interregional Highway Committee, to investigate the need for a
limited system of national highways to improve the facilities now
available for interregional transportation, and to advise the Federal
Works Administrator as to the desirable character of such improve-
ment, and the possibility of utilizing some of the manpower and
industrial capacity expected to be available at the end of the war.
The committee, with the aid of a staff provided by the Public
Roads Administration, made careful and extended studies of the
subject, and has submitted to me its final report which I transmit
herewith and commend to the favorable consideration of the Congress.
The report recommends the designation and improvement to high
standards of a national system of rural and urban highways totaling
approximately 34,000 miles and interconnecting the principal geo-
graphic regions of the country.
he recommended system follows in general the routes of existing
Federal-aid highways, and when fully improved will meet to optimum
degree the needs of interregional and intercity highway transportation.
Its development also mill establish a transcontinental network of
modern roads essential to the future economic welfare and defense
of the Nation.
While the annual rate of expenditure to accomplish the improve-
ment of the rural and urban sections of the system over a reasonable
period of years will be dependent upon the availability of manpower
and materials, and upon other factors, the required expenditure is
estimated at $750,000,000 annually. The over-all expenditures
would be pi pronmoney equally ‘divided between urban and rural
sections of the system.
The improvement of a limited mileage of the most heavily traveled
highways obviously represents a major segment of the road replace-
ment and modernization program whieli will confront the Nation in
engied years, in rural and urban communities alike. The committee
ound that the national network outlined in its report comprises only
1 percent of the total road mileage of the United States but carries 20
percent of the total travel.
Continued development of the vast network of rural secondary
roads and city thoroughfares, which serve as feeder lines and provide
land-access service, likewise has an important place in the over-all
pro: , together with the repair or reconstruction of a large ee
of Federal and State primary highways not embraced within the
interregional network.
I commend especially to the consideration of the Congress the
recommendation that minimum standards of design and construction
be established cooperatively with the States for all projects embraced
within a designated interregional system. This, it seems to me, is
m
IV MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT
wise planning procedure, assuring the orderly development of the
facilities which are necessary in the public interest with maximum
long-range economy.
By Public Law 146, Seventy-eighth Congress, section 5, Commis-
sioner of Public Roads Thomas iid MacDonald, was authorized and
directed to make a survey of the need for a system of capes highways
throughout the United States, the number of such highways needed,
the approximate routes which they should follow, and the approxi-
mate cost of construction, and to report to the President and to
Congress, within 6 months after the date of the act, the results of the
survey, together with such recommendations for legislation as deemed
advisable. The act was approved on July 13, 1943.
The purposes of this directive by the Congress were identical with
my own in requesting the investigation which has been made by the
National Interregional Highway Committee. The Commissioner of *
Public Roads has served as the chairman of! the Committee appointed,
and the detailed investigations required have been made by the Public
Roads Administration staff. The Commissioner of Public Roads has
informed me that he concurs without exception in the report of the
Committee, and desires that it be accepted as his report, complying
with the direction of Congress in Public Law 146,
I am glad to endorse this suggestion, and ask that the Congress
receive the report herewith transmitted as fulfilling the purposes of
Congress in the directive laid upon the Commissioner of Public Roads.
Early action by the Congress in authorizing joint designation by
the Federal Government and the several State highway departments of
a national system of interregional highways is desirable, in order to
facilitate the acquisition of land, the drawing of detailed project plans,
and other preliminary work which must precede actual road con-
struction.
These advance steps taken, the program can serve not only to help
meet the Nation’s highway transportation needs, but also as a means
of utilizing productively during the post-war readjustment period a
substantial share of the manpower and industrial capacity then
available. A program of highway construction will, in addition,
encourage and support the many diverse economic activities dependent
upon{highway transportation.
From personal experience, as Governor of a State and as President,
I hope that the Congress will make additional studies in regard to the
acquisition of land for highways.
n the interest of economy, I suggest that the actual route of new
highways be left fluid. Itis obvious that if a fixed route be determined
in detail, the purchase price of rights-of-way will immediately rise, in
many cases exorbitantly; whereas, if two or three routes—all approx-
imately equal—are surveyed, the cheapest route in relation to right-
of-way can be’made the final choice.
Second, experience shows us that it is in most cases much cheaper
to build a new highway, where none now exists, rather than to widen
out an existing highway at a cost to the Government of acquiring or
altering present developed frontages.
As a matter of fact, while the courts of the different States have
varied in their interpretations, the principle of excess condemnation
is coming into wider use both here and in other countries. I always
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT v
remember the instance of the farmer who was asked to sell a narrow
right-of-way through his farm for a main connecting highway. From
an engineering point of view it would have been as feasible to build
the new highway across the dirt road that ran in front of his house
and barn. Actually the owner received from a jury an amount equal
to the whole value of the farm. The road was built. The owner of
the land thereby acquired two new frontages. He sold lots on one
frontage for the former value of his farm. A year or two later he
sold the other frontage for the farm value of his farm. The result
was that he still had his house and barn and 90 percent of his original
acreage, and in addition he had received in cash three times the value
of what the whole place was worth in the first instance.
It hardly seems fair that the hazard of an engineering survey should
peaty enrich one man and give no profit to his neighbor, who may
ave had a right-of-way which was equally good. After all, why
should the hazard of engineering give one private citizen an enormous
profit? If there is to be an unearned profit, why should it not accrue
to the Government—State or Federal, or both?
Frankuin D. Roosevetr.
Tue Waite Houses, January 12, 1944.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
FeperaL Works AGEncy,
Washington.
The PRESIDENT,
The White House.
My Dear Mr. Presipent: I transmit, with my approval, the
final report of the National Interregional Highway Committee ap-
pointed by you on April 14, 1941. _
In your letter of that date to the Honorable John M. Carmody,
then Administrator, Federal Works Agency, you expressed the hope
that as a result of the Committee’s recommendations it would be
possible to prepare detailed plans and specifications for the construc-
tion of a national system of interregional highways to utilize some of
the manpower and industrial capacity hick willl be available at the
termination of the war emergency.
The system of interregional highways which the Committee recom-
mends has been found to meet in optimum degree the needs of inter-
regional highway traffic, and I particularly commend to your notice
the views of the Committee concerning the special importance of
those sections of the system located within and near our larger cities
and metropolitan areas.
The Defense Highway Act of 1941 authorized a Federal appropria-
tion of $10,000,000 to be apportioned among the several States and
matched by them to provide a fund for the making of surveys and
pe for future highway construction. The funds authorized have
een apportioned, and have been allotted in substantial part to the
reparation of detailed plans and specifications for sections of highway
imcluded in the system the Committee recommends. The further
application of these funds largely to the system, in my opinion a
desirable requirement, will assure the availability of complete plans
for the construction of important highways of an estimated cost of
about $400,000,000.
More recently the Congress has authorized expenditure in each
State of an amount of the unobligated balance of Federal-aid highway
funds not exceeding the State’s apportionment of a national total of
$50,000,000, together with matching State funds, for additional sur-
ver and plans for post-war highway construction. wee
y these two measures generous provision has been made for the
preparatory work of surveying and planning which is necessary to
assure the readiness of a large body of highway construction projects
at the end of the war. There is, however, another equally important
measure of preparation that must be taken if work on the planned
projects is to begin promptly when peace returns. Rights-of-way for
the planned improvements must be in hand; and funds for this pur-
ose, clearly expendable during the war, should be made available.
he recent act of Congress (Public Law No. 146, 78th Cong.) provides
vo
Vit LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
for payment of the Federal share of the right-of-way costs of post-war
projects only after construction has been actually begun. The States
are required to advance from their currently reduced revenues, for
the period of the war, the whole cost of rights-of-way acquired. Their
inability to do this in many cases means that essential rights-of-way
will be lacking when construction should be started, and the purpose
of the wise provision that has been made for advance planning will
thus be in large measure defeated. Moreover this right-of-way
obstacle is likely to be most serious,in the case of;the very important
projects that are being designed to relieve traffic congestion in cities,
projects that will’afford, if they are ready, large employment in the
precise places where the need of employment will be greatest.
*To remedy this unfortunate defect in the preparatory measures
that have been taken, I strongly recommend congressional action to
permit the Federal Government to pay promptly its proportionate
share of the costs of rights-of-way acquired in anticipation of post-war
highway imrovements.
While the interregional system proposed constitutes, as a whole,
the most heavily traveled section of the entire highway system of the
Nation, it is obvious that there will be imperative need after the war
for a large expenditure to repair the deterioration now in progress and
eliminate critical deficiencies on other roads of national importance.
Neither for planning nor for construction, therefore, do I believe it
would be wise to limit the assistance of the Federal Government to
routes included in the interregional system.
The plan suggested by the Committee, which would provide for the
designation of an interregional system approximating that proposed,
as, in effect, the primary routes of the Federal-aid system and, the
appropriation of Federal funds for these and other classes of highways
in accordance with need, but with particular provision for the urgent
municipal needs, is in my opinion the wiser course. I, therefore, join
with the Committee in its recommendation to that effect.
Sincerely yours,
Puiuip B. FLEMING,
Major General, United States Army,
; Administrator.
January 5, 1944.
LETTER OF SUBMITTAL
Nationa INTERREGIONAL Highway CoMMITTEE
Washington, D.C.
Maj. Gen. Paitip B. Femina,
Administrator, Federal Works Agency,
Washington, D. C.
Str: In a letter under date of April 14, 1941, addressed to the Hon-
orable John M. Carmody, then Administrator, Federal Works Agency,
the President appointed a National Interregional Highway Committee
of seven members to serve in an advisory capacity to the Adminis-
trator. He directed the Committee to review existing data and sur-
veys and, upon completion of its review, to report to him not later than
October 1, outlining and recommending a limited system of national
highways designed to provide a basis for improved interregional
transportation.
The President expressed the hope that our national needs would be
paramount in the deliberations of the Committee and that as a result
of its recommendations it would be possible to prepare detailed
plans and specifications. This, the President, stated would permit us,
upon the conclusion of the defense program, to utilize productively
some of the manpower and inductyial: capacity then available to con-
struct a national system of interregional highways.
The President also directed the Federal Works Agency to furnish
such staff as necessary for the efficient functioning of the Committee
and to compensate its members for travel expenses incurred.
The following persons were asked by the President to serve as
members of the Committee:
Thomas H. MacDonald, Commissioner of Public Roads, Federal
Works Agency.
G. Donald Kennedy, State highway commissioner, Lansing, Mich.
Bibb Graves, former Governor of Alabama.
C. H. Purcell, State highway engineer, Sacramento, Calif.
Frederic A. Delano, Chairman, National Resources Planning Board.
Harland Bartholomew, city planner, St. Louis, Mo.
Rexford Guy Tugwell, chairman, New York City Planning Com-
mission.
All of those invited accepted membership and responded to the
call for attendance at the initial meeting which was held at Washing-
ton, D. C., on June 24, 1941. At this meeting, the Committee
elected as its chairman, Thomas H. MacDonald, Commissioner of
Public Roads; and as its vice chairman, G. Donald Kennedy, State
Highway Commissioner of Michigan. Mr. H. S. Fairbank, Public
Roads Administration, was appointed secretary of the Committee
and a small staff was supplied by the Public Roads Administration.
The research and writing of this report are the work primarily of Mr.
Fairbank, assisted by this staff. In addition to Mr. Fairbank, the
1x
x LETTER OF SUBMITTAL
Committee desires to record its appreciation of the helpful services
of this staff, and owes special acknowledgment to Harold E. Hilts,
Edward H. Holmes, Arthur G. Siegle, Joseph Barnett, John T.
Lynch, Olav K. Normann, D. W. Loutzenheiser, Clarence F. Rogers,
David R. Levin, Conya L. Hardy, Mary S. Austin, and Margaret
H. Davies for important contributions to the report.
Finding that it would be unable to complete its review and essential
further investigations by the date originally set by the President,
the Committee on October 2, 1941, submitted a preliminary report
to the Federal Works Administrator and requested an extension of
time which it was hoped would be of short duration.
Shortly thereafter the Committee was deprived of the counsel of
one of its most valued members by the death of the Honorable Bibb
Graves, former Governor of Alabama. The appointment of Dr.
Rexford Guy Tugwell as Governor of Puerto Rico made it difficult for
him to continue bis active pereipenon, and the exigencies of war
have further greatly lengthened the time required. It is believed,
however, that the final report transmitted herewith is not too late to
serve the President’s intended purpose to define the general character
of a national system of interregional highways, the construction of
which, if begun with the termination of the war emergency, will permit
the productive utilization of much of the manpower and industrial
a eae then likely to be available.
he Committee therefore hopes that you will approve its report and
transmit it to the President for such favorable consideration and use
as he may deem it to merit.
Very respectfully,
Tuomas H. MacDonatp, Chairman.
G. Donatp Kennepy, Vice Chairman.
C. H. Purcett.
Freperic A. DELano.
Hartanp BAaRTHOLOMEW.
Rexrorp Guy Tuawe.i.
JANUARY 1, 1944,
CONTENTS
Introduction... 22.236 cece ced teecdecc ets es ileal fee ece edd ees
The recommended interregional highway system.....-.-.--..--_.------
Located for service. . 2232522 sooscck conc sl ee be cee sce cee secs
Determinants in selection of interregional system..-.-.._..-..--...
Conclusions.2.2-Sé2cccsss coed sc ceo ece st lct ee ees secs
Locating the interregional routes in urban areas__...-...-.-.--.-------
Principles of route selection in cities........------.--------------
Illustrations of principles of route selection. ............------.---
Mid-city terminals of express highways------.-..-.------------------
Limiting access to the interregional routes._.-.-....------------------
Principles of location and design for limitation of access____.__..__-
Legal aspects of limitation of access____.--.----------------------
Acquisition of rights-of-way__.....----------------------------------
Principles of landscape design.--...---------------------------------
Standards and features of roadway location and design..-------------.--
Constructing the recommended interregional system__.-.--..-.-----_-.
Condition of existing roads, streets, and bridges. ..----..----------
Desirable order and rate of construction_.--_---.-----------------
Planning the construction of the interregional system..__....-.----
Costs of improvements pres Sacadua sce ates Se sstese Sou eee ee
Rate of expenditure and employment on the system___.--.--------
Appendix I. Population and economic statistics by regions and States___-.
Appendix II. Location of other highway systems of various mileages in-
rou by the committee. _. =. --.2022-5-22-222-2c2525--02 5554
Appendix III. Model limited access nlene ay
Appendix IV. New York Grade Crossing Elimination Act of 1928-___---
Appendix V. Basic standards of road and structural design_------------
Appendix VI. Standard design loadings for highway bridges- --.--------
Appendix VII. National income, construction expenditures, and highway
employment ~ 205 - sc2ssc hese tet seed asciesscsvees coe sss lessee
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Report and Recommendations of the National Interregional Highway
Committee
INTRODUCTION
Construction of the present main highway system of the United
States began in the later years of the horse-and-buggy era of highway
transportation. At that time the Nation possessed a rural road net-
work almost as extensive as at present, but it was almost wholly
upimproved. By necessity all travel by road was of the shortest
yange.
In the cities, on the otherjhand, most of the streets were paved,
some with cobble but many with smooth asphalt and brick. It was
mainly the desire of new-fledged motorists in the cities for a comfort-
able ride into the country beyond the reaches of their paved streets,
the similar deferred hope of more humble cyclists, and the compet-
ing aims of merchants in each town and city to enlarge or at least to
hold, each his own rural trade, that prodded a long-talking “good
roads movement” into actual construction.
The construction of roads begun, years of promiscuous building
followed. Finally the builders awakened to the hopelessness of ever
joining the thousands of disconnected little pieces of roads those years
ad produced. They began to realize the need for systematically
classifying the vast road network and giving preferential order to the
improvement of the portions of greatest use potential.
he original Federal Aid Road Act, passed in 1916, did not require
such a classification. But by that time a few States, seeing the hight,
had created State highway systems of selected routes—usually those
routes jonue their several county seats and larger towns and cities.
To this sound principle of classification and preferential improve-
ment—beyond any other the means of the rapid and orderly subse-
quent development of the main highways—the Federal Highway Act
of 1921 gave endorsement and national extension. It required desig-
nation of the Federal-aid highway system and confined to this system
all Federal funds then and thereafter to be appropriated for aid in
road improvement—a restriction that was to remain in effect un-
altered for many years.
At that time, the beginning of the century’s third decade, the unim-
roved sections of roads chosen to make up the newly designated
ederal-aid system were still far longer in the aggregate than the length
of those that had been in some manner constructed. Most of the
State highway systems were at the same early stage of development.
But the rapid upswing of motor-vehicle use had already set in.
Each successive year more road-improvement revenue was coming in
largely from fees paid for vehicle registrations, from new motor-fuel
1
2 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
taxes and from the Federal Treasury. The purpose of State and
Federal road agencies was to use these revenues to extend as rapidly
as possible a useful measure of improvement to the entire selected
mileage of main roads and thus to narrow as quickly as practicable the
wholly unimproved gaps.
The measure of prov emien considered necessary was usually less
than the costly ideal which, by consuming much revenue on little
mileage, would have delayed eager the improvement of other sections.
It was expected that an initial limited improvement of each section
would be followed in due course by a secondary stage when the
rogress of improvement of the system as a whole should permit the
urther expenditure. This was the policy of stage construction. It
was & wise and useful policy as applied in the design of road surfaces.
Its mistakes were its acceptance and fixation of obsolescent road
alinement and its failure to anticipate the need of rights-of-way of
greater width than those that in all previous time had been considered
ample.
These are pardonable mistakes. When they were made, the high
speeds at which motor vehicles can now travel were generally un-.
foreseen and probably unforeseeable. The standards of alinement
required by modern speed would then have been considered fantastic.
The great increase of vehicle registration and traffic volume was
anticipated too late, but even if it had been foreseen earlier, lack of
necessary legal and popular sanctions would have pees a fore-
handed acquisition of the wider rights-of-way that widened and divided
roadways require.
First reasons for immediate designation of interregional system.—Past
mistakes of main road location and rights-of-way neglect are under-
standable, but their consequences today emphasize the need for desig-
nating and preferentially improving an interregional system. For
paradoxically, the country’s most important highways which wi
constitute the large part of such an interregional system are the ones
that have suffered most in their improvement because of these
mistakes.
The explanation of the paradox is that these roads, in recognition of
their pene importance, were among the earliest of our highways to be
durably improved. Structurally, many of these improvements are
still embarrassingly sound; but in location, in traffic capacity, and in
their lack of most of the features of modern highway design that make
possible the safe operation of vehicles at high speeds, they are badly
obsolescent.
Most of them have long since repaid their cost in the benefits they
have yielded to the heavy traffic that has moved over them. As they
are rebuilt, as soon they must be, they should be built to the highest
modern standards, on locations and within rights-of-way where they
will have the prospect of long and beneficial service. ‘That such an
improvement of these main arterial roads of the Nation may proceed
consistently in all parts of the country, that all may agree upon the
particular roads comprising the national routes in all regions and in
all States, and that preparations may now be made for beginning the
A pepe improvement of these roads in the first post-war years—
these are the first reasons indicating the’necessity for immediate des-
ignation of an interregional system.
INTRODUCTION 3
Other reasons for immediate designation.—Another consequence of
past policies is the widely recognized gross inadequacy of the accom-
modation afforded by city streets for the heavier streams of arterial
travel. Two decades ago the most obstructive deficiencies existed
on the rural roads. City streets were relatively ample in their traffic
capacity. Zou these conditions are reversed. It is within and in
the vicinity of the cities and metropolitan areas that through travel
now experiences its most serious resistance and delays, resistance and
delays that are abundantly shared by the heavy intraurban local
traffic that tends to congregate on the same arterial routes.
Twenty years ago when the Federal Highway Act and many of the
State highway enactments prohibited the expenditure of limited Fed-
eral and State funds for improvement of the transcity connections of
the Federal-aid and State highway systems, the prohibition was not
unreasonable. It was instead a necessary and logical recognition of
the superior need of rural highway improvement. Now, with con-
gestion of the transcity routes replacing rural highway mud as the
greatest of traffic barriers, emphasis needs to be reversed and the larger
expenditure devoted to improvement of the city and metropolitan
sections of arterial routes. That the particular locations of these
routes may be agreed upon in common by Federal, State, and muni-
cipal authorities who will share the responsibility for arterial highway
improvement, that the desirable standards of that improvement may
be established and commonly accepted, and that plans may at once
be laid for a prompt post-war beginning of the highly essential con-
struction work—these are other coripelling reasons for the designa-
tion of an interregional system.
Optimum system proposed.—Clearly recognizing the present need,
the President in his letter of April 14, 1941, to the Administrator,
Federal Works Agency, appointed the National Interregional High-
way Committee and tad it to review existing data and surveys
and to outline and recommend a limited system of national highways
designed to provide a basis for improved interregional transportation.
In all its deliberations and in the recommendations which follow, the
Committee has been guided by the President’s expressed hope that it
would hold national needs paramount over the needs of sections and
localities. Consistent with the purpose of interregional connection
and the limitation of .total mileage, it is believed that the system
recommended will serve as large a proportion of the total highway
traffic of the Nation as it is possible to attract to any system of the
same extent.
The cities and metropolitan areas of the country are known to in-
clude the sources and destinations of much the greater part of the
heavy flow of traffic that moves over the Nation’s highways. The
system of interregional highways proposed, within the limit of the
mileage adopted, connects as many as possible of the larger cities and
metropolitan areas regionally and. interregionally. For this reason,
although in miles it represents scarcely over 1 percent of the entire
highway and street system, it will probably serve not less than 20 per-
cent of the total street and highway traffic.
The wealth of factual information available to the Committee indi-
cates clearly that any other system, either materially larger or smaller
than that proposed, would have a lesser average utilization. The
4 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
limiting mileage adopted may therefore be accepted with confidence
as very close to the optimum mileage which will afford the greatest
possible service per mile.
The Committee had for its consideration all the data amassed by the
Public Roads Administration for its report, Toll Roads and Free Roads,
which was transmitted by the President to the Congress in 1939 and
published as House Document No. 272, Seventy-sixth Congress, first
session. In that report two systems were defined, one of approxi-
mately 14,200 miles and the other of about 26,700 miles. The latter
was propies’ as an interregional system.
Subsequently, the Public Roads Administration reexamined its
data and made minor changes and small additions to the published
hes increasing its length to 29,300 miles. The facts suggesting
these changes were available for the Committee’s review, as were also
the voluminous data amassed for selection of the strategic network of
principal highway routes shown on & map approved by the Secretary
of War, as revised May 15, 1941.
Finally, at the Committee’s direction, a staff supplied by the Public
Roads Administration made studies of three additional systems, one of
approximately 48,400 miles, one of 36,000 miles, and one of about
33,920 miles which is the recommended system.
In the selection of all of these systems, one common objective pre-
vailed: To incorporate within each of the several mileage limits
adopted, those principal highway routes which would reach to all sec-
tions of the country, form within themselves a complete network, and
jointly attract,and adequately serve a greater traffic volume than any
other system of equal extent and condition.
All facts available to the Committee point to the sections of the
recommended system within and in the environs of the larger cities
and metropolitan areas as at once the mast important in traffic service
and least adequate in their present state of improvement. These sec-
tions include routes around as well as into and through the urban areas.
If priority of improvement within the system be determined by either
the magnitude of benefits resulting or the urgency of need, it is to
these sections that first attention should be accorded.
Obviously, it is not possible by any limited highway system, what-
ever the relative importance of its constituent routes, to serve all the
needs of the Nation’s traffic. Nor is it reasonable to assume that in
and near the cities the routes included in such a limited system will if
improved, provide a complete solution to the serious problem of city
traffic congestion. Particularly in the cities, many other routes are
probably of substantially equal if not greater importance, and improve-
ment of the system routes should, therefore, not be advanced ahead
of others of similar or greater local importance. In this connection
the Committee has been restricted in its choice because the President
directed it to sclect an interregional rather than a local system, and
to consider national above jocal needs.
The Committee believes it would be a mistake to regard the inter-
regional system as an object of exclusive attention, even by the Fed-
eral Government, or to concentrate upon it all or a disproportionate
part of any effort and funds that may be applied to highway improve-
ment. The Federal Government has substantial interests in many
other roads and possibly other city arteries. Its assistance should not
be confined to the routes included in the recommended limited system.
INTRODUCTION 5
Nevertheless it is important, both locally and nationally, to recog-
nize this recommended system and the routes that comprise it for
what they are—as that system and those routes which best and most
directly join region with region and major city with major city.
And with such recognition, it is desirable, in all Federal, State, and
local highway improvement programs, to give to this system and to
these routes, promptness and preference of attention, consistency of
plan, and a large share of available financial means. This will be
necessary for its progressive and balanced improvement at a rate
sufficient to halt the present obsolescent trend of constituent routes
and to substitute a reasonably rapid movement toward complete
adequacy.
93800—44——-2
THE RECOMMENDED INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAY SYSTEM
The general location of the routes comprising the recommended
interregional highway system is shown on the map, figure 1.
The total length of the system is approximately 33,920 miles.
This represents 1.04 percent of the 3,267,717 miles of rural roads and
urban streets in the United States. ee
The approximate length of rural sections of the system, 29,450
miles, is 0.99 percent of the 2,964,677 miles of rural roads.
The approximate length of urban sections, 4,470 miles, is 1.48
ercent of the 303,040 miles of urban streets.
y regions ! (fig. 2) and States, table 1 shows the approximate lengths
of the recommended system and of its rural and urban sections, and
the percentage relations of these lengths to the total length of all road
and streets and to the total lengths of all rural roads and all urban
streets, respectively.
LocaTep For SERVICE
In relation to cities —The recommended system connects? directly
all cities of 300,000 or more population. It is the smallest system
that provides these connections.
It reaches 59 of the 62 cities of population between 100,000 and
300,000 persons, and is superior in this respect to the 48,300-mile
and 78,800-mile systems previously investigated by the Public Roads
Administration.
The recommended system reaches directly only 82 of the 107 cities
of population between 50,000 and 100,000. The 48,300-mile system
reaches only 91 and the 78,800-mile system only 95 of the cities of this
size, and hence are little superior to the recommended system.
For purposes of its study the Committee considered the United States as divided into regions. These
regions are composed of contiguous States grouped together by the U. S. Burcau of the Census because of
generally similar population and economic characteristics (see appendix I, tables 1 and 2).
2 Table 2 summarizes the numbers of cities of each size reached by each system in each region.
6
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM —
Digitized by Goog le
1.— The general location of routes of the recommended interregional highway system. Total length of the system is 33,920 miles.
FIGURE
8 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
a | He
FIGuRE 2.— Regions of the United States, based on eee of the States by the United States Bureau of
the Census.
TaBLe 1.—Lengths of the recommended system and tts urban and rural sections, and
pl ik apy relationships of these hs to the total length of all roads and streets
and to the total lengths of all rural r and urban streets, respectively
Length of interregional system | Ratio to total road and street mileage
Region and State Raval Urb: tem to
ural rban system
Total system to | system to
sections | sections total Tet total rural | total urban
road street
mileag mileage
Miles Miles Percent
eeseareai eles 29, 4: 4, 470 33, 920 1. 04
rs
BSE2zSR
me
ret
2.
BARS
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 9
TaBLE 1.—Lengtha of the 'recommended;system and its,urban and rural sections, and
the percentage relationships of these lengths to the total length of all roads and streets
wad the total lengths of all rural roads and urban streets, respectively—Continued
: —- :
Length of interregional system | Ratio to total road and street mileage
Seley sec- Aitare sec-
ons inter- | tions inter-
Fine regional regional
total road System to | system to
and street | t0tal rural | total urban
mileage toad street
mileage mileage
Miles Miles
880 470
a
Total inter-
Region and State
Urban
sections
Rural
sections
Percent Percent Percent
53 - 50 i
West North Central...........
125 6 39 1.12
~75 +72 :
61 62 51
47 44 1.8
43 4 1,2
44 42 -80
54 - 83 - 83
1.02 2.00
57 62 +95
1,29 125 1.61
Spsncccdes|cessesedes Sc eee eee 1.75
1, 58 1. 56 1.88
65 55 2.14
- 98 89 1.85
84 79 1,83
- 63 2.69
2.21 2.05
_
1.12 2.65
1.06 2.37
1.48 3.65
1.2 2.44
73 294
1.09 1.42
60 8 1.30
90 1.20 2.15
80 -72 1.05
260 1,33 1.44
5, 680 340 1.70 24
935 35 1,42 1.59
645 35 1,92 228
650 30 2. 64 3.43
440 45 - 58 1.27
980 40 1. 69 3.19
910 20 3.30 1.83
505 115 277 3.74
525 20 2,26 4.78
2, 740 370 1.40 1.37
Washington........-....----------- 525 75 1.08 1.41
Oregon 675 80 14 1.79
California 1, 540 215 1.55 1,25
10 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
TaBLE 2.—Total number of cities of each population class and number connected by
each of several highway systems, by regions
Population groups of cities
100,000 ss baad 25,000 ed a
°
300,000 | 100,000 | 50,000 | 25,000 | °
Region 3
a g Sila 18 a r) ] a |8
Bye) 2/2.) 2/2.) 2/8 | 2/212 18] 218] 88
q el] 3 g 4 a a 5 eS g 3 g me: AG
ASS] 8 a £3) & 23) & Bs) 8 ies) & es) 5
$/8"|3 3 (5"| 3 (B=) 3 8") S$ [8"| 3 187) 3
e|lz |é ela |éj4 |éjz |élz jejz le
14,300-mile highway system
United States. 50 (665 |104 243
New England......--...--.--|--..-|--.-- 7 | 79117 33
Middle Atlantic. ........-.-.- 6 |163 | 16 40
East North Central........-.. 9 128] 8 36
‘West North Central 2 | 68 1
South Atlantic........-....---].--- 6 | 68 | 10 28
ast South Central...........]..-. 3/381] 8 8
est South Central 3 | 55 | 12 m4
Mountain........-----.-------]-----|-----|-----|----- 2/26] 7 12
Pacific......-.-.-------------- 12 | 47 | 2% 34
United States........... 361
Now England... 2 18 34
Middle Atlantic. . 5 B 48
East North Central 13 4 65
West North Central-_._.....-.]--...|-----. 3 22 36
South Atlantic........ 4 21 43
East South Central...........]--...|-----|-----]----- 3 9 a
West South Central. -........]--.-.|-----}-----/----- 7 18 35
Mountain. -_-....-------------]-----|--..-|-----|----- 2 12 2
Pacific........-.-------------- 6 rai) 56
United States...........
New England.---...--
Middle Atlantic. .....
East North Central...
West North Central. .......-.|-----}--.--
09 ht ROH RD 09
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 11
TaBLE 2.—Total number of cities of each population class and number connected by
each of several highway systems, by regions—Continued
Population groups of cities
100,000 | 60,000 | 25,000 | 10,000 | #
to to to to °
300,000 | 100,000 | 50,000 | 25,000 | ,,
Region ay
: ‘ . i=]
z a e\e | 2/8 | 33
gee) Sle3l eed Eled|
a Eg B33] 2 23] 3
3 BSS IE") 88") 5
° a Rd ° &
& C4 & IZ BIZ
36,000-mile system
United States.........-. 5 | 5 | 9 9 | 16 16 | 62 50 hio7 | 86 las 122 1665 '300 597
New England.......-...------]-----|----- 1 jk ey ee 11 { 11/13] 9 | 36 | 21 | 79 | 2 70
Middle Atlantic. -...- 2 2 2 2; 3] 3] 11] 1L | 2 | 20 | 38 | 21 |163 | 76 135
East North Central 2 2 2 2) 3] 8] 11] 8 | 23} 18 | 60 | 32 |128 | 61 126
West North Central 1 1) 2] 2] 6; 6] 8 12 | 5 | 68; 31 50
South Atlantic. .... -| 2 2] 1] 1) 7] 7417) 15 | 2 | 12] 68 | 32 69
East South Central...........].-.--]-----]-----[----- 1/1] 8] &] 4{ 4/10] 6/31/11
West South Central_. Sy ay Pere eee eee 2) 2) &] & 7/13) 6] 55) 21 4)
Mountain..........-.----..--] ---.|-----]-----]----- 2} ry ty dt 2) 2) 7) 8) 2) 13 2
Cn. nn nn nn ene ce enneewennn 1} 3] 8] &] &] 7] 6417] 14] 47 | 27 57
8 81
3 n
2 6) 8/| 5 27
1] 7] 7) 17] 15 “4
1] 5] 6] 4) 4 2
2; 5] &{ 9; 8 20
1} 1] 1] 2] 2 16
3] 5] 5) 7] 7 33
78,800-milo system
dq
z
z
5
f
3
Now England... -..........----]-----|-----| 1 | 1 |--.-]--.- 8 79 | 54 103
Middle Atlantic. .. 3 2B 163 |102 176
East North Central 3 20 128 | 79 161
West North Central. . 2 5 68 | 36 87
South Atlantic........-...----|--.--|----- 1 17 68 | 50 95
East South Central..... 1 4 31 | 20 39
West South Central. . 2 9 55 | 38 67
Moun 1 2 2% | 18 2B
Pacific... 3 7 47 | 47 81
It is mainly in their connections with cities under 50,000 population
that the 48,300- and 78,800-mile systems show marked superiority to
the recommended 33,920-mile system. The latter connects 121 of
the 213 cities of population between 25,000 and. 50,000, as compared
with 147 connected by the 48,300-mile system and 180 by the system
of 78,800 miles. The recommended system reaches directly only
295 of the 665 cities of 10,000 to 25,000'population, whereas the 48,300-
mile system reaches 351, and the 78,800-mile system 444. Thus,
not even the largest of the systems studied is sufficiently extensive to
reach all cities ot these two smallest population groups. To reach all
12 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
cities af 10,000 or more population, it has been determined that the
largest system ny ouenied would have to be increased by 14,100 miles.
effort to reach a larger number of the cities under 50,000
pop ation than are connected by the recommended system, it is
elieved, must result in a lowering of the average traffic volume
served by the system as a whole. The gain to a few of our smaller
cities would, therefore, be accomplished at the expense of a diminishing
return in traffic service for the system as a whole.%& The committee
decided this would not be warranted.
The map, figure 3, shows the recommended system in relation to
the location of all cities of the several population groups larger than
10,000. This map shows how directly the recommended system
joins the larger cities, and [the remarkable extent to {which most of
these cities are served as hubs of their respective regions.
The largest cities not directly connected are shown to be Akron,
Canton, and Youngstown in Ohio, but-all of these are passed in close
proximity. The difficulties that prevent immediate connection of
these cities are evident—junction cannot be made without intro-
ducing either what appears to be an unwarranted loca] duplication of
routes, or a considerable indirection of approach to the commanding
nearby city of Cleveland.
On the basis of the 1940 Census, the:Bureau of jthe;Census {defined
& certain area in connection with each city of 50,000 or more popula-
tion as a metropolitan district, except that two or more stati cities
were sometimes included in one district. The number of metro-
politan districts totals 140.
The general] plan was to include in each district, in addition to the
central city or cities, all adjacent and contiguous minor civil divisions
or ineptpore places having a population of 150 or more per square
ile. In some districts, a few less densely populated contiguous
divisions were included on the basis of special qualifications. Occa-
sionally only a portion of a minor civil division was included if the
division was large in area and had its population principally concen-
trated in a small section in or near the central city.
The districts defined are, therefore, not political units, but rather
areas of the thickly settled territory in and around the country’s
larger cities or groups of larger cities. They tend, in general, to be
more ‘or less integrated areas, with common economic and social,
and often, administrative interests. As will be seen from the ma
figure 4, the recommended inter-regional system connects directly
or passes in very close proximity to all but 10 of these districts.
cation in relation to population distribution—A statement of the
numbers of cities reached directly by the recommended system does
not convey an entirely adequate impression of the nearness of ap-
proach of the system to the homes of a ree proportion of the urban
population of the United States. Although only 54.5 percent of all
cities of 10,000 or more population are located directly on the system,
the aggregate population of these cities is 82.6 percent of the total
urban population of the Nation. With slight exception in two
13
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
SONVSNOHL
SNSN3D OVE WON
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-pdnosZ uopendod snopes Jo 99]3]0 JO TOFABOO] ON; 04 UO}ICTOI Uy wieyshs [wu0}80110;0} pepueuTUT0de, OF. L—
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INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
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Digitized by Cs OO le
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 15
groups, the cities directly connected are the largest of their respective
population groups. This is shown in table 3.
TaBLe 3 —The number and edligptios of all cities of the United States above 10,000
population, and the number, population, and percentage of total numbers and
total opulation for such cities directly connected by the recommended system, by
population groups
All cities of 10,000 | Cities of 10,000 or more Be ula-
or more popu- tion on the recommen sys-
lation tem
Population group
Percent Percent
Num- | Popula- |Num- Popula-
of total of pop-
ber jon | ber |number tlon ulation
1,000 1,000
sons 80ns
Over: 1,000,000)... 252 castcwwisc tecescaecies ess ceee~e 15,911 5] 100.0 15,911 100.0
500,001 to 1,000,000. 6, 457 100.0 6, 457 100.0
300,001 to 500,000... 16 5, 895 16; 100.0 5, 895 100.0
100,001 to 300,000... 9, 725 5 95.2 9, 205 94.6
50,001 to 100,000. 7, 344 82 76.6 5, 76.9
25,001 to 50,000. 213 7,417 | 121 56.8 4, 198 56.6
10,001 to 25,000. , 205 4.4 4, 491 45.1
All ities of 10,000 or more population......... 1,077 62,716 | 587 54.5 51, 805 82.6
A still more graphic picture of the “pobuleuicn reasons for choice
of the particular routes recommended will be found in figure 5.
This shows by dots the distribution of the whole population of the
United States, each dot representing a population node of 2,000
persons. Here it will be seen that the various routes not only have
their principal local termini or hubs in the larger cities but also pass
en route between these hubs, through or very close to the denser
clusters of population in small towns and populous rural areas.
Indeed, the courses of the recommended routes are shown by this
map to be in most instances the inevitable selections, if service of
population is to be considered important in the choice.
n a few instances iY ea lack of correlation in this respect is
evident, and a local shift of the recommended route may be found
desirable after further and more intensive study. In such further
study consideration should also be given to local adjustment of the
recommended routes to a closer conformity, if such be possible, to
the larger concentrations of rural population.
That such conformity already exists in large measure is indicated
by the map, figure 6, which shows by intensity of shading the grada-
tion of average density of rural population, county by county. Here,
again, the remarkable manner in which the recommended routes
trace their courses along the country’s most populous bands of
territory is apparent at a glance. Few if any instances occur in
which the recommended route locations can obviously be materially
improved, except by excessive multiplication of local mileage.
As further evidence of the advantageous selection of the recom-
mended routes for service of the rural population, the data pre-
sented in table 4 show that although the routes traverse only 1,056 or
34.3 percent of the total number of 3,076 counties * in the United States
8 For statistical Pathos: parts of Yellowstone National Park in Idaho and Montana are counted as sep-
arate counties in this ep For the same reason the District of Columbia is included as a county, and
various independent cities, ¢. g., 4 in V are lumped in with the respective counties of which they
might logi be considered geograp! a part.
16
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS.
Digitized by <sOO g le
| DOT REPRESENTS 2,000 INHABITANTS
The recommended interregional system in relation to the distribution of the whole population of the United States.
FicureE 5.—
17
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
SIG Peatea oa UI MoRInaHRSTP woRyeTnded jens Jo Azpsuep O43 04 wo}reTOr Uy MesELs fwuOPROAze}Uy PopuOMIEIO0 oU.,—"p AUNOL
Yee
7,
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18 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
TasBLe 4.—The number and rural population of all counties ! in the Untted States,
and the number and rural population, and percentage of total number and total
rural population for counties traversed by the recommended system, by regions
Counties traversed by recommended
system
Geographic region
p=
ulation
000
per:
United States...........--.------.-- 1, 086 25, 862 45.2
New England..........-....-------------- 67 37 55.2 1, 465 72.6
Middle Atlantic. ......--.----2-.--------- 6, 392 78 62.0 3, 386 53.0
ntral.. 436 181 41.5 4, 827 52.6
151 2.3 2, 389 31.8
172 31.0 4, 293 30.4
121 33.2] . 2,965 38.9
152 32.3 3, 163 40.2
108 38.6 1, 176 49.4
56 42.1 2, 198 65.1
1 See footnote 3 of this report.
these counties traversed were inhabited in 1940 by 25,862,000 persons
or 45.2 percent of the entire rural population of the United States.
The evidence of appropriate selection in this respect is marked in each
geographic region. It is naturally more striking in regions with large
variations of rural population. It is less conspicuous in regions where
rural population is more uniformly spread, with either a relatively
high or relatively low average density.
Tocihion in relation to manufacturing activity Unquestionably any
limited system of interregional highways that may be designated
should, within the limits of mileage adopted, provide transportation
facilities for as much as possible of the manufacturing industry of the
country. Where manufacturing activity exists in greatest volume,
there it may be assumed are the Pee of origin and destination of the
greatest volumes of motortruck traffic. The interregional system
shoud provide for the service of this traffic as well as passenger-car
trafic.
In expressing this view, however, the Committee does not suggest
that there is need of special highway facilities for the accommodation
or encouragement of long-distance trucking. All the evidence
amassed by the highway-planning surveys points to the fact that the
range of motortruck hauls is comparatively short. There is nothing
to indicate the probability of an increasing range of such movements
in the future.
The length of truck hauls will be determined in the future as it has
been in the past, by the competitive advantages at various distances
of other modes of transportation. The probable early development
of an efficient commercial air-freight service, together with the keener
competition of a rejuvenated rail service, would seem to forecast a
future shortening rather than a lengthening of average highway-
freight hauls.
The volume of highway-freight movements in the future may be
expected to be greatest on highways joining the centers of greatest
industrial activity. Such highways should be incorporated, as far
as possible, in the interregional system.
19
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
. “susue) oq) Jo neem eq} Aq pozJoder sw ‘4340
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20 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
To test the adequacy of the recommended system from the stand-
point of industrial transportation, the committee has used the census
reports of values added by manufacturing industries located in the
various cities of the country, as a measure of the relative manufactur-
ing activity of these cities and of the relative probability of intercity
ighway freight movement.
hese values for all cities of 10,000 or more population are shown on
the map, figure 7, by circles of various scaled diameters. Here again,
as in the similar map (fig. 3) representing the relative populations
of cities, it will be seen that the routes of the recommended system
connect the cities represented by the largest circles, and within the
limit of total mileage adopted, join or closely approach en route about
as many as possible of the cities of ar jt manufacturing importance.
A comparison of figures 3 and 7 will show that while slight differ-
ences exist in the relative importance of cities when they are measured
on the one hand by their populations and on the other by the values
added by their manufactures, on the whole the similarity of the
measurements is marked.
This similarity is further evidenced by a comparison of tables 3 and
5. The latter shows the value of manufactures added in the cities
of 10,000 or more population that are on the system, in relation to the
corresponding total for all cities of the same population range, while
table 3 shows the population relation. In both instances the cities
on the system are shown to be important beyond their number.
A comparison of the number of cities of 10,000 or more population
reached di cey by the recommended system and other systems in-
vestigated, and the values added by manufacture in these cities is
shown in figure 8. From this figure it will be observed that the largest
system investigated (78,800 miles) connects directly with about 75
percent of the cities of 10,000 or more population, and that these
connected cities account for 90 percent of the value added by manu-
facture in this population group.
To reach directly all cities of 10,000 or more population it has been
determined that the 78,800-mile system would have to be increased
by at least 14,100 miles. This new and larger mileage totaling 92,900
miles is shown in figure 8 as the abscissa of the point representing 100
percent of the number of cities of 10,000 or more and of the value
added by manufacture in all such cities.
From this figure it is manifest that the cities of 10,000 or more
population connected by the recommended system are, in general, the
more important manufacturing cities. Numerically only 54.5 percent
of all cities of more than 10,000 population, they account for 83
percent of the total value added by manufacture in all such cities.
In contrast, the system reaching all of the cities is nearly three times
as large and serves only an additional 17 percent of manufacturing
activity.
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 21
It is, therefore, concluded that the recommended system closely
approximates the system of optimum extent from the standpoint of
service to manufacturing industry.
Location in relation to aouleedl production.—It has previously
been shown that the recommended system traverses 1,056, or 34.3
percent, of the 3,076‘ counties of the United States and that the
counties traversed include the places of residence of 45.2 percent of
the total rural population of the country. On further examination it
is found that the counties traversed account for 43.3 percent of the
total value of all farm products sold or traded in the Nation as a
whole. Per county, the average value of marketed products in the
counties traversed is 46 percent higher than in the remaining more
numerous counties.
PERCENTAGE
<= VALUE ADDED BY MANUFACTURE IN CITIES OF MORE
THAN POPULATION ON SYSTEM, EXPRESSED
AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL VALUE ADDED IN
ALL CITIES OF MORE THAN 10,000 POPULATION.
NUMBER OF CITIES OF MORE THAN 10,000 POPULATION
SERVED BY SYSTEM, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE
OF TOTAL NUMBER OF SUCH CITIES.
° A) 20 »” Boe) so 60 70 ®0
TOTAL LENGTH OF SYSTEM - THOUSANDS OF MILES
Fiourg 8.—The number of cities of more than 10,000 population directly connected by various highway
systems investigated and the values added by manufacture in such cities, oe as percentages of the
total number of cities of more than 10,000 population and the total value added by manufacture in all such
4 See footnote 3.
93800—44——-3
22 . INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Tass 5.—The number of all cities over 10,000 population in the United States,
the value added by manufacture in all such cities, the number and percentage of
such cities on the recommended interregional system, the value added by manufacture
in cities on the system, and the percentage relation of this value to the corresponding
total for all cities of the same population range, by population groups of cities
All cities of 10,000 or | Cities of 10,000 or more population on the
more population recommended system
Percent-
Population groups Value! Fercent-| Value: | 980 of
added by age of | added by |-
Number mani Number} ‘¢6; manufac- an 4
ture number ture toanufan:
ture
Million Million
dollars dollars
Over 1,000,000.........------.2-----.-- 5 4, 716 5 100.0 4,716 100.0
500,001 to 1,000,000. 9 1,921 9 100.0 921 100.0
300,001 to 500,000. 16 650 100.0 100.0
100,001 to 300,000. 62 95.2 91.0
50,001 to 100,000. 107 76.6 0
25,001 to 50,000 213 56.8 8
10, 001 to 25,000... 665 44.4 198 2
All over 10,000 population............. 1,077 18, 127 587 54.5 15, 045 | 83.0
1 Value of products less cost of material, fuel, purchased electric energy, and contract work.
Data from Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures, 1939.
By geographic regions this relation is shown in table 6, which indi-
cates that in all regions except the Middle Atlantic the counties
traversed are well above the average in the aggregate value of their
marketed agricultural products.
TaBLE 6.—The number and value ‘of agricultural products marketed in all counties
and the number and production value and percentage of total number and total
production value, for counties traversed by the recommended system, by regions
Counties traversed by the recommended
All counties system
Percent
Geographic region Value of Value of
products Fescen t | products bil f
Number] soldand | Number} ;,tq; | sold and Wea
traded he traded | Products
1939 number sold and
1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars
United States........--.-------- 3,076 | 6, 681,076 1,056 %.3 | 2,893, 236 43.3
Ne’ mgland_......-.-..-------.----- 67 208, 37 85.2 149, 618 721.8
Middle Atlantic. --.-. 150 614, 892 78 520 , 50.4
East North Central.... 4 302, 41 181 41.5 665, 507 51.1
West North Central. 621 1, 620, 215 181 24.3 493, 274 30.4
South Atlantic....... 699, 172 31.0 252, 464 36.1
East South Central... 364 427, 981 121 33.2 165, 739 38.7
West South Cen 470 793, 162 32.3 393 35.6
280 448, 710 108 38.6 215, 616 48.0
133 665, 876 56 421 ), 154 61.4
23
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
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RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 25
PERCENTAGE
———— VALUE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS MARKETED
IN COUNTIES SERVED BY THE WARIOUS
SYSTEMS EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF
THE TOTAL VALUE IN ALL COUNTIES
——-— NUMBER OF COUNTIES SERVED GY THE VARIOUS
SYSTEMS EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE
TOTAL NUMBER OF COUNTIES
2 10
TOTAL LENGTH OF SYSTEMS— THOUSANDS OF MILES
FicugE 11.—The number of counties traversed by various highway systems and the value of marketed
cultural production of such counties, expressed as percentages of the total number of counties and
total value of marketed agricultura] production of all counties.
The geographic relation of the recommended system to areas of high
Re -acre value in marketed crop production is shown in figure 9.
he general types of principal farm production in areas traversed by
the system are shown on the map, figure 10.
Although in comparison with the other systems investigated, the
recommended system does not afford so pronounced an advantage in
roximity of service to agricultural production as in service to manu-
acturing industry, figure 11 shows that it does closely approach the
greatest service to agriculture obtained by any of the systems. This
advantage, as indicated by the spread between the curves of value
of agricultural products marketed and of number of counties traversed,
reaches @ maximum in the 48,300-mile system, but is nearly as great
in the recommended system. Nearly all of the advantage accumu-
lated in the 48,300-mile system, however, is contributed by routes
which are also included in the recommended system.
Location in relation to situs of motor vehicle ownership.—Cities of
10,000 or more population located directly on the recommended
system were the places of ownership in 1941 of 13,932,788 registered
motor vehicles. Vehicles registered in the same year by other owners
resident in counties traversed by the system numbered 8,180,819.
The total of all motor vehicles registered by owners resident in
counties traversed by the system amounted, therefore, to 22,113,607.
This is 68.7 percent of the total 1941 registration of motor vehicles.
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
26
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28 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
SITUS OF MOTOR VEHICLE REGISTRATION
TTALREUISTRATION We |
REGISTRATION IN 1056 PiRe
SO ri ae an or oe
REGISTRATION IN 2020 ZA THAN 16000 POPULATION
OTHER COUNTIES co a OTHER nase
1s 20 as 35
MILLIONS OF VEHICLES
DENSITY OF MOTOR VEHICLE REGISTRATION
VEHICLES PER SQUARE MILE
IN COUNTIES TRAVERSED IN COUNTIES NOT TRAVERSED
By THE SYSTEM BY THE SYSTEM
PERSONS PER VEHICLE
lo ol
IN COUNTIES TRAVERSED — IN COUNTIES NOT TRAVERSED
BY THE SYSTEM BY THE SYSTEM
Fiavure 14.—Graphs sho the 1941 registration of motor vehicles in cities of more than 10,000 population
and other places, in counties and cities traversed by the recommended interregional system and in other
counties and cities, and the density of motor vehicle registration in counties traversed by the system in
comparison with the density in other counties.
In counties traversed by the system the density of motor-vehicle
ownership in 1941 was 18.7 per square mile and 1 for each 3.9
persons. In all other counties the density was 5.5 per square mile
and 1 for each 4.5 persons. These facts, shown graphically in
ss dake 12, 18, and 14, give further evidence of the appropriate choice
of routes included in the system. Table 7, which shows the same
relations by geographic regions, indicates that the choice is similarly
appropriate in all regions.
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
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INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
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31
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
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32 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Location in relation to areas of large post-war employment release.—
In his letter to the Federal Works Administrator, the President
indicated his expectation that in the construction of an interregional
highway system it would be poste to utilize some of the manpower
and industrial capacity available at the close of the war. If such
utilization is to be encouraged, a close relation is desirable between the
location of the interregional routes and the principal places at which
the release of war-occupied labor is to be expected.
Such correspondence in location would be advantageous, notwith-
standing that the labor requirements and dispersion of war industries
have caused an extensive migration of workers from their former
communities to the places where they are now employed and where
they will lose that employment when the war ends. The return of a
peacetime economy may necessitate another and possibly reverse
migration or at least a redistribution of the avoidable worker popula-
tion. But it will be expedient to avoid if possible a precipitate rush
from the war industry centers. At least temporary employment for
considerable numbers of the workers that will be released should be -
provided in the general vicinity of their present jobs.
The routes of the recommended interregional system, particularly
those that will stand at the close of the war in most immediate need
of major improvement, are well located to supply the construction
employment the President expects.
As indicated by the map, figure 15, remarkable correlation exists
between the location of routes of the recommended system and the
areas of greatest wartime employment increase. As it is to be expected
that workers released by the cessation of war production will generally
be most numerous where employment has increased most during the
war, this map gives convincing evidence of the fortunate location of
the recommended interregional routes for the post-war absorption of
workers in a highway construction program. This result is especially
interesting in view of the fact that the route locations were determined
as those best fitted to meet the most important highway traffic
requirements.
cation of the interregional system in relation to the strategic net-
work.—War traffic on the highways—that to, from, and between the
points of particular war activity concentration and between these
points and the ports of enbarkation—is moving in the longer distances
over roads conditioned for normal peacetime travel, and mainly over
routes of the strategic highway network of principal routes of military
importance approved by the Secretary of War, as revised May 15,
1941. (See fig. 16.)
Within the limitations of its total extent, the recommended inter-
regional system conforms closely to this strategic network.
As we now clearly see, the significance of the strategic network in
such a total war as that in which the Nation is at present engaged
must be interpreted in terms of the carefully precise descriptive title
applied to it by the War Department. It consists of not all but only
the principal traffic routes of military importance. In the present
war a very large part of the whole highway system of the Nation is
bearing a substantial share of the burden of war, but we are finding
that in general the routes of the strategic network were well chosen
as the principal routes.
33
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
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34
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Digitized by G OO le
to the strategic network of principal traffic routes of military importance approved by
tary of War, as re
m2
vised May 15, 1941.
FIGURE 16.—Relation of the recommended interregional —
the
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 35
In the same sense, the recommended interregional routes may be
termed the more significant of the designated principal routes.
Location in relation to military .and naval establishments and war
industry.—The most urgent highway improvements during the war
have been needed on roads and streets providing local access to military
and naval establishments and important war industry sites. As
accurately forecast by the report of the Public Roads Administration
in 1941,° these improvements have been necessary because so many
of the war establishments and industries have been located not on
the principal arteries of peacetime travel but on roads or streets
which have previously carried only light traffic.
The fact that these relatively short and local improvements have
constituted so large a part of wartime highway construction does not
indicate, however, that only these roads are of importance to the
war effort. Rather, it means that except for these local approaches,
the highway system of the Nation has proved to be reasonably fit
to discharge its war duties, without special readying improvement.
That the routes of the recommended interregional system must
bear a very large share of the longer highway movement to and from
the military and naval establishments is indicated by the close prox-
imity of the great majority of these establishments to the recommended
routes. (See fig. 17.)
A similar conclusion with reference to service to war industries is
justified by the comparative locations of the recommended routes
and the points of early concentration of primary war industry and
of industries served by roads improved during the war as access
road i att (See figs. 18 and 19.) Jt must be borne in mind
that the industrial locations particularly referred to are only a few
of the many now involved in direct production for the war and of
the even larger number concerned in the many and varied industrial
contributions to the total essential war economy. To represent the
location of the recommended system in relation to the distribution
of total-war industry would doubtless give a result little different from
the indications of figure 7, which mirrors the distribution of normal
peacetime industria] activity.
Location of the interregional system in relation to routes of heaviest
trafic.—Connecting the largest cities of the country and the larger
cities of each geographic region, passing enroute through the most
pulous belts of rural and small-town population, joining centers
in which a high percentage of the Nation’s manufacturing activity
is concentrated, traversing generally the most productive agricultural
lands, and tapping the centers and areas of densest motor-vehicle
ownership, it 1s naturally to be expected that the recommended
system will accord well with the heaviest lines of highway traffic
ow and serve in the aggregate a share of the total highway movement
far in excess of its proportion of the total highway mileage.
§ Highways for the National Defense, Report to the Admintstrator, Federal Works Agency, John M.
Carmody, by the Public Roads Administration, February 1, 1941.
36
“)
—
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
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Figure 17.—The Tecommended interregional system in relation to the location of principal military and
naval establishments.
37
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM
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38 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
.—The recommended interregional system in relation to industrial sites served by roads improved as access road projects.
WicuRE 19
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RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 39
That this expectation is fully borne out by the facts is shown by
the traffic map, figure 20. Here the 1940 traffic on existing roads
closely conforming to the recommended system is compared with the
traffic on other roads included in the numbered United States highway
system. In examining this map it must be remembered that all of the
roads represented have been selected from the total highway system
many times as large, because of their special importance as traffic
carriers. In other words, on this map the traffic of the recommended
system is compared not with the general level of rural highway traffic,
but with the traffic of other roads which themselves rank among the
most heavily traveled highways in their respective sections of the
untry.
It will be observed at once that some heavily traveled sections of
highway are not included: in the recommended system. It will be
seen, however, that with few exceptions, the recommended routes are
the most heavily traveled in their respective regions. In the excep-
tional cases the choice of the recommended route has been determined
by the criterion of most direct connection between major cities. To
include in the system all routes locally approximating the volume of
traffic served by the recommended routes, would substantially increase
the mileage of the system and generally result in a duplication of
routes serving the same general areas and travel objectives.
In some instances traffic of the longer range is now divided between
an existing road conforming most closely to the recommended inter-
regional route and another parallel road of substantially equal direct-
ness and degree of improvement. There are also instances in which
an existing road closely follows the recommended route, but because
of a local inferiority in either directness or condition, carries a smaller
traffic than an alternate road.
The committee wishes to emphasize that its recommendation applies
to general routes and not to specific highways, notwithstanding the
fact that the various maps presented in this report show the recom-
pauced routes as following the general location of selected existing
ways.
a detailed location of the routes of the system, the exact location
at all points will be a problem for local reconnaissance study. The
eventual final selection of line may, therefore, more closely approxi-
mate existing roads other than those followed in the general-system
maps herein presented. To @ considerable extent the proper develop-
ment of the recommended system will result in the location of the
erences routes, locally, on new lines conforming to no existing
ghway.
The comparison made possible by figure 20 is therefore to be con-
sidered as only a very general one. :
Of the 29,450 miles of rural. roads approximating the location of
rural sections of the recommended system, traffic counts made by
the highway planning surveys in 1941 show that 6,056 miles, or 20.6
percent of the total, carried traffic that year averaging less than
1,000 vehicles daily. On 9,576 miles, or 32.5 percent, the daily
traffic averaged between 1,000 and 2,000 vehicles. A total of 6,104
miles, or 20.7 percent, served traffic averaging between 2,000 and
3,000 vehicles daily; 7,182 miles, or 24.4 percent, carried traffic
between 3,000 and 10,000 vehicles per day; and only 532 miles, or
less than 2 percent of the total, carried an average daily traffic of
40 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
10,000 or more vehicles. The average traffic carried by all rural
roads conforming closely to the system was 2,660 vehicles daily, and
the total traffic movement, 78,208,300 vehicle-miles daily. The latter
was 16.79 percent of the 465,753,000 daily vehicle-miles served by
all rural roads in 1941. No similarly exact data are available .to
show the traffic served by existing city streets poe the
location of urban sections of the system, and were such facts available,
they would be of little significance as a basis for an estimate of the
traffic that would be served by more adequate facilities.
In estimating the probable traffic use of the recommended system,
the committee has made due allowance for shifts of existing traffic
flow that would be induced by a preferential improvement of the
recommended routes. Its estimate is that the system, as it probably
would be constructed, would represent only about 1 percent of the
total mileage of rural roads and streets, but would serve at least
20 percent of the total vehicle-mileage generated on all roads and
streets.
Location in relation to principal topographic features.—The location
of the recommended routes has been influenced in remarkably few
places solely by consideration of topography. A knowledge of the
general topography of the country is nevertheless essential to a full
appreciation of reasons for the varying sizes of interstices between
the meshes of the system in different parts of the country and for
the few places in which apparent indirection of the lines of the system
would otherwise be unaccountable. The overlay of the recommended
interregional routes on a photograph of a relief map of the United
States, reproduced as figure 21, indicates clearly the effect of tne
conformation of the land and of the courses of principal rivers in
influencing the location of the routes.
DETERMINANTS IN SELECTION OF INTERREGIONAL SysTEM
In selecting the routes to comprise the system and in determining
the extent of the system to be recommended, the primary purpose was
to select routes fomning an integrated system of reasonably limited
total extent which would join the principal centers of population and
industry in each eeogaphie region with centers of similar relative
importance in other geographic regions, by lines as direct as practicable.
The principal determinants in this selection were, therefore, the
interconnection of the larger cities in all regions, accommodation of
short-run traffic in and about lesser centers insofar as practicable, and
creation of a system of optimum extent and maximum utilization.
INTERCONNECTION OF LARGER CITIES
As proof of the importance of interconnecting the major cities,
evidence is here presented which indicates that nearly 90 percent of
the traffic moving on main highways has either or both its origin and
destination in cities, that traffic steadily increases with increased
proximity to cities, that on transcity connections of main routes
traffic mounts to volumes far greater than the general levels on rural
sections, and that the heavily traveled sections of the proposed inter-
regional system lie mainly within relatively narrow zones of traffic
influence about cities of 10,000 or more population.
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RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 41
Cities important as origin and destination of traffic—Table 8 presents
an analysis of available data on the urban or rural termini of traffic
observed on main highways. The data were obtained by the highway
planning surveys of typical States in seven regions. The analysis
shows that on the average 49.6 percent of all traffic observed was
moving from one city to another, and 36.6 percent was bound either
from a city origin to a rural destination of from a rural origin to a
city destination. Thus nearly seven-eighths of this main highway
traffic in these representative States is related in some manner to
cities. Either they are its origin or its destination or both. Only
13.8 percent both begins and ends at rural points, and a portion of this
movement undoubtedly passes through urban communities en route.
TABLE 8.—Analysis of the origins and destinations of traffic on main highways
as shown by highway planning survey data for one State in each of seven geographic
regions
Percentage of al] traffic having
various originsand destinations
Region and State
South Atlantic: West Virginia...
Fast South Central: Tennessee
Mountain: Utah-............
Pacific: Oregon.
The facts presented in table 8 relate to all main-highway traffic
of both long and short range, including passenger cars, busses, and
trucks. The data of the planning surveys do not permit a particular
examination in this respect of the long-range traffic of all classes of
vehicles.
For the States represented in table 8, however, data on motor-
truck traffic are available which permit a classification of the move-
ment according to a general indication of length of trip, as intrastate,
interstate, and transstate, and a further analysis of each of these
classes according to the percentages of each that have their origins
or destinations or both in cities.
The term “interstate” is used to refer to traffic bound to or from
the State of observation from or to another State. The term “trans-
state” refers to traffic found to be moving entirely across the State of
observation between origins and destinations in other States. The
term “intrastate” is used in its ordinary sense.
The classification thus accomplishes an analysis of the total move-
ment approximately into patterns of long, shorter, and shortest
ranges. The analysis is not exact with respect to the relative lengths
of trip, especially as indicated by the intrastate and interstate frac-
tions. Interstate movements may be, and are in many cases, short
movements over a State line. Intrastate movements, though con-
fined entirely to a single State, may be relatively long movements,
42 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
All the available data show, however, that the average trip length
is least for the intrastate movement, greater for the interstate move-
ment, and greatest for the transstate movement. While, therefore,
the three classes are based specifically upon the number of States in-
volved in the traffic movements, they also represent approximately
and on the average, three ranges of trip length, from short to long.
Data of this sort are presented in table 9 for the same regions that
are represented in the data of table 8. These additional date show
clearly that, for truck traffic at least, the percentage of the main-
highway movement originating in or destined to cities, rises with the
increasing range of movement. For the seven States and regions
represented in the table, cities are involved as the origin or destina-
tion or both in 87.0 baht of the intrastate or short-range move-
ment, 95.5 percent of the interstate or longer range movement, and
96.7 percent of the transstate traffic, or traffic of longest range.
TaBLE 9.—Classification of motortruck traffic on main highways as intrastate,
interstate, and transstate, and percentages of each class originated in or destined
to cities, as shown by planning survey data for one State in each of seven geographic
regions
Percentage of truck traffic ra a rhapod
. | by classes of movement tined to cities
Region and State
Inter- | Trans- | Intra- | Inter-
State | state | state | state
Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent re
a
S
Ss
All regions, average.........------------------2. 20.0 4.6] 87.0] 95.5 7
New England: New Hampsbire.-..._......--.-------- 29.0 12.6 80.5 92.9 9
East North Central: Ohio ee B.6 5.9 94.6 98.8 . 1
est North Central: Nebraska 20.6 2.8 82.0 93.5 0
South Atlantic: West Virginia 19.3 4.5 85.9 95.4 8
East South Central: Tenn: 19.1 45 7.4 91.0 7
Mountain: Utab............ 10.2 1.3 86.8 95.4 4
Pacific: Washington...... 11.5 9 89.1 95.2 4
Although data similar to these for motortrucks in table 9 are not
available for passenger cars or for the total traffic, it is highly probable
that relations similar to those indicated for trucks exist also in the
assenger-car and total traffic. If this is true, and the Committee
balicces that it is, then the Nation’s long-range highway traffic, and
especially the interregional traffic, is in very large part a traffic moving
between cities, or at least a traffic that has either its origins or its
destinations for the most part in cities.
arate mounts at city approaches.—A glance at the traffic map, figure
20, will show how the traffic volume bands of the main rural roads
represented increase in width as they approach the location of cities,
indicating a steady increase of traffic volume with increasing proximity
to the cities. In all cases the traffic volumes represented on this map
are those observed at points on the highways outside city limits. In
no case do the traffic bands represent the volume of traffic on ex-
tensions of the routes within cities; and in many cases the greatest
trafic represented is that observed at points some distance—often
several miles—outside the city limits. Particularly at the larger
cities, it has been found impossible to represent by a convenient
scale on any two-dimensional map the volume of traffic observed at
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 43
pole immediately adjacent to the cities without causing such over-
apping of the bands for several highways as to create an undesirable
graphical confusion, and in such cases the near-city volumes are not
represented at all in figure 20.
Traffic peaks on transcity connections.—To indicate the further
increase in traffic volume that occurs when the highways pass into and
through cities between the nearest points of recorded observation
represented on the two-dimensional traffic map, figure 22 is included.
By means of a vertical projection of the traffic bands, figure 22 shows
for the recommended interregional system only, what is believed to
be a reasonable estimate of the relative magnitudes of traffic volume
on all rural sections of the system and on intracity sections at a num-
ber of the larger cities.
As suggested by this very approximate picturization, traffic on
sections of the routes traversing the cities mounts rapidly to volumes
that far surpass the general levels of volume on the rural portions of
the system. Moreover, it will be seen from both figure 20 and figure
22 that these rapid increases begin at points comparatively close to
the cities.
The peaks represented on the three-dimensional] traffic map, figure
22, are in many cases little more than informed guesses; and their
sharpness is exaggerated by the unavoidable compression of horizontal
scale. That they do not, in fact, exaggerate the relative traffic vol-
umes of the routes within and without the cities, is shown by the com-
parisons based upon available data for several cities of different sizes,
shown in figure 23.
Urban zone of traffic influence.—A study has been made of the avail-
able data on traffic flow in the vicinity of all cities of 10,000 or more
population directly connected by the recommended system, with the
object of determining the approximate distances from each city at
which the more eapid increase of traffic volume begins. These dis-
tances have been. measured as radial distances from centers located at
the heart of the central business areas of the respective cities. They
define, for each city, a circular area which may be described as the
city’s zone of local traffic influence.
It is found that the radii of these zones tend to increase with the
population of the cities. By averaging the radii for all cities of each of
several population ranges, the following determination was made of
what may be called approximate normal radii of the zones of local
traffic influence for cities of different sizes:
Radius of zone of
traffic influence
City population: (milea)
3,000,000 and more__..-.------------------------- eee 35
1,000,000 to 3,000,000 30
500,000 to 1,000,000. _--.-------------------------------------- 25
300,000 to 500,000 20
100,000 to 300,000. 15
50,000 to 100,000_...---------- 12
25,000 to 50,000_-...---------- 9
10,000:to. 25;0002.002.% s.cccsccce ce cn cbseeeS Ue sece ss lek cece 6
Within these zones of local traffic influence around the 587 cities of
10,000 or more population, are 8,141 miles of the recommended inter-
regional system, or 24 percent of the entire system. Of the total
eage within these zones, transcity streets in the cities of 10,000 or
44 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
MARSA R RARER ERO RR ERR
nel LL Hey WEL Tot
iii
i
°
#3 210123458 O7TAB69 OU RH 6 T WMA) 2 34-56
ST. LOUIS— MILES ALONG U.3.66
s43 210123456769
NEW ORLEANS—WmiILES ALONG US.80
VEHICLES PER DAY
“Zrorrseservre9nmunuwi2 3 46
SEATTLE—MILES ALONG U.S.99
s21r101reSeaS8678690nI1 23
COLUMBUS, OHIO— MILES ALONG U.S. 40
Ficure 23.—Traffic profiles of streets Sopforming. approximately to eoutes of the recommended Interregiona
system through representative cities.
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 45
more account for 2,123 miles, and similar streets in smaller incorpo-
rated places add 492 miles.
The balance—5,526 miles or nearly 68 percent of the 8,141-mile
total—is on rural sections of the interregional system, and includes all
rural sections of the system that serve traffic in excess of an average
of 10,000 vehicles per day. This high-volume mileage totals 532 miles.
The rural] mileage within the zones of city influence also includes 3,558
miles or 48.3 percent of the 7,363 miles of rural sections that carry
traffic averaging between 3,000 and 10,000 vehicles per day.
These 2 rural mileages—532 miles and 3,558 miles—comprise
74 percent of the total rural mileage within the zones of influence of
cities of 10,000 or more population, and serve traffic well above the
average daily volume for all rural sections of the system.
The remaining 26 percent of the rural mileage within these zones, or
1,436 miles, carries traffic averaging less than 3,000 vehicles per day.
Nearly a third of this latter mileage, however, carried traffic in 1941
in excess of the approximately 2,600 vehicles per day average for the
rural system as a whole. ’
The more heavily traveled of the rural sections that lie outside the
zones of traffic influence of cities of 10,000 or more population, total
3,624 miles and carry traffic arene 4,809 vehicles per day. By
far the greater part of the rural mileage lying outside these zones—
a total of 20,300 miles—carries traffic averaging less than 3,000
vehicles per day. The average for the entire 20,300 miles is only
1,531 vehicles per day.
Most of these facts are tabulated in table 10 for the entire United
States, and in tables 11 and 12 by geographic regions.
TaBLE 10.—Classification of hast of the recommended interregional system
falling within and without zones of local traffic influence of cities of 10,000 or more
population, for the United States as a whole
Length of sections, in miles
Within incorpora- Outside incorporated places
ted places
Principal classification | Traffic
Trafficex-| between | Traffic
10,000 or |Less than | ceeding 3,000 | Jess than
more 10,000 10,000 and 3,000 Total
popula- | popula- | vehicles 10,000 vehicles
tion tion per day | vehicles | per day
in 1941 | per day | in 1941
in 1941
Within zones of local traffic influence of
cities of 10,000 or more population... ...- 2,123 492 532 3, 558 1, 436 8, 141
Without zones of local trattic influence of
cities of 10,000 or more population._-.-.-|-.-------- 1,855 |......-..- 3, 624 20. 300 25, 79
United States.........-..-.-.------- 2, 123 2, 347 532 7, 182 21, 736 33, 920
46 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
TaBLy 11.—Classification of mileage of the recommended interregional system falling
within zones of local traffic influence of cities of 10,000 or more population, by
geographic regions
Length of sections, in miles
ie eae Outside incorporated places
Geographic region
Now England...
Middle Atlantic. .
East North Central.
Mountain....-.....-- oe tx
TABLE 12.—Classification of mileage of the recommended interregional system falling
without zones of local traffic influence of cities of 10,000 or more population, by
geographic regions
Length of sections, in miles
Within incorpora-
ted places Outside incorporated places
Geographic region
more 10,000 10,000 and 3,000 Total
popula- | popula- | vehicles | 10,000 vehicles
tion tion per day | vehicles | per day
in 1941 | perday | in 1941
in 1941
New England... 53 |. 147 863 763
Middle Atlantic 98 |. 419 1,173
East North Central. 824 |. 961 1, 852 3, 137
West North Central... 249 |. 247 3,125 3, 621
South Atlantic...........-2...2.---.------]-- 326 |. 456 2,148 2, 930
East South Central__...........--.-------|-- 230 |. 183 2,016 2, 429
West South Central........2...2----.----]-- 238 |. 425 3, 059 8, 722
Mountain..-......-. 205 |. 6, 311 5, 562
Pacific......-.2-...- 132 |. 740 1,570 2, 442
United States_........22222--202-2.-[--.-- ee eee 1,855 |.....--... 3, 624 20, 300 25, 779
It is evident that a large part of the more heavily traveled mileage
of the system and all of the most heavily traveled sections lie within
relatively narrow zones circumscribed about the cities of 10,000 or
more population. As a further generalization, it may be added that
much of the remaining more heavily traveled mileage is located
closely contiguous to such zones. Obviously, the heavier travel of
these sections is generated largely by local movements in and out of
the central cities.
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM, 47
Thus, as the evidence on the preceding pages shows, cities are of
very great a ihe in the movement of most interregional and
long-range traffic. It was on this fact as well as on its general knowl-
edge that the most concentrated masses of population and industry
are located in the cities, that the Committee determined to base its
selection of routes primarily upon the principle of the interconnection
of important cities.
ACCOMMODATION OF SHORT-RUN TRAFFIC MOVEMENTS
As important as the interconnection of cities is, however, ideal
directness of connection between the largest centers was not attempted.
All highway traffic is a composition of long-range and short-range
movement, and the highway planning surveys have shown that the
latter is the predominant element on all roads. Normally, for ex-
ample, about 85 percent of all trips are for less than 20 miles, and
ow about 5 percent for more than 50 miles.
n the selection of routes, therefore, the Committee has deemed it
desirable to deviate from ideally direct lines of connection between
the larger regional centers in order to connect en route as Many as
practicable of the smaller urban centers,
Large and small are relative terms, however. The question upon
which the Committee had to reach a decision was that of the general
order of cities to be considered as primary points of connection.
This decision would detérmine the extent of the system selected.
In applying the terms “‘large’”’ and ‘“‘small’’ to the problem in hand,
the Committee has considered both the population and the industrial
importance of the cities. It has used its best judgment in determining
the centers of primary connection and also the extent of desirable
deviation from direct connection between these primary points in
order to join in the system, urban communities of lesser importance.
MAXIMUM UTILIZATION
To connect all communities classified as urban would require
inclusion in the system of a large part of the Nation’s 3,000,000-mile
rural road system. Such a system would serve a very large part of
the total highway traffic, but its average intensity of usage would be
low by reason of the inclusion of much lightly traveled mileage.
Obviously, it would be a much more extensive system than any that
could properly be described as a major interregional system.
To go to the other extreme, it would be possible to select a system
that would connect only, or mainly, the very largest cities of the
country. It might be possible to accomplish this with a few trans-
continental highways in each direction, though the connection would
be indirect except between cities joined by the same route, and such
@ system would serve conveniently and fully only a very small part
of the highway traffic of longer range. It would miss connection
with many of the larger cities in its direct courses between the very
largest cities. It would, therefore, traverse long distances, particu-
larly in the West, where there would be little traffic to serve. Hence
the average intensity of usage of such a system would probably be
less than that of a larger system that would touch more, even though
smaller cities.
48 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
The Committee reasoned that somewhere between these two ex-
tremes, employing basically the principle of the interconnection of
larger cities, it should be pose to select a system of optimum extent,
the average usage of which would reach a maximum of intensity.
Considered as a whole, the average daily traffic volume for such a
system would be greater than that for any other system either more or
less extensive.
The Committee determined to select a system approaching as nearly
as practicable this optimum extent. This it conceived it could do by
selecting a number of systems, both larger and smaller than the prob-
able optimum, and by plotting the average daily traffic of each against
its extent in miles. In such a manner a curve would be formed, the
maximum ordinate of which, representing the maximum daily traffic
volume, would correspond to an abscissa representing the extent of the
optimum system.
Data for such an analysis were available to the Committee in several
studies previously made by the Public Roads Administration. One of
these studies was that relating to the toll road system of 14,300 miles
described in the report entitled ‘“Toll Roads and Free Roads,’’* trans-
mitted to Congress by the President in 1939. This system was re-
garded as very close to a system of minimum extent, and therefore
probably below the optimum. Another was the 26,700-mile system
described by the Public Roads Administration in the same report.
Still another was a slight enlargement of the latter system, totaling
29,300 miles, which has been previously described in an article pub-
lished in the magazine Public Roads.’ A fourth was a 48,300-mile
system, and the fifth and last a system totaling 78,800 miles in extent.
In these five systems the most important routes are substantially
identical in location. The differences in total mileage result largely
from the progressive addition of routes. Each is shown on a separate
map in appendix IT, figures 1 to 5, inclusive.
With respect to city connection, the extremes of these systems range
from the smallest which omits direct connection between a number of
cities of more than 300,000 population and one of 500,000 or more
population, to the largest which connects directly a large percentage
of all cities with population of 10,000 or more persons.
From data obtained by the highway planning surveys, the total
traffic service of existing rural roads conforming closely to each of these
five previously investigated systems was estimated in daily vehicle-
miles, and the corresponding average daily traffic volumes were com-
puted. These data, together with the mileages of the systems, are
given in the upper section of table 13.
From this table the values for the mileage and average daily traffic
of each of the five systems were taken and plotted as points on a sys-
tem of rectangular coordinates, as indicated by the outline dots in
figure 24. These points were then connected in various ways by
straight lines.
® Toll Roads and Free Roads. H. Doc. No. 272, 76th Cong., Ist sess.
’ Planning the Interregional Highway System, by H. E. Hilts; Public Roads, vol. 22, No. 4, June 1941,
p. 69.
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 49
TaBuE 13.—Estimated urban, rural, and total mileage, total rural vehicle mileage, and
average datly traffic volume on rural sections, for all systems studied, including the
recommended system
Mileage of systems
Total rural | Average daily
vehicle eer rural
Total mileage i pany mileage sections
Systems previously investigated: 5 Miles Vehicle-miles Vehicles
14,300 miles : 12, 600 32, 000, 000 2, 540
26,700 miles _ , 200, 000 540
29,300 miles. , 100, 000
48,300 miles... 7
800 mil
Additional Lei tentatively investigated:
000 miles
a system:
AVERAGE OAILY TRAFFIC ON RURAL
SECTIONS — VEHICLES
TOTAL LENGTH OF SYSTEMS INVESTIGATEO —— THOUSAND MILES
Ficure 24.—Graph employed in refining Committee’s selection of the interregional system.
From the resulting graph it was assumed that a maximum value of
average daily traffic might have been attained in the 29,300-mile
system. If this value could be exceeded it was conjectured that a
maximum value might be obtained by a properly selected system of
either 36,000 or 33,000 miles approximately, the mileages represented
by other intersections of the straight lines of the graph.
Accordingly, a 36,000-mile system was formed by adding to the
routes included in the 29,300-mile system, certain routes designed to
connect relatively important cities not reached by the smaller system
and by eliminating a few of the less important routes. The resulting
system is shown by the solid lines of figure 25, the heavier lines repre-
senting the added routes. The dotted lines in this figure represent
the routes of the 29,300-mile system that were omitted from the larger
system. As shown in the middle section of table 13, this 36,000-mile
system proved to have an average daily traffic volume on its rural
sections of 2,580 vehicles—slightly less than the value for the 29,300-
mile system and also less than the value indicated by the 36,000-mile
intersection point in the graph, as shown by the lower solid dot.
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
50
90} )yuTUIO0 oy Aq Pores TISOAU WIaISAE eUO]ITPPE OL! 00O'9E OU.L—'se TAAOLA
Digitized by Goog le
RECOMMENDED SYSTEM 51
It was now clear, however, that by the elimination of certain of the
routes added to form the 36,000-mile system, the resulting 33,920-mile
system, though smaller in extent, would carry a higher average traffic
volume than had been attained in either the 29,300-mile or the 36,000-
milesystem. The routes eliminated were those connecting the smaller
cities and serving the lighter traffic volumes. The average daily
traffic volume of the resulting system was found to be 2,660 vehicles,
as shown by the upper solid dot. This volume is greater than the
traffic indicated even by the highest of the intersections in the graph—
that representing a 33,000-mile system.
It is believed, therefore, that the 33,920-mile system, data for
which are given in the lower section of table 13, is very close to the
desired optimum system. As shown in figure 1, it is the system rec-
ommended by the Committee for adoption. Although in mileage
the existing rural roads conforming to this system constitute only
0.99 percent of the country’s total of 2,964,677 miles of rural roads,
it is estimated that they served in 1941 16.79 percent of the total of
465,753,000 daily vehicle-miles of travel on all rural roads in that year.
CoNcLUSIONS
Facts presented thus far on the interregional highway system
ey. lead to the following conclusions:
1. The system, if it is to attract and serve a reasonably large propor-
tion of the total highway movement, must connect as many of the
larger cities of the country as its limited mileage will permit.
2. Whatever other facilities it may provide, the system must in-
corporate adequate routes leading directly into the larger cities,
including at least most of the cities of 10,000 or more population.
3. Especially in the more densely populated sections of the country,
the general directness of the routes between larger cities should not be
sacrificed for close approach to cities of substantially less than 10,000
population. When these small cities lie conveniently in the path of
direct routes, they may be adequately served by a skirting location of
the main route. Such a location will generally be in the interest of the
preponderant part of the traffic.
he recommended interregional system conforms generally to the
principles enunciated in these conclusions.
Its 33,920-mile total extent includes 2,123 miles within the municipal
limits of cities of 10,000 or more population. This is approximatel
the mileage required to provide direct connection into and throug
all of these cities joined by the various routes. The milcage reported
is measured along existing streets now serving the traffic in the capacity
described, just as the reported mileage of rural sections of the routes is
measured over existing highways conforming aan to the recom-
mended interregional routes in rural areas. A desirable improvement
of the system will alter these mileages both within the larger cities and
in rural areas, generally by reduction.
Included also in the proposed total mileage of the recommended
system are 2,347 miles within the limits of cities of less than 10,000
population. This also is measured along existing strects now carryin
the traffic stream intended to be served by the proposed ienesonal
52 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
routes. In some cases a desirable improvement of the system will
doubtless follow locations selected outside of these cities, thus decreas-
ing to some extent the total mileage within municipal limits, but
possibly tending to increase slightly the total reported mileage of the
system.
"The 33,920-mile total mileage reported does not include any allow-
ance for alternate circumferential or distributing routes required at
the larger cities for the dual purpose of bypassing through traffic and
of distributing and assembling other traffic to and from the several
quarters of the city. Although generally a relatively small part of the
total, through traffic when joined with the traffic originating in or
destined to outlying sections of a city results in a movement so large
as to require circumferential routes in addition to direct city-entering
connections. These circumferential routes, an essential part of the
interregional system, are discussed in some detail in a subsequent
section of this report. Since their proper location and mileage can
be determined only by detailed study of the needs and conditions of
each city involved, the Committee has merely estimated that the
aggregate extent of such desirable alternate and auxiliary routes will
not exceed 5,000 miles. If added to the more definitely determined
mileage of primary routes, this estimated mileage, probably located
partly within and partly without municipal limits, would increase the
total extent of the recommended system to about 39,000 miles.
LOCATING THE INTERREGIONAL ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS
The location of interregional highways to serve the city as it is
today, no matter what its condition may be, is a comparatively
simple task.
Once constructed, however, the interregiona] highways would be
relatively permanent. But cities cannot be said to have attained well
organized and relatively permenant form.
ecause of these two things—the permanency of the highways and
the more or less planless form of the cities—the interregional routes
must be so located as to conform to the future shape of the cities,
insofar as this can be foreseen, as well as to the existing pattern of
urban centers.
American cities of today are surprisingly uniform in their status and
condition, although no generalized description can ever adequately
portray any one of them. The focal point of them all, however, 1s
the central business district, which contains the large stores and office
buildings and is often the cultural and civic center of the urban com-
munity. But this ‘downtown area” is cramped, crowded, and depre-
ciated.. Land values are often less than they were 20 years ago.
This center shades off into a secondary business area which merges
almost imperceptibly with a large area of mixed land uses and run-
down buildings. This is the slum area where living conditions are
poor.
Around the slums is an even larger area of residential property in
various stages of depreciation. This is the widely discussed “blighted
area.”” Without the application of effective rehabilitation measures,
it will become pee of the city’s slums.
Beyond this blighted area lie the newer residential areas. They ex-
tend far out beyond the city limits, in the form of widely scattered
subdivisions, merging almost imperceptibly into the farm lands.
Interlaced through all of these sections are inadequate highways and
streets, and railroads exendiue into the heart of the city. Along the
railroads the city’s industrial plants are located. The newer ones, such
as the large war industries, are often found far out in the environs.
While every city contains some admirable features and thoroughly
satisfactory parts, rapid expansion and virtual transformation in recent
years have produced an unbalanced condition fraught with great eco-
nomic difficulties. Few cities have managed to grapple successfully
with the situation. In nearly all cities great efforts are being made
today to restrain excessive decentralization, and to rehabilitate slum
and blighted areas.
The plight of the cities is due to the most rapid urbanization ever
known, without sufficient plan or control. The result is square mile
after square mile of developed city that is functionally and structurally
obsolete both as to buildings and neighborhood arrangements.
The automobile has made partial escape from this undesirable state
of affairs easy and pee for at least some of the population.
Suburban home developments have been made attractive largely by
53
ARROO-—44
3
54 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
ne bee eite: of quick and individual daily transportation thus
orded.
Suburban business centers have followed the clustering of suburban
homes. The more recent growth of the parking problem with its
attendant difficulties of retail trade in the central business section,
has to a limited extent induced an outward movement of some large
emporiums and 8 more numerous establishment of branch and chain
stores in suburban communities.
Modern industrial processes, requiring more ground space than is
available at permissible cost within the city, have been and will con-
tinue to be the cause of a proerence for outer locations as industrial
sites, and the most favorable locations are those best served by trans-
portation facilities, including highways.
From the standpoint of the city, as a corporation, a serious effect of
the outward movement of residence, business, and industry has been
the depreciation in value of city-contained land and property available
by taxation for the financial support of the city government and the
various services it must supply to its residents.
And finally, another disadvantage, affecting important city interests,
has been the increasing tendency toward the diversion of trade from
established retail commercial concerns located in the central business
district to enterprises newly founded in outer sections, often without
the city boundaries.
What the city will be like in the future depends on whether its
future development is planned or haphazard. Several new conditions,
however, will greatly affect city development. One of the most
important of these is that future population growth of cities will be
limited. To base the planning of highways or anything else on ex-
pectations of urban population increases like those of the past, would
seem to be unwise.
Twenty-five years ago there was virtually{no control of growth and
city development through city planning. Today many cities have
plan commissions and a city plan in some stage of development.
Urban plawiing is really just now coming to grips with one of the
basic urban problems—decentralization or dissipation of the urban
area to an extent not economically justified, This is a most difficult
problem to solve. So long, however, as the central areas of the cities
are poor places in which to live and rear children, people will continue
to move to the outskirts. Undoubtedly a factor that has facilitated
this movement has been the improvement of highways.
If for any city, maps are prepared representing in bold silhouette the
areas of the city and its environs occupied by buildings at definite
successive periods of its history, it is possible to obtain a clear idea of
the manner of the city’s growth. The series of such maps for several
cities (fig. 26) illustrate typical growth processes common to many
cities. ;
One of the most striking revelations of these maps is the manner in
which, in the more recent periods, the growth of the cities has been
extended outward in slender fingers along the main highways entering
the city. This is undoubtedly due to the improvement of the main
highways, which has resulted in a relatively satisfactory connection
of bordering areas with the city.
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 55
oss oS
ri wea ae ’
ways pear have been in location thro: ut
the whole period covered. In all periods the influence of the highways upon the growth of ocgu, ares
is clearly picted by the greater outward extension of the city In areas adjacent to these roads,
Between the outstretching fingers of development along the main
highways, pronounced wedges of relatively undeveloped land appear
in the maps for each of the recent periods. Attention will be called
to these wedges of undeveloped land again later in this report.
The immediate inference from these maps is that the creation of
such ample and efficacious traffic facilities as the improvement of the
interregional routes would supply, will exert a powerful force tending
to shape the future development of the city.
It is highly important that this force be so applied as to promote a
desirable urban development. If designed to do this, the new facilities
will speed such a development and grow in usefulness with the passage
of time. Unwise location of the interregional routes might not be
sufficiently powerful to prevent a logical future city development, but
would be powerful enough to retard or unreasonably distort such
development. The interregional highways must be designed for long
life. An unwise location would diminish their usefulness as time
passes,
Ficure 26.—Typical diagrams illustrating the manner of growth of the occupied ares of citics, The main
bigh' thas in the series of for each unch
56 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
PrincieLes oF Route SEvEcTION IN CiTIEs
While the selection of routes for inclusion in the interregional system
within and in the vicinity of cities is properly a matter for local study
and determination, the Committee suggests the following principles
as guides for local action.
‘onnection unth city approach routes.—Selection of interregional
routes within and in the vicinity of a city should be made cooperatively
by the State highway department and appropriate local planning and
highway authorities and officials.
or the service of interregional traffic and other traffic bound in and
out of the city to and from exterior points, the problem is one of con-
venient collection and delivery. The State highway department
should have the primary responsibility of determining the detailed
location of routes leading to the city, as it will have the essential
knowledge of origins and destinations of the traffic movmg on the
adjacent rural sections of the routes.
Once the routes enter the environs of the city, however, they become
a part of the sum total of urban transportation facilities, and as such
must bear a proper relation in location and character to other parts
of the street system. In addition to the traffic to and from exterior
points, they will carry a heavy flow of intraurban movement of which
city aumonne will have knowledge or will be best able to measure or
predict. .
In some urban centers, cooperation between the State highway de-
partment and local authorities will be complicated by the fact that
the metropolitan area will consist of several cities and perhaps one or
more county junediciions and that decisions will need to be reached
on & metropolitan rather than a city-by-city basis. Recognizing the
difficulty of unifying a multiplicity of local agencies, the Committee
believes that the creation of an over-all authority would be highly bene-'
ficial and desirable in complex urban areas. A metropolitan authority
would avoid obvious mistakes in the location of the interregional routes
and thus prevent distortions in the development of the area. Only
through some over-all agency such as a metropolitan authority can
there be developed an adedunte thoroughfare plan to provide for all
traffic needs. The interregional routes should be coordinated with the
metropolitan street and highway plan. Such a metropolitan authority
could anticipate and avoid obvious mistakes in the location of the in-
terregional routes, prevent distortions based on short-sighted compro-
mises, and in the long run lead to the best solution for all concerned.
Penetration of city Because of the traffic congestion encountered
in passing through cities, it is the usual conclusion of those who make
long automobile trips that they could save much time and avoid an-
noyance if so-called bypass routes were available to carry them around
all cities. Comparative travel-time studies usually confirm this im-
pression.
Such a study at Lafayette, Ind., for example, showed that the aver-
age time required to travel 6 miles through the city between two points
on U S 52 was 14 minutes. To travel between the same two points
over 6% miles of existing roads around the city required an average of
9 minutes.
Another example is afforded by a recently constructed 9.5-mile
route around Newport News, Va., from the James River Bridge to
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 57
Fort Monroe. At 35 miles per hour this bypass can easily be traveled
in 16 minutes. The old route through the city was 11.2 miles long
and required @ minimum of eight stops. Travel time in of peek hours
averaged 29 minutes and during rush hours was considerably longer.
The new route, therefore, saves at least 13 minutes and avoids the
necessity of frequent stops and starts.
22000
20,000
8,000
4,090
VEHICLES
12,000 F
200
6,000
— = —4 ees
THROUGH TRAFFIC TRAVELING BETWEEN PORTS I
WASHINGTON AND POINTS IN BALTIMORE
!
| \
6000
i
THROUGH TRAFFIC TRAMELING BETWEEN POTS IN
WASHINGTON AND POINTS BEYOND BALTIMORE
’ i
y 1602 VEMICLES
; =e Ge, 77 CEEEURITED Oe
oe THROUGH TRAFFIC TRAVELING BETWEEN POINTS IN
Finn | BALTIMORE AND POINTS BEYONO WASHINGTON
tet] THROUGH TRABFIC TRAVELING BETWEEN POINTS BEYOND
=< 1068 VEMICLES WASHINGTON AND POINTS BEYOND BALTIMORE
° 4 8 12 16 20 26
MILES
FIGURE 27.—Origin and destination of vehicles traveling on U § 1 between Washington and Baltimore.
2000
By such actual time studies it is demonstrated that through travelers
would be saved time and annoyance and much of the cost of stopping
and starting at numerous strect intersections if convenient routes were
provided around all cities. Such routes undoubtedly have a proper
place in a well-designed system of traffic arteries for any city.
58 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
But the common impression that provision of such routes would
constitute invariably a conpete, or even a substantially adequate,
solution of the highway problem at cities is not well-founded. It is a
allacious conception of the need for adequate accommodation of the
traffic moving over the rural highways. From the standpoint of the
cities it fails as a solution of the most serious aspects of the problem.
The root of the fallacy, so far as the rural highways are concerned,
lies in the fact that on main highways at the approaches to any city,
especially the larger ones, a very large part of the traffic originates in
or is destined to the city itself. It cannot be bypassed.
This fact was demonstrated by the Public Roads Administration in
its report entitled ‘‘Toll Roads and Free Roads,” published in 1939,
by reference to studies of the origin and destination of traffic observed
on U S 1 between Washington and Baltimore. <A diagram presented
in that report is here reproduced as figure 27. The text that accom-
panied it is as follows:
As shown by the topmost line in this graph, the total traffic on the route rises
to a peak at each city line and drops to a trough between the two cities. Of this
total traffic, that part above the est of the horizontal lines represents movements
of less length than the distance between the cities. At each city line this part
consists of movements into and out of the city all of which are of shorter range
than the distance to the neighboring city. The uniform vertical distance between
the highest and the next lower horizontal lines measures the amount of traffic on
the road moving between points in each city. The height of the next lower hori-
zontal band represents the traffic moving between Washington and points beyond
Baltimore; that of the next, the traffic moving between Baltimore and points
beyond Washington; while the height of the lowest horizontal band measures the
volume of the traffic moving between points that lie beyond both Baltimore and
Washington. Of all the traffic shown as entering the two cities, only this last
part plus that represented by one or the other of the next two higher bands can
be counted as potentially bypassable around the two cities. t Washington
this bypassable maximum is 2,269 of a total of 20,500 entering vehicles; at Balti-
more it is 2,670 of a total of 18,900 vehicles. The remainder of the |entering
traffic in each case will not only continue into, but in large part will penetrate to
the very heart of the city, because that is where most of it is destined, and con-
versely it is at or through the same center that one must look for the source of
most of the city-originated emerging traffic. :
An origin-destination study of the traffic on this same highway was
made at an earlier date by Coverdale & Colpitts ® at a point near Balti-
more. It serves further to illustrate the manner in which the traffic
approaching a large city by a typical main highway is distributed to
the center and various quarters of the city and, via various other
main routes, to points beyond the city.
Figure 28 is adapted from the report of this study. It shows that
of a total of 5,874 vehicles approaching the city, 717 moved to the
center of the city as their ultimate destination. Others, numbering
726, 398, 113, and 163, respectively, proceeded to ultimate destina-
tions in the northwest, northeast, southeast, and southwest quarters
of the city. A large number, 2,225 vehicles, went to points within
the city (largely in the central portion) and returned the same day by
the way they had come. Seventy-one vehicles, bound to points
beyond Baltimore, made stops in the city before proceeding to their
ultimate destinations, and the remainder, totaling 1,157, or 21 percent
of the city-entering traffic, passed through the city and emerged by
several other main highways en route to destinations beyond the city.
§ See footnote 6.
* Report by Coverdale & Colpitts, consulting engineers, New York, N. Y., to the State Roads Com-
mission of Maryland, 1932.
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 59
Like studies by Coverdale & Colpitts, made at the same time on the
other main routes approaching Baltimore, showed a similar distribu-
tion of the entering traffic.
The conditions which these examples describe are not peculiar to
Baltimore and Washington. They are typical of the conditions that
exist at all large cities. On all main highways approaching such cities,
a very large proportion of the traffic will be found upon investigation
FREDERICK ROAD
LEGEND
¢ > NON-STOP
SSS Torat THROUGH TRAFFIC (SS MAKING STOP IN CITY
GQ ENTERING CITY AND STOPPING OVERNIGHT
Pe Gein eee CCONOT ENTERING CITY
TRAFFIC PASSING SECTIONS OF CITY
SURVET STATION 199 USING PRESENT NE * NORTHEAST SECTION SE=SOUTHEAST SECTION
tm ee NW: NORTHWEST SECTION SW:SOUTHWEST SECTION
CIRCUMPERENTIAL ROADS BO BUSINESS DISTRICT
g
o
2
3
&
<
z
z
<
FiaugE 28.—D) of the volume and destinations of traffic a ing Baltimore on the reshingsan
Boulevard (U 8 1) as observed by Coverdale & Colpitts in 1932. Adapted from a report to the State
Roads Commission of Maryland. 1933,
to have originated in or to be bound to the city as its ultimate or inter-
mediate objective.
In general, the larger the city the larger is the proportion of the
traffic on the main approach highways that is thus essentially con-
cerned with the city.
As evidence Suppor. this generalization, reference is made to
table 14 and figure 29 which record the results of origin-destination
studies made at 27 cities of various pepnuen classes, from 6 of
less than 2,500 persons to one of a population between 500,000 and
60 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
1,000,000 persons. As will be observed, the studies made at 3 cities
of 300,000 or more population show that upward of 90 percent of
the traffic moving toward these cities on main approach highways
consisted of vehicles bound to ultimate or intermediate destinations
within the cities themselves. For the 4 cities of 50,000 to 300,000
poe the similar proportion of city-bound traffic was found to
e above 80 percent. For the smaller cities, the corresponding pro-
portion tends to decline, reaching 50. percent for the cities of less than
2,500 population that were studied.
POPULATION GROUPS OF CITIES
° 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL APPROACHING TRAFFIC
PROPORTION OF TRAFFIC PROPORTION OF TRAFFIC THAT
BOUND FOR CITY COULD AVOID CITY
Ficure 29.—Graph showing two divisions of the total traffic on roads approaching representative cities
of various population groups: (1) The average percentage city bound, and (2) the average percentage
which could have bypassed the cities.
Taxis 14.—Proportions of traffic bound to and beyond cities of various populations,
as shown by origin-and-destination surveys on highways approaching 27 cities
+ Traffic ©
Population group penne pias to say
the city | the city
Percent | Percent
49.3 .
Ves CHA 2 500 os soe ou oad tee ces ome ae ue ey satedeg duel whcegeds we 6 50.7
2,500 to 10,000 6 5.7 43.3
10,000 to 25,000 3 78.1 21.9
25,000 to 50.000 5 79.0 21.0
50,000 to 100,000. 2 83.8 16.2
100,000 to 300,000- . - 2 31.6 18.4
300,000 to 600,000... ...-.. 2-22 eee eee eee eee eee eee 2 92.8 7.2
1 95.8 42
600,000 to 1,000,000. ....- 2.22. eee eee eee ee ee ee eee ee eee
|
|
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 61
The proportion of adjacent main-highway traffic generated by the
smaller cities, either as points of origin or points of destination, de-
ends a great deal upon the location of the city in relation to cities of
arger pee A town of 2,800 ae dort such as Laurel, Md.,
located on the main highway midway between two such large cities
as Baltimore and Washington, which are separated by only 30 miles,
will be neither the origin nor the destination of a large part of the
heavy traffic counted on the main highway near its boundaries. In
contrast, a town of approximately the same size, such as Carson City,
Nev., will be found to be the source or destination of a larger part of
the lighter traffic on the highway connecting it with its somewhat
larger neighbor, Reno.
Similar , among slightly larger cities, the city of Milford, Conn.,
a city of more than 11,000 persons, undoubtedly is responsible, as
origin or destination, for a comparatively small part of the heavy
traffic on the great main artery near its city limits. Located midway
on U S 1 between the neighboring larger cities of Bridgeport and
New Haven, it is directly in the path of the New York-Boston move-
ment.
Annapolis, Md., a city of 13,000 persons, is on the other hand, either
the origin or destination of a much larger part of the traffic on the
spur highway that connects it with Baltimore, 30 miles away.
Among the smaller cities differences of geographic location and
intercity relationship may somewhat disturb the rule. It neverthe-
ess remains true, and among larger cities almost without exception,
hat the larger the city the larger will be the share of the traffic on
the approach highways that has its origin or destination in the city.
Furthermore, of this city-concerned traffic, the largest single ele-
ment originates in or is destined to the business center of the city.
This is the area in which are located the larger stores and warehouses,
both wholesale and retail, the principal banks and other financial in-
stitutions, the seat of the city government and the courts, the bigger
hotels and theaters, some of the larger apartment houses, and the
more influential churches. Usually it includes the principal transpor-
tation terminals, some industrial establishments, and occassionally
one or more high schools and other educational institutions, the art
gallery and music hall and other cultural institutions. Generally it
1s also the site of the original settlement of the city.
The locations of the principal rail and water terminals have been
powerful factors in}shaping the business center. Within the for-
seeable future, this area is likely to remain the objective and the
source of a large part of the daily street and highway traffic. It is
reasonable to conclude, thercfore, that the interregional routes, carry-
ing a substantial part of this traffic,;should penetrate within close
proximity to the central business area.
How near they should come to the center of the area, how they
should pass it or pass through it, and by what courses they should
approach it, are matters for particular planning consideration in
each city. Since these routes should be designed to serve important
arterial flows of intraurban as well as interurban character, their
locations from the fringes to the center of the city should be deter-
mined in large degree by the location of internal areas in which are
generated important volumes of the intraurban movement.
62 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
The city streets over which the urban mileage included in the rec-
ommended interregional system has been measured, are those now
marked as the transcity connections of the existing main rural high-
ways that conform closely to the rural sections of the recommended
routes. These streets generally pass through or very close to the
existing central business areas of the cities.
The total milage of these streets in cities of 10,000 or more popu-
lation has been classified with respect to the use of the land in the
areas they traverse. This classification shows that 10.5 percent of
the mileage lies within the central business areas of the cities.
In reaching the central sections, these streets pass through several
other classes of development, and the percentage of mileage within
areas of each class is shown in table 15. As will be seen from this
table, approximately 7.5 percent of the length of these existing streets
in cities of 10,000 or more population is located in areas classified as
industrial, 12.2 percent in outlying business areas, 24.3 percent in
areas described as mixed business and residential, 23.8 percent in
residential areas, 14.7 peer in areas of scattered development,
3.4 percent in park or other municipally owned areas, and 3. 6 percent
in areas of other description. ‘
As a further indication of the character of these traversed areas,
table 15 also shows those wholly or partially devoted to residence,
classified as high, intermediate, and low class. The greater part of the
mileage falls in what are described as areas of intermediate class.
Since it is probable that in any development of the interregional
routes, the locations chosen will not follow the streets presently used
in many cases, the percentages and detailed data given in table 15 can
be considered as only generally indicative of the land uses in the areas
that will be traversed, and of the nature of land-acquisition problems
involved in the development.
Location internally through wedges of undeveloped land.—As previ-
ously pointed out, the improvement of highways at urban centers has
in the past stimulated outward extension of city growth, and has left
wedges of relatively undeveloped land between these ribbons of
decelopmnerit along the main Ee eye entering the city. To some
extent these wedges are the result of a topography less favorable for
development or of the reservation of land for various public uses. In
most cases they are caused in part by the lack of satisfactory connec-
tion with the city, either by roads of direct entrance or by appropriate
transverse connection with the main highways.
Whatever their cause, existing wedges of vacant land may offer the
best possible locations for city-entering routes of the interregional
system. Alinement and right-of-way widths appropriate for the new
highways and difficult of acquisition in more developed areas, may be
obtainable in these vacant spaces with relative ease and at moderately
low cost. So placed, the routes may often be extended far into the
city before they encounter the greater difficulties of urban location.
In choosing these locations for the arterial routes, however, it should
be recognized that the undeveloped lands which lie so favorably for
highway purposes also present opportunities equally favorable for
other purposes of city planning. Properly preserved and developed,
they can become the needed parks and playgrounds for residents of
adjacent populated areas. Alternatively, they can be developed as
new residential communities in the modern manner, unhampered by
ations exceeding 10,000, by population groups
|
TasLe 15.—Claseification of urban lengths of existing highways conforming to tentatively selected interregional highway reutes in all cities having
popu
MILBAGE CLASSIFICATION
Lengths traversing various areas
a ee
SS
Per Seca o sa bd eooeeso|sS
a goa : ;
8 | SSxSGas 8 SESSEes |S | 3
& Cy
SOnmneormnonmw wis Ore te oe Oo. 7
8 ansyduc |w eiSeiseinies | os | of
oo ~~
ro)
5 * s DBDOAMNOM | TOMO ANN ~ +
33 eocasss |S ES | ed | od
ages Nn 2
atag
Residential | Scattered development
Mixed business and
residential
trial
Indus | Outlying
business
Chase 2 | Class 3
!
\
| ctass2
Ctoss 1 | Class 2 | Class 8 | Class 1
_ :
Lcd wire 0009000 | oy
3 sdrawcs | 5
i>)
MAM EAM OS
SSSRSSE
DOVROON
eHansia
Population groap
-
re}
cy
Ee
~
PERCENTAGE CLASSIFICATION
MORnROne | ~
Simic “ons | wi
=
wDOAonne | oo
BNGSSAS |S
=
Q Ms wOcw | oD
a incite | a
Owooonr |
Sobor ON
ceescee
WANDONH |
deiwcolded |
FR NOM O me | wD
acddgad |
edge |e
wroocenuv| oS
Be asiaois | a
Rranwom |
Societe
==
AQeenetws | oO
Total......-..-
gaceaes
~
14.7
23.8
30. 2
Norr.—Class 1, cinss 2, elass 3 are high-class, intermediate-class, and low-class, respectively.
64 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
previous commitment to the traditional rectangular street plan. It
is highly desirable, therefore, that the location and plan of the new
highways in these areas shall be developed in harmonious relation
with other appropriate uses of the now vacant land. Wherever
possible, plans for all uses of the land should be jointly developed and
sequiation for all purposes of public use should proceed simultane-
ously.
In any case, if the new city-entering highways are located through
existing wedges of undeveloped lands, they must be connected with well
developed existing suburban areas, which are usually located along the
present main highways, in order to serve effectively the arterial needs
of these communities. Adequate cross highways at suitable points
will provide these connections. And continued around the city, from
one new arterial and one existing main highway to another, these
connectors become the circumferential routes which are discussed
later in this section. Some of these circumferentials, especially those
forming the outer belt, may appropriately belong in the interregional
system, as they would serve both to distribute the city-bound inter-
regional traffic around the city to the point nearest its destination,
and ae to transfer through traffic around the city from one route to
another.
It will be at once apparent, however, that if the improvement of
main highways in the past has resulted in the stringing out of city
growth along them, the superior improvement contemplated for the
new arterial routes would have the same effect in exaggerated degree.
The improvement of the interregional system atoll e so designed
as to discourage ribbon development and the unwise subdivision of
large tracts of suburban land. Special preventive measures will
prove helpful in this connection. One of these measures, applicable
at the appropriate stages of city growth, would be to provide addi-
tional circumferential routes (as Teesussed in the following section),
and then, as the interradial spaces widen, to add branches to the
radial arteries, thus encouraging uniform development of whole areas
rather than ribbon-like settlement along the radials. Another, which
involves no principle of route location, is mentioned here only because
of its bearing upon city development. It is the control and limitation
of access to the arterial routes.
Unlimited access to the existing main highways has undoubtedly
encouraged the outward extension of settlement along them. Per
contra, the denial of access to the new arterial highways for a sub-
stantial outward distance beyond any desired points on these high-
ways would probably discourage the creeping of scttlement along
them much beyond the selected points, and this is endorsed by the
committee in principle.
Circumferential and distribution routes—Although, as previously
indieated a large part of the traffic on interregional routes approaching
the larger cities will generally have its origins and destinations in the
center of the city, substantial fractions will consist of traffic bound
to and from other quarters of the city. Another portion—its volume
depending usually upon the size of the city in relation to the sizes of
other nearby cities—will consist of traffic bound past the city.
To serve this traffic bound to or from points other than the center
of the city, there is need of routes which avoid the business center.
Such routes should generally follow circumferential courses around
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 65
the city, passing either through adjacent suburban areas or through
the outer and less congested sections of the city proper.
Generally, such routes can be so located as to serve both as arteries
for the conveyance of through traffic around the city between various
approach highways and as distribution routes for the movement of
traffic with local origins and destinations to and from the various
quarers of the city. The pattern of such routes will depend upon
e topography and plan of each particular city. At most relatively
tnrge cities the need will be for routes completely encircling the city.
the larger cities more than one circumferential route may be
needed. A series of them may be provided to form inner. and outer
belts, some possibly within the city itself, others without. In the
largest cities one such route may be required as a distributor of traffic
about the business center. Often, it may be possible to serve this
function by suitable locations of several of the main penetrating
arteries. ;
Not all of these routes may be needed for the service of traffic on the
interregional system, however. In some cases the needs of the
interregional traffic may be largely met by a route around one side of
the city, traversing only a part of the city’s circumference.
Relation to traffic-generating foci and terminals. —Railway terminals,
both passenger and freight, wharves and docks and airports, generate
large volumes of street and highway traffic. Much of it is of express
character, and significant fractions are associated with the essential
interchanges between the several modes of transportation. Both
passengers and freight are transferred between railroads and ships,
and passengers between railways and air lines. The future develop-
ment of commercial air cargo and express freight transportation should
not be underestimated in ‘considering this shuttle movement between
transportation media.
Railway terminals and docks are commonly located at mid and low
city points. The principal airports probably must remain at or beyond
the qringe of the city.
The location of the interregional routes at cities—both the city-
penetrating main routes and the circumferential-.or distribution
routes—should be so placed as to give convenient express service to
these various major traffic-generating foci within and in the environs
of the city, and also to the business center of the city, the wholesale
produce market, main industrial areas, principal residential sections
new housing developments, and the city parks, stadium, baseball
park, and other sports areas.
Location of the routes should be determined in relation to such
foci in the positions where they are planned or are likely to be in the
future and not where they are at present, if change is reasonably to
be expected. Thus the closest possible cooperation is needed between
highway, housing, and city planning authorities, railroad, motorbus,
and truck interests, air transport and airport officials, and any other
agencies, groups and interests that may be in a position to exert a
parentage influence upon the future pattern and development of
the city.
Moreover, the highways themselves should have their own adequate
terminal facilities—facilities hitherto sadly lacking. There are two
general classes of highway terminals—those designed for the daily
or overnight accommodation of private vehicles (principally passenger
66 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
cars) with destinations at the center of the city, and those serving
the organized transportation business of bus and truck lines.
The former (generally termed parking garages) constitute a more
or less separate problem which is more fully discussed later in this
report. .
The latter are interrelated with the terminals of other transporta-
tion media, such as those of rail, water, and air.
Union bus terminals are desirable. They should be located at
points convenient for express highways to provide for adequate
interchange of passengers with railroads, wharves, and airports, and
for collection and conveyance of passengers from and to the principal
oy areas in which their trip origins and destinations lie.
tuck terminals also should be conveniently accessible by the
express highways, and these should be located at points appropriately
chosen to facilitate the transfer of freight to and from railroad and
water transportation especially. Again union terminals are desirable,
not only for convenience of transfer to other modes of transportation
but also for promotion of the possibilities of return truckloads.
Different classes of freight may require the establishment of more
than one such terminal. The terminal for industrial freight, for
example, should be located in or convenient to the area of principal
industrial concentration. Another terminal may be required in or
near the commercial center; and another at a point convenient for
the transfer and delivery of agricultural produce. The latter would
serve as both terminal and produce market and should be designed
accordingly in both location and space accommodation.
In all cases, the essential service requirements of these highway ter-
minals, both passenger and freight, will fix them within certain more or
less prescribed areas, and this prescription: will have an important
bearing upon the location of the interregional and other express high-
way routes.
Relation to other transportation media.—At cities, especially, it is
important that the location of interregional routes be so chosen as to
permit and encourage a desirable coordination of highway transporta-
tion with rail, water, and air transportation. Incidentally, it may be
mentioned that opportunities for joint use of new structures by the
interregional routes and mainline railroads should not be neglected
wherever they may appear. The feasibility of combination rail-and-
highway tunnels to eliminate the costs of snow removal or protection
and to reduce grades over some western mountain passes, should be
carefully investigated. It will be desirable to study at numerous
points the possibilities of providing in a single structure, whether
bridge or tunnel, for the crossing of rivers and other bodies of water by
interregional routes and main railway lines.
However, it is at the cities—terminals alike for the interregional
routes and all other transportation media—that the closest attention
should be paid to the possibilities of common location, and also to such
location of the highways as will best and most conveniently serve to
promote their use in proper coordination with other transportation
means.
There are possibilities of the development of common city ap-
proaches of rail and highway, either in parallel surface or depressed
location, or with the highway above a railway tunnel. These possi-
bilities should be carefully explored.
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 67
e
In many cities the surface location of railways remains as one of the
more acute problems facing the city planner. Instead of attacking
this problem piecemeal by elimination of grade crossings one or two
at a time, a practice which tends merely to ameliorate a generally
unsatisfactory condition, it would be far better if it were dealt with in
accordance with a plan for the complete and permanent insulation of
therailway. Since the interregional routes and other express highways
require, in some degree, a similar insulation, a plan for the common
location of the two facilities might offer not only the advantage of a
minimum obstruction of cross streets but also a substantial possibility
of reducing the total costs of achieving the two purposes, particularly
the cight-of-way element of such costs. A striking development of
this character in the city of New York is illustrated in plate I.
Relation to lise colon developments requiring large tracts of land.—
Wherever it is possible to do so, the location of interregional routes in
cities should be considered simultaneously with the projected location
of new housing develennicney city centers, parks, greenbelts, and other
contemplated major changes in the existing city pattern that call for
the acquisition of land in large tracts. This is necessary for the avoid-
ance of conflicts in plans; it is necessary from the standpoint of ade-
quate transport accommodation; and it is highly desirable from the
viewpoint of common land acquisition and financing. The location
of express routes within or adjacent to such areas may be one of the
most fruitful means of avoiding street intersections, but should onl
be applied subject to a proper regard for the character, uses, and needs
of the several areal developments.
Minimization of street intersections.—In the operation of motor ve-
hicles we are conscious today as never before of the rubber-and-gasoline
costs of stopping and starting. ;
Tivesuenhcis by the Iowa State College on the wear of tires show,
for example, that at the wartime maximum speed of 35 miles an hour,
a single stop and start normally wears away about as much rubber as
a mile of travel.
Other investigations by the Iowa college have determined that at
the same wartime speed, a single stop and start by an average passenger
car consumes as much pee as 0.15 mile of driving on a straight
nee ey. of average gradient.
nder any circumstances stopping-and-starting costs constitute
tangible amounts worth saving.
e frequency of street intersections is the cause of excessive stops
and starts in cities. Every intersection also introduces substantial
elements of delay and congestion.
If the permissible speed of moving traffic is 35 miles per hour, a halt
of only half a minute at a traffic light consumes time in which each
halted vehicle, but for the stop, would have advanced nearly 4 average
city blocks. On a street carrying a daily traffic of 10,000 vehicles, if
this traffic were equally distributed throughout the 24-hour day, one
such traffic light operated on a half-minute interval would prevent
739 vehicle-miles of movement in a single day.
These calculations ignore the time lost in starting and stopping.
If this also were subtracted, the total daily loss of vehicle-mileage
might easily be doubled, and 10 lights under these conditions might
mob the entire traffic stream of nearly a mile and a half of movement
aily.
68 _ INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
The Public Roads Administration’s studies of the traffic-discharge
capacity of highways have reached the conclusion that a one-way,
two-lane roadway with no intersections will discharge without un-
reasonable congestion an hourly traffic of 3,000 vehicles moving at an
average speed of 35 miles yer hour. With ‘equal congestion but with
three traffic lights per mile, each set on a half-minute interval, the
Sane SSSIRSSa
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Ficure 30.—Map showing the location of traftic accidents In the year 1937 in the city of Houston, Tex.,
taken from the report of the Houston traffic survey conducted under the auspices of the Works Progress
Administr ation, 1939.
hourly discharws is reduced to at best 1,500 vehicles an hour. One >
or two more traffic lanes would have to be provided to restore the
highway to its intersection-free capacity.
treet intersections also involve the hazard of accidents. As illus-
trated by the typical traffic-accident map reproduced as figure 30,
most of the accidents on city streets occur at street intersections.
Where traffic volume is great as it is on arterial streets, reduction of
ie number of intersections can materially reduce the ‘total of acci-
ents.
a
BP a a eile
%.
Photo by Fairchild Aerial Surveys, Inc
Piate I.—An urban express highway constructed over railway tracks. The
upper view shows construction in progress on the highway deck over New
York Central Railway tracks. The lower view shows the completed and
landscaped Henry Hudson Parkway built over the tracks.
Puate II.—Curb parking and the street congestion to which it contributes in a
smal] city (upper), and a large city (lower).
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 69
Reduction of the number of intersections presents problems in the
design of arterial routes and the control of traffic flow more difficult
of solution than similar problems encountered on rural highways,
For instance, the ideal arterial street would have no intersections, yet
it is obvious that all cross streets cannot be closed in order to attain
this ideal.
One solution is to eliminate intersections by means of grade separa-
tions. Grade separations eliminate the hazards, delays, and costs
entailed by encounter with cross-traffic streams. They involve
expensive construction, however. A judicious choice of location to
minimize the number of intersections is one means of avoiding this
expense.
herever it is ible to do so with satisfactory accommodation
of the local artarial traffic, arterial routes should enter the city at points
from which it is possible to proceed as near as desirable to the city
center and thence to connection with the continuing rural routes at
the opposite side of the city, by locations parallel to one or the other
direction of the normal rectangular street plan. Such locations will
usually encounter a minimum number of street intersections in travers-
ing the city and are generally to be preferred for this reason. They
are also preferable to diagonal or curving locations because of the
greater simplicity of the intersections.
Locations adjacent to the usually winding or curving bank of a
river or the curved or diagonal line of a railroad should be considered
as exceptions to the rule stated above. Such locations usually offer
the advantage of protected or infrequent access from one side, and this
may offset the disadvantage of greater length within the city and
consequent number of strects passed on the other side.
Location in proximity to a railroad is generally considered somewhat
objectionable. It need not be, however, if by electrification, the use
of Diesel power, appropriate screening and landscaping, or other
means, smoke, noise, and unsightliness are abated.
The valley of a small stream penetrating a city may offer excellent
opportunity for the location of an intersection-free artery. In
many cases such small valleys exist in a wholly undeveloped state.
In others they are the locations of a very low order of development —
neighborhoods of cheap, run-down houses and shacks, abject poverty,
squalor, and filth. ere these conditions exist, steep declines into
the valley have generally made the site unfavorable for the develop-
ment of high-class improvements.
Nor is it entirely accidental that these small stream valleys often
lead in directions favorable for arterial routes penetrating from the
outskirts of the city to points near its heart. In many cases the orig-
inal settlement of the city grew up about the junction of these small
streams with a larger stream, and the place of the original settlement
is the center of the present ay
Often a small valley of this kind interrupts completely or more or
less effectively many of the transverse streets. Intercourse within
the city has already adjusted itself to crossing at relatively few prin-
cipal points where bridges have been provided. Under these con-
ditions the valley may provide the most fortunate of opportunities
for the location of city-entering arterial routes. Its conversion to
93800—44——6
70 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
that use may yield the benefits not only of quick and free traffic flow,
but also of eradication of a long-standing eyesore and blight upon the
city’s attractiveness and health. Even at the expense of some in-
direction in the location of the route, it may be greatly advantageous
to convert undeveloped areas to such use.
Other locations favorable for the reduction or simplification of
intersections on the arterial routes may be found within or along the
boundaries of parks and other large tracts of city or institutional
property that interrupt the regular rectangular street plan. An
examination of the city for opportunities of this sort may be rewarded
by the discovery that it is possible to project reasonably direct routes
from one such area to another with substantial advantage in the re-
duction of intersection problems.
After an interregional route has been carefully located so as to mini-
mize the number of cross routes, 8 considerable number will still exist.
The grade of all that cannot be avoided should then be separated.
And finally, all sections of the interregional system in cities—those
serving as circumferential distributors as well as the city-penetrating
routes—should be established as arterial highways of limited access.
The principle of limited access is outlined in a later section of this
report.
Relation to urban planning.—It should be borne in mind that the
interregional routes, from the standpoint of the city, will provide only
a partial facility for movement of the city’s traffic. That part
whether great or small, should be determined in location and designed
in character to be a consistent and useful part of the entire urban
transportation plan. As previously suggested, the entire plan should
be conccived in relation to a desirable pattern of future city develop-
ment.
‘The present flow of traffic within the city is affected by the existing
pattern of land use, the existing location of railroad and other trans-
portation terminals, the existing concentrations of business, indus-
trial, and cultural establishments, and the existing location of resi-
dential areas of various classes. It is probable that many of these
existing lend uses will be materially changed within the life period of
any substantial new traffic facilities now provided. Such material
changes must be expected even if there is no planned direction of the
course they should take, and the location and character of the new
routes provided should anticipate them as fully as possible.
By careful and complete functional studies of the city organism,
it may be possible to devise a rational plan of future land use that
will assign more or less specific areas to each of the principal classes
of use—residental, cultural, business, industrial, etc. Having planned
such rational distributions of land use, it may be possible to obtain
the public consent necess to the establishment of legal controls,
land authorities, and other devices and machinery that will assure an
actual development over a period of years in conformity with the
plan. In such case, the planning of city streets, the interregional
routes and other express ways, and all other urban facilities would
take the forms and locations necessary to serve the intended land
uses, and these facilities would be provided in essential time relation-
ship to the development of the entire plan, and in a manner to bring
about its undistorted realization.
ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS . 71
The interregional routes, however they are located, will tend to
be a pore influence in shaping the city. For this reason they
should be located so as to promote a desirable development or at
least to support a natural development rather than to retard or to
distort the evolution of the city. In favorable locations, the new
facilities, which as a matter of course should be designed for long
life, will become more and more useful as time passes; improperly
located, they will become more and more of an encumbrance to the
one. aad and an all too durable reminder of planning that
was bad.
It is very important, therefore, that the interregional routes within
cities and their immediate environs shall be made part of the planned .
development of other city streets and the probable or planned de-
velopment of the cities themselves. It is well to remember in this
connection that observations of the existing traffic flow may not be
an infallible guide to the best locations.
In many cities there are city planning commissions that have al-
ready given thought to desirable changes in the present city structure.
Some of these bodies have reached quite definite decisions regardin
many of the elements that will affect the location of interregion:
highways in and near the city. Usually the decisions of the planning
commission have grown out of studies of the city as it is, and as the
commission desires it to be. And these studies will usually afford
the principal data and bases for agreement upon the general locations
of the interregional routes.
It is especially desirable that the agreement have the full concur-
rence of housing and airport authorities and other public agencies
that may be concerned with the acquisition of large tracts of Jand in
and near the city. This is desirable in order that the routes may be
properly located for adequate service of the developments planned
and that the lands needed for the highways and the new facilities an
developments they are designed to serve may be mutually agreed
upon and simultaneously and cooperatively acquired.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF PRINCIPLES OF RovuTE SELECTION
To illustrate many of the principles of route selection in cities, as
well as the range of conditions that may be encountered at cities of
various sizes, figure 31 gives schematic lay-outs of several possible
conditions of main penetrating and circumferential or distributor
routes.
At the small city—The simplest case is that of the small city, illus-
trated by diagram A. In this case the interregional highway passes
on a direct course wholly without the city. The former main highway
which now serves as a city service road, aiveries from the interregional
route at some distance on opposite sides of the city. Thus it provides
a connection between the interregional and the other main hidiway
that passes through the small city. The service road may or may not
be considered as part of the interregional system, depending upon the
size of the city, its distance from the interregional route, and the rel-
ative volume of the traffic the service road and the other main high-
way contribute to the interregional system. In this case, however,
no circumferential or distributing routes are needed.
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
72
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ROUTES IN URBAN AREAS 73
In the city of medium size.—Diagram B illustrates the case of a city
of medium size. In this case a single route of the interregional sys-
tem approaches the city from the north and south and necessarily
passes through the city closely adjacent to the business section to
pick up and deliver the substantial volume of traffic there originated
or destined.
For the accommodation of the considerable volume of through
traffic on the interregional route, a circumferential route, considered
as part of the interregional system, diverges to the right at a conven-
ient point south of the city and passes along the eastern boundary to
rejoin the main route at a point north of the city. The distance
around the city by this route is little if any longer than the distance
through the city by the main route. The circumferential route serves
also to pick up and deliver traffic at several accesses provided in the
city’s eastern quarters.
Another main highway, not included in the interregional system,
intersects the interregional route at the center of the city. For
transfer of through traffic between this route and the interregional
route, a circumferential route is provided around the west side of the
city, but because of its relative unimportance in the service of inter-
regional traffic, this route is not considered as part of the interregional
system.
os the large city Diagram C illustrates the complex pattern of main
and circumferential interregional routes and other local belt lines that
may be required for the adequate service of both interregional and
local traffic at a large city. 4h this case, three interregional routes
intersect at the city and all must pass within convenient reach of the
large central business section.
me follows along the bank of the river as it approaches the city
and continues in this location through the city.
Another approaches from the northeast and enters the city through
a wedge of undeveloped land, then passes on a north-south course
along the border of & new housing development, skirts the eastern
fringe of the business section, crosses the river, and finally resumes its
southwesterly course as it emerges from the city.
The third crosses the city from east to west, skirting the northern
edge of the business section.
n addition, several other principal highways center in the city.
In this case, the three interregional routes combine to perform the
function of traffic distribution around the business section.
At convenient points to the north, east, south, and west of the city,
interregional circumferential routes intersect the main penetratin
routes and serve to transfer through traffic from one to another, an
to distribute the interregional traffic to the several quarters of the
city. The locations of these routes are such that in no case is the dis-
tance around the city materially different from the through distance.
To the north of the city there is considerable scattered suburban
development, and the meter leg of the interregional circumferential
route crosses east and west above all this development.
An additional east-west distributor closer to the city is located as
an inner circumferential route approximately along the northern city
limits. It connects with the eastern interregional circumferential
and with the riverside interregional route. Since it performs mainly
a local distributing service, it is not considered as part of the inter-
regional system.
74 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Within the area circumscribed by the interregional circumferential
routes, access is provided to the main interregional routes and the
circumferential routes at several suburban communities and at certain
streets which extend uninterruptedly across the city, and which for
ee reason are well adapted as internal collectors and distributors of
trafic.
The diagrams of figure 31 represent purely imaginary cases. An
effort has been made, however, to include in them some of the situa-
tions that may be commonly encountered. Study of these diagrams
will suggest most of the essential locational relations of the main
interregional routes and circumferential and distributing routes, and
the difference between circumferential routes that should properly
be considered as parts of the interregional system and those that may
not be so considered because of their primarily local function.
MID-CITY TERMINALS OF EXPRESS HIGHWAYS
Curb parking of vehicles is generally recognized as a principal cause
of the congestion of downtown city streets. The congestion reaches a
maximum during the morning and evening hours when the daily flow
and ebb of workers’ cars are at their height. And the movement of
mailed and departing vehicles is impeded by vehicles taking or leav-
ing see -side parking positions. Typical conditions are illustrated in
plate II.
In most cities efforts have been made to ameliorate the greatest con-
gestion by prohibiting rusb-hour and all-day curb parking on the down-
town streets, or by metering curb parking at rates considered reason-
able for short periods but discouragingly high for all day.
Private initiative has contributed a further measure of relief by the
provision of off-street parking places. In their simplest and earliest
forms these took the form of lots, usually created by razing obsolete and
run-down buildings. Located by the chance availability of such prop-
erty, sai lots have not always been suitably placed to meet the park-
ing need.
They are also prepared usually at the least possible cost. Their
accommodations for entrance, exit, and sorting are commonly inade-
quate, and so they often gain an evil reputation for fender smashing
and other car damage.
Often unsightly in the extreme and irresponsible in ownership, the
manifold defects of many of these places make it impossible to consider
them as more than temporary expedients useful until a better and more
_ seemly solution of the parking problem can be provided. Plate III
gives views typical of the worst and the best of such Pete lots.
More recently a substantial development of off-street parking facili-
ties of a higher type has occurred. In a few instances these have been
provided by the municipality. An outstanding example is the under-
ground facility created by the city of San Francisco beneath Union
Square Park opposite the St. Francis Hotel. (See plate IV.)
A greater number of the better facilities have been provided by pri-
vate initiative. In their simplest form they are little more than multi-
level parking lots created by the erection of a structure of two or more
floors connected by ramps, and wholly without walls. One of these is
illustrated in the upper view of plate V.
In their most elaborate form they consist of multistoried garage
buildings equipped with elevators or ramps, and manned by a staff
of attendants to receive and deliver the cars of patrons at entrance
and exit points, and to Place and remove them from the parking stalls
provided on the several floors. A building of this type is shown in
the lower view of plate V.
Between these extremes of the better types of privately provided
facilities are others which possess merits warranting the belief that
they suggest the prototype of the final best solution of the Pani)
problem. As shown in plate VI these in their present stage of develop-
ment differ from the simplest form illustrated in one of the views of
75
76 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
pee V only by the addition of a grilled wall, and in some instances
y the development of the ground-floor frontage for store space to
increase revenue.
Functionally appropriate and capable of pleasing architectural
treatment, the openwork walls of the parking stories eliminate the
necessity of mechanical ventilation, which is essential in underground
and closed-building facilities. Thus these self-ventilating facilities
reduce the costs of vehicle accommodation.
A further development, the addition of upper stories for certain
office and loft uses, might produce additional revenue which would
permit the reduction of parking charges to a practicable and generally
attractive minimum.
Reduction of the prevailing rates of structures of this type is neces-
sary before these off-street facilities can offer the prospect of a solution
to the general parking problem. While they are now usually operated
at reasonable profit, this is possible only at parking rates which exclude
all but a small percentage of the vehicle owners who must in the future
be induced or required to use off-street accommodations.
In a studied development and location of facilities of the type last
described, the Committee sees what it regards as the most promising
prospect of a completely satisfactory solution of the parking problem.
-A number of these parking garages, for instance, each within two or
three blocks’ walking distance of the destinations of their patrons,
are to be preferred to a few larger facilities more distant from the
travel objectives of those who must somehow and somewhere be
accommodated.
In this connection, the provision of express highways which will
concentrate the approach of a large volume of traffic to the business
center at a few points, somewhat complicates the problem of dis-
pulneing the traffic to its eventual convenient places of off-street
parking.
Any attempt to discharge the free-flowing express traffic at one
point into the surface streets of the downtown section, through such
streets to find its way to distributed parking places, is likely to create
an exit confusion and delay that will cause at the end of the express
route a loss of much of the time saved by the free movement en route.
Such an attempt, moreover, may cause a degree of congestion in the
surface streets near the express highway terminus greater than that
resulting from the present distributed approach of vehicles.
Termination of the express highway in an open square or plaza, a
solution that has been suggested, is certain to encounter troublesome
difficulties in channeling traffic through or around the plaza to and
from the several connecting streets, and may still throw congesting
volumes of traffic upon these streets at the approach to the plaza.
A wholly satisfactory termingtion of express highways in large
cities will probably not be found short of the provision of a limited-
access distribution route located circumferentially about the central
business section. With traffic interchange facilities at selected
streets on the fringe of the business section, such a route will so
distribute the discharge and collection of éxpress highway traffic as
to (1) minimize the effects of entrance and exit delay upon the flow
Piate IIJ.—Parking lots—good and very bad.
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sorpnag
Pate V.—The simplest and most elaborate forms of off-street parking structures,
The structure above is little more than a parking lot in several levels. The
lower structure is a multi-storied garage in which vehicles are parked and
service rendered by a staff of attendants and mechanics.
Piare VI.—Examples of open-wall parking garages with grilled walls and store
frontage (upper) and with upper stories devoted to office, loft, or other uses
(lower). In this case the upper stories are occupied by bowling alleys. Such
structures are suggested as the possible prototypes of a most desirable solution
of the parking problem.
MID-CITY TERMINALS 77
of traffic on the express route, (2) avoid excessive discharge or collec-
tion volume in any central city strect, and (3) extend the advantage
of free flow as close as possible to the central points of ultimate
origin and destination of the traffic.
At traffic interchanges on the circumferential distributor route and
at junctions of this route with each entering express road, are points
favorable for the location of parking garages. Vehicles that can be
conveniently parked at these locations will be kept completely out
of the central street system, and the burden upon these streets
accordingly reduced. For that part of the traffic that cannot be
conveniently terminated at these points, other off-street parking
facilities at well-chosen central points will be required, with movement
to and from such points by way of the ordinary streets.
LIMITING ACCESS TO THE INTERREGIONAL ROUTES
The character of the interregional routes as main collectors of
through traffic justifies the granting of preferential right-of-way to
traffic moving on them over all crossing and entering traffic every-
where, throughout the system. A proper facilitation of the express
traffic with due regard for safety and economy requires, moreover, a
reduction of the number of access and crossing points to a practicable
minimum. This, in the opinion of the Committee, makes it desirable,
as promptly as possible, to provide for the legal designation of all
routes of the recommended system, in both heie urban and rural
sections, as limited-access highways. This designation will empower
administrative authorities, wherever and whenever necessary for the
convenience of express traffic and the promotion of safety, to deny
access to the interregional highways from abutting lands or control
or limit such access as may be found desirable, and similarly to deny
or limit access, as desirable, from other public roads.
PrincieLtes or LocaTIon AND DesiGN FoR LIMITATION OF ACCESS
The proposal to confer this essential power does not suggest that
it be inflexibly or arbitrarily used. To deny access to the routes
from all abutting properties will not be necessary invariably. On the
more light] traveled: rural sections in sparsely settled areas, it may
be reasonable to permit access from substantially all properties.
But in any case the place and manner of access should be so defined
and controlled as to preserve the character of the express route and,
as completely as practicable, to prevent the occurrence of collisions.
In many cases it will be found that unimportant rural cross roads
can be closed and their slight traffic directed to other points of crossing.
And where, in rural areas, the traffic on the interregional highway is
light or only moderately heavy, it may not be necessary, immediately
at least, to go to the length of grade separation at all retained inter-
sections. But wherever a grade crossing is permitted on the inter-
regional highway, the design of the intersection and its signing should
enable and require operators of crossing vehicles to make a positive
determination of the safety of crossing, and should reveal to operators
of vehicles on the main highway the presence of vehicles about to’
cross or enter. All traffic should be required to halt before crossing
the main highway at grade, but in no case will the simple posting of
stop signs on crossing or entering roads be sufficient. The design
of the intersection should additionally provide all physical safeguards,
such as definite traffic channels and refuge islands, decelerating and
accelerating space, etc., as may be necessary to afford a maximum
of safety for both of the intersecting traffic streams and a maximum
of facility for the traffic on the interregional highway. <A suggestion
of what this may mean at a crossing on a section of the system carrying
moderately heavy traffic is shown in plate VII.
78
LIMITING ACCESS 79
Where traffic on the rural routes is heavy and, in the environs of
cities, where it is desirable to discourage undue extension of road-
bordering city growth, prohibition of access to the highway from
abutting land, controlled access at specified points, and the closure or
grade separation of all intersecting highs sys are essential.
If no prior right of access has existed, as will be the case where rural
and suburban sections of the interregional routes are developed on
new locations, it may not be considered essential to provide a local
service road to abutting lands as an auxiliary of the interregional route.
It will probably be necessary in such circumstances, however, to
compensate the abutting owners for the denial of their right of access
to the new facility.
Where a section of the interregional system is developed on the
location of an existing highway to which all abutting properties have
previously had unlimited access, it may be necessary to provide prop-
erties denied access to the through highway with other means of ingress
and egress. This may be aedomplished y the construction of roads
connecting the affected properties with other existing roads, with
improvement of such roads if necessary. In other cases, especially in
suburban areas, it may be necessary to provide at each side of the
through highway, parallel local service roads connected with the main
artery at selected access points. The service roads may provide for
one- or two-direction travel, depending upon the amount of traffic to
be served and the distance between points of access to the through
highway.
It is in cities and their urban fringes, however, that the problems of
provision for express traffic and denial of access are most difficult,
complex and expensive of solution. As one of the interregional routes
approaches a city, denial of access to it may be desirable for some
distance outward from the point of first considerable roadside develop-
ment in order to discourage the further excessive extension of settle-
ment outward. Inward from the point described, at which the first
of urban accesses should be provided, other access points should be
chosen at not too frequent intervals, but so located as to serve with
reasonable convenience the express highway needs of the more
populous suburban foci.
roceeding into the city proper, it is desirable that access to the
highway be provided only at selected cross strects. As Prevsously
indicated, these should preferably be streets that cross the city or
extend at least to the next adjacent express highways without inter-
ruption, in order that they may serve as clear and direct connections
with the express route for as large a territory as practicable.
The usefulness of the express route for intraurban traffic is greatest
for traffic between the outer residence areas and the city center. For
this reason access points should be provided at shorter intervals near
the city limits than near the center. Proceeding toward the center a
point is reached at a substantial distance from the route terminus (say
not less than a half mile nor more than a mile) between which and the
terminus there will be no occasion for further access. Within this
distance traffic to the city center can be accommodated more con-
veniently on the ordinary streets than on the express highway.
At least at the access streets, safe provision for intersecting traffic
should be afforded. In the opinion of the Committee, this will in-
variably require the separation of intersecting grades. As necessary,
80 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
other selected streets may be carried over or under the express high-
way, without access to it. All other streets should be terminated at
the parallel local service ways which, in cities, will always be required.
Various means of reducing the number of interrupted streets and
grade separations (by suitable location of the express routes) have been
discussed in a previous section of this report.
To avoid undue obstruction of the cross movement of pedestrians,
foot bridges should be constructed to span the express ways at frequent
intervals.
Generally in the largest cities, and under some circumstances in
smaller cities, a satisfactory meeting of the conditions imposed, es-
pecially near the city center, may require the raising or lowering of
extended sections of the interregional route above or below the ad-
joining ground level, in order to carry it over or under frequent cross
streets or over some and under others. Where the general topography
of the city in such sections approaches a level or uniformly sloping
plane, continuous elevation or depression of the express route is the
indicated solution. Where the topography is rolling, the most feasible
grade profile may be one cutting through the natural roll and thus
passing over some cross streets and under others.
The effort to crowd an elevated highway into the narrow space
generally afforded by existing surface streets will usually result in:
unsatisfactory design of the ress route and impairment of the
utility of the surface street for local service. Generally, it will also
cause serious damage to abutting property. To avoid these un-
desirable consequences it will usually be necessary to acquire a right-
of-way wider than can be found within the limits of an existing street.
This may be done by taking the added width at one side of a street;
or a more feasible location, avoiding the taking of property frontage,
may be found at the rear of properties fronting on adjacent streets.
By location of the latter type, damage to adjoining property may,
under some conditions, be lessened. In general, the Committee
considers elevation of the express routes a solution acceptable only in
a commercial or business environment, as shown in plate VIII. It
shares what it believes to be a widely held opinion opposing the cut-
ung of such facilitics through residential areas.
epression of the express route will usually require extensive recon-
struction of underground facilities, such as water mains, sewers, and
electric conduits; and at low elevations drainage may be difficult and
expensive. It will rarely be possible to achieve full depression within
the width of an existing street. Additional right-of-way acquisition
will nearly always be involved. The razing of numerous existing
buildings will usually be necessary also; but this under many cir-
cumstances, particularly in blighted areas, may be regarded as an
end desirable in itself.
Such are the principal difficulties of depressed construction. Where
they can be overcome, the resulting development may be considered
by many, more Peon to the eye and more consonant with a gracious
improvement of the urban environment than any other solution of the
express-highway problem. Wholly satisfactory design will usually
require condemnation of a block-wide strip of property through the
city, retaining the existing surface streets at the two ends of the block
as local service ways.
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A former street has here been preserved to form the local service way at the left. The right service way
abutting the rear of properties facing on the next street is built on part of a half-block strip acquired for
theimprovement. The right-of-way is inadequate for the type of development proposed by the committee,
This example, like the one above, embodies many of the features considered desirable for urban depressed
construction, but is also somewhat cramped in its design by inadequate right-of-way width,
Piate [X.—Outstanding recently constructed urban express ways.
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LIMITING ACCESS . 81
A less satisfactory solution, as shown by the examples in plate IX,
can be achieved by taking the tier of properties on one side of an exist-
ing street, retaining that street as one of the essential local service
ways and constructing another at the opposite side of the depressed
route. This will usually result in a somewhat cramped development
and will expose to the express route the rear of properties at one side.
It will generally be preferable, however, to the third alternative,
which is to take properties on both sides of an existing street. The
latter would prevent salvage of the existing strect and require the
construction of two new service ways, to both of which the rear of
abutting properties will be exposed.
In the outer and residential sections of large cities and in small cities
generally, neither the elevation nor the continuous depression of
express routes is recommended. In such sections a more appropriate
design, developed on a block-wide right-of-way, may utilize the exist-
ing surface streets at the two ends of the acquired block without change
as local service ways. The ample intervening space may be used for
a parklike development of the express way, which would be constructed
on long, rolling grades to pass under bridges built at the street level
of crossing and access streets and intervening pedestrian bridges, as
pictured in plate X.
Except in the largeét cities, it will probably not be necessary to
extend express routes through the central business section. In the
first place, it may usually be assumed that substantially all of the
traffic approaching the business section of a city is destined to that
area, and will be discharged at its fringe, there to enter the central
street system or a parking garage. In the second place, city-pene-
trating express routes, where they extend continuously across a city,
can generally be located tangentially to.the central business area.
If and when it is necessary to extend an express route through a central
business area, elevated or tunncled locations will usually be the more
appropriate choices.
Lecat Aspects oF LimitaTION or ACCESS
As indicated by the foregoing discussion, provision of the physical
installations essential for limitation of access, though costly, involves
few problems that have not been encountered in the design of ordi-
nary main highways. The greater right-of-way requirements present
more serious difficulties; and the present lack of specific legal sanction
for the establishment of limited-access highways is a positive obstacle
ip many States.
The courts have recognized that abutting property owners have
certain rights in existing streets and highways. ese rights include
the right of ingress to and egress from their a i , and in some
cases the right of visibility as well as the right to the flow of light and
air from the street to the property. Moreover, it is well established
in the common law that the right of access cannot be denied or
restricted nor can an owner be deprived of such right except upon the
payment of just compensation and in a manner not inconsistent with
due process of law, and for a public use or purpose.
82 - INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
While there is a dearth of judicial opinion on the question of the
abutter’s right of access to newly created highway facilities, unless
there is a reversal of judicial doctrine in many States the owner of
abutting property is likely to possess the same right of access to new
roads as he has with respect to old, established highways. The
theory seems to be that the proprietary right of access of the abutter
accrues as a matter of law the moment the new facility is opened to
traffic. Granting that the doctrine of accessibility is logical in the
case of existing highways, it seems unreasonable with respect to new
through-traffic facilities. Yet, the concept of limited-access highways
to facilitate the efficient movement of through traffic is of such
recent emergence that the judiciary has not had the opportunity to
endorse or reject it on its merits. It may well be that a crystallization
of public opinion will constrain the courts to take a liberal view of the
matter.
There are only 17 States '° that now have on their statute books
laws specifically sanctioning the establishment of limited-access high-
ways. Bills designed to accomplish this purpose, which were intro-
duced during the recent sessions of legislatures in 4 States," failed of
passage.
The availability and use of such specific authority for the denial of
access where necessary is absolutely essential to a proper development
of the interregional system in all States; and the necessary statutes
should be enacted at che earliest possible date. As a guide to effective
language for such enactments, the Public Roads Administration has
prepied a model limited-access highway bill, which incorporates the
est features of the several existing statutes and contains all necessary
provisions. This model bill is attached hereto as appendix III.
In the absence of a law clearly establishing the power of appropriate
public authorities to create limited-access highways, an attempt, by
negotiated compensation, to restrict abutters’ rights of access to an
section of existing or new highway could be obstructed by any unwill-
ing abutter and probably by any other opposing individual or group.
ithout such a law the power of public agencies to extinguish private
rights of access by condemnation would be in doubt and authority
for the expenditure of public funds in compensation for such rights
would be equally in doubt.
In 10 of the existing limited-access highway laws the State alone is
given authority to establish such facilities. Since the necessity for
limitation of access arises mainly in connection with the service of
extraordinary volumes of traffic in and near urban centers, it is highly
desirable that the power to [create and participate in the creation
of limited-access facilities be extended to city and county highway
authorities, as provided by the recommended model bill.”
10 The States of California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Mlivois, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massa-
chusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia
had enacted such laws as of September 1, 1943.
4 Arizona, Delaware, New Mexico, and Utah. On September 1, 1943, bills were pending in the legislature
of Missouri, then in session, and in the legislature of New Jersey, in recess until November 15,
13 For a fuller discussion of the extent of authority conferred by the various existing laws on limitation of
access, see Public Control of Highway Access and Roadside Development, by David R. Levin, Public
Roads Administration, Federal Works Agency, 1943.
ACQUISITION OF RIGHTS-OF-WAY
The greatest single impediment to the timely realization of desirable
road improvements has been the difficulty of acquiring the necessary
rights-of-way. Too often in the past the character of road improve-
ments undertaken has been governed by the limitations of short-
sighted land-acquisition measures. When the acquirement of land
is postponed, as usually it has been, until the very moment of need for
construction purposes, it is often discovered that the land actually
wanted cannot be obtained without long delay. Time pressing, plans
are altered to require less or more-available land, and in the end it is
often found that for such inadequate takings too much has been paid.
Every condition leads to ill-advised and uneconomic compromise.
The causes of these conditions are mainly two: one, the failure to
plan and provide funds for land purchases sufficiently in advance of the
occasion for road construction, and the other the cumbersome and
time-consuming land acquisition processes prescribed by the laws of
most of the States. If work on the interregional highway system is
to supply the post-war employment of which it is capable, and if
design of the bates improvements is to be unwarped by right-of-way
compromises, both of these causes must be clearly recognized and
remedied
Funds for advance acquisition of right-of-way.—The Federal Govern-
ment has already made generous provision in the Defense Highway
Act of 1941 and the recently enacted Public Law No. 146, Seventy-
eighth Congress, for the survey and advance planning of highway
construction projects. This provision can be, and is being employed
for planning of improvements on routes conforming to the interregional
system. With similarly adequate planning provision by the States,
and their subdivisions, the further need in remedy of the first of the
causes mentioned is the early and sufficient appropriation of immedi-
ately expendable funds for acquisition of the necessary lands and
rights-of-way. For this purpose the amendment of the Federal
hway Act by Public Law No. 146 is ineffectual.
Bereta of land-acquisition laws.—A complete remedy for the second
of the causes referred to will require the more difficult revision of
legally established methods of public land acquisition in many States.
n 55 jurisdictions examined, the Committee has found that there
are no less than 320 such methods in present use, with nothing inher-
ent either in the nature of the governmental units exercising the power
or in the public uses for which Tanda are acquired to require such varied
treatment. The common defect of the majority of these varied
methods is that they postpone the public possession of required lands
until the compensation due private owners has been determined by
processes which involve many possibilities of legal delay and obstruc-
tion.
Fortunately, however, there are among the methods in use a few,
recently developed and closely similar in their essential] requirements,
83
84 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
that avoid these delays, and yet afford ample protection of the rights
of private property owners. Where these methods obtain, the
condemning public authority, following required preliminaries,
simply files a plat and description of the property to be acquired,
and after notice to the owner of such action the appropriation is
complete and title to the property vests in the State. if offers of the
condemner are then rejected, the former owner must file a claim for ,
the value of the property with the State court, which makes an award
after hearing all the evidence.
The Committee recommends the general adoption of procedure of
this type, details of which are well exemplified by methods now being
employed pursuant to the New York Grade Crossing Elimination
Act, peer sections of which are included in appendix IV.
the absence of some such provision, development of the interregional
system will inevitably be subject to long and costly delays and
litigation, and public benefits of the needed facilities will meanwhile
remain unrealized.
A classical illustration of the time that may thus be lost between
the commencement of condemnation proceedings and the beginnin
of construction operations occurred in the widening of Woodwar
Avenue in Detroit. Delay of almost a year and a half was occasioned
in this instance largely by the death of a juror, which invalidated the
whole procedure and required a new trial to be instituted. The case
cost the city of Detroit $100,000 and the public was deprived of the
benefits that would have resulted from an early completion of the
improvement. While other elements may have contributed to the
delay, such as the very requirement of 8 unanimous verdict and
determination of necessity by a cumbersome jury, indiscriminate
adjournments and lack of supervision by the court, provision for
early possession pending the action would: have facilitated the com-
pletion of the project.
New versus widened old rights-of-way.—To convert existing highways
to conformance with standards appropriate for the proposed inter-
regional system will require much revision of alinement and in many
sections a substantial widening of present rights-of-way. Where
such required changes are numerous, the acquirement of entirely
new right-of-way will generally be found cheaper than widening and
correcting the right-of-way of the existing road. The latter course
will involve large takings of property frontage, always the most
expensive of land acquisitions, and usually will entail also a heavy
cost in incidental damages. The former, by avoiding existing
frontage, will usually result in lower total costs notwithstanding the
severance damages that may be involved. For example, it was
estimated that the cost of land for widening the Albany Post Road in
Westchester County, N. Y., from 66 to 166 feet would have been
over $792,000 per mile, while land for the Saw Mill River Parkway
(of limited-access design) on entirely undeveloped new location and
averaging 500 feet in width, cost only $138,600 per mile.
In and around cities the widening of existing rights-of-way is likely
to be especially costly because of the high values usually attaching to
urban strect frontage and the improvements and structures character-
istic of urban areas. For example, the widening of Ashland and
Western Avenues and La Salle Street in Chicago cost more than a
third of a million dollars per mile on the average for each additional
ACQUISITION OF RIGHTS-OF-WAY 85
10 feet of width. In Detroit the property acquired to permit the
widening of 3 miles of Woodward Avenue cost more than $9,800,000
of a total cost approximating $11,000,000, and the resulting functional
improvement was very slight. In this case it has been estimated that
the same total expenditure would have paid for 11 miles of limited-
access highway constructed on a less expensive right-of-way, with
far greater results in the improvement of transportation service.
In each of these cited cases the additional width acquired at each
side of the street, to be improved was less than the full depth of abutting
property lots. It is probable that the costs in these cases would not
ave been materially higher if the entire depth of abutting lots had
been taken; for, as a general rule, it is found that the acquisition of
whole parcels of city property is seldom more expensive than the tak-
ing of a portion, because of the heavy payment usually required in
consequential damages to the untaken remainder.
Left in private hands, the untaken portions of lots, called remnants,
especially where they are very shallow or of other than rectangular
shape, can often be used only for the erection of billboards, shanties,
or other unsightly structures. In many cases they remain as ill-kept
vacant lots, valueless to their owners, but nevertheless preventin
access to adjacent property which otherwise would enjoy usefu
street frontage.
The minimum width of right-of-way required for urban sections of
the interregional system will generally be at least as great as the depth
of city property lots. Where such a width is to be taken it will be
preferable, both for the avoidance of remnants and from the stand-
point of cost, to take the whole depth of a tier of lots on one side of an
existing street rather than half portions of the lots of opposite frontage.
In most instances, however, the Committee believes that a fully
adequate provision for city sections of the system will require the
acquisition of a block-wide strip. As previouey. suggested this will
permit the retention of streets flanking the acquired block as the essen-
tial local service ways of the express artery. It will avoid exposure of
the rear of propertics, will reduce by as much as possible the effect of
depression upon city underground facilities by leaving those in the
beds of the flanking streets undisturbed, and will at the same time
afford a sufficient width for adequate landscaping.
Land for marginal protection and future road widening.—On rural
sections of the system, expecially those sections which will be con-
structed initially as two-lane highways, the width of right-of-way
acquired should be sufficient to provide for any surface widening
that may be reasonably anticipated. Nothing is more completely
demonstrated by past experience than the costliness of successive
acquisitions of property frontage to make room for repeated unan-
pene road widenings.
. The width acquired should also be sufficient to accommodate, at
each side of the roadway in its eventual anticipated width, marginal
strips of land to serve as a protection against the unsafe and unsightly
development of closely crowding roadside stands, filling stations, and
signboards.
eel mah the expropriation of width additional to that
required for the physical improvements immediately planned is
93800--44-——7
86 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
specifically sanctioned by law in only a few States." Cases in which
such proposed takings have been tested in the courts have been com-
plicated with a purpose to resell a portion of the land acquired and
with the presumption of a motive to recoup a portion of the cost of
the land retained by profiting on the sale of the excess. It is evident
the courts have not been persuaded that the acquisition of marginal
strips, even for future roadway widening or for present border pro-
tection, is an appropriation for a ‘‘public use,” the test to which they
firmly adhere in determination of the validity of all expropriation.
It must be admitted, however, that the necessities of such acquisition
have not been clearly presented for judicial determination.
The Committee is of the opinion that if marginal land is acquired
for border protection and to make provision for definitely anticipated
future roadway widening, its employment for these purposes will
constitute a ‘public use’’ in the narrowest sense of the term. A
reasonable and proper development of the interregional system
requires the acquisition of such marginal areas, and they cannot be
acquired in the fullness and continuity essential without use of the
power of expropriation in at least some cases. The right to exercise
the power of eminent domain for these purposes should be promptl
established in all jurisdictions, either by State constitutional amend:
ments or preferably by a discerning interpretation of the concept of
“public use”; and, however established, the power should be suffi-
ciently broad to encompass the public disposal by sale or lease of
unneeded remnants unavoidably acquired with the needed lands.
Alternatives to outright marginal acquisition.—Various exercises of
‘ the police power for control of roadside land use, as exemplified by
present practices of zoning and billboard regulation, may serve
temporarily and partially as substitutes for the outright public
acquisition of road-bordering strips. They can never constitute a
permanent over-all solution of the problems involved, but with proper
revision, enlargement, and effective application they can become
valuable auxiliary devices for the regulation of land uses detrimental
to the safe and efficient use of the highways. A good example of
legislation providing for such use of the police power is to be found
in the statutes of Pennsylvania."
As a better substitute for outright acquisition, the Committee
recommends the public appropriation of what may be termed “high-
way development rights,”’ i. e., the rights of owners of private property
abutting on highways to improve road-marginal strips of their prop-
erty in any manner inconsistent with present or future traffic require-
ments. Because of the legal limitations of the police power, establish-
ment of the right to acquire such control should be conceived rather
as an exercise of the power of eminent domain, for which compensation
would be forthcoming. It is taken for granted that State enabling
legislation would be necessary, and a prototype of such legislation
exists in a Maryland law enacted in 1941.%
Compensation for such rights would be nominal in most instances,
because the payment would be made only for actual demonstrable
injury, and because the right would be acquired usually at the time
when land is being taken for immediate highway improvement,
18 California, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, and
Wisconsin permit marginal land acquisition by constitutional amendment.
4 Purdon’s Pennsylvania Statutes, 1042 (Perm. Ed.), title 36, ch. 1, see. 61, pp. 51 et seq.
48 Laws of Maryland, 1941, ch. 486.
ACQUISITION OF RIGHTS-OF-WAY 87
often on new location in undeveloped areas. If the margins thus
taken under control are later required for expansion of the road
facility, as must inevitably be the case in many instances, the acqui-
sition costs will be at a minimum because of the arrested development
of the lands affected.
The need for competent land authorities.—Many of the obstacles
which block the efficient acquisition of lands for highways likewise
serve as impediments to the ready assembly of lands for other public
purposes. Revision of the present laws and practices, if broadly
conceived, can serve to remove the outmoded features of land
acquisition for all public purposes with a single effort.
Committee recommends, wherever possible, that lands needed
for development of the interregional highway system be acquired in
conjunction with the acquisition of lands for adjacent housing, air-
port, park, or other public developments which the highways will be
designed in part to serve. The mutual benefits of such a simultaneous
and cooperative program of land assembly, the Committee believes,
will be reflected in lower land costs, in a more rational land-use pat-
tern, and in the elimination of all possible focal points of conflict
between the various improvement programs concerned. .
To deal competently with the legal, financial, and administrative
problems of such interrelated and mutually beneficial land acquisi-
tions, the Committee recognizes a need for the creation of special land
authorities, adequately empowered and financed, to acquire all lands
needed for public purposes of any sort.
In its report, Toll Roads and Free Roads,'* the Public Roads Ad-
ministration recommended the creation of such a land authority by
the Federal Government. The Committee concurs in the recom-
mendation. It also recommends the creation of similar land au-
thorities -by the States and by cities and legally constituted metro-
politan areas, and suggests further that provision be made for the
cooperation of Federal, State, and city or metropolitan authorities
under a Federal-aid plan which will enable the Federal agency to
finance the acquisition of needed lands for highway and other public
purpores and permit amortization of the costs by the State and local
authorities over a long period of time.
These special authorities, concerned only with sound and efficient
financing of land acquisition for all public purposes, would serve as
instrumentalities to assure the avoidance of conflict between the land
acquisition purposes of public agencies devoted to various develop-
mental objectives, and to recover the total cost of all acquisitions by
joint and supplementary measures of amortization.
The difficulties of land assembly are widely recognized as primary
obstacles to the effective rebuilding of blighted areas at the cores of
our great cities, an objective closely associated with one of the prin-
cipal purposcs of interregional highway development. The problems
of land acquisition in this connection are so immense that they may
be said to be virtually insoluble without government financial and
directive assistance.
It is inevitable, therefore, that government authority should now
be used as an aid in the efficient assembly and appropriate redevelop-
ment of large tracts of blighted urban lands, in reverse of the use of
16 See footnote;6.
88 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
such authority many years ago to subdivide and encourage the settle-
ment of unoccupied primitive lands. The essential role of govern-
ment in this connection would be to facilitate the transition financing
of the rehabilitation of blighted areas, to employ its powers of eminent
domain in the public interest, and to fix the standards of redevelop-
ment. This role performed, the task of development and rebuilding
according to the standards and master plan defined, should be trans-
ferred as largely and as promptly as possible to private initiative.
PRINCIPLES OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN
Highway design, in the broadest sense, rests upon landscape prin-
ciples as well as upcn the more commonly recognized engineering
principles of alinement, profile, grade cross-section, roadway and right- _
of-way width, drainage, and structural strength and durability. A
balances agreement with the two sets of principles characterizes the
est design.
Flowing rather than abrupt anenes of gradient and alinement are
necessary from the engineering standpoint for promotion of the safety
and ease of vehicular movement and for increase in the highway’s
traffic discharge capacity. They are equally necessary to fit the
road gracefully into its natural environment, which is the essence of
good landscaping.
Flattened slopes of excavation and embankment and a well-rounded
cross-sectional contour are essential to prevent soil erosion and to
minimize the risks of injury and damage when vehicles accidently or
unavoidably leave the roadway. They are needful also to mold the
highway into the terrain and to make it a harmonious feature of the
natural landscape.
Marginal land strips, publicly owned or controlled, are required for
the ene ile ne reso of protection of vehicles moving on the high-
way against collision with entering vehicles, and of operators of mov-
ing vehicles against various roadside distractions. For landscaping
reasons marginal land strips are needed to make possible a pleasing
transition between the lines and plantings of the highway and the
natural slopes and growth of the adjacent lands, to permit the screen-
ing of unsightliness, and to provide stopping space from which to view
unfolded natural beauty.
If eneniceiue PoueDs require a certain monotony of smoothness
and attention-lulling security in the roadway design, the appropriate
application of landscaping principles can relieve the monotony and
promote the safety of traffic by reawakening the interest and attention
of drivers.
The interregional highways, in their rural sections especially, will
serve a traffic composed in large degree of vehicles driven in the
pursuit of pleasure or recreation. Sound landscape design will
increase the pleasure and relieve the strain of all journeys. ;
In their urban and suburban sections, the interregional routes will
carry a heavy, bustling traffic. Adequately landscaped borders will
eliminate the traffic hazards of closely crowding buildings, and insulate
adjacent residential and business properties, churches, and schools
from the noise, dust, and fumes of traffic.
Landscaping for rural sections of the system.— Consideration of land-
scaping desiderata should pervade all stages of the location, design,
and construction of rural sections of the interregional system, and a
proper regard for landscape principles in the design will simplify and
i 89
90 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
increase the effectiveness of maintenance processes and lower the cost
of adequate upkeep.
Without sacrifice of distance or economy it will often be possible to
bring the highway into view of a lake or river, an interesting rock
formation or wooded hill. At no greater expense one location will
provide frequent opportunities for distant vistas of natural charm
that are Gnobeainab e in an alternate location. For such enduring
investments as the interregional routes there should be no sparing of
whatever thought and care may be necessary to place these roads in
locations of utmost fitness from every point of view, and this includes
the fullest practicable development of scenic possibilities, consistent
with the primary requirements of traffic service.
In the acquisition of right-of-way, thought should be given not only
to the width required for the physical highway facility, but also to that
require? for protection against encroachment and protection and
enhancement of the view from the highway.
The former will involve the creation of a space barrier between the
highway and roadside activity of any character whatever—space in
which to screen from view disturbing or objectionable activity and
space in which to control access to gasoline stations, restaurants,
wayside stops, and other similar service facilities of an essential
character.
The latter will involve the obtainment of space in which to screen the
view of signboards and objectionable and unsightly objects, to blend
the road verge into the natural landscape, to frame pleasing vistas,
and to accommodate historical markers, overlooks and other halting
and resting places in attractive surroundings.
The planning of clearing operations should provide for the con-
servation of desirable existing vegetation and trees and the saving of
topsoil to the greatest aracucable extent; and the grading should
provide the flattened lateral slopes and rounded contours that are
necessary to mold the highway into its natural surroundings.
On two-lane sections, the width of roadway and shoulders will be
determined by traffic considerations, and the necessity of long sight
distance to permit maximum facility of passing will limit the use of
curvature for landscape effect. On such sections an ample right-of-
way, variously and appropriately treated, can do much to relieve the
monotony of driving over long, smooth stretches of straight highway,
and will contribute largely to the safety as well as the pleasure of
travel. Under these conditions the value of land is likely to be
relatively low and the need of a reserve of space for future road
widening will supplement the requirements of appropriate landscape
treatment in support of the economy of a present liberal acquisition of
right-of-way.
On divided, four-lane sections in rural areas, variation of the width
of the median strip, a permissible more liberal use of curvature, and
separate adjustment of the grades of the divided roadways to the
natural slopes of the terrain will add interest to the landscape treat-
ment and often reduce the cost of construction. Where the location
lies on the side of a hill or a gentle cross slope, for example, construc-
tion cost will usually be substantially lowered by building the separate
roadways at different levels, and travelers on both roadways will
have an unobstructed view of the countryside (see plate VII). A
similar divergence in the alinement of the two roadways to take
advantage of natural topographic conditions, such as location on the
LANDSCAPE DESIGN 91
opposite banks of a stream or on the two sides of a local depression
or rock outcropping, will likewise reduce costs and at the same time
permit the conservation of interesting features of the natural land-
scape. And, even where there is no topographic reason for doing so,
an opportune slight variation of the curvature of the two roadways
will alter the width of the median strip and relieve the monotony of
long parallel lines, without effect upon the total requirement of
right-of-way width. An important result of all such variations in
the lines and grades of the two roadways will be realized in reduction
of the hazards of headlight glare in night driving.
_ As in the location and construction of the routes, design for utility
and economy is found to go hand in hand with sound: landscape
design, so also a properly landscaped highway will be a highwa
easy to maintain. The flattened side slopes will favor the growt
of vegetation, prevent erosion and thus remove the cause of much
troublesome clogging of the drainage system. The easier slopes can
be mowed by machine instead of by hand methods, and the stream-
lined contours of cut banks will reduce snow drifting and facilitate
machine methods of snow removal.
It will be observed that there has been no mention in the foregoin
of the tree planting that is so widely associated with the idea of road-
side improvement. The omission has been intentional. There is
no place in sound rural highway landscaping for the regular or row
planting of trees. The objective should be the preservation or,
where necessary, the re-creation of a natural foreground environment
in harmony with the distant view. To that end, existing well-placed
and beautiful trees should be preserved wherever possible; unpleasing
and view-obstructing growth should be removed; and only where the
irregular introduction of trees and other growth will serve to highlight
the natural beauty of the roadside view or where it is especially desir-
able to screen unsightly or distracting objects or activity should the
replanting of trees receive’ consideration. Trees replanted for such
reasons should be invariably native to the environment.
The landscaping of urban sections.—In cities and their nearer subur-
ban areas the opportunity for employment of the locational devices of
landscape treatment will be more limited. But the general straight-
ness of right-of-way alinement there necessary for avoidance of con-
flict with the existing street plan need not confine the roadways of the
interregional routes to Sealy straight lines. Within a block-wide
right-of-way the separate roadways may be constructed at different
levels in adaptation to an existing transverse slope. The grades of
both roadways may be gracefully rolled, dipping to pass under bridges
at the crossing streets and rising between to approximate the level of
the existing streets which form the local service ways. As they rise
and fall the separate roadways may be caused to diverge and converge
in alinement, thus varying the width of the median strip. Or the two
roadways may be swung to one side of the right-of-way with only a
narrow median strip intervening there, for example, to pass under a
crossing bridge located off-center with respect to the right-of-way.
To gain space for desirable widenings of the median strip or lateral park
areas, retaining walls may be used to reduce the width required for
slopes in depressed sections, but these should preferably be constructed
at the edge of the service ways and never in cramping proximity to the
roadways of the express route. The widened central or lateral areas
may be used for appropriate plantings or for rest or playground areas
92 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
approached by pedestrian bridges or by steps from a crossing bridge
or pineel: A treatment of this general character is suggested in
plate A.
On urban sections of the routes the planting of trees in formal ar-
rangement will be more appropriate than on rural sections. A tree
screen may be used to separate the highway from an adjacent rail-
road, freight yard, or industrial siding, or to conceal other unsightly
or objectionable roadside conditions. Trees in formal arrangement
may be set against the straight lines of the local service ways to insu-
late bordering residential property from the restless movement of
traffic on the expressway. But everywhere the effort should be made
to avoid monotony and tiresome sameness in such plantings over long
stretches of the routes.
Small flowering trees and vines may be sppropriately set in the
wider median or lateral areas and on the side slopes of depressed sec-
tions to vary the sameness of long stretches of uniform turfed banks.
And every section of retaining wall at crossing bridges and against the
local service ways will offer the opportunity for attractive groupings of
small flowering trees, masses of colorful roses, and lother low-growing
plants in suitable relation.
All these things may be done in complete consistency with the utili-
tarian functions of the expressways. And, so treated, these new arte-
rial ways may be made—not the unsightly and obstructive gashes
feared by some—but rather elongated parks bringing to the inner city
a welcome addition of beauty, grace, and green'open space.
STANDARDS AND FEATURES OF ROADWAY LOCATION
AND DESIGN
Any network of highways that may hereafter be designated officially
as an interregional system should embrace as nearly as practicable,
within the limits of mileage adopted and subject to the necessities of
national extension and interconnection, those general routes elong
which the heaviest traffic moves or is likely to move in each region
traversed. It has been the Committee’s aim to select such a system
and it believes that, insofar as its necessarily limited studies have per-
mitted, it has made this selection in the system recommended in this
report. This network, or a better system selected after more com-
plete study, should be consistently constructed throughout, in all
pee of the country,.as a well-balanced whole, in the post-war years
ahead.
There are existing roads that conform closely to all parts of the
recommended system. There will be existing roads conforming more
or less closely to any system that may be selected as a better modifica-
tion of. the system recommended. After any such system is finally
agreed upon, whenever the improvement or reconstruction of any
section of conforming highway is contemplated, it should be built on
a location and to a standard of design that will make it a fit and last-
ing part of the complete interregional system that will be created by
such sectional increments.
This incremental construction will be carried out under various
auspices. In part, doubtless, it will be done by the Federal Govern-
ment and States jointly; in part, by the States alone; in poxk by com-
bined Federal, State, and city effort; in part by State and city cooper-
ation; and poy in part upon the completely independent initiative
of cities. If, built in this manner, the interregional system is to
achieve the high degree of consistency of design and utility that is
desirable, two arrangements are necessary: First, there must be an
agreement upon certain basic standards of roadway design and loca-
tion, by all authorities likely to have a share of responsibility for its
construction. Second, there must be a determination on the part of
these authorities and the public that whatever work at any time is
done on routes generally conforming to the selected system shall be
well done in accordance with the agreed standards. In no other way
will it be possible to achieve the timely completion of a consistently
useful aad wholly satisfactory interregional highway system.
To this end the Committee proposes jherein certain basic standards
for general adoption. It recommends that these standards be widely
considered by all possible cooperating authorities, and that after there
has been sufficient opportunity for such consideration, occasion be
made at the initiative of the Public Roads Administration to effect
agreement as complete and general as possible upon these or other
acceptable standards. The Committee recommends further that the
agreed standards be made the required basis of any cooperation on
93
94 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
the part of the Federal Government in the construction of any
rue eon eine to the interregional highway system as it is finally
esignated.
Eretavory to the standards proposed, the Committee offers the
following fundamental recommendations:
1. The antes Hee highway system, as it is hereafter constructed
or improved, shall provide or allow for the subsequent provision of
facilities capable of serving safely and efficiently a mixed traffic of
passenger automobiles, motor busses, and motor trucks, and tractor-
trailer and semitrailer combinations, of a volume of each of the con-
stituent elements estimated to be that which will exist 20 years from
the date of construction.
2. All roadways and structures built on the interregional system
shall provide, either in their immediate design or feasible modification
thereof, for the passage and support of vehicles and combinations of
vehicles of the following: dimensions and weights, in the frequency and
distribution of such dimensions and weights to be expected 20 years
from the date of construction:
Widthe. 22s scoot ee thle web Seas t ec cassves 96 inches.
Height..2-4 Souter s tise posse ces ce us Gete es coe s 12% feet.
Length (over-all, including bumpers and load):
Single:vehicles = 2.25.22. .secc ccoes etc eceesskessessedsus
Tractor-semitrailer combinations. - .
Other combinations__...._....-.----
Axle load ! on pneumatic tires_._._-_-.---
1 Defined as the total load on all wheels whose centers may be included between 2 paralle) transverse
vertical planes 40 inches apart.
Gross weight on any vehicle or combination of vehicles according to the formula.
W=C (L+40)
In which:
W=gross weight of vehicle in pounds.
L 2 tonaeh in feet between the forward and rear axles of the vehicle or
combination of vehicles or any group of axles thereof.
C=A coefficient with the following values:
For values of L less than 18 feet__......-_-_..----------- 650
3. For purposes of the design of highway facilities and the applica-
tion of standards and conditions hereafter recommended, all sections
of the interregional system in or approaching a city or town and at
least. 1 mile long, along which intersecting roads or streets average
one-quarter mile or less apart, shall be considered as urban sections,
regardless of their locations within or without the corporate limits of
cities. All other sections of the system shall be considered as rural
sections, regardless of their location within or without the corporate
limits of cities.
4, All rural sections of the system shall be designed at all points
and in all respects for safe travel by posseneer vehicles at a speed of
not less than 75 miles per hour, and by trucks and tractor combina-
tions at a speed of not less than 60 miles per hour in flat topography.
In more difficult terrain the speed for which the highway is designed
may be reduced; but in no case to less than 55 miles per hour for pas-
senger vehicles and 35 miles for trucks and tractor combinations in
mountainous topography. All rural sections shall provide a sufficient
number of traffic lanes and other facilities so that at no time, except
during infrequent peak hours, will it be necessary because of the inter-
ference of other vehicles to reduce the average running speed to less
STANDARDS OF DESIGN 95
than 50 miles per hour. All two-lane rural sections, on which the
sight distance provided will not permit safe passing at the above desi
speed for passenger vehicles, shall be appropriately and conspicuously
marked as no-passing zones or as zones 1n which passing is unsafe.
5. All urban sections of the system shall be designed at all points
and in all respects for safe travel by passenger vehicles at a speed of
not less than 50 miles per hour, and by trucks and tractor combina-
tions at a speed of not less than 35 miles per hour. All urban sections
of the system shall provide a sufficient number of lanes and other
facilities so that at no time, except during infrequent peak hours, will
it be necessary because of the interference of other vehicles to reduce
the average running speed to less than 40 miles per hour.
6. Wherever financially feasible, the system shall provide contin-
uous lateral space and adequate support for standing and disabled
vehicles of the recommended maximum sizes and weights, clear of the
road surface or pavement.
7. All road surfaces, pavements, and structures on the system, when
maintained with a reasonable expenditure of effort, shall be capable of
supporting vehicles of the recommended weights without reduction of
either weight or speed at any season of the year.
Consistent with the foregoing fundamental recommendations, the
Committee proposes for general adoption, basic standards of road and
structural design, applicable to the selected interregional highway
system. These basic standards are contained in appendix V.
CONSTRUCTING THE RECOMMENDED INTERREGIONAL
SYSTEM
In considering the actual construction of the interregional system
in accordance with the foregoing principles and the standards in
appendix V, several elements need to be taken into account, such as
those discussed in the concluding pages of this report.
Conpition or Existing Roaps, STREETS, AND BripGEs
Measured by the standards recommended for the interregional
highway system, very few of the existing rural roads and almost none
of the city streets which conform approximately in location to the
recommended system, are adequately improved. Less than 1 per-
‘cent of the bridges on these rural roads closely approximate the stand-
ards proposed.
The only urban facilities approaching the proposed standards that
are known to exist on routes of the recommended system are the
Cahuenga Pass and Ramona Freeways in Los Angeles; the Oakland
Express Highway in St. Louis; the Lakefront Freeway in Cleveland;
the Pulaski Skynny in Newark and Jersey City, N. J.; the West
Side Elevated Highway, West Side Improvement, Henry Hudson
Parkway, and East Side Drive in New York City; and the Saw Mill
River, Cross County, and Hutchinson River Parkways in West-
chester County, N. Y. .
On the more heavily traveled of existing rural roads approximating
the recommended system, the only improvements that are known to
approach the proposed standards are the Willow Run Expressway
System and Detroit Industrial Expressway in Michigan and possibly
the Taconic State Parkway in New York, all of which are toll-free,
and the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Pennsylvania and the Merritt
and Wilbur Cross Parkways in Connecticut, each of which is now
operated as a toll road.
Each of these toll roads conforms approximately to a route of the
recommended interregional system, and each meets substantially the
requirements of standards proposed for the system. The Committee
recommends that they be incorporated in the system after appro-
ys measures have been taken to abrogate the present collection
of tolls.
The Pennsylvania Turnpike extends for 160.7 miles from Middlesex
near Harrisburg to Irwin near Pittsburgh. If it is taken into the
interregional system, the number of access points or interchanges on
this route should be increased.
The Merritt and Wilbur Cross Parkways extend for about 42 miles
from a connection with New York’s Hutchinson River Parkway to a
point northeast of Milford, Conn. No change is required in the pres-
ent design of these facilities to make them acceptable parts of the
interregional system.
96
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 97
Other than the sections mentioned, there are few if any of the more
heavily traveled existing highways approximating in location the
routes of the interregional system, that approach in their present
state the standards proposed for the system. On most of these non-
conforming heavily traveled roads, there is present need for major
improvement which would generally be associated with those features
of design essential for the provision of free traffic flow and only to a
lesser degree with the structural quality and condition of pavements.
Among the more lightly teaveled of existing highways approximating
the location of sections of the system, substantial conformity to the
less exacting standards popees for such sections of the system is
more common. But of these more lightly traveled highways, even, a
large anche cannot be regarded as an acceptable addition to the
system without major improvement—improvement which again
involves the provision of features of free traffic flow to a greater
extent than the provision of adequate road surfaces.
CONDITION OF ROADS
Surfaces or parements.—Regarding the condition of the existing rural
roads, the nearest approach in any particular to the recommended
standard of adequacy is reached in the character of the surfaces or
pavements, as shown in table 16 which records the type of surface
improvement existing in 1942 in relation to traffic densities. Of the
rural roads included only 99 miles were unsurfaced. Untreated
gravel and stone surfaces existed on only 168 miles or 0.6 percent of
the total rural mileage. All other sections of the rural roads included
were improved with some form of dustless surface or pavement,
ranging from bituminous surface-treated gravel or stone surfaces to
the highest types of pavement.
TABLE 16.—Mileage, mileage by traffic density groups, and percent of total mileage
of rural sections of the recommended interregional system improved with various
types of surface in 1942
Surface type
| Bitumt-
Concrete! nous Biba Mixed pian Gravel | Gneur- Total
brick or | concrete ne | Ditumi-| surface or faced
I | or sheet tration nous treated stone
| asph:
Total miles... ...... | 14, 602 2, 488 1,772 8, 247 2,074
Percent... -...-.-- 49.6 8.5 6.0 23.0 7.0
Traffic density |
groups—vebicles |
day: Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles
0 to 1,000 515 | 62 | 249 4, 245 704
1,000 to 2,000 4, 338 | TH | 63 2, 934 915
2,000 to 3,000... 4,077 | 620 SL | 676 220 |
3,000 to 5,000... 3, 228 | 636 | 274 | 240 87
5,000 to 10,000 2, 000 | 368 159 139 51
10,000 to 15,000 316 36 15- 13
Over 15,000... 128 | 16 Vy eesseeeeee
Bituminous-treated surfaces existed on 2,074 miles or 7.0 percent
of the total rural mileage, mixed bituminous surfaces on 8,247 miles
or.28.0 percent of the total mileage, and bituminous penetration
surfaces on 1,772 miles or 6.0 percent of the total mileage. Lengths
98 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
totaling 2,488 miles or 8.5 percent of the total rural mileage were
paved with bituminous concrete or sheet asphalt pavements, and
14,602 miles or 49.6 percent of the total were paved with concrete,
brick, block, or some combination of high-type pavements.
In general design at least, there is a marked correlation between
the surfaces oul pevanen of the existing roads and the volume an
weight of the traffic they serve. Grouping untreated gravel and stone
surfaces as low types; bituminous surface-treated gravel and stone,
mixed bituminous surfaces, and bituminous penetration surfaces as
intermediate types; and bituminous concrete, concrete, brick, and
block as high types, the sections of the system improved with each
of these classes of surfaces are indicated by type symbols in the
map, figure 32. Comparison of this map with the traffic map pre-
sented as figure 20 will confirm the statement that there is a strong
correlation between the existing surface types and traffic volume.
“Adequacy of design.—But while the existing roads may be said to
be reasonably well improved so far as the character and strength
of their surfaces are concerned, they are far from adequate in respect
to thos: characteristics of their design that have a bearing upon their
ability to discharge their traffic without congestion. These character-
istics are the width and lane arrangement of the surfaces or pave-
ments, gradients and curvature, and the related characteristic of
sight distance.
To obtain the additional width and lane arrangement required for
conformity to the recommended standards will necessitate almost
universal widening.
Here we encounter the deplorable fact that existing rights-of-way
are grossly insufficient to permit such widening.
Even, therefore, if it were possible to attain the recommended
standards of design without change of existing alinement, a right-of-
way problem of great difficulty would be presented, and the fact is
that the faults of curvature and gradient are so numerous that no
approximate compliance with the proposed standards can be achieved
on most sections without wide departure from the existing alinement.
Taken together, the two circumstances of insufficient width and
inadequate alinement, if the proposed standards are to govern, leave
little choice in most sections of the system other than the obtainment
of entirely new right-of-way; and this conclusion, reached from the
consideration of essential dynamic qualities of the highways, agrees
with the decision that must inevitably result from any consideration
of a desirable directness of routing between the principal sources and
objectives of interregional highway traffic.
earing out the foregoing general statements, figure 33 presents a
graphical] analysis of the average physical conditions of existing rural
roads conforming epnrodiniately in location to routes of the recom-
mended system, classified according to the average daily volume of
traffic. From this figure it will be seen that the most lightly trav-
eled roads conforming to the system are those that approach most
nearly the standards proposed.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM
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100 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Roads carrying less than an average of 1,000 vehicles per day average
20 feet in surface width, or 4 feet less than the width recommended for
interregional highways of such traffic volume, The choice of surface
type for these roads is generally consistent with the traffic served.
he frequencies of occurrence of sharp curves, steep grades, and con-
sequent restricted sight distances as a group average less for these
most lightly traveled roads than for most of the heavier traffic-volume
groups; and the existing right-of-way provided is more nearly adequate.
CR OF CURVES
AVERAGE MNsOLR OF GRADES,
OVER $00 FEET LONG, OER tn
CACECONG © PERCENT OF
MOUNTAINOUS AND 9 PERCENT
ot NON
AVERAGE MUMPER OF BGNT
OGTANCE! PLR Mowe LESS
THAN 650 FCCT we MOUN -
TAINOUS AND 1000 FECT
Wt NON- MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
ALRAGE PROT OF Pat MENT
mercer
MARAE OTH OF
POGMT- OF vane we FECT
met amet CARY TRAFIC
Pe NUMBLAS OF VERS
vier se ee a ee
ee]
RANGE IY DS MUR ANICUAL AVERAGE TRATIC OCNSITY
225% ar
moet
PERCENTAGE B OF TOTAL LENGTHS OF RURAL MADE COORIING TO THC SYITEM BY TRAFFIC OCNEITY RANGES
Ficure 33.—Average physical conditions of rural sections of the recommended system classified according
to ranges of average daily traffic volumes. o
The close approach to adequacy existing on these lightly traveled
roads results paneipelly from three circumstances. First, many of
the routes included are in sections of the country where most roads
follow the straight lines of land sections established by the Govern-
ment; second, many are located in sparsely settled rural areas of easy
topography where the obtainment of reasonably satisfactory aline-
ment and wide right-of-way has been a comparatively simple matter;
and third, they generally received their initial improvement at a later
date than the more heavily traveled roads and benefited in that
improvement by more modern standards of design.
The relative adequacy of these lightly traveled sections, however,
only serves to throw into stronger relief the grave inadequacy of the
more heavily traveled sections, especially in right-of-way and pave-
ment width and sight distance.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 101
The group of roads serving traffic between 2,000 and 3,000 vehicles
daily, a density for which the recommended standards would require
the provision of four traffic lanes in the presence of restricted sight
distance, is shown to have, on the average, more numerous restrictions
of sight distance than the most lightly traveled sections, and surfaces
of the same average width as the most lightly traveled sections.
In the groups carrying average daily traffic between 3,000 and 10,000
vehicles for which divided four-lane pavements are recommended
throughout there is some evidence of a beginning of widening, still far
from adequate; and even the most heavily traveled sections, carrying
traffic in excess of 10,000 vehicles daily, average less than the desirable
four-lane width and have these inadequate widths cramped within
rights-of-way so narrow as to prohibit the essential widening.
A substantial mileage of the wider roads that account for the greater
average widths of sections carrying upward of 3,000 vehicles per day,
as shown in figure 33, are surfaced with three-lane and four-lane, un-
divided pavements. These types of improvement, largely employed
as expedient measures in the thirties, have no place among the stand-
ards recommended by the Committee for the interregional system.
Table 17, however, accounts for 1,364 miles of three-lane and 1,181
miles of undivided four-lane pavements in the total of 3,451 miles of
pavement wider than two lanes that existed in 1942 on the highways
conforming approximately to the interregional system, and shows that
only 906 miles of these roads were then improved with divided four-
lane pavements and pavements more than four lanes wide.
TaBLE 17.— Mileage of rural highways conforming to the recommended interregional
system, on which multiple-lane pavements were completed or under construction,
an. 1, 1942, classified by traffic volume groups
Number and arrangement of lanes
More than Total
Trattic volume group
4 lanes
3 lanes 4 lanes 4 lanes Paes
undivided | undivided | dividea | divided
undivided
Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles
; 11. 65 5.88 1.16 74.49
174. 87 101, 06 16. : 1
933. 61 837, 03 640. 49 31.72] 2,492.85
199. 55 231. 50 128. 04 32. 99 192. 08
1,363.83 | 1, 181, 24 840. 45 65.87 | 3,451.39
It will be observed that four-lane pavements have been provided
on a comparatively small mileage where the traffic volume is less than
that proposed for general design of that width. Three-lane pave-
ments on other sections serve a traffic greater than that proposed by
the Committee as a criterion for four-lane divided design and con-
siderably greater than that served by other sections on which four
lanes have been provided.
It will be noted also that some scctions of undivided four-lane
design serve traffic of greater volume than that for which divided
four-lane accommodation has been provided on other roads.
The fact that much of the mileage classified as providing three,
four, or more lanes does not actually provide the number of lanes
93800—44—8
102 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
indicated in lanes of adequate width is not brought to light by table 17.
It is nevertheless true that much of the mileage indicated as having
four lanes is actually paved only 36 feet wide and provides, therefore,
only three lanes of the width recommended by the Committee; and,
similarly some of the three-lane mileage shown as existing is little
wider than the width of two lanes of the dimension the Committee
recommends.
Assuming adoption of the criterion recommended for the general
provision of four or more lanes (viz, average daily traffic exceeding
3,000 vehicles), figure 34 shows the sections of the recommended sys-
tem that should be improved with pavements of four or more lanes
and in comparison shows the existing provision on roads conforming
to the system. As will be observed, there are many sections where
the greater capacity of four lanes is recommended but where the
existing road conforming to the system provides only two or three
lanes. On the other hand, a few sections of four-lane pavement
shown as existing are located on roads which, according to the recom-
mended criteria, require only a two-lane pavement for adequate
improvement.
CONDITION OF CITY STREETS
In the foregoing it has been possible to present @ picture in some
detail of the physical condition of existing rural highways conforming
approximately in location to routes of the recommended system. Of
the city streets now serving as connections between the rural highways
approximating the system, it is possible to give no similarly detailed
account. Judged by the standards proposed, however, existing facili-
ties provided by city streets are so far from adequate that there is
little need for detailed analysis.
Like the rural roads, existing city streets approach nearest to ade-
quacy in the design of their pavements, but a widespread neglect of
maintenance has permitted much deterioration of what would other-
wise remain as structurally adequate surfaces. In relation to their
traffic volumes, many of the city streets have an over-all width less
than that provided on some of the rural roads; and, with curb parking
a prevalent condition, the width effective for the accommodation of
moving traffic commonly compares unfavorably with the correspond-
ing clear width of rural roads.
Intolerable congestion in recent years has forced some effective
énlargement of street capacity by the prohibition of parking and the
marking of one-way streets. Some minor widening of the vehicular
roadways has been achieved also by borrowing slightly from the
width of sidewalks. In a few notable cases, such as Woodward
Avenue in Detroit, and Constitution Avenue and others in Washing-
ton, D. C., broad surface streets have been created by the more heroic
means of large-scale property demolition and new right-of-way
acquisition.
ut instances are rare indeed in which the congestion of through
highways in cities has been attacked at its principal root—the frequent
grade intersection of cross streets. Instead of eliminating this prinoi-
pal cause of traffic delay, city authorities have generally resorted to
the installation of traffic lights for control of the intersecting traffic
streams and the prevention of accidents, and this expedient measure
has in some cases been so applied as to increase rather than reduce the
obstruction of traffic.
103
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM
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104 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
CONDITION OF BRIDGES
Design loading.—On the 29,450 miles of rural roads approximating
the location of routes of the recommended interregional system, there
are 8,435 bridges. Seven hundred and twenty of these bridges are
designed for loading inferior to the H15 standard loading of the
American Association of State Highway Officials. The greatest num-
ber, 7,040, are designed for loadings at least equivalent to the H15
standard loading but inferior to the H20 standard loading. Only
675 are designed for the H20 standard loading, and of these 151, the
spans of which are 26 feet or less in length, may be considered as ade-
quate for the suppor of the H20-S16 standard loading recommended
for bridges to be constructed on the interregional system. This
classification, however, is based upon the design of the existing struc-
tures and takes no account of deficiencies resulting from depreciation.
Although the available data do not permit a definite statement, it is
probable that a substantial number of the bridges originally designed
for H15 loading, by reason of deterioration, are not now safe for the
support of vehicular loads contemplated by that standard.
orizontal clearance.—In table 18 the numbers of existing bridges
having horizontal clearances of various dimensions are given in rela-
tion to the surfaced widths of the roads on which the bridges arelocated.
This table shows that of the 8,435 existing bridges, 1,261 or nearly 15
ercent have horizontal clearance of less than 20 feet, and more than
alf of these are located on roads surfaced 20 feet or more in width.
Of the widest bridges—those with horizontal clearance of 60 feet
and more—there are 110; and 33, or 30 percent, are located on roads
which in their existing state were surfaced with only two Janes of
more or less adequate width.
TaBLE 18.—Classification of all existing bridges on rural roads conforming to the
recommended interregional system according to several ranges of horizontal clear-
ance and width of approach highway surface, divided and undivided
Number of bridges classified according to horizontal
clearan
Total width of approach highway
surface
1
nder) Zito | 24 to | 30to | 36 to | 40 0 | 49 to |coteet
t
U and
20 feet {cet | 29 feet ; 35 feet | 39 feet | 48 feet | 59 feet sore
Undivided surfaces:
Under 20 feet .
Total undivided............ ---| 1,268 | 2,460 | 2,534 | 989 146 723 M7 81 | 8, 308
Divided surfaces:
36 to 48 feet._..2.22-- 22 eee eee “3 7 12 14 2 40 6 22 106
SY tOG2 feet sion. sce oss fae te hace eal, lech deteds Sede ous asec 1 5 8
53 to 54 feet... i eee be eee Pee 1
57 to 58 feet_._... ss steer se|encuens|ecotess hice ec, [sseeeseeeeee 1
59 to 81 feet.....- Bip icaes os 4 10
82 foet-and OVeF..- 2022-226. 205 2d | bie vied [eet 035 leeieeig oe] gene cee bee tees eee ee] sees 1 1
Total divided...........-...-.. 3 8 13 16 2 45 11 29 127
Total divided and undivided...| 1, 261 | 2, 468 | 2, 547 | 1,005 148 768 128 110 | 8, 435
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 105
Approximately 970 of the 8,435 bridges, or more than 11 percent,
afford horizontal clearances less than the surfaced widths of the exist-
ing roads on which they are located; and on only about 4,340, approxi-
mately half of the total number, is the horizontal clearance afforded
as much as 4 feet wider than the existing surface of the approach road.
Even in relation to the existing road widths, which, as previously
shown, are generally deficient, the clearance of existing bridges will be
seen from this analysis to be far from satisfactory. Measured by the
standards recommended by the Committee the situation is much’
worse.
Of the total of 8,435 bridges, 6,466 are located on roads carrying leas
than 3,000 vehicles per day, for which the standards proposed provide
generally for improvement with two-lane pavements 24 feet wide. Of
these 6,466 bridges, 2,289 are 100 feet or more in length and, according
to the standards proposed, should have horizontal clearance of 30 feet.
Only 202 of the 2,289 bridges meet this requirement. The remainder
of 4,177 bridges, which are less than 100 feet in length, to meet the
standards proposed should have horizontal clearance of 44 feet; but
only 112 of them as presently designed meet this requirement.
sum, therefore, only 314 of the 6,466 bridges now existing on roads ap-
proximating sections of the system which should be designed as 24-foot,
two-lane highways, conform to the standard {of horizontal clearance
proposed as desirable by the Committee.
On roads conforming to the system, which now serve volumes of
traffic between 3,000 and 15,000 vehicles per day, there are 1,911 of the
total of 8,435 bridges. For these roads the recommended standards
require four-lane divided highways. Of these 1,911 bridges, 771 are
100 feet or more in ees and for these bridges the proposed standards
require a horizontal clearance of at least 58 feet. Only 16 of the 771
bridges meet this requirement. The remainder of 1,140 bridges, which
are less than 100 feet in length, require, according to the proposed:
standards, horizontal clearance of 83 feet, a requirement which is met
by only 17 of the existing bridges. Of the total of 1,911 bridges on
roads carrying traffic of between 3,000 and 15,000 vehicles per day,
therefore, there are only 33 that meet the standards of horizontal clear-
ance proposed by the Committee.
Finally, there are 58 of the 8,435 bridges on roads now carrying
traffic in excess of 15,000 vehicles per day, for which six-lane highways
arerequired. Thirty-three of the 58 are 100 feet or more in length and,
according to the standards proposed, should have horizontal clearance
of 82 feet. Twenty-five are less than 100 feet long and should have
horizontal clearance of 107 feet to meet the proposed standards. None
of these bridges meets either of these requirements.
From the above analysis, therefore, it is apparent that only 347, or
4.1 percent of the total of 8,435 bridges, conform in their peer
design to the standards of horizontal clearance proposed by the
Committee for bridges on the interregional system. To conform to
these standards all the rest would have to be widened in amounts
varying from a few to more than 70 feet. :
"Dertical clearance.—The situation in respect to vertical clearance is
much better. Of the total of 8,435 structures on all existing rural
roads approximating the recommended system, there are 8,410
which, as presently designed, are either unlimited in vertical clearance,
or provide at least the 14 feet proposed for structures on the system.
Of those that do not meet this standard, 15 provide vertical clearance
106 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
of 13 feet, enough with a slight margin to pass vehicles of the 12%-foot
height recommended as a maximum. Only 10 of the existing struc-
tures provide definitely inadequate vertical clearance.
Combined standards.—In many cases the existing bridges that are
substandard in respect to horizontal or vertical clearance, or both, are
also substandard in respect to load design. Of the 8,088 bridges that
fail to meet the recommended standards of horizontal clearance, 7,445
are inferior in loading design to the H20 standard. Of the 347
‘bridges that meet the recommended standards of horizontal clear-
ance, only 72 are designed for H20 loading.
These 72 bridges also provide the recommended 14-foot vertical
clearance. and are, therefore, the only bridges now existing on the
entire mileage of rural roads conforming to the recommended system
that closely approximate the standards proposed.
Next in adequacy are the remaining 603 bridges designed for H20
standard loading. All but 2 of these provide the recommended
vertical clearance, but are more or less deficient in horizontal clear-
ance. Two hundred and ten of them are long bridges (100 feet or
more in length) with deficiencies of horizontal clearance varying from
less than 5 to more than 50 feet. Three hundred and ninety-three
are short bridges (less than 100 feet long), which are deficient in
horizontal clearance by amounts varying from less than 5 to more
than 70 feet. One hundred and sixty-six of the long bridges and 376
of the short bridges are of deck-type construction. These, where
they are not greatly deficient in width, can be widened with com-
parative ease.
DerstIrRaBLE ORDER AND Rate or ConsTRUCTION
It will be apparent from the previous section on condition of existing
roads, streets, and bridges that there is immediate need for a vast
amount of new construction to replace inadequate facilities with the
far superior facilities described as appropriate and essential for the
interregional system. The need, as has been suggested, arises more
from deficiencies in the alinement, width, and access features of the
existing roads rather than from inadequacies in the structure of
existing surfaces and pavements.
Many of the existing roads are improved with surfaces and pave-
ments of comparatively recent construction and with normal main-
tenance, these will have a further serviceable life, under the traffic
to be expected, of from 10 to 20 years. Where this condition exists,
and other features such as curvature, gradient, width, sight distance,
and intersection design are not seriously deficient in relation to the
traffic carried, the present roads can reasonably be continued in use
until either the existing pavement has served out its economic life or
the traffic has increased to such a density as to compel improvement.
Principle of minimum rate and indispensable order of construction.—
Qbsolescence of the existing roads will thus determine a minimum rate
at which the interregional system should be constructed, and it may be
stated as a general principle, that—
Whenever an existing highway conforming approximately to a route
of the interregional highway system shall require reconstruction, by
reason of the Acterioraou of its surface or other incapacity, the high-
way should be reconstructed only in the location and to the standerd
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 107
of design necessary to make it an acceptable link in the designated
interregional highway system.
Compliance with this principle, it is emphasized, will establish only
a minimum rate and indispensable order of construction of the system.
LESS THAN 1,000 VEHICLES PER DAY
‘2200 TO 2,999
VEHICLES
PER DAY
AMI
Mec
l=
Vi, Y Pes
NOMLINYISNOIZY WO ONIDVSUNS3y ONIVINOIY BVOU 40 S27
MILES OF ROAD EXISTING JANUARY 1,1942
19425 >
1943
3
1945
3 o ” 0 $3 &
Pal » w o
3 2 8 3 o 8 8 a 6 8
YEARS
Fiourx 35.—-Graph showing survival, by years, of surfaces existing on rural roads conforming to the recom-
mended system, and 1941 traffic density classification of roads, that probably will require reconstruction,
It will doubtless be desirable to exceed this minimum rate and
depart from the indispensable order to realize earlier the benefits
of safe and unobstructed traffic flow which construction to the pro-
posed standards will insure, and, particularly in the immediate post-
war period, “‘to utilize productively some of the manpower and
industrial capacity then available,” in accordance with the President’s
farsighted objective.
Digitized by G OOS le
108 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
An approximate evaluation of the minimum rate at which the rural
sections of the system should be constructed can be made by deter-
mining the probable aconomic life remaining in the surfaces and pave-
ments of existing highways conforming approximately in location to
routes of the system.
Figure 35 shows, by the differential segments of the 1942 ordinate,
the mileage classification of the various types of surfaces and pave-
ments existing on highways conforming approximately to routes of the
recommended system on January 1, 1942. The width of the shaded
band projected from each of these omens shows by the intercept
at each subsequent annual ordinate the approximate milcage of the
several types of surfaces and pevenente existing on January 1, 1942,
that will remain in economic life on January 1 of each of the several
years. The open upper portion of the diagram shows similarly the
1941 traffic density classification of the mileage on which surface or
perce reconstruction will have become necessary by January 1 of
each year.
The mileage of surface or pavement reconstruction, indicated by the
depth of the open section of the eg Ha (according to the scale at the
rig t) as likely to become necessary by January 1 of each year, includes
only the first reconstruction of the surfaces or pavements existing on
January 1, 1942. During the period of 20 years covered by the dia-
gram, it is probable that some of the less durable surfaces constructed
in replacement of existing surfaces will themselves depreciate to the
pone of essential reconstruction. This will depend upon the dura-
ility of surfaces and pavements constructed on the interregional
system, and the amount of secondary reconstruction that will become
necessary during the 20-year period will be reduced to a minimum by
a policy of liberality in the selection of surface types for interregional
system improvements.
If, in any period, as during the present war per ane reconstruc-
tion becoming due is deferred, the amount essential will accumulate,
and when the opportunity occurs it will be yaatenast to provide for an
enlarged program of reconstruction to be continued for a period suffi-
cient to meet the accumulated need.
For example, very little of the reconstruction indicated as of prob-
able necessit; by January 1, 1944, is now being accomplished.
Accordingly, as the diagram shows, there will have accumulated by
the beginning of 1944 a need for the reconstruction of surfaces or
pavements on about 1,700 miles of highways conforming approxi-
mately in location to routes of the recommended system; ana this
mileage will be distributed, 350 miles on sections which in 1941 carried
a daily average of 3,000 but less than 10,000 vehicles, 300 miles on
sections that carried between 2,000 and 3,000 vehicles, 500 miles on
sections that carried between 1,000 and 2,000 vehicles, and 550 miles
that carried in 1941 a daily traffic averaeing less than 1,000 vehicles.
If the period of deferment should extend to January 1, 1945 or
1946, the total accumulated reconstruction need might be increased
to 2,650 or more than 3,500 miles, respectively.
These estimated accumulated reconstruction needs are for rural
sections only. They represent needs accumulated by the obsolescence
of surfaces and pavements only and take no account of the greater.
needs of reconstruction to provide for safe and unobstructed traffic
flow. They must be regarded, therefore, as minimum needs.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 109
It is desirable to emphasize that the surfaces and pavements on the
sections of existing highway involved in these estimates will ‘probably
be in absolute need of replacement by the dates indicated. They
must and will be replaced in some manner as soon as possible after
these dates, if economic and other conditions permit.
The Committee has at its disposal no data that will permit for
urban sections of the system an appraisal of minimum construction
needs similar to the foregoing estimate for rural sections. It must
be recognized, however, that the pavements of major city streets are
accumulating replacement needs in the same manner as the surfaces
of rural roads, and that the meeting of these needs is for the same
reasons at present deferred but will be taken care of as soon as it
becomes possible to do so.
PLANNING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE INTERREGIONAL SYSTEM
If the recommended interregional system is not officially designated
and the proposed standards accepted—if, in other words, the relation
of the sections of existing highway to a particular system of inter-
regional routes is not recognized—before the existing obsolescent
surfaces and pavements are renewed, it is probable that the recon-
struction will be planned and carried out on locations and in a manner
inconsistent with an eventual adequate development of the inter-
Ps sane system. This, if it should occur, would constitute a regret-
table misapplication of available highway revenues.
URGENCY FOR DESIGNATING AND PLANNING THE BYSTEM
It is highly important, therefore, that decisions in regard to the
designation of the interregional system and standards for its develop-
ment be reached and generally accepted as early as possible. If ade-
quate plans and rights-of-way are to be ready in time to give prompt
employment when the employment need is greatest after the present
war, there is indeed no time to spare in reaching the essential pre-
paratory decisions.
The same urgency applies to the pisnuins of city streets which
would form a part of an interregional system, because as soon as it
becomes possible to do so, the reconstruction needs of these streets
will also be met in some manner. Most probably the manner adopted
will be a simple reconstruction of existing pavements in most cases,
unless a plan is agreed upon in advance for provision of the more
ample facilities which all the facts adduced in this report show to be
in the highest degree necessary. .
The planning of these city facilities is no simple task. It is time-
consuming. It requires the most carcful study, the most difficult
adjustments, the most complicated and expensive right-of-way
acquisitions, the utmost of multilateral agreement between the
various Official bodies and interests concerned.
The essential prearrangements should be proceeding now. It will
be lamentable indeed if, for want of understanding and preplanning,
it is found impossible to include in an early post-war program of
public works, many of these badly needed improvements of city
transportation systems.
110 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
PLANNING NOW IN PROGRESS
Under the act of 1941.—Preparations for post-war construction of
the interregional system have lortinatdly not been entirely neglected.
The Defense Highway Act of 1941" authorized an expenditure of
$10,000,000 of Federal funds, matched with State funds in the pro-
ortions required by the Federal Highway Act, for surveys and plans
or the future construction of highways included in the strategic net-
work of routes of principal military importance and on routes around
and into and through municipalities and metropolitan areas.
‘With the required State matching, this Federal provision will
probably make possible the completion of surveys and plans for con-
struction projects totaling in cost nearly $500,000,000. The Public
Roads Administration has wisely urged upon the State highway
departments the desirability of giving high priority in the selection
of projects to be planned to those that will supply essential links in
the system of interregional routes herein recommended.
The Federal funds authorized for this purpose have been appor-
tioned among the several States as required by law, and in part have
been allotted with the approval of the Public Roads Administration
to specific projects. The apportionment by States, the general pro-
grams of work approved, the status of allotment of the Federal funds
to projects with the corresponding estimated total cost, the mileage
of road involved in the planning projects, and the unprogramed and
unallotted balances of Federal funds, as of October 31, 1943, are
shown in table 19.
TaBLE 19.—Apportionment and status of allotment of advance engineering funds,
authorized by sec. 9 of the Defense Highway Act of 1941, as of Oct. 31, 1943
ea Allotment to projects mole
Appor-
State tonment) rej. Num-| Esti- Pro- Allot-
ma‘ oni, ber of berg hatin Miles | gram- | ment to
total cost | “U2¢S proj- por ands ing | projects
Alabama. . $247, 750| $123, 875 6| $94,000) $47,000) 106.5) $84, 500) $161,375
Arizona. 70,000} 47, 000] ......|_.--.----]---------]----2--- 96, 546] 143, 546
Arkansas < 203, 240} +101, 615 10] 40, 480) + —_ 20, 240 27.4) 69,332] 150, 707
California... 398, 990) ae 000] 398, 990 14 ae fl 398,990} 184.2)_._.......]..-..- ae
000
83, 221
Pe 131, 016
Michigan 302, 894 7 2 BO 4 oad S| See oeere fwd es vow eaee as [Leelee
Minnesota.
‘ 26, é .
122,0001 61, 000 261 104,000! 62,0001 7 71.61 188,127| 147,127
1 Subsequent detail project estimates will reduce program to amount of apportionment, $394,779.
Public Law,295, 77th Cong.,’sec. 9, approved Nov. 19, 1941.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 111
Tasus 19.—Apportionment and status of allotment of advance engineering funds,
aire ast by sec. 9 of the Defense Highway Act of 1941, as of Oct. 31, 1948—
ntinue
Programs ap- Balance available
proved Allotment to projects
for—
Appor-
State tionment Pro. | Allot-
gram- | ment to
ing projects
Nevadea.............. $127, 539 $60, 395) $60, 305
New Hampshire. .... 48, 750 97, se 48, 750 48, 750 4.6)... .----- 24, 375
Virginia... 2.2222...
Washington .. --| 158,578] 208, 200) 158,578} = 17): 282, 200) 150,178] = 182.3} .......-. 8, 400
West Virginia 109, 660 8,110); 46, 860
Wisconsin. . 240,097} 40,000) 20,000)......]-....-..-]---..--.-]-------- 220,087} 240, 097
Wyoming... 124, 599 ; 7,599! 48, 005
Hawail.............. 48; 750 | ot bog Ua. [ces ceeen-|eedeet lows dou eee aweeetledacodes 48,750| 48, 750
District of Columbia. 48, 750 | oa eee 37, 500
Puerto Rico.......-. 49; 344i ceo coal te cee eee oecac Ges daeeds[et Seatac |Seaeece? 49,344) 49, 344
Total. ......... 3820/7, 392, 3650/3, 863, 439) 3, 150. 3/4, 096, 993/5, 886, 561
2 Subsequent detail project estimates will reduce program to amount of apportionment, $362,081.
Although the law properly does not restrict the application of these
funds to the interregional system, the advice of the Public Roads
Administration “suggesting a preferential selection of projects con-
forming to the system has generally been heeded by the State highway
departments, with the result that a substantial majority of the projects
now being surveyed and planned are of this character.
Sections of the recommended system for which planning provision
had thus been made as of October, 31 1943, are shown on the map
(fig. 36). Practically all of these projects are still in the surveying
stage of aa are fe t is highly desirable that all of them, as finally
planned in detail, shall conform in their design features either to the
standards recommended in this report, or to such other general
standards as shall hereafter and shortly be adopted by common
consent for general application to a system of interregional highways
formally and officially agreed upon and designated.
Under the act of 1943.—By recent legislation '* the Congress has
made additional provision for survey and planning of post-war high-
way construction projects. This provision authorizes expenditure in
each State for such planning purposes of an amount of the State’s
1§ Public Law 146, 78th Cong., sec. 3, approved July 13, 1043.
112 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
unobligated balance of previously apportioned Federal-aid highway
funds not to exceed its Federal-aid pro rata part of a hypothetical
national total of $50,000,000 (see table 20), such amounts to be
matched with State funds as required by the Federal Highway Act.
TasiEe 20.—Apportionment of a hypothetical $50,000,000 for post-war _highway
planning in accordance with the act approved July 13, 1948 (Public Law 146,
78th Cong., sec. 8)
Amount Amount
Alabama -._..----------- $1, 073, 478 | New Jersey_.......-.---- 652, 903
Arizona.._......-------- 736, 604) New Mexico_.....-.----- 827, 968
Arkansas.._......------- 878, 694] New York...._._._.----- 2, 470, 659
California. ...__...-.__-- 2, 053, 972] North Carolina...._-..--- , 236, 314
Colorado..._.--.-_------ 921, 308] North Dakota__...._-.-- 764, 651
Connecticut_---..------- 318, 210] Ohio___._.....---------- 1, 801, 650
elaware.......---.----- 250, 000 | Oklahoma..__....----.-- 1, 158, 268
Florida_..._..-.--.------ 736, 686 | Oregon_....--.---------- 849, 986
Georgia. _.....---------- 1, 287, 067} Pennsylvania. -_--------- 2, 095, 420
Idaho._._.....---------- 633, 779 | Rhode Island__...----.-- 250, 000
Tlinois.__.....--.------- 2, 018, 863 | South Carolina_....._..-- 694, 384
Indiana._.._.....--_---- 1, 232, 432 | South Dakota........_---
LOW82o52 2 osc 2ce teas 1, 272, 353 | Tennessee. _._...---_---- 1, 086, 441
Kanasas-_.22225e22.5css2-< 1, 291, 657| Texas__....._..--------- 3, 247, 700
Kentucky. _..._......-_- 957, 349] Utah_____.-___.-_-_-.-- 576, 968
Louisiana. . 765, 893 | Vermont. _-.___--- -- 250, 000
Maine__-_-_._--- 444, 080 | Virginia.__._..._- 937, 386
Maryland_ -._-__- 417, 458| Washington. -___- 807, 246
Massachusetts _ _ 670, 407 | West Virginia__._- 563, 062
Michigan_..__.- 1, 558, 069] Wisconsin... _--- 1, 234, 327
Minnesota_ ----- 1, 379, 804} Wyoming... ee 638, 001
Mississippi. ....-...----- 920, 859 | Hawaii_..._..____- Z 250, 000
Missouri____..-.-.------ 1, 518, 389 | District of Columbia--.-- - - 250, 000
Montana__.__.._-_------ 1, 036, 240] Puerto Rico__....--.---- 253, 036
Nebraska_..___....------ 1,021,013 ———_———_
Nevada___...--.-------- 654, 046 Total.__._-___---- $50,000,000
New Hampshire--_...---- 250, 000
Not all of the funds thus authorized to be expended for post-war
planning can be used for that purpose, for various reasons; and as yet
the intentions of the States regarding such use of the funds authorized
have not been determined to the extent necessary to permit an esti-
mate of the amount that will probably be devoted to the authorized
puns purpose. The Committee believes, however, that the State
ighway departments generally have a keen appreciation of the neces-
sity to prepare thoroughly for a prompt resumption of highway con-
struction after the war, and expects, therefore, that a substantial part
of the additional Federal funds released for planning, with essential
State-matching funds, will be used in most States for the intended
purpose. In some States it is probable that the highway departments
will prefer to reserve the unobligated Federal funds for construction
and employ State funds only for advance planning purposes. But,
in either case, it is believed that the recent additional provision will
result in a large and prompt increase in the expenditure for post-war
planning. :
The Committee advocates that a principal part of such increased
planning effort should be devoted to the planning of improvements
conforming substantially to the standards herein proposed on the
recommended interregional highway system.
113
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM
“BROT ‘IE 19Q0190 poeaordde syoefosd SupIeN;SU GoUBADPE jo NO}I8I0] aq SUpMOYS ‘me7eds [BUO[ZeLzE7UT PepUSMIMTOOEL O43 Jo dey—pe TENOLI
Digitized by Goog le
114 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS *
Costs or IMPROVEMENTS PRoPOsED
It is impossible, on the basis of the very general studies made by
the Committee, to venture even an approximate estimate of the total
cost of building the entire interregional system to the standards
recommended. To be of any value whatever, such an estimate would
necessarily have to be predicated upon a far more exact determination
of the location of the routes and of the manifold conditions of topog-
raphy, soil, frequency of road intersection, traffic diversion, property
affected, etc., than it has been possible to undertake. Had it been
possible to make such precise determinations, moreover, the useful-
ness and validity of an estimate of the ultimate cost of a construction
program that must inevitably extend over a period of perhaps 20
ears and be affected by unpredictable changes in the general economy,
in the habits and desires of the people, in the character of vehicles,
and in other circumstances, woul still be highly questionable.
Construction to the standards recommended will certainly be
expensive beyond the common experience in building most of the
ordinary: existing roads and streets, but the merit of the expenditure
is to be judged not by such a comparison but rather by the value of
the advantages to be gained in traffic facilitation, in reduced costs
of vehicle operation, and in lowered accident rates.
COSTS IN RURAL AREAS
A Ah part of the construction in rural areas, however, will not
be highly expensive. As previously stated, the traffic in 1941 was
less than 1,000 vehicles a day on existing roads conforming to approxi-
mately 21 percent of the total rural mileage of the system. The
system as improved in these sections will attract a somewhat greater
traffic, but thelincrease to be expected will not materially affect the
design of the new facilities. Sections of the system of this general
order of traffic volume can presently be built to the standards pro-
posed at costs ERIE IDE Denween $40,000 and $60,000 per mile.
Rural sections of the system serving traffic averaging from 1,000
to 2,000 vehicles per day, a range characterizing 32 percent of the
existing closely conforming roads in 1941, can probably be built
to She DMOboet standards, at present prices, for $50,000 to $70,000
er mile.
P These two traffic ranges, it will be noted, cover half of the entire
mileage of rural roads approximating routes of the recommended
system.
The existing roads that served traffic between 2,000 and 3,000 vehi-
cles per day in 1941 made up 21 percent of the total; and the mileage of
the system as built that would probably carry traffic of this order of
density would doubtless be a somewhat larger percentage of the total.
The cost of these sections would vary considerably according to the
extent to which, on individual sections, it is necessary, in conformity
with the standards proposed, to employ divided four-lane construction.
Under the most favorable conditions, the cost of such sections would
probably be little if at all greater than that of the sections serving
traffic of between 1,000‘and 2,000 vehicles perday. Where extensive
four-lane construction is required, and on sections serving traffic
approaching the upper limit of the range, the cost might closely
approximate that of completely four-laned sections.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 115
The latter design, required by the standards proposed for rural
sections of the system serving traffic between 3,000 and 15,000 vehicles
per day, might be required on more than 30 percent of the recom-
mended system; and it would probably result in construction costs
ranging between $100,000 and $700,000 per mile.
An impression of the character of rural improvements obtainable
within these several cost ranges may be gained from the photographs
of recently constructed sections of rural highways of high standard,
presented in plates XI and XII.
COSTS OF URBAN SECTIONS
The costs of urban sections of the system may be expected to vary
more widely than those of rural sections. Indication of costs in rela-
tion to traffic volume is impracticable, and the Committee attempts
only to afford an impression of the range of possible costs by presenting
photographs (pls. XIII and XIV) of actual facilities representative
of various construction costs.
Rate or EXPENDITURE AND EMPLOYMENT ON THE SysTEM
The provision that has been made by the Federal Government for
the planning of post-war highway improvements is unparalleled in
any other field of public construction. The highway planning work
in progress is directed to the completion of definite working plans
capable of execution at the appropriate time. There is widespread
interest in the development of plans for post-war public works of other
kinds; but as yet the provision made for such other works does not
compare in definiteness or adequacy with that which has been made
for highway construction.
The Committee recognizes that ineowey construction generally,
and improvement of the interregional system in particular, should
be planned in appropriate balance with other needed public works.
It therefore considers the early proposal and planning of useful public
works of all kinds to be highly desirable, in order that there may be
ample opportunity to integrate them into a well-proportioned com-
posite program of essential works, to obtain the necessary statutory
sanctions, and to ready the whole program for timely execution at
the war’s end.
The principle of providing for the advance planning and regulated
construction of needed public works for the stabilization of industry
and the alleviation of unemployment is well established. A complete
readiness of desirable projects and a recognition of the propitious
time for their launching are essential prerequisites to a fully effective
injection of the stimulant of public works in a period when private
activity is waning or in transition from war to peacetime production.
While the unreadiness of public works projects in sufficient volume to
cope with the severity of the recent depression delayed the stimulation
of private activity, the eventual public works contribution to recovery
fully established the soundness of the stabilization principle.
Precise prediction of the time and manner of the war’s end is as
difficult as an adequate description of the potentialities of forces
currently at work—forces, the resultant of which will determine the
fundamental conditions of the post-war era. These limitations,
however, need not deter the provision of plans. Rather, the planning
116 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
will need to be alive to a wide range of possible conditions, and pre-
pared to cope with any conditions that may eventuate, when they
occur. For such an approach to post-war planning, the past quarter
of a century has provided important signs and guideposts.
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY ‘AND NATIONAL INCOME
.
The Committee has analyzed the records of construction d
this past period in an effort to discover the relations that have oxuted
between total construction volume and the aggregate economy. It
has attempted to identify the underlying conditions which have made
for a varying relation in amount between public and private construc-
tion; to ascertain the magnitude of Federal in relation to total public
construction expenditures; and particularly to examine the amount
and character of Federal expenditures for highway construction in
relation to the resulting benefits and employment.
Data available for these purposes, embracing the period from 1915
through 1942, are tabulated in detail in appendix VII, table1. These
data have been considered in 4-year periods, selected to reflect the
variant relations of the several classes of construction, during two
war periods, in prosperity and in depression, and in the rising and
falling economy of the transitional periods between. The Committee
believes that among these relations will be found analogies suggestive
of a desirable pattern of expenditure for the post-war period.
The broad relations of total construction volume and the aggregate
economy are shown in table 21, which compares the total estimated
cost of construction, including work relief and maintenance, with the
national income in the typic periods.
TaBLE 21.—Comparison of total dollar volume of construction, public and private,
including maintenance and work relief, with the national income, by periods from
1914 lo 1942, inclusive ;
7 . Total public | Ratio of total
National in-
jl - and private | construction !
Period come: Anm construction: ! | to national
average income
annual average
Millions of Millions of
dollars dollars
Percent
43, 445 5, 24 12.1
61, 383 8, 279 13.4
69, 145 12, 348 17.9
75, 07 13, 231 17.8
50, 835 6, 043 11.9
63, 613 8, 303 13.1
90, 083 18, 366 14.8
ae
as 64, 867 9, 552 14.7
193142 o soc bees tenets tena Dieasosaepkenckdtatecmacses 68, 177 9, 237 13.5
1 Including work relief and maintenance.
National income and construction activity associated —Throughout
all periods from 1915 to 1942, it is apparent from table 21 that fluctua-
tions of the national income and the volume of construction activity,
both measured in dollars, have been closely linked. Rising income
has been accompanied by increasing construction activity. Declin-
ing construction activity has coincided with falling income. There
is also an evident tendency, when income is rising, for construction
activity to supply in increasing measure the source of the income,
For sections of the system designed for traffic of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, this picture of an existing
road in Texas typifies the character of construction proposed. Consisting of a single 24 foot pavement
of appropriate material, with wide shoulders and easy slopes, such sections rl ilies be constructed
at costs ranging between 40 and 60 thousand dollars per mile, depending mainly upon the quantity of
grading and the number of grade-separated intersections.
Sections of the system designed for traffic of volumes between 1,000 and 2,000 vehicles per day should be
similar in most respects to those serving smaller traffic volumes, but surfaced with pavements of higher
type. Cost may range between 50 and 70 thousand dollars with variations in grading quantities and
number of grade-separated intersections. The Alabama highway pictured above conforms approximately
to the standards proposed.
Piate XJ.—Existing highways conforming approximately to standards proposed
for light-traffic rural sections of the system.
This view of the Eastern State Parkway near Fishkill, New York, typifies approximately the kind of
construction proposed for rural sections carrying upwards of 3,000 vehicles a day. Note that the opposing
traffic lanes are constructed as practically separate roadways on different grades, each fitted to the topog-
raphy with resulting reduction of cost. Such sections of the system may be built at costs of from $100,000
to $150,000 per mile, depending largely upon the costs of right-of-way and grade-separating structures.
All rural sections of the system carrying traffic of 10,000 or more vehicles daily are located within zones of
traffic influence of cities. ‘The above view of Northern State Parkway at Westbury, Long Island, is fairly
representative of the type of construction proposed. Costs may range from $150. 000 to $700,000 per mile,
depending largely upon right-of-way expense.
Piate XII.—Existing highways conforming approximately to standards proposed
for heavily traveled rural sections of the system.
Photo by Fairchild Aerial Surveys, Inc.
This view of a section of the Henry Hudson Parkway in New York is representative of the type of depressed
expressway proposed for construction through the residential sections of cities. The cost may be expected
to vary from $700,000 to $1,250,000 per mile depending upon property acquisition costs.
The Gowanus Elevated Parkway in New York, typical of elevated construction that may be employed
near the centers of larger cities, cost $3,000,000 per mile. <A large part of the cost was made up of the right-
of-way expense engendered by widening of the street in which it was built. Even though attractively
designed, elevated roadways are aesthetically undesirable in the midst of some parts of cities, such as
tesidential areas. They also tend to divide a community and to act as barriers, at least psychologically,
between the divided sections. This particular elevated structure in New York is appropriately located,
however, because it divided a residential community (on the left) from an industrial and dock area.
: Piate XIII.—Existing express arteries conforming approximately to standards
1 proposed for urban sections of the system.
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CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 117
and conversely, when income is falling, for construction to produce
a smaller part of the reduced income.
For these tendencies there are readily understandable causes.
Construction activity makes its own demands for the production of
a variety of materials, and both directly and indirectly increases
employment, with consequent increase in the income of workers.
Moreover, the normally substantial part of total construction activit.
that is made up of the private construction of industrial, commercial,
social, recreational and public utility facilities is a barometer that
indicates by its rise and fall the state of the economic weather, present
and to come. Made up of uncoordinated aggregations of individual
enterprise and highly responsive to change in the cost of funds used
for its financing, private construction activity by its increase is
indicative of an expanding economy; by its decrease, it indicates a
recession of private enterprise, and by its own lessened demand for
the production of materials and for workers, it hastens the economic
decline which follows. a0
In the light of this discussion of the influence of private construction
upon the national income, it is of interest to observe in table 22 the
relations of the dollar volume of private and public construction,
maintenance, and work relief to the national income in the several
4-year periods from 1915 to 1942.
In the three 4-year periods from 1915 to 1926, inclusive, the volume
of private construction rose steadily from 8.6 percent of the national
income in the first period to 14.2 percent in the third period. In
these 12 years the national income increased nearly 128 percent from
32.3 billion dollars in 1915 to 73.6 billion dollars in 1926. For 3 of
the next 4 years it increased slightly to a maximum of 79.6 billion
dollars in 1929, and.in 1930, the fourth year, dropped sharply to
72.5 billion dollars. This was the beginning of the depression.
In the 4 years 1927 to 1930, inclusive, the volume of all private con-
struction averaged 13.2 percent of the national income—less than the
average of 14.2 percent for the preceding 4-year period. The reduced
average for the 4-year period, in itself an index of impending depres-
sion, was the result of a decline in each of the years, markedly sharp-
ened in 1930, as follows:
Private construction and
maintenance in percent
Year: of the national income
1927 2 ose es os poe hee eee oe ee he Se Be 14.5
1928 0 occ scm ce hes snchaestoe Sok egete eee oe eet Secale Reena 13. 6
192922402 er anne chacaeies Hoos cee ec ese el arent oesae ee oe Se 13.5
19902222 eect ele te ec oes eee ete cece see sees ie eos 2 11.0
For 3 of the next 4 years, during which the period percentage
reached a low value, the annual percentages continued to decline, at
first sharply, then more slowly to a low point in 1933, which was only
slightly exceeded in 1934, as follows:
Private construction and
maintenance in percent
Year: * of the national income
1981 nc chaos ae tle oe ee et adsid oe abe eeee 9. 2
1932.2 j2 eke tee eke aoe ee a ee See ee 6.7
LOSS Ashe 2 cees ect eSse Racist 8A ae ee eee cas cae aes ce 5. 6
19942333 0.- ee Se tete ache ooh eee ete seh ence eae Pane en Greate 5.8
93800—44——_9
118 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Whether or not, as some economists believe, a too-rapid expansion
of commercial and industrial plant or the fear of it, was a principal
cause of the depression, there is apparently some support in these
figures for the thesis that the ensuing decline in private construction
activity was an important contributing factor. Certainly, however,
there is no evidence in the trend of public construction, as*‘shown in
table 22, to indicate that an excessive expenditure for public works
was in any degree responsible; because such expenditures expressed
as a percentage of the national income rose scarcely at all in the
periods from 1915 to 1926, and not sufficiently to offset the decline in
private construction as the depression approached in the next 4 years.
TaBiE 22.—Comparison of dollar volume of construction, including maintenance, by
private, public, and Federal-work-relief classes, with the national income, by periods
from 1916 to 1942, inclusive
Total public construction, maintenance and
Total | Ratio of Federal work relief Ratio of
peirate total or OE | total con-
an private struction,
public and sions hed including
National | utility public Public | Ratio of Ratio of | _P St mainte-
Period income; | construc-} utility | construc-| public Federal Federal bss TUC-| “nance
ot annual | tion, |construc-} tion | construc-| “(ory work | yi ciedting| 8d work
average | including} tion to [excluding] tion to | yey. | relief to eo NB! relief, to
mainte- | national | work | national] 2° ig) | national | Mier to | national
nance; | income; relief; income; average income; national come;
annual | annual | annual | annual a8 annual income: ual
average | average | average | average average | annual | 8verage
average
Million | Million Million Million
dollars dollars | Percent | dotlars | Percent | dollars | Percent | Percent | Percent
1018-18....] 43, 445 3, 731 8.6 1, 814 3.5 A 3.5 121
1919-22... 61, 383 6, 173 10.1 2, 106 3.4 3.4 13.5
1923-26... 69, 145 9, 837 14.2 2, 556 3.7 |. 3.7 17.9
1927-30... 75, 567 9, 978 13.2 3, 253 4.3 4.3 17.5
1931-34... 50, 835 3, 536 7.0 2, 334 4.6 49 11.9
1935-38... . 63, 613 4, 874 7.7 2, 305 3.7 5.4 13.1
1930-42... 90, 083 6, 439 7.1 6, 120 6.8 7.7 14.8
1915-42._.. 6A, 867 6, 367 9.8 2, 893 4.5 292 .4 4.9 14.7
1931-42... . 68, 177 4,950 7.2 3, 606 5.3 681 1.0 6.3 13.5
The figures of table 22 may suggest that an expenditure for all
classes of construction and maintenance work approaching 18 per-
cent of the national income is somewhat excessive. A ratio of 15
percent, approximating the 28-year average of the period 1915-42,
inclusive, and the 4-year average of the period 1939-42, might repre-
sent a safe and perhaps sustainable relation.
But if the maintenance of some such relation is assumed to be de-
sirable, to be accomplished by an increase of public construction as
private construction decreases, it will be seen from table 22 that the
combined measures of Federal, State, and local governments, taken
prior ar the outbreak of the war in Europe, failed signally to attain
that end.
The slight increase in the average ratio of the normal public con-
struction expenditure to the national income, which measured the
effort of the 4 years from 1931 to 1934, was sufficient only to raise
the ratio for all construction to 11.6 percent of the national income;
and even with the further addition of the early Federal relief expen-
diture, the percentage was raised only to 11.9, an average lower than
the lowest previous 4-year average, recorded in the period from 1915
to 1918, inclusive.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 119
In the 4 years from 1935 to 1938, the normal public construction
expenditure, expressed as a percentage of national income, actually
fell off sharply, and but for the increase in Federal work relief would
have produced, with the still sluggish private construction program,
a new low record for the total construction ratio. The Federal relief
program, then at its height, doubtless played a significant part in the
increase of national income, which falteringly began in this period.
But it was not until the last 4-vear period, 1939-42, that the recov-
ery trend of national income was firmly established, and, significantly,
in this period the ratio of total construction expenditure rose to its
highest point since the onset of the depression. Averaging 14.8 per-
cent of the national income for the entire period, as shown in table 22,
the total construction ratio did not fall below 14 percent in any year
of the period, and in 1941 rose to a maximum of 16 percent coinciden-
tally with a sharp increase in the national income from seventy-seven
billion to nearly ninety-five billion dollars.
In the first 2 years of the period, reviving private construction com-
bined with a stronger public construction program and large Federal
work-relief expenditure to produce the greater total construction
ratio. In the last 2 years, with Federal relief expenditures declining,
private construction yielded to the mounting public construction
incident to preparation for the war; and after Pearl Harbor, public
construction reached its highest point of the ma he period with an
expenditure equal to 9.5 percent of a national income of nearly
$120,000,000,000. With Federal work relief at the vanishing point,
the country experienced in this first year of the war its nearest ap-
proach to full employment in more than a decade. Significantly, the
year 1942 provided the sole example of public construction in sufficient
volume to offset, a reduced volume of private construction, and. this
was for purposes of destruction.
The course of these changes in the character of construction activity
and in the national income and construction-income ratio is clearly
shown in table 23.
.
TaBLE 23.—National income, private and public construction activity, and con-
struction-income ratios by years, 1939-42
Public construc-
Private construc- tion and main-
ven and main- penenes, elie: Federal work relief
National nance ng Federal wor
Year income Telief
Income Income Income
Amount | “jatio | Amount ratio | 4mount ratio
Million | Million Million Million
dollars |, dollars | Percent | dollars | Percent | dollars | Percent
58, 532 5, 765 8.4 3, 072 45 1,223 1.8
6, 586 8.5 3, 392 4.4 936 1.2
7, 877 8.3 6, 591 6.9 725 -8
5, 530 4.6 11, 426 9.5 340 3
Precepts for stabilizing the economy.—From the foregoing discussion,
three definite precepts emerge to form a basic consideration in the
maintenance of a stabilized economy.
1. The principle of employing needed public works to stimulate
a waning private economy is demonstrably sound.
120 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
2. Statistical means exist for the advance determination and
ibd etna of integrated programs of public works required to
stabilize the economy; and the volume of such public works
employed must be sufficient to offset the decline in the volume
of private construction activity.
3. It is important that the Federal Government reaffirm as a
permanent policy the principle of cooperative provision of needed
public works as a stimulus to & waning private economy, in order
that private investment initiative may predicate its plans on the
assurance of continuity in the public practice of this policy.
. Construction expenditure associated with economic health—In con-
sideration of these fundamental precepts and the data previously ex-
amined, the Committee concludes that an expenditure for all classes
of construction and maintenance work, private and public, approxi-
mating 15 percent of the national income is @ condition associated
with the economic health of the country. The ratio should probably
not be permitted to rise materially above 15 percent, and any sub-
stantial decline below that figure should be regarded as a danger signal
and remedied by immediate increase of construction activity, by public
stimulation when and to the extent necessary.
In the light of this suggestion it is interesting to observe what oc-
curred from the beginning of the depression onward. In the 4-year
period 1927 to 1930, immediately preceding, the total construction
a alee had involved an average annual expenditure of 17.5 percent
of the national income, of which 13.2 percent was for private constuc-
tion and 4.3 percent for public construction, with maintenance included
in each figure.
In the first 4 years of the depression, 1931 to 1934, the average
annual expenditure for private construction and maintenance dropped
sharply to an amount representing only 7.0 percent of the national
income, a decline equal to 6.2 percent of the national income. To
restore the total construction and maintenance ratio to 15 percent
would have required an increase in the total public expenditure by an
amount equal to 3.7 percent of the national income. In the 4-year
perce the average construction and maintenance expenditure of the
ederal Government was actually increased over the amount expended
in the period 1927-30 by an amount equal to 1.1 percent of the national
income. Of this increase, as shown by table 24, 0.3 percent was
supplied by increase of Federal-aid highway expenditures and 0.2 per-
cent by work-relief expenditures on highways. The remainder of
0.6 percent was made up of 0.4 percent for other Federal construction
expenditures exclusive of work relief and 0.2 percent in work-relief
expenditures. But, at the same time that the Federal Government
was increasing its expenditures by the amount of 1.1 percent of the
national income, expenditures for construction and maintenance by
the States and their subdivisions were reduced by an amount equal to
0.5 percent of the national income, so that the net increase was only
0.6 percent of the national income, as compared with the 3.7 percent
increase that was needed to compensate for the decline in private
expenditure and restore the total construction and maintenance pro-
gram to 15 percent of the national income. As a result, the total
program dropped to 11.9 percent of the national income, and the
national income dropped from an annual average of more than
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 121
$75,000,000,000 in the period 1927-30, to an annual average of less
than $51,000,000,000 in the period 1931-34.
In the next 4-year period, 1935-38, private construction and mainte-
nance activity was increased, rising from an average of 7.0 percent of
the national income for the previous period to 7.7 percent, as shown in
table 22. To have provided a total construction and maintenance
program amounting to 15 percent of the national income, a public
expenditure equal to 7.3 percent of the national income would have
been necessary. As the public expenditure of the preceding period
(table 22) was 4.9 percent of the national income, this would have
called for an increase equal to 2.4 percent of the national income.
As shown by table 24, the Federal expenditure was actually in-
creased over that of the preceding period by an amount representing
1.9 percent of the national income. No part of this increase was
_ provided through the normal Federal-aid highway expenditures.
Relief expenditures for highways were increased by an amount equal
to 0.6 percent of the national income, and the balance of the increase,
amounting to 1.3 percent, was provided, 0.7 percent in normal con-
struction operations other than highway work and 0.6 percent in
relief expenditures for other than highway work. ;
But while the Federal Government was thus increasing its con-
struction expenditures by 1.9 percent of the national income, other
governmental expenditures for construction and maintenance de-
clined by an amount equal to 1.4 percent of the national income, so
that the net increase in public expenditures was only 0.5 percent, .
which with the 0.7 percent increase in private construction increased
the total construction and maintenance program to only 13.1 percent.
of the national income from the lowest average of 11.9 percent regis-
tered in the preceding period. Nevertheless the national income
increased from an annual average of less than 51 billion in the preceding
period to more than $63,000,000,000 in the period 1935-38. Recove
was marked, but by no means assured, and unemployment was sti
large.
"ht remained for the threat of war to provide the stimulus necessary
to raise the construction ratio to the 15-percent level suggested as
desirable. The 14.8 percent ratio recorded for the 4 years from 1939
to 1942 was largely the result of expanded Federal construction
operations incident to preparation for the war and its conduct in the
first year. Private construction in this 4-year period dropped from
7.7 to 7.1 percent of the national income (table 22). Public highway
construction, including maintenance and relief work, dropped from
2.9 to 2.2 percent of the national income (table 24). Relief expendi-
tures for other than highway work dropped from 0.8 to 0.4 percent
and non-Federal expenditures for other construction work increased
only from 0.2 to 0.4 percent of the national income. The large
increase occurred in Federal expenditures other than for highways,
an increase from 1.3 to 4.5 percent of the national income. This
increase was sufficient to offset the other declines and restore the total
construction ratio to an average of 14.8 percent for the 4-year period.
It was devoted largely to the construction of Army camps and other
military and naval establishments and to plants for the manufacture
of munitions of war—all, in their ultimate purpose, designed to train
men and provide means for destruction. But nevertheless the effect
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
122
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CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 123
of the enlarged expenditure for construction and of other expendi-
tures for arms and ammunition, was practically to erase unemploy-
ment and raise the national income to an unprecedented high level.
HIGHWAYS AND CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY
Federal versus local government expenditures for highways.—In respect
to highway construction and maintenance, table 24 shows that the
average total expenditure by all agencies of government increased
steadily from one of the 4-year periods to another prior to 1931, both
in the absolute amount of the expenditure and in percentage of the
national income, reaching a maximum predepression level of near!
1.9 billion dollars and 2.5 percent of the national income. Throu
all these periods the Federal highway expenditure averaged only
about 0.1 percent of the national income.
With the onset of the depression, in the period 1931-34, the Federal
Government increased its regular highway-construction expenditure
to an average for the period equal to 0.4 percent of the national income,
and to this added highway work relief expenditures averaging for the
period 0.2 percent of the national income. The total Federal in-
crease, equal to 0.5 percent of the national income, was partially offset
by a decrease in the expenditure of local governments so that the net
increase, expressed as a percentage of the national income, was only
0.4 percent, and this was insufficient to prevent a decline in absolute
expenditure which reduced the total to less than 1.5 billion dollars.
In the following period, regular Federal expenditures remaining at
0.4 percent of the national income, work-relief expenditures on high-
ways increased to an annual average of 0.8 percent of the national
income, a Federal increase representing 0.6 percent of the national
income which was completely offset by an identical decrease in the
ration of highway expenditures by local governments, so that the
total ratio remained at 2.9 percent of the national income, the same
as in the preceding period. In absolute amount, however, the total
expenditure increased, with the national income, from less than 1.5
to a little more than 1.8 billion dollars, an amount slightly less than
the average expenditure of the last predepression period.
In the last period, 1939-42, regular Federal expenditures for high-
way construction were reduced to an amount representing 0.2 percent
of the national income and work relief highway expenditures to 0.5
percent of the national income, a total Federal reduction equal to 0.5
ercent of the national income, which, with a further reduction in
ocal government expenditures, dropped the total highway expendi-
ture for the period to an average of 2.2 percent of the national income,
equivalent to an absolute expenditure above 1.9 billion dollars.
Reduction in local expenditures offset Federal increases.—Throughout
all of the first two 4-year periods from 1931 and for at least half of the
final period, there was need to increase public construction and main-
tenance expenditures to offset the decline in private expenditures and
provide emplosment for idle workers and idle industry. But the sub-
stantial efforts of the Federal Government to accomplish this result, in
part by the stimulation of highway-construction activity, were inffec-
tive because of reductions in local highway expenditures. .
Nor could these reductions in local expenditure be justified on
grounds of reduced need of expenditure. Throughout all three 4-year
124 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
periods there was widespread recognition of the need for increased
effort in highway construction and maintenance.
The total number of vehicles in operation dropped slightly from the
predepression peak in the period from 1931 to 1934 but increased
thereafter to a new peak in 1941, an 8-year increase of 45 percent.
Total consumption of motor fuel experienced an equally rapid growth,
rising from the depression low in 1933 of approximately 14% billion
allons to nearly 24 billion gallons in 1941, an increase of 68 percent
in the 8 years. In each year from 1932 through 1941, the gallons of
motor fuel consumed per vehicle in operation, increased, and a similar
nea was pocontell for each of the 4-year periods, as shown in
table 25.
TABLE 25.— Motor vehicles in operation and motor fuel consumption (total annual
average and annual average per vehicle) by 5-year periods, 1931-42
Motor vehicles | Motor-fuel con-| Motor-fuel con-
sumption per
vehicle, annual
average
Period in operation, sumption,
annual average | annual average
Thousand
Thousands gai Gallons
1931-34.... 2... eucieag tule es cots Matin teed terete 24, 890 14, 793, 539
1935-38__........- Sas Padie toes oeeet tse Sade Relea ese 28, 732 18, 233, 974 635
198042 i. coi ose saci disc ote ouewess Sects ceseeee secs 32, 906 21, 620, 671 657
The rapidly increasing volume of motor-vehicle traffic indicated by
these figures called for a general increase in the width of highway
surfaces. Higher speeds of travel had made many of the older aline-
ments dangerous. The toll of accidents was increasing annually.
A large mileage of the roads first built was each year reaching the
point of desirable renewal, and maintenance necessities were increasing
with the mileage and age of roads previously improved. In addition,
for at least the latter half of the three-period span, there was clear
recognition of the need for radical and expensive improvements of the
artcrial approaches and main thoroughfares of cities, improvements
of great potential benefit, on which thousands of workers and a large
industrial production could have been usefully employed.
In spite of these recognized needs for highway improvement and
aotwithstanding the widespread need for employment, local expendi-
tures for highways, both for construction and maintenance, were
reduced during the depression by amounts at least equal to the
increases in Federal expenditure, so that the employment purposes
of the Federal Government were largely or completely nullified.
Committee recommendation—Return to tested principles —To forestall
a similar defeat of any post-war effort of the Federal Government to
provide, through highway construction, for increased employment,
the Committee recommends a return to the tested principles of the
Federal Highway Act which require (1) the Federal contribution to
construction to be matched in substantially equal amount by the
States, and (2) the States to maintain the highways built with Federal
assistance. Whatever may be the cooperating governments, whether
State, county, or city, the Committee recommends the application
of these principles in fixing the amount of the Federal and local
contributions.
Construction expenditures to maintain national income.—For the
maintenance of all roads and streets the Committee estimates that
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 125
an average annual expenditure of at least $750,000,000 will be required
for several years after the war, an amount that may have to be ex-
ceeded in the first years to catch up as quickly as possible with needs
deferred because of the greater necessities of the war. The con-
servatism of this estimate is indicated by the fact that highway and
street maintenance expenditures, clearly so recognized, in the 4 years,
1939-42, averaged $640,000,000 per year, as shown on table 24, and
these expenditures were doubtless augmented by part of the work-
relief expenditure, avenue $427,000,000 in the same period, which
was made for essentially maintenance purposes. The post-war
maintenance expenditure, whatever may be its reasonable amount,
must be made as early as possible in order to halt the road and street
deterioration which wartime neglect has permitted; and it should
have first call upon the post-war current highway revenues of the
States and their subdivisions.
The additional amount it will then be possible and desirable to
expend for highway construction will depend upon the magnitude of
the national income and the requirements of private construction and
maintenance and other kinds of public construction.
It has often been suggested that the national income should not be
allowed to fall below $100,000,000,000. On the assumption that this
is a desirable minimum, the Committee considers the expenditure of
approximately 15 percent of that sum, or $15,000,000,000, as reason-
able and desirable for all classes of construction and maintenance,
public and private.
The maximum past expenditure for private construction and
maintenance was the average of just under $10,000,000,000 recorded
in the 4 years 1927-30 (table 22). In the 4-year period leading up to
the war the private expenditure averaged approximately 6.5 billion
dollars per year. With due allowance for a substantial expenditure
for housing and expecting that the conversion of war plants will
reduce the construction essential for resumption of peacetime industry,
the Committee estimates that the post-war requirement of private
construction will not exceed an average of $8,000,000,000 per year, or
8 percent of a national income averaging $100,000,000,000. This will
leave a balance of $7,000,000,000 of the desirable $15,000,000,000 total
for all kinds of construction to be employed for public construction
and maintenance of all classes.
Referring again to table 24, it will be observed that in each of the
4-year periods for which public. construction expenditures are sum-
fapeised. excepting only the period 1915-18 when highway improve-
ment had been scarcely begun and the period 1939-42 when war
reparation made its extraordinary demands, the expenditure for
hihwar construction and maintenance was substantially equal to or
in excess of the expenditure for all other classes of public construction
and maintenance. A similar division will be observed in the work-
relief expenditures of the three 4-year periods from 1931 to 1942,
inclusive.
An equal division of the $7,000,000,000 estimated above as likely to
be available for all classes of public construction immediately after the
war, would allot to post-war highway construction and maintenance
3.5 billion dollars. As will be seen from table 24, this amount sub-
stantially exceeds the largest previous sustained highway expenditure.
Nevertheless, the Committee considers that all necessary preparations
‘126 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
should be made for a post-war highway expenditure at that rate. The
extraordinary improvement of the interregional highway system
proposed in this report can be counted upon to absorb any excess that
may exist above the normal requirements of highway renewal and
maintenance.
Should private construction or the requirements of other classes of
public construction exceed the estimates herein made, the expenditure
for highways may be reduced. In any case, however, it is believed
that the total highway and street expenditures in each of the years
immediately following the war should not be less than $3,000,000,000.
Proposed expenditure on the interregional system. Deducting $750,-
000,000 for maintenance from an assumed minimum highway and
street expenditure of.$3,000,000,000, leaves 2.25 billion dollars for
construction. The Committee’s traffic estimates indicate that the
interregional highway system, improved as recommended in this re-
ort, will serve approximately 20 percent of the total of street and
highway traffic of the country. If, therefore, apportionment of the
total construction expenditure were to be made strictly in the propor-
tion of traffic served, the interregional system’s share of a total annual
construction expenditure of 2.25 billion dollars for all roads and streets
would be $450,000,000. ,
But such an apportionment would ignore important reasons war-
ranting construction oy Second on the system in a ratio to total ex-
penditure higher than the ratio of traffic served. First of these is the
greater and more urgent needs of improvement existing on the impor-
tant routes constituting the system. The nature and urgency of these
needs have already been described in detail. A second and equally
cogent reason is the far greater return of benefits and road-user-tax
earnings to be expected from expenditure on the system.
On the basis of anticipated costs and traffic service, the Commit-
tee estimates that urban sections of the system, improved as recom-
mended, will generate during the life of the improvements road-use-tax
revenues approximately three times as great as the cost of creating and
maintaining the improvements. The improved rural sections will
earn, on the average, practically double their cost.
These considerations, together with the high priority of needs exist-
ing on the system, bespeak the importance of its rapid improvement,
and justify, in the opinion of the Committee, the expenditure of at
least 30 percent and preferably a third of all available construction
funds on the system. With total construction expenditure at the rate
of 2.25 billion dollars annually, this would mean an annual expenditure
for improvement of the system in the amount of at least $675,000,000
and preferably $750,000,000.
With due regard for the relative needs of improvement within and
without the system, it is the Committee’s opinion that expenditures in
the immediate post-war years at the rate of $500,000,000 per year on
urban sections of the interregional system and $250,000,000 per year
on rural sections are necessary, and that such expenditures would con-
stitute a practicable objective that could be achieved, within a total
construction expenditure of 2.25 billion dollars annually, without
jeopardy to the essential improvement of other parts of the entire road
and street system. ‘
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 127
EMPLOYMENT POSSIBILITIES IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
Relation of construction expenditure and employment.—As bases for
an estimate of the employment that may be afforded by all highway
construction and maintenance and particularly by construction of
the interregional system after the war, appendix VII gives in table 2
the actual man-months of direct employment on Federal, Federal-aid,
and independent State highway construction and on highway main-
tenance by the States, by months from 1931 to 1942, inclusive, and in
table 3, the same employment by yearly and 4-year periods, For
comparison with these employment figures, table 4 in appendix VII
shows for the same series of years and periods, the annual expenditures
of the Federal and State Governments for the construction and main-
een work on which the employment recorded in tables 2 and 3 was
afforded.
From the data included in these basic tables, expenditures per man-
year of direct employment on construction and maintenance work and
on both classes of work combined in the proportions which actually
existed, have been computed, and are given in table 26.
TABLE ce Peep alias nalend aft man-year of direct employment on Federal and State
highway construction and State maintenance, by years and 4-year periods, 1981
to 1942, inclusive
Expenditure per man-year of direct Expenditure per man-year of direct
employment
employment
PERIOD AVERAGES
2, 510
“ 203 $2, 260
1931-42.......
1930-42..._.. 4,830
1 Includes maintenance of Federal-aid highways.
1 Preliminary estimate.
It will be noted that in 1934 the expenditure to provide a man-year
of direct employment on Federal and State highway construction was
just above $2,000, whereas in the latest complete war year this figure
ad been almost trebled. The variation in the expenditure for direct
highway employment is affected both by administrative policy and
the state of the national economy. The low point of depression
produced the lowest expenditure la man-year of direct employment,
partly as a result of a general deflation of wages and prices. But
policy limitations of hours of work designed to pret employment
and wage ceilings fixed for various classes of work, also operated to
128 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
reduce average direct labor earnings and, therefore, the total ex-
penditure for employment. At the same time, the use of machinery
and equipment was abandoned with the purpose of increasing the
relative volume of direct employment, and this was accomplished
only at the expense of increased total costs, a reduced total volume
of work accomplished, and a reduced employment of indirect indus-
trial labor. In subsequent years, when wage and hour restrictions
were relaxed to closer accord with the national economic trend, there
were resulting increases in the cost of direct employment. In these
later years, however, there was a resumption of efficient methods of
construction, so that, despite the higher labor cost, total construction
costs were reduced. Moreover, the resulting stimulus both to direct
employment and to the equipment, material, and supply functions of
industry, amply demonstrated the wisdom of the later policy.
The variation in the expenditure per man-year of direct highway
employment through the period from 1931 to 1942, inclusive, in
relation to the total economy as expressed by the national income
and to the total dollar volume of all classes of construction, and the
resulting effects of the wage variation and policy decisions referred
to, on over-all highway construction prices are shown by the com-
parative indexes of table 27. ‘
TABLE 27.—Indexes of national income, total construction dollar volume, highway
construction expenditure per man-year of direct employment, and highway con-
struction cost
[Base, 1931-42= 100]
Index of
Index of | highway
construc- | construc-
Index of
Index of | tion, main-| tion ex-
Period national tenance, and penditure eoeay.
ncome | work-relief | per man- ri
dollar year of | ton prices
volume | direct em-
ployment
88.4 95. 4 114.1 97.2
68.5 59.4 104.6 77.2
65. 6 46.6 70.6 93. 8
75.7 60. 3 59.0 106.3
82.9 65.5 71.1 102.0
96.3 04.4 90. 1 104.9
101.6 99. 5 114.3 100.5
92.5 100. 2 126.2 92.2
100. 5 108.9 126.0 91.8
113.4 118.2 127.4 90.6
138.9 164.5 135. 1 103.5
175.7 187.2 168.6 139. 4
74.6 65. 4 83.3 93.7
93.3 89.9 97.3 99.9
132.1 144.7 136. 4 106.3
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
From the regularity of the relation between the cost of Providing
direct highway employment and both the total dollar volume of
construction and the national income throughout most of the period,
it appears that natural economic forces may be depended upon to in-
duce essential variations in both wages and hours of work without the
necessity of invoking extraordinary artificial controls over either wage
minima or working-hour maxima. The lack of agreement between
the trend of highway construction prices and the trend of total con-
struction volume in the middle thirtics indicates the inadvisability
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 129
of a sacrifice of efficient methods in favor of hand-labor and spread-
work procedures. Rather, it appears highly desirable to obtain a
maximum physical production of needed facilities by the most efficient
mechanical methods, applied at reasonable wage and hour levels, and
to obtain thereby the fullest stimulus to the recovery of private in-
dustrial processes and resulting indirect employment.
Effect of price inflation.—Another important indication of these data
is the measure they afford of the probable effect of the construction
volume-price relationship on the feasibility of post-war construction.
It will be noted that no construction volume in the entire series, other
than the extreme volume induced by war activity in 1942, operated
to elevate the price of highway construction above the levels obtaining
in the middle thirties, which were largely generated by a sacrifice of
mechanical efficiency. This record gives considerable assurance that
a large program of public construction can be undertaken after the
war at any level below that of a wartime economy without serious
auction of the employment value of the expenditure by price in-
ation.
Direct and indirect employment.—The total employment value of any
public highway construction program consists in the primary em-
ployment created at the job sites and the secondary industrial employ-
ment resulting from the use of equipment, materials, supplies, and
transportation services. Both in the direct and indirect groups, wage
and hour conditions tend toward a natural variation with general
economic conditions. These natural variations affect the relative
volumes of direct and indirect employment as well as the total em-
povment in the same manner that construction prices are affected
y the total volume of construction.
Table 28 shows, for three past periods, the combined results of these
several variants in the amounts and costs of direct and indirect high-
way employment provided by a construction expenditure of
$100,000,000, all of which is eventually translated into salaries
and wages.
TABLE 28.— Wages and hours of work and volume of highway employment provided
by a Federal and State expenditure of $100,000,000 for construction in each of
3 selected periods
Period; ‘Years 222222 5050228 shoe soer obese be seeecl eteeeele 1931-33 1940-41 1942-43
sas hourly wage:
Direct employment.-...... 222.2222 2-2-2 eee eee eee ee eee $0. 48 $0. 68 $0. 81
Indirect employment............-.2------- 202 --eee ee ene ee $0. 59 $0. 82 $0. 97
Direct and indirect employment............--.-.--------- $0. 56 $0. 78 $0.92
Ratio, direct to indirect employment...........---------- 1:1B 1:L21 1:1.20
Man-hours employed:
Direct employment...........--.-22-------20- eee eee eens 50, 870, 000 33, 664, 000 32, 810, 000
Indirect employment............2.2.------- 002 eee eee eee ee 128, 034, 000 94, 331, 000 75, 651, 000
Direct and indirect employment................-.-------- 178, 904,000 | 127, 995, 000 108, 461, 000
Ratio, direct to indirect employment...........-..-.....- 1: 2.52 1:2.80 1:2.31
Average hours eed month:
Direct employment.-_........-...-....-2..--.--------- 22 112 145 161
Indirect employment.............-.-..2.----------e eee nee 165 182 197
Direct and indirect employment.................2..--..-- 145 Vi 185
Ratio, direct to indirect employment..........-..-...---- 1:1.47 1:1.26 1:21.22
Average monthly wage:
Direct employment... .......222.2..002--0 2 eee e ee eee eens $54 $00 $130
Indirect employment............----------0---2---2 eee eee $97 $149 $191
Direct and indirect employment................-.---.--- $81 $133 $170
Ratio, direct to indirect employment..............-...--- 1:1.82 1:1,50 1:1.47
Man-months employed:
Direct employment.............-..02----2-- 2-22 e eee ee cee 455, 500 232, 200 203, 400
Indirect employment............------------+-2-------0+- 776, 800 517, 400 384, 000
Direct and indirect employment.....-...-..-------------- 1, 232, 300 749, 600 587, 400
Ratio, direct to indirect employment..........--..---.--- 1:1.70 1:22 1:1.89
130 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
TABLE 28.— Wages and hours of work and volume of highway employment provided
by a Federal and State expenditure of $100,000,000 for construction in each of
8 selected periods—Continued
Period, YOare. cos... oc2 ccna cle dasnccsctcesee secs ssssscc cts, 1931-33 1940-41
Man-years employed:
Direct euploymen 960 $19, 350 $16, 950
Indirect emplo: $64, 730 $43, 120 $32, 000
Direct and $102, 690 $62, 470 $48, 950
re Ratio, sechial to indirect employment. 1:1.70 1:2.23 1:1.89
verage yearly wage:
$640 $1, 190 $1, 566
$1, 170 $1, 785 $2, 205
0 $1, 601 $2, 043
1:182 1:1 1:1.47
Direct Sapleyment vuwapesoncwcuede ecu castes Seccceceseseee $24, 391,000 | $23, 026, 000 $26, 543, 000
Indirect employment...............-- See eee . 609, $73, 457, 000
irect and indirect employment $100, 000, 000
Ratio, direct to indirect employment Sate 13. 1:2.77
Expenditure per man-year of direct employment.............- $2, 634 $5, 168 $5, 900
The first period, 1931-33, measures the results actually obtaining
in a deflated market but within the framework of definite wage,
hour, and machinery-use controls. The second period, 1940-41, rep-
resents the conditions obtaining during the approach to war econ-
omy. In this period wage and hour conditions were at natural eco-
nomic levels, the most efficient methods were employed, and the price
trend is the logical result of the total volume of actvity. The third
period, 1942-43 (including the first 6 months of the latter year), is
shown to represent the peak of heavily inflated economy, during which
the excessive war demand for construction and industrial production
has greatly stimulated price levels, wages, and hours of work.
If it may be assumed that the post-war return from the wartime
peak to more normal conditions of peace will reverse the trends of
the period of entrance into the war, then the period, 1940-41, may
be considered to represent conditions most nearly approximating
those that will obtain in the post-war years. In that event, as indi-
cated by table 28, it may be estimated that highway construction
will furnish approximately 19,350 man-years of direct and 43,120
man-years of indirect employment for each $100,000,000 expended
annually,
Under the same conditions highway maintenance, as shown in
table 29, may be expected to provide approximately 54,500 man-years
of direct and 26,550 man-years of indirect employment for each
$100,000,000 expended annually.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 131
TABLE 29.— Wages and hours of work and volume of highway employment provided
by bh expenditure of $100,000,000 for maintenance under assumed post-war
conditions.
On the basis of these estimates, the total highway program of
3 billion dollars, consisting of 2.25 billion dollars for construction and
750 million dollars for maintenance, indicated previously as the
probable essential post-war program, will afford approximately
840,000 man-years of direct employment and 1,160,000 man-years of
indirect employment.
Of these totals, the interregional system constructed at the recom-
mended rate, corresponding to an annual expenditure of $750,000,000,
would employ each year approximately 145,100 man-years directly
and 323,400 man-years indirectly, or a total of 468,500 man-years
per year.
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT ON THE INTERREGIONAL SYSTEM
Centers of greatest employment need on the system.—As previously
shown in detail, there are more or less extensive sections of the recom-
mended interregional highway system in every State and in 1,056 of
the 3,076 * counties of the country. It has been shown also that the
system reaches directly 587 of the 1,077 cities of 10,000 population or
more, and that the cities directly touched are those in which a large
volume of unemployment is likely to occur in the process of change
from the activities of war to those of peace.
For purposes of direct employment, therefore, the system is well
located, and a prompt beginning of its construction can be the means
of employing directly substantial numbers of workers in every State
and at the points in each State where there will be the greatest em-
ployment needs.
19 See footnote 3.
132 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Character of direct employment.—The character of this direct employ-
ment, if it conforms to the typical highway pattern, will comprise
various classes of workers as follows:
Percent
Administrative, executive, and supervisory personnel........--..------- 13. 6
or:
Skilled? 222.2 2os 2 ees assis ee Se ee ee eee 15.4
Intermediate: 2.22222 2.2202 4001 bondoc ee das aces ceeee ones s 25. 2
Unskilled 22022225052 S2820.00. si So Sos nace wee coteecseueceee 45. 8
Total direct employment....._.....-.------------------------ 100. 0
Character of indirect employment.—Indirect employment will be
provided in the production, processing, and distribution of 11 general
classes of equipment and 9 basic items of material, in addition to sup-
plies for the operation and maintenance of equipment and innumer-
able minor items. The materials of highway construction are of
widespread occurrence in nature. They emerge from farms, forests,
mines, and quarries. The major quantities of materials actually
incorporated im the finished highways are those of most common orig-
in. Fine and ooarse aggregates, sand, gravel, stone, slag, and soil
are common to every State. In addition to the frequent local pro-
duction of aggregates by highway contractors, there are nearly 2,500
regula commercial producers scattered throughout the country.
ortland cement is produced in 169 mills, principally in 12 scattered
States ® but to a limited extent in others. In addition to the ship-
ping mills, there are more than 35,000 retail cement outlets in the
nited States, and from 1935 to 1939 no State was unaffected by the
shipments of cement. Approximately 6,600 establishments are en-
gaged in the manufacture of concrete products variously incorporated
into finished highways.
Petroleum products derive principally and initially from the 18 oil-
producing States in 7 scattered regions. Highway use of petroleum
and other bituminous products is extremely general, and consists of
fuels and fuel oils, lubricants, and other products in addition to the
bituminous materials incorporated in the roads as binders. Thus,
the employment benefits resulting from the production and distribu-
tion of petroleum products for highway use are far reaching.
Similarly, in the production for highway use of large elements of
iron and steel which are involved both in the manufacture of equip-
ment and in the fabrication of highways, the employment values and
the stimulus to industry are both general and widespread. The use
of lumber, lumber products, and kiln products such as brick and tile
are other examples of materials, the manufacture and transportation
of which yield widely distributed benefits.
The production and distribution of equipment and machinery is
likewise a major item in the provision of employment. The ownership
expense, exclusively for highway construction equipment, is calcu-
lated to exceed $140,000,000 annually. Repair and pep rete re-
guremols are about the equal of depreciation in the long run, and
the unprecedented use of construction equipment during the war
emergency is indicative of the need for extensive replacement and
maintenance when the green light comes on again. In all probability,
ne items of construction equipment are produced in all but a few of
the States.
® Alabama, California, Ulinols, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, and Texas.
CONSTRUCTING THE SYSTEM 133
CONCLUBIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
All of these facts indicate that the indirect employment that could
be afforded by construction of the proposed system would be widely
distributed throughout the entire country. In large part, moreover,
this indirect employment would be very quickly generated.
In addition to the benefits to be afforded by the provision of much
needed modern highway facilities, the Committee concludes that con-
struction of the recommended interregional system will make possible
the productive utilization of a substantial part of the manpower
and industrial capacity likely to be available in the post-war period.
It also desires to give special emphasis to the importance of complete
readiness for an immediate post-war initiation of construction as a
condition precede to the ultimate success of any comprehensive
public works plan which looks toward the stabilization of the national
income and the preservation of prosperity in the post-war period.
The magnitude ae the problems involved in the coordination of inter-
regional-highway-system construction as an integral part of that plan,
in the advance planning and design of component high-priority pro-
jects, and in the acquisition of required rights-of-way, serve to em-
phasize the need for their prompt and thorough consideration.
The Committee, therefore, strongly recommends the early . pro-
vision of all required legal authorizations and statutory sanctions,
to permit all necessary administrative preparatory measures to follow
in swift succession, and to insure a prompt beginning of construction
on the system at the end of the war and prosecution of such construc-
tion at the rate indicated by an annual expenditure of $750,000,000.
93800—44——-10
INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
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APPENDIX I
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APPENDIX II
Location oF OtTHer Hicuway Systems or Various MILEAGES
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APPENDIX II
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APPENDIX III
Mone. Limitep Access Higuway Law
Recommended by the Public Roads Administration, Federal Works
Agency
AN ACT To provide for the planning, designation, establishment, use, regula-
tion, alteration, improvement, maintenance, and vacation of limited access facili-
ties; the acquisition of lands required therefor, the restriction of intersections and
control of approaches; the establishment of local service roads; the prohibition
of certain acts thereon and provision for penalties therefor; and for other purposes.
Section 1. DECLARATION oF PoLicy.—The legislature hereby finds,
determines, and declares that this Act is necessary for the immediate
preservation of the public peace, health, and safety, and for the pro-
motion of the general welfare.
Src. 2. DEFINITION OF A LIMITED ACCESS FACILITY,—For the pur-
poses of this Act, a limited access facility is defined as a pach or
street especially designed for through traflic, and over, from, or to which
owners or occupants of abutting land or other persons have no right
or easement or only a limited nght or easement of access, light, air,
or view by reason of the fact that their property abuts upon such
limited access facility or for any other reason. Such highways or
streets may be parkways, from which trucks, busses, and other com-
mercial vehicles shall be excluded; or they may be free ways open to
use by all customary forms of street and highway traffic.
Sec. 3. AUTHORITY TO ESTABLISH LIMITED ACCESS FACILITIES.—The
highway authorities of the State, counties, cities, towns, and villages,
acting alone or in cooperation with each other or with any Federal,
State, or local agency of any other State having authority to pare
ipate in the construction and maintenance of highways, are hereby
authorized to plan, designate, establish, regulate, vacate, alter, im-
prove, maintain, and provide limited access facilities for public use
wherever such authority or authorities are of the opinion that traffic
conditions, present or future, will justify such special facilities—
Provided, That within cities and villages such authority shall be sub-
ject to such municipal consent as may be provided by law. Said
hiphway authorities of the State, counties, cities, villages, and towns,
in addition to the specific powers granted in this act, shall also have and
may exercise, relative to limited access facilities, any and all addi-
tional authority now or hereafter vested in them relative to high-
ways or streets within their respective jurisdictions. Said units may
regulate, restrict, or prohibit the use of such limited access facilities
by the various classes of vehicles or traffic in a manner consistent with
section 2 of this Act. i
Sec. 4. DeEsiGN oF LIMITED ACCESS FACILITY.—The highway au-
thorities of the State, county, city, town, and village are authorized
to so design any limited access facility and to so regulate, restrict, or
prohibit access as to best serve the traffic for which such facility is in-
tended; and its determination of such design shall be final. In this
143
144 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
connection such highway authorities are authorized to divide and
separate any limited access facility into separate roadways by the
construction of raised curbings, central dividing sections, or other
physical separations, or by designating such separate roadways by
' signs, markers, stripes, and the proper lane for such traffic by appro-
priate signs, markers, stripes, and other devices. No person shall
have any right of ingress or egress to, from, or across limited access
facilities to or from abutting lands, except at such designated points
at which access may be permitted, upon such terms and conditions
as may be specified from time to time.
Sec. 5. ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY AND PROPERTY RIGHTs.—For
the purposes of this act, the highway authorities of the State, county,
city, town, or village may acquire private or public property and prop-
erty rights for limited access facilities and service roads, including
rights of access, air, view, and light, by gift, devise, purchase or con-
demnation in the same manner as such units are now or hereafter may
be authorized by law to acquire such property or property rights in
connection with highways and streets within their respective jurisdic-
tions. All property rights acquired under the provisions of this act
shall be in fee siniles In connection with the acquisition of propert:
or property rights for any limited access facility or portion thereof,
or service road in connection therewith, the State, county, city, town,
or village highway authority may, in its discretion, acquire an entire
lot, block, or tract of land, if by so doing, the interests of the public
will be best served, even though said entire lot, block, or tract is not
immediately needed for the right-of-way proper.
Sec. 6. PREFERENCE OF CONDEMNATION CAsEs.—Court proceed-
ings necessary to acquire property or property rights for purposes of
this Act shall take precedence over all other causes not involving the
public interest in all courts, to the end that the provision of limited
access facilities may be expedited.
Sec. 7. NEW AND EXISTING FACILITIES; GRADE CROSSING ELIMINA-
TIoNs.—The highway authority of the State, county, city, town, or
village may designate and establish limited access highways as new
and additional facilities or may designate and establish an existing
street or highway as included within a limited access facility. The
State or any of its subdivisions shall have authority to provide for the
elimination of intersections at grade of limited access facilities with
existing State and county roads, and city and town or village streets,
by grade separation or service road, or by closing off such roads and
streets at the right-of-way boundary line of such limited access facility ;
and after the establishment of any limited access facility, no highway
or street which is not part of said facility shall intersect the same at
grade. No city, town, or village street, county or State highway or
other public way shall be opened into or connected with any such
limited access facility without the consent and previous approval of
the highway authority in the State, county, city, town, or village
having jurisdiction over such limited access facility. Such consent
and approval shall be given only if the public interest. shall be served
thereby. .
1 It is sometimes difficult to obtain a fee-simiple title where railraod interests are involved. In such ine
stances, an appropriate easement in perpetuity may be satisfactory.
APPENDIX III 145
Src. 8. AUTHORITY OF LOCAL UNITS TO CONSENT.—The highway
authorities of the State, city, county, town, or village are authorized
to enter into agreements with each other, or with the Federal Govern-
ment, respecting the financing, planning, establishment, improvement,
maintenance, use, regulation, or vacation of limited access facilities
or other public ways in their respective jurisdictions, to facilitate the
purposes of this Act.
Sec. 9. Locat sERvVICE ROADS.—In connection with the develop-
ment of any limited access facility the State, county, city, town, or
village highway authorities are authorized to plan, designate, estab-
lish, use, regulate, alter, improve, maintain, and vacate local service
roads and streets or to designate as local service roads and streets
any existing road or street, and to exercise jurisdiction over service
roads in the same manner as is authorized over limited access facilities
under the terms of this Act, if in their opinion, such local service
roads and streets are necessary or-desirable. Such local service roads
or streets shall be of appropriate design, and shall be separated from
the limited access facility proper by means of all devices designated
as necessary or desirable by the proper authority.
Sec. 10. UNLAWFUL USE OF LIMITED ACCESS FACILITIES; PENAL-
tT1Es.—It is unlawful for any person (1) to drive a vehicle over, upon,
or across any curb, central Mividi section, or other separation or
dividing line on limited access facilities; (2) to make a left turn, a
semicircular, or U-turn except through an opening provided for that
purpose in the dividing curb section, separation, or line; (3) to drive
any vehicle except in the proper lane provided for that purpose and
in the proper direction an to the right of the central dividing curb,
separation section, or line; (4) to drive any vehicle into the limited
access facility from a local service road except through an opening
provided for that purpose in the dividing curb or dividing section or
dividing line which separates such service road from the limited ac-
cess facility proper. Any person who violates any of the provisions
of this section is guilty of a misdemeanor and upon arrest and convic-
tion therefor shall be punished by a fine of not less than five dollars
($5.00) nor more than one hundred dollars ($100.00), or by imprison-
ment in the city or county jail for not less than five days nor more
than ninety days, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
Sec. 11. SeverasiLiry.—lIf any section, provision, or clause of this
act shall be declared invalid or inapplicable to any person or circum-
stance, such invalidity or inapplicability shall not be construed to
affect the portions not so held or persons or circumstances not so
affected. All laws or portions of laws inconsistent with the policy and
provision of this act are herebv repealed to the extent of such incon-
serene in its application to limited access facilities provided for in
this Act.
APPENDIX IV
New Yorx Graber Crossing ELIMINATION Act oF 1928
SECTIONS PRESCRIBING LAND ACQUISITION PROCEDURE
Source: McKinney’s Consolidated Laws of New York, Annotated, Book 65,
Eisai tray Laws, (1942), title 22, sec. 7905; 1943 Cumulative Annual
ocket Part.
§ 7905. ACQUISITION OF LANDS; TEMPORARY OCCUPATION
1. The public service commission shall direct the department of
public works or the railroad corporation or corporations to prepare an
accurate description and map of any lands which the commission may
deem necessary in the elimination of any crossing or of any land in
and to which an easement right may be deemed necessary, or of any
rights of abutting property owners the temporary appropriation of
which may be deemed by the commission to be necessary, specifying
the particular easement right. On the approval of such description
and map by such commission, such commission shall deliver such
description and map to the department of public works and shall direct
such department to acquire such lands and easement rights by
appropriation as prescribed by this act.
2. Such description and the original tracing of such map shall be
filed in the office of the department of public works, which shall cause
a certified copy of such description and map to be filed in the office of
the department of state and notice of such filing to be given to the
public service commission,
3. On the filing of such description and map in the office of the
department of state, the people of the state of New York, their officers
and agents, may immediately enter upon and take possession of the
lands so described for the purpose of the elimination of any crossing.
3~a. If the public service commission shall determine, prior to the
service of such description and map on the owner or owners of land
and easement rights, that changes, alterations or modifications of such
description and map as filed in the office of the department of state
should be made, it shall direct the department of public works or the
railroad corporation or corporations to prepare an amended descrip-
tion and map. On the approve of such amended description and map
by the commission it shall be delivered to the department of public
works and filed in the office of the department of state in the same
manner as the original description and map was filed and shall there-
upon in all respects and for all purposes supersede the description
and map previously filed.
3-b. If the public service commission shall determine prior to the
service of such description and map on the owner or owners of land
and easement rights that such description and map should be with-
drawn, it shall file a certificate of withdrawal in the offices of the de-
partment of public works and the department of state. Upon the
filing of such certificate of withdrawal the description and map to
which it refers shall be canceled and all rights thereunder shall cease
and determine.
146
APPENDIX IV 147
4. The department of public works shall thereupon deliver to the
attorney-general a copy of such description and map, whereupon it
shall be the duty of the attorney-general to advise and certify to the
department of public works the names of the owners of the lands so
described, including the owners of any right, title or interest in and
to such lands. ‘The department of public works shall thereupon
cause a copy of such description and map, with notice of the filing
thereof in the office of the department of state, to be served on the
owner or owners of the lands and easement rights so certified by the
attorney-general and from the time of such service the appropriation
by the people of the state of the property described in such notice
shall be deemed complete and, thereupon such property shall become
and be the property of the people of the state: Provided, however,
that in the event that the lands or interests therein set forth in such
description and map shall. be owned by a municipal corporation and
used for the purposes of impounding, storing or transporting water
for a municipal water supply or for the sanitary protection thereof,
such appropriation shall be subject to the express condition that the
use and occupation of such lands or interests therein shall not en-
danger or injure the water-supply structures or other property of
such municipal corporation or interfere with the use and operation
thereof for water supply or sanitary protection purposes,
5. Such service must be personal, if the person to be served can be
found within the state. If the department of public works shall not
be able to serve such notice or cause the same to be served upon the
owner or owners personally within the state, after making an effort
so to do which such department shall deem to be reasonable and
proper, service may be made by filing such notice, description and
map in the office of the clerk or register of the county wherein the
property 80 appropriated is situated, and by causing such notice to
e recorded in the books used for recording deeds in the office of such
clerk or register. On the filing of such notice with such clerk or
register, it shall be the duty of such clerk or register to record same
in the books used for recording deeds in the office of such clerk or
register and to index the name of the person or persons to whom such
notice is directed as a grantor in an index book to be kept by such
clerk or register; and the record of such notice shall be presumptive
evidence of due service thereof.
6. If service be personal, the department of public works shall
thereupon cause a copy of such notice, together with an affidavit of
due service thereof on such owner or owners, to be filed and recorded
in the same manner as provided for recording a notice served by filing
as aforesaid and it shall be the duty of such clerk or register to record
and index same as provided in case service is other than personal; and
the record of such notice and of such proof of personal service shall be
presumptive evidence of due service thereof.
7. Claims for the value of the property appropriated and for legal
damages caused by any such appropriation may be ac juste by the
department of public works, with the approval of the railroad corpora-
tion or corporations and county or counties bearing a part of the cost
of the elimination, even though a claim has been filed with the court
of claims, if the amount thereof can be agreed upon with the owner or
owners thereof. Upon making any such adjustment and agreement,
the department of public works shall deliver to the comptroller such
agreement and a certificate stating the amount due such owner on
148 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
account of such a propranen of his land or other property and the
amount so fixed shall be paid out of the state treasury from moneys
appropriated for such elimination from the proceeds of such state
- bonds but not until there shall have been filed with the comptroller,
a certificate of the attorney-general showing the person or persons
claiming the amount so agreed upon to be legally entitled thereto, and
the railroad corporation or corporations and the county or counties
shall pay to the state their proportionate shares as prescribed by this
act of any amount so agreed upon as part of the cost of such elimination.
8. Any owner may present to the court of claims a claim for the
value of such property aperypnated and for legal damages, as pro-
vided by law for the filing of claims with the court of claims. Awards
and judgments of the court of claims shall be paid in the same manner
as awards and judgments of that court for the acquisition of lands
generally and shall be paid out of the state treasury from moneys
appropriated for such elimination from the proceeds of such state
bonds, and the railroad corporation or corporations and the county or
counties sharing in the cost of such elimination, shall pay to the state
their proportionate shares as fixed by this act of any such judgment as
a part of the cost of such elimination; and if necessary, the comptroller
shall revise or supplement his determination, as prescribed by this act,
relative to times, amounts, and manner of repayments to the state by
such railroad corporation or corporations and the county or counties
bearing a part of the cost of the elimination, so as to provide for the
payment to the state of the part of such judgment chargeable hereunder
to such corporation or corporations and such county or counties.
9. The expense of such acquisition, including the cost of making
surveys and preparing descriptions and maps of lands to be acquired,
serving notices of appropriation, making appraisals and agreements
and of searches ordered and examinations of title made by the
attorney-general, shall be deemed part of the cost of such elimination
and shall be borne in the proportions prescribed by this act.
* * * * * * *
17. If any lands, including lands under water, and easement rights,
which the public service commission may deem necessary in the elimi-
nation of any crossing are owned by the state, such commission shall
deliver the approved description and map of such lands and easement
rights to the dopatiment of public works and shall direct such depart-
ment to make application to the board of commissioners of the land
office for the transfer of the control or jurisdiction of such lands and
easement rights to such department for the purpose of accomplishing
such elimination. Upon such application being filed, the board of
commissioners of the land office may transfer control or jurisdiction
of such lands and easement rights to the department of public works
for the purpose of accomplishing such elimination upon such terms and
conditions as such board may prescribe, provided, however, that such
transfer shall not become effective until the said terms and conditions
have been accepted and approved by the officer, board, commission
or agency which had control or jurisdiction over such lands and ease-
ment rights.
Upon such transfer being so accepted and approved, the department
of public works shall cause a certified copy of she description and map
of such lands and easement rights to be filed in the office of the depart-
pe of state, and shall notify the public service commissioner of such
ings.
APPENDIX IV 149
18. Notwithstanding any other provision of this chapter and the acts
supplemental thereto and amendatory thereof or of any other statute
general or special a municipal corporation may grant a permit to the
department of public works to occupy, for grade crossing elimination
purposes, any of the lands set forth and described on the map pre-
scribed by section five of this chapter which are owned by such muni-
cipal corporations, respectively. Such permit may be for permanent
or temporary occupancy as shall be determined by the department of
ublic works, and the permit shall state the purposes for which the
and is obtained, together with the terms and conditions including
payment, if any, which is to be made under the permit. The permit
shall be in lieu of an appeneuan of land as provided in this act.
After approval by the public service commission such permit shall be
in force and the lands may be utilized by the people of the state of
New York, their officers and agents, or by any railroad corporation to
which such permit may be transferred or assigned, for grade crossing
elimination purposes. Payment, if any, shall be made by the comp-
troller and paid out of the state treasury from moneys appropriated
for such elimination from the proceeds of such state bonds, after the
department of public works hasffiled a copy of the approved permit
with the comptroller. The railroad corporation or corporations and
the county or counties shall puy to the state their proportionate shares
as prescribed by this act of the amount specified in the permit.
19. If, at or after the expiration of thirty days from the service of
the copy of such description and map and notice of the filing thereof
in the office of the department of state, the superintendent shall deem
it necessary to cause the removal of an owner or occupant from any
lands or easement rights so acquired, he may cause the owner or occu-
ant to be removed therefrom and the possession to be delivered to
hin in the same manner and by the same proceedings and before the
same officers as in the case of a tenant holding over after the expira-
tion of his term without permission of his landlord, except as follows:
the petition shall be preceded by ten days’ notice to quit, in the form
and served in the manner prescribed by section fourteen hundred and
sixteen of the civil practice act, and the giving of such notice shall be
stated in the petition. The proceedings shall be brought in the name
of the superintendent as agent of the state. If any person proceeded
against shall, on return of the precept, contest the petition by an
answer raising any material issue, the attorney-general shall be notified
and he thereafter shall represent the petitioner in the proceedings.
No execution shall issue for costs, if any, awarded against the state or
the superintendent, but they shall be part of the costs of the acquisi-
tion and be paid in like manner. Proceedings may be brought separ-
ately against one or more of the owners or occupants of the lands or
easement rights, or one proceeding may be brought against all or
several of the owners or occupants of any or all the lands or easement
rights within the territorial jurisdiction of the same justice or judge;
and in any case precepts or final orders shall effect or be made for imme-
diate removal of persons defaulting in appearance or in answering, or
withdrawing their answers, if any, without awaiting the trial or deci-
sion of issues raised by contestants, if any. L. 1928, c. 678, §5,
amended L. 1929, c. 645, §§ 4, 5; L. 1929, ec. 647, 657; L. 1931, c. 711;
L. 1933, c. 692; L. 1937, c. 585, §§ 1, 2; L. 1940, c. 101, eff. March 7,
1940.
93800. ~44-~--11
‘APPENDIX V
Basic STANDARDS OF Roap AND StRuUcTURAL Desicn
BASIC 8TANDARDS FOR RURAL SECTIONS
I. Roads.
Condition of access.—All rural] sections of the system shall be estab-
lished as limited-access highways, and access to the highway shall be
permitted only at designated points at which facilities for safe en-
trance and exit shall be provided. There shall be no crossings of
railways at grade, and all railways that must cross the interregional
highway shall be carried over it or under it by means of adequate
structures.
On all rural sections of the system expected to carry an average daily
traffic of 5,000 or more vehicles there shall be no crossings of other
highways at grade, and all highways that must cross the interregional
highway shall be carried over it or under it by means of adequate
structures.
Wherever feasible on all rural sections of the system expected to
carry an average daily traffic of less than 5,000 vehicles, grade inter-
section with other highways shall be avoided and all highways that
must cross the interregional highway shall be carried over or under
by means of adequate structures. If, in anv case, the grade separa-
tion of a highway intersection is not immediately feasible, all neces-
sary provision shall be made in the initial design for future conversion
to the improved design when financially feasible. This initial pro-
vision shall include public acquisition of private property or acquisi-
tion of control of the use and improvement of private property
essential to conversion to the improved design. Where separation of
grades at highway intersections is not feasible, and at all points
where vehicles may be expected to cross, enter, or leave the inter-
regional highway, the design shall be such as to insure a high degree
of safety in crossing, entering or leaving it, without installation of
traffic control signals, which shall in no case be employed.
Location.—The location between control points shall be as direct as
feasible and shall conform to the topography in such manner as to
avoid the appearance of forced alinement. Where four or more
traffic lanes are to be constructed, two distinct one-way roads should
be provided rather than a divided highway of fixed cross section,
wherever advantages of alinement, construction cost, or traffic facility
may be expected to result from such provision.
Alinement.—Alinement of rural sections of the system shall be of as
high a standard as feasible; and the speed assumed for design purposes
for a section of road shall be as high as practicable, consistent with the
topography and the expected traffic volume. The design speeds
assumed for adjacent sections of the highway shall not differ widely.
Horizontal curvature.—Horizontal curvature shall be under all con-
ditions of the lowest practicable degree, and at no point sharper than
the degree shown in the column headed ‘“‘Absolute maximum” in the
150
APPENDIX V 151
following table, corresponding to the design speed assumed for the
section. Preferred limits are shown in the column headed “Desirable
maximum.”
TaBLE 1.—Mazimum horizontal curvatures at various design speeds (rural)
Curvature limits Curvature limits
Design speed of section Design speed of section |
sie Absolute | Desirable Absolute | Desirable
maximum | maximum maximum | maximum
Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees
75 miles per hour. -..-...-- 3 2.5 {| 60 miles per hour. .......- 6 5
70 miles per hour_......-. 4 3 55 miles per hour........- 7 6
65 miles per hour.-_....--- 5 4 | 50 miles per hour......... 9 7
Curvature of lower degree than that shown in the above table may
be necessary to meet sight-distance requirements where a cut slope or
other obstacle obstructs the view across the inside of a curve.
Transition curvature.—All horizontal circular curves on rural sec-
tions of the system sharper than 2 degrees shall be approached by
transition curves of a length consistent with the design speed and
sufficient to permit the attainment of full superelevation within the
length of the transition.
Superelevation a curves.—All curves'sharper than 1 degree shall be
superelevated. The maximum superelevation shall be 0.12 foot per
foot. Where snow and ice may be gates to cause a frequent
slippery condition of the road surface, the maximum superelevation
shall be 0.08 foot per foot. On all curves the superelevation shall be
such as to counterbalance completely the centrifugal force of a vehicle
traveling at three-fourths of the design speed of the road, except that
it shall not exceed the above stated appropriate maximum limit.
Superelevation shall be attained gradually, and in such manner
that the difference in slope between longitudinal profiles separated by
the width of one lane shall be not greater than 1 in 200.
Sight distance.—On all rural sections of the system the design shall
be such as to afford from a height of 4.5 feet above any point on the
road surface, a continuously unobstructed view for the following
minimum nonpassing sight distances to the top of an object 4 inches
high placed on the road surface.
TaBLe 2.—Minimum nonpassing sight distances that shall be provided at various
design speeds (rural)
Minimum nonpassing
Design speed of section: sight distance!
75 miles per hour.
70 miles per hour
65 miles per hour
60 miles per hour
55 miles per hour
50 miles per hour
1 Measured between one point 4.5 feet and another 4 inchesjabove the road surface.
Within these sight distances passenger vehicles as presently con-
structed can be stopped from the speeds shown, and trucks and com-
binations can be stopped from speeds ranging from 35 miles per hour
where the sight distance is 400 feet to about 50 miles per hour where
the sight distance is 800 feet.
152 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
On rural two-lane sections of the system, whenever it is financially
feasible to do so, the road shall be so designed in its horizontal and
vertical curvature and other features as to afford a continuously
unobstructed view for at least the following distance between points
4.5 feet above the road surface.
TaBLe 3.—Minimum sight distances for passing at various design speeds (rural)
Minimum sight distance
Design speed of section: for passing! ;
65 to 75 miles per hour___..-------------.----.------------- 2, 600 feet
60 miles per hour._----.-.. -------------------------------- 2, 200 feet
55 miles per hour__.......-----.--------------------------- J, 800 feet
50° miles: per hour... 22 .2+-2.2. 25+ sessed eee tee ese cee 1, 500 feet
1 Between points 4.5 feet above the rcad surface.
On sections so designed, drivers of vehicles moving at the design
speed will have the assurance of a sufficient length of road, if no
oncoming vehicle is in view, in which to accomplish the passing of
another vehicle moving in the same direction at a speed 10 to.15
miles per hour slower. Passing at speeds above 65 miles per hour on
two-lane roads generally cannot be considered safe, unless the vehicle
passed is traveling at a speed considerably slower than that of the
passing vehicle.
On rural two-lane sections of the system expected to carry an
average daily traffic volume of 2,000 vehicles or more, where it is not
feasible to provide the minimum passing sight distance recommended
in table 3, two lanes shall be provided for traffic in each direction.
On all other two-lane sections of the system where the provision of
the recommended minimum passing sight distance is not financially
feasible, the longest practicable sight distance shall be provided.
Vertical curvature.—Vertical curvature on all rural sections shall be
of sufficient length over crests and in sags at underpasses to provide at
least the minimum sight distance previously recommended for the
assumed design speed, and, in other sags, to provide for safe and
comfortable travel at the assumed design speed.
Number and width of traffic lanes and median strips—All rural
sections of the system expected to carry an average daily traffic of
15,000 or more vehicles shall provide three and not more than three
lanes for traffic moving in each direction, each lane to have a width
of 12 feet, and the lanes for traffic moving in opposite directions shall
be separated by a median strip at least 15 feet wide.
All rural sections of the system expected to carry an average daily
traffic of 3,000 but less than 15,000 vehicles shall provide at least
two lanes for traffic moving in each direction, each lane to have a
width of 12 feet; and the lanes for traffic moving in opposite directions
shall be separated by a median strip at least 15 feet wide. On sections
which permit crossing or entering at grade at intersecting highways
or private entrances, the median strip at public road crossings shall
be at least 40 feet wide, and opposite private-property entrances, at
least 25 feet wide.
All rural sections of the system expected to carry an average daily
traffic of 2,000 but less then 3,000 vehicles shall provide at least a
two-lane pavement 24 feet wide. On all parts of such highways
where it is not feasible to provide a sight distance at least equal to the
minimum passing’sight distance specified in table 3, the design of the
highway shall provide two lanes for traffic moving in each direction.
APPENDIX V 153
Each lane shall have a width of 12 feet, and the lanes for traffic
moving in opposite directions shall be separated by a median strip
at least 4 and preferably 15 feet wide. The conversion from two to
four lanes shall be safely graduated and appropriately and con-
spicuously marked.
All rural sections of the system expected to carry an average daily
traffic of less than 2,000 vehicles shall provide a'two-lane pavement
24 feet wide.
Transitions of median-strip width.—Where“narrowing or widening
of the median strip is necessary, essential pavement alinement changes
shall be accomplished over lengths sufficient to avoid hazard in ve-
hicular operation at the design speed assumed, and to avoid the
appearance of distorted or forced alinement.
Width of shoulders and gutters. or ditches—The shoulder width shall
be considered as the transverse distance from the edge of the road
surface or pavement to the inside of the guard rail or, in the absence of
a guard rail, to the beginning of rounding into the slope of the em-
bankment or the inside slope of the gutter or ditch.
On rural sections of the system the shoulder width shall be 10 fect,
and this width shall be provided at all points, except as follows:
(a) In mountainous topography, where for reasons of expense a
10-foot width is not feasible.
(b) Where the two roadways of a divided highway are widely sepa-
rated or constructed at different elevations and left shoulders are
required, the width of such left shoulders may be less than 10 feet.
In no case shall the shoulder width be reduced to less than 4 feet.
In excavation, gutters or ditches of adequate capacity shall be con-
structed outside of the shoulder width provided, and the slope from
the edge of the shoulder shall be not steeper than 1 foot measured
vertically to 4 feet measured horizontally.
Side slopes in excavation and embankment.—In general, the sides of
all excavations, except in solid rock, shall have a slope not steeper
than 1 foot measured vertically to 2 feet measured horizontally, modi-
fied as deemed desirable to meet landscape requirements. The sides
of all excavations shall be rounded at the top and bottom to merge
by curves of natural appearance into the slopes of the adjoining land
and those of the gutter or ditch. At the ends of sections in excava-
tion the side slopes shall be flattened as the depth of excavation
decreases.
The sides of all embankments 10 feet or less in height shall have a
slope not steeper than 1 foot measured vertically to 4 feet measured
horizontally, except where the adjoining land lies on a steeper down-
ward slope or where landscape considerations may justify modification
of this requirement.
All embankments more than 10 feet in height and all embankments
built on ground having a natural downward slope steeper than 1 foot
measured vertically to 4 feet measured horizontally, shall have a slope
not steeper than 1 foot measured vertically to 2 feet measured hori-
zontally, except where the adjoining land lies on a steeper downward
slope, in which case slope protection or a retaining wall shall be
constructed.
Gradient.—The gradient of rural sections of the system shall be
adapted to the surrounding topography, the volume of traffic (espe-
cially of trucks and tractor combinations), and the relative necessity
154 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
for passing trucks and tractor combinations, with maximum limits
under various conditions as given in table 4.
TasLe 4.—Mazimum gradient limits under various traffic volumes and topographical
: conditions (rural)
Maximum
Average daily traffic (all vehicles) aires topog- desirable
grade
Percent
Rolling .-.-.....
Mountainous .. .
1,000 0: 2,000 252 occa eh coset cee Sede evedn ce Ateewe die ectneloedecs Relatively level.
Rolling. -....-
Mountainous.
Less than 1;000.;2 2.52 22. cccd2 sacs c coeds cksceced sees eeeccdinees Beas Relatively level. ......
Mountainous. - -
9,000 $0 Sj000 oo cess ceeees che cee eee es etoe et et eeeeee ss ceeeiSens Relatively level.
‘ Rolling... 222-222...
Mountainous. _.......
6,000 end: More: - 2) 2 oc sector sentnces seed ethos tee eek Relatively level.
Rolling. ...-..2-......
Mountainous.....-...
os ~~
APAOARPWAAWNAMAWADLD
a
1 This limit desirable on the 2-lane hizchways to be provided for this volume of traffic, in order to permit
aed maximum feasible speed of trucks and tractor combinations and correspondingly reduce the frequency
of passing.
2 This limit permissible because a divided 4-lane hirhway !s to be provided for this volume of traffic
where minimum passing sight distance previously recommended is not feasibly obtainable, thus per-
mitting passing of slow-moving trucks and tractor combinations at all points.
3 This limit permissible because 8 continuously divided 4-lane highway is to be provided for this volume
rad vee an permitting ready passing of slow-moving trucks and tractor combinations in the number to
e expected.
‘ These limits desirable because of the greater number of slow-moving trucks and tractor combinations
to be expected and the consequent necessity to permit the maximum feasible speed of such vehicles to
reduce the frequency of passing.
§ No existing roads conforming to the recommended interregional system in mountainous topography
carried this volume of tratfic before the war.
In general, extremely long grades should be less steep, and very short
grades and grades to be traveled only in the downward direction on
one-way roads may be steeper, than the limits given in table 4, but
none shall exceed 7 percent.
Width of right-of~vay.—On rural sections of the system, the width of
right-of-way to be acquired by purchase or outright condemnation
shall be at all points at least sufficient to include the road surfaces or
pavements and median strip, the shoulders, gutters, or ditches, and the
side slopes of the road, constructed in accordance with the foregoing
recommendations with full allowance for the widening and conversion
of the traveled way and other cross-section features estimated to be-
come necessary within a period of 20 years.
In addition, public control shall be obtained, either by purchase or
outright condemnation or by the acquirement of highway development
rights, over a strip of land of sufficient width to prevent the erection
of any private structure or sign within a distance of not less than 100
feet from the outer edge of the road surface or pavement as it is likely
to be constructed or converted within-a period of 20 years.
Substantial conformity with these right-of-way standards will re-
quire the obtainment of public control, in the manner and degree de-
termined to be necessary, over a strip of land not less than 224 feet
wide in the case of the most lightly traveled sections of the system to
be improved initially with two-lane surfaces or pavements, and not
less than 288 feet in all other cases.
APPENDIX V 155
Wherever feasible, it is desirable on rural sections of the system that
public control be obtained at the outset over a strip of land 300 feet
wide without regard to the expected traffic volume on the highway.
Where it is necessary at the time of construction or where it will
probably be necessary at a later date to provide service roads to per-
mit use of the interregional highway as a limited-access highway,
sufficient width for the construction of such service roads shall also be
included in the width of right-of-way to be initially acquired.
Foundations and bases.—All road foundations and bases on rural
sections of the system shall be capable of supporting the recommended
maximum loads of vehicles as such loads are transmitted by surfaces
or pavements of adequate design, without reduction of iGad: or speed
at any season of the year.
Surfaces and pavements.—All road surfaces and pavements on rural
sections of the system shall consist of such material and shall be of
such thickness as will enable them, when placed on bases and founda-
tions of adequate design, to support the recommended maximum loads
of vehicles, without reduction of either load or speed at any season of
the year; and shall be capable of retaining under traffic of the expected
weight, speed, and volume, with a reasonable expenditure of mainte-
nance effort, a uniformly dustless, mudless, and smooth but skid-
resistant surface.
Shoulders.— All road shoulders on rural sections of the system shall
contrast in texture and preferably in color with the adjoining surface
or pavement. They shall be capable of supporting the recommended
maximum loads of vehicles standing on them or passing onto them
infrequently and in emergency at high speed, and shall be capable of
retaining under such usage, with a reasonable expenditure of mainte-
nance effort, a reasonably mudless and even surface, without dangerous
difference of level at the line of junction with the road surface or pave-
ment.
IT. Bridges and culverts.
Definitions.—All structures of a length between abutments greater
nen 20 feet, measured along the center line of the road, shall be defined
as bridges.
All bridges of a length between abutments greater than 100 feet
shall be classed as long bridges.
‘ ae bridges of a length of 100 feet or less shall be classed as short
ridges.
All structures of a length between abutments of 20 feet or less,
measured along the center line of the road, shall be defined as culverts.
Alinement of bridges.—All bridges, wherever feasible, shall be so
located as to fit the over-all alinement and gradient of the highway
and shall be subordinated thereto. Where structural or architectural
requirements make it desirable to adjust the alinement and gradient
of the highway, the changes shall be such that the highway will meet
all the basic standards for rural sections of the system, recommended
herein under “I. Roads.” :
Width of bridges —The width between vehicular curbs on all bridges
built on tangents of rural sections of the system shall be at least 6 feet
prenter than the width of the surface or pavement of the approach
ighway, and the lateral distances between the edges of the pavement
of the approach: highway and the faces of the vehicular curbs shall be
at least 3 feet.
156 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
On all bridges the lateral distance. from the face of the curb to the
face of the bridge rail or any structural member shall be at least 18
inches and as much more as is necessary for walk space, which shall
be provided on all long bridges. .
On short bridges the lateral distance from the edge of the pavement
of the approach highway to the face of the bridge rail, any structural
member, or the curb shall be not less than the width of shoulder on
the approach highway.
On sections of the system improved with divided highways, one
bridge to accommodate both roadways and the median strip or two
separate bridges, each to accommodate one roadway, may be used.
On short bridges the two roadways shall be accommodated without
deviation from their normal] alinement, and on long bridges the two
roadways shall be so accommodated if feasible.
ere, on long bridges, the median strip is reduced in width, the
change in alinement shall be accomplished in such manner and over
such lengths as will avoid hazard in vehicular operation at the design
speed and the appearance of distorted or forced alinement. Where
the median strip is reduced in width over structures the two roadways
shall be separated by a raised, but mountable, dividing strip not less
than 4 feet wide.
Auriliary lanes on bridges.—Where auxiliary lanes or designs for
other purposes provide a pavement over bridges that extends more
than 3 feet outside the normal edge of through-traffic lanes, the
vehicular curb shall be continuous with the curb on the approach
highway; or in the absence of an approach curb, the vehicular curb
shall be located at least 2 feet outside a line extending from the edge
of the widened pavement on the approach.
Bridges on curves.—On all bridges on curves the clearances shall be
at least as great as those required for all other bridges, and the lateral
clearance to the face of the bridge rail or any structural member
shall be as much more as shall be necessary to maintain the minimum
sight distance used in the design of the section of highway on which
the bridge is located.
Clear height of bridges—The clear height of all bridges over the
entire width between outer curbs shall be not less than 14 feet.
Openings under bridges—All bridges over railways shall provide a
clear height and length between abutments to be determined by
agreement with the railway companies concerned.
All bridges over public roads or highways shall provide a clear
normal distance between abutments not less than the sum of the
widths of the surfaces or pavements, median strip and shoulders or
sidewalks of the underpassing road or highway, such distance to be
clear of all obstruction except that a central pier may be founded
within the median strip of a divided underpassing highway if the
sides of such pier, parallel to the direction of the underpassing highway
are not less than 4 feet from the inner edges of the adjacent pavements.
All bridges over roads or highways shall provide a clear height above
the surface or surfaces of the underpassing road or highway of not
less than 14 feet, and of not less than 12 feet above the outer edges
of the shoulders of such highway.
Pavements on bridges —All portions of bridge pavements, between
lines joining the edges of the pavements of the approach highways at
the bridge, shall be of a color identical with that of the pavement on
APPENDIX V 157
the approach highway. The color of portions of bridge pavements
outside of such ies shall approximate the color of the shoulders of
the approach highways.
Structural design of bridges.—All bridges constructed on rural sec-
tions of the interregional highway system shall be of steel or reinforced
concrete, and shall be designed for the standard H20-S16 design load-
ings pein’ by the American Association of State Highway Officials,
as defined in appendix VI. All short bridges shall be of deck construc-
tion, and long bridges shall preferably be of that type of construction.
Width of culverts.—The over-all clear width of all culverts shall be
equal to the sum of the widths of the surfaces or pavements, median
strip, and shoulders of the section of the interregional highway in
which they are installed.
On divided highways the two roadways shall be separated, over cul-
verts, by a median strip of the width provided on the highway ap-
proaching the culvert. In the case of culverts supercharged, with an
earth embankment, shoulders and slopes shall be carried over the cul-
vert, identical in design with the shoulders and slopes of the approach
highway. -
n alk other cases the entire clear width shall be paved; and, between
lines joining the edges of the pavements on the approach highways at
the culvert, the character of such paved areas shall be identical with
that of the pavement on the approach highway. ll portions of the
pavement over culverts outside of such lines shall approximate the
color of the shoulders.
Structural design of culverts —All culverts on rural sections of the
interregional system shall be constructed of steel, reinforced concrete,
or stone masonry, or pipes composed of material of a probable dura-
bility of not less than 50 years, and all culverts, regardless of the
material employed, shall be designed to carry with complete safety
the recommended H20-S16 design loadings and the weight of any
supercharged embankment, as such loads and weight are transmitted
to the supporting structure. :
III. Underpasses.
Clear width of underpasses.—All underpasses on rural sections of the
system shall provide a width for passage of the interregional highway
equal to the sum of the widths of the surfaces or pavements, median
strip, and shoulders of the interregional highway approaching the
underpass, such width to be clear of all cebtruction except that a
central pier of the underpass structure may be founded within the
median strip of a divided highway, but the sides{of such picr, parallel
to the direction of the interregional highway, shall be not less than
18 inches from the faces of nonmountable curbs which shall be not
less than 3 feet from the edges of the pavements of the interregional
highway.
ere provision is to he made for walks, the space may be provided
in the clear width provided for the highway or may be provided
beyond the supports adjacent thereto.
Auziliary lanes at underpasses.—Where auxillary lances or designs
for other purposes provide a pavement at undercrossings that extends
beyond the normal edge of through traffic lanes, the face of abutment
walls or other support shall be at least 4 feet outside the edge of the
widened pavement.
158 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Widening of underpasses at curves.—Underpasses on curves shall be
widened on the inside as necessary to maintain, free from obstruction
by any abutment walls or other supports, at least the minimum sight
distance used in the design of the section of the interregional highway
on which the underpasses are located.
Length of underpasses.—The length of underpasses shall be such as
to provide ample hed e width for the accommodation of the crossing
railway or public highway. The bridge width to be provided for
railways shall be determined by agreement with the railway com-
panies concerned. The bridge width to be provided for public high-
ways shall be determined in the same manner as previously prescribed
for bridges of like length on rural sections of the interregional system.
Clear height of wnderpasses.— All underpasses on rural sections of the
system shall provide a clear height above the entire paved width of
the interregional highway of not less than 14 feet, and not less than
12% feet,above the outer edges of the shoulders of the highway.
Structural design.—All structures designed to carry railways over
rural sections of the interregional system shal] have a load-supporting
rey to be agreed upon with the railway companies concerned.
All structures designed to carry crossing highways shall be designed
in agreement with the authorities in charge of such highways, but in
no case for less than the standard H15 design loading specified by the
American Association of State Highway Officials and described in
appendix V1.
IV. Access facilities.
_Rural sections of the system shall be designed, wherever feasible,
for provision of access to the interregional highway only at the more
important intersecting roads.
Direct interchanges.—Where, at points of acccss on rural sections
of the system, a large volume of interchanging traffic is expected, the
lanes for traffic in each direction on the interregional highway shall
be treated as separate one-way roads, and each shall be connected,
for both left- and right-turning movements, with the appropriate
Janes of the intersecting highway by means of direct, connecting
roadways, separated in grade at all points of crossing with other
roadways.
Right-turning access at grade-separated intersections——Where, on
rural sections of the system designed with four or more through-traffic
lanes, access is to be provided from grade-separated intersecting
roads, and the provision of direct connections for left- and right-
turning movements is not feasible, ramps or connections between the
intersecting highways shall be constructed in such manner as to permit
exit from and entrance to the interregional highway by right-turning
movements only. Wherever feasible, such ramps or connections
shall be provided in the four quadrants of the intersection, each to
accommodate traffic turning from or to the interregional highway to
or from the lanes for traffic in one direction on the intersecting high-
way. If such provision is not feasible, ramps or connections for
right-turning movements only shall be provided in at least two of
the four quadrants of the intersection, one on each side of the inter-
regional highway, and, wherever site topography will permit, in the
nearer quadrant for traffic approaching the intersection on the inter-
regional highway.
APPENDIX V 159
Where, on rural sections of the system expected to carry an average
Uaily traffic of 2,000 but less than 3,000 vehicles, grades are separated
and access facilities are to be provided, the interregional highway shall -
be widened to provide two lanes for traffic moving in each direction,
the lanes for traffic moving in opposite directions shall be separated
by a median strip at least 4 and preferably 15 feet wide, and ramps
or connections between the intersecting roads shall be provided in
the same manner as at grade-separated intersections with access
feeer on sections of the system designed with 4 or more traffic
anes.
Where, on rural sections of the system expected to carry an average
daily traffic of less than 2,000 vehicles, grades are separated and
access facilities are to be provided, the ramps or connections between
the intersecting roads shall be constructed in such manner as to
permit exit from or entrance to the interregional highway by right-
turning movements only.
Access at crossings at grade.— Where, on rural sections of the system
designed with four or more through-traffic lanes, access is to be
provided from an intersecting highway and it is not deemed finan-
cially feasible immediately to separate the grades of the intersection,
separate channels shall be provided for all right-turning movements,
the median strip of the interregional highway shall be not less than
40 feet wide at the intersection, and adequate space shall be provided
for all crossing and left-turning vehicles to stop clear of the through-
traffic lanes and proceed across the interregional highway or merge
with and emerge from the through traffic on the interregional highway
in safety. (See plate VII.)
Where, on rural sections of the system expected to carry an average
daily traffic of 2,000 but less than 3,000 vehicles, access is to be pro-
vided from an intersecting highway and it is not deemed financially
feasible immediately to separate the grades of the intersection, the
interregional highway shall be widened to provide two lanes for traffic
moving in each direction, the lanes for traffic moving in opposite
directions shall be separated by a median strip at least 15 feet wide,
and the intersection shall be designed in the same manner as at grade
oon on sections of the system designed with four or more traffic
anes.
Where, on rural sections of the system expected to carry an average
daily traffic of less than 2,000 vehicles, access is to be provided from
an intersecting highway, and it is not deemed financially feasible to
separate the grades of the intersection, the intersection shall be
designed to provide adequate space for right-turning vehicles safely
to nerie with and emerge from the through traffic on the inter-
regional highway. Such space shall also be sufficient to permit
vehicles turning left from the interregional highway to halt if neces-
sary at the center of the intersection before completing the turning
maneuver and to permit through traffic to pass such halted vehicles
in safety.
Alinement of ramps or connections.—Ramps at grade-separated
intersections on rural sections of the satatregional system shall
referably be designed as one-way roads separated for the whole
ength of ramp. Where two-way ramps are used, entrances and
exits at the interregional highway and, if deemed feasible, at the
160 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
intersecting highway also shall be designed as one-way roads separated
by suitable channelizing islands. Entrances and exits shall be located”
at sufficient distances from the grade-separating structure to provide
sight distances adequate for safety under the conditions of vehicular
speed to be anticipated.
All ramps and connections shall be designed to enable vehicles to
leave and enter the through-traffic lanes of each highway at 0.7 of its
design speed, except where “‘stop” control is necessary. On all four-
lane sections of the system, on all two-lane sections expected to carry
an average daily traffic of more than 2,000 vehicles, and wherever
feasible on all other two-lane sections, the curvature of ramps and
connections shall preferably not exceed 45 degrees (radius approxi-
mately 125 feet), and under no conditions shall exceed 70 degrees
(radius approximately 80 feet). All curves shall be eased by transition
or compounding.
Widths of pavements and shoulders and side slopes.—All ramps and
connections shall have a width of at least 16 feet if designed for one-
lane operation, and at least 26 feet if designed for two-lane operation.
Widths greater than these minima shall be provided on sections of
ramps and connections of sharp curvature.
A shoulder at least 6 feet and preferably 8 feet wide shall be provided
along the right side of all ramp pavements (right in the direction of
traffic movement).
Side slopes on ramps shall be not steeper than 1 foot measured
vertically to 2 feet measured horizontally, and shall be rounded at the
top and bottom to merge by curves of natural appearance with the
adjacent land slopes or shoulders.
Added space for turning maneuvers.—All rural sections of the system
shall be so designed, at the approach to entrances and exits on the
interregional highway, as to provide space outside the through-traffic
lanes of the interregional Hienway for emerging vehicles to decelerate
and entering vehicles to accelerate, and, in general, to maneuver as
required so that they may safely emerge from or merge with the through
traffic stream. The added space may take the form of a taper, a pave-
ment gradually increasing in width, or a taper combined with a lane
of full added width. Tapers shall be smoothly alined and of a length
consistent with probable speed of travel. Where a full width of added
lane is required, it shall be at least 10 feet wide. If deemed necessary
ae feasible, similar provision shall be made on the intersecting
way.
ere an exit to an inner loop is provided on one side of a grade-
separating structure and an entrance from an inner loop is provided
on the opposite side of the structure, an added lane shall be carried
over the bridge or through the underpass to connect both inner loops
and serve as added space for the maneuvers of entering and leaving
the interregional highway.
At exits from a through-traffic lane, added width of pavement and
a taper shall be provided beyond the nose at the fork to enable vehicles
which start to turn off to return safely and conveniently to the through-
traffic lane if desired. A curb of high visibility should: be used around
the nose at the fork and along these widened pavements.
All pavement surfaces of ramps and connections and all added
pavement width provided for maneuvering shall contrast in color
ane preferably in texture with the pavement of the through-traffic
anes.
APPENDIX V 161
Gradients on ramps.—The gradient on ramps shall not exceed 6
percent on upgrades and 8 percent on downgrades.
Sight distance at ramps and connections.—On all ramps and connec-
tions the combination of grade, vertical curves, alinement, and clear-
ances of lateral and corner obstructions to vision shall be such as to
provide sight distance along such ramps and connections and from
their terminal junctions along the interregional highway and inter-
secting road consistent with the probable speeds of vehicle operation.
At all grade intersections on rural sections of the interregional
system, vehicles approaching on the intersecting highways shall be
required, before crossing the interregional highway, to come to a
complete stop at a point off the through-traffic lanes of the inter-
regional highway. From such point of stopping, the sight distance
in each direction along the interregional highway and from the rear
along the intersecting highway, shall be not less than the safe stopping
distance corresponding to the probable speed of traffic on each high-
way, as hereinbefore recommended.
Access for busses.—Bus stops shall be prohibited on all rural sections
of the interregional system. Access connections for bus stops off
the interregional highway shall be designed to the same standards as
other access connections. :
Access for roadside businesses.—Roadside businesses, such as park-
ing areas, gasoline filling stations, restaurants, etc., shall be pro-
hibited from fronting directly on rural sections of the interregional
system. Access connections for such businesses off the interregional
highway shall be designed to the same standards as other access
connections.
V. Tunnels.
Tunnels on rural sections of the interregional highway system shall
accommodate, if financially feasible, the same number and width of
traffic lanee that are provided on the highway approaching the tunnel.
Tunnels on two-lane highways shall provide space for a 2-foot flush
median strip between the two lanes, and shall have an over-all width
not less than 10 feet greater than the pavement or surface width
of the highway approaching the tunnel, to provide for the 2-foot
center separation and not less than 4-foot side clearances beyond the
edges of the pavement.
unnels on divided highways shall be constructed to accommodate
the same number of lanes as the approaches, in either a single or twin
bore. In the former case the lanes for traffic in opposite directions
shall be separated by a raised but mountable median strip not less
than 4 feet wide; and the over-all width of the tunnel shall provide
space for this strip and two lateral clearances of not less than 4 feet,
in addition to the aggregate width of traffic lanes of the same number
and width as on the highway approaching the tunnel. In the case of
twin bores, the over-all width of each bore shall be not less than 8 feet
greater than the total width of the lanes to be accommodated, as pro-
vided on the highway approaching the tunnel.
The clear height provided in tunnels shall be not less than 14 feet
across the entire paved width.
Standards of gradient and curvature for tunnels shall be identical
with those previously recommended for divided highways.
Wherever their length requires, all tunnels shall be -artificially ven-
tilated and lighted in such manner as to provide amply safe conditions
162 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
of air and light. For an appropriate distance inward from the portal
the intensity of artificial light provided during the day shall be suffi-
cient to afford such a transition between outer dayboht and the nor-
mal tunnel lighting as will permit safe entrance into the tunnel with-
out reduction of the speed of vehicles.
VI. Pedestrian facilities.
On rural sections of the system pedestrian use of road surfaces and
pavements and shoulders shall be prohibited. Adequate pedestrian
paths shall be provided whenever the need justifies.
Wherever other public highways are carried over or under a rural
section of the interregional system, provision shall be made for safe
pedestrian crossing of the interregional highway, if necessary, by
means of adequate walks outside the vehicular curbs of underpassing
highways or overpassing bridges. At other points where need is
found to exist, special pedestrian underpasses or overpasses with con-
necting walkways shall be provided.
VII. Landscaping.
On all rural sections of the system the design, wherever feasible,
shall conserve desirable and irreplaceable landscape features, avoid
needless damage to desirable trees and other growth and to lake and
stream shores, and preserve natural sites for the development of
overlooks, picnic areas, and other desirable wayside attractions. Un-
necessary construction scars shall be avoided. Borrow pits shall not
be permitted within sight of the road unless they are adjusted and re-
covered to avoid unsightliness. All ground surfaces disturbed by
construction shall be appropriately recovered with suitable vegetative
growth, and additional’ landscaping shall be done where deemed
necessary.
The design, combined with re-covering of disturbed surfaces and
other landscaping, shall be planned to protect the highway against
erosion by wind and water, to reduce maintenance to a minimum, and
to enhance the natural appearance of the road and the wayside.
VIIT. Signs and pavement markings.
The design of rural sections of the interregional system shall be such
as to reduce to a practicable minimum the necessity of cautionary
signs and pavement markings. The installation of traffic control
signals chal be prohibited.
The form, dimensions, color, and style and size of all lettering of all
signs, the legend of all cautionary signs, and the form, dimensions,
character, and significance of all pavement markings shall be uniform
throughout all rural sections of the interregional system in all States.!
Route markers.—It is recommended that all interregional highways
be incorporated in the United States system of numbered highways,
and that all rural sections of the system be marked with standard
U S route markers appropriately illuminated or reflectorized for night
visibility. If two or more U S numbered routes incorporate the
same section of any interregional highway, standard U S route
1It is recommended that the details of design of all signs and pavement markings, as herein generally
described, be defined by the joint committee on uniform traffic control devices, appointed by the American
Association of State Highway Officials, the Institute of Traflic Engineers, and the National Conference on
Street and Highway Safety; and that signs and markings of the character so defined be adopted and used on
all parts of the {oterregional system in all States.
APPENDIX V 163
markers designating each route shall be erected on the section so
incorporated, but no route markers other than standard U S route
ee shall appear on any interregional highway, except at points
of exit.
Destination signs.—On rural sections of the system, all points of
entrance or exit that are located at grade-separated intersections with
other highways shall be designated as “‘interchanges,” and each shall
be identified by the name of a single nearby important city or area
within a city or by the number of the intersecting highway. Warning
of approach to an interchange shall be provided by a sign located at a
suitable distance in advance of the interchange, bearing the legend
‘‘(Name) interchange ahead.”
At each point of turning at each interchange, a sign shall be pro-
vided bearing the name of a single nearby important city or locality
served by the intersecting highway with which the particular ramp
connects, or the number of the intersecting highway and direction
if no geographical name is appropriate, or both if necessary. Im-
mediately beyond the interchange on the interregional highway, a
confirmatory U S route marker shal] be placed, and also a sign show-
ing the distance to the next important city or interchange. The
size, legibility, and location of all such signs shall be appropriate for
the conditions of placement and probable speed of traffic on the in-
terregiona] highway.
Except as above recommended, no direction or distance indications
shall be given at interchanges by signs on the interregional highway.
Such additional directions and daiatons as may be deemed desirable
shall be indicated by signs located at the junction of the ramp with
the intersecting highway.
At interchanges that are lighted at night, all such signs located on
the interregional highway shall be illuminated. At other interchanges
all signs shall be illuminated where feasible, or if not illuminated, shall
be reflectorized.
Signs at grade crossings.—At important grade intersections with
other highways, a similar system of signing shall be used on the in-
terregional highway, modified as necessary to indicate also important
nearby cities or localities, or highway number and direction, or both,
in the direction of permitted left turns as well as right turns. Warn-
ing signs preparatory to such turns shall bear the legend “U S (or
State) (route number) ahead.” On all highways intersecting inter-
regional highways, appropriate signs and marking shall be installed
to provide necessary information for traffic approaching the inter-
regional highway, and to insure the maximum degree of safety to
approaching traffic and to traffic on the system.
Where traffic is required to come to a full ey before entering or
crossing an interregional highway, a stop line shall be marked on the
pavement of the intersecting highway and a standard stop sign bear-
ing the legend ‘“‘Express highway” shall be erected.
ether or not a stop sign is required there shall be erected at an
appropriate advance location on the intersecting highway a warning
sign bearing the legend ‘‘Express highway ahead :
All stop lines shall be reflectorized, and all stop and warning signs
shall be Uluminated where feasible, and, if not illuminated, shall be
reflectorized.
164 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
At intersections of insufficient importance to require destination
signs, a distinctive sign shall be erected at a suitable distance in ad-
vance to indicate merely the approach to a minor intersection.
Speed control signs.—Wherever the design of the interregional
Hier provides for maximum safe speed less than 70 miles per hour,
the following signs shall be provided:
At the beginning of a section on which the maximum safe speed
under normal conditions is between 60 and 70 miles per hour, there
shall be erected a sign bearing the legend, ‘‘ Maximum speed 60,” and
signs of this character shall be repeated at approximately 1-mile
intervals throughout the section. At such point as a 70-mile speed
again becomes safe, a sign shall be erected bearing the legend, “‘End
60-mile speed.”’
At the beginning of a section on which the maximum safe speed
under normal conditions is between 50 and 60 miles per hour there
shall be erected a sign bearing the legend, “Maximum speed 50,”
followed by similar signs at approximately 1-mile intervals throughout
the section. At the end of such section one of two signs shall be used,
(1) if 70-mile speed is again safe, a sign bearing the legend “End 50-mile
speed,” or (2) if the section terminates in a section on which the
maximum safe speed is between 60 and 70 miles per hour, a sign bear-
ing the legend, “Maximum speed 60,” followed by similar signs
throughout that section.
Where the traffic conditions anticipated at interchanges on rural
sections of the system require reduction in speed below 50 miles per
hour, the safe speed shall be indicated by a sign erected at the begin-
ning of each such reduced-speed section, bearing the legend ‘Slow
to ——,” with following signs located at appropriate intervals through-
out the section, bearing the legend ‘‘Speed ——.” The end of such a
reduced-speed section shall be marked as above, accordiog to the
safe speed permitted by the following section of the highway.
Where State or local traffic regulations, rather than alinement of
the highway or traffic conditions, govern the maximum speed, such
maximum speed limits shall be indicated at appropriate intervals by
signs bearing the legend “Speed limit ——.”
All speed control signs shall be reflectorized for night visibility, ex-
cept at points where artificial illumination is preferable and feasible.
Signs to control or prohibit passing.—At the beginning of any rural
two-lane section of the system on which the sight distance is insuffi-
cient for safe passing but more than 1,000 feet, there shall be erected
a sign bearing the legend, ‘Passing unsafe,”’ and similar nipns shall
be erected at approximately one-half mile intervals throughout the
length of the section.
t the beginning of any rural two-lane section of the system on which
the sight distance is less than 1,000 feet, there shall‘be erected a sign
bearing the legend, ‘‘No passing.” At the end of such section there
shall be erected a sign bearing the legend, “‘End no passing zone.”
Sections on which passing is unsafe or prohibited shall be indicated
independently for each direction.
Pavement markings.—All pavement markings shall be reflectorized.
A. Lane lines: On rural two-lane sections of the system there shall
be a continuous 4-inch, white center line. On all four- and six-lane -
Sided sections the lanes shall be defined by 4-inch, white dashed
ines.
APPENDIX V 165
Arrows, route numbers, or other pavement markings may be used
when eeduireds pereiculanly, on four- and six-lane sections, to supple-
ment directional or other pe: but no warning or direction shall be
comveyet by pavement marking alone.
B. No-passing zones: On rural two-lane sections of the system a
4-inch barrier line, preferably yellow, shall be marked on the pavement
arallel and adjacent to the center line wherever the sight distance is
ess than 1,000 feet. Such barrier lines shall be marked independently
for each direction of traffic and shall be placed on the right of the center
line in the direction of traffic affected. Barrier lines shall be used in
i aoa with ‘No passing’”’ signs above recommended.
. Special treatment at interchanges: Where, on multilane sections,
it is desirable to confine traffic to particular lanes, as at interchanges,
continuous white lines shall be used in lieu of dashed lane lines.
Location and information signs.—The use of location and information
signs shall be confined to points of general importance or significance.
Such signs shall be of such size and shall be so located as not to detract
from, or confuse the significance of other signs as herein recommended.
Discouragement of other signs and markings.—On rural sections of
the interregional system that are designed in accordance with the
standards herein proposed, it ‘is recommended that the erection of
signs and the marking of pavements, except as above proposed, be
strongly discouraged.
IX. Lighting.
At all points on rural sections of the system where traffic speeds are
required to be reduced because of merging traffic or where an unusual
degree of caution is required because of traffic or other conditions,
the interregional highway and, as necessary, its connections, shall be
lighted by fixed-source illumination to provide a maximum degree of
safety and convenience of movement at night. In all such cases appro-
priate transitional illumination between the lighted and unlighted
sections shall be provided.
It may also be desirable to illuminate throughout their length rural
sections of the system expected to carry large volumes of traffic, par-
ticularly if the traffic includes a large percentage of commercial
vehicles.
X. Provision for public utilities.
The erection of electric light, power, and telephone poles within the
right-of-way of rural sections of the system, except those necessary for
service of the highway or its appurtenant facilities, shall be dis-
couraged.
The construction of underground electric conduits and the laying of
water-supply and sewerage pipes and pipes for other public-utility
purposes, within the right-of-way of rural sections of the system,
except those necessary for the service of the highway or its appurte-
nant facilities, shall likewise be discouraged. ere it is necessary
to use the right-of-way of the system for electric facilities, under-
ound construction shall be preferred to the erection of pole lines.
erever underground electric, water, sewerage, or other facilities
are constructed within the right-of-way, they shall in no case be con-
structed, except for crossing the highway, beneath any portion of the
py ecm to be used immediately or eventually for the construction
of a pavement.
93800—44
12
166 ‘INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
Al, Fences.
Wherever necessary for protection against unauthorized entry by
vehicles or pedestrians or for the exclusion of animals, fences of ade-
quate design shall be erected on rural sections of the system, at one or
both sides of the highway, on suitable lines, within or at the limits of
the right-of-way.
BASIC STANDARDS FOR URBAN, SECTIONS
I. Roads.
Condition of access.—All urban sections of the system shall be estab-
lished as limited-access highways, and access to the highway shall be
permitted only at designated points at which facilities for safe entrance,
and exit shall be provided. On all such sections of the system there
shall be no crossings of railways or other strects and highways at
dates All separations of grade at intersections shall be accomplished
y means of adequate structures.
Location.—The location between control points shall be as direct as
feasible, shall affect adjacent property as favorably as possible, and
shall conform to the topography and property improvements in such
manner as to avoid the appearance of forced alinement. Consider-
ation should be given to providing two distinct one-way roads rather
than a divided highway of fixed cross section.
Elevation and degranon of interregional highways.—Wherever, on
urban sections of the system, to avoid frequent intersection with other
streets or highways, it is necessary to elevate or depress sections of the
haterrenonal highway of substantial continuous length, depression of
the highway, if financially feasible, generally shall be preferred to
elevation.
Elevation of the interregional highway shall be employed as a means
of avoiding frequent grade intersection with other streets and highways
mainly under conditions which make it difficult or excessively expen-
sive to obtain sufficient right-of-way for adequate depression of the
highway. Elevation of the highway, when employed, generally shall
be accomplished by means of a structure of adequate and pleasing
design.
Where, to avoid frequent grade intersections with other streets and
highways the interregional highway is depressed, the sides of the
excavation shall preferably have an upward slope not steeper than 1
foot measured vertically to 4 feet measured horizontally. In no case
shall the sides of the excavation have a slope steeper than 1 foot
measured vertically to 2 feet measured horizontally. All excavation
‘slopes shall be rounded at the top and bottom to merge with adjacent
ground slopes by curves of natural appearance. Where lateral
space for a slope of 1 foot measured vertically to 2 feet measured
horizontally, is not available, retaining walls shall be constructed, and
the face of such walls shall preferably be at least 10 feet and in no case
less than 8 feet from the edge of the outer lane of the through pavement
of the interregional highway, and at least 4 feet from any additional
lanes or ramps.
Service streets and barrier strips.— Wherever necessary for the service
of property, local service streets or ways shall be provided at each side
of urban sections of the interregional system. To facilitate exit from
and entrance to the interregional highway such streets generally shall
be designed as one-way streets, and shall be not less than 24 feet wide.
APPENDIX V 167
Service streets or ways shall be separated from the slopes or border
areas of the interregional highway by means of nonmountable curbs,
and the distance from the face of such curb to the edge of the pavement
of the interregional highway shall preferably be not less than 15 feet
and in no case less than 10 feet.
Alinement.—Alinement of urban sections of the system shall be of as
high a standard as feasible; and the speed assumed for design purposes
for a section of road shall be as high as practicable, consistent with the
topography, proximity of urban improvements, and expected traffic
volume. Under urban conditions, the assumption of a design speed
higher than 50 miles per hour will usually be impractica Tes The
design speeds assumed for adjacent sections of the highway shall not
differ widely.
Horizontal curvature-—Horizontal curvature on urban sections of
the system shall be under all conditions of the lowest practicable
degree, and at no point sharper than hereinbefore recommended for
rural sections of the same assumed design speed.
Transition curvature.—All horizontal circular curves on urban sec-
tions of the Blache sharper than 2° shall be approached by transi- .
tion curves of a length consistent with the design speed and suffi-
cient to permit the attainment of full superelevation within the
length of the transition.
uperelevation Y curves.—On urban sections of the system all curves
sharper than 1° shall be superelevated, as hereinbefore recommended
for rural] sections, except that maximum superelevation shall be 0.10
foot per foot.
Sight distance —Sight distance on urban sections of the system shall
be at least as great as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections
of the same design speed.
Vertical curvature—Vertical curvature on urban sections of the
system shall be as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections.
Number and width of traffic lanes and median strips.—All urban sec-
tions of the system expected to carry an average daily traffic of 20,000
or more vehicles shall be designed to provide, when it becomes neces-
sary to do so, three lanes for traffic moving in each direction, each
lane to have a width of 12 feet; and the lanes for traffic moving in
opposite directions shall be separated by a raised median strip at
least 4 feet wide.
Urban sections of the system expected to carry an average daily
traffic of less than 20,000 vehicles shall be designed to provide at least
2 lanes for traffic moving in each direction, each lane to have a
width of 12 feet; and the lanes for traffic moving in opposite directions
shall be separated by a raised median strip at least 4 feet wide.
Transitions of median strip width—Where narrowing or widening of
the median strip is necessary, essential pavement alinement changes
shall be accomplished over lengths sufficient to avoid hazard in
vehicular operation at the design speed assumed, and to avoid the
appearance of distorted or forced alinement.
Ri oulders, curbs, and emergency standing areas.—Shoulders 10 feet
wide and contrasting in texture and preferably in color with the
adjoining pavement, shall be constructed on urban sections of the
system, or in lieu thereof there shall be constructed, throughout the
length of such sections and adjoining the outer lanes thereof, mount-
able curbs, outside and flush with the top of which, there shall be
168 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
provided, if financially feasible, an area not less than 10 feet wide,
which shall be reserved for the temporary accommodation of disabled
or other stationary vehicles.
Drainage.—For the removal of drainage from the pavements,
median strips, shoulders, or standing areas, and adjacent slopes of
urban sections of the system, an underground drainage system shall
be constructed, entrance to which shall be provided at suitable
intervals and in appropriate places by means of drop inlets of adequate
design and capacity, in sick manner as to avoid all possible hazard
to traffic and reduction of the traffic capacity of the pavements.
Gradient.—The gradient of urban sections of the system shall
preferably be not steeper than 3 percent and shall in no case exceed
5 percent. In general, extremely long grades should be less steep
and very short ones may be steeper than grades of moderate length.
Grades to be traveled only in the downward direction on one-way
roads may be steeper than the limits recommended above.
Width of right-of-cay.—-The night of wey to be acquired for urban
sections of the interregional system shall be at least sufficient to
. permit the construction of pavements, median strips, areas for decel-
eration, acceleration, and maneuvering, standing areas, side slopes,
ramps, retaining walls, barrier strips, and service streets, or such of
these facilities as may be required at any point, all constructed in
accordance with the foregoing recommendations. The required right-
of-way shall be acquired in its entirety by outright purchase or
condemnation in accordance with the need for the planned ultimate
development of the highway.
Foundations and bases, surfaces, and pavements.—All road founda-
tions and bases, and all road surfaces and pavements on urban sections
of the system shall conform to the basic standards hereinbefore
recommended for foundations, bases, surfaces, and pavements on
rural sections of the system.
IT. Bridges and culverts.
Definitions.—All structures shall be classed as long bridges, short
bridges, or culverts as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections of
the system.
Alinement of bridges.—All bridges, wherever feasible, shall be so
located as to fit the over-all alinement and gradient of the highway
and shall be subordinated thereto. Where structural or architectural
requirements make it desirable to adjust the alinement and gradient
of the highway, the changes shall be such that the highway will
meet all the basic standards for urban sections of the system recom-
mended herein under “I. Roads.”
Width of bridges.—The width between vehicular curbs on all bridges
built on tangents of urban sections of the system shall be at least 4
feet greater than the width of the pavement of the approach highway,
and the lateral distances between the edges of the pavement of the
approach highway and the faces of the vehicular curbs shall be at
least 2 feet. Where the approach pavements have curbs adjoining
the outer lanes thereof, curbs on the approaches and on the bridge
shall be continuous.
On all bridges the lateral distance from the face of the curb to the
face of the bridge rail or any structural member shall be at least 18
inches and as much more as is necessary for walk nee Where
curbs on a bridge are continuous with curbs adjoining the outer lanes.
APPENDIX V 169
of the approach pavement, the lateral distance from the outer
edge of the approach pavement to the face of the bridge rail or-any
structural member of the bridge shall be 3 feet 6 inches.
On short bridges over streams, railways, and minor intersecting
roads and streets, the lateral distance from the edge of the pavement
of the approach highway to the face of the bridge rail, any structural
member, or the curb shall be not less than the width of shoulder or
the emergency standing area on the o parh panies
with divided highways, one
On sections of the system improve
bridge to accommodate both roadways and the median strip or two
separate bridges, each to accommodate one roadway, may be used.
On short bridges the two roadways shall be accommodated without
deviation from their normal alinement, and on long bridges the two
roadways shall be so accommodated if feasible.
Where the median strip is reduced in width, the change in aline-
ment shall be accomplished in such manner and over such lengths as
will avoid hazard in vehicular operation at the design speed and the
appearance of distorted or forced alinement. Where the median strip
is reduced in width over structures the two roadways shall be sepa-
aye by a raised, but mountable, dividing strip not less than 4 fect
wide.
Auriliary lanes on bridges.—Where auxiliary lanes or designs for
other purposes provide a pavement over bridges that extends more
than 2 feet outside the normal edge of through-traffic lanes, the vehi-
cular curb shall be continuous with the curb on the approach high-
way; or, in the absence of an approach curb, the vehicular curb shall
be located at least 2 feet outside a line extending from the edge of the
widened pavement on the approach.
Bridges on curves.—On all bridges on curves the clearances shall be
at least as great as those required for all other bridges, and the lateral
clearance to the face of the bridge rail or any structural member shall
be as much more as shall be necessary to maintain the minimum sight
distance used in the design of the section of highway on which the
bridge is located.
ear height of bridges—The clear height of all bridges over the
entire width between outer curbs shall be not less than 14 feet.
Openings under bridges.—All bridges over railways and_ public
streets, roads, or highways shall provide a clear height and length
between abutments or piers as hereinbefore recommended for bridges
on rural sections of the system.
Pavements on bridges.—All bridge pavements shall be constructed as
hereinbefore recommended for bridges on rural sections of the system.
Structural design of bridges—All bridges shall be structurally
designed as hereinbefore recommended for bridges on rural sections
of the system.
Width of culverts.—The over-all clear width of all culverts shall be
equal to the sum of the widths of the surfaces or pavements, median
strip, and shoulders or emergency standing areas of the section of the
ner one highway in which they are installed.
On divided highways the two roadways shall be separated, over
culverts, by a median strip of the width provided on the ewe
approaching the culvert. In the case of culverts supercharged with
an earth embankment, shoulders or emergency standing areas, and
slopes shall be carried over the culvert, identical in design with the
cross section of the approach highway. ;
170 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
In all other cases the entire clear width shall be paved; and, between
lines joining the edges of the pavements on the approach highways
at the culvert, the character of such paved areas shall be identical
with that of the pavement on the approach highway. All portions of
the pavement outside of such lines shall approximate the color of the
shoulders or emergency standing areas.
Structural design of culverts —All culverts shall be structurally de-
signed as hereinbefore recommended for culverts on rural sections of
the system.
IIT. Underpasses.
All underpasses on urban sections of the system shall be designed to
the same standards as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections of
the system, except that structures designed to carry crossing highways
shall in no case be designed for less than the standard H20 Toading
specified by the American Association of State Highway Officials, as
described in appendix VI, and the bridge width shall be sufficient to
accommodate necessary sidewalks outside of the vehicular curbs.
References to shoulders in the standards recommended for rural sec-
tions shall be interpreted as applying to either shoulders or emergency
standing areas on urban sections of the system.
IV. Access facilities.
Urban sections of the system shall be designed for provision of
access to the interregional highway only at the more important inter-
secting roads or streets.
Direct interchanges.—Where, at points of access on urban sections
of the system, a large volume of interchanging traffic is expected,
provision for direct interchange, by both left- and right-turning move-
ments, shall be made, wherever feasible, in the same manner as recom-
mended for rural sections of the system.
Arrangement of ramps at right-turning connections—Where, on
urban sections of the system, access is to be provided from grade-
. separated intersecting roads or streets, and the provision of direct
connections for left- and right-turning movements is not feasible,
ramps or connections between the intersecting roads or streets,
providing for exit from and entrance to the interregional highway by
right-turning movements only, may be provided in the same manner
as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections of the system. Instead
of connecting directly with an intersecting read or street, such ramps or
connections from urban sections of the system may connect with a
parallel service street or way and thence indirectly with the inter-
secting road or street; and similar connection may be made with a
service street or way at any desired pore apart from a grade-separated
intersecting road or street. (See pl. X.)
All ramps and connections shall provide either within their own
length or within such length in combination with a section of the
arallel service street or way, sufficient storage space for traffic
teasing the interregional highway so that such traffic, if temporarily
blocked at the intersecting street, will not back up onto the inter-
regional highway.
Alinement of ramps or connections.—All ramps connecting with
urban sections of the interregional system shall preferably be designed
as one-way roads separated for the whole length of ramp. Where
two-way ramps are used, entrances and exits at the interregional
APPENDIX V 171
highway and, if deemed feasible, at the intersecting highway also
shall be designed as one-way roads separated by suitable channeling
islands. Entrances and exits shall be located at sufficient distances
from any grade-separating structure to provide sight distances ade-
gute toe safety under the conditions of vehicular speed to be an-
ticipated.
All ramps and connections shall be designed to enable vehicles to _
leave and enter the through-traffic lanes of each highway at 0.7 of its
design speed, except where “stop” control is necessary. The maxi-
mum curvature of ramps and connections shall preterauly: not exceed
45°, and under no conditions shall exceed 70°. All curves shall be
eased by transition or compounding.
Width of pavements and shoulders and side slopes.—All ramps and
connections shall be made as wide and side slopes shall be made as
flat as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections of the system.
Shoulders may be omitted under appropriate conditions; but, if
provided, shall conform to the standards recommended for rural
sections of the system.
Added space for turning maneuvers.—Added space for turning
maneuvers shall be provided, and shall be designed as hereinbefore
recommended for rural sections of the system.
- Gradients on ramps.—The gradient on ramps shall not exceed 6
percent on upgrades and 8 percent on downgrades.
Sight distance at ramps and poieciona On all ramps and connec-
tions the combination of grade, vertical curves, alinement, and clear-
ances of lateral and corner obstructions to vision shall be such asto
provide a sight distance along such ramps and connections and from
their terminal junctions along the interregional highway and inter-
secting road or street consistent with the probable speeds of vehicle
operation.
Access for busses.—Bus stops shall be prohibited on all urban sections
of the interregional system. Access connections for bus stops off the
interregional highway shall be designed to the same standards as
other access connections.
V. Tunnels.
Tunnels on urban sections of the interregional system shall accom-
modate the same number and width of traffic lanes as are provided
on the street or highway approaching the tunnel and shall conform
to all recommendations hereinbefore made for tunnels on rural sections
of the system.
VI. Pedestrian and recreational facilities.
On urban sections of the system, pedestrian usa of road surfaces and
pavements shall be prohibited.
Pedestrian use of shoulders or standing areas shall be prohibited
wherever feasible. Where walks are provided in these areas, they
shall be separated from the edge of the pavement for vehicles by a
curb and a strip at least 6 feet wide.
Where median strip or border areas of the interregional highway
are of dimensions sufficient to permit their safe use for pedestrian
purposes or for recreational facilities, such as rest and comfort facilities
and playgrounds for both road users and nearby residents, their use
for such purposes shall be encouraged either by the provision of
these facilities or the assignment of space for their future development
172 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
in accordance with an approved development plan. If so used, ade-
quate steps, ramps, or walks shall be provided to give access to such
areas from the adjacent service streets or ways, and, if necessary,
barriers such as fences shall be provided to prevent pedestrian en-
croachment on the anes for vehicular travel.
Adequate crosswalks for pedestrians shall be provided on all
bridges and within all underpasses carrying intersecting streets or
highways over or under the interregional highway, and steps or
ramps may be provided from such bridges or underpasses to give
pedestrian access to median strip or border areas capable of safe
recreational or other pedestrian use.
In addition to the pedestrian-crossing facilities provided at inter-
secting streets or highways, special bridges or underpasses for pedes-
trians shall be provided at such intervals as may be necessary for the
convenience of pedestrian crossing of the pavements of the highway.
Paths for pedestrians shall be equal in surface smoothness and
accessibility to the surfaces provided for vehicular travel.
VII. Landscaping.
On all urban sections of the system the landscaping design shall
conform, wherever feasible, to the recommendations hereinbefore made
for rural sections of the system.
VIIT. Signs and pavement markings.
The installation of traffic control signals shall be prohibited on
urban sections of the system.
On all urban sections of the system, signs and pavement markings
shall be provided as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections of
the system, except that speed-control signs shall be used only where
the maximum safe speed under normal conditions is less than 50
miles per hour, in which case signs warning of the approach, the
presence, and the termination of such sections shall be provided in a
manner similar to the recommendations made for rural sections of
the system. Where State or local traffic regulations govern the
maximum speed, such maximum speed limits shall be indicated at
appropriate intervals by signs bearing the legend “Speed limit ——.”’
IX. Lighting.
All urban sections of the interregional system shall be lighted by
artificial fixed-source illumination to orovide the maximum degree of
safety and convenience of movement at night. At all connections
illumination shall be provided for such distance and in such degree
as may be necessary to provide a safe transition between the normal
system lighting on the interregional highway and the normal degree
of illumination on the connecting street. Mlumination of the inter-
regional highway shall not terminate abruptly at the limits of urban
sections but shall be extended in diminishing degree for such distance
as may be necessary to insure safe transition from lighted to unlighted
sections or to sections on which the illumination is of lower degree.
APPENDIX V 173
X. Provision for public utilities.
The erection of electric light, power, and telephone poles and the
construction of underground. utilities shall be restricted on urban
sections of the system as hereinbefore recommended for rural sections
of the systems.
Where underground utility lines, which require regular and not
infrequent maintenance, repair, and replacement, cross urban sections
of the system they shall be placed in service tunnels under the pave-
ments to insure continuous and undisturbed operation of trate on
the interregional highway.
APPENDIX VI
StanDARD Design Loapines ror HicHway BRIDGES
As Specified by the American Association of State Highway Officials,
1941
Highway loadings —The highway live loadings on the roadway of
bridges or incidental structures shall consist of standard trucks or
of lane loads which are equivalent to truck trains. Two systems of
loading are provided, the H loadings and the H-S loadings, the cor-
responding H-S loeding? being heavier than the H loadings.
The H loadings are illustrated in figures 1 and 2 of this appendix.
They consist of a four-wheel truck or the corresponding lane loading.
The H loadings are designated H followed by a number indicating
the gross weight in tons of the standard truck.
The H-S loadings are illustrated in figures 3 and 4 of this appendix.
They consist of a tractor-truck with semitrailer or the corresponding
lane loading. The H-S loadings are designated by the letter H fol-
lowed by a number indicating the oss weight in tons of the tractor-
truck and the letter S followed by the gross weight in tons of the single
axle of the semitrailer. ‘The H-S lane loading shall be used for loaded
lengths greater than 40 feet. The H-S truck loading shall be used for
loaded lengths of 40 feet or less.
The H-S loading is optional under these specifications and shall
not be construed as a requirement thereof.
Hi hay loadings shall be of five classes: H20, H15, H10, H20-S16,
and H15-S12. Loadings H15 and H10 are 75 percent and 50 percent,
respectively, of loading H20. Loading H15-S12 is 75 percent of
loading H20-S16. If loadings of weights other than those designated
are desired, they shall be obtained by proportionately changing the
weights shown for both the standard truck and the corresponding lane
loads and maintaining the axle spacing constant. Truck loads for
one classification and lane loads for another classification shall not
be used in combination.
Traffic lanes.—The lane loadings or standard trucks shall be assumed
to occupy traffic lanes, each having a width of 10 feet correspondin
to the standard truck clearance width. Within the curb-to-cur
width of the roadway, the traffic lanes shall be assumed to occup
any position which will produce the maximum stress, but which wi
not involve overlapping of adjacent lanes, nor place the center of
the lane less than 5 feet from the roadway face of the curb.
Standard trucks and lane loads —The wheel spacing, weight distribu-
tion, and clearance of the standard H and H-S trucks shall be as shown
in figures 1 and 3 and corresponding lane loads shall be as shown in
figures 2 and 4.
174
APPENDIX VI 175
W = TOTAL WEIGHT OF TRUCK AND LOAD
H20- 8,000-LBS. : 32,000-LBS.
H1S- 6,0001BS. 24,000-LBS.
H 10 - 4,000-LBS. 16,000-LBS.
WIOTH OF EACH REAR TIRE EQUALS FINCH
PER TON OF TOTAL WEIGHT OF LOAOEO TRUCK:
de
10'- 0" CLEARANCE & LANE WIOTH
Fioure 1.—Standard H trucks,
176 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
18000 FOR MOMENT
26000 FOR SHEAR
H20 LOADING
ONCENTRATED LOAD
13500 FOR MOMENT
CONCENTRATED Loan 3200 FOR SHEAR
M LOAD 480-LBS. PER LINEAR FOOT OF LA
MMM
H15 LOADING
9000 FOR MOMENT
CONCENTRATED LOA 13,000 FOR SHEAR
20-LBS. PER LINEAR FOOT OF LAN
EEZXEETEEL:
H10 LOADING
FiauRE 2.—H lane loadings.
APPENDIX VI 17
4 20-S16 8,000-LBS. 32,000 LBS. 32,000 LBS.
4 15-SI2 6000-LBs. 24,000 LBs. 24,000 LBS.
WIOTH OF TIRES SHALL BE THE
SAME AS THE STANDARD H TRUCKS
W=COMBINED WEIGHT ON THE FIRST TWO AXLES WHICH IS THE SAME AS FOR THE
CORRESPONDING H TRUCK
10'-O" CLEARANCE & LANE WIOTH
el
Fiaure 3.—Standard H-S trucks.
178 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
32000 FOR MOMENT
ONCENTRATEO Loan {32000 FOR SHEAR
KKK.
H 20-SI6 LOADING
24000 FOR MOMENT
30,000 FOR SHEAR
CONCENTRATEO LOA
UNIFORM LOAO 480-LBS. PER LINEAR FOOT OF LANE
VM
H15-S!2 LOADING
Fioure 4.—H-8 lane loadings.
Each lane loading shall consist of a uniform load per linear foot of
traffic lane combined with a single concentrated load so placed on the
span as to produce maximum stress. The concentrated load shall be
considered as uniformly distributed across the lane on a line normal
to the center line of the lane. For the computation of moments and
shears, different concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in
figures2 and4. The lighter concentrated loads shall be used when the
stresses are primarily bending stresses and the heavier concentrated
loads shall be used when the stresses are primarily shearing stresses.
Appication of loadings.—In computing stresses, each 10-foot traffic
Jane loading or a single standard truck per lane shall be considered as a
unit. The number and position of loaded lanes, and the type of load-
ing—truck loading or lane loading—shall be such as to produce a
maximum stress subject to reductions specified under the head
“Reduction in load intensity.”” Fractional lane widths are not to be
considered. The H-S lane loading shall be used for loaded lengths
over 40 feet, and the H-S truck loading for loaded lengths of 40 feet or
less. For H loading, either the lane loading or the truck loading shall
be used, depending upon which gives the larger stress.
On any series of continuous spans, discontinuous lengths of lane
loading shall be used where necessary for maximum stress, but only
one concentrated load shall be used.
Reduction in load intensity —Where maximum stresses are produced
in any member by loading any number of traffic lanes simultaneously,
the following percentages of the resultant live load stresses shall be
used in view of improbable coincident maximum loading:
Percent
Lor 2:lanés'ss 2 ook ee eb eto te ee lea ee tec eee ee ks 100
9 lanes so 20320 vec ced tsn cies asus sone s ooeeee ol Steetegedtetlet eds 90
4 lanes Or mMOofetc2. 22S) wee cee ee ole eee ak ecess tas enced sestes 75
The position and number of loaded lanes used shall be such as to
produce maximum stresses in all cases.
The reduction in intensity of floor-beam loads shall be determined
as in the case of main trusses or girders, using the width of roadway
which must be loaded to produce maximum stresses in the floor beam.
179
APPENDIX VII
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INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
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APPENDIX VI 181
TasLe 2.—Direct Federal and State highway employment, by months, from 1981 to
1948, inclusive
Number of man-months of direct employment—
On inde-
— eral
tate con- State con-
struction struction
On Federal
and Federal-
aid con-
struction
Year and month On State
mainte-
nance
3
o
=
®
SRE
ecity
@nr
ee
BESS5E55
ZER882
$3
201, 046
147, 101
Pe Spies 2, 689, 617
ESSE
SERE88
» 5,054, 152
93800—44——13
Digitized by Goog le
182 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
TABLE 2.—Direct Federal and State highway employment, by months, from 1981 to
1942, inclusive—Continued ~
Number of man-months of direct employment—
Year and month On Federal On inde- On all Fed- On State On all con-
and Federal-| pendent eral and mainte- struction
aid con- 8tate con- State con- nance and mainte-
struction struction struction nance
‘
96, 594 120, 283 240, 414
81, 257 122, 209 é
, 999 108, 149 217, 539
123, 063 135, 484 282, 740
167, 535 135, 541 331, 000
193, 263 138, 253 362, 339
191,041 148, 575 375, 442
178, 756 ¥ 382, 846
143, 455 156, 187 , 0
135, 660 147, 324 323, 374
118, 898 139, 138 290, 523
103, 493 121, 690 252, 229
1, 624, 014 1, 636, 793 3, 619, 925
82, 731 105, 795 202,
70, 418 119, 777 200, 451
86, 050 133, 386 277,
132, 834 143, 305 287, 478
193, 269 ; 374, 191
237, 330 165, 363 23,
249, 271 164, 956 435, 971
2A7, 841 158, 882
227,916 151, 772 414, 147
206, 113 149, 717 389,
172, 205 27, 988 , 3, 188 353, 971
128, 314 21, 304 149, 708 138, 540 288, 248
2, 034, 382 247, 973 2, 282, 355 1, 749, 537 4, 031, 892
15, 622 92, 451 117, 576 210, 027
11, 706 69, 550 120, 786 190, 336
11, 802 81, 748 119, 046 , 794
13, 164 101, 525 124, 761 226, 286
17, 241 , 896 159, 167 5
19, 382 164, 757 148, 392 313, 149
25, 140 184, 629 149, 907 q
28, 379 191, 710 160, 143 351, 853
26, 632 179, 416 167, 028 346, 444
, 280 170, 897 160, 045 330, 942
29, 491 150, 885 163, 182 314, 067
28, 825 109, 190 146, 255, 530
249, 664 1, 636, 654 1, 736, 373 3, 373, 027
15, 304 70, 293 126, 565 196, 858
12, 252 61, 965 115, 710 177, 675
11, 379 62, 608 116, 812 179, 420
14, 073 81, 902 132, 000 213, 902
17, 67: 115, 853 156. 563 272, 416
19, 875 134, 248 159, 992 294, 240
, 153, 602 168, 906 322, 508
26, 649 153, 509 170, 141 323, 650
034 164, 444 104 337, 638
35, 426 164, 696 185, 304 350, 000
439 138, 512 , 341, 832
21, 223 103, 491 163, 138 . 629
Total man-months. ....... 1, 140, 121 265, 002 1, 405, 123 1, 871, 735 3, 276, R58
APPENDIX VI 183
TaBLeE 2.—Direct Federal and State highway employment, by months, from 1931 to
1942, inelusive—Continued
Number of man-months of direct employment—
Year and month
103, 816
1, 443, 051 2, 699, 803
145, 707
163,
37, 792 22, 6 164, 726
60, 815 32,911 205, 1
83, 507 47,345 255,
96, 370 55, 679 286, 100
103, 823 61, 705 301, 773
108, 246 64, 133 310, 082
106, 268 66, 036 225
93, 554 67, 698 301, 578
70, 699 50, 846 , 044
39, 970 34, 310 182, 509
Total man-months- -._-.-_- 854, 957 535, 602 2, 869, 544
29, 430 26, 161, 875
25, 811 21, 882 147, 196
31, 566 24, 113 157, 214
52, 430 34, 608 197, 950
71, 626 55, 214 245, 785
80, 426 61, 759 277, 081
87, 184 65, 507 289,
91, 045 67, 699 297, 375
84, 239 65, 561 278, 215
. 260, 145
230, 314
185, 442
2, 727, 934
49, 155, 033
“4, 145, 939
52, 154, 998
72, 177, 861
90, 907
89, 999 201, 999
94, 191 208, 552
90, 022 207, 994
80, 836 189, 912
78, 031 183, 732
58, 047 159, 845
40, 588 134, 696
842,077 | 1,276, 391 2, IR 468
Digitized by Goog le
184 INTERREGIONAL HIGHWAYS
TARLE 3.—Direct Federal and State highway employment, by years, from 1931 to
1942, inclusive
Number of man-years of direct employment
On all con-
struction
Years On Federal
On Btate
107, 117
TaB_ze 4.—Federal and State highway expenditures, by years, 1931 to 1942, inclusive
State expend-
itures for |Total expend-
Federal con-| Statecon- | Totalcon- | Waintenance | _ itures for
struction ex- | struction ex- | struction ex- (including construction
penditures | penditures | penditures maintenance and mainte-
equipment) nanice
Thousands of | Thousands of Themeenes of | Thousands of | Thousands of
dollars dollars dollars dollars
242, 137 488, 818 ore 955 182, 463 913, 418
106, 040 445, 406 551, 446 191, 611 743, 057
182, 942 263, 899 446, 841 154,076 K
316, 7: 237, 540 554, 278 187, 174 741, 452
213, 654 202, 758 416, 412 191, 277 A
5 276, 699 607, 284 226, 205 833, 489
21 280, 778 551, 979 238, 588 790, 567
193, 621 329, 694 523, 315 235, 905 759, 220
173, 159 , 233 467, 392 210, 121 677, 518
168, 557 354, 228 522, 785 215, 093 737, 878
155, 951 362, 114 518, 065 229, 264 747, 329
162, 386 1 256, 689 1419, 075 1217, 328 636, 403
316, 821
1 Preliminary estimate.
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