An introduction to the natural history of birds; being the article "Ornithology", from the seventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica ..

se

ip

oS

ox

"
te

salology

Be Ble. Prracrthortupy, iro rayrlsh ant Ke PO enettinn, , chr
t frore Us last er ee
fac, Jhon, My etm ong Le
preithereayint errs prbtrled Juince (P42 whieh ta alae A Lhe
wrk aud ur Appeared bay le SP.

ee
eee Te 902.

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS;

BEING THE ARTICLE “ ORNITHOLOGY,” FROM THE SEVENTH EDITION
~

OF THE

ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA.

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FIVE FIGURES.

BY

JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.E. M.W.S.

AND OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF FRANCE,
-

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;

SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., WHITTAKER & CO., AND HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO.
LONDON; AND JOHN CUMMING, DUBLIN. :

M.DCCC.XXXIX.

ve OCP ESE AG
1 é& ae

i mere ee rc: en ae’

ee Jager pe fs Ay iia fi
rs Wiis?

i

: AND

AD waa

MPG LOT ee

E . ‘ Biak.. wes! ap ; gr
. tor SS” ERS BOSE ae
ny 7 uae i Sif | Rana

x
4

a
°

5
-

fe Oued og Pts
“

as
i
~

ei)

Tistory.
a that department of Zoology which treats of the history

545

ORNITHOLOGY.

OrniTHoLoey, from tgs, bird, and Aéyog, discourse, is

and attributes of the feathered race. Birds form the se-
cond great division of the animal kingdom, being usually
placed immediately after the Mammalia, and antecedent
to the reptile class. They may be defined as vertebrated,
eviparous animals, covered with feathers, organized for
flight, and enjoying a double system of circulation and re-
spiration ; that is, their whole blood, like that of quadru-
peds, must visit the lungs and return to the heart before
it is propelled to the extremities,—and the entire system is
provided with reservoirs of air, in addition to the lungs
properly so called.

The vast extent which the science of Ornithology has
acquired in recent times renders a full exposition impos-
sible within our necessarily prescribed limits ; but we shall
endeavour at least to indicate the majority of the more
important groups, to figure and describe in each some in-
teresting species, and by frequent reference to such au-
thors as have most successfully treated of the different
branches in detail, enable such of our readers as desire a
more elaborate view, to follow out the subject for them-
selves. We presume it matters not with which depart-
ment we commence. Let us begin, then, with the Bib-
liography, which, however, need not detain us long.

Few if any important works have been transmitted to
us from antiquity. In the third book of Aristotle’s His-
tory of Animals (Teg Zwwy ‘Iorogia, the period being about
350 years before the Christian era) we find recorded
sundry observations, but brief and superficial, on the fea-
thered race.'. His division seems to be into such as have
hooked claws, such as have separated toes, and such as
are web-footed ; and he observes, that the first have the
breast the most robust. He describes the differences in
the structure of the feet, and notices, that although the
generality have three toes in front, and one behind, yet a
few have only two toes in front. The bill supplies the
place of lips and teeth, and passages in different parts of
the head supply the place of the external organs of the
senses of smell and sound. The eyes are furnished with
a membrane like that possessed by lizards, but want eye-
lashes. No bird with hooked claws has likewise spurs
upon its legs. These are a few examples of Aristotle’s
style of observation on the class in question.

Pliny was born about the twentieth year of the Chris-
tian era. The tenth book of -his Historia Naturalis treats
in part of birds, but in a very meagre and immethodical

»manner. He tells us of the raven and the pheenix, of the
“sow], the ibis, and the nightingale, of capons, and the cock-
“fights of Pergamus, and of the character and conduct of
“various other birds.
For 1500 years from the time of Pliny we have no re-
corded observations on Ornithology deserving of the read-
_©er’s recollection. About the middle of the 16th century
“Conrad Gesner, a native of Zurich, and a noted French-
{yman called Pierre Belon, each published works in part

devoted to Ornithology. The writings of Gesner (Histo-

\ ria Animalium, 8 vols. folio) exhibit a cumbrous erudition,

‘with a sprinkling of original observation, but are chiefly
_ extracted from ancient authors. » Baron Cuvier regarded

“him as an excellent compiler. His arrangement is alpha-
.‘betical. Belon’s most successful efforts were in the ich-

thyological department, but even in his Historia Avium, History.
1 vol. folio, 1551, we may trace an improved spirit of ob- ~~

servation, although the basis of his classification would
scarcely suffice to support a system now-a-days. He di-
vides the class of birds into six primary divisions. 1s¢,
The birds of prey, among which, misled probably by some
false analogy of plumage, he includes the cuckoo. 2d,
The Palmipedes. 3d, The Gralle, including, however, the
king-fisher, bee-eater, and other anomalous species. 4th,
All the species which place their nests upon the ground,
—an extraordinary bond of union, which of course brings
together the pheasant, the lark, and the woodcock. Ne-
vertheless, our author does not confound them in his lesser
groups. 5th, The omnivorous and insectivorous birds,
among which are placed the pigeons. 6th, The insecti-
vorous and granivorous species, which habitually frequent
shrubs and hedges.

Another noted writer of the sixteenth century was Ulys-
ses Aldrovandi of Bologna, whose works amount to thirteen
volumes folio ;—the majority of them, however, were not
published till after his death in 1606. The first three,
which treat of birds (as well as one on insects), made
their appearance in his lifetime, that is, from 1599 to 1603.
They contain some amusing information, amid a vast mass
of learned rubbish borrowed from his predecessors. Profes-
sor Savi, however, characterised the ornithological portion
as “un monumento glorioso del suo instancabile zelo, delle
sue estese cognizioni ornithologiche, e della sua universale
erudizione.” It is at the same time entirely deficient in
scientific precision, and contains, amid much truth, a sad
intermixture of unmeaning fable. The edition with
which we are best acquainted is that of Bologna, 1634.

About nearly the same period a treatise was published
by Gommer de Luzaney, with the title of De [Autour-
serie, which contains some good figures of the birds of prey
used in falconry. One of the earliest sketches of the
history of European birds is that given by Schwenkfeld, a
Prussian naturalist, in a volume entitled Theorio- Trophe-
um Silesie, 1603. The arrangement is alphabetical.
Olina’s Uccelliera, which contains tolerable figures of a
few species not previously published, appeared at Rome
in 1622. It is a small affair, restricted to the description
of very few species, but contains accurate and interesting
records of their history and mode of capture, as practised
by the Italians, with whom Ja caceia, very different from
that of Melton Moubray, is a noted passion. A swarthy,
fire-eyed hunter of sixty-five is as proud of a string of
dead linnets as any young Scotchman of sixteen may be
of his first well-filled bag of grouse or black game.

We have next a dissertation on storks, cranes, and
swallows, by J. G. Swalbacius (Spire, 1630); a natural
history of Nurenberg (Antwerp, 1633); a description of
the birds of the West Indies, by De Laet (Leyden, same
year); a history of the birds of Brazil, by Marcgraaff (in
his Hist. Rerum Nat. Brasilie, Amsterdam, 1648); and
of those of Mexico, by Hernandez (in his Nova Plant.
Animal. et Min. Mexicanorum Hist. Rome, 1651). -A
Scoto-Pole of the name of Johnston published about this
period (some years elapsing during the completion of the
various parts) his Historia Animalium, of which the second
portion treats of birds. He is a follower, not so much
of nature, as of Belon, and other authors of the pre-

1 As in some of our preceding treatises on Natural History in this work (see, for example, the article Mammattra, vol. xiv. p. 74)
we have entered at greater length into the general character of the most ancient writers, our present notices are therefore extremely

slight. cr
j VOL. XVI.

NZ

546 ORNITHOLOGY.

History. ceding century, and was himself followed by Ruysch, a tooth-like process near the tip; the feet short, robust, History.
——" whose Theatrum Universale Animalium Omnium may be with acute hooked claws.

regarded as a second edition of Johnston’s work. The

Natural and Medical History of the Hast Indies, by Bon- Genus Vuléur. Vultures. Beak hooked ; head bare: eight

tius, appeared in 1658, and contained descriptions of va-
rious birds at that time new. Soon afterwards Perrault,
Borrichius, and Bartolinus, began to furnish the earliest
modern contributions to the anatomy of the feathered
race. ;

Willughby’s Ornithologia (a posthumous work, believ-
ed to have been greatly amended and increased by Ray}
was published in 1676, The first edition is in Latin, but
an English translation, enlarged, made its appearance two
years after. Ray's own Synopsis Methodica Avium (et
Piscium) was likewise published posthumously, under the
care of Dr Derham, in 1713. The writings of these au-
thors are remarkable, as manifesting an approach to a
more natural system of arrangement than had hitherto
prevailed ; but as they have been so frequently analysed,
we deem it unnecessary to occupy our space with any de-
tailed exposition of their views. Baron Cuvier has term-
ed Ray “le premier véritable méthodiste pour le régne
animal, guide principal de Linnzus dans cette partie.”
In Sir Hans Sloane’s Voyage to Jamaica, &c. (1707-25),
we have notices of various birds, accompanied by rather
poor engravings ; but the work was of great use to science
in England, by the attention and emulation which it ex-
cited in regard to natural objects, of which the author had
brought together upwards of 36,000, besides 200 volumes
of preserved plants. His collections formed the original
basis of the British Museum. A showy but inaccurate
work by Marsilli (1726) is devoted to an interesting sub-
ject, the birds of the banks of the Danube. Albin’s Na-
tural History of Birds, in 3 vols. 4to (1731-38), contaias
above three hundred coloured figures of no great merit.
Yet it was afterwards reprinted in French, with additions,
at the Hague. About the same period was published
Catesby’s Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the
Bahama Islands, in 2 vols. folio, and appendix (1731-43),
with numerous coloured plates of birds and other beings.
Frisch’s excellent work on German birds ( Vorstellung der
Vogel Deutschlands) was commenced at Berlin in 1734,
and was not completed when the author died. It was
continued by a stranger, and a collected edition of the
whole work, with two hundred and fifty-five plates, was
published in 1763. Although by no means highly finish-
ed, these engravings are accurate, and exhibit a good deal
of the truth of nature. The arrangement is defective,
and retrogrades from that of Ray. Seba’s great, or rather
large work, the Locupletissimi rerum naturalium Thesauri
accurata descriptio, was being carried on during this period
at Amsterdam, in four volumes folio (1734-65). It is un-
worthy of being quoted, except in reference to the plates.

By this time the illustrious reformer of systematic na-
tural history had made his appearance as an author; the
first edition of the Systema Nature, consisting of only
fourteen pages folio, having been published at Leyden in
1735, when Linnzus was not more than eighteen years of
age. It ran through twelve editions in little more than
thirty years; the twelfth impression, the last which the
author could himself revise, appearing at Stockholm in
1766-68. ‘The influence exercised by the writings of the
great Swedish naturalist is too important to admit of our
proceeding farther without exhibiting a view of his clas-
sification, so far at least as concerns the feathered race.
The following table presents an outline of the Linnzan
arrangement of birds, which he divides into six primary
groups called orders,

Orver I. Accirirres, or birds of prey. The bill more
or less curved, the upper mandible dilated, or armed with

species.

Falco. Eagles and hawks.
thered : thirty-two species.

Strix. Owls. Beak hooked, feathers at its base di-
rected forwards: twelve species.

Lanius. Shrikes. Beak straightish, notched: twenty-
six species.

Beak hooked ; head fea-

Orver II. Picz. The bill cultriform, with the back
convex ; the feet short, rather strong.

Genus Psittacus. Parrots. Beak hooked ; upper mandible
- furnished with a cere: forty-seven species.

Rhamphastos. Toucans. Beak very large, hollow, con-
vex, serrated; both mandibles incurved at the tip:
eight species.

Buceros. Hornbills. Beak convex, curved, cultrate,
large, serrated ; forehead covered by a horny plate :
four species.

Buphaga. Beef-eaters. Beak straight, somewhat quad-
rangular ; the mandibles bulging : one species.

Crotophaga. Plantain-eaters. Beak compressed, half
egg-shaped, arched, keeled on the back : two species.

Corvus. Crows. Beak convex, cultrate; nostrils co-
vered by recumbent bristly feathers : nineteen species.

Coracias. Rollers. Beak conical, convex, straight,
acute ; upper mandible slightly longer, and indistinct-
ly notched : twenty species.

Gracula. Grakles. Beak cultrate, convex, somewhat
bare at the base: eight species.

Paradisea. Birds of Paradise. Beak covered with the
downy feathers of the forehead ; feathers of the sides
long: three species.

Trogon. Curucuis. Beak shorter than the head, cul-
trate, hooked, serrated: three species.

Bucco. Barbets. Beak cultrate, laterally compress-
ed, notched at the tip, incurved, opening to beneath
the eyes: one species.

Cuculus. Cuckoos. Beak roundish; nostrils with a
prominent margin: twenty-two species.

Yunz. Wrynecks. Beak roundish, sharp pointed ;
nostrils concave: one species.
Picus. Woodpeckers. Beak angular, straight, the

tip wedge-shaped ; the nostrils covered with recum-
bent bristly feathers: twenty-one species.
Sitta. Nut-hatches. Beak awl-shaped, roundish,
straight: three species. ‘
Todus. Todus. Beak awl-shaped, a little flattened,
obtuse, straight, with spreading bristles at the base :
two species. :

Alcedo. King-fishers. Beak three-cornered, thick,
straight, long: fifteen species.

Merops. Bee-eater. Beak curved, compressed, keel-
ed: seven species.

Upupa. Hoopoes. Beak arcuate, convex, a little com-
pressed, rather obtuse: three species.

Certhia. Creepers. Beak arcuate, slender, acute:
twenty-five species.

Trochilus. Humming-birds. Beak slender, longer than
the head, its tip tubular: twenty-two species.

Orper III. Ansrres. Web-footed water-fowl. Bill
smooth, covered with epidermis, enlarged at the tip; the
toes united by a web, the legs compressed and short.

Genus Anas. Swans, geese, ducks. Beak lamellated at
the margin, convex, obtuse: forty-five species.

—’

ORNITHOLOGY. 547

History. Genus Mergus. Mergansers. Beak denticular cylindrical,

the tip hooked: six species.

Alcea. Auks. Beak short, compressed, convex, fur-
rowed, the lower mandible with a prominent angle :
five species.

Procellaria, Petrels. Beak a little compressed ; the
upper mandible hooked, the lower channelled and
compressed at the tip: six species.

Diomedea. Albatrosses. Beak straight; upper man-
dible hooked at the tip, lower abrupt: two species.
Pelecanus. Pelicans, solan-geese, cormorants. Beak
straight, the tip hooked, unguiculate: eight species.
Plotus. Darters. Beak straight, sharp-pointed, den-

ticulate: one species.

Phaeton. Tropic birds. Beak cultrate, straight, acu-
minate : two species.

Colymbus. Divers. Beak slender, straight, sharp-point-
ed: eleven species.

Larus. Gull. Beak straight, cultrate, the tip slightly
hooked, the lower mandible with an angular pro-
minence: eleven species.

Sterna. Terns or sea-swallows. Beak slender, nearly
straight, acute, compressed : seven species.

Rynchops. Skimmers. Beak straight ; upper mandible
much shorter, lower abruptly terminated : two species.

Orver IV. Gratta. Waders or shore-birds. Bill
somewhat cylindrical ; the feet long, bare above the tarsus,

and formed for wading.

Genus Phenicopterus. Flamingoes. Beak incurvated as
if broken, denticulate ; feet webbed: one species.
Platalea. Spoon-bills. Beak flattish, the tip dilated,

rounded, and flat: three species.

Palamedea. Screamers. Beak conical; the upper man-
dible hooked: two species.

Mycteria. Jabiru. Beak acute; lower mandible tri-
gonal, ascending ; upper three-cornered, straight : one
species.

Cancroma. Boat-bills. Beak bulging; the upper man-
dible resembling a boat with the keel uppermost: two
species.

Ardea. Herons and cranes. Beak straight, acute, long, -

a little compressed, with a furrow from the nostrils to
the tip: twenty-six species.

Tantalus. Ibis. Beak long, slender, arcuate; face
bare: seven species.

Scolopax. Snipes and curlews. Beak long, slender, ob-
tuse ; face feathered: eighteen species.

Tringa. Sand-pipers, or shore-larks. Beak roundish,
as long as the head; nostrils linear; feet with four
toes: twenty-three species.

Charadrius. Plovers. Beak roundish, obtuse; feet
with three toes ; twelve species.

Recurvirostra. Avosets. Beak slender, recurved, point-
ed, the tip flexible: one species.

Hematopus. Oyster-catchers. Beak compressed, the
tip wedge-shaped : one species.

Fulica. Coots. Beak convex; upper mandible arch-
ed over the lower, which has a prominent angle:
seven species.

Parra. Jacanas. Beak roundish, rather blunt; fore-
head wattled ; wings spurred: five species.

Rallus. Rails. Beak thicker at the base, compressed,
acute: ten species.

Psophia. Trumpeter. Beak conical, convex, rather
sharp; the upper mandible longer: one species.

Otis. Bustards. Beak with the upper mandible arch-
ed: four species.

Struthio. Ostrich and cassuary. Beak somewhat co-
nical ; wings unfit for flying: three species.

Orprer V. Gaxiinz. Poultry and other gallinace- History.
ous birds. Bill convex, the upper mandible arched over
the lower, the nostrils arched with a cartilaginous mem-
brane. Feet with the toes separated, and rough beneath.

Genus Didus. Beak contracted in the middle, with two
transverse ruge; the tip of both mandibles bent in-
wards: one species, now extinct.
Pavo. Pea-fow]. Head covered with feathers, those of the
rump elongated, with eye-like spots: three species.
Meleagris. ‘Turkeys. Head covered with spongy ca-
runcles ; the throat with a longitudinal membranous
wattle: three species.

Crazx. Curassoes. Beak with a cere at the base; head
covered with recurved feathers: five species.

Phasianus. Domestic fowls and pheasants. Sides of
the head bare : six species.

Numida. Guinea-fowls. Carunculated wattles on each
side of the face ; head with a horny crest: one species.

Tetrao. Grouse and partridges. Bare papillz near the
eyes: twenty species.

Orper VI. Passreres. Passerine birds, and others. Bill
conical, sharp pointed ; feet slender, the toes separated.

Genus Columba. Pigeons. Beak straight; nostrils with
a tumid membrane: forty species.

Alauda. Larks. Beak slender, pointed; tongue slit;
hind claws very long: eleven species.

Sturnus. Starlings. Beak slender, pointed; flattened
towards the point : five species.

Turdus. Thrushes. Beak subulate, compressed, notch-
ed: seven species.

Ampelis. Chatterers. Beak awl-shaped, depressed at
the base, notched: seven species.

Loxia. Gross-beaks, bullfinches, &c. Beak conical,
bulging at the base: forty-eight species.

Emberiza. Bunting. Beak somewhat conical ; lower
mandible broader: twenty-four species.

Tanagra. Tanager. Beak notched, awl-shaped, coni-
cal at the base: twenty-one species.

Motacilla. Wagtails and warblers. Beak awl-shaped ;
tongue jagged; claw of the hind toe of moderate
length: forty-nine species.

Pipra. Manakin. Beak awl-shaped, feathers at its
base directed forwards ; tongue abrupt: fourteen spe-
cies. :

Hirundo. Swallows. Beak very small, depressed at the
base, incurved; the mouth wider than the head:
twelve species.

Caprimulgus. Goat-suckers. Beak very small, incurv-
ed, depressed at the base; large bristles; the mouth
very wide: two species.

The amount of species in the class of birds with which
Linnzus had to form his system did not greatly exceed
nine hundred. Yet with what admirable tact has he seized
upon the characteristic forms which so long served as the
nuclei around which so many other species were assem-
bled! It is true that his arrangement, like all other in-
ventions of human genius, is liable to many objections, and
may not suit the subject in the wide extent acquired in re-
cent times ;—but when we see how closely his ordinal di-
visions accord even with the most elaborate arrangements
of modern days, and how gracefully his generic groups may
now be formed into more extended families, each retain-
ing such strong affinities in its constituent parts, we the
more incline to marvel at the two following circumstances ;
—1st, That Linnzus himself should have so far advanced
before his age, and anticipated the labours of posterity :
2d, that that posterity, or such portion of the same as in-

548 ORNITHOLOGY.

History. cline not seldom to sneer at his unprecedented and even volumes 4to (1743 and after years), made known in a History.
—~— now unequalled labours, should not perceive that it is to rough but recognisable style, many new and interesting — Ta

his system they are indebted for almost all that is of any
yalue in their own. But on this subject we shall not here
enlarge.

It has been sometimes remarked, that the characters
given by Linneus to his orders are totally inapplicable to
many of the species which each contains. Thus the vul-
tures, it is said, which belong to the first order, have no
projecting processes on the upper mandible; the parrots,
which are referred to the second, have the bill hooked, not
cultriform, and bear no resemblance to the other species ;
among the Anseres, which are characterised as having the
bill smooth, covered with epidermis, and enlarged at the
tip, are the gannets, with a bare and pointed bill, and the
divers, terns, and gulls, with bills not at all answering to
the description given ; among the Gralla, with a cylindri-
cal bill, are the ostrich, with a short depressed one, the
canchroma, with one resembling a boat, the spoon-bill, the
heron, the flamingo, and others, the bills of which differ
from each other as much as from those of the snipes and
curlews ; the character given to the bill of the Galline
agrees with that of many Passeres; and the wag-tail, the
swallow, the tit-mouse, the red-breast, and numerous other
small birds, have bills very different from those of the gold-
finch, bunting, bullfinch, and cross-bill, which, neverthe-
less, are all defined under the same order, and by a similar
phrase.! We believe the truth to be, that the more natu-
ral an order is, the greater the difficulty becomes of ex-
pressing its characters in a single line, in accordance with
the briefness of the Linnzan method,—because none of
these characters, taken in disconnection, remain unmodi-
fied throughout the extended series of beings which they
are intended to define. There is always a blending. or
transition towards other groups, so that the character ex-
pressed in words must be regarded as applying. in force
rather to certain species which exemplify the whole, and
towards which the others tend, than to the entire as-
semblage. Now the Linnean genera are often natural
as family groups, though their constituent portions may
not accord with the definition; and:as they become ex-
tended, or rather filled up, by the discovery of new
species, the difficulty increases. .Many of the modi-
fying species, or connecting links, were totally unknown
in the time of the great Swedish observer, who seized
chiefly upon the more prominent and tangible points ;
and the necessity of forming new subdivisions in no way
invalidates his claims upon the gratitude of all lovers of
the Zucidus ordo. At the same time his early disciples
erred (though less grossly than many of the later rene-
gades) in viewing all living things as merely destined to
clothe with flesh and blood the gigantic frame-work which
he had erected,—as if his exposition of the system of
nature were in fact itself that system,—as if the highest
attainments of any one, however gifted, in either art or
science, were ever more than the passionate expression of
some dim vision of truth, perceived through the influence
of the love of knowledge. With all the lights of modern
method, and the vaunted improvements in classification,
see we not still “ through a glass darkly?” Have not
some of those who talk slightingly of the Swedish sage
never contrived to see through the glass at all ?

During the thirty years which elapsed between the first
and twelfth editions of the Systema Nature, several im-
portant additions were made to Ornithology from other
quarters. Edwards, especially, in his Natural History of
Birds, and other rare undescribed Animals, and in his
Gleanings in Natural History, amounting in all to seven

species. ‘ C’est le recueil,” says Cuvier, “le plus riche
pour les oiseaux aprés les planches enluminées de Buffon.”
During the same period a letter was published at Pappen-
heim, on the birds of the Black Forest, by J. H. Zorn,
Epistola de Avibus Germania, presertim Sylve Hercynie,
which contains many excellent observations ; and the cor-
respondence was afterwards extended by Briickmann in his
Aves in Germania obvie Epistolar. Itinerar. cent. ii. epist.
18, and Aves Sylve Hercynie, ibid. epist. 17. In Ander-
son’s Natural History of Iceland and Greenland (1750), we
have among the earliest authentic notices of the Zoology
of these northern regions. Klein and Maering each pub-
lished systematic works, but based on very artificial prin-
ciples, at this epoch. In Brown’s Civil and Natural His-
tory of Jamaica, there are several ornithological contribu-
tions ; and we may here name another excellent English
work, Borlase’s Natural story of Cornwall, which appear-
ed at Oxford in 1758. In 1760 Brisson published his great
systematic Ornithologie, in six volumes Ato, still of value
for the minute though laborious exactness of the descrip-
tions. His method is founded entirely on the form of the
bill and feet, the number of the toes, and the manner in
which these are united, with or without membrane, to
each other. The Ornithologia Borealis of Brunnich ap-
peared at Copenhagen in 1764.

The Storia Naturale degli Uccelli, printed at Florence
in 1767, is the most extensive of all the Italian works on
Ornithology, after that of Aldrovandi. It is frequently
named by Temminck and other modern writers, most of
whom, however, from their vague references, may be safe-
ly inferred to quote at second hand. It consists of a large
collection of plates both of indigenous and exotic birds,
executed with sufficient exactness, considering the slight
practice which obtained in those days in the representa-
tion of natural objects. The position of most of the figures,
as Signor Savi remarks, is forced and unnatural; and we
may see at once that the artist was guided more by his
own fancies than the accustomed observance of living na-
ture. “Illuminatio non semper optima, nec optimus sem-
per avium situs,” are the observations made by Boehmer.®
The plates were engraved from drawings in the collection
of a Florentine patrician, the Marchese Giovanni Gerini,
a passionate lover of Ornithology, who passed much of his
time in collecting, and causing to be described and figured,
whatever birds he could procure from every clime and coun-
try. After his death some learned men, unfortunately not
much skilled in Ornithology, supposing either that general
erudition might suffice for science, or that the superficial
study ofa few books might compensate the want of laborious
observations carried on from year to year, undertook to pub-
lish Gerini’s uncompleted work, to fill up the voids which
he had left, and even to alter what he had already done.
They thus compiled a superficial text, in which they con-
fused the classification, mistook the species, omitted seve-
ral of the most interesting, and neglected the localities,—so
that a work which, in the hands of an able editor, might
have added a new glory to the already illustrious literature
of Italy, became nothing more than a disorderly collection
of figures. It is, however, of some value, chiefly as con-
taining representations of species not previously known,
such as Falco cenchris, Fringilla cisalpina, Sylvia provinci-
alis, melanocephala, and melanopogon, Sterna leucoptera, &c.

From the year 1767 onwards, Pallas, in his Spicilegia
Zoologica, the narrative of his various Travels, and the Acta
of the Royal Academy of St Petersburg, contributed to Or-
nithology, as to most other branches of zoological science ;

ee

1 Macgillivray’s Lives of Zoologists, vol. i. p. 279.

2 Bibliotheca Scriptorum Historie Naturalis, &c. tom. ili. p. 502.

ORNITHOLOGY.

lumes 4to, 1823. Sparmann, a pupil of Linnzus, and a History.
well-known traveller, published in 1786 the Museum Carl- ~~

History. and about the same time the industrious Pennant was ac-
—-— tively engaged in his important labours.

His numerous
well-known works need not be here particularised.. The
great collection published at. Nuremberg by Schligmann in
‘1768, though amounting to nine volumes folio, including
an indifferent text, seems chiefly copied from preceding
works, such as those of Catesby and Edwards. In 1770
and following years, Noseman, in. conjunction with Sepp
the engraver, published, in Dutch, his History of the Birds
of the Low Countries. The concluding fasciculi are by
Houttuyn. Baron Cuvier thinks the figures “ remarkable
for their elegance.” Mr Swainson regards them as “ poor
and unnatural.” The year 1770 is farther marked as an
important epoch, by the appearance of the first two volumes
of the Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, by Buffon. That
illustrious writer was the first to clothe the descriptive
portion of the science with colours as bright and varied as
those which beautify the fairy forms of which he treats,
but which had hitherto been viewed as it were only by
the half-closed eye of the technical describer. The Planches
Enluminées, afterwards published by Daubenton the youn-
ger, in illustration of Buffon’s work, amount to above a
thousand plates of birds, being the greatest and most
important collection yet achieved in this department. In
1774 we have the Hlementa Ornithologica, by Schceffer,
whose system rests entirely on the legs and feet of birds,
the primary sections being divided-into mudipedes and
plumipedes, while the orders and genera are determined by
the number, position, and connection of the toes. He
never employs the bill when he can help it; from which
we may infer the nature of the work, and its probable uti-
lity to the student.

The Voyages aux Indes, &c. by Sonnerat (1775 and suc-
ceeding years), contains figures and descriptions of many
new exotic species. Scopoli’s Introductio ad Historiam Na-
turalem, published at Prague in 1777, exhibits a systematic
distribution of birds, based on the form of the scales which
cover the tarsi. Thus the species which, like the gene-
rality of the accipitrine kinds, parrots, the gallinz, gralle,
and palmipedes, have those parts covered by small poly-
gonal scales, form the section called retepedes ; while the
others, which have the tarsi protected in front by semicir-
cular plates, bordered behind on each side by a longitu-
dinal furrow, constitute the seutipedes. The general result,
however, of this view is by no means successful. In 1776
Francesco Cetti published his Uccelli di Sardigna, a small
octavo volume, containing descriptions of only a portion of
the Sardinian birds, but valuable, from its notices of their
habits, and the description of various new species.

Latham’s General Synopsis commenced in 1781. How-
ever faulty in relation to the present state of the science,
it was a work of great merit for its time, and contains, un-
der not very appropriate names, by no means inaccurate
descriptions of-many rare birds, some of which have since
been published, by’ more recent writers, as entirely new.
Under this head we may mention both the Jndex Orni-
thologicus of the same author (1790), and his greatly en-
larged_and more modern work, the General History of
Birds, ten volumes 4to, 1821-24, which combines the two
preceding (with their supplements); but is, we regret to
say, a mere combination of those rather obsolete, mate-
rials, without critical discrimination, or any correction of
the ancient errors. There is great increase without much
progression. Nearly contemporaneous with Latham’s first
work, we find contributions. to Ornithology by Gilius,
Merrhem, and Jacquin. About 1783 Mauduit commenced
the Ornithology of the Encyclopédie Méthodique, for which
Bonnaterre formed the system of classification which ac-
companies the volume of indifferent plates. Of the de-
scriptive portion an excellent modern continuation, if not
completion, has been published by M. Vieillot, in three vo-

sonianum, in which several new species are represented
and described.. In 1787 R. L. Desfontaines (in the Meé-
moires de ! Académie des Sciences) contributed some no-
tices of birds which frequent the coasts of Barbary; and,
in the same year, Martinet, who had acted under the
younger Daubenton as a superintendent of the Planches
Enluminées, took it into his head to publish, on his own
account, a collection of figures and descriptions of birds,
amounting to no Jess than nine volumes octavo. Their
number was not more alarming than their nature.

In 1789 and following years, J. F. Gmelin published
the thirteenth edition of the Systema Nature of Linnzus.
“ Son travail,” says Baron Cuvier, “ tout indigeste et dé-
nué de critique et de connaissance des choses, est cepen-
dant nécessaire, comme la seule table un peu complete
de ce qui a été fait jusque vers 1790.” About a volume
and a half is devoted to Ornithology.
a Voyage to New South Wales appeared in 1790, forming
an interesting addition to the natural history of a country
which stil! offers a vast field for zoological research ; and
soon afterwards Shaw announced his Zoology of New Hol-
land, which advanced no farther than a few fasciculi. We
have likewise in 1790 the Fauna Gréenlandica of Otho
Fabricius, a work of great merit for the time, and still
holding a high place in the estimation of the naturalist,
from the accuracy of its descriptions, although in some in-
stances the names are misapplied. In 1792 M. Beseke
published in German his materials for the Natural His-
tory of the Birds of Courland. The works by Lord, Hayes,
Lewin, and others, which appeared about this epoch, in il-
iustration of the birds of Great Britain, were so soon af-
terwards superseded by the admirable and unequalled wood
engravings by the inimitable Bewick, that it is scarcely ne-
cessary to bring their names to the reader’s recollection.
We may close our imperfect sketch of the Ornithology of
the eighteenth century by the mention of Cuvier’s first
work, the Zableau Elémentaire d’ Histoire Naturelle (1798),
which contains the methodical distribution of birds, which
he afterwards completed in his Régne Animal.

We may commence the present century with the title
of Daudin’s work, the Traité Elémentaire et complet d Or-
nithologie, two vols. 4to, 1800. It is an‘unfinished compi-
lation, of no great merit, containing only the accipitrine
birds, and a portion of the Passeres. Although Le Vaillant
commenced his magnificent series of ornithological illus-
trations during the preceding season, and continued them
at intervals for several years, we shall here group together
the most important, for the convenience of the reader : Ist,
Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux del Afrique, six vols. 4to,
1799-1800. The plates amount to 300, but are in-
ferior to those of the other works of the same author.
2d, Histoire Naturelle d'une Partie d’ Oiseaux Nouveaux et
Rares de Amérique et des Indes, one volume 4to, 1801.
This volume illustrates the Buceride or horn:bills, and the
Ampelide or fruit-eaters. 3d, Histoire Naturelle des Perro-
quets, 2 vols. 4to, 1801-5. Almost all the plates (139
in number) of this exquisite work are from drawings by
Barrabaud, an almost unrivalled artist in the ornithological
department. 4th, Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux de Paradis,
et des Rolliers, suivie de celle des Towcans et des Barbus, 2
vols. folio, 1806. ‘ Equally splendid,” says Mr Swainson,
“with the preceding. The size and extraordinary plu-
mage of the paradise birds require a scale fully equal to
the dimensions of this volume, which exceeds any other of
the author’s in the beauty and splendour of its contents.”
We believe that the two volumes, though generally regard-
ed as one series, were published separately, with distinct
titles. 5th, Histoire Naturelle des Promerops, et des Gué-

piers, 1 vol. folio, 1807. This rare and beautiful volume

White's Journal of

549

ORNITHOLOGY.

this Encyclopzedia, and (which is more to be admired) do History.
equally pervade and illumine the labours of many modern —~~—

550

History. sometimes occurs alone, sometimes as forming volume
“——” third of the preceding series. A complete collection of

Le Vaillant’s works forms of itself a noble gallery of or~
nithological portraits. The letter-press, more especially
that of the Ocseauax d'Afrique, is also of great value, and
will be studied with additional advantage by those familiar
with the delightful narrative of his first and second Tra-
vels into the Interior of Africa, 1790-95.

As belonging to the same class of works, and also of ex-
cellent execution, may be mentioned Desmaret’s Histoire
Naturelle des Tangaras, des Manakins, et des Todiers, 1 vol.
folio, 1805. M. Vieillot, who died in 1828, after a very
active career in Ornithology, is the author of the following
works, all of a sumptuous character, and of considerable
value in their way, though inferior in beauty to those of the
two preceding authors. Histoire Naturelle des plus beaux
Oiseaux Chanteurs dela Zone Torride, | vol. folio, 1805 ;—
Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux del Amérique Septentrionale,
2 vols. folio, 1807 ;—Galerie des Oiseaux, 4 vols. Ato,
1826, an extensive series of figures, chiefly from the col-
lection of the museum in the Garden of Plants. M. Vieil-
lot is likewise the continuator of Audebert’s Histoire des
Oiseaux dorés, ou a reflets métalliques (2 vols. folio, com-
menced in 1802); and has written largely on systematic
Ornithology in the Encyclopédie’ Méthodique (Ornitholo-
gie, by the Abbé Bonnaterre, continued by M. Vieillot,
3 vols. 4to, besides the plates, Paris, 1823); and in the
Nouveau Dictionnaire d Histoire Naturelle. Lastly, he in-
dicated various new groups, or at least a variety of groups
under new names, in his Analyse d’une Nouvelle Ornitholo-
gie Elémentaire, Paris, 1816 ; a work which seems to have
occasioned great offence to M. Temminck,! and some dis-
satisfaction to Baron Cuvier.*

Alexander Wilson’s admirable American Ornithology, or
Natural History of the Birds of the United States, was pub-
lished in nine volumes quarto (including Mr Ord’s Supple-
ment) between 1808-14. It still maintains its character as
a work of the highest value, and although it has been since
surpassed by other works in elegance of design and beauty
of colouring, its descriptive or narrative portion has been
scarcely equalled. Of this most remarkable production
several editions have been published in America, and two
in this country, viz. one by Professor Jameson, in a cheap
and commodious form (four small volumes of Constable’s
Miscellany, No. 68—71, 1831), with the advantage of a
systematic arrangement of the original materials,—another
by Sir William Jardine (in three large 8vo volumes, 1832),
with plates, and consequently of higher price, but enriched
by numerous notes of great value.

We may here name the General Zoology, in fourteen
volumes octavo, 1800-26, commenced by Dr Shaw, and
concluded by Mr Stephens. «The last seven volumes are
devoted to Ornithology. Most of the platesare copies. II-
liger’s excellent Prodromus Mammalium et Avium was pub-
lished at Berlin in one volume octavo, 1811. It establishe
several new and important genera.

The first edition of the Régne Animal of Baron Cuvier
(four vols. 8vo) appeared in 1817; the second (in five vols.
8vo) was published in 1829. We need say nothing of the
surpassing excellence of a work which cast the whole sub-
ject of Zoology into a new and more natural form, nor of
the unequalled labours of the illustrious author, by whom
the structure and characters of so many important groups
have been brought from darkness into light. The general
features of his system have, with few exceptions, been
steadily adhered to throughout the zoological treatises of

authors who yet place themselves in opposition to his doc-
trines, and seem to have forgotten, or been blinded by, the
dazzling source from which they drew their “ golden light ;”
as if the false though gorgeous glory of a cloud could of it-
self adorn the beauty of the azure heavens,—as if the re-
flection of a sparkling river were any thing more than the
borrowed lustre of the “ Great Apollo.” Let the reader
rest assured, that however praise-worthy may be the skill
and devotedness of our ingenious system-makers, or how-
ever valuable may be the materials which they have brought
to bear upon isolated portions of nature’s most majestic
kingdom, they are yet separated, by the will of God, in head
and hand, “longissimo intervallo,” from their great master.
This is no reason, but the reverse, for their ceasing to
exercise their useful talents and natural powers of obser-
vation with assiduity and patience, as becomes alike the
aspiring philosopher and the humble Christian ;—but let
no man mistake “ the spirit he is of,” nor suppose an owl
an eagle, seeing that not in every acceptation of the phrase
is it true, that “ a living dog is better than a dead lion.”

The natural history of the birds of Germany has been
amply and successfully illustrated by the well-known works
of Naumann (father and son), by those of Bechstein, and
of Messrs Meyer and Wolf. We owe to M. Leisler a
Supplement to the work of Bechstein (Hanau, 1812-13),
and of Naumann’s Waturgeschichte der Vogel Deutschlands,
a second edition (in octavo), with beautifully coloured plates,
was commenced in 1820, but has not yet attained comple-
tion. Meyer and Wolf’s Taschenbuch der Deutschen Vo-
gelkunde now amounts to three volumes, and is filled with
excellent observations, while their large illustrated work
on German birds, commenced so far back as 1804, and re-
cently brought to a conclusion, is one of the most beauti-
ful with which we are acquainted. M. Brehm published
his Beitrage zur Deutschen Vogelkunde in 1820-22, in three
large volumes, filled with minute details, which exhibit an
accurate practical knowledge of the science. The author’s
views of species are peculiar. His Lehrbuch der Natur-
geschichte aller Europaischen Vogel (two volumes) was pub-
lished in the following year. In this, too, he surely describes
local races, or accidental varieties, as distinct species. To
M. Brehm we likewise owe several fasciculi of a work com-
menced in 1824, and published at intervals, under the title
of Ornis. It consists of memoirs and memoranda, by va-
rious authors, relating chiefly to Ornithology. Lastly, we
may here name his Handbuch der Naturgeschichte aller Vo-
gel Deutschlands (Ilmenau, 1831), forming a goodly volume
of 1100 pages octavo (with plates), which, M. Temminck
remarks, may be reduced to at least one half, by suppress-
ing the numerous indications of what the author calls sué-
species. His system is partitioned into twenty-three orders,
variously subdivided, and containing 196 genera.

Some important additions have been made of late years
to the Ornithology of northern countries. The birds of
Sweden are described by Professor Nilson of Lund, in
his Ornithologia Suecica, Copenhagen, 1817-21. The
same author published a Skandinavischen Fauna in 1824;
and a much more sumptuous work appeared at Lund in
1832, under the title of Ldluminerade figurer till Skandi-
naviens Fauna, mit text. The first volume contains, be-
sides quadrupeds, seventy-five figures of birds. In 1822
M. Boié gave forth his Tagebuch gehalten auf einer Reise
durch Norwegen, in which, along with the narrative of his
travels, he furnishes many valuable observations on the

See his Observations sur la Classification Méthodique des Oiseaux, &c. 1817 ; and Manuel d' Ornithologie, Introduction to the second

edition, p. x.
* Reyne Animal, second edition, tom. i. note to Preface, p. 23.

ORNITHOLOGY. 55

History. history and manners of the birds of Norway. The same recently commenced the Jconografia della Fauna Italica, History.
—— author published a work under the title of Ornithologische Rome, 1832,—a sumptuous lithographic work, in large

Beitrage, in 1824. M. Faber’s excellent little volume, the
Prodromus der Islandischen Ornithologie, appeared. in
1822. It contains most interesting accounts of the birds
of Iceland, especially the aquatic kinds; and not less va-
luable is his later publication, Uber das Leben der hoch-
nordischen Vogel, 1825, in which we have many acceptable
observations on the geographical distribution, and the
modes of life, of northern species. While on the subject of
northern birds, we need scarcely recall to the reader's re-
membrance the various appendices to the Voyages of Cap-
tains Parry and Franklin,—Captain Sabine’s Memoir on
the Birds of Greenland (Linn. Trans. vol. xii-),—or the
beautiful work by Dr Richardson and Mr Swainson on the
birds of Northern America, which constitutes the second
volume of the Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1831.

We have few systematic works devoted to the Ornitho-
Jogy of the more southern countries of the European con-
tinent. We are ourselves acquainted only by name with
the Ornitologia del? Europa Meridionale (dedicatio sig-
nata 1772), in fol. max., by Clement Bernini, a teacher of
drawing. The birds of France in general are described by
M. Vieillot in the corresponding portion of the Faune Fran-
¢aise, an octavo work, still in course of publication; and those
of Provence in particular, by M. Polydore Roux in his Or-
nithologie Provencale, 1825. Of a more general character,
though not without its bearings on our present subject, is
the Histoire Naturelle de 1 Europe Meridionale by M. Risso
of Nice, in five volumes 8vo, 1826. We have already had
occasion to name the Storia Naturale degli Uccelli, pub-
lished at Florence in 1767 ; and Cetti’s more restricted one,
Gli Uccelli di Sardigna, 1776. In more recent times
(1811), Professor Bonelli of Turin published a Catalogue des
Oiseaux du Piémont, containing two hundred and sixty-
two species. In 1822, Giambatista Baseggio inserted in
the twenty-eighth volume of the Biblioteca Italiana an
enumeration of the birds observed by him in the neigh-
bourhood of Bassano, amounting to a hundred and thirty-
seven species. In 1823, Fortunato Luigi Naccari printed

’ at Treviso his Ornitologia Veneta, ossia Catalogo degli

Uccelli della provincia di Venezia, in which he notices
two hundred and six species. In the same year Savi the
younger published, at Pisa, his Catalogo degli Uccelli del-
la Provincia Pisana, e loro Toscana Sinonimia. The spe-
cies are classed in accordance with M. Temminck’s sys-
tem, and amount to two hundred and twenty. From 1819
to 1826, Professor Ranzani of Bologna gave forth his ex-
cellent Elementi di Zoologia, of which the third volume,
consisting of nine parts, is devoted to the natural history
of birds. It is, however, a general system, treating of
exotic as well as of indigenous kinds ; yet a good deal may
be gleaned from it regarding the Italian species. A work
of more special interest is the Specchio comparativo delle
Ornithologie di Roma e di Filadeifia, by Carlo Bonaparte,
commonly called the Prince of Musignano. In this slight
but highly interesting volume (republished in the Muovo
Giornale de’ Letterati of Pisa), the author compares the
Ornithology of two distant regions of Europe and America,
lying, however, under nearly the same latitude, and re-
cords his observations on their history and manners. Of
the species of the Roman territory we had previously
scarcely any knowledge, and the Prince makes us ac-
quainted with not fewer than two hundred and forty-
seven. By the same author we have also Osservazioni
sulla Seconda Edizione del Regno Animale del Baron Cu-
vier, inserted in the tenth and eleventh fasciculi of the
Annali di Storia Naturale of Bologna; and he has more

quarto, devoted to Italian zoology. Not more than half a
dozen numbers have as yet appeared, and these contain
but few examples of the feathered race. Though not re-
lating to Italy, we may here mention our author’s other
works, viz. American Ornithology, or the Natural History of
Birds inhabiting the United States, not given by Wilson,
with coloured figures, three volumes quarto, Philadelphia,
1825-28 (only the land-birds have yet been published) ;—
Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson’s Ornithology,
Philadelphia, 1828 ;—and Genera of North American Birds,
with a Synopsis of the species found within the territory of
the United States, New York, 1828-(published in the An-
nals of the Lyceum of that city). The birds of Liguria
are enumerated and briefly described, particularly the im-
mature conditions of the plumage, by Girolamo Calvi in his
Catalogo d’ Ornitologia di Genova, 1828.

The latest but most important work with which we are
acquainted on the birds of Italy, is the Ornitologia Tos-
cana of Professor Savi, in three vols. 8vo, with additional
synoptical tables, Pisa, 1827-31. Though more specially
devoted to the birds of Tuscany, it also contains descrip-
tions of all the other Italian species, and may be regarded
as a most valuable addition to our knowledge of the
feathered tribes of Europe. The southern position and de-
lightful climate of the Italian Peninsula induce the wan-
dering wings of many species elsewhere rareé aves to wend
their way towards the olive groves and richly laden fig-
trees of that favoured land,—thus connecting the Ornitho-
logy of Europe with that of Africa and other sultry re-
gions.

We may be thought, in some of our preceding notices,
to have entered too minutely into the enumeration of de-
scriptive local works, but we have been guided in so do-
ing by two considerations: Is¢, That none of our English
writers ever make any allusion to Italian Ornithology, ex-
cept by casual reference to Carlo Bonaparte; and, 2dly,
that Buffon has recorded as his opinion, that “le seul
moyen d’avancer l’ornithologie historique, seroit de faire
Vhistoire particuliére des oiseaux de chaque pays ; d’abord
de ceux d’une seule province, ensuite de ceux d’une pro-
vince voisine, puis de ceux d'une autre plus eloignée; re-
unir aprés cela ces histoires particuliéres pour composer
celle de tous les oiseaux d’une méme climat; faire la méme
chose dans tous Jes pays et dans tous les differens climats ;
comparer ensuite ces histoires particuliéres, les combiner
pour en tirer les faits, et former un corps entier de toutes
ces parties separées.”!

The Natural History of British Birds, by Donovan, in ten
volumes octavo, is a work of no great merit. Its period
of publication extends from 1799 to 1816.

To no one of our contemporaries is Ornithology more
deeply indebted than to M. Temminck. His Histoire Na-
turelle Générale des Pigeons et des Gallinacées, three volumes
octavo, appeared in 1813-15. The portion whick concerns
the pigeons was also published in folio, with beautiful co-
loured plates, by Madame Knipp. His Manuel d’ Ornitho-
logie, ou Tableau Systématique des Oiseaux qui se trouvent en
Hurope, 1815, consisted at first of a single octavo volume ;
but a greatly improved and extended edition in two vo-
lumes appeared in 1820. Whatever difference of opinion
may prevail in regard to the author’s system, naturalists
are agreed that this is by far the most valuable work we yet
possess on the birds of Europe. Its main excellence con-
sists in the attention bestowed upon the sexual distinc-
tions, and the successive changes of plumage from youth
to age. The first volume contains, uader the title of Ana-

} Histoire Nat. des Oiseaux, Plan de l’Ouvrage. ‘ Snivensic®
SITY OF

ILLINOIS LIBRARY

ORNITHOLOGY.

Himalaya Mountains ;—a Monograph of the Toucans ;— History.
a Monograph of the Trogons ;—and, a Synopsis of the

552

History. dyse du Systéme Générale d’ Ornithologie, a classification of
“—~\— birds in general. Instead of a third edition of his Manuel,

the author has recently published (in 1835) a third part,
as a supplement to the first volume, and he is now about
to give out a fourth part, or supplement to the second vo-
lume. These parts contain the corrections and additions
rendered necessary by the lapse of many years. But M.
Temminck has not confined his attention to the birds of
Europe. In 1820 he commenced (in conjunction with M.
Meiffren de Laugier) his Planches Coloriées, a work in-
tended as a continuation and completion of the well-known
Planches Enluminées of Buffon. It is printed in both a
quarto and a folio form, now amounts to above ninety
parts, and will be concluded (so far, at least, as the first
great series is concerned) on the publication of the hun-
dredth number. It will then form five volumes, composed
in all of five hundred and ninety-five plates, exhibiting
seven hundred and fifty-five figures of birds, the majority
unknown to prior writers. Each plate is accompanied by
corresponding letter-press, containing the generic charac-
ters, the description of the species figured, and in many
instances by general observations on the distribution and
construction of groups. The two concluding numbers are
to contain a general index, as well as the tables and titles
of the volumes. On the completion of this “century,” we
trust M. Temminck will be encouraged to proceed to ano-
ther series, as we know his materials are abundant, if not
inexhaustible. It would in truth be desirable that some
such established work should be generally regarded as a
proper medium for the publication of new or rare subjects
in Ornithology, for it is the bane of natural history in ge-
neral, that every year should be distinguished by the ap-
pearance of numerous abortive attempts, which each suc-
ceeding season condemns to oblivion. Thus the tax be-
comes both heavy and unproductive, yet we fear that na-
tional pride and personal vanity will long prevent the in-
troduction of a better system. We do not mean to say
that we possess not among ourselves individuals compe-
tent to do the subject justice, but assuredly there is much
labour lost by a want of concentration.

In connection with the labours of the last-named author,
we may here mention M. Werner’s lithographic work, en-
titled Atlas des Oiseaux d Europe, pour servir de compleé-
ment au Manuel d Ornithologie de M. Temminck, of which
thirty-two livraisons have now appeared. M. Temminck had
figured a few European novelties in his Planches Coloriées,
but he appears to have remitted most of his rare indigenous
kinds to M. Werner ; and we are happy to find he is now in
immediate communication, so far as the publication of his
European species is concerned, with our zealous and intel-
ligent countryman Mr Gould. This leads us to record the
title of one of the most sumptuous and beautifully execut-
ed works within the whole range of ornithological illustra-
tion, viz. The Birds of Europe, by John Gould, F.L.S.
now completed in five volumes royal folio. The plates are
chiefly from lithograph drawings by Mrs Gould, but many
are also by Mr Lear, one of the best ornithological drafts-
men the world has yet seen. Mr Gould’s other works, all
of recent date, and of the same form and character as the
preceding, are as follow:—a Century of Birds, from the

_ed in an extremely full and satisfactory manner.

Birds of Australia. The latter is in a more portable form
than the others; but it is the author’s intention to illus-
trate the Ornithology of New Holland in the same mode
as that in which he has treated the birds of Europe.

To M. Lesson the Ornithologist stands indebted for se-
veral publications, both of a sumptuous and useful charac-
ter. The last edition of his work on humming-birds bears
the following title: Les Trochilidés, ou les colibris et les
oiseaux mouches, suivi d'un index général, dans lequel
sont décrites et classées méthodiquement toutes les races et
espéces du genre Trochilus, Paris, 1832, with seventy co-
loured plates. Conjointly with M. Garnot, he has pub-
lished some figures of birds in the Zoological Atlas to Du-
perrey’s Voyage autour du Monde, as well as in his own
Centurie de Zoologie. His other works specially devoted
to our present subject are,— Manuel. d’ Ornithologie, two
volumes 18mo, 1829; TZraité d’ Ornithologie, two volumes
8vo (with 119 plates), 1831; and Histoire Naturelle des
Oiseaux de Paradis, des Séricules, et des Epimaques, one
volume 8vo (with 41 coloured plates), 1835.

Mr Swainson’s beautiful Zoological Mlustrations (First Se-
ries 3 vols. 8vo, 1820-23, Second Series 3 vols. 8vo, 1832-3)
contain representations of many rare and remarkable birds,
and yield to none with which we are acquainted, either in
elegance or accuracy. By the same author (conjointly
with Dr Richardson) we have, as already noted, the Fau-
na Boreali-Americana, Part Second; and (without other
aid than his own delightful pencil) several fasciculi of the
Birds of Brazil. More recently Mr Swainson has en-
tered into a minute as well as extended exposition of the
Natural History and Classification of Birds, in two vo-
lumes (1836-7), which form the ornithological portion of
Dr Lardner’s Cyclopedia. These will amply repay the
most attentive study.

The birds of South America, which, like all the pro-
ductions of that splendid country, are extremely gorgeous,
have been here and there illustrated in various works,
and are partially so by Mr Swainson in one of those just
named. In Azara’s Voyages dans l Amérique Meéridion-
ale (1809, 3d and 4th volumes) there are descriptions of
many hundred species from Paraguay and La Plata. The
ornithological portion of the French edition was translat-
ed, with notes, by Sonnini.! A great mass of Brazilian
species is described and figured in Spix’s Aviwm Species
Nove, &c. 2.vols. 4to, 1824-26; while the habits of se-
veral of the more curious birds of Demerara are record-
ed in Mr Waterton’s eccentric and well-known Wan-
derings. :

The Ornithology of North America has been illustrat-
Indeed,
of the feathered tribes of no country out of Europe, equal
in extent, do we possess so ample and accurate a know-
ledge as we do of those of the United States. We have
already mentioned the immortal work of Alexander Wil-
son, and its excelient continuation by Charles Lucien Bo-
naparte ; but at present we have to record the title of a
much more magnificent publication than either, we mean
The Birds of America, engraved from Drawings made in

1 The truly important works of Don Felix Azara seem better known to European readers by the French translations than the
original Spanish publications. He devoted all his leisure hours, whilst in South America, to the pursuits of natural history, from the

year 1782 to 1801.

He then transmitted the manuscript of his Apuntamientos para la Historia Natural de los Quadrupedos del Paraguay

to his brother, Don Josef Nicolas, who handed it over to a French professor, M. Moreau de Saint Méry, by whom it was translated,
and published under the now well-Vnown title of Essai sur Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupédes du Paraguay, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1801.

The original, however, appeared at Madrid in the following year, with corrections and additions by the author.

In 1802 he likewise

published his ornithological work under the title of Apuntamientos para la Historia Natural de los Pajaros del.Paraguay y Buenos Ayres ;
and this portion of his labours furms the two concluding volumes of the French translation, entitled Voyages dans ? Amérique Méri-
dionale de 1781 jusqu’en 1801, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1809. We are glad to understand that Mr W. Perceval Hunter proposes to publish
an English translation of both works, from the original Spanish, with notes.

ORNITHOLOGY.

History. the United States, by John James Audubon, F.R.S., &c.

3 vols. folio, London, 1831-37 ; an undertaking which far
exceeds in size and splendour all its predecessors in this,
or indeed in any other department of Zoology. The di-
mensions of the work, as we have elsewhere noticed, are
such as to enable the author not only to represent the
largest birds of the United States, of the size and in the
attitudes of living nature, but to figure a great proportion
of them in family groups, so admirably conceived and skil-
fully executed, as really to form historical pictures of the
highest interest to the general observer, and of the great-
est utility to the student of Ornithology. The completion
of each volume of plates is immediately followed by alarge
octavo volume of descriptive and general history of all the
species therein contained. Mr Audubon far excels Wil-
son as an ornithological draftsman, and often equals him
in his lively, eloquent, and interesting details of the life
and manners of the feathered tribes. His descriptive vo-
lumes are entitled Ornithological Biography, or an Ac-
count of the Habits of the Birds of the United States. They
at present amount to three in number; and a fourth and
final one, to accompany the concluding fasciculus of his
splendid plates, is now on the eve of publication.

An extremely useful and well-concocted work, of less
ambitious form than the preceding, is the Manual of the
Ornithology of the United States and of Canada, by
Thomas Nuttall, F. L. S., in two compact octavo volumes,
Cambridge and Boston, 1832-34. The author has recent-
ly returned from a scientific tour through the great west-
ern territories, including an-extended range of the Rocky
Mountains ; and, we doubt not, the public will benefit by
whatever account he gives of his researches.

Although we have hitherto confined our bibliographical
notices chiefly to the works of foreign writers, we have
done so not in consequence altogether of our own poverty,
but rather for the more ample information of the English
reader, who may be supposed to require less assistance in
regard to British authors. We have scarcely even named
the British Birds of the unequalled Bewick. We name
it, and nothing more, believing that every one who de-
lights to see nature in art, is familiarly acquainted with a
work which may be keenly relished without any arduous
study, but which those who study most will best appreciate
and enjoy. Although the descriptive portion is written with
accuracy and intelligence, we doubt not it would be ad-
vantageous to the author’s family, and prove a labour of
love to one or more of the many skilful Ornithologists of
the present day, that the plates should be re-arranged in
conformity with modern views, the supplement incorporat-
ed, the synonyms increased, and such rational alterations
or additions effected, as would render it the manual of
British Ornithology, if not for all time coming, yet for
many future years. If accompanied by portions of the
author's autobiography, so much the better. We regret
that the latter, so racy and original, should have not yet
seen the light. The most recent and complete edition of
Bewick’s Birds is that of 1832. A very beautiful pre-
face is prefixed to the one published in 1826.

The most original descrtptive works on the birds of Bri-
tain are Montagu’s Ornithological Dictionary, 2 vols.
8vo, 1802, and Supplement to the same, 1 vol. 8vo, 1813.
These were not only excellent works on British birds
simply as such, but valuable additions to the actual history
of European species,—the chief merit of many of our other
publications consisting in their applying the knowledge
acquired by foreign writers to our indigenous kinds ;
whereas Montagu rather gave than borrowed, his obser-
vations being almost entirely original. His volumes are
now extremely rare in their first form; but a new edition,
combining both works in one, was brought out in 1831],
with notes, by Mr Rennie.

VOL, XVI.

553

Dr Fleming, in his History of British Animals, one vol. History.
octavo, 1828, enumerates and describes the birds of Bri- —~——

tain. Of this work, which has been very useful to some
who say rather too little about it, we should desire to see
a new edition, remodelled in accordance with the altera-
tions and additions rendered necessary by the lapse of
years. It is a publication of great merit.
The letter-press to Mr Selby’s folio Z/lustrations of Bri-
tish Ornithology (we mean the second edition, in two vols.
8vo, 1833) forms the best completed work we yet possess
in accordance with the modern method of arrangement.
Jointly with Sir William Jardine, Mr Selby has also
brought out many fasciculi of J/lustrations of Ornithology
(small folio), in which are figured various interesting and
curious forms of foreign species; and his well-instructed
coadjutor is editor (and of several volumes author) of the
Naturalists Library, in which a due portion is success-
fully devoted to the history and representation of the
feathered tribes. Both publications continue at the pre-
sent time (1838).
One of the most valuable and carefully constructed
works with which we are acquainted is the Systema Avi-
um of Dr Wagler, pars prima, Stuttgard, 1827. It con-
sists of a series of monographs, not in systematic order,
but including several extensive and difficult genera, such as
Picus, Columba, &c.
long ago, in consequence of a gun-shot wound accidentally
inflicted by himself while sporting, and the non-comple-
tion of his work may be regarded as a great loss to Orni-
thologists. Various additional though detached portions
of it, however, may be found in the Jsis, a German perio-
dical published at Frankfort. Wagler is also the author
of the most recent descriptive summary of the parrot
tribe, under the title of Monographia Psittacorum, one
vol. 4to, Munchen, 1835. Our best previous treatise on
that gorgeous family was published by the lamented Kuhl,
in the Nova Acta of Bonn, vol. x. Of illustrated works on
the subject, we have already mentioned that of Vaillant ;
and the English reader need scarcely be reminded of the
extreme beauty of Mr Lear’s more recent Illustrations of
the Psittacida, in one vol. royal folio.
A considerable flock of ornithological authors has re-
cently appeared above the horizon, to enlighten, however,
rather than obscure our vision. We shall name a few.
Outlines of the Smaller British Birds, by R. A. Slaney,
Esq. 12mo, 1833.

Familiar History of Birds, by the Rev. Edward Stan-
ley, 2 vols. 12mo, 1835.

Manual of British Vertebrate Animals, by the Rev.
Leonard Jenyns, 1 vol. 8vo, 1835.

Feathered Tribes of the British Islands, by Robert Mu-
die, 2 vols. 8vo, 1836.

History of the rarer British Birds, intended as a sup-
plement. to Bewick, by T. C. Eyton, Esq. 1836.

Of these, and other contemporary writers, the reader
will find more ample notice in Mr Neville Wood’s Orni-
thologist’s Text-Book of 1836.

The following works relate particularly to the more mu-
sical of the feathered tribes: Harmonia Ruralis, or Natu-
ral History of British Song Birds, by James Bolton, folio,
1794 ;—British Warblers, by Robert Sweet, F. L. S. 8vo,
1823-32 ;— Treatise on British Song Birds, by Patrick
Syme, Esq. 8vo, 1823 ;— British Songsters, by Neville
Wood, Esq. 8vo, 1837 ;—Cage Birds, their Natural His-
tory, Management, &c. (translated from the German), by
J. M. Bechstein, 12mo, 1837.

Mr Yarrell has commenced his much-desired History
of British Birds, illustrated by a wood-cut of each species,
and numerous vignettes. The illustrations are for the
most part remarkably accurate as ornithological represen-
tations, and of extreme beauty in a pictorial point of view.

: 4a

The author unfortunately died not -

554 ORNITHOLOGY.

Structure. From the author’s excellent reputation as a naturalist, as
—~\— well as from the specimens hitherto published, we should

in the determination and construction of which it affords Structure.
characters of the highest importance. As its modifications ~~"

augur that this work, on its completion, will form as valua-
ble a manual of British Ornithology as can be well de-
sired.

Last in our list, though the reverse of lowest in our es-
timation, stand Mr Macgillivray’s characteristic volumes,
the Rapacious Birds of Great Britain (1836), and the
History of British Birds, Indigenous and Migratory (vol.
Ist, 1837). In regard to these two works, readers may pro-
bably differ in their appreciation of some insulated passages,
critical or otherwise, not essential to the exposition of the
subject in hand; but we think all must agree that they are
written in a clear, vigorous, and original manner, and de-
void of that vapid spirit of compilation which pervades the
labours of so many of the ingenious author’s predecessors
and contemporaries.

We shall not here enter into any detailed exposition of
the internal structure of birds. Our space would not ad-
mit of our doing so in a manner likely either to satisfy our-
selves or to instruct our readers. The subject is of too
great importance to be superficially treated, and a deeper
scientific examination is not to be looked for here. We
regret to say, there is much reason to accuse the naturalist
of confining his attention to the external characters of liv-
ing beings, which, though important portions of the ani-
mal economy, are nevertheless only portions, though too
often looked upon as all in all. It is no reason for ne-
glecting the internal structure, that a knowledge of such
structure is not required to comprehend the modern sys-
tems. This, we must admit, is true ; but the systems are
thereby so much the more defective. An assured anato-
mical basis will never cause confusion or contrariety in
any good arrangement formed on the groundwork of ex-
ternal characters ; for the best of these are sure to conform
themselves with all the important modifications of internal
structure, while the sooner a bad arrangement is under-
mined the better. At the same time, that Zootomist would
know little of the practical importance of external forms
who should not endeavour to connect these with his de-
monstration of more recondite characters. In truth, how-
ever desirable it may be to know the whole of the animal
structure, whether external or internal, we must in rela-
tion to museum specimens. and to zoological collections in
general, necessarily have recourse to superficial, or at least
external characters, because none other are visible, or in-
deed exist, in the subjects of natural history as usually
preserved ; and we should debar a vast multitude from a
most delightful study of graceful forms and gorgeous plum-
age, if we could learn nothing important of beast or bird
without prying into all the hidden wonders of its interior.
Whatever progress comparative anatomy may in future
make, we trust the Zootomist will ever bear in mind that
the establishment of good external characters is a matter
of the highest and most indispensable importance to the
present state and future progress of natural history, of
which the practical pursuit will ever mainly depend upon
the class of characters in question. As we cannot here
enter into the anatomical department of our subject, we
shall give, in the subjoined note, the names of a few works
likely to interest and instruct the reader.! A few para-
graphs will suffice for all we have ourselves to say, before
entering upon our systematic portion.

The bill, composed of the upper and under mandible,
varies almost infinitely in its form in the different genera,

will be specially alluded to in our notices of the minor
groups, and are moreover accurately represented in the
plates which accompany the present treatise, we need not
here fatigue the reader by an unnecessary enumeration.
A portion at the base of the upper mandible, usually con-
taining the nostrils, and sometimes covered with hairs or.
feathers, sometimes partially or entirely bare, is called the
cere. It is very obvious in most birds of prey, but imper-
ceptible in many other species. When we expand the
mandibles, we of course perceive the opening to the ali-
mentary canal or digestive organs, which usually consist
of the following portions.

The pharynx follows immediately after the cavity of the
mouth. It leads into the @sophagus or gullet, which in
many species swells into what is called the crop, by some
regarded as the first stomach. This is followed by a se-
cond enlargement, produced, however, rather by a thick-
ening of the coats than by any increase of capacity within,

named the proventriculus. It contains numerous glandular

sacs interposed between its muscular and mucous coats,
which secrete a gastric juice to aid the process of di-
gestion. This proventriculus leads to the gizzard or true
stomach, by some regarded as the third stomachic expan-
sion. Here the function of digestion is completed. The
entrance from the stomach to the small intestine is named
the pylorus, of which the structure is frequently valvular.
The first fold of the small intestine is named the duode-
num, and after receiving the-pancreatic and biliary ducts,
it forms various convolutions, and terminates in the rec-
tum or large intestine. The e@ea are usually placed at the
commencement of the latter ; its termination is named the
cloaca.

These parts, it will be borne in mind, are variously mo-
dified in the different tribes. In some the expansion called
the crop is wanting, or not to be distinguished from the
other upper portions of the cesophagus ; and the powerful
muscles which constitute the peculiar strength of the giz-
zard in granivorous birds are very feeble in the carnivo-
rous and fish-devouring kinds. In some the intestine is
long and narrow, in others short and wide, while the ceca
exhibit a corresponding range, being in certain kinds ex-
tremely long, in others merely rudimentary.

Birds are remarkable for the energy of their respiratory
functions. Although their lungs are rather small, they
are perforated in such a way as to communicate with mem-
branous cells distributed through various parts of the body,
and even communicating with the interior of the bones, so
that the atmospheric air not only comes in contact with
the pulmonary vessels, but with a great proportion of the
circulating system. Thus birds have been said to respire
by the branches of the aorta, as well as by those of the
pulmonary artery. It is thus that the most rapid exercise
of the faculty of flight impairs not their power of breath-
ing; and the best-trained hunter that ever bounded re-
joicingly over the fences of Leicestershire is far sooner
blown than a field sparrow.

The trachea or wind-pipe is composed of bony rings.
The upper larynz is of comparatively simple structure,
and of less importance than among the mammiferous class;
but farther down, and close upon the. bifurcation of the
trachea, is the lower larynx, the true organ of the voice in
birds. The vast bulk of air contained in the interior cells
no doubt contributes to the strength of their vocal powers,
while the muscles of the inferior portion of the larynx, and

* Cuvier’s Legons d’ Anatomie Comparée ; Carus’s Introduction to Comparative Anatomy, translated from the German by Mr Gore
(there is a better and more recent }rench edition of this work); Meckel’s Traité Général d’ Anatomie Comparée ; Grant’s Outlines of
Comparative Anatomy ; Mr Owen’s article Aves, in Todd's Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology ; and the Introduction to Macgillivray’s

History of British Birds, vol. i,

ORNITHOLOGY.

tect the base of the secondaries ; and the primary coverts, Structure.
(figs. 1 and 2, at P. C.), which perform that office to the —~~—~

Structure the length, diversified form, and vatied movements of that
—— organ, bestow upon it a great facility of modulation.

The anterior limbs of birds, corresponding to the fore
legs of quadrupeds, have been converted into wings for the
purposes of that aérial locomotion commonly ealled flight.
It is true that some birds cannot fly, that is, leave not the
surface of the earth; but these are exceptions to the ge-
neral rule, and even among such exceptions the great ma-
jority use their wings as a propelling power, whether cours-
ing amid dry and barren deserts, or submerged beneath
the waves. The bony portions of the wings consist of the
humerus, the cubitus, the carpal and metacarpal bones,
and fingers. We shall briefly describe these parts in so far
as they are connected with the imposition of the plumage,
and. consequently with the external characters of the
feathered race. The reader, if he so inclines, may here
consult Plate CCCLXXXVIL. figs. 3 and 4. The humerus
or armbone (c) is joined to the body by means of a part of
its own upper surface, which articulates with a correspond-
ing cavity between the coracoid bone (4) and the scapula
or shoulder-blade (a). It is directed backwards in repose,
and in a position more or less parallel with the spine. The
other extremity of the humerus articulates with the cubitus
or fore-arm, which is composed of the bones called the
ulna (d) and radius (e), and is so jointed as to fold when
at rest in a direction parallel to that of the arm. The car-
pus consists of two small bones (ff) placed between the
outer extremity of the cubitus and the metacarpus. The
latter (g) usually consists of two bones united at both ends.
From the anterior edge of the portion next the carpus,
there projects a small bone, considered as analogous to the
first digit or thumb, pollex (h); to the extremity of the
outer portion of the metacarpus are usually attached two
other digital bones (7,7); and to the extremity of its inner
portion is frequently appended a smaller bone of corre-
sponding nature. These are the jingers of birds.

Now, the connection of the plumage with the preceding
parts is as follows. Here consult Plate CCCLXXXVIL. figs.
1, 2,5. The small elongated tuft of stiffish feathers which
clothe the upper exterior margin of a bird’s wing, in-
creasing in size downwards, pointing towards the base of
the outer primaries, and commonly called the alula, or spu-
rious wing (see S. W. in figs. 1, 2, and 5), springs from the
portion we have called the thumb. The primaries or
greater quill-feathers of the wings, that is, the den outer-
most feathers, and which constitute the more or less pointed
terminal portion (see figs. 1, 1 to 10, and figs. 2and 5, at P.
P.), spring from the digital and metacarpal bones. The
secondaries, or lesser quill-feathers (figs. 1, 1 to 6, and figs. 2
and 5, at S. S.), which, when the wing is closed, usually
cover a portion of the primaries, take their origin from the
cubitus or fore-arm; while a third series, inconspicuous in
most birds, though very obvious in others, and named the
tertials or tertiary feathers (fig. 2, T. T.), are derived from
the humerus or arm bone. Above these, and lying over
that portion of the wing which joins the body (or, as it were,
between the wing and back), are the scapulars (fig. 2, Sc.),
usually of an elongated form, and often distinguished from
the surrounding plumage by a difference of tint or mark-
ing. Lastly, various ranges of feathers which clothe the
upper portion of the wings from the carpal joint backwards,
covering the base of the primary and secondary quills, and
spreading across from the spurious wing to the scapulars,
are named the wing coverts, and are distinguished, accord-
ing to their position, as the smaller coverts (figs. 1 and 2,
at Sm. C.), which clothe the upper portion of the wing;
the secondary coverts (figs 1 and 2, at S. C.), which pro-

primaries. The feathers which clothe the under surface
of the wings are named the under coverts of those parts ;
and. the terms wpper and under tail-coverts signify the
feathers which cover the base of the tail, above or below.
But we need scarcely occupy our pages with the numerous
particulars which might be brought forward, and which
occupy so prominent a space in many ornithological vo-
lumes. The terms in most cases explain themselves.
When we speak of the crest of a bird, we of course mean
to indicate the feathers on its head ; and the upper, central,
or lower portions of the back, can be respectively nothing
more nor less than one or other of these portions. When
we mention the point of the bill, we literally mean the
point, and there is no word in the English nor in any other
language which can express it more clearly. Neither do we
think it necessary, in an English work, to give a corre-
sponding Latin phrase for every term we use, more espe-
cially as many of these terms cannot be correctly Latinized,
and in fact have never occurred at all in any books in that
language. Their confinement, therefore, in a circumflex-
ual prison, amid the unembarrassed freedom of the English
tongue, is a sad and cruel mockery “ of things attempted
yet in prose or rhyme ;” and we believe is but seldom prac-
tised by those who got through Ruddiman respectably in
early life. We therefore deem it worse than useless to
present an endless catalogue of terms in Ornithology, fol-
lowed by explanations more obscure and ambiguous than
the technicalities themselves; but shall rather endeavour
either altogether to avoid unknown tongues, or, by the
context, to render our meaning obvious to each capacity."

Those minute discriminations, so often insisted on, are
in truth but seldom necessary in the description of a bird’s
external aspect, especially of its feathered portions, be-
cause large spaces of the plumage have frequently an
identical character both in texture and colour. Thus,
if the entire head is either black, white, brown, or any
other single colour, it would be a waste of words to de-
scribe it in any other way than simply as being of that
colour; that is, it would be unnecessary to say that the
frontal, vertical, occipital, auricular, and ocular feathers of
the head were coloured after such a fashion; but if one
colour prevails over another, and yet is traversed, or in
any way varied by other colours, the precise region,
whether frontal or occipital, in which the variation hap-
pens should be stated. We would almost say, that our
nomenclature of the parts themselves depends to some ex-
tent on the distribution of the colours. Thus, of birds with
a black abdomen and a scarlet breast, we can easily con-
ceive, that even of the same species two individuals may
so considerably differ in the proportional extent of the
supposed colours, that the black in one instance shall en-
croach upon what corresponds to the scarlet of the other,
or vice versa ; but still the phrases “abdomen black, breast
scarlet,” would suffice for both, though not proportionally
the same in each. The fact is, that many of the special
regions of a bird are by no means precisely marked, or at
least are seldom seen to be so, unless we strip it of its
plumage,—an untoward act, however, for one who desires
to stuff or otherwise preserve its skin; and therefore some
latitude must be allowed in our expression of the external
parts. -

The next portion to be briefly described is the leg or hin-
der limb. This is divisible into the femur, tibia, tarsus,
and toes. See Plate CCCLXXXVII. fig. 3.

The femur, or thigh-bone (A), is cylindrical, somewhat

1 A very ample and interesting account of the diversified form of bills, feet, and feathers, will be found in Mr Swainson’s Natural
History and Classification of Birds, vol. i, illustrated by numerous wood-cuts from the elegant pencil of the author.

555

556 ORNITHOLOGY.

Structure.‘curved, usually very short, and always so concealed with-

th- of genera and species,” says Locke, “ amounts tono more Genera.
“—~— in the body as not to be apparent as an external portion

but this, that men make abstract ideas, and, setting them —~y—

of the limb. The next division is the leg or tba (m),
frequently but erroneously called the thigh, probably
from its being the uppermost apparent portion. It is
usually covered with feathers, though sometimes bare on
its lower portion. Then follows the tarsus (7), that long,
slender, exposed portion, so conspicuous in almost all the
species, varying considerably among accipitrine birds, ra-
ther short in web-footed water-fowl, and greatly length-
ened in the majority of shore-birds or waders. Its upper
knobby portion, where it articulates with the tibia, is the
true heel, although generally in colloquial, and not sel-
dom in descriptive language, termed the knee. The pro-
minences of its lower extremity articulate with the toes.
The latter parts usually amount to four; the hind toe, how-
ever, is wanting in many species, and the ostrich is general-
ly supposed to have only two toes, although Dr Riley has
demonstrated the existence in that bird also of a rudimen-
tary inner toe. The hind toe is by some regarded as the
first, the inner as the second, the middle as the third, and
the outer as the fourth toe; and in this order there isa
progressive increase in the number of the joints of which
each is composed,—the first having two, the second three,
the third four, and the fourth five bones. The surface
of the tarsus, toes, and sometimes of the base of the tibia
when that part is exposed, is covered either with plated or
reticulated scales, of various forms in different species ;
and the tarsus is moreover often armed with one or more
spurs,—which, however, belong to the cutaneous rather
than the osseous system. A general notion of the latter,
as it exists in the class of birds, may be acquired by an
inspection of the skeleton of the golden eagle just referred
to (Plate CCCLXXXVII. fig. 3). We shall here add no-
thing more upon the subject.

The position, and therefore to a certain extent the na-
ture, of many modern genera, of which we are unable
from want of space to give the characters, will be seen in
the tabular views with which we terminate the present
treatise. A considerable discordance still prevails in re-
gard to the nature and amount of the generic groups in
Ornithology,—some writers advocating a numerous sub-
division, and consequent restriction, of characters; while
others adhere, perhaps too tenaciously, to old associa-
tions, which naturally tend to the augmentation of spe-
cies, in other words, to the extension rather than the in-
crease of genera. The former plan is rendered neces-
sary to a great extent by the vast additions which have
been made to our knowledge of groups and of typical spe-
cies within the present century, and might be deemed
advisable among the larger genera even as a mere matter
of convenience ;—its abuse in the hands of unskilful or in-
experienced persons being of course no legitimate argu-
ment against it. There is, however, a great deal that is
arbitrary and unsettled in whatever principle may be sup-
posed to guide the modern naturalist in the formation of
his generie groups. The simplicity and ease of applica-
tion which characterised the former artificial systems have
been lost in their attempted demolition, while the recon-
structions now arising (in spite of the abundant though
not always acknowledged appropriation of some useful old
materials) are not yet so complete and commodious as to
afford the same accommodation to the benighted student.
Order will no doubt some day spring from chaos, and even
already, amid the darkness of the upheaving waters, are
many sunny spots of terra firma towards which we fondly
steer, “ well pleased that now our sea should find a shore.”
Naturalists, however, need by no means quarrel with each
other, as if there was acertain good to gain, or some great
physical truth to be established. <‘ All the great business

in their minds with names annexed to them, do thereby
enable themselves to consider things, and discourse of
them, as it were in bundles, for the easier and readier im-
provement and communication of their knowledge, which
would advance but slowly were their words and thoughts
confined only to particulars.” ‘ The reason,” he says
again, “ why I take so particular notice of this is, that we
may not be mistaken about genera and species, and their
essences, as if they were things regularly and constantly
made by nature, and had a real existence in things,—when
they appear upon a more wary survey to be nothing else
but an artifice of the understanding, for the easier signi-
fying such collections of ideas, as it should often have oc-
casion to communicate by one general term, under which
divers particulars, as far forth as they agreed to that ab-
stract idea, might be comprehended.”.

The following observations by Mr Vigors may be intro-
duced with propriety in this place, as according closely
with our own views on the subject of generic divisions.
«‘ But though nature nowhere exhibits an absolute divi-
sion between her various groups, she yet displays suffi-
ciently distinctive characters to enable us to arrange them
into conterminous assemblages, and to retain each assem-
blage, at least in idea, separate from the rest. It is not,
however, at the point of junction between it and its ad-
joining groups that I look for the distinctive character.
There, as M. Temminck justly observes, it is not to be
found. It is at that central point which is most remote
from the ideal point of junction on each side, and where
the characteristic peculiarities of the groups, gradually
unfolding themselves, appear in their full development ; it
is at that spot, in short, where the typical character is
most conspicuous, that I fix my exclusive attention. Upon
these typical eminences I plant those banners of distinc-
tion, round which corresponding species may congregate
as they more or less approach the types of each. In
my pursuit of nature, I am accustomed to look upon the
great series in which her productions insensibly pass into
each other, with similar feelings to those with which I
contemplate some of those beautiful pieces of natural
scenery, where the grounds swell out in a diversified in-
terchange of valley and elevation. Here, although I can
detect no breach in that undulating outline over which the
eye delights to glide without interruption, I can still give
a separate existence in idea to every elevation before me,
and assign it a separate name. It is upon the points of
eminence in each that I fix my attention, and it is these
points I compare together, regardless, in my divisions, of
the lower grounds which imperceptibly meet at the base.
Thus also it is that I fix upon the typical eminences that
rise most conspicuously above that continued outline in
which nature disposes her living groups. These afford me
sufficient prominency of character for my ideal divisions ;
for ideal they must be, where nature shows none. And
thus it is that I can conceive my groups to be at once
separate and united; separate at their typical elevations,
but united at their basal extremes.

“ It is difficult to convey; in terms sufficiently explicit,
an accurate definition of abstract notions like the present.
We may see the subject clearly ourselves, but not be able
to communicate it by words sufficiently intelligible, unless
to those who may happen to view it in the same light as
ourselves. I shall therefore take a familiar illustration,
which comes home to the feelings of every man, and where
it will be immediately apparent that strongly marked di-
visional groups may be kept apart from each other in our
conceptions, although we can recognise no absolute boun-
dary lines by which we can say they are separated.

“Let us take, for instance, that period of time which in-

ORNITHOLOGY. :

ferine species among quadrupeds, they subdue their weak- Raptores.
er brethren by force more frequently than guile; and if -—~~—~—

Raptores. volves the annual revolution of the earth round the sun,

and let us divide it into the usual departments which we
call seasons. Every man can picture to his own mind the
decided characters by which these divisions of the year are
parted from each other; he can mark out by definite dis-
tinctions those striking periods where the year bursts forth
into bud, where it opens into flower, where it ripens into
fruit, and where it lapses into decay. He can ascertain
the nature of the impressions which each season forces
upon his own feelings, he can communicate such sensa-
tions to others, and he can embody those natural periods,
of whose separate existence he feels conscious, into sepa-
rate and well-characterised divisions, to which he can re-
fer, without fear of being misunderstood, under the distinct
appellations of spring or summer, of autumn or of winter.
But can he at the same time point out the actual limits of
these natural departments of the year? Can he fix, for
instance, in that intervening interchange of season, where
the rigour of winter silently and imperceptibly relaxes into
the mildness of spring,—can he fix, I say, upon the exact
_period when the former terminates, and the latter begins?
Can he assert at one moment that he is within the pre-
cincts of one season, and that, even while he speaks, he
has passed into the confines of the other. He may, it is
true, assign artificial limits to each department, and may
calculate with mathematical precision the months, the
days, the hours, of which it consists. He may even as-
sign reasons for his arbitrary divisions, and prove their pro-
bable approximation to the regular interchange of nature.
And this is precisely as far as the Zoologist can go. But
this is all that isin his power. He never can feel or assert
that the character of one season is lost at one particular
moment, and gives place to the character of that which
succeeds. Here, then, we have four decided divisions, per-
fectly distinct in themselves, yet to which we are unable
to affix the limits. So it is with the groups of Zoology.
They exhibit separate divisions, distinguished by separate
characters, but running into each other without any as-
signable limits; and any man may draw his imaginary
line across that ‘border country,’ that ‘land debateable,’
which stretches between the conterminous regions, accord-
ing as it suits his fancy or his peculiar views, or as it may
accord with the greater or less preponderance of those
minor landmarks which serve as an inferior mode of de-

marcation in the absence of all natural boundaries.”!

We shall now proceed with our proposed exposition of
the various orders.

Orver I.—RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY?

Raptorial birds, under which term we include the tribes
usually known by the general names of vultures, eagles,
hawks, buzzards, kites, and owls, are distinguished by a
strong, sharp-edged, acutely-pointed bill, more or less
curved, but always hooked at the extremity of the upper
mandible, which is covered at the base by the membrane
called the cere. The nostrils are usually open. The legs,
with few exceptions, are plumed as far as the top of the
tarsus ; the latter part itself is usually bare, but is entirely
covered with feathers in most of the nocturnal kinds, and
partially so in several of the diurnal. The toes are always
four in number, very free in their movements, the outer
sometimes versatile ; and the whole, with rare exceptions,
are furnished with strong, sharp, curved, prehensile claws.

All raptorial birds feed on animal substances,—the ma-
jority on living prey. Representing in their own class the

not more tyrannical than tigers, they at least exercise a
more extended sway, for the fields, the woods, and waters,
the barren mountains, and resounding shore, are all alike
subjected to their fierce control. Their power of flight is
remarkable for its surpassing strength and long endurance.
They occur in some form or other under every clime, and
their external aspect varies greatly, both in size and shape,
from the ponderous eagle and condor of Jong extended
wing, to the finch-falcon of Bengal, which is scarcely
larger than a sparrow. But, generally speaking, raptorial
birds are of considerable: bulk, as might be anticipated
from the necessity under which they lie of subduing an
active and not always unresisting prey. Their forms, how-
ever, are often graceful, their actions energetic, their eyes
bold and bright, and their plumage beautifully varied ;—
but they are more remarkable for chaste and subdued co-
louring, for sober shades of intermingled black and brown,
than for those brilliant or gorgeous hues which characterise
so many of the feathered tribes.

Their dispositions naturally fierce or unaccommodating,
if not contentious, their ravening appetites, and dangerous
weapons, induce them but seldom to associate with each
other. We shall not here describe them, after the manner
of many authors, as gloomy and mistrustful,—for what
cause has an eagle, rejoicing in his strength, and winging
his way from distant isles o’er waters glittering with re-
dundant life, or hovering on the side of some majestic
mountain, of which the purple heath is one wide store-
house of the best of game,—what cause has he for gloom ?
Or why should he mistrust, whose sail-broad vans might
almost carry him across the vast Atlantic, or assuredly in
a few brief hours transport him from his bold but barren
eyrie, to richer pastures, reverberating with the varied
voices of defenceless flocks? We believe there is nothing
mournful or disconsolate in beings which pursue the un-
fettered exercise of natural instinct. Such fearful attri-
butes are but.reflections from the melancholy mind of man
(whose morbid veason often casts a gloom across the bright-
est sun), but cloud not in reality the face of nature. Birds
of prey, however, are not gregarious,—although, “ where
the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together.”
For eagles we presume to read vultures, the scavengers of
the raptorial order, which in sultry regions are highly use-
ful in clearing all decaying offal from the earth. With
these exceptions, the others may be said to dwell in single
pairs,—at times in solitude. They build their rude but
sufficing nests amid precipitous rocks, on ancient ruins,
and occasionally among forest trees, while a few take up
their station on the ground. They seldom lay more than
four eggs, and many only rear a pair of young. These are
at first extremely helpless, and covered for a time with
down. ‘The females, in the generality of species, are con-
siderably larger than the males. The plumage of the
sexes often differs greatly, and in such cases the offspring
for one or more seasons resembles the mother.

The voice inthe raptorial order is almost always harsh and
unmusical, sometimes more plaintive in the hooting kinds,
complaining by night from ivy-mantled tower or ancient
tree; and only one species, a hawk from Africa, has
been ever said to sing. The uses to the human race of
birds of prey are not remarkable. The scavengers above
alluded to are beneficial in their way, but the same can
scarcely be alleged of such as carry off our lambs or poul-
try ; and we are not aware that either their flesh or fea-
thers are of much avail. More might have been said of
certain members of the order, had not the practice of

¥ Zoological Journal, No. ii. p. 196.

2 AccipiTReEs, Linn.; Rapraces, Temm.

557

558

: ORNITHOLOGY.

Raptores. falconry, with other chivalrous uses, been about to pass

SECT. I.—DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.

Cere usually naked, or partly covered by setaceous fea-
thers. Nostrils open. Eyes of medium size, lateral.
Head rather small, and elongated ; face not surrounded by
a completed disk of projecting feathers, as in owls. Ster-
num strong and solid. Stomach membranous. Intes-
tines not greatly extended. Czca short. Toes naked.

Of this section Linnzus and the other naturalists formed
only two genera, Vultwr and Falco, which some regard as
forming two large families, subdivided into numerous mi-
nor groups. There is, upon the whole, a well-marked
character, or at least a strong physiognomical distinction,
between the Vulturide and Falconide ; but this is more
easily seen than expressed, or, when expressed, is often
erroneously so. Thus a strong alleged distinction is the
nearly naked head of the former; but the lammer-geyer
(G. barbatus) has that part as densely plumed as any
eagle. However, the nails are generally blunt, and the
feet comparatively feeble.

FAMILY I.—VULTURID&.'

The birds of this family are of large size and gluttonous
habits. They prefer animal substances in a state of de-
composition to living prey, and are frequently gregarious.
The bill is never notched, and the feet and claws are more
feeble and less curved than among the Falconida. Though
indolent, especially after meal time, they are distinguished
by great powers of flight. Their bodies in repose assume
a more or less horizontal position. Their flesh is disgust-
ing as an article of food, but their down has been occasion-
ally made use of for domestic purposes.

Genus VuttuR, Cuv. Bill large and strong, compress-
ed, straight at the base, convex and rounded at the
point. Nostrils naked, rounded, obliquely pierced. Head
and neck bare of ordinary feathers, but covered by a short
down. A collar of long soft feathers at the base of the neck.

The true vultures, as now restricted, belong to the an-
cient world. Their fight, though slow, is powerful and
long sustained. They frequently rise, by repeated gyra-
tions, to a great height in the air, and descend in a simi-
lar manner. They assemble in troops, and feed for the
most part on carcasses; yet the Dalmatian shepherds are
said to dread their inroads among their sheep and lambs.
They build among inaccessible rocks, and feed their young
by emptying the unsavoury contents of their own crops.
It does not appear that they can transfix or carry off their
prey by means of their talons, as do hawks and eagles.

We have two species in Europe, the cinereous vulture
(V. cinereus, Linn. Plate CCCLXXXVIII. fig. 1), called
arrian on the Pyrenees, and the griffon or fulvous vulture
(V. fulvus, Linn.). Both birds occur in Spain and the
Tyrol, but are scarcely ever seen in Switzerland, and are
rare in Germany. ‘The nidification of the cinereous vul-
ture is still unknown. It probably never breeds in Eu-
rope, but rather in the mountainous countries of Asia,
where it is known to occur abundantly. The fulvous vul-
ture is more courageous than the preceding, and more
inclined to seize on living prey. It is common in the
neighbourhood of Gibraltar, abounds in Dalmatia during
winter, and has been observed to breed in Sardinia on
lofty trees. It lays two eggs, of a greenish white, with a

rugose surface.
of Africa.
regions of the old world.

Genus SarcorampPuHus, Dumeril.? Bill thick, straight
from the base, but strongly curved at the extremity, the
margin of the upper mandible having a somewhat sinuous
or S-liké outline. Nostrils longitudinal and oblong.
Head and neck bare, wattled, surmounted by a fleshy
crest.

This genus is confined to America, and consists of three
species, the famous condor of the Andes (8. condor), the
king-vulture (8S. papa), and the Californian vulture (S.
californianus). The condor inhabits the loftiest of the
Andes, and in its aérial flights is supposed to attain to
a station far above that of every other living creature.
According to Humboldt; it soars to an elevation nearly
six times greater than that at which clouds are usually
suspended in the sky. At the vast height of almost six
perpendicular miles, the condor is seen majestically sail-
ing through the ethereal space, watchfully surveying the
airy depth in quest of his accustomed prey. When im-
pelled by hunger, he descends to the nearest plains which
border on the Cordilleras ; but his sojourn there is brief,
as he seems instinctively to prefer the desolate and lofty
mountains. The barometer amid such aérial haunts at- _
tains only to the height of sixteen inches. These rocky
eyries (of which the plain is elevated about 15,000 feet
above the level of the sea) are known vernacularly by the
name of condor nests. There, perched in dreary solitude,
on the crests of scattered peaks, at the very verge of the
region of perpetual snow, these dark gigantic birds are
seen silently reposing like melancholy spectres. Hardly
an instance is known of their assaulting even an infant,
though many credulous travellers have given accounts of
their killing young persons of ten or twelve years of age.

The history of the condor, like that of its Patagonian
neighbours of the human race, has in fact been much ob-
scured by exaggeration. An inspection of its feet and
claws suffices to show that it is not gifted with great
prehensile power, and could scarcely carry off the most
ill-conditioned child, though not seldom accused of such
evil practices. Condamine informs us that he has often
seen condors hovering over flocks of sheep, some of which
they “would have carried away, had they not been
scared by the shepherds ;” and this vague supposition is
stated as a fuct in their natural history! It is a bird of .
powerful wing, but of vulturine habits, feeding much on
dead animal matter, but not unfrequently joining together
in the attack of cattle, especially of such as are in any way
enfeebled. Although the usual station of the condor is
mountainous, it often descends, as we have said, to feed
among the plains and valleys; and a female, now in the
French museum, was found at sea, sitting on the dead
body of a floating whale. It breeds amid the inaccessible
peaks of the Andes, making no nest, but depositing its
eggs upon the arid rock. It isa large bird, of from three
to four feet in length, with an extent of wing very various-
ly stated, but probably sometimes reaching from ten to
twelve feet. The female is of a much browner hue, and
wants the caruncles. She is less in size than the male,
an unusual circumstance in this order, although we sus-
pect that the greater bulk of that sex is a feature chiefly
characteristic of the hawks and eagles.

“In riding along the plain,” says Sir Francis Head, “I
passed a dead horse, about which were forty or fifty con-
dors ; many of them were gorged and unable to fly; se-
veral were standing on the ground devouring the carcass ;

'! On the modern groups into which this family is divisible, the reader may consult a paper by Mr Vigors in the Zovlogical Jour

nal, No. viii. p. 368.
2 Vultur, Linn. Cuy. ; Cathartes, Uliger, Temm.

3 Nuttall’s Manual of Ornithology, i. p. 36.

It is widely spread over the continent Raptores:
Several other species are found in the warmer —~y——

ORNITHOLOGY.

and South America, and extends, in the central districts Raptores.

Raptores. the rest hovering above it. I rode within twenty yards of
—— them;; one of the largest of the birds was standing with

one foot on the ground, and the other on the horse’s
body ; display of muscular strength as he lifted the flesh,
and tore off great pieces, sometimes shaking his head and
pulling with his beak, and sometimes pushing with his leg.
Got to Mendoza, and went to bed. Wakened by one of
my party who arrived ; he told me, that seeing the con-
dors hovering in the air, and knowing that several of them
would be gorged,! he had also ridden up to the dead
horse, and that as one of these enormous birds flew about
fifty yards off, and was unable to go any farther, he rode
up to him; and then, jumping off his horse, seized him by
the neck. The contest was extraordinary, and the ren-
contre unexpected. No two animals can well be imagin-
ed less likely to meet than a Cornish miner and a condor,
and few could have calculated, a year ago, when the one
was hovering high above the snowy pinnacles of the Cor-
dillera, and the other many fathoms beneath the surface
of the ground in Cornwall, that they would ever meet to
wrestle and ‘ hug’ upon the wide desert plain of Villa-
Vicencia. My companion said he had never had such a
battle in his life; that he put his knee upon the bird’s
breast, and tried with all his strength to twist his neck ;
but that the condor, objecting to this, struggled violently,
and that also, as several others were flying over his head,
he expected they would attack him. He said, that at last
he succeeded in killing his antagonist, and with great pride
he showed me the large feathers from his wings; but
when the third horseman came in, he told us he had found
the condor in the path, but not quite dead.”

The king-vulture, S. papa (Plate CCCLXXXVIII. fig.
3), is a much more gaily adorned species, the fleshy por-
tions of its head and neck being red, orange, and purple.
The upper parts of the plumage are of a pale reddish-white
or clay colour, the collar at the base of the neck is bluish-
gray, the quill-feathers and tail black (the former with
paler edgings), and the under parts of the body white.
This beautiful bird is found in America, from the 30th
degree of north latitude, to about the 32d in the southern
hemisphere ; that is, it occurs in Mexico, Paraguay, Gui-
ana, Brazil, and Peru; but most abundantly beneath the
torrid zone. According to Azara, it makes its nest in
hollow trees, and lays two eggs. It is supposed to derive
its name from its habit of driving off the common vultures
of America, called turkey buzzards, from their prey. The
female king-vulture is of somewhat smaller size than the
male. The ruff, and all the upper parts of her plumage,
are brownish black, and her bill is destitute of caruncles.

Genus CatTuarteEs, Illiger. Bill much more slender
than in the preceding genera; the upper mandible inflat-
ed above the nostrils, encroaching as it were upon the
forehead, curved at the point, the margins nearly straight ;
the under mandible slender, slightly inflated, and obtuse
at the terminal portion. Cere extended. Nostrils broad,
quadrangular, longitudinal, very open. Head and neck
naked, without caruncles. Tongue fleshy, fringed. Tarsi
naked, rather feeble; claws short, curved, blunt. Tail-
feathers twelve.

This genus, as now restricted, is likewise confined to
America. It consists of two species, the common turkey
buzzard (so called in the United States), C. aura, Plate
CCCLXXXVIII. fig. 2, and the carrion-crow (of the same
country), C. atratus. The former is abundantboth in North

of the fur-countries, as far north as the 54th degree.
is partially migratory, even in the middle states, retiring
southwards on the approach of winter. A few remain
throughout the year in Maryland, Delaware, and New
Jersey ; but none are known to breed in any of the Atlantic
States to the north of the one last named. In the interior,
however, they reach a much higher latitude during their
summer migrations, probably owing to the greater heat of
that season in the inland districts. A few make their ap-
pearance on the banks of the Saskatchewan when the
month of June is far advanced, and after all the other
summer birds have arrived and settled in their leafy ar-
bours. Though gregarious in more southern countries,
where they fly and feed in flocks, towards their northern
limits seldom more than a pair are seen together. They
feed on carrion, which they discover at a great distance,
it is now said, by the sense of sight alone. They some-
times eat with such gluttonous voracity as to be unable to
rise from the ground. They have been accused of at-
tacking pigs, beginning the assault by picking out their
eyes. But Mr Waterton, during his residence in Deme-
rara, could not ascertain that they destroyed even living
reptiles. He killed lizards and frogs and placed them in
their way, but they took no notice of them till they began
to emit a putrid effluvia. He differs from Mr Audubon
in his ideas regarding the relative superiority in these
birds of the organs of sight and smell. The one thinks
the eyes have it, the other the nose. The: turkey buzzard
hatches her eggs in some swampy solitude, on a truncat-
ed hollow tree or excavated stump or log, laying them on

‘the rotten wood. This species roosts at night on trees,

but more seldom than the other kind in flocks. In winter
they sometimes pass the night in numbers on the roofs of
houses in the suburbs of the southern cities, probably in-
duced to do so by the warmth which emanates from the
chimneys. On fine clear days, even in the winter season,
they amuse themselves by soaring majestically into the
air, rising rapidly in large gyrations ; and ascending be-
yond the thinnest fleecy clouds, they almost disappear
from mortal view. In South America they will sometimes
accompany the condor in his loftiest flights, rising, all
fetid though they be, above the region of the purest Alps ;
and thus exhibiting an emblem of the mind of man, so
often sunk in Epicurus’ sty, yet for a time so raised by
god-like genius, as not seldom to perceive “ far off the
crystal battlements of heaven.”

The other species of this genus is the black vulture, or
carrion-crow of the United States, C. atratus. It is rather
less than the preceding, measuring about twenty-six inch-
es in length, the general colour of the plumage dull black,
with a dark cream-coloured spot on the primaries. It is
more impatient of cold, and prevails chiefly about the
larger maritime cities of South Carolina, Georgia, and Flo-
rida. They seem, from Mr Douglas’s account, to proceed
further north on the western side of the Rocky Mountains.
Although they rise at times to a considerable elevation,
their flight is less easy and graceful than, that-of the tur-
key buzzard. They are much more familiar, and in
Charleston and Savannah may be seen walking the streets
as demurely as domestic fowl. They sometimes become
individually known ; and a veteran with only one leg was
observed to visit the shambles, and claim the bounty of a
gentle butcher, for upwards of twenty years.

' “ The manner in which the Guachos catch these birds is to killa horse and skin him; and they say that although not a con-
dor is to be seen, the smell instantly attracts them. When I was at one of the mines in Chili, I idly mentioned to a person that I
should like to have a condor : some days afterwards a Guacho arrived at Santiago from this person with three large ones. They had
aul been caught in this manner, and had been hung over a horse ; two had died of galloping, but the other was alive. I gave the
Guacho a dollar, who immediately left me to consider what I could do with three such enormous birds.”

2 Rough Notes across the Pampas.

559

t=<——

560

Raptores.
=m” rus, Cuv.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Genus Neopuron, Sav. Cathartes, Illig. Perenopte-
Bill long, slender, rounded, inflated at the
curvature of the upper mandible, which is much hooked
at the extremity. Nostrils. median, oval, longitudinal,
open. Cere covering two thirds of the bill. Face, cheeks,
and throat naked, also a space extending down the middle
of the neck. Tongue oblong, linear. Tail of fourteen
feathers.

These birds are inhabitants of the ancient world. They
are less powerful than the true vultures, and of smaller
size, but are still more useful in their scavengerial func-
tions, their love of putrid flesh, and of all impurities, be-
ing insatiable. The rachamach of Bruce, or gingi vul-
ture of Sonnerat (Meophron perenoplerus, Sav.), attords a
characteristic example. See Plate CCCLXXXVIIL. fig. 4.
It is equal in size to a raven, the throat and cheeks na-
ked, the feathers of the head and back of the neck long,
narrow; and pointed. The plumage of the male is white,
except the quill-feathers, which are black ; that of the fe-
male and young is brown. This species has been described
under a great variety of names. It occurs in several parts
of Europe, more especially in Spain, Italy, and the Island
of Elba. It is likewise widely distributed over Africa,
where it is known to the Hottentots by the name of hou-
goop. It was held in great respect by the ancient Egyp-
tians, and is frequently represented on the monuments of
that mysterious. people. It is said to follow caravans
through the desert, for the sake of devouring every dead
or unclean thing.. We may add, that it has occurred once
or twice in England.

Genus Gypaeros, Storr. Bill strong, straight, curved
at the point, and somewhat inflated at the curvature.
Cere basal, covered by strong bristly feathers pointing
forwards. Nostrils oblique, oval, concealed by bristles.
Tongue thick, !fleshy, bifid. Head feathered. A tuft of
bristly or hair-like feathers beneath the bill. Tarsi short,
thick, feathered. Tail-feathers twelve. ;

This genus contains only a single species, the cele-
brated lammer-geyer, or bearded vulture of the Alps (G.
barbatus). See Plate CCCLXXXVIII. fig. 5. It is one
of the largest, or at least the longest-winged, of all the Eu-
ropean birds of prey, haunting the highest mountains, and
preying on lambs, goats, chamois, marmots, &c. Its
strength and prowess are probably exaggerated, for al-
though its powers of wing are undoubtedly great, its legs
and talons are proportionally more feeble than those of
eagles and falcons. It is said not unfrequently to secure
its alpine prey by descending upon it suddenly with rush-
ing wing, and driving it over a precipice, devouring the
shattered limbs at leisure. It builds among inaccessible
precipices, and lays two eggs. It is now one of the rarest
of the birds of Europe, though formerly not uncommon
among the mountains of Tyrol, Switzerland, and Germany.
The peasant sportsmen of the last century often killed
them, and one, Andreas Durner by name, is quoted by M.
Michahelles as having shot sixty-five with his own hand.
Though a bird of rare occurrence, the bearded vulture is
very extensively distributed. In Europe it haunts the
steeps of the Pyrenean Mountains, and the central Alps
from Piedmont to Dalmatia; it is described by MM. Larey
and Savigny as occurring in Egypt, and by Bruce as an
inhabitant of Abyssinia; it has been received both from
Northern Africa and the Cape of Good Hope, by M. Tem-
minck ; in Asia it is known to cast its cloud-like shadow
over the vast steppes of the Siberian deserts; while not
many years have elapsed since Professor Jameson re-

ceived it from the snow-capped ranges 01 tne tlumaiaya Raptores.
—

Mountains.

The bird described by Bruce under the titie of Abou
Duck’n, or Father Long-Beard, ts certainly identical with
the lammer-geyer, although we have been sometimes puz-
zled to reconcile the comparatively feeble feet of the beau-
tiful series submitted to our examination by Professor
Jameson, with the meat-bearing prowess of the Abyssinian
instance. On the loftiest summit of the mountain of La-
mallon, while the traveller's servants were refreshing them-
selves after the fatigues of a toilsome ascent, and enjoying
the pleasures of a delightful climate and a good dinner of
goat’s flesh, a lammer-geyer suddenly made his appearance
among them. A great shout, or rather cry of distress,
attracted the attention of Bruce, who, while walking to-
wards the bird, saw it deliberately put its foot into a pan
containing a huge piece of meat prepared for boiling.
Finding the temperature, however, somewhat higher than
it was accustomed to among the pure gushing springs of
that rocky and romantic region, it suddenly withdrew, but
immediately afterwards settled upon two large pieces which
lay upon a wooden platter, and transfixing them with its
talons, carried them off. It then disappeared over the edge
of a “steep Tarpeian rock,” down which criminals were
sometimes thrown, and whose mangled remains may be
supposed to have first induced the bird to select the spot
as a place of sojourn. The traveller, in expectation of an-
other visit, immediately prepared his arms, and it was not
long before the gigantic creature re-appeared.

As when a vulture on Imaus bred,

Whose snowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Dislodging from a region scarce of prey,

To gorge the flesh of lambs or yeanling kids

On hills where flocks are fed, flies towards the springs
Of Ganges or Hydaspes, Indian streams ;

But on his way lights on the barren plains

Of Sericana, where Chineses drive

With sails and wind their cany waggons light :—

So landed with far-stretched fanning pinions our lammer-
geyer, within ten yards of his expected savoury mess,
but also within an equal distance of Bruce’s practised
rifle, which instantly sent a ball through its ponderous
body, and the magnificent bird sunk down upon the grass,
with scarce a flutter of its outspread wings.

We may here close our brief notice of the first great
family of the raptorial order, merely remarking farther,
that the species last alluded to, though not so regarded by
any of our systematic writers, appears to us to bear a great
resemblance to the kites.

FAMILY II.—FALCONID.

This extensive family corresponds to the ancient unre-
stricted genus Falco, now greatly subdivided by modern
naturalists, but not yet very satisfactorily arranged.’ It
contains a vast assemblage of eagles, hawks, buzzards,
kites, &c., all characterized by a more or less curved bill,
of which the upper mandible is strongly hooked ; by ob-
vious or open nostrils, pierced in an almost always naked
cere ; and by curved retractile pointed talons. The head
is never bare of feathers, as in most of the preceding fa-
mily, and the eye-brows are usually bony and projecting.

The geographical distribution of the Falconidz, consi-
dered in their generality, is universal, one or more species
being found in all known countries from Spitzbergen to

7 The genus Falco, which in the days of Linnzus did not exceed thirty-two different kinds, amounts, in the last edition of Dr
Latham’s Synopsis, to 247. We have no doubt it now exceeds 300 species, even although many of Latham’s names are reducible

to the rank of synonyms,

ORNITHOLOGY. 561

are usually large and lustrous; their limbs, even when Raptores.

Raptores. New Holland, and several particular kinds having a very
light, very strong and muscular, and armed with formi- —~~—

——\— wide range, not only longitudinally across the whole tem-

perate and northern parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America, but latitudinally through almost every clime.
Most of them are, to a certain extent, migratory in their
habits, although their movements are by no means so re-
gularly periodical as are those of more laborious wing. In
fact, the birds of this family, surpassing all others both in
the duration and rapidity of their flight, are scarcely amen-
able to those natural laws which, in so many instances, ap-
pear to regulate or restrict the location of other tribes ;

and hence we find, that if a mural precipice, an insulated’

crag, the mouldering wall of a ruined castle, or the tor-
tuous branch of some ancient and umbrageous forest tree,
has been successfully sought for in spring as a secure re-
treat for the purposes of nidification and the rearing of
their young, the other seasons of the year are usually spent
in a life of wandering rapine. When we consider the facts
which have been recorded of the flight both of hawks and
pigeons, the migratory movements of birds in general be-
come much less a subject of wonder (excepting always the
beautiful instinct by which they are directed), than they
would at first appear. It is well known that a falcon be-
longing to Henry Il. of France, which had been carried to
Fontainebleau, made its escape, and was retaken next day
in the island of Malta, where it was recognised by the
rings on its legs. According to Colonel Montagu, it must
have flown with a velocity equal to fifty-seven miles an
hour, supposing it to have been on wing the whole time.
«But as such. birds never fly by night, and allowing the
day to have been at the longest, or containing eighteen
hours of light, this would make seventy-five miles an hour.
It is probable, however, that it neither had so many hours
of light in the twenty-four to perform the journey, nor
that it was retaken the moment of its arrival ; so that we
may fairly conclude that much less time was occupied in
performing that distant flight.” Another falcon having
been sent from the Canary Islands to the Duke of Lermos,
then in Andalusia, was found in Teneriffe siateen hours
after it had taken its flight from Spain. In regard to this
instance the calculation is more simple, and less likely to
prove erroneous, because, supposing the bird to have fol-
lowed anything like a direct course, its flight from the
coast of Andalusia to its native island would lie through-
out over the waters of the ocean, and must therefore have
been continuous. Now the distance being not less than
752 miles, that space divided by sixteen, the number of
hours employed would give an average of forty-seven miles
an hour for the whole course. At this rate, if a falcon
were to leave the rock of Gibraltar on a Monday morning,
it might enjoy eight hours repose, and yet reach Edin-
burgh Castle in the course of Tuesday forenoon. Pigeons
have been shot in the far-inland forests of America with
their stomachs full of fresh rice, which, to have resisted
the digestive process, must have been swallowed not many
hours preceding, but could not have been obtained within
eight hundred miles of the place where they were killed.
It thus appears probable, that the most extended migra-
tory movement which any species is required to perform,
may in the greater number of cases be accomplished in a
couple of days,—more frequently in the course of a few
hours.

The numerous species by which this great family is con-
stituted, though rarely adorned by those brilliant colours
which characterize so many of the gentler tribes, are per-
haps of all the feathered race the most remarkable for
beauty of form and elegance of proportion. Their eyes

dable claws with which they pounce their prey. Their
general aspect (especially that of the true falcons), when
compared with other birds, is well expressed by the word
noble ; and a single glance suffices to show that a combi-
nation of fierceness, energy, and courage, must form their
predominating character. ‘ Like most other animals, how-
ever, whether human or brute, they are by no means in-
sensible to kindness ; and their instinctive sagacity, when
directed by the skill and perseverance of man, has for ages
been rendered subservient to his amusement in the sports
of the field. But the princely art of falconry, whether
from the progress of agriculture, the consequent minuter
subdivision of land, and the increase of inconvenient bar-
riers by the fencing of enclosed grounds,—or the tastes of
men of rank and fortune having followed in another di-
rection, has now almost entirely fallen into disuse. The
species most generally trained for the purpose in this coun-
try appears to have been the peregrine falcon, but many
other kinds are used in eastern regions; and even pon-
derous eagles are sometimes made subservient to the hu-
man will. Few things indeed more strongly illustrate the
subduing influence of reason over instinct, than that a
coarse illiterate groom, by tossing upa shapeless lure, should
thus entice a proud rejoicing falcon from his airy height,
and render him so submissively obedient as to forsake his
soaring flight, and all his bright survey of field and river,
and close contentedly his yet unwearied wings, to perch
for hours upon a brawny arm, his lustrous eye encapped in
velvet hood, and limbs “by jessies bound.”

We must be very brief in our indications of the minor
groups ; and of several subgenera, as they are called, we
can do nothing more than give the names. We do not here
adopt the division of noble and ignoble birds of prey, which
we deem a distinction without a difference, seeing that some
of the Jong-winged hawks are difficult to train, while seve-
ral of the short-winged kinds are made with ease submis-
sive to the human race.

The genus Daprrius of Vieillot (Caracara, Cuv.) is
formed by the Falco aterrimus of Temm. (Pl. Col. 37 and
342). The cheeks and front of the throat are bare of fea-
thers. Thecere ishaired. Theadult plumage of thespecies
named is black, with a white band spotted with black at
the base of the tail; the bare portion of the face is flesh-
coloured, the cere and legs yellow, the bill lead-coloured.
The total length is about fifteen inches. It occurs in Gui-
ana and Brazil. Its habits are unknown.

The genus IBycTeER of the same author ( Caracara, Cuv.)
has the cere smooth, and the upper part of the neck, as
well as the cheeks, bare of feathers. ‘The stomach is also
bare and prominent. The tarsi are short, strong, and re-
ticulated. We believe there is only a single species of
this genus also, the Jb. leucogaster of Vieillot (Gal. pl. 6),
or Faleo formosus of Latham. Its bill is feeble, and but
slightly hooked, and its habits offer a corresponding non-
conformity with the usual manners of the raptorial order.
It is of a mild and peaceable nature, living, it is said, chief-
ly on fruits and seeds, with the addition of a few insects,
such as ants and locusts. It builds on trees, and utters
from time to time a harsh discordant cry. It inhabits
Guiana and Brazil, and, exhibiting some of the habits of
the toucans, is called by the negroes the capitaine des gros
becs.

The genus CaracarA, Cuv. (Polyborus, Vieil.), has the
face only partially naked. The C. Braziliensis (Plate
CCCLXXXVIII. fig. 6) is extremely commonin Paraguay.

Se

* Geese are also known to have been shot in Newfeundland with their crops full of maize, a species of corn which does not grow

but at an immense distance from that island.
VOL. XVI.

4B

ORNITHOLOGY.

says Mr Macgillivray, “ they fly around him at a respect- Raptores.
ful distance, sailing with outstretched wings, occasionally —~—

562

Raptores. It lives in pairs, flies rapidly, and preys on birds and small
“\—" quadrupeds, as well as on insects and reptiles. The fe-

male is said to build upen the ground when in the pampas,
and on trees when located in wooded countries. ‘This ac-
commodating habit is known to prevail among many other
birds.

The three preceding genera, which some regard as form-
ing the tribe of Caracaras, are all native to the new world,
and may be said to form a link with the vultures, both in
regard to the bareness of the face, and their alleged ten-
dency to prey on carrion.

We now proceed to the éribe of eagles, of which the
bill is very robust, comparatively straight at its basal and
middle portion, and suddenly curved at the extremity. It
includes the species most celebrated for their strength and
courage. Their strong limbs, curved talons, and broad ex-
pansive wings, enable them to carry off well-grown lambs,
and other bulky prey. They are therefore dreaded by
shepherds and such pastoral people, as robbers of the first
rank, and a high premium is placed upon their heads ac-
cordingly.

In the genus Aquia properly so called, the bill is

shorter than the head, straight, curved at the tip, the edge ’

of the upper mandible with a slight festoon; the nostrils
are oblong and oblique ; the cere haired ; the tarsi short,
and covered with feathers. The well-known golden eagle
(A. chrysetos) affords a characteristic example. This fine
British species is widely spread over Europe and America.
In our own country it builds on the ledges of mountain
precipices—on the Continent its nest is frequently found
in forests; for example, in that of Fontainebleau. It is com-
mon in the northern and central parts of Europe, but rarer
in the south. It is, however well known in Italy. We
have seen it sailing over the deep basin of the vale of
D’Uomo d’Ossola, and high above the highest snowy peaks
which glitter around the majestic passes of the Simplon.
In America it breeds among the subalpine districts which
skirt the Rocky Mountains, being seldom seen farther east-
ward. It is regarded by the aborigines as an emblem of
strength and courage, and the Indian warrior as well as the
highland chieftain glories in his eagle plume. These birds
sometimes soar to a vast height, but they seem to do so
rather as a kind of sporting exercise, than with a view to
search for prey. When employed in hunting, they keep
far nearer the earth, sweeping up the valleys, and skirting
the sides of heath-covered mountains. The golden eagle
is becoming rarer in Scotland every year. Many ancient
eyries are pointed out to travellers by gray-haired shep-
herds, where the bird itself is now no longer known, and in
no lengthened period we may expect its extirpation. Se-
veral other kinds of feather-footed eagles are known to
naturalists, such as the Aguzla imperialis, a common Egyp-
tian species, not unfrequent in the eastern countries of Ku-
rope,—and the Aguila Bonelli, a recent acquisition, native
to the mountains of Sardinia, and no doubt inhabiting other
alpine lands. Aguila fucosus is a New Holland species,
very common near Port Jackson, and remarkable for its
fine wedge-shaped tail.

In the genus Hatizrus, or sea-eagle, the bill is nearly
as long as the head, and the tarsi are bare of feathers, ex-
cept at the top. Their habits resemble those of the eagles
proper, but they prey more on fish, and will feed more rea~
dily on tainted flesh. Species occur in Europe, Asia, Africa,
America, and Australia. Our own white-tailed eagle (HZ.
albicilla, Plate CCCLXXX VIII. fig. 8) affords a good ex-
ample. ‘On observing a person walking near their nests,”

uttering a savage scream of anger, and allowing their legs
to dangle, with outspread talons, as if to intimidate him.
I have observed them thus occupied, when on the edge of
a precipice five hundred feet high, with a very steep slope
above me, bounded by rocks, and from which I could not
have made my escape had the birds been resolute. Al-
though on such occasions’ they are in general extremely
cautious, notwithstanding their manifest anxiety for the
safety of their young, yet I once saw an eagle come within
an hundred yards, when it was brought down with buck-
shot by a friend whom I had accompanied to the place.”
The same writer observes, that he has never heard of the
sea-eagle attacking those employed in robbing its nest; but
that he has been credibly informed of its having attempt-
ed to molest individuals whom it chanced to find among
its native crags, in perilous places. In the Hebrides it is
itself frequently assailed by the skua-gull; and we have
ourselves more than once seen it attacked by the raven.

In our present group are many other species, such as
the beautiful Haletus leucoguster of New Holland, and
the bald or white-headed eagle of America, #, leucocepha-
lus. The latter is often seen sailing through and around
the gigantic column of spray which rises from that “ hell
of waters,” the cataract of Niagara. Though a bird of
powerful wing, he seems to have fallen somehow into lazy
habits, or at least prefers the produce of others’ labours to
his own. “ Elevated,” says Wilson, “on the high, dead
limb-of some gigantic tree, that commands a view of the
neighbouring shore and ocean, he seems calmly to contem-
plate the motions of the various feathered tribes that pur-
sue their busy avocations below,—the snow-white gulls
slowly winnowing the air,—the busy tringz coursing along
the sands,—trains of ducks streaming over the surface,—
silent and watchful cranes intent and wading,—clamorous
crows,—and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the
bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature. High over
all these hovers one whose action instantly arrests his
whole attention. By his wide curvature of wing, and sud-
den suspension in air, he knows him to be the fish-hawk,
settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye
kindles at the sight, and balancing himself with half-open-
ed wings upon the branch, he watches the result. Down
rapid as an arrow from heaven descends the object of his
attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it dis-
appears in the deep, making the surges foam around, At
this moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour ;
and levelling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk once
more emerge, struggling with his prey, and mounting in
the air with screams of exultation. These are the signals
for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives
chase, and soon gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts his
utmost to mount above the cther, displaying in these ren-
contres the most elegant and sublime aérial evolutions.
The unencumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on
the point of reaching his opponent, when with a sudden
scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the lat-
ter drops his fish :—the eagle poising himself for a moment,
as if to takea more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind,
snatches it in its grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears
his ill-gotten booty silently away into the woods.”* When
forced to hunt for themselves, they often attack young
pigs, lambs, and sickly sheep.

In the genus Panpion the bill is much shorter than the
head; the tarsi are short and naked, covered all round with

' Rapacious Birds of Britain, p. 60.

2 American Ornithology, vol. i. p. 23. We quote Professor Jameson’s systematic edition, in four small volumes (Constable’s Miscellany,
1831). The student of American Ornithology will find some valuable notes by Sir William Jardine, in another Edinburgh edition,

in three vols. large 8vo, 1832

ORNITHOLOGY.

Raptores. imbricated scales; the claws are large and rounded on the
—.— under surface, the outer toe very versatile ; and the second

feather of the wing the longest. Our British osprey, or
small fishing eagle, is the Pandion halietus. It breeds in
the vicinity of many of our northern sea-lochs, often on the
chimney-top of ruined castles by the shore. It destroys
a vast quantity of fish, which it secures by thrusting its
talons through their backs during a sudden momentary
plunge beneath the waves. It is remarkably abundant in
North America ; and Wilson observes that it permits the
purple grakles to build their nests amid the interstices of
the sticks of which it has framed its own. He adds, that
it never picks up any fish which it may chance to drop either
on land or water. We know not if this trait applies to those
of the “old country.” We once saw an osprey drop a large
sea-trout, which it certainly did not attempt to recover ;
but then there happened at the same time to be an excel-
lent shot, with a double barrel, within a rather dangerous
distance of the same. The osprey occurs in New Holland,
and is elsewhere very widely spread.

The genus Crrcz#tus of Vieillot is in a manner inter-
mediate between the fishing eagles, the ospreys, and the
buzzards. We may mention as an example the bird called
jean-le-blanc by the French (fF. Gallicus, Gmelin), a com-
mon continental species.

In Harpyia, Cuv. the bill is very strong, and com-
pressed, the upper mandible dilated on the margins, and
much hooked. The head is crested, the tarsi thick, the
wings rather short. The harpies are large birds of prey,
which dwell chiefly in the forests of Guiana, making their
nests on trees, and committing great depredations. The larg-
est is the H. destructor of Daudin (Plate CCCLXXX VIII.
fig. 7), said to be capable of cleaving a man’s skull by a
single blow of its beak. We doubt if any one ever tried.
However, it carries off young fawns, and sloths of a year
old. It is a rare bird, lately imported to the Zoological
Gardens of London, and well exemplified by the specimen
in the Edinburgh Museum.

In the genus Morpunus of Cuv. (Spizetus, Vieillot),
the wings are shorter than the tail, the tarsi are length-
ened (in some feathered), and the toes feeble. The spe-
cies are extremely beautiful, and richly varied in their
markings. They are chiefly found in South America.

We have figured as an example (see PlateCCCLXXXVUI.
fig. 9) the Morphnus cristatus (F. Guianensis, Daud.),
which strongly resembles the great harpy just mentioned
in its general aspect, but is at once distinguished by its
smaller size and longer tarsi. We may mention as an in-
stance of those with plumed tarsi, ‘the Falco cristatellus
of Temm. Pl. Col. 282, which is a native of India and
Ceylon.

In Cyminpis, Cuv. and Temm. the tip of the upper man-
dible forms a lengthened curve, with a very acute point.
The nostrils are obliquely cleft, almost closed ; the cere
narrow. The tarsi are very short, and reticulated; the
wings rather long. The species are South American, and
we know of nothing remarkable in their habits. See Cy-
mindis uncinatus, Illiger, Pl. Col. 103. The extremely
hook-billed species (C. hamatus, Pl. Col. 61) now forms
the genus Rostruamus. Its nostrils are rounded, the
space before the eye is bare, and the tarsi are scutellated.
Its habits are unknown.

Naturalists differ greatly in their distribution of the pre-
ceding genera. Mr Swainson thinks Circetus is a sub-
generic form of Gypogeranus, and he places Cymindis with
the Caracaras, and certain other groups, in his sub-family
Cymindine or kites, and locates Morphnus (Spizetus,
Vieil.) with the buzzards.

We now proceed to a ¢hird tribe, consisting chiefly of

the sparrow-hawks and goshawks.

563

The bill is curved al- Raptores.

most from the base, convex, the upper mandible dilated ~~

on the sides, the lower short and obtuse. The nostrils
are nearly oval; the tarsi rather long and slender; the
claws broad and sharp. The wings have the fourth fea-
ther the most extended, and are shorter than the tail. The
species are numerous, and occur in all parts of the globe.
The larger, which are also proportionally the more robust,
with thicker tarsi and shorter wings, have by many Orni-~
thologists been considered as constituting a separate ge-
nus, to which the name of AsTur is applied. That rare
British bird the goshawk (Astur palumbarius) may be
named as a good example, while the smaller and more
slender kinds included in the genus Nisus are represent-
ed by our sparrow-hawk (NV. communis, the Falco nisus of
Linn.). The transition from one to the other is however
very gradual, and some deem their separation unwarrant-
able. Even the two British species, though usually re-
garded as the types of their respective sections, do not dif-
fer. so much as to render the propriety of their separation
very apparent, even were no other species known. They
are all extremely active, as daring as the true falcons, and
prey exclusively on living objects, which they seize with
admirable dexterity. Their flight is generally low, and as
they pass over the fields or woods, they dart upon their
prey, whether it be in the air, among branches, or couch-
ed upon the ground The goshawk, though a short-
winged species, was formerly held in great estimation for
the purposes of falconry. It is one of the most generally
diffused of all the accipitrine birds, but is now very rare
in Britain. A beautiful white species (Astur albus) is
found in New Holland. Of the sparrow-hawks we shall
allude merely to the Wisus musicus of Africa, commonly
called the chanting falcon. It is the only raptorial bird
in any way gifted with the powers of song; but we must
not suppose that its notes at all resemble the harmonious

tones of the nightingale, or those of even our less accom- °

plished songsters. Its voice is merely a little clearer than
usual, although it seems impressed with a high idea of its
own powers, and will sit for half a day perched upon the
summit of a tall tree, uttering its incessant cry.

A fourth tribe contains the kites, which are likewise sub-
divided into several minor groups, all agreeing in their
comparatively feeble bills and feet, their short tarsi, and
long extended wings. The tail is forked. They are gifted
with great powers of flight, but are neither strong nor
courageous, seldom pounce on heavy game, sometimes
contrive to prey on fish, and have never the slightest ob-
jection to chickens.

In the genus Mizvus of Cuv. is included our common
kite (J. regalis, Vieil.; Falco milvus, Linn.). The tarsi
are scutellated in front, and tolerably strong. This beau-
tiful bird is rare in many districts of Scotland, and is
scarcely ever seen in the Lothians. We have received it
from Argyllshire, but do not think it occurs in the West-
ern Isles. We have often, in the North of England, ad-
mired its wheeling flight, circling through the air with no
perceptible motion of its long expanded wings, and sailing
over that enchanting land of lakes and mountains, with
such majestic sweeps as if it were itself “ sole king of
rocky Cumberland.” ‘The kite is distributed over all Eu-
rope, but is unknown in America. Other species of the
genus occur in Asia, Africa, and New Holland.

In the genus Exanus of Savigny the tarsi are very
short, reticulated, and half clothed with feathers. The
wings are long, the tail but slightly forked. It contains
F.. dispar and melanapterus, two species which some re-
gard as one and the same. They feed on small birds, in-
sects, and reptiles, and occasionally devour dead animals.

© Rapacious Birds, p. 231.

564

ORNITHOLOGY.

Raptores. If identical, the species must exist in America, Africa

(occasionally in Europe), and the East Indies. The swal-
low-tailed kite (JZ. furcatus) forms the genus NaucLeRus
of Vigors. See Plate CCCLXXXIX. fig.1. The form is
slender, the tail very long and greatly forked. The spe-
cies just named is white, with back, wings, and tail black,
glossed with green and purple. It inhabits America, at
least as far south as Buenos Ayres, and also passes the
summer and breeds in the warmer parts of the United
States. Tempted by the abundance of the fruitful valley
of the Mississippi, a few are seen to wander as far as the
Falls of St Antony, in the forty-fourth degree. Audubon
states, that in calm warm weather they soar to an immense
height, pursuing the large insects (probably libellule)
called musquito hawks, using their tails with an elegance
peculiar to themselves, and performing the most singular
evolutions. The Mississippi kite (#’. plumbeus, Latham)
constitutes the genus Ictinra of the modern systems.
It is of a blackish ash colour, the head and under parts of
a much paler ashy hue. Wilson frequently observed this
hawk in the course of his perambulations, sailing about in
easy circles, at a considerable height in the air, and gene-
rally in company with Turkey buzzards, with whose mode
of flight its own exactly corresponds. It is not easy to say
why two birds, whose food and manners are in other re-
spects so different, should so frequently associate in their
airy gambols. Though the Mississippi kite feeds chiefly
on reptiles and insects, it is a bold and energetic bird.
The specimen obtained by Wilson, though wounded, and
precipitated from a stunning height, exhibited great
strength, and a most unconquerable spirit. He no sooner
approached to pick it up, than the bird immediately gave
battle, striking rapidly with its claws, wheeling round and
round as it lay, ‘‘ partly on his rump,” and defending itself
with vigilance and dexterity. Notwithstanding all the
aggressor’s caution, it struck its hind claw into his hand,
with such force as to penetrate into the bone. “ Anxious
to preserve his life, I endeavoured gently to disengage it ;
but this made him only contract it the more powerfully,
causing such pain that I had no other alternative but that
of cutting the sinew of his heel with my penknife.” The
whole time he lived with Wilson he seemed to watch his
every movement, erecting the feathers of his head, eyeing
him with fierceness, and no doubt regarding him (and with
some show of justice) as the greater savage of the two.

Ina fifth tribe we may place the honey-hawks, buzzards,
and harriers, small groups connected, in a variety of ways,
by the usual interlacements, with several of the preceding
tribes. The buzzards, for example, both in form and
plumage, resemble small eagles, though their bills are more
curved from the base ;! the harriers in some measure con-
nect the buzzards with the accipitrine hawks (gen. Msus
and Astur); while the honey-hawks (Pernis) unite the
buzzards to the kites. The natural affinities of groups are
in truth so multiplied and complex, that we need scarcely
wonder that even those who have most devoted them-
selves to explore such Cretan labyrinths, should have often
failed in their supposed elucidation :—so much the worse for
those who have never found the thread.

In the genus Prrnts, Cuv. the lore, or space between
the bill and eye, is closely covered by small, compact,
rounded feathers, the nostrils are narrow, and the tarsi
short, stout, and reticulated. The British bee-hawk (P.
apivorus), or honey-buzzard as it is usually called, though
it cares less for the honey than for those that make it, is
of this genus. We have no other indigenous, or indeed

‘others.

European species; but a beautiful crested kind (P. eris- Raptores.
tata, Cuv.), Plate CCCLXXXIX. fig. 2; occurs in Java —~~—~

and the East Indies. P. £lliotz is also native to the latter
country.

In the genus BurEo, Bechstein, the cutting margin of
the upper mandible is more flexuous or tooth-like, the gape
wider, and the space between the eye and the cere is co-
vered by the same setaceous plumage which usually pre-
vails in that part, the nostrils are rounded, and the’ tarsi
scutellated in front. The buzzards are a numerous genus,
distributed over most parts of the world. We have only
two British species, the common buzzard (Buteo vulgaris),
and the rough-legged kind (B. lagopus). The latter is a
rare or rather accidental visitor, its proper districts being
the northern parts of Europe and America. We think
buzzards are most abundant in wooded countries. They
fly more sluggishly than hawks, and generally rather low,
but at times they ascend to a great height, sweeping round
in easy circles, and uttering a frequent shrilly cry.

In the genus Circus the bill is slender and compressed,
the cere large, the cheeks encircled by a kind of recurved
ruff, and. the tarsi long, slender, and scutellated before
and behind. We have three British species, the moor
harrier (C. @ruginosus), the common ringtail or hen-har-
rier (C. eyaneus, male,—C. pygargus, female), and Monta-
gu’s harrier (C. cineraceus). All these birds roost and
breed upon the ground, fly low, and frequent mountainous
or marshy places. They prey upon whatever small-sized
creatures they can master, whether beast, bird, reptile, or
insect. The hen-harrier is supposed to occur in almost all
parts of the world, but the identity of the American and
European specimens has not been definitely determined.
We have figured a foreign species as an example in Plate
CCCLXXXIX. fig. 5. It is the Circus palustris of Tem-
minck (C. superciliosus of some other authors), and a na-
tive of Brazil.

We now arrive at the falcons properly so called, or
those which have been sometimes distinguished by the
appellation of xoble birds of prey, probably on account of
certain members of the group, such as the peregrine and
jer-falcon, being held in high esteem as accessaries in the
sports of the field.. We cannot say that we have been led
to our present arrangement by an impression that it is
more natural than any other, for we have already left the
point which would have conducted us more insensibly in-
to the ensuing nocturnal group of owls; but we do not
think it is liable to more grave objections than are many
Indeed the circular or recurrent nature of the
actual affinities of natural groups renders their true expo-
sition, so far as any consecutive system is concerned, im-
possible ; for, instead of advancing, we must necessarily
terminate where we began, and therefore either retrace a
portion of our circle, or break or bend it, before we can
proceed to another. Without, therefore, desiring the
reader to suppose that the harriers in any special way
conduct him to the falcons, we shall give a brief notice of
the latter.

The falcons are chiefly distinguished by the strong,
tooth-like notching of the bill, which in the preceding
groups is either entirely absent, or shows itself only in the
form of a more or Jess distinct festoon.2 The first quili-
feather is always long, the second Jonger than the third
and fourth, so that the wing acquires a sharp or pointed
form, instead of the rounded outline of the so-called ig-
noble tribes ; and the points of the wings, when closed,
usually attain to the end of the tail.

‘ Mr Macgillivray mentions, that the digestive organs of the common buzzard so greatly resemble those of the golden eagle, that

a figure of the one might serve for that of the other.

* It is, we believe, in vain that naturalists attempt exceptionless precision in their generalities ; for, in this very group, the jer-
falcon, in one sense the noblest of all, frequently wants the tooth, and exhibits a bill festooned like the eagle's.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Raptores. "In the restricted genus Fatco, then, the bill is short,
\—~.—~ but strong, conical, curved from the base, sharply hooked

565

may, it has a strong, well-curved bill, a crested head, a Raptores.
lengthened neck, and long, slender, crane-like legs. It is —~——

at the extremity, and almost always toothed as well as
pointed ; the nostrils are rounded, the cere bare, or mere-
ly encroached upon by the bristly feathers of the lore.
The tarsi are rather short and strong, and covered with
scales of somewhat variable form, but usually rounded or
angular. The wings are long and pointed. We have four
well-known British species, the peregrine falcon (F’. pere-
grinus), the hobby (£. subbuteo), the merlin (F. esalon),
and the kestril (F’. tinnunculus). Besides these, we may
name the jer-falcon (F. islandicus, Plate CCCLXXXIX.
fig. 4) as an occasional, and the orange-legged hobby
(Ff. vespertinus) as an accidental visitor. The jer-falcon,
in spite of its alleged want of teeth, is one of the bold-
est and most powerful of the class. This fine species
seems now confined almost entirely to the most northern
parts of Europe and America. It is well known in Ice-
land and Greenland, and was often seen by Dr Richard-
son during his journeys over the “ barten grounds” of
North America, where it preys habitually on ptarmigan,
not, however, despising plovers, ducks, and geese. “ In
the middle of June,” he observes, “a pair of these birds
attacked me as I was climbing in the vicinity of their
nest, which was built on a lofty precipice on the borders
of Point Lake, in latitude 653°. They flew in circles,
uttering Joud and harsh screams, and alternately stooping
with such velocity that their motion through the air pro-
duced a loud rushing noise; they struck their claws with-
in an inch or two of my head. I endeavoured, by keep-
ing the barrel of my gun close to my cheek, and sud-
denly elevating its muzzle when they were in the act of
striking, to ascertain whether they had the power of in-
stantaneously changing the direction of their rapid course,
and found that they invariably rose above the obstacle
with the quickness of thought, showing equal acuteness of
vision and power of motion. Although their flight was
much more rapid, they bore considerable resemblance to
the snowy owl.” Upon the whole, we think that Great
Britain and Ireland are just as well quit of such a fierce
intruder. The Doctor adds, that when the jer-falcon
pounces down upon a flock of ptarmigan, the latter en-
deavour to save themselves by diving instantly into the
loose snow, and making their way beneath it to a consi-
derable distance.

A few species, in which the toothing of the upper man-
dible is double, form the. genus Bivens of Spix, syno-
nymous, we presume, with Harpagus of Vigors. Such are
F. bidentatus, Lath., F. diodon, Temm. Pl. Col. 198. In
Irrax of Vigors, the upper mandible seems as strongly
and sharply bidentated as in the preceding, but the under
one is simply notched, as in the true falcons, and the
second quill-feather of the wing is the longest. This ge-
nus includes the beautiful little finch-falcon of Bengal, F.
cerulescens, the smallest of the hawk tribe. An elegant
crested kind from Pondicherry serves as a type to the ge-
nus LopHores. ;

We shall conclude this section by a brief indication of
that remarkable bird, the secretary, or serpent-eater of
Southern Africa—the Gypogeranus serpentarius of Iliger
(see Plate CCCLXXXIX. fig.9). Its affinities have been
in no way satisfactorily illustrated, and each author has hi-
therto placed it according to his own fancy. Baron Cuvier
locates it between the buzzards and the owls; M. Lesson
makes it a “ gallinaceous accipiter,” in strange company
with the horned screamer (Palamedea cristata) of Brazil ;
while Mr Swainson is now satisfied that it is no other than
“ the rasorial type of the aquiline circle.” Be this as it

re ee ey

1 Fauna Boreali-Americana, part ii. p. 28.

the only one of its genus, and has been designated by a
variety of names. Some call it the messenger, because it
runs with great rapidity, which few actual messengers ever
do; others name it the secretary, because it has a pen-
like plume behind its ear, where a secretary’s pen should
never be ; while its frequent title of serpent-eater is pro-
bably better earned, by its useful habit of devouring those
dangerous reptiles. Its diet, however, seems to be of a
rather miscellaneous nature, as Le Vaillant found in the
stomach of a single specimen twenty-one young tortoises,
three snakes, and eleven lizards, besides which there was
a large ball in the stomach, formed entirely of the scales of
tortoises, the vertebre of snakes and lizards, the legs of lo-
custs, and the wing-cases of coleopterous insects. “ In his
habits,” says Mr Bennet, “‘he partly resembles both the eagle
and the vulture, but differs fromthem most completely in the
nature of his prey, and in his mode of attacking it. Like
the former, he always prefers live flesh to carrion ; but the
food to which he is most particularly attached consists of
snakes and other reptiles, for the destruction of which he
is admirably fitted by his organization. The length of his
legs not only enables him to pursue these creatures over
the sandy deserts which he inhabits, with a speed propor-
tioned to their own, but also places his more vulnerable
parts in some measure above the risk of their venomous
bite ; and the imperfect character of his talons, when com-
pared with those of other rapacious birds, is in complete
accordance with the fact, that his feet are destined rather
to inflict powerful blows than to seize and carry off his
prey. When he falls upon a serpent, he first attacks it
with the bony prominences of his wings, with one of which
he belabours it, while he guards his body by the expan-
sion of the other. He then seizes it by the tail, and
mounts with it to a considerable height in the air, from
which he drops it to the earth, and repeats this process
until the reptile is either killed or wearied out; when he
breaks open its skull by means of his beak, and tears it in
pieces with the assistance of his claws, or, if not too large,
swallows it entire.
pairs, and not in flocks ; they build their aiery, if so it may
be termed, on the loftiest trees, or, where these are want-
ing, in the most bushy and tufted thickets. They run
with extreme swiftness, trusting, when pursued, rather to
their legs than to their wings; and as they are generally
met with in the open country, it is with difficulty that
they can be approached sufficiently near for the sportsman
to obtain a shot at them. ‘They are natives of the south
of Africa, and appear to be tolerably numerous in the
neighbourhood of the Cape, where, it is said, they have
been tamed to such a degree as to render them useful in-
mates of the poultry-yard, in which they not only destroy
the snakes and rats which are too apt to intrude upon
those precincts, but even contribute to the maintenance of
peace among its more authentic inhabitants, by interpos-
ing in their quarrels, and separating the furious combatants
who disturb it by their brawls.”

SECT. Il.—NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.

The great raptorial division called owls are usually dis-
tinguished by the comparative largeness of their heads,
the anterior portion of which is surrounded by a peculiar
circle of feathers forming a facial collar, to which they
owe the most marked and peculiar feature of their physi-
ognomy. The bill is curved almost from the base, where
it is greatly enveloped by setaceous feathers, which fre-

2 Tower Menagerie, p. 211.

Like the eagles, these birds live in :

566 ORNITHOLOGY.

Raptores. quently cover or conceal the cere and nostrils. The eyes

His favourite residence, however, according to Wilson, is Raptores.
“—\— are large, and so placed that vision is directed rather for-

the dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered by a growth —~—

wards than laterally, and are furnished with a nictitating
membrane. ‘The tarsi, and even the toes, are closely
covered by short downy or hairy feathers. _ The outer toe
is versatile; the claws extremely sharp. The plumage is
remarkable for its great softness. The concha of the ear
is for the most part very large ; and from this we may in-
fer that the sense of hearing is acute.

The greater proportion of the species hunt by night, or
during the sweet but sombre hours of twilight. Their
flight is light, buoyant, noiseless, and performed by slow
but regular flapping of the wings. Their food, like that
of most birds of prey, is various; but we believe they pre-
fer mice and similar small quadrupeds, probably because
the habits of these minute creatures are, like their own,
nocturnal. Owls are solitary, seldom more than a pair
being found together, although the woodcock owl ( Otus
brachyotus) is found during autumn in small conjoined fa-
mily flocks of ten or twelve together; and the Arkansa
owl of America is likewise ina manner gregarious. “ There
is something,” says Wilson, “ in the character of the owl
so recluse, solitary, and mysterious, something so discord-
ant in the tones of its voice, heard only amid the silence
and the gloom of night, and in the most lonely and seques-
tered situations, as to have strongly impressed the minds
of mankind in general with sensations of awe and abhor-
rence of the whole tribe. The poets have indulged free-
ly in this general prejudice; and in their descriptions and
delineations of midnight storms, and gloomy scenes of na-
ture, the owl is generally introduced to heighten the hor-
ror of the picture.”

The systematic arrangement of these nocturnal birds of
prey is as yet unsatisfactory. The following is a brief
view of Baron Cuvier’s system.

The genus Orus has two well-marked aigrettes, or
tufts of feathers, on the front of the head, capable of
being depressed or raised at pleasure, and the conch of
the ear extends semicircularly from the beak almost to
the top of the head, and is furnished in front with a mem-
branous opercle. Two British species may be here placed,
the long-eared or horned owl commonly so called (Strix
otus), and the short-eared. owl (Strix brachyotus). The
genus Uuuta consists of species resembling the preceding
in the bill and auditory opening, but not possessed of ai-
grettes. Such is the great northern species (S. Laponi-
ca, Gm.). The genus Strix properly so called has also
large ear-openings, and wants the aigrettes, but is distin-
guished by the bill being comparatively straight at the
base, and curved towards the extremity. The facial disk
is strongly marked, the tarsi are feathered, and the toes
are haired. Example, Strix flammea, our barn or white
owl. In the genus Syrwium, the facial disk is formed of
decomposed or unwoven feathers, the collar is also large,
and the aigrettes wanting, but the toes are feathered.
See Plate CCCLXXXIX. fig.6. The brown or wood owl
of Britain (8. aluco and séridula, Linn.) is placed here.
The genus Buso has the facial disk less marked, the ai-
grettes conspicuous, and the toes feathered. The great
eagle owl of Europe (B. maximus, S. bubo, Linn.) affords
a good example. It inhabits the larger forests of Russia,
Hungary, Germany, and Switzerland, becoming very rare
in France, disappeariug altogether in Holland, and visit-
ing Great Britain as it were by chance. Here also may
be placed the great horned owl of America, S. Virgz-
niana (Plate CCCLXXXIX. fig. 8), which occurs in al-
most every quarter of the United States, and spreads into
the far fur-countries of the north, wherever there is tim-
ber of sufficient size to serve the purposes of nidification.

of gigantic timber, from whence, so soon as evening dark-
ens, and the human race retire to rest, he sends forth his
unearthly hootings, startling the way-worn traveller by his
forest fire, and “ making night hideous.” “ Along the moun-
tainous shores of the Ohio, and amidst the deep forests of
Indiana, alone, and reposing in the woods, this ghostly
watchman has frequently warned me of the approach of
morning, and aroused me by his singular exclamations,
sometimes sweeping down and around my fire, uttering a
loud and sudden waugho! waugh o! sufficient to have
alarmed a whole garrison. He has other nocturnal solos,
no less melodious, one of which very strikingly resembles
the half-suppressed screams of a person suffocating or
throttled, and cannot fail of being exceedingly entertain-
ing to a lonely benighted traveller in the midst of an In-
dian wilderness.”! The genus Nocrva consists of species
in which the tufts or aigrettes are wanting, the concha of
the ear small, with an ordinary-sized opening. The facial
disk is likewise small and incomplete. This gives the
countenance a more hawk-like physiognomy; and in ac-
cordance with this expression, we find the habits of the spe-
cies naturally more diurnal than those of many other owls.
We here place the northern Harfang, or great snowy owl
(Strix nyctea, Linn.), one of the most beautiful of the
group, an occasional visitant of Great Britain, and not
very unfrequent in the Orkney and Shetland Islands. It
is a common inhabitant of the arctic regions of both the
old and new world, from which it migrates on the ap-
proach of winter, but without passing to the southward of
the colder portions of the temperate zone. It frequently
hunts by day; and indeed if it did not so, what would be-
come of it in those far northern countries where a “sleep-
less summer of long light” knows not for months the re-
freshing influence of nocturnal darkness ? It preys not only
on quadrupeds and birds, but frequently strikes its talons
into fish, and bears them astonished from their moist abode
into the leafy recesses of the forest. There are few things
more out of place than a trout on the top a large tree. Its
own flesh is said to be white and well flavoured ; and when
in good condition, iseaten both by the native Indians and the
white residents in the fur-countries. Several of the small-
er owls are included in the present genus, such as Stria pas-
serina, Linn. In the genus Scops (Plate CCCLXXXIX.
fig. 7) the toes are naked, and the head furnished with
tufts; and in certain peculiar foreign species of consider-
able size, the tarsi (a very unusual character) are bare
and reticulated. These have been formed of late into a
genus called Ketupa. Example, Strix Ketupa, Horsfield,
Temm. Pl. Col. 74.

One of the most curious of owls, in its habits, is the
burrowing species of the new world—Strix cunicularia of
Bonaparte. Its particular genus has not yet been deter-
mined. These birds inhabit the burrows of the marmot,
and consequently dwell in open plains. They seem to enjoy
even the broadest glare of the noon-day sun, and may be seen
flying rapidly along in search of food or pleasure during
the prevalence of the cheerful light of day. They mani-
fest but little timidity, allow themselves to be approached
sufficiently close for shooting, and though some or all may
soar away, they settle down again at no great distance. If
further disturbed, they either take a more lengthened
flight, or descend into their subterranean dwellings, from
whence they are dislodged with difficulty. When the
young are only covered with down, they frequently ascend
the entrance to enjoy the warmth of the mid-day sun ; but
as soon as they are approached, they quickly retire within
their burrow. In North America the burrowing owl feeds

? American Ornithology, i. p. 101.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. chiefly on insects—in the West Indies (if the species are
“——~ identical), on rats and reptiles.

Orper II.—INSESSORES or PERCHING BIRDS.

This is the most numerous order of the class of birds,
and, as Cuvier has observed, is distinguished chiefly by ne-
gative characters ; for it embraces all those various groups
which, sometimes possessing but little in common, are yet
in themselves neither raptorial, scansorial, grallatorial, na-
tatorial, nor gallinaceous. At the same time they exhibit
a general resemblance to each other in structure, and pre-
sent such gradual transitions from group to group, as to
render definite subdivisions by no means easy.

They are said to possess not the violence of birds of
prey,—meaning thereby our preceding accipitorial order.
Yet a fly-catcher crushing the body of a slender-limbed and
delicate gnat, a blackbird pertinaciously dragging a reluc-
tant worm from its subterranean dwelling, or a sparrow
with his bill as full of tortuous caterpillars as it can con-
tain (to say nothing of the butcher-bird, which is said to
impale his prey alive upon “ the blooming spray”), is as-
suredly as raptorial or predaceous as need be well desired.
Neither can the division of the smaller birds into granivo-
rous and insectivorous be strictly maintained, though we
doubt not that the strong, conical billed species eat most
greedily of seeds and grain, while those of softer and more
slender bill are chiefly avidous of insect life ;—but all pre-
cise divisions, founded on the love of any special diet, must
be received with reservation,—seeing that almost all passe-
rine birds feed both themselves and young in spring and
early summer with what may be correctly called animal
food (that is, insects and worms), while in autumn and
throughout the winter season they just as. generally (and
for the best of reasons) have recourse to all manner of
seeds and grain. The tender-billed birds are certainly
more dependent on insect food than the others, and it is
consequently among them that we find the greater propor-
tion of our migratory species; for as the increasing chill-
ness of autumn depopulates the busy world of insect life,
so our finest songsters (the familiar red-breast forming a
delightful exception) take then their departure for other
climes, not so much by reason of the immediate influence
of cold upon themselves, as because they find their accus-
tomed food becoming daily less abundant. Such of the
insectivorous tribes as remain with us throughout the year
assuredly combine the graminivorous diet with their more
favourite food, just as the hard-billed species sustain them-
selves during spring and summer by the capture of insects.
In tropical countries, where the seasons are less strongly
or differently marked, and the death-like torpidity of our
northern winters is unknown, this periodical change of food
may probably either not obtain, or be less perceptible in
its occurrence; but as we know that over a great part of
the globe it is true, that for one portion of the year most
insect-eating birds feed on seeds, and that for another por-
tion of the year most seed-eating birds feed on insects, we
may be permitted to doubt the propriety of rigorously di-
viding the great body of passerine species into insectivo-
rous and granivorous sections. We admit that, either
from the nature of things, or the feebleness of human lan-
guage, the terms applied to the greater divisions of natural
history ought not to be construed according to their strict-
est literal interpretation, as they are frequently of a con-
ventional character, and have in some cases been substi-
tuted for numerical signs, as more easily held in remem-
brance; but it is nevertheless to be greatly desired, that

: Pica and PassEreEs, Linn.

567

those who are influential in the nomenclature of science Insessores.
should avoid bestowing appellations which convey an erro- —~~—"

neous idea of the objects intended to be expressed.

The feet of the insessorial order are especially formed
for perching, the hind toe springing from the same plane
as the anterior ones,—a structure which gives them great
power in grasping. Their legs or tarsi are always of mo-
derate length, and the claws not strongly curved. The
form of the bill is too various to be generalized ; and the
same may be said of the length of the wings, of which the
comparative breadth generally bears relation to the habit
of life of each particular tribe. The stomach is in the
form of a muscular gizzard, generally preceded by a greater
or less expansion in the shape of crop, and there are usu-
ally two very small caca. The lower larynx is very com-
plicated, especially among the various tribes of songsters.
We must now rest satisfied with these brief and barren
generalities. ‘“ The great order of Passeres or Insessores of
authors,” Mr Macgillivray observes, “ is so heterogeneous
in its composition, that all who have attempted to charac-
terize it, whether in few or in many words, have utterly fail-
ed; for this plain reason, that its various groups are as un-
like to each other as they are to the Raptores or Rasores,
and that in fact the only common features which they ex-
hibit are those of the general organization of birds. A
hornbill and a humming-bird, a parrot and a wren, a king-
fisher and a swallow, a starling and a toucan, not to men-
tion others still more dissimilar, are surely as unlike each
other as a hawk and a shrike, a pigeon and a plover, or a
flamingo and a pelican.”?

The first principal division of the passerine birds con-
sists of those genera in which the external toe is united
to the internal by not more than one or two of the joints,
and contains the four great tribes of Dentirostres, Fissiros-
tres, Conirostres, and Tenuirostres.

Trize lst.—DENTIROSTRES.

Bill with a marginal notch towards the extremity of the
upper mandible.

The dentirostral tribe is composed chiefly of insectivo-
rous groups, and, according to the modern views, contains
the following five families, viz. Laniade, Merulide, Syl-
viade, Ampelide, and Muscicapide. We do not think the
general reader, with whose tastes the treatises in our En-
cyclopedia are for the most part made to conform, would
be benefited by our entering into the complexities of these
circular arrangements, or by an extended exposition of the
innumerable minor groups of which the families are com-
posed. We shall therefore here content ourselves by no-
ticing the principal generic groups which form as it were
the groundwork on which the more elaborate systems have
been erected, and with which it is necessary to become
familiar in their more general and comprehensive form,
before their minuter subdivisions (to be elsewhere studied)
can be understood. The genera are chiefly determined
by the form of the bill, which is strong and compressed
among the shrikes and thrushes, depressed in the fly-
catchers, rounded and thickish in the tanagers, slender and
pointed in the warblers,—but in each and all exhibiting
different degrees of the typical character, or a tendency to
transition, which admits of various systematic views.

Mr Swainson divides the Laniade or shrikes into five
sub-families, viz. Laniane, or true shrikes ; Thamnophili-
ne, or bush-shrikes ; Dierurine, or drongo shrikes ; Ceble-
pyrine, or caterpillar catchers ; and Tyrannine, or tyrant
shrikes ; and each of these contains a great variety of ge-

* British Birds, vol. i. p. 311.

568

{nsessores. nera and subgenera.

ORNITHOLOGY.

We shall here follow the outlines

—~.— of Baron Cuvier’s system, which we shall illustrate by oc-

casional figures.

In the genus Lantus, the bill is of moderate size, but
strong, somewhat triangular at the base, and laterally com-
pressed. In the European species (which we call butcher-
birds) the upper mandible is somewhat arched. Three of
these (Lan. excubitor, colurio, and rufus) are natives of
England, but the first and last are very rare. The food
of butcher-birds consists chiefly of insects, but they at-
tack occasionally the smaller kinds of birds and quadru-
peds. Their mode of flight is irregular, the tail being
kept in constant agitation. The sexes differ from each
other in their plumage, and the immature birds bear a
resemblance to the adult females. In most of the species
the moult is single, in others double, that is, certain parts
of the plumage are changed twice a year. Our great ci-
nereous shrike (Z. excubitor) destroys its larger prey by
strangulation, and transfixing it after death upon a thorn,
tears it into smaller parts at leisure. This wise but some-
what savage instinct seems implanted in the bird to make
amends for the comparative weakness of its feet and
claws. “ This singular process,” says Mr Selby, “is
used with all its food. I had the gratification of witness-
ing this operation of the shrike upon a hedge accentor
(A. modularis) which it had just killed; and the skin of
which, still attached to the thorn, is now in my possession.
In this instance, after killing the bird, it hovered with
the prey in its bill for a short time over the hedge, ap-
parently occupied in selecting a thorn fit for its purpose.
Upon disturbing it, and advancing to the spot, I found
the accentor firmly fixed by the tendons of the wing at
the selected twig. [I have met with the remains of a
mouse in the stomach of ashrike ; and Montagu mentions
one in which he found a shrew.”?

We have figured, in illustration of the genus Lanius,
the species called fiscal (£. collaris) by Vaillant. See
Plate CCCXC. fig. 1. When this bird sees a locust, man-
tis, or small bird, it springs upon it, and immediately im-
pales it on a thorn, with such dexterity, that the spine
always passes through the head. It is a bold, vindictive,
noisy, and even cruel bird, for it seems to kill many more
victims than it actually requires for food. These are found
transfixed on many a neighbouring bush and tree, the
major part often so destroyed by dryness as to be totally
unfit for food.

Some foreign species, in which the upper ridge of the
bill is straight, and the point only curved, form the genus
Tsamnopuixus of Vieillot. The Thamnophili inhabit
chiefly the tropical regions of the new world, but some
of the species have an extensive range, from Canada as
far southwards as Paraguay. In Tham. guttatus of Spix
the bill is very strong, and the inferior mandible inflated.
In others it is straight and slender, with its base adorned
with reversed setaceous feathers. Such is Z. plumatus,
an African species, which forms the genus PRrionops of
Vieillot.

In the genus Vanea (Plate CCCXC. fig. 3) the bill
is large, greatly compressed throughout, the point of
the upper mandible suddenly curved, the under mandible
bent upwards. Example, Zan. curvirostris, Gmelin. In
Ocyrrerus, Cuv. the bill is conical, rounded, scarcely
arched towards the point, the termination very sharp and
fine, slightly notched. The legs are rather short, and
the wings long, from which characters the species have
obtained the name of swallow butcher-birds ; but they are

as courageous as other shrikes, and do not fear to attack Insessores.
The species are numerous along the shores —~~——

even crows.
and islands of the Indian Seas, where they exhibit great
agility in the capture of their insect prey. Ex. Zan. leu-
corhynchos, Gm. In Baryta of Cuv. the bill is large,
conical, straight, round at the base, and encroaching on
the forehead by a circular notch; the ridge is rounded,
the sides compressed, the point curved. The nostrils are
small and linear. The species of this genus, as wellsas
those of Vanga, are by some combined with the crows,
as part of the conirostral tribe. We may name, as an’ ex-
ample, the piping grakle of the older writers (Coracias ti-
bicen, Lath.), a native of New Holland, where it is known
by the name of Jarra-war-nang. It preys on small birds,
and is said to have a melodious voice, resembling the tones
of a flute. The genus CoaLyBus, Cuv. has the bill re-
sembling the preceding, but rather thicker at the. base,
and the nostrils are pierced in a broad membranous space.
See Plate CCCXC. fig. 6. The species are natives of
New Guinea, and are remarkable for their beautiful tints
of burnished steel. C. paradiseus has the feathers on
the head and neck like frizzled velvet, and was first de-
scribed by Sonnerat as a bird of paradise,—Par. viridis,
Gmelin. In Psaris of Cuvier the bill is conical, thick,
round at the base, but not encroaching on the front,
slightly compressed, and curved at the extremity. ‘The
genus is founded on the Cayenne shrike of Latham, Za-
nius Cayanus, Linn$ It now contains many species, all
classed by Mr Swainson among the Muscicapide or fly-
catchers. Their habits are said to resemble those of the
butcher-birds. The genus Graucutus, Cuv. has the bill
less compressed than in Lanius, the upper ridge sharp, equal-
ly curved throughout its whole extent, the commissure or
cutting edges also slightly bent. The hairs which sometimes
cover the nostrils ally these species to the crows, from
which they are distinguished by the notching of the bill.
Their prevailing hues are ash-colour, and they are native
to the Indian islands. Cuvier here places the beautiful
Irena puella of Dr Horsfield, a Javanese species, of a
fine velvet black, the back splendid ultramarine blue.
It is ranged by others with the Orioles. To the same ge-
nus he likewise refers the Papuan and New Guinea crow
(C. papuensis and Nove Guinee), and the Piroll of Tem-
minck, of which the male and female differ so remarkably,
the former being of a glossy blue, the latter greenish.
This last species forms the genus Ptilonorhynchus of
Kuhl,— Kita of M. Lesson. It is the satin-bird of the co-
lonists of Port Jackson, a solitary, fearful creature, which
seldom leaves the cover of the umbrageous woods. The
Australian natives call it cowry.

In Breraytus, Cuv., the bill is thick, short, bulged,
slightly compressed towards the end. Its type.is the mag-
pie-shrike of Latham, Z. picatus, an inhabitant of Guiana
and Brazil. Plate CCCXC. fig. 2. In Fatcuncuuus the
bill is much compressed, almost as high as long, the cul-
men arched. It contains the Lanius frontatus of New
Holland. The genus ParpaLotus (which M. Lesson
places with the tit-mice, and Mr Swainson with the mana-
kins) is likewise constituted by a New Holland species,
the Pipra punctata of Shaw. The bill is short, obtuse,
convex, and slightly compressed.

All the preceding genera of the dentirostral tribe are
supposed by Baron Cuvier to be more or less allied to
Lanius of Linneus. A great diversity of opinion, how-
ever, exists regarding their natural distribution; and in
the most recent systems they will be found differently

' For more minute details, the student may consult Mr Swainson’s “ Inquiry into the Natural Affinities of the Laniadz or

Shrikes,” Zoological Journal, No. iii. p. 289.
2 Illustrations of British Ornithology, vol. i. p. 149.

3 See Zool. Journal, No. vii. p. 354, and No. viil. p. 483.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. and variously disposed, according to the views of each par-
—Y—" ticular author.

Many of the genera next ensuing are more allied to the
fly-catchers, Muscicapide ; but not a few are classed by
recent writers among the Lanitade and Ampelide. The
bill is of medium size, broad at the base, horizontally de-
pressed, almost straight, generally wider than high, the
point more or less hooked and notched. The mouth is
garnished with bristly feathers projecting forwards. Their
food varies according to their size and strength,—the
more powerful species seizing occasionally on small birds
as well as insects, the more feeble being satisfied with the
latter kind of prey.

In the genus Tyrannus, Cuv., the billis straight, length-
ened, strong, the culmen rounded, the point suddenly
hooked. See Plate CCCXC. fig. 5. The species consist
chiefly of Linnzan fly-catchers, with a few shrikes. They
are all native to America, and, as their name implies, are
fierce and domineering in their disposition. They will de-
fend their young against the boldest aggressor, and have
been seen to drive from their nesting-places even the largest
birds of prey. As an example, we may here name the
king-bird, or tyrant fly-catcher, of the new world, 7. in-
trepidus. This species is one of the most remarkable for
the boldness and intrepidity which he displays in his at-
tacks on the strongest of the feathered race. During the
earlier months of summer, indeed, his life is one continued
scene of broil and battle. According to Wilson, hawks
and crows, the bald eagle, and the great black eagle, all
equally dread an encounter with this dauntless creature,
who, as soon as he perceives a bird of prey, however power-
ful, in his neighbourhood, darts into the air, and quickly
ascending above his supposed enemy, pounces with vio-
lence upon his back, and continues his attack till his own
domains have been departed from. He is likewise in some
measure obnoxious to the human race, on account of his
love of bees ; for he will take post on a fence or garden-tree
in the vicinity of hives, and make continual sallies on the
industrious tenants, as they pass to and from their never-
ceasing labours. His great American biographer, how-
ever, is of Opinion, that whatever prejudice may prevail
against him for such depredations, he is on the whole
greatly the friend of man, by destroying multitudes of in-
sects, whose larve prey on the produce of the field and
garden. The tyrant has been immortalised in verse as well
as prose:

Far in the south, where vast Maragnon flows,
And boundless forests unknown wilds enclose,
Vine-tangled shores and suffocating woods,
Parch’d up with heat, or drown’d with pouring floods ;
Where each extreme alternately prevails,
And nature sad their ravages bewails ;
Lo! high in air above those trackless wastes,
With spring’s return the king-bird hither hastes ;
Coasts the famed gulf, and from his height explores
Its thousand streams, its long indented shores,
Its plains immense, wide opening on the day,
Its lakes and isles, where feather'd millions play :
All tempt not him : till gazing from on high,
Columbia’s regions wide below him lie ;
There end his wanderings and his wish to roam,
There lie his native woods, his fields, his home ;
Down, circling, he descends from azure heights,
And on a full-blown sassafras alights.

Fatigued and silent, for a while he views
His old-frequented haunts, and shades recluse ;
Sees brothers, comrades, every hour arrive,—
Hears, humming round, the tenants of the hive ;
Love fires his breast,—he woos, and svon is blest,
And in the blooming orchard builds his nest.

569

The king-bird migrates in summer at least as far north Insessores.

as the fifty-seventh parallel.
the month of May, and retires southward in September.
A new species has been of late years discovered on the
banks of the Saskatchewan, but nothing is yet known of
its habits. It is described by Mr Swainson under the title
of Tyrannus borealis. It is considerably smaller than the
preceding, and may at once be distinguished by its forked
tail, not tipped with white! The other species are nu-
merous.”

A still more extensive genus is that named Muscireta,
Cuv. The bill is long, much depressed, twice as broad
as high even at the base, the culmen usually very blunt,
the margins forming an oval curve; the point feebly
notched, and the base covered by long, setaceous feathers.
The general form of the species is feeble compared with
that of the preceding, and they prey exclusively on in-
sects. They are extremely beautiful, often adorned by
crests upon the head, or by gracefully elongated feathers
in the tail. The majority are native to Africa and India.
The paradise fly-catcher of Le Vaillant may be named as
an example.

In the genus Pratyruyncuus of Desm., the bill is
short, and still broader and more depressed than in the
preceding. P. cancromus inhabits Brazil. These birds are
by some conjoined with Zodus, to which they are assured-
ly allied. Certain species, of which the feet and legs are
long and slender, and the tail extremely short, form the
genus Conoruaca of Vieillot. The fly-catchers properly
so called, genus Muscicapa, Cuv., have the beard or bill-
feathers less extended than in Muscipeta, and the bill itself
is narrower, the ridge or culmen is distinctly marked, the
margins straight, the point slightly bent. The species
are peculiar to the ancient continent, and not more than
four or five occur in Europe. Of these, two are British,
Ml. grisola, or the spotted fly-catcher, a well-known and
common species ; and MW. luctuosa, or the pied fly-catcher,
which is very rare. We have seen it on the banks of the
Eden in Cumberland. Both are birds of passage. The
species of this genus take their insect prey upon the wing,
darting upon it at intervals from some favourite twig.
The males and females differ considerably in their mark-
ings, especially in spring and summer, although the former
sex (at least in M. albicollis, Temm.) are scarcely to be dis-
tinguished from the latter throughout the winter season.
The modifications in the form of the bill in this extensive
genus have led to the formation, so far as concerns exotic
species, of a vast number of sectional groups, or subge-
nera, the characters of which we cannot here detail.

We now arrive, in accordance with Baron Cuvier’s sys-
tem, though not, we fear, by natural transition, at the
genus GyMNOCEPHALUS, of which the beak resembles that
of Tyrannus, except that the ridge is more arched, and a
great portion of the face is bare of feathers. See Plate
CCCXC. fig. 8. There seems to be only a single spe-
cies, commonly called the bald crow (G. calvus), a bird
about the size of a rook, of a uniform tobacco-brown colour,
the feathers of the wings and tail black. It is called oiseax
mon prere by the Creoles of Cayenne, probably from its
capucin aspect. Its bald front bestows upon it a very
singular physiognomy. Vaillant regards the absence of
feathers on that part as accidental; and he mentions in a
note,® that he received a specimen from Cayenne, in which
the face was plumed. But M. Lesson states that he has
examined more than twenty specimens, and has always
found the face unfeathered.

The genus CEPHALOPTERUS, on the contrary (see Plate

a F. ee e—w—j_“$—=—— sD Oc OOOO

* See Fauna Boreali-Americana, part ii. pl. lxxxv.

* Consult Mr Swainson's “ Monography of the Tyrant Shrikes of America,” Journal of the Royal Institution, No. xl.

3 Histoire des Oiseaux de Paradis, t. i. p. 109.
VOL. XVI.

Ac

It reaches Carlton House in “=~

570

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. CCCXC. fig. 4), has the front adorned by a very pecu-
“—~" liar tuft of feathers, which, rising upwards, and then

spreading around and drooping downwards, shades the
head, as it were, beneath a parasol. Another expanded
and lengthened set of plumes hangs in an apron-like fashion
from the breast. The prevailing plumage is deep black,
the parts first mentioned having a metallic lustre. The
bill of the only species known (C. ornatus) is robust, the
mandibles nearly equal, the upper being convex, without
notch, and’ scarcely bent at the extremity. This bird was
brought to Paris, from the Lisbon Collection, by M. Geoff.
St Hilaire, and was believed to have been sent originally
from Brazil. As that country, however, has been so much
explored without the Cephalopterus having ever since been
met with, it is more likely, M. Temminck thinks, to have
been obtained in the less-frequented countries of Peru, or
the coast of Chili. On the other hand, M. Lesson alleges,
that he was informed by a well-instructed Portuguese, that
the bird in question came from Goa. It is the Coracina
cephaloptera of M. Vieillot. We have no doubt it isa South
American species.

From these singular birds we proceed to the Cotingas
or chatterers, genus AMPELIs, Linn., a varied and beauti-
ful family, now partitioned into several minor groups. They
have all the depressed bill of the fly-catchers in general,
but it is rather shorter in proportion, broadish, and slightly
arched.

Those in which the bill is the strongest and most point-

“ed, with dilated margins, are characterized by an insecti-

vorous regime. These are the piahaus of South America,
genus QUERULA, Vieil. The species fly in troops through
the forests. Here are placed the Cotinga rouge of Vail-
Jant, or Ampelis phenicia, also the Ampelis cinerea and
Muscicapa rubricollis of Gmelin. In the ordinary Cotin-
gas (or genus AMPELIs properly so called) the bill is more
feeble, little elevated, deeply cleft. The species inhabit
moist places, and are remarkable for the rich and lustrous
plumage of the males during the breeding season. We
here place the Ampelis pompadoura, carnifex, and cotinga,
Linn. In the genus BomsByciua, Brisson, which includes
our European or Bohemian chatterer, the head is orna-
mented by an elongated crest, and the majority of the spe-
cies have the secondary feathers of the wings terminated
by a small oval expansion, resembling a bit of scarlet
sealing-wax. These birds prefer wild fruits to insects.
The appetite of the American species (A. Americana) is
stated by Mr Audubon to be of so extraordinary a nature
as to prompt it to devour every fruit and berry in its way.
In this manner it will gorge itself to such excess as to be
sometimes unfit to fly, and may then be taken by the
hand. “Ihave seen some which, though wounded and
confined to a cage, have eaten apples until suffocation de-
prived them of life.”1 Our author adds, however, that they
are also excellent fly-catchers, spending much of their time
in pursuit of winged insects. They become very fat during
the fruit season, and are then so tender and juicy as to be
much sought for as an article of epicurean diet. They
inhabit the United States throughout the year. The
habits of the European wax-wing (A. garrula) are much
less known. It not unfrequently visits Britain during win-
ter, and is supposed to breed within the arctic circle. It
likewise inhabits North America, but has not been ob-
served to the southward of the fifty-fifth parallel. Dr
Richardson observed a flock of three or four hundred on
the banks of the Saskatchewan in May. During their
trips to Britain they feed, when they can get them, on the
berries of the mountain ash ; and Sir William Jardine found
the stomachs of one or two killed near Carlisle to be cram-

med with holly:berries. A third species was some time ago Insessores.
discovered by Dr Seibold in Japan. It is the B. pheni- —~—

coptera of Temminck, and wants the wax-like appendages
to the wings.

In the genus CasMARHYNCcHUs, Temm., the bill is re-
markably broad, greatly depressed, soft and flexible at the
base, of a harder consistence, and somewhat compressed
towards the extremity. The nostrils are large and open,
and placed far forward on the bill. As an example, we
may name that singular bird the araponga (Cas. nudicollis,
Temm. Pl. Col. 368-83), a Brazilian species, remarkable
for the metallic resonance of its cry, which sounds like
the clinking of a blacksmith’s hammer. By reason of this
peculiarity, it is known to the Brazilians by the name of
O. ferrador, or the blacksmith. The adult male is pure
white, the face and front of the neck nearly bare, of a
green colour, sprinkled with a few small black feathers.
The female is green, spotted on the under parts with
white, the upper plumage of the head nearly black. The
young at first resemble the mother, and adolescent males
are found with a mingled plumage of green and white. An-
other species, of nearly corresponding plumage, is distin-
guished by a long, fleshy, sometimes slightly feathered
caruncle, hanging from the basal front of the upper mandi-
ble. It is erectile, and sometimes projects upwards. This
is the Ampelis carunculata of the older systematic writers.
We presume it to be also the Campanero of the Spaniards,
called dara by the Indians, and bell-bird by the English.
“It is about the size of a jay,” says Waterton. “ His
plumage is white as snow. On his forehead rises a spiral
tube nearly three inches long. It is jet black, clothed all
over with small white feathers. It has a communication
with the palate, and when filled with air looks like a spire ;
when empty, it becomes pendulous. His note is loud and
clear, like the sound of a bell, and may be heard at the
distance of three miles. In the midst of these extensive
wilds, generally on the top of an aged mora, almost out of
gun reach, you will see the campanero. No sound or
song from any of the winged inhabitants of the forest, not
even the clearly pronounced ‘ Whip-poor-will,’ from the
goat-sucker, causes such astonishment as the toll of the
campanero. With many of the feathered race, he pays the
common tribute of a morning and an evening song; and
even when the meridian sun has shut in silence the mouths
of almost the whole of animated nature, the campanero
still cheers the forest. You hear his toll, and then a pause
fora minute ; then another toll, and then a pause again ;
and then a toll, and again a pause. Then he is silent for
six or eight minutes, and then another toll, and so on.
Actzon would stop in mid chase, Maria would defer her
evening song, and Orpheus himself would drop his lute, to
listen to him, so sweet, so novel, and romantic is the toll
of the beautiful snow-white campanero. He is neyer seen
to feed with the other Cotingas, nor is it known in what
part of Guiana he makes his nest.”? In a third species
(Amp. variegata, Gmel. Pl. Col. 51, Plate CCCXC. fig.
10) the front of the throat is all beset with numerous
fleshy worm-shaped appendages. All these birds are
vaguely said to feed upon insects, but on no authority that
we can find. ‘ Could we but know,” says Mr Swainson,
“the habits and economy of these singular birds, which,
had they not been seen, might be thought fabulous, what
an interesting page of nature’s volume would be unfold-
ed! Yet at present we only know that they live in the
deepest and most secluded forests of tropical America,
where they subsist upon an infinite variety of fruits un-
known to Europeans. They are much oftener heard than
seen, since their notes are particularly loud, and are ut-

Ornithological Biography, vol. i. p. 227.

3 Wanderings in South America, p. 121.

ORNITHOLOGY.

flammiceps, &c. In the restricted genus TANAGER (pro- Insessores.
perly so called) the bill is short, though longer than in-—~>——

Insessores. tered morning and evening from the deepest recesses of the

forests. We have sometimes caught a distant view of them,
perched upon the topmost branches of the loftiest trees.”?

In the genus Procnias (now more restricted than by
Hoffmansegg) the bill is likewise very broad, and deeply
cleft, but the structure is firmer, and the upper mandible
more convex. The nostrils are basal. Example, P. ven-
tralis, Mliger, Pl. Col. 5.

In the not very closely allied genus CEBLEPyRIs, Cuv.
which Mr Swainson classes as the most aberrant division
of the shrikes, the bill resembles that of the Cotingas, but
the shafts of the rump-feathers are sharp pointed. These
birds inhabit chiefly Africa, and prey on caterpillars. Ex-
ample, C. phenicopterus, Temm. Pl. Col. 71.

The genus GymnopEra, Geoff. (which forms a portion
of the Coracine of Vieillot), has the bill stronger than in
any of the preceding Ampelide, the neck is partially bare,
and the head covered with velvety feathers. There does
not seem to be more than one species (G. nudicollis), de-
scribed by Shaw under the name of bare-necked grakle.
It was classed by Gmelin and Latham as a crow,—the
Corvus nudus of their respective works.

The Drongos (genus Epottus, Cuv.) have tne bill par-
tially depressed and notched, and its upper ridge sharp ;
but it is distinguished by both mandibles being slightly
arched through their whole extent, and the nostrils are
covered with feathers. The species are rather numerous,
and are characteristic of the tropical countries of the East.
The Malabar shrike of Shaw (Hdolius remifer, Temm. see
Plate CCCXC. fig. '7) affords a good example. The posi-
tion of this genus ought certainly to be in closer approx-
imation to the Zaniade than it is in the arrangement
of Baron Cuvier. Their habits are insectivorous, and some
of the species are said to warble as sweetly as the nightin-
gale. They usually dwell together in society, pursue bees
with great avidity, and are often seen to combine in large
groups on the outskirts of the forests during morning and
evening. The species we have figured is a native of Java
and Sumatra.

In the genus Purpatura of Vieil. the ridge of the bill
is arched, as in Edolius, but shorter, broad at the base,
somewhat dilated laterally, and slightly notched. The
only known species is a beautiful South American bird
(Ph. flavirostris, Vieil.; Ph. cristata, Swain., Zool. Tllust.
pl. xxxi.), which appears to occur chiefly in the mining dis-
tricts of Brazil. It was very rare a few years back, but
has now become comparatively common in collections, in
consequence of several recent importations.

We come now to an extensive group, the ancient Ta-
nagers, genus Tanacra of Linn., which, like most of the
other genera, has in recent times been numerously sub-
divided. The bill is convex, sub-triangular at the base,
the upper mandible slightly arched, curved at the point,
notched, the margins flexuous and enlarged ; the nasal fos
are deep and large, and closed by a meinbrane ; the nos-
trils are rounded. The wings are rather short. The Ta-
nagers are characteristic of America. They feed both on
grain and insects, and are remarkable for the beauty and
brilliancy of their plumage. The following are the princi-
pal subdivisions. In EurHonts, Desm. (Zangaras bouv-
reuils, Cuv.), the bill is short, and exhibits, when viewed
vertically, an enlargement at the base on either side. The
tail is also short in proportion. Examples,— Zan. violacea,
Lath.—Pipra musica,,Gmel.,— Tan. diademata, Pl. Col.
243,—and Tan. chlorotica, Gmel. See Plate CCCXC.
fig. 9. In the genus SattaTor, Vieil. ( Zangaras gros-
bec, Cuv.), the bill is conical, thick, inflated, as broad as
high, the culmen rounded. Such are Zan. magna, atra,

Fuphonia, as broad as high, slightly compressed. Exam-
ples, 7. tricolor, thoracica, auricapilla, &c. In the genus
TacuypuHownvs, Vieil. (Tangaras loriots, Cuv.), the bill is
more lengthened, conical, compressed, arched, sharp point-
ed. Examples, 7. cristata, nigerrima, &c. In the genus
Pyranea, Vieil. (Zangaras cardinals, Cuv.), the bill is
strong, lengthened, the point but slightly curved, the mar-
gin of the upper mandible often strongly toothed. The
wings are rather long. The habits of several of the spe-
cies of this genus are better known than those of the pre-
ceding, in consequence of their more hardy constitution,
which enables them to spend the summer months in North
America. One of the most beautiful of these is the scar-
let tanager ( Zanagra rubra, Linn.). Among all the birds
that inhabit the woods of the United States, there is none,
according to Wilson, that strikes the eye of a stranger, or
even of a native, with so much brilliancy as this. Seen
among the green leaves, with the light falling strongly on
his plumage, he appears most beautiful. His whole plu-
mage, with the exception of the wings and tail, is of the
most vivid carmine red. ‘The wing-coverts, posterior se-
condaries, and middle tail-feathers, are black, and form a
rich contrast to the other portions of the plumage. After
the autumnal moult the male becomes dappled with
greenish yellow. The colour of the female is green above
and yellow below ; her wings and tail are brownish-black,
edged with green. Though this lovely species sometimes
builds in orchards, and visits cherry trees for the sake of
their fruit, it does not frequently approach the habitations
of man, but prefers the solitude of the umbrageous woods,
where, in addition to fruits, its food consists of wasps, hor-
nets, and humble-bees. The'scarlet tanager comes just
within the limits of the fur-countries, but is unknown as
yet beyond the forty-ninth degree. His nest, placed up-
on the horizontal branch of a tree, is built of broken flax
and dry grass, so thinly woven that the light is easily seen
through it- The eggs are only three in number, of a dull
blue, spotted with brown ; but the bird is supposed to breed
more than once a year. The genus Pyranga contains also
Tan. estiva and other species.

We conclude our notice of the Tanagers by a brief in-
dication of the genus RaMPHOCELES, Vieil., of which the
bill is strong, compressed, with the sides of the lower man-
dible so enlarged as to spread backwards towards the
cheek. Such is Tanagra Jacapa of Gmelin, a South Ame-
rican species, represented in Plate CCCXCI. fig. 2.

Our next group consists of birds more or less allied to
thrushes. In all, the bill is compressed and arched, but
the upper mandible is but slightly hooked, and the notch-
ing feeble. As in other extensive assemblages of species,
however, the structure is considerably varied. The natu-
ral regimen is mingled, consisting both of wild fruits,
worms, and insects. A few species are gregarious, the
majority solitary. Of ten or twelve kinds which inhabit
Europe, we have six in Britain, viz. the missel-thrush ( 7.
viscivorus), the song-thrush (7. musicus), the field-fare
(T. pilaris), the red-wing (J. ilacus), the blackbird (7.
merula), and the ring-ouzel (7. torquatus). The aspect
and general habits of most of these are too familiar to re-
quire illustration. The blackbird and the thrush are two
of our most delightful and accustomed songsters.

When snow-drops die, and the green primrose leaves
Announce the coming flower, the merle’s note
Mellifluous, rich, deep-toned, fills all the vale,

And charms the ravished ear. The hawthorn bush,
New budded, is his perch ; there the gray dawn

I EE NO IR A MH ea eb Rte eee
1 Natural History and Classification of Birds, vol. ii. p. 75.

571

572 ORNITHOLOGY.
Insessores. He hails, and there, with parting light, concludes his movements, the animation of his eye, and the intelli- Insessores.
—\— ~~ -His melody. There, when the buds begin gence he displays in listening and laying up lessons, from —~~—

To break, he lays the fibrous roots, and see
His jetty breast embrowned; the rounded clay
His jetty breast has soiled: but now complete,
His partner and his helper in the work,

Happy assumes possession of her home :

While he upon a neighbouring tree his lay,
More richly full, melodiously renews.

aasnein secgeseeseessseeeceeeetereeecesees Lhe thrush’s song
Is varied as his plumes; and as his plumes

Blend beauteous, each with each, so run his notes,
Smoothly, with many a happy rise and fall.
Sometimes below the never-fading leaves

Of ivy close, that overtwisting binds

Some riven rock, or nodding castle wall,

Securely there the dam sits all day long;

While from the adverse bank, on topmost shoot

Of odour-breathing birch, her mate’s blythe chaunt
Cheers her pent hours, and makes the wild woods ring.?

The missel-thrush is the largest and strongest of the
genus, at least in Europe. He is a bold, pugnacious bird,
guarding his nest with great success from the intrusive
magpie. His song is loud and clear, but monotonous ;
something like an ineffectual attempt to combine the tones
of the thrush and blackbird. Yet Colonel Montagu ad-
mired it greatly. The ring-ouzel affects mountainous and
barren places. The field-fare and red-wing are only seen
with us in winter, and are known to breed in the more
northern parts of Europe. The former sings well, and we
have somewhere seen it called the nightingale of Norway.

One of the most noted of the foreign species of the ge-
nus is the mocking-bird of America, 7. polyglottus, Linn.
It measures about nine inches in length, is cinereous above,
whitish below, with the tips of the wing-coverts, the base
of the primaries, and the lateral tail-feathers white. This
unrivalled Orpheus and great natural wonder of the Ame-
rican forests inhabits the whole northern continent from
the state of Rhode Island to the larger islands of the West
Indies, and, continuing through the equatorial regions, is
found as far south as Brazil. Neither is it confined to the
eastern or Atlantic states, being known to exist in the
wild territory of the Arkansa, more than a thousand miles
from the mouth of Red River. It breeds around the far
western sources of the Platte, near the very base of the
Rocky Mountains; and Mr Bullock observed it on the
table-land of Mexico. The mocking-bird may be regard-
ed as a permanent (we mean stationary) inhabitant of the
milder regions of the western world, though such as are
bred to the north of the Delaware seem to move south-
wards before the approach of winter.?, The period of in-
cubation varies with the latitude. A solitary thorn, an
almost impenetrable thicket, an orange tree, cedar, or
holly bush, are favourite places ; and during this important
period neither man nor beast can approach without being
attacked. Cats are especially persecuted ; yet his chief
and most vengeful rage is directed against the black snake,
a mortal enemy. The male bird darts upon the insidious
reptile with the greatest courage, and by violent and in-
cessant blows upon the head, sometimes deprives him .of
life. The boasted fascination of his race, his lurid eye,
his sharp envenomed fangs, avail not when competing
with the love of offspring, that pure and beautiful affec-
tion, the least selfish of all instinctive feelings. ‘“ The
plumage of the mocking-bird,” says the first great histo-
rian of the American feathered tribes, “ though none of
the homeliest, has nothing gaudy or brilliant in it; and
had he nothing else to recommend him, would scarcely
entitle him to notice; but his figure is well proportioned,
and even handsome. The ease, elegance, and rapidity of

almost every species of the feathered creation within his
hearing, are really surprising, and mark the peculiarity of
his genius. To these qualities we may add that of a voice
full, strong, and musical, and capable of almost every mo-
dulation, from the clear mellow tones of the wood-thrush
to the savage scream of the bald eagle. In measure and
accent he faithfully follows his originals. In force and
sweetness of expression he greatly improves upon them.
In his native groves, mounted on the top of a tall bush or
half-grown tree, in the dawn of dewy morning, while the
woods are already vocal with a multitude of warblers, his
admirable song rises pre-eminent over every competitor.
The ear can listen to his music alone, to which that of all
the others seems a mere accompaniment. Neither is this
strain altogether imitative. His own native notes, which
are easily distinguishable by such as are well acquainted
with those of our various song birds, are bold and full, and
varied seemingly beyond all limits. While thus exerting
himself, a bystander, destitute of sight, would suppose that
the whole feathered tribes had assembled together on a
trial of skill, each trying to produce his utmost efforts, so
perfect are his imitations He many times deceives the
sportsman, and sends him in search of birds that perhaps
are not within miles of him, but whose notes he exactly
imitates ; even birds themselves are frequently imposed on
by this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by the fancied
calls of their mates, or dive with precipitation into the
depth of thickets, at the scream of what they suppose to
be the sparrowhawk.’*

The mocking-bird sometimes breeds in captivity. Many
years ago a Mr Klein, of Philadelphia, partitioned off a
space of twelve feet square within doors, lighted by a pret-
ty large wire-grated window. In the centre he placed a
cedar-bush, five or six feet high, in a box of earth, and
scattered about a sufficient quantity of materials suitable
for building. A male and female mocking-bird were in-
troduced, and soon began to build. When the nest was
completed the female laid five eggs, all of which she hatch-
ed, and she fed the young with great affection till they
were nearly able to fly. Business, unfortunately, called
the proprietor from home for a fortnight, and the care of
the colony being left to the domestics, the result may be
anticipated. On his return the young were utterly dead,
and the parents nearly famished.

Several African species allied to our present group
dwell together like starlings, in numerous chattering flocks,
pursuing insects, and committing great depredations in
gardens. Several are remarkable for the lustrous splen-
dour of their plumage. Such are Turdus auratus and
nitens of Gmelin. The Senegal species, called the glossy
thrush, 7. @neus, is characterized by the magnificent
length of its caudal plumes. These richly attired species
belong to the genus LaMPROTORNIS, Temm. Other species,
in which the bill is slender and lengthened (as in the Bra-
zilian thrush of Lath.), form the genus Ixos of the last-
named author; while the genus ENicurus (more nearly
related, however, to the fly-catchers) consists of one or
two species with a stronger bill, the tail long and forked.
Such is #. coronatus, Temm. Pl. Col. 113; and £. velatus,
ibid. 160, from Java. GRALLINA of Vieillot is constitut-
ed by a New Holland species with a straight, lengthened,
rather rounded bill, and long legs. The plumage is black
and white. Ex. G. melanoleuca, Vieil. ‘The genus Trt-
CHOPHORUuS, Temm. is composed of species of which the
bill is very strong, and garnished at the base with long,
projecting bristles, which sometimes prevail also on the

1 Grahame's Birds of Scotland.

? Nuttall’s American Ornithology, i. 321.

3 Wilson’s American Ornithology, ii. 92.

ORNITHOLOGY. 573

bits the north-eastern parts of the European continent, Insessores

Insessores. occiput. The manners of these birds are as yet unknown. 4
visiting in severe winters the coasts of the Baltic, where ~~"

—~— They live in Western Africa. Ex. 77. barbatus, Temm. Pl.

Col. 88.

The ant-thrushes, Myotuera, Illiger, come next in
order. They are chiefly distinguished by their long,
slender tarsi, and short tails. See Plate CCCXCI. fig.
1. The species of the ancient world, inhabitants for the
most part of India, the eastern islands, and New Holland,
are characterized by brilliant and contrasted colouring.
These are the Breves of Buffon, the short-tailed crows of
English writers. They form the genus Pirra of Vieillot
and Temm.,of which the bill is strong but thrush-like (P.
cyanurus, brachyurus, &c.); while MYoTHERA, as now re-
stricted, contains the American species, of much more
sober plumage, with the bill more abruptly hooked, and
the tooth stronger. The species dwell among the enor-
mous ant-hills of the western world, keeping much upon
the ground. They seldom fly, and certain kinds are re-
markable for their deep sonorous voices. The largest,
longest legged, and most singular in its general aspect,
known under various names, such as long-legged crow,
king-thrush, &c. (Corvus grallarius, Shaw; Turdus rez,
Linn.), constitutes the genus GRALLARIA of the modern
systems. It isa native of Guiana. The beautiful New
Holland bird, with a bill like a thrush, but shorter, the
legs long, the nails almost straight, and the lengthened
tail-feathers terminated by sharp points, forms the genus
OrtTHonyx, and is placed by Cuvier immediately after
the preceding group of ant-eating thrushes.

The genus Cincuus, Bechstein, characterized by an al-
most straight, compressed, sharp-pointed bill, comprises
our well-known water-ouzel, C. aqguaticus. This inte-
resting bird is frequent along the banks of rivers, but
seems to prefer those of a somewhat rocky, alpine charac-
ter. It lives in pairs, keeping always close by the stony
margin of its chosen stream. The nest, according to Sir
William Jardine, is formed exactly like that of our common
wren, with a single entrance, and is composed of ordinary
mosses, without much lining. It is usually placed beneath
some projecting rock, not many yards above the water,
“and often where a fall rushes over, in which situation the
parent birds must dash through it to gain the nest, which
they do with apparent facility, and even seem to enjoy it.
At night they roost in similar situations, perched with
the head under the wing, on some little projection, often
so much leaning as to appear hanging with the back
downwards. I recollect a bridge over a rapid stream,
which used to be a favourite nightly retreat, under an
arch; I have there seen four at a time sitting asleep in
this manner, and used to take them with a light. Before
settling for their nightly rest, they would sport in the
pool beneath, chasing each other with their shrill and ra-
pid cry, and at last suddenly mount to their perch; when
disturbed, they return again in five minutes.”! During
winter they migrate to the lower streams; but in summer
are most abundant on the alpine tributaries. They feed
on small fish and insects, and are remarkable for their
power of walking, with the assistance of their wings, be-
neath the surface. There is an American species (C.
Americanus), of somewhat larger size, and of a uniform
brownish slate colour. It extends along the range of the
Rocky Mountains, from Mexico to Lake Athabasca. There
is also an Asiatic species, figured by Mr Gould,* under the
title of C. Pallasii, a name formerly bestowed on a bird
supposed to come from the Crimea.

Mr Brehm has described another species by the name
of black-bellied water-ouzel (C. melanogaster). It inha-

it is neither shy in its habits, nor distrustful of the pre-
sence of man. We are rather inclined, however, to dis-
trust some of Mr Brehm’s species.

The genus Puitepon of Cuvier has the bill slightly
arched throughout its whole length, compressed, broad-
ened at the base; the nostrils are large, protected by a
cartilaginous scale, and the tongue terminates in a sort of
tuft. Hence the species are by many classed among the
honey-sucking or tenuirostral tribes. Many of them are
remarkable for some particular garniture about the base
of the bill, and are found in New Holland and the eastern
islands. The genus is very extensive, but not very natu-
rally composed, as it consists of species brought from a
variety of other genera, such as Certhia, Merops, Gracu-
la, Sturnus, &c. Some have a fleshy wattle depending
from the lower mandible, as in Phil. carunculatus of New
Holland (which forms the genus Creapon of Vieillot).
In others the head is partially bare of feathers, as in the
goruk, likewise a native of New Holland, a bold and rest-
less bird, which feeds both on insects and honey, and
often puts to flight whole droves of blue-bellied parra-
keets. Some have neither bare skin nor wattles, but
are distinguished by a peculiar frizzled character of parts
of the plumage. The poe bee-eater of Cook’s voyage
(Phil. Cincinnatus) is of this kind. It is a beautiful bird,
of a glossy blackish green, with a band of white across
the upper portion of the wing, and a pendent tuft of long,
twisted, white feathers on each side of the neck. It is a
native of New Zealand, and was formerly in great request,
as contributing to ornament the feathered mantles worn
by chiefs and persons of distinction. The species is also
said to sing well, and is moreover highly esteemed as an
article of food.

In the genus Eutasgs, Cuy. (Mainatus, Brisson; Gra-
cula, Vieil.), the bill is strong, compressed, high, the
culmen arched, the sides dilated towards the gape. A
portion of the cheek is bare, and a fleshy appendage
stretches towards the occiput from either eye. Here are
placed the famous mina birds, of which two species seem
to have been confounded by Linnzus under the title of
Gracula religiosa. ‘The specific name was first applied
by misapprehension, in consequence of a Musulman wo-
man refusing, on account of some religious scruple, to al-
low a European artist to make a drawing of one of these
birds, which she had in captivity. Some uncertainty
seems still to pervade the naming of the species. The
Indian kind (G. Indicus, Cuv.) is somewhat larger than a
blackbird, the plumage of a fine silky black, with a white
spot upon the central edge of the wings, the bill and feet
yellow. This bird is easily tamed, and becomes extreme-
ly familiar in confinement. It is probably the most ac-
complished linguist of all the feathered tribes, and may
be taught to pronounce long sentences in the most clear
and articulate manner. It is consequently held in high
esteem, and is frequently brought alive to European
countries, although it must be confessed that the purity
of the English tongue is not always exhibited by the re-
sult of its maritime education. The food of the mina in
a state of nature is said to consist both of fruits and in-
sects. It greatly loves bananas, and in this country has
no objection to either grapes or cherries. The larger
species (G. Javanus, Cuv.) equals the size of ajay. See
Plate CCCXCI. fig. 3. The bill is broader, more hook-
ed at the end, but without the notch. Now M. Les-
son gives the name of Sumatranus to this species, and

So ————————————— —

' Note to Wilson and Bonaparte’s American Ornithology, vol. iii. p. 451.

2 Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains.

574

—\—" with it unwillingly, obtain it only by navigation.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. says that the Javanese, who esteem it highly, and part

The In-
dian species he has named Javanus, but without assigning
any special reason for such transmutations. The plumage
is the same in both. Old Edwards seems long ago to
have indicated the two kinds. “ The greater minor,”
says he, “ for bigness equals a jackdaw or magpie; the
lesser hardly exceeds a blackbird, so that the one is at
least twice as big as the other.” The bird described by
Bontius as an Indian starling was a mina. It imitated
man’s voice more accurately than a parrot, and “ was
oftentimes troublesome with its prattle.”

In the genus Gracuta, Cuv. (Pastor, Temm.), the bill
is compressed, straight, or but slightly arched, the notch
feeble, and the commissures form an angle as in the star-
lings. This restricted genus contains several interesting
species, such as the pagoda-thrush (G. pagodarum), so
called from its frequent occurrence among the pagodas of
Malabar and Coromandel. According to Sonnerat, it is
often kept caged for the sake of its song. The paradise
grakle of Latham (Par. tristis, Linn.) also pertains to this
genus. It is well named Gracula gryllivora by Daudin,
and is remarkable, as its name implies, for the destruction
of locusts. We abridge the following particulars from
Buffon. The island of Bourbon, where this species was
formerly unknown, was once overrun to an alarming ex-
tent by locusts, which had been accidentally introduced
from Madagascar. The governor-general and the inten-
dant of the island, alarmed at the desolation which was
taking place, deliberated on the best means of extirpation,
and with that view they introduced several pairs of the so-
called paradise grakle from India. The plan promised to
be successful ; but unfortunately some of the colonists ob-
serving the birds eagerly thrusting their bills into the soil
of the newly-sown fields, imagined they were in quest of
grain, and spread a report that the grakles, so far from
proving beneficial, were likely to be highly detrimental to
the country. The case was argued in due form. It was
stated on the part of the grakles, that they ransacked the
new-ploughed fields, not for grain, but insects ; but the op-
posite view prevailed, and two hours after the edict of
proscription passed, not a living individual was to be found
in the island. A speedy repentance followed this intem-
perate and hasty execution, the locusts regained their as-
cendency, and soon becoming more injurious than ever,
the grakles were again introduced, after an absence of
nearly eight years. ‘Their preservation and extension
now became an affair of state, laws were enacted in their
favour, and the physicians (we presume, from policy) de-
clared their flesh unwholesome. An opposite inconve-
nience, however, is said to have since arisen. The birds
having prodigiously increased in numbers, and being no
longer adequately sustained by insect food, have had re-
course to grapes, dates, and mulberries, and have even pro-
ceeded to scratch up'rice, maize, wheat, beans, and other
useful produce ; they enter pigeon-houses, and attack both
eggs and young ; and thus, after destroying the destroyer,
they have themselves become a greater pestilence than that
which they extirpated. There is perhaps some exaggeration
in the concluding parts of this statement, as M. Duplessin,
who resided several years in the island, states that the laws
for its preservation are still in force. We may add, that
this bird is of the same lively and imitative disposition as
the mina, and is easily taught to speak. When kept near
a farm-yard, or other place resorted to by different kinds
of creatures, it spontaneously acquires the various cries
of dogs, ducks, geese, sheep, pigs, and poultry. The man-
ners of the genus in general resemble those of the star-
ling. They fly in troops, searching for insect prey; their

habits are familiar, their docility remarkable, and their Insessvres.
powers of imitation almost unparalleled. The only Euro- ~~~—

pean species hitherto classed with the grakles is the beauti-
ful rose-coloured ouzel (P. roseus), which eccurs in several
of the warmer countries of Asia and Africa, is not unfre-
quent in Spain and Italy, and shows itself in other parts
of Europe, more rarely as we proceed northwards. Even
in Tuscany and the Lombardo-Venetian territory it is es-
teemed unusual. A few are recorded to have built their
nests in the Florentine district in 1739. We do not know
that they have been since observed to breed in Europe.
They were very common in Dalmatia in 1832; and in the
year following one was shot in Ross-shire.

In the genus Pyrruocorax, Cuv. the bill is compres-
sed, arched, rather slender, slightly notched, the nostrils
covered with feathers. We have two European species,
according to Temminck’s views, viz. the alpine crow of
Latham (P. pyrrhocorax), and our own red-legged crow
(P. graculus). The former inhabits the highest of the
Northern and Helvetian Alps, seldom showing itself du-
ring the summer season at any distance from the regions
of perpetual snow ; the latter is also mountainous, but more
widely spread over countries of less elevation. It is not
unfrequent along many of the rocky coasts of England and
Wales, is frequent in the Isle of Man, and occurs occa-
sionally along the western shores of Scotland, and in Co-
lonsay and other islands. Baron Cuvier places this bird
alongside the hoopoes, as a tenuirostral genus called Fre-
GILUS.

In the genus Orrotus the bill resembles that of the
thrushes, but is more powerful. The legs are shorter, and
the wings rather more lengthened. As now restricted,
this genus contains only the species of the ancient conti-
nent, those of America (Icterus, Cussicus, &c.) being in-
cluded among the conirostral tribes. The golden oriole
(Oriolus galbula) is one of the most beautiful of European
birds. It occurs occasionally in Britain. It breeds in
many parts of the European continent, arriving in spring
and departing in autumn. It builds on the tops of trees,
its nest being attached to and partly suspended from a
forked branch. This species feeds on fruits and insects,
and is particularly fond of figs. The Italian peasants sup-
pose its cry to signify “ Contadino, é maturo lo fico?” Its
own flesh is of most excellent flavour, especially in au-
tumn, when having for a time fared sumptuously on the
best of fruits, it has become extremely fat. The rich plu-

‘maged regent bird of New South Wales ( Sericulus chryso-

cephalus, Swainson) is by some regarded as an oriole.

The genus Gymnops, Cuv. possesses the strong bill of
the orioles, but a great part of the head is bare of feathers.
In some of the species there is a prominence on the base
of the beak. Such are the knob-fronted bee-eater of
White! (Merops corniculatus), figured by Vaillant under
the name of corbicalao( Ois. d’ Amérique et des Indes, pl. 24),
and the cowled bee-eater (Merops monachus, Latham).
The tongue is said to be tufted like that of Philedon.
To the genus Gymnops Cuvier also refers the bald grakle

G. calva, Linn. and Lath.), a remarkable species, native
to the Philippine Islands, where it is said to build in the
hollows of the cocoa-nut tree. It feeds on fruits, and is
extremely voracious.

In the genus Menura, Shaw, the bill is straight, some-
what triangular at the base, compressed, the nostrils
lengthened, central. Region of the eyes bare. Feet large
and strong. The only known species of this singular and
somewhat anomalous genus, the lyre-tail of New Holland
(M. lyra or superba), is characterized by the great ex-
tension and peculiar structure of the tail-feathers. (See
Plate CCCXCI. fig. 4.) It is equal in size to a pheasant.

! Voyage to Botany Bay, p. 190.

Insessores. The general plumage is brown.
—\—" of the ordinary structure.

ORNITHOLOGY.

of song,” where, by the strangest mal-association, a man Insessores.
no sooner hears a feathered warbler sing than he desires to a Vara

The tail of the female is
This bird inhabits rocky dis-
tricts. Though placed in its present station by Cuvier, it
certainly seems more allied to the gallinaceous than the
passerine order. Its history, however, is still obscure, and
its anatomical structure, we believe, has not yet been in-
vestigated.

From the last-named genus, it would appear an abrupt
and bold transition to the feeble-bodied, soft-billed stone-
chats, warblers, wagtails, and other Sylviade, all of which,
however, Baron Cuvier has here grouped as intermediate
between Menura and Pipra. They form a very nume-
rous assemblage, all characterized by a rather straight
and slender bill, but varying, on the one hand, by the de-
pression of the mandibles, towards the fly-catchers, and
on the other, by its compression and curvature, towards
the straight-billed butcher-birds. The Sylviadz or war-
blers are divided by Mr Swainson into the five following
sub-families, viz. lst, Saaxicoline or stone-chats, in which
the bill is depressed at the base, the gape furnished with
diverging bristles, the feet lengthened, the tail rather
short, the head large ; 2d, Philomeline or nightingales, in
which the general structure is larger and more robust than
in the typical warblers, and the feet more formed for perch-
ing; 3d, Sylviane or true warblers, of which the size is
very small, the structure weak, the bill very slender,
straight, with the under mandible much thinner than the
upper ; 4th, Pariane or tit-mice (placed by Cuvier in the
conirostral tribe), in which the bill is either entire or very
slightly notched, and more or less conic, the hind toe large
and strong, and the lateral toes unequal ; 5th, Motacilline
or wagtails, in which the bill is lengthened, straight, and
slender, the legs long, and formed for walking, the hind
toe elongated, and the tail narrow and lengthened.! Mr
Swainson has elsewhere remarked, that the Sylviade might
be termed “ ambulating fly-catchers,” since, when viewed
collectively, they are only separated from the Muscicapi-
ne by a different mode of feeding, indicated by the supe-
rior length and structure of their feet,—these parts being
adapted for constant locomotion, either among branches
or upon the ground ; while in the true fly-catchers the feet
are short, smal], and feeble, in accordance with the seden-
tary habits of the species. ‘ Comparing the warblers, on
the other hand, with the thrushes, we see that the best
distinction between the two groups lies in the very cha-
racter which assimilates the Sylviade to the fly-catchers,
namely, the basal depression of the bill. We allude, of
course, to typical examples; since all these distinctions are
softened down, in proportion as the three groups approxi-
mate.’ We shall now proceed with our exposition of Ba-
ron Cuvier’s system.

The genus Saxicoxa, Bechstein, has the bill slightly
depressed and broadened at the base. The species of this
genus seem confined to the ancient continents and New
Holland. They feed on insects, build on the ground or
among heaps of stones, and usually frequent rather wild
and barren places. We have three British species, the
wheat-ear or white-rump (S. enanthe), which is migratory,
and arrives with us in early spring, frequenting commons
and mountain pastures, but also occurring in more culti-
vated places, though always preferring open districts; the
whin-chat (8. rubetra), likewise migratory, but later in its
arrival, and frequenting moorlands and commons covered
with furze or low brushwood, where it is almost always seen
to alight upon the topmost spray ; and the stone-chat (8. ru-
bicola), which resides in Britain throughout the year, and
is often found in moistish places. Of these the white-rump
is the most esteemed as food, being compared by many
to the ortolan. It is much sought after in Italy, that “land

1 Nat. Hist. and Classif. of Birds, ii, 238.

? Fauna Boreali- Americana, part ii. p. 20,

shoot and eatit. Even in the southern parts of Britain it is
much esteemed; and Pennant tells us, that as many as 1840
dozen have been taken in a single season at East Bourne,
in Essex. In the south of Europe it is usually captured by
means of a peculiar net, and the lure of a living owl; with
us a noose of horse-hair placed between two upraised or
inclined portions of turf, between which the bird attempts
to-pass in search of insects, is found sufficient. In regard
to the stone-chat, Temminck mentions that, though sta-
tionary in Africa, in Europe they are birds of passage. It
is singular in this case that they should remain through-
out the year in Britain. The fact that they do so, how-
ever, is undoubted, as we have ourselves shot them on the
Pentland Hills when the ground was covered with snow.
Signor Savi mentions that they are stationary in Tuscany,
although “per il tempo del caldo maggiore dell’ estate, e
dell autunno, molti abbandonano le pianure, e si retirano
su i monti per cercare luoghi pitt freschi.”

In the genus Sytvia of Wolf and Meyer (Ficedula,
Bech.) the bill is merely a little narrower at the base than
in the preceding. The generic title, however, has been
variously applied of late, by different writers, to their re-
stricted groups,—Mr Selby using it to designate our willow
and wood wrens, while Cuvier makes it contain, among
others, the four following British species, viz. the red-
breast (8. rubecula), the blue-throat (S. suecica), the com-
mon red-start (.S. phenicurus), and the black red-start (S.
tithys). Of these, the second and fourth can scarcely be
regarded as otherwise than of accidental occurrence in
England, and have never been seen in the northern quar-
ters of the island. The red-breast is perhaps the most be-
loved of British birds, and is remarkable for its combina-
tion of familiarity and independence. When left to its
“own sweet will,” it enters houses freely in cold or snowy
weather, will perch night after night on corniced book-
case, or seek repose upon the golden scallop of a picture
frame ; but it hates all forwardness in others, and will not
voluntarily come in contact with any hand, however beau-
tiful. It hops delighted, singing as it goes with low and
plaintive note, along the comfortable carpet, or darting up
suddenly towards the window-frame, will utter a louder
gush of angrier melody on seeing some orange-breasted
brother, perched on leafless spray, still braving the increas-
ing darkness. For a time, just before nightfall, he seems
himself to suffer from some uneasy instinct, or probably
desires, from habit, to secure his usual perch in old fan-
tastic yew or thick screened holly; but, on second thoughts,
he soon assumes some quiet corner, above the reach of cu-
rious children’s hands. Not seldom when the evening
fire burns brightest, he descends on muffled wing, his large
and liquid eye dilated less with fear than quiet wonder,
and after a brief survey, he re-ascends his place of safety.
Although this bird remains about our doors throughout
the summer, building near out-houses and in orchards, yet

Some red-breasts love amid the deepest groves
Retired to pass the summer days. ‘Their song
Among the birchen boughs, with sweetest fall

Is warbled, pausing,—then resumed more sweet,
More sad, that to an ear grown fanciful,

The babes, the wood, the men, rise in review,
And robin still repeats the tragic line.

We have a notion, that in Scotland the female red-breast
is migratory. At least, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, we
recognise her not throughout the long-enduring winter.
All the individuals then about our gardens sing and fight,
till, in the month of March, some strangers show them-
selves, but do not sing, and are immediately followed and

3 Ornitologia Toscana, i. 231.

575

576 ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. fed by the resident males, at which time they (the sup-

Ww form the external covering being drawn together, while a Insessores-
—— posed females) utter a low hissing note, and flutter their

flooring for the nest is made somewhat lower down, by ——~—

wings like young dependent birds. This we have often
seen, and vouch for.

The red-start is a rarer species. It haunts retired well-
wooded lanes, where the timber is in a better state than the
stone dikes; for it highly approves of the latter when old,
moss-covered, and full of holes. It is a bird of passage,
and although greatly less familiar than the red-breast, we
have seen it build beneath the cottage eaves. It is an ac-
tive, restless bird, easily recognised by its snow-white fore-
head, black throat, ashy back, and fine reddish orange
breast and rump, to say nothing of the constant vibratory
motion of the tail.

The blue bird- of America (Sylvia sialis) has the whole
of the upper plumage of a fine blue, while the throat,
neck, breast, and flanks, are bright orange brown. In ge-
neral character and movement this bird resembles the Euro-
pean red-breast, and may be said to be as familiarly known
in summer to the children of America as the robin is to
ourselves. Wilson informs us that its society is much
courted by the inhabitants of the country, and that few
farmers neglect to provide for him a snug little summer-
house, ready fitted, and rent free. He is migratory over
the northern districts, but a few remain throughout the
winter in some parts of the United States. A more re-
cently described species, nearly allied to the preceding,
was procured by Dr Richardson at Fort Franklin, and is
named by Mr Swainson Erythaca arctica. Its colour is a
fine ultra-marine blue above, beneath greenish blue, whit-
ish on the lower part of the abdomen, and under tail-co-
verts. It seemed to be-merely a summer visitant of the
fur-countries, and no other knowledge of its haunts or ha-
bits has been yet obtained.

The genus Curruca, Bechstein, has the bill straight,
slender throughout, a little compressed anteriorly, the upper
mandible slightly curved towards the point. It contains that
prince of European songsters, the nightingale (C- duscinia),
a bird of shy and unobtrusive disposition, seldom seen in
open places, but loving the protection of a close entangled
undergrowth of brakes and bushes. Its powers of song
are generally admitted to be unrivalled, although the effect
is no doubt enhanced by the solemn stillness of the sum-
mer night, when every other voice has sunk to rest,—for
then

The wakeful bird
Sings darkling, and in shadiest covert hid
Tunes her nocturnal notes.

The words of the divine Milton are sacred ; yet we know
not that the female sings. It is a curious coincidence, how-
ever, that she should be asserted so to do by Pliny. Our
British nightingales never venture farther north than Don-
caster, although in Sweden and the northern parts of Ger-
many they are less restricted in their summer movements.
To this genus belong several other excellent British song-
sters, such as the rich-voiced black-cap (C. atricapilla),
the greater petty-chaps ( C. hortensis), and the white-throat
or muggy (C. cinerea). These, as well as the following,
are called abroad fawveties.

A few species which affect damp underwood and reedy
marshes, such as the grasshopper warbler (S. locustella),
the sedge-warbler (8. phragmitis), and the reed-wren (S.
arundinacea), constitute the genus SaLicaria of Mr Sel-
by. To the same little group, we doubt not, belongs the
beccamoschino of the Tuscans ( Sylvia cisticola, Temm.), re-
markable as exhibiting the propensities of a tailor-bird.
The nest is placed near, but not upon the ground, usually
in a bush of lengthened herbage, the leaves and stalks which

curving the leaves across. The beauty of the structure
consists in this, that the latter are not supported by their
mutual interlacement, but are sewed together, sometimes
by spiders’ webs, sometimes by thread-like portions of va-
rious plants. The interior is chiefly composed of vegetable
down. The nests constructed in April are much less fi-
nished than those of August, owing to the absence, in the
earlier month, of several materials which greatly conduce
towards their elegance and solidity.

Another limited genus, called AccEnToR, has the bill
also slender, but rather more conical than the other Sylvie,
with the edges slightly bent inwards. The species are
much more hardy than the preceding (all of which are
birds of passage) ; and our only British representative, com-
monly called the hedge-sparrow (A. modularis), remains
with us throughout the winter. It seems characteristic of
the northern parts of Europe, being seldom seen in France
except during winter; and the few that occur in Italy are
known to breed among the mountains, only descending to
the plains when the summer heat is over. With us what
school-boy knows not its mossy, twig-entangled nest, and
pure unspotted eggs of greenish blue? A larger and still
hardier species is the alpine warbler (A. alpinus), of the
accidental occurrence of which in the garden of King’s
College, Cambridge, an instance is recorded by Mr Selby.
This bird is an inhabitant of the most mountainous regions
of Europe, and particularly affects those districts which
are of an abrupt and rocky character. It is common among
the Alps of Switzerland, and may be usually seen in the
environs of the convent of St Bernard. In summer it
ascends to a great elevation, where it breeds beneath the
ledges of the rocks, laying four or five eggs of a greenish-
blue colour. As winter advances, and the snow begins to
gather amid the desolate steeps, it descends towards the
vales and middle regions of the mountains, where it sub-
sists upon the seeds of alpine grasses, and of other plants.
In summer it destroys grasshoppers, and various insects,
and their larvee.*

In the genus Recutus, Cuv., the bill is still slender,
but conical, sharp pointed, and the sides, when viewed
from above, are slightly concave. The species are much
more active and arboreal than those last named. We may
mention as an example our beautiful golden-crested wren
(R. auricapillus, Selby ; Mot. regulus, Linn.), the smallest
of British birds. It inhabits woods and forests, and flits
rapidly from tree to tree, examining the leaves and branches
in search of insects. Its manners resemble those of the
tit-mice, in company with which it often travels. Mr Selby
has recorded, that after a severe gale from the north-east,
thousands of these tiny creatures were seen to arrive upon
the sea-shore and sand-banks of the Northumbrian coast,—
many of them so fatigued as to be unable to rise again
after alighting on the ground. In this genus Cuvier re-
tains our willow or yellow wren, and lesser petty-chaps
(M. trochilus and hippolais), which most other modern
writers keep apart in their restricted genus Sylvia, bestow-
ing other titles (Erythaca, Phenicura, Philomela, &c.) on
the genus which Cuvier has so called. These transpositions
are the bane of Ornithology. Several true Reguli inhabit
North America.

Our common (kitty) wren forms, with certain foreign
species, the genus TrociopyTes of Cuv. The bill is
rather more slender than in Regulus, and slightly arched.

The generic name of Moraciixa, of such extensive
application in the older systems, is now restricted to the
wag-tails, such as M. alba and cinerea, Linn. Our yellow

eptis | dae al es ey Se ee Ee eS SS

1 Nuovo Giorn. de’ Letterati, t. vi. (where the nest is figured) ; and Ornitologia Toscana, t. i. p. 282.

3 Illustrations of British Ornithology, vol, i. ps 247.

ORNITHOLOGY.

disparity in the structure of the bill, as to render subdivi- Insessores.
sion unavoidable. This has’ been in*part effected; the —~v—

Insessores. species, which differs from the others in being a bird of
—\— passage, is moreover distinguished by an arched and

lengthened hind claw, and forms the genus BupytEs, Cuv.,
founded, perhaps, upon a character of no great importance.
All the wag-tails are peculiar to the ancient continent.

The genus AnTuus, Bechstein, so long united to the
true larks, has the bill straight, slender, rather subulate to-
wards the point, the base of the upper mandible carinated,
the tip slightly bent, and emarginated. The hind claw is
more or less produced. We have three British species, the
rock or shore pipit (A. aquaticus), the tit-lark or meadow
pipit (A. pratensis), and the tree pipit (A. arboreus). Rich-
ard’s pipit (A. Richardi, Vieil.) may be included in our list
of accidental visitants.

The great tribe of Dentirostres is terminated by Cuvier
with certain groups which differ from all the preceding by
the closer union of the outer and middle toes, which are
joined together for a considerable space, after the manner
of the syndactylous tribes.

Of these groups the first is composed chiefly of the
manakins (Genus Pier, Linn.), in which the bill is short,
compressed, higher than broad, notched, the nasal fosse
large, the nostrils concealed by feathers. The tail and
legs are short. They may be subdivided as follows.
~ In the genus Rurrcota of Brisson the species are of
considerable size, and their heads are ornamented by a
double crest of vertical feathers. The only species known
are South American, and are distinguished by the name of
rock manakins. P. aurantia, Vieil. (Pipra rupicola, Gm.),
is of a brilliant orange colour, with peculiar frizzled fea-
thers on the wings and tail. It is one of the most beauti-
ful of birds, lives on fruits, scrapes in the ground like the
Galline, and constructs its nest among the deep caverns of
the rocks. It is shy and mistrustful, and flies with great
rapidity. The female, which is of a brown colour, lays two
eggs of the size of those of a pigeon. The immature birds
are also brown. This species inhabits the rocks by the
rivers of Guiana. Not far from the banks of the river
Oyapoc, to the windward of Cayenne, is a mountain which
contains an immense cavern. There also, according to
Waterton, the cock of the rock is plentiful. He is of a
gloomy disposition, retiring during the day among the
darkest rocks,:and only coming out to feed a little before
sunrise and at sunset. The South American Spaniards
call him Gallo del Rio Negro, supposing that he is only
met with in the vicinity of that far inland stream; but he
is common in the interior of Demerara, amongst the huge
rocks in the forests of Macoushia, and has been shot south
of the line, in the captainship of Para. R. Perwviana is a
nearly allied species, of somewhat larger size, but wanting
the trizzled character of the wing and tail feathers. It
inhabits Peru. The female is still unknown. Our author
here places the beautiful green species from Java and Su-
matra (Calyptomena viridis of Horsfield), which he thinks
differs from the other Rupicolz chiefly in the crest not
being fan-shaped.~ (See Plate CCCXCI. fig. 7.) The
true manakins (genus Pipra, Cuv.) are of much smaller
size. They likewise inhabit America, where they dwell in
the deep and humid forests, feeding, it is said, both on
fruits and insects. They are in general distinguished by
the rich and varied colouring of their plumage. We have
figured as an example a beautiful Brazilian species, the
Pipra pareola. (See Plate CCCXCI. fig. 5.)

The terminal group of the Dentirostres is formed by the
genus EuryLaimus, Horsfield, in which the bill is much
stronger and broader than in any of the preceding, being
in some of the species so greatly depressed and expanded
at the base, as to exceed the breadth of the head. The
upper overlaps the under mandible. These birds are pe-
culiar to India and the great eastern islands, and now
amount to five or six innumber, which, however, offer such

VOL. XVI.

genus CyMBIRHYNCHUS, Vigors, containing Eu.xnasutus,
while the specific name of another (Hw. corydon), remark-
able for the extraordinary expansion of the upper mandible,
is used generically by M. Lesson, the species itself being
termed Temminchii. (See Plate.CCCXCI. fig. 8.) We
know little of the manners of any of these birds. When
actually ascertained, they may probably be found to offer a
considerable disresemblance. \They have hitherto been
generally found in wild and desert places, by the banks of
rivers, and are supposed: to feed both on fruits and insects,
—a frequent, if not a safe conclusion on the part of na-
turalists, regarding almost every unknown species which
happens ‘to be neither a goose nor an eagle.

TRIBE 2D.—FISSIROSTRES.

This restricted tribe consists of the swallows, swifts, and
goat-suckers, and is-characterized by the bill being short,
broad, depressed, slightly curved, without any tooth, and
so deeply cleft as to give peculiar wideness to the gape,—
a structure of great use to birds which prey so exclusively
on insects taken on the wing. Their insectivorous regi-
men induces migratorial habits, and all the species leave
ourselves and other northern nations so soon as the sear
and yellow leaves of autumn betoken the approach of frost,
and the consequent decrease or extirpation of insect life.
Like the raptorial order, or birds of prey properly so called,
the fissirostral tribe is capable of a ‘binary division into
diurnal and nocturnal species.

Swallows, in general (Hirunpo, Linn.), are remarkable
for their close-set, usually glossy plumage, the great length

‘of their wings, their swift, powerful, easy, and long-con-

tinued flight. They occur in almost every region of the
globe. In the restricted genus Hirunpo, Cuv., the toes
are disposed as in the majority of birds, that is, three an-
terior and one posterior. In some of the species the legs
and feet are clothed with feathers; the hind claw is slightly
disposed to turn forwards, the tail is forked, and of medium
size. Such is our martin or window-swallow (ZH. urbica)
which forms so cheerful a feature in many of our villages
and country dwellings, building beneath the eaves of
houses, or the upper angles of windows. It is glossy bluish-
black above, the rump and all the lower regions white. In
others the legs and feet are naked, the tail forked, and of
great length. Such is our chimney-swallow (H. rustica),
which usually builds in out-houses, and leaves the top of
its nest uncovered. Its upper parts, and the higher por-
tion of the breast, are black ; the forehead and throat deep
orange-brown, the lower portions of the body white. This
species usually appears a few days earlier in April than the
preceding. Although the migratory movements of both
these birds may be still regarded as mysterious, there is
now no doubt of the fact that they do migrate. It appears
from the observations of M. Natterer, that they moult in
February, that is, during their absence from this, the land
of their nativity,—a fact which’ would of itself suffice to
overthrow the idea of their long-protracted winter sleep.
It is also in respect to other purposes as usual well ordain-
ed, for if the heavy moult which befalls so many species
during spring or autumn, were equally to affect these long-
winged birds, their flight from foreign lands, or journey
thither, might be procrastinated, or prevented altogether.
Swallows are probably the most purely and exclusively in-
sectivorous of all birds, and even if they could themselves

withstand our winter’s cold. they would soon perish mi-

serably from want of food.

This extreme sensibility of course renders it difficult
to keep swallows caged, or otherwise confined, through-
out the winter season. Yet several instances are known

4D

577

578 ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. of their surviving that inclement period. The following

thousand peckuls every year; but of these, a great pro-Insessores.
~~ is given by Mr Bewick, on the authority of the late Sir

portion was brought from the islands of Cochin-China, —~y~—

John Trevelyan. The experiments were made by a Mr
Pearson. “ Five or six of these birds were taken about
the latter end of August 1784, in a bat-fowling net, at
night ; they were put separately into small cages, and fed
with nightingale’s food. In about a week or ten days
they took the food of themselves: they were then put
altogether into a deep cage, four feet long, with gravel
at the bottom ; a broad shallow pan with water was placed
in it, in which they sometimes washed themselves, and
seemed much strengthened by it. One day Mr Pearson
observed that they went into the water with unusual eager-
ness, hurrying in and out again repeatedly with such swift-
ness as if they had been suddenly seized with a frenzy.
Being anxious to see the result, he left them to them-
selves about half an hour, and on going to the cage again
found them all huddled together in a corner apparently
dead ; the cage was then placed at a proper distance from the
fire, when two of them only recovered, and were as healthy
as before—the rest died ; the two remaining ones were al-
lowed to wash themselves occasionally for a short time
only ; but their feet soon after became swelled and inflam-
ed, which was attributed to their perching, and they died
about Christmas. Thus the first year’s experiments were
in some measure lost. Not discouraged by the failure of
this, Mr Pearson determined to make a second trial the
succeeding year, from a strong desire of being convinced
of the truth respecting their going into a state of torpidity.
Accordingly, the next season having taken some more birds,
he put them into the cage, and in every respect pursued
the same methods as with the last ; but to guard their feet
from the bad effects of the damp and cold, he covered the
perches with flannel, and had the pleasure to observe that
the birds throve extremely well. They sang their song
through the winter, and soon after Christmas began to
moult, which they got through without any difficulty, and
lived three or four years, regularly moulting every year at
the usual time. On the renewal of their feathers, it ap-
peared that their tails were forked exactly the same as in
those birds which return hither in the spring, and in every
respect their appearance was the same. These birds were
exhibited to the Society for promoting Natural History,
on the 14th February 1786, at the time when they were
in a deep moult, during a severe frost, when the snow was
on the ground. They died at last in the summer, from
neglect during a long illness which Mr Pearson had, who
concludes this interesting account with the following words:
‘ January 20, 1797.—I have now in my house, No. 21 Great
Newport Street, Long-Acre, four swallows in moult, in
as perfect health as any birds ever appeared to be in
when moulting.’”! Our only other species is the sand-
swallow, or bank-martin (H. riparia), of smaller size and
browner colour. It is the earliest of the genus; but be-
ing more locally distributed, its arrival in many districts
is not so speedily observed.

Among the foreign species, one of the most remarkable
is H. esculenta, a small brown swallow, from the Indian
Archipelago. Its nest, formed chiefly of a peculiar kind
of sea-weed, is very mucilaginous when cooked ; and its
restoratory virtues are held in such high esteem, that it has
become with eastern nations, especially the Chinese, a
most important article of commerce. The best kinds (such
as are white and transparent, and of a uniform and delicate
texture) sell at from a thousand to fifteen hundred dollars
the peckul (not more than twenty-five pounds). The
Dutch alone were in use to export from Batavia about a

and others to the eastward. However, these nests are
nowhere more abundant than about Croee, near the south
end of Sumatra. They weigh each about half an ounce, and
resemble a small saucer in shape, with one side flattened,
by which they adhere to the rocky walls of caverns. Their
texture resembles that of isinglass, or fine gum-dragon.
When about to be used they are soaked, then pulled to
pieces; and after being mixed with ginseng, are put into
the body of a fowl, which is stewed all night with a suffi-
cient quantity of water. When dissolved in broth they
are said to give it a delicious flavour. Naturalists are not
agreed as to the exact mode of formation of these nests.
Some suppose them the result of a glandular secretion.
Alexander Wilson says, that the aculeated swallow (H.
pelasgia) of America fastens together the twigs which
compose its nest by means of a strongly adhesive gummy
matter, secreted by two glands placed on each side of the
hinder portion of the head.

The swifts belong to the genus CypsEtus of Illiger, dis-
tinguished by the extreme shortness of the legs, and the pe-
culiar character of all the four toes being directed forwards.
The middle and outer toes have only three articulations.
Of all the feathered race, these are perhaps the most vigo-
rous and unwearied flyers. Even in the skeleton, the short-
ness of the humerus, the breadth of its apophyses, the
oval form of the fourchette, and the sternum unnotched
below, indicate a structure admirably suited to sustain
aérial motion ; and when to these we add the enormously
lengthened primary feathers of the wings, we have a fly-
ing machine of the most powerful kind. We doubt not
that during every summer evening in which these sable
creatures pursue their gladsome gambols through the un-
resisting air, they travel many hundred miles. It is easy
to observe, that they are often on the wing incessantly for
hours together, careering in fine weather in vast and in-
tersecting circles, screaming after each other in no melo-
dious strains, and flying at such a maddening rate as if
flight were the only faculty worthy of exercise in earth or
heaven ; and we are sure that the same genius for arith-
metic which enables a school-boy to ascertain how many
grains of barley would surround the world, might, if ap-
plied to every minute’s flight of this surprising bird for
one “ purpureal eve,” elicit a result in distance which
would astonish even a railway engineer. Our common
swift is the Cypselus murarius of Temm. (Hirundo apus,
Linn.). These birds, as well as swallows, seem in many
instances to return to the same spot for a series of years.
Dr Jenner took two claws from the foot of twelve swifts.
Several were re-taken in the course of one or two seasons ;
and at the expiration of seven years, one was brought in
by a cat. A larger species (C. alpinus, Temm.), frequent
among the Alps of Switzerland and the Tyrol, and well
known at Gibraltar, has occurred occasionally in Ireland.
There are a great many foreign species, both of swifts and
swallows.

In the genus Caprimueus, Linn., the gape is still
wider, and the beak is bristled at the base with stiffish
hairs. The wings are very long, the legs short, the tarsi
usually feathered, the toes united at the base by a mem-
brane, slightly connecting even the hinder toe, which
is somewhat versatile ; the middle toe is often toothed on
its inner edge (see Plate CCCXCI. fig. 6 a); and the
outer one, by a conformation of rare occurrence amongst
birds, has only four articulations.

The Caprimulgi or goat-suckers (an absurd and fabu-

1 Bewick’s British Birds, i. 254.

? See Shaw’s General Zoology, vol. x. p. 111; and Sir G. Staunton’s Embassy to China, vol. i. p. 288, and vol. ii. p. 5 This spe-
cies seems described under the name of H. fuciphaga, in Act. Holm. t. xxxiii. p. 151.

% American Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 24.

ORNITHOLOGY. 579

Insessores.]ous term, which, however, serves the best purpose of a have been observed in Europe, and has, through miscon- Insessores,
——— name, in being generally understood to relate to the spe- ception, originated the vernacular name.

cies in question) are solitary birds, which feed voracious-
ly on insects, and fly about during the evening twilight,
encroaching in mid-summer on the clear and stilly hours
of night. Our only British species (C. Ewropeus) is a
bird of passage ; and in its beautifully brindled plumage of
ashy-gray, brown, and black, with here and there a patch
of white, presents a characteristic example of the genus.
It frequents commons, heaths, and uncultivated tracts, es-
pecially where interspersed with brushwood. When on the
wing, it utters occasionally a sharp hawk-like cry ; but Cu-
vier surely errs when he asserts that “ l’air qui s’engouffre,
quand ils volent, dans leur large bec, y produit un bour-
donnement particulier.” If he alludes to the peculiar pur-
ring and prolonged sound which some compare to that of
a spinning-wheel, there is no doubt of its being produced
when the bird is at rest, on the top of a wall, or among a
heap of stones. When perched upon a branch or paling,
its position is peculiar. It rests horizontally in the same
direction as that by which it is supported, instead of across
or at right angles. Its flight, when pursuing moths and
beetles, is very easy and graceful. The species of this
genus are widely distributed. Three occur in North Ame-
rica; several in the southern parts of the new world; in
New Holland they are well known; Africa produces some
remarkable kinds ; and those of Java and the East have
been described by recent naturalists. Out of these, how-
ever, several subordinate genera have been created. The
strong-billed species, which want the membrane between
the toes, and the dentation of the middle claw, form the
genus Poparcus. - They are natives of New Holland and
the eastern islands. (See Plate CCCXCI. fig. 6.) The
great species from Guiana, which has the sides of the
upper mandible dilated into a blunt tooth, constitutes the
genus Nycristus of Vieillot. A very peculiar species
( Guacharo de caripe), which feeds on fruits, and dwells gre-
gariously in caverns, where the young are much sought
after on account of their delicious fat, forms the genus
Sreatornis of Humboldt.’ It is the only frugivorous
night-flying bird with which we are acquainted.
Although the general title of goat-sucker is so fami-
liar to our ears, we confess we were never aware of how
it had originated,—deeming it some accidental and un-
meaning application,—till we had read the following pas-
sage in Mr Waterton’s work. ‘“ When the moon shines
bright, you may have a fair opportunity of examining the
goat-sucker. You will see it close by the cows, goats,
and sheep, jumping up every now and then under their
bellies. Approach a little nearer,—he is not shy,—‘ he
fears no danger, for he knows no sin.’ See how the
nocturnal flies are tormenting the herd, and with what
dexterity he springs up and catches them, as fast as they
alight on the belly, legs, and udder of the animals. Ob-
serve how quietly they stand, and how sensible they
seem of his good offices; for they neither strike at him,
nor hit him with their tail, nor tread on him, nor try to
drive him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dis-
sect him, and inspect his stomach, you would find no milk
there. It is full of the flies which have been annoying
the herd.”2. Many an hour, during the long still summer
evenings, have we watched the flight of our only British
species, while it hawked for moths along the fringed mar-
gins of the rocky woods, or glanced more openly across
the dewy meadows which bank the crystal basin of the
“ beautiful Winander,’—but we never saw it hovering
around or near to any kind of cattle. We doubt not, lhow-
ever, that the same habit, as noted by Mr Waterton, must

TriBE 3p.—CONIROSTRES.

In this tribe are comprehended a considerable variety
of genera, exhibiting not a little disparity in size, struc-
ture, and habits, but agreeing in their bills being compa-
ratively strong, more or less conical, and without notch.
Several of the species, such as crows and magpies, are
omnivorous ; but, generally speaking, when compared with
either of the two preceding tribes, the diet of the Coniros-
tres may be termed granivorous.

The first little group is constituted by the larks, genus
Axaupa, Linn., of which the greater number have the
bill straight, moderately thick, and pointed. (See Plate
CCCXCII. fig. 1.) Though their flight is occasionally lofty
and sustained, and the sky-lark (4. arvensis) obtains its
name

From warbling high

His trembling thrilling extacy,

As, lessening from the dazzled sight,

He melts in air and liquid light, —
yet they haunt, and build their humble nests, habitually
in fields of grain or grassy meadows. Even the wood-lark
(A. arborea), although it perches and sometimes sings on
trees, rears its young upon the ground. The shore-lark
of Pennant (A. alpestris, Gmel.) is common to the north-
ern parts of Europe, Asia, and America.

In the genus Parus, Linn., the bill is small, short, coni-
cal, straight, beset at the base with hairs, and the nostrils
concealed by feathers. The species commonly called ét-
mice are lively, active little birds, usually observed flying
with eagerness from tree to tree in search of insects, scal-
ing the branches in all directions, and seemingly quite re-
gardless whether their heads or their heels are uppermost.
Their nests are usually placed under cover, either in the
crevice of a wall or the hollow of an old tree, and the
number of eggs which they lay exceeds that of most Pas-
seres. They eat grain and seeds, as well as insects. The
species are distributed over the whole world, with the ex-
ception of New Holland, South America, and the islands
of the South Pacific Ocean. Although of rather gay and
beautiful plumage, they are more numerous in temperate
and northern countries than between the tropics. We
have seven species in Britain, of which the bearded tit-
mouse (P. biarmicus) is scarce, and partially distributed,
and the crested species (P. cristatus) so extremely rare as
to be regarded as accidental. From the small size, rapid
movements, and usually arboreous habits of all these birds,
their doings canscarcely be observed with advantage during
the umbrageous summer. But when the woods have either
lost their leafy glory, or the dry red foliage hangs unresis-
tant of the slightest breath, then are these vivacious crea-
tures seen to congregate in little flocks, sometimes seve-
ral species joining together, and cheering each other on
with frequent shrilly cries. In their foraging excursions
they likewise visit our gardens, shrubberies, and cottage
doors, plundering the farm-yards, eating potatoes with the
pigs and poultry, and greedily searching out an old mar-
row-bone, or (if in Scotland) a sheep’s head of the preced-
ing Sunday. The suspended nests of some of the foreign
species are extremely elegant, and even that of our own
long-tailed species is an object of great interest and beauty.
Mr Selby describes it as usually fixed in one of the smaller
forks of a tree branch, but occasionally amid the closer
screen of a fir, or the centre of a thick bush of woodbine
or thorn. It is of a longish oval form, composed of different

? Acad. des Sciences, Mars 1617, Nouv. Bull. 1817, p- dl.

2 Wanderings in South America, p. 143.

580 ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. lichens and wool firmly and curiously interwoven, and lined

a very large size, and appear to be well calculated for the Insessores.
>’ with a profusion of feathers. A small hole is left on two

purpose, as the smoothness of their trunks prevents the —~—

opposite sides of the nest, not only for ingress and egress,
but also to prevent the bird during incubation from being
incommoded by its long tail, which then projects through
one of the orifices. The eggs are white, with fine red-
dish-brown specks upon the larger end, and usually amount
to ten or twelve! The Parus pendulinus, a species of
the southern parts of Europe, constructs a purse-shaped
dwelling, suspended from the flexible branches of aquatic
plants, or interlaced among the waving reeds. . This hang-
nest tit-mouse is often seen among the marshes of Bologna,
where the peasantry seem to regard it with the same kind-
ly affection as we do our red-breast.

The genus Emseriza, Linn., is distinctly characterized
by its rather. short, straight, conical bill, and the curved
form of the gape, produced by a narrowing of the sides of
the upper mandible, and’a corresponding enlargement of
the under one. Instead of being as usual concave within,
the upper mandible has‘a hard, rounded knob in the in-
side, or what is called a tuberculous palate. The species
commonly known by the name of buntings feed chiefly on
seeds and grain. The ortolan (2. hortulana), a native of
the central and southern provinces of Europe, has been
occasionally killed in England. It is much esteemed in
Italy and elsewhere as an article of food. It is frequent-
ly lean when first netted ; but if left undisturbed and well
fed, it will not only fatten rapidly, but even in many in-
stances die of repletion. The snow-bunting, and a few
other kinds, distinguished chiefly by the elongation of the
hind claw, form the genus Plectrophanes of Meyer, now
called lark-buntings by our English. writers.

The great genus Frineria of Linn. has the bill also
conical, and more or less thickened at the base; but the
commissure is not angularly curved, as in the preceding
group. Numerous subdivisions have been made of this
genus in modern times. Of these the following may be
taken as examples.

- In Procgus, Cuv., the bill is rather square at the base,
but sharp-pointed ; the upper mandible somewhat dilated.
The species are known by the name of weavers, on ac-
count of the art with which they join together the mate-
rials of their nests. Several species'are gregarious, even
during the breeding season, hanging their nests close to-
gether. in the same tree; and as each on building a new
nest forms it in close connection with the old, the final
result is, that an apparently solid mass is at length collect-
ed, consisting of numerous apartments, each tenanted by
a pair of birds, but having the external appearance of one
gigantic dwelling. Cuvier here places the species known
in the older systems as the Philippine gross-beak, Loxia
Philippina, Linn. This bird is ‘known in India by the
name of baya, and may be rendered so tame as not only
to perch upon the hand, but to fetch and carry at com-
mand. It builds a very curious nest, in the shape of a
Jong cylinder, swelling out into a globose form in the mid-
dle, and composed of the fine fibres of leaves and grass,
fastened by the end to a lofty branch, generally of the
Palmyra or Indian fig-tree. ‘The eggs are said to resem-
ble pearls, with the white part transparent even when
boiled, and are accounted delicious eating. This species
is alleged to feed on fire-flies. Another remarkable Plo-
ceus is the sociable gross-beak, or republican, Lowia socia,
Latham. It is an inhabitant of the interior of the Cape
country, and is thus described in Paterson’s Travels: “ Few
species of birds live together in such large societies, or
have such an extraordinary mode of nidification, as these ;
they build their nests on the mimosa trees, which grow to

1 British Ornithology, 1. 241.

birds from being attacked by monkeys, and other noxious
animals. The method in which their nests are made is
very curious. On one tree there could not be less than
from eight hundred to a thousand under one general roof.
I call it a roof, because it resembles that of a thatched
house, and projects over the: entrance of the nest below
in a very singular manner. The industry of these birds
seems almost equal to that of the bee. . Throughout the
day they appear to be busily employed in carrying a fine
species of grass, which is the principal material they em-
ploy for the purpose of erecting this extraordinary work,
as well as for additions and repairs. Though my short
stay in the country was not sufficient to satisfy me by ocu-
lar proof that they added to their nest as they annually
increased in numbers ; still, from the many trees which I
have seen borne down by the weight, and others which I
have observed with their boughs completely covered over,
it would appear that this is really the case. When the
tree which is the support of this aérial city is obliged to
give way to the increase of weight, it is obvious that they
are no longer protected, and are under the necessity of
rebuilding in other trees. One of these deserted nests I
had the curiosity to break down, to inform’ myself of the
internal structure of it, and found it equally ingenious
with that of the external. ‘There are many entrances,
each of which forms a regular street, with nests on both
sides, at about two inches distance from each other. The
grass with which they build is called the Boshman’s grass,
and I believe the seed of it to be their principal food,
though, on examining their nests, I found the wings and
legs of different insects. From every appearance, the nest
which I dissected had been inhabited for many years, and
some parts of it were more complete than others. This,
therefore, I conceive to amount nearly to a proof that the
animals added to it at different times, as they found neces-
sary, from the increase of the family, or rather of the na-
tion or community.”

The genus Pyreira, Cuv., contains the sparrows proper-
ly so called, of which the common house species (P. do-
mestica) affords a familiar example. This bird is charac-
teristic of the temperate and more northern parts of Eu-
rope, and is scarcely known in Italy to the south of Pied-
mont, being replaced by a closely-allied species, P. cisal-
pina, which is the Passer volgare of Italian authors. Al-
though M. Temminck thinks that the manners of the lat-
ter are less domestic than those of our more northern kind,
and that its love of fields and country places ally it rather
to the P. montana, we doubt not that all who have lived
in Italy will be of a contrary opinion,—in agreement with
the following beautitul passage by Professor Savi, which
we shall not injure by translating. ‘“Sembra che quest’
uccello non possa vivere se non con l’uomo. Eccetuate
quelle regioni alpestriove regnano perpetuamente i ghiacci,
in qualunque altro luogo in cui uomo si é stabilito, la Pas-
sera ha accompagnato ; e indifferente alla prospera, 0 con-
traria fortuna, essa ha posta dimora nella dimora di lui. In
riva delli stagni, in mezzo alla quiete de’ boschi delle Ma-
remme, sulla povera ed umile capanna d’un piscatore o
d'un pecorajo, han domicilio le passere, le quali trovano
il loro cibo nella sementa di grano del piccolo campo, ne’
frutti dell’ orticello, nello scarso becchime gettato alle gal-
line 0’ piccioni. E nel modo stesso voi Je vedete nel con-
tro delle pit grandi e clamorose citta, porre il nido fra gli
ornati d’una grandiosa cattedrale, o sti tetti d’un giardin
di delizia, e cercare le granella o miche di pane in mezzo
alle piazze pid popolate. Ma se l'uomo cessa d’abitare

% General Zoology, vol. ix. p. 303.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores- quella capanna, 0 quella citta, la passera anche essa Pabban-
=~" dona. Chi, girando nelle maremme, passa per antiche e.dis-

abitate abbazie, per fortilizi, o ville in rovini, vedra dalle
finestre pit elevate di quelle, fuggire de’ piccioni insalva-
tichiti, udirad gridar la civetta che abita fra li spacchi de’
muri vestiti d’ellera e parietaria, vedra la ballerina conti-
nuare a fabbricarvi il nido, ma in vano egli la cerchera il vo-
latile parasito dell’ Europeo, quella specie d’uccello che pris
ma per il numero ogni altro ne superava in quel luogo.
Cosi nel modo stesso che una figura geometrica vista sulla
sabbia fu giudicata dal naufraga Filosofo per un segno certo
della vicinanza dell’uomo, per un tal segno ancora pud
ritenersi la presenza delle passere.”! In regard to our,own
species, Savi observes, “non mi € noto se ne stiano anche
in Lombardia, ma so dicerto che alcuno giammai ne é stato
visto in Toscana.” According to Temminck, the boundary
of the latter species is the great chain of the Alps, on the
southern slopes of which it disappears in favour of the cis-
alpine kind. But it is our common British sparrow which
occurs about Trieste, and through the north of Dalmatia,
although separated from the region of P. cisalpina only by
the waters of the Adriatic. “Icostumi,” adds the Ita-
lian author, “di queste due Specie sono precisamente gli
stessi. Io ho accuratamente ed. in varj tempi osservate
le abitudini della F. domestica, tanto in Svizzera che nel
settentrione della Francia,ie posso assicurare che le stesse
sono di quelle della nostra specie Italiana.”*

In the restricted genus Frineiuya, Cuv., the bill is ra-
ther less arched than in the sparrows, and a little stronger
and more lengthened than among the linnets: Cuvier in-
cludes in it the chaffinch (F*. celebs), the mountain-finch or
brambling (&. montifringilia), and the snow-finch (F. ni-
valis). ‘The latter is scarcely ever found except in the
near vicinity of ice and snow, and may. be regarded (in
common with Accenter alpinus) as the most mountainous
of all the smaller birds of Europe. Yet though wild and
solitary in our estimation, from associating it with the
desolate scenery of the rock-surrounded glaciers, it is beau-
tiful to see how, in the neighbourhood of the lonely shep-
herd chalets of the Alps, it loves to humanise its feelings;
and how, among the few sad dwellings of the Mount Cenis,
and other lofty passes, it perches on the roofs of houses,
hops about the beaten foot-paths, and builds among dis-
mantled yet protecting walls. In winter it seeks subal-
pine regions, or the snow-covered valleys of Piedmont, but
scarcely ever migrates to the lowest plains. It is unknown
in Tuscany.

In the genus CARDUELIS, Cuv., the bill is more exactly
conic, without bulging in any portion, and is rather length-
ened. We may name as'an example, our beautiful, live-
ly, and intelligent goldfinch ( C. elegans, Steph.,—’. car-
duelis, Linn.), a bird widely distributed over Europe, and
extending from the sultry shores of the Mediterranean to
the plains of Sikeria. It occurs in Holland only as a bird
of passage. The siskin (/’. spinus) is by some considered
as a Carduelis, while others place it with the group which
follows, viz. genus Linaria, Bechstein, in which the bill
is equally conical, but not so long. Here we place our
gray linnets and red-poles, among which the more or less
decided crimson tinting of the breast and forehead, accord-
ing to age and season, has occasioned some confusion. Our

-.common or gray linnet (. cannabina, Linn.,—F. linota,
Gmel.) is, in the perfect nuptial plumage, synonymous with
the rose-linnet and greater red-pole. Our lesser red-pole
is the F. linaria of Linn. ; and the only other British spe-
cies is the twyte or mountain-linnet, F. montium, Gmel.,
formerly regarded as a bird of passage, but now known to
breed in the northern counties of Scotland, if not else-
where in Britain. We have caught the young ones, half-

1 Ornitologia Toscana, t. ii. p. 100.

fledged, among the Grampian Mountains.
of foreign species is considerable.
most remarkable for its musical powers is the well-known
canary (F. canaria, Linn.), a native of the Cape de Verd
and other islands, where its natural plumage is green. It
breeds readily in confinement with the linnet, goldfinch,
siskin, and other species.

The genus Vipva, Cuvy., contains some remarkable spe-
cies, with the bill more inflated at the base than the pre-
ceding, but chiefly characterized by the extreme elonga-
tion of the caudal plumage of the males. They inhabit
India and Africa, and were placed by Linnzus among the
buntings.

The genus Coccoruraustes, Cuv., containing the
gross-beaks, has the bill very conical, butof extreme thick-
ness at the base, and rapidly tapering to'the point. ‘The
culmen is rounded, the commissure slightly arched. The
species occur in America, as well as in the ancient con-
tinents. The haw-finch (C. vulgaris,—Loxia coccothraus-
tes, Linn.) visits the southern parts of Britain occasional-
ly during winter, and is even said to have been found
breeding in Windsor Forest. It feeds upon the larger kinds
of seeds and berries, which it is enabled to bruise and
break at pleasure, by. means of the great strength of its
bill. The evening gross-beak (C. vespertina, Cooper)
is a beautiful American species, with the frontal feathers
and a line above the eye yellow, the crown, wings, and
tail black, the secondaries and inner wing-coverts white,
the bill pale yellow. This newly-discovered bird inhabits
the solitudes of the,north-western interior, being met with
from the extremity of the Michigan territory to the Rocky
Mountains, and it is not uncommon towards the upper end
of Lake Superior and the borders of the Athabasca Lake.
To the east of these regions it appears to be only a tran-
sient visitor during spring and autumn. Our homely and
heavy-headed, green linnet (C. chloris, Fleming), of which
the mature male is a rich and beautifully plumaged bird,
belongs to our present. genus. It is probable that the
Fringilla incerta of Risso, figured by M. Roux (in his
Ornithologie Provengale), is nearly allied. It is one of the
rarest of the European birds, appearing occasionally du-
ring the autumn in Provence, and likewise occurring in
the vicinity of Palermo.

In the genus: Prryius, Cuv., are contained a few spe-
cies (almost all, we believe, from South America), in which
the bill, though thick, as in the preceding, is rather com-
pressed, arched above, and has sometimes a- projecting
angle in the middle of the margin of the upper mandible.
Such are the Lowia grossa, Portoricensis, &c.

In the genus PyrruuLa, in which the bill is shorter and
greatly bulged, we have the bullfinches, of which our British
species, P. vulgaris, Temm.,—Z£. pyrrhula, Linn., is awell-
known example. It is very generally distributed through-
out our wooded districts, but is nowhere very abundant,
and may be called scarce in several quarters of the island.

In the genus Loxia of Brisson, as now restricted, the
bill is compressed, and the two mandibles so curved and
deflected, that when closed they cross each other. This
extraordinary structure is supposed to afford the species
great facility in stripping the scales from the well-protect-
ed seeds of the various kinds of pine-trees.. The cross-
bills are few in number, and occur both in Europe and
America. Their habits as breeding birds are little

known, but the period of incubation must be very early, as ’

L. curvirostra sometimes visits this country in small flocks
as early as June. Temminck says, somewhat vaguely, in
regard to the parrot-billed species (Z. pytiopsittacus), that
it “niche en hiver dans nos climats, sur les branches de
sapin; en Livonie lespéce niche dés les mois de Mais.”

2 bid, p. 106.

581

The amount Insessores.
Of these, one of the =v

582

—=——"

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. Their chief haunts are probably witnin the arctic circle.

In America they are believed to breed about Hudson’s
Bay, being seen in the United States only from Septem-
ber to April. It thus appears, at all events, that they do
not there breed during the winter season.

The great pine gross-beak (Lozxia enucleator, Linn., by
some regarded as a bullfinch) may be here named as be-
longing to the genus Coryruus of Cuvier. It is a north-
ern species, occurring in the colder regions both of Europe
and America. Although Pennant mentions having met
with it in the woods of Invercauld in the month of August,
we are not aware of its having ever since been seen in
Scotland.

In the genus Corius, Gmelin, the bill is short, thick,
conical, somewhat compressed, both mandibles arched, and
of nearly equal length. The feathers of the tail are long
and graduated, and the plumage, for the most part fine
and silky, is usually ash-coloured. The hind toe can as-
sume a forward direction, almost as in the swifts. (See
Plate CCCXCII. fig. 3.) The species are found in In-
dia and Africa. Prior to the time of Vaillant, we knew
little of their habits. They are now known to be grega-
rious, endowed with but feeble powers of flight, but almost
as skilful as parakeets in climbing. They are not at all
addicted to insect food; but their love of fruits, and the
tender buds of trees, makes them very injurious wherever
land is under horticultural care. They not only dwell
together in society, but build their nests in little groups
upon the same thorny bush. They are moreover distin-
guished by a singular custom of sleeping close together,
suspended head downwards from the branches. The spe-
cies here represented (Plate CCCXCII. fig. 2) is C. leu-
conotus, Lath. (C. erythropus, Gmel.), supposed to be iden-
tical with C. capenszs, Linn.

The genus Buruaca of Brisson has the bill square at
the base, and rather gibbous towards the point, which is
abbreviated. The species, only twoin number, are insec-
tivorous, and have derived the name of beef-eaters from
their habit of picking larve from the hides of the larger
kinds of cattle, thus freeing them from noxious parasites.
The South African species (B. Africdna, Linn.) was ob-
served by Vaillant in the country of the Namuquas in
small flocks. He found it shy, and difficult to be ap-
proached. The other species referred to this genus is the
B. erythrorhyncha of Temm., common in the north-eastern
countries of Africa, where it follows caravans for the sake
of picking insects from the woolly backs of camels, and
other beasts of burden. It is singular, that although hi-
therto unknown in Southern Africa, it should have been
received from Madagascar.

In the genus Cassicus of Cuv. the bill is much more
exactly conical, thick at the base, extremely sharp point-
ed, the commissure forming an angulated line as in the
starlings. These are American birds of gregarious habits,
which feed both on fruits and insects, and frequently ex-
hibit such surprising skill and ingenuity in the structure
of their nests, that an old Jady once gravely asked an Ame-
rican Ornithologist whether he did not think they might be
taught to darn stockings. In the genus Cassicus pro-
perly so called, the base of the bill ascends upon the fore-
head, so as to encroach broadly upon the frontlet feathers.
Here are contained the largest species. The one we
have figured (C. cristatus, Plate CCCXCII. fig. 5) is from

Cayenne.

notch.! With the Icteri Cuvier combines the purple
grakle, or crow blackbird of America ( Quiscalus versicolor
of Vieillot), between which and the fish-hawk a singular
understanding seems to be kept up. The nest of the lat-
ter is of large dimensions, often from three to four feet in
breadth, and from four to five feet high, composed exter-
nally of large sticks or faggots, among the interstices of
which several pair of crow blackbirds will construct their
nests, while the hawk sits hatching over all. These birds
are very injurious to the crops of Indian corn, and some-
times collect in prodigious flocks, descending on the fields
like a blackening tempest. They occupy a great extent
of territory, being widely spread from Hudson’s Bay to
within the tropics. They are migratory in the colder
districts, and on their first arrival feed on insects as well
asseeds.2 According to Dr Richardson, their first appear-
ance on the plains of the Saskatchewan is very striking.
They arrive from their southern winter quarters in the be-
ginning of May, the males and females in separate flocks
of from twenty to a hundred, which perch in crowds upon
the leafless branches of the trees, their plumage shining
with metallic splendour.

The genus XANTHORNUs (les carouges) scarcely differs
from the preceding, except that the bill is straight. Here
Cuvier places many of the American orioles, such as the
red-shouldered species (O. pheniceus, Linn.). These “ red-
winged starlings,” as Wilson calls them, are generally mi-
gratory in the states north of Maryland, but are found
during winter in immense flocks along the lower parts of
Virginia, both Carolinas, Georgia, and Louisiana, particu-
larly near the sea-coast, and in the vicinity of large fields
of rice and corn. “ In the months of January and Febru-
ary, while passing through the former of these countries, I
was frequently entertained with the aérial evolutions of
these great bodies of starlings. Sometimes they appeared
driving about like an enormous black cloud carried before
the wind, varying its shape every moment; sometimes
suddenly rising from the fields around me with a noise
like thunder ; while the glittering of innumerable wings of
the brightest vermilion amid the black cloud they formed,
produced on these occasions a very striking and splendid
effect. Then descending like a torrent, and covering the
branches of some detached grove, or clump of trees, the
whole congregated multitude commenced one general con-
cert or chorus, that I have plainly distinguished at the
distance of more than two miles; and when listened to at
the intermediate space of about a quarter of a mile, witha
slight breeze of wind to swell and soften the flow of its
cadences, was to me grand, and even sublime. The whole
season of winter, that with most birds is past struggling to
sustain life in silent melancholy, is with the red-wings one
continued carnival. The profuse gleanings of the old rice,
corn, and buck-wheat fields, supply them with abundant
food, at once ready and nutritious; and the intermediate
time is spent either in aérial manceuvres, or in grand vocal
performances, as if solicitous to supply the absence of all
the tuneful summer tribes, and to cheer the dejected face
of nature with their whole combined powers of harmony.”*

In this genus some have also placed the noted cow-pen
bird of Catesby (Icterus pecoris, Bon.; Emb. pecoris, Wil-
son), of which the most remarkable feature consists in its

1 For a detailed classification of the Icteri of Brisson, see Mr Vigors’s “‘ Sketches in Ornithology,” Zoological Journal, No. vi.

p- 182.

2 Great confusion exists in the nomenclature of these birds, and of their congeners the troupials, hang-nest orioles, and other
American species, chiefly in consequence of the transposition of names. Almost every author has composed his groups of different
materials, and of course has applied his designations differently. The genus Quiscalus of Vieillot contains four well-ascertained spe.

cies, Q. major, versicolor, ferrugineus, and baritus.
3 American Ornithology, vol. i. p, 193.

In the genus IcTerus the bill is arched, and Insessores.
does not extend upon the forehead except by a sharp —~y——

ORNITHOLOGY. 583

the others. The produce of the latter, though often stifled, Insessores.

Tnseasores. depositing, like our European cuckoo, its eggs in the nests
are sometimes reared along with the intruder. If the na- —~~——

—\—” of other birds. The circumstances by which Wilson first

became acquainted with this peculiar habit are as follows.
He had in numerous instances found in the nests of three
or four particular species, one egg much larger and dif-
ferently marked from those beside it. He at length de-
tected the female of this cow-bunting, as he calls it, in the
act, that is, sitting in the nest of the red-eyed fly-catcher,
(her eyes might well be red, if she had ever fondly hoped
for a legitimate posterity), which happens to be a very
small one, and singularly constructed. Suspecting’ her
purpose (and truly her position was more than suspicious),
he cautiously withdrew without disturbing her, and had the
satisfaction to find on his return, that she had left an egg
exactly. like that just alluded to. He afterwards, in many
instances, found the young cow-bunting in the nest of these
and of other birds, and also observed the latter followed
by a foster child calling most clamorously for food. The
cow-bird is gregarious and migratory, entering the middle
and northern states about the end of March or beginning
of April, and passing northwards as the season becomes
milder. It arrives in the fur-countries in May, ranges to
the sixtieth parallel, departs in September, and collects in
large flocks in Pennsylvania during the following months,
after which it retires to winter in the more southern states
and Mexico. Its food consists of grain, grass, and worms,

articularly certain intestinal ones, which it finds in the
ate of cattle. The cow-bunting never pairs, and a state of
general concubinage seems to prevail amongst them. Bred
up as foundlings in the nests of other birds, and fed by
foster parents,—owing their existence and preservation
to a system of cunning deception, and commencing their
career by the destruction of the natural inmates of that
mossy dwelling in which they passed their own delusive
infancy,—what hopes can here be cherished of the hallowed
growth of home affections? When the female is disposed
to lay, she appears restless and dejected, and separates
herself from the unregarding males, who care not for pos-
terity. Stealing through the woods and thickets, she pries
insidiously into every bush and branch for a nest that suits
her fancy, and into it she darts in absence of the owner,
and in a few minutes is seen to rise upon the wing, re-
lieved from all maternal care. If the egg be deposited
alone, that is, in a previously empty nest, it is almost uni-
formly forsaken ; but if the nursing mother has any of her
own she immediately begins to sit. The red-eyed fly-
catcher ( Vireo olivaceus) proves a most assiduous foster-
parent. In the beautiful basket-like nest of one of these
birds, Mr Nuttall found an egg of each species, and the
female fly-catcher already sitting. He removed her own
egg, and left that of the stranger. She soon returned,
and, as if sensible of what had happened, gazed stead-
fastly, shifted the egg, sat on it for a time, moved off, re-
newed her observation, and at length settled down upon
her nest. Two or three days after, however, she was
found to have left the premises. Yet another bird for-
sook tivo eggs of her own, because that of the cow-bird
was taken away,—which proves that there is no account-
ing for tastes. The blue bird, which exhibits a strong
attachment to its breeding places, affords one of the few
examples of a species not refusing to lay after the stran-
ger’s egg has been first deposited. Mr Pickering observ-
ed two nests of the blue-eyed yellow warbler, in which,
previous to their own laying, an egg of the cow-bird had
been deposited, and finding themselves unable to eject it,
the warblers buried it in the bottom of the nest, by build-
ing over it an additional story! The egg of the cow-bird,
perhaps from being larger, and coming thus into closer
contact with the body of its nurse, is sooner hatched than

tural offspring die, they are found lying at some distance
from the nest, and not directly beneath it, which shows
that they are carried out by the parents, and not heaved
over by the giant intruder, as in the case of our European
cuckoo. When fully fledged, the cow-bird soon deserts
his foster-parents, and skulks for a time about the woods,
till he instinctively joins a few of his own blood, and then
he seeks his food more boldly (five or six together), in the
fields and lanes. This bird measures about seven inches
in length. The head and neck are blackish-brown, the
rest black, glossed above with green, and on the breast
with violet. ;

The Baltimore oriole is another beautiful, species of Ic-
terus,—J. Baltimorus. . The male is orange, with the head,
neck, upper part of the back, and greater portion of the
wings, black. It winters in South America, but makes its
appearance in the United States in spring, where its ar-
rival is hailed as the sure harbinger of warmth and sun-
shine. Full of life and activity, it is seen vaulting like a
fiery sylph among the boughs of lofty trees, vanishing
with restless inquietude, and again flashing quickly into
sight from amidst some wreath of waving foliage, showing
like a living gem amid the green adornment of the leafy
forest. The most remarkable instinctive feature of this
bird is displayed in the structure of its nest, which con-
sists of a pendulous cylindrical pouch of six or seven inches
in depth, usually suspended almost from the extremity of
some lofty drooping branch. The materials, according to
Wilson, are flax, hemp, cow-hair, and wool, woven into a
complete cloth, the whole being tightly sewed through
and through with long horse-hairs, several of which mea-
sure two feet in length. The bottom is composed of thick
tufts of cow-hair, also sewed, and strengthened with strong
horse-hair.. The materials, however, vary, and so solici-
tous is the bird to procure the best that can be possibly
obtained, that during the building season the women in
the country are under the necessity of narrowly watching
their thread when bleaching.

The genus Oxyruyncuus, Temm., has the conical sharp-
pointed bill of the Icteri, but it is shorter than the head.
Example, O. cristatus, Swainson’s Illustrations, vol. iii. pl.
49,—a Brazilian species. The genus Dacnis of Cuvier is
formed by the Motacilla cayana of Linn.

The genus Sturnus, Linn., also resembles the Icteri ;
but the bill is depressed towards the extremity. There
are two European species, one of which, our common star-
ling (S. vulgaris), is well known in many parts of Britain,
and is remarkable for its gregarious habits, and singu-
lar aérial movements. Its glossy black and purple plu-
mage, starred with little spots of white, render it a very
ornamental bird ; and the great facility with which it may
be taught to speak makes it much sought after as a domes-
ticated species. |S. unicolor inhabits Sardinia and the South
of Europe.

Baron Cuvier concludes the conirostral tribe with three

well-marked groups, the crows, the rollers, and the birds .

of paradise.

In the genus Corvus, Linn., the bill is strong, straight,
rather long, compressed towards the point, the nostrils
covered by stiff, reversed feathers. The plumage, though
generally dense and dark, is soft and lustrous, and the
species bear so great a resemblance to each other, that, as
Mr Macgillivray observes, the most unpractised observer
can scarcely fail to distinguish a crow. They also exhibit
corresponding instincts, being, if not shy, at least cunning
and watchful. They are omnivorous in the fullest sense
of the term, and will poke their beaks into every thing

re a ee AREER EY MIN ARO IO NRE BUR 000 LEM 1 EN eC
I Nuttall, vol. i. p. 178.

584 ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. they can find, from a boiled potato to a dead horse.

sions than the crows properly so called, and their tails, in- Insessores,
—\—’“ When searching for food, they betake themselves to

stead of being either round or square, are long and gra- —~y——

open places, walk in a sedate manner, keep a good look
out, and on the least appearance of danger fly off to a dis-
tance. Their flight is also sedate, moderately rapid, and
performed by regular beats. Their cry varies from a
hoarse croak to a caw or chatter, and some of them are
musical. They nestle in high places, trees, towers, build-
ings of various kinds, or rocks; and produce from three to
nine eggs, which are deposited very early in the season.
They repose at night in similar places, and when alarmed
by day generally take themselves to heights. Some spe-
cies are gregarious, others unsocial,—the latter being the
more carnivorous ; but even they are observed to associate
together when a large quantity of food attracts them to a
particular place. The sexes’ do not. differ much in exter-
nal appearance ; the male, however, being in general more
robust, and having the plumage more glossy. Moulting
takes place in the summer months, and is very gradual.
Those which are more carnivorous have the faculty of dis-
covering carrion ata great distance, in the same manner as
the vultures, which they in some degree resemble in their
habits. They are all easily tamed, and may be taught to
imitate the human voice so far as to produce a few articu-
late sounds. In a state of domestication they are much
addicted to pilfering, their depredations not being confined
to articles of food, but extending to objects in no respect
useful to themselves.”!

Five species of crow occur in Britain, all permanent
dwellers, viz. the raven (C. corax), the carrion-crow (C.
corone), the hooded crow (C. corniz), the rook (C. frugi-
legus), and the jackdaw (C. monedula). We shall not de-
scribe the external aspect of these birds, which, we doubt
not, are familiar to our readers. The raven in a state of
nature is remarkable for his great cunning and sagacity,
while in the domesticated condition he is extremely fro-
licsome and full of humour. We have seen one that, while
engaged in amusing himself with a poodle dog, and unable
to keep pace with his four-footed play-fellow, would seize
him by a lock of hair, and hold on tenaciously while the
dog was careering at full gallop ; and his numerous devices,
with a view to conceal the remnants of his own food, or
appropriate that of others, were varied and unceasing.
This species is widely spread over the temperate and north-
ern parts of Europe and America, and in the minds of the
ignorant is usually regarded with some degree of supersti-
tious terror. In summer, when the sky is serene, he flies
in circles in the higher regions of the clear blue sky, and
his deep and solemn croak may be heard at a great dis-
tance; but he is said to be sometimes also seen in the
midst of thunder-storms, with the electric fire streaming
from the point of his bill !—an extraordinary phenomenon
certainly (if true), sufficient to terrify the superstitious, and
to stamp its subject with the character of a restless and in-
destructible demon. ;

The carrion-crow, and the hooded species, are so like in
size and structure, that it would be scarcely possible to
distinguish them, but for the partially gray plumage of the
latter ; and as a black anda gray crow are often seen to-
gether, some naturalists incline to the belief that they are
actually the same. Their geographical distribution, how-
ever, seems to differ; the gray kind, though common in
Britain and the continental countries of Europe, being
unknown in America, where, at the same time, the car-
rion-crow is described as identical with our own; while,
on the other hand, we find the latter extremely rare in
the north of Italy, where the hooded crow abounds. The
jackdaw and the rook seem unknown in the western world.

The magpies (genus Pica, Cuv.) are of smaller dimen-

! Macgillivray’s British Birds, i. 496. _

duated. Their dispositions, however, are equally omnivo-
rous, and they are distinguished by the same sly and fur-
tive cunning. There is only a single European species,
our common British kind (C. pica, Linn.), which occurs
all over Europe, and is well known in North America, and
some parts of Asia. Many beautiful species occur in Chi-
na, and other eastern countries, such, for example, as the
red-billed pie, P. erythrorhyncha, Gould. Its size exceeds
that of our common kind, and the great length of its tail
bestows upon it’ a still more slender and elegant aspect.
The prevailing colours are blue, with bars of black and
white. It is often kept in aviaries, where it is highly es-
teemed, on account both of its docility and beauty. This
species likewise inhabits the Himalaya Mountains, and
there is reason to believe that. it is fierce and tyrannical
in a state of nature. Mr Shore states, that one which he
kept in captivity, although it refused other food, pounced
ferociously upon living birds, which were presented by way
of experiment, and eagerly devoured them. When seen
amid the foliage of trees, it forms an ornamental and con-
spicuous object, flitting from bough to bough, its long and
flowing tail waving in the wind, and its whole form full of
vivacity and grace.2 The Chinese magpie (P. sinensis),
made known by the researches of General Hardwicke,
seems widely extended over tracts of land of very various
character as to height and situation. It inhabits the higher
portions of the Himalayas, the plains at the base of those
mighty mountains, and a great part of the Chinese erapire.

The beautiful jays (genus GarruLus, Cuv.) are very
nearly allied to the magpies, but the tail is not:so length-
ened,and the culmen of the under mandible is rather more
convex. Our British species (G. garrulus) is one of the
most ornamental of our indigenous birds. It dwells in
woods, beyond the outskirts of which it seldom wanders.
Its food consists of insects, fruits, and forest seeds. Spe-
cies of this little group are found in every quarter of the
known world except New Holland. The blue jay of Ame-
rica (G. cristatus, Plate CCCXCII. fig. 4) is an almost
universal inhabitant of the western woods, frequenting
the thickest settlements, as well as the deepest recesses
of the unpeopled forest,—where his harsh voice often
alarms the watchful deer, to the mortification of the dis-
appointed huntsman. This species is a bitter enemy to
owls, one of which he no sooner discovers than he sum-
mons the whole feathered fraternity to his assistance, and
the united mob proceed to vent their indignant spite
against the blinking solitary, in the most wrathful and un-
measured manner. But this jay himself cannot be held
guiltless of the most owl-like depredations,—for he be-
comes in his turn the very tyrant he detested, and sneaks
through wood and thicket, plundering every nest his pok-
ing bill can reach to, gobbling up the eggs, tearing the
callow young to pieces, and spreading not only fear, but
death, and sorrow, its sad concomitant, around him. An-
other very ornamental species—

Proud of czerulean stains
From heaven’s unsullied arch purloined,

is that mentioned by Pallas as having been shot by Steller
when Behring’s crew landed upon the coast of America.
It is the Corvus Stelleri of Latham, by whom it was first
described from a specimen in Sir Joseph Banks’s collection

from Nootka Sound. A larger and most magnificent bird

is the Columbia jay (Garrulus Bullokii, Wagler,—G. gu-
bernatriz, Temm.), figured in Mr Audubon’s splendid work.
The colour is bright blue, with a lofty crest of separate
plumes, the throat and breast black, the abdomen whitish,

2 Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains, plate xli.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. and two of the central tail-feathers extending far beyond
—~\—" the others. It occurs chiefly in Mexico and California.!

585

any new light upon the subject ; but we shall give a por-Insessores.
tion of the information which we have acquired from vari- ~~"

In the genus CarvocaracTes, Cuv., both mandibles are
equally pointed, and straight to the tips. The only spe-
cies known in Europe, called the nut-cracker (C. nucifra-
ga), is an occasional visitant of Great Britain. Two others
have of late years been discovered in Asia, one of which
is figured by Mr Gould. They are all believed to inhabit
forests, especially those of mountainous countries, whence
-at certain seasons they emigrate in large flocks. In their
climbing tendencies they make an approach to the habits
of the woodpeckers.

The limited genus Tem1a, Vail., with the lengthened
tail and general proportions of the magpies, has the bill
‘elevated, the upper mandible bulged, and its base covered
by short velvety feathers. Example, Corvus varians, Lath.
(Phenotriz temia, Horsfield), of which the general plu-
mage is bronzed green, the head black. It occurs in Java
and elsewhere.

In the genus Graucorts, Forster, the bill resembles
that of the preceding ; but its base bears a pair of fleshy
caruncles. G. cinerea is the only known species. It is a
native of New Zealand, and was discovered during Captain
Cook’s voyage. Its flesh is excellent. It is the cinereous
wattle-bird of Shaw. M. Temminck joins this and the
preceding genus into one.

In the genus Coracias, Linn., containing the rollers,
the bill is strong, compressed towards the point, which is
slightly curved, and the nostrils are oblong, not covered
by the feathers, but placed at their margin. The feet are
short and strong. These birds are confined to the ancient
continents, and are remarkable for their beauty of plu-
mage, of which the colours are usually different shades of
purple, blue, and green. They are said to be wild and
unsociable, feeding on insects, and keeping themselves
concealed in the retirement of thick forests. The Euro-
pean species. (Coracias garrula, Linn.) has been some-
times seen in Britain. The specimen in the Edinburgh
Museum was killed at Dunkeld. Although rare in France,
it is by no means uncommon in Sweden, where we would
not expect to find a species characteristic of the south of
Europe, and which is believed to winter in Barbary and
Senegal. It is not unfrequent in the gardens of Rome,
and is common in the Morea. It becomes very fat in ac-
tumn, and is much sought after during that season as an
article of food, especially by the inhabitants of the Cy-
clades. Several other kinds occur in Africa and the East.
Of these the Abyssinian species is distinguished by the
elongation of the lateral feathers of the tail. The Mada-
gascar roller, and some allied kinds, distinguished by a
shorter, more arched, and greatly broader bill, belong to
the genus Coraris, Cuv., synonymous with Hurystomus
of M. Vieillot.

The genus ParapisEA, Linn., with which we conclude
our abridgment of the conirostral tribe, contains the fa-
mous birds of paradise, so noted during our early inter-
course with eastern countries. The bill is straight, com-
pressed, rather strong, unnotched, the nostrils surrounded
by a close tissue of feathers of a velvet texture, sometimes
resplendent with metallic lustre. (See Plate CCCXCII.
fig. 8.) These birds are native to New Guinea and the
neighbouring islands, and in consequence of the delicately
graceful structure of their plumage, and the pure and beau-
tifully blended colours by which they are adorned, the spe-
cies in general may be regarded as the most highly prized
of all the feathered race. Their history was long obscure
as night, and even now we have but few features of their
character developed by the actual observation of trust-
worthy witnesses. We cannot be here expected to throw

' The Birds of America, plate xevi.
VOL. XVI.

ous authors.

In the second edition of Pennant’s Indian Zoology, there
is a general description of the genus from Valentyn and
other writers, by Dr J. R. Forster, preceded by a learned
disquisition on the fabulous phcenix of antiquity, a bird of
the size of an eagle, decorated with gold and purple plumes,
and more particularly described by Pliny as being charac-
terized by the splendour of gold around the neck, with the
rest of the body purple, the tail blue varied with rose-
colour, the face adorned with combs or wattles, and the
head furnished with a crest. This excellently adorned
pheenix Dr Forster very properly supposes to have been
no other than a symbolical Egyptian illustration of the
annual revolution of the sun, and the conversion of the
great year, which, according to Manilius, corresponds with
the supposed life of the phcenix, and from which period
the same course of seasons and position of the heavenly
bodies are renewed. Now, though it is certain, as Dr
Forster observes, that the birds of paradise were never
known to ancient writers, and that whatever the Egyp-
tian priests delivered concerning their fabulous phoenix
has no apparent agreement with the birds in question, yet
it is remarkable enough that the names applied to them,
both by Indian and European nations, attribute something
of a supposed celestial origin. Dr Shaw, however, thinks
that this notion has in all probability arisen merely from
their transcendent beauty, and the singular and delicate
disposition of their plumage. The Portuguese who navi-
gated to the Indian islands called them Passaros da Sol,
in like manner as the Egyptians regarded their imaginary
bird as symbolizing the annual revolution of that great
luminary. The inhabitants of the island of Ternate call
them Manuco-Dewata, or the Birds of God.?

The great bird of paradise (Paradisea apoda, Linn.,
so called from its supposed want of legs), the first of the
genus made known to Europeans, was imported about the
year 1522, by Antony Pigafetta, who accompanied Ma-
gellan in his voyage round the world. Pigafetta was sa-
tisfied by ocular demonstration from the first, that this
bird, like every other, was supplied with legs, but that the
natives cut them off, as parts of no importance. In con-
sequence, however, of this prevailing if not universal mu-
tilation, a notion soon obtained in Europe that the bird
was naturally destitute of these common-place but useful
organs, and that consequently it floated for ever in the air,
winnowing with loving wings the gentle breezes, or at times
suspending itself for a few brief moments from some lofty
sun-illumined tree, by the two peculiar lengthened filaments
with which it is adorned. In accordance with this belief,
it was of course consistent to suppose, that whatever indi-
viduals were obtained “on this dim spot which men call
earth,” had fallen from their aérial heights immediately be-
fore their dissolution. Even Aldrovandus, the most zeal-
ous naturalist of his age, having himself seen only such
specimens as had been mutilated in the usual manner, ac-
cuses Pigafetta of audacious falsehood in asserting that
the bird was naturally furnished both with legs and feet ;
and the great Scaliger, himself a naturalist of no mean or-
der, gave equal credit to this foolish fancy.

The true residence or breeding-place of these birds
seems to be Papua or New Guinea, from whence they
make occasional excursions to some smaller neighbouring
islands. They fly in flocks of about thirty or forty, led, it
is alleged, by a single bird which the natives call their
king, but which is said to be of a different species. It is
further pretended, that when this bird settles, the whole
flight settle also, in consequence of which they sometimes

2 Shaw's General Zoology, vol. vii. p. 479.

4k

586

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. perish, being unable to rise again owing to the peculiar

—~\ structure of their wings.

They also always fly against
the wind, lest their flowing plumage should be discom-
posed. While flying they make a noise like starlings,
but their common cry rather resembles that of a raven,
and is very audible in windy weather, when they dread the
chance of being thrown upon the ground. In the Aru
Islands they are seen to perch on lofty trees, and are va-
riously captured by the inhabitants, with bird-lime, snares,
and blunted arrows. Though many are taken alive, they
are always killed immediately, embowelled, the feet cut
off, the plumed skins fumigated with sulphur, and then dried
for sale. The Dutch ships frequenting the sea between
New Guinea and Aru, a distance of about twenty miles,
not unfrequently observe flocks of paradise birds crossing
from one to the other of these places, but constantly against
the wind. Should a gale arise, they ascend to a great
height, into the regions of perpetual calm, and there pur-
sue their journey. With respect to their food we have
little certain information from the older authors, some of
whom assert they prey on small birds, a supposition which
Dr Shaw inclines to think is favoured by their strength of
bill and legs, and the vigour with which they act in self-
defence. They are also said to feed on fruits and berries ;
and Linnzus says they devour the larger butterflies.!

We owe the following observations to M. Gaimard, one of
the naturalists who accompanied the expedition of Cap-
tain Freycinet, and who having had an opportunity of seeing
several living birds of paradise in the island of Waigiou,
has furnished us with some interesting details. He says that
they appear to prefer to all other places the most dense and
secluded portions of the forests. When the heavens are
clear, they perch habitually on the summits of the tallest
trees. They fly with rapidity, but in an undulating man-
ner, as is usual with birds which are adorned with long
decomposed or disunited feathers; and he confirms the
old account, that the luxuriant length of their superb plu-
mage induces them always to fly in the direction from which
the wind proceeds. “Cette manceuvre,” he observes, “ est
pour eux trés-naturelle, puisqu’elle maintient les longues
plumes appliquées contre le corps; dans une direction con-
traire, le vent ne manquerait pas d’etaler et de relever ces
plumes, et il en résulterait nécessairement un grand em-
barras dans le jeu des ailes.” Their total disappearance
on the approach of any storm or tempest shows their con-
scious weakness. In other respects, however, they are
courageous, and even vindictive, pursuing fiercely any sup-
posed enemy, however superior to themselves in strength
of bill and talons. There is no instance, Captain Freycinet
supposes (we now know he does so erroncously), of their
being ever reduced to the domestic state; and they are
never found caged by any natives of the Papous, where
they are by no means rare, and where their skins form the
principal object of commercial exchange between the in-
sular inhabitants and the Chinese Indians or eastern Euro-
peans. Authors (we speak not of those who assert that birds
of paradise are nourished by dew, or by the perfume which
exhales from fruits and flowers) have assigned different
diets to these birds. Some say that they search for fruits
and nectarous juices; others that they capture insects,
and such small prey. There is truth in both statements,
for it seems ascertained that they feed alike on fruits and
insects. As to all those anxious interesting cares which
precede, accompany, or follow incubation,—these and many
other important particulars in their history are still un-
known. The natives of New Guinea, in preparing the
skins, content themselves by removing the fleshy mass of
the body. and cutting off the two wings and legs. They
then pass a piece of stick through the mouth downwards

trict suivant les moussons.

to the tail.

gorgeous flowing feathers of the sides render still worthy
of admiration, however unfit to convey a true idea of the
natural state. ’

We shall next extract some interesting information from
a work by M. Lesson, one of the few European naturalists _
who have had an opportunity of beholding these extraordi-
nary creatures in their native haunts. “ Les paradisiers
ou du moins |’éméraude, seule espéce sur laquelle nous pos-
sédons des renseignemens authentiques, vivent en bandes
dans les vastes foréts du pays des Papous, group diles
situées sous l’équateur, et qui se compose des iles Arou,
de Waigiou, et de la grande terre nommée Nouvelle-Gui-
née. Ces sont des oiseaux de passage qui changent de dis-
Les femelles se réunissent en
troupes, s'assemblent sur les sommités des plus grands ar-
bres des foréts, crient toutes 4 la fois pour appeler les
miles. Ceux-ci sont toujours: solitaires au milieu d’une
quinzaine de femelles qui composent leur sérail, a la ma-
niére des gallinacées.

“ J’extrairai de mon journal inédit les détails suivans,
relatifs aux oiseaux de paradis: ils ont été écrits sur les
lieux. Journal Ms., t. vi. p. 19 et suiv. Les oiseaux de
paradis, 4 Yexception de deux espéces, nous étaient ap-
portés par les Papous, ce qui établit entre eux et nous un
commerce actif d’échange. Je me procurai l’éméraude, le
manucode, le loriot paradis orange, Je sifilet, le superbe,
les épimaques proméfils, et 4 paremens frisés, le magni-
fique, et le rouge. La quantité que les naturels de ces con-
trées apportaient 4 bord de la corvette la Coguwille doit
faire supposer que ces oiseaux, si estimés en Europe, y sont
singuliérement multipliés. Le manucode se présenta deux
fois dans nos chasses, et nous tuames le male et la femelle.
Cette espéce parait monogame, ou peut-étre n’est elle iso-
lée par paires qu’au moment dela ponte. Dans les bois cet
oiseau n’a point d’éclat ; son plumage rouge de feu ne le dé-
céle point, et sa femelle n’a que des teintes ternes. I] aime a
se tenir sur lesarbres de teck, dont le large feuillage l’abrite,
et dont le petit fruit forme sa nourriture. I] a iris brun,
et les pieds d’un bleu d’azur trés tendre. Les Papous le
nomment saya. Dés les premiers jours de notre arrivée
sur cette terre de promission (la Nouvelle-Guinée) pour
le naturaliste, je fus ala chasse. A peine avais-je fait
quelques centaines de pas dans ces vieilles foréts, filles du
temps, dont la sombre profondeur est peut-étre le plus
magnifique et le plus pompeux spectacle que j’aie jamais
vu, qu’un oiseau de paradis frappa mes regards; il volait
avec grace et par ondulations; les plumes de ses flanes
formaient un panache gracieux et aérien, qui, sans hyper-
bole, ne ressemblait pas mal a un brillant météore, Sur-
pris, émerveillé, éprouvant une jouissance inexprimable, je
dévorais des yeux ce magnifique oiseau; mais mon trouble
fut si grand que joubliai de le tirer, et que je ne m’aper-
cus que j/avais un fusil que lorsqu’il était déja bien loin.
On ne pourrait guére avoir une idée exacte des paradis
d’aprés les peaux que les Papous vendent aux Malais, et
qui nous parviennent en Europe. Ces peuples chasserent
primitivement ces oiseaux pour décorer les turbans de leur
chefs. Ils les nomment mambéfore dans leur langue, et
les tuent pendant la nuit, en grimpant le long des arbres
ou ilsse couchent, et les tirant avec des fléches faites exprés
et trés courtes, qu’ils faconnent avec le rachis des feuilles
d’un latanier. Les campongs ou villages de Mappia et
d’Emiberbakéne sont célébres par la quantité des oiseaux
qu’ils préparent, et tout l’art des habitans se borne a leur
arracher les pieds, 4 les écorcher, 4 leur fourrer un ba-
tonnet 4 travers du corps, et a les dessécher a la fumée.
Quelques uns plus adroits, et sollicités par les trafiquans

1} Shaw’s General Zoology, vol. vii. p. 482-4,

Few of the museums of Europe contain any Insessores,
other specimens than these mutilated remains, which the —~y7

ORNITHOLOGY. 587

plusieurs substances dans son état de liberté. Je puis Insessores.

Insessores. Chinois, les dess¢chent avec les pieds. Le prix d’un oiseau 4
affirmer qu'il vit de graines de teck, et d’un fruit nommé —~—

—\— de paradis chez les Papous de la cote est au moins d’une

piastre, et ces peuples préférent l'argent 4 tout autre objet,
méme 4 du fer travaillé.

“ Nous tudmes, pendant notre séjour a la Nouvelle-
Guinée, une vingtaine de ces oiseaux, que je préparai
pour la plupart. Ils appartenaient a diverses personnes de
Yexpédition, et notamment au capitaine. Je n’en avais
point encore, lorsque M. Bérard, lieutenant de vaisseau,
zélé pour les collections que je formais en simple particu-
lier, et 4 mes frais, pour Je Muséum, et pour remplir la
promesse que j’avais faite au ministére, en m’embarquant,
de recueillir les objets d’histoire naturelle, voulut bien
m’en remeftre un pour la collection. Depuis, j’en achetai
un second d’un homme de |’équipage, que je lui payai
150 franes. J’en tuai ensuite un avec un grand nombre
de femelles: on les voit au Muséum.

“ L’éméraude en vie est de la taille du geai de France ;
son bec et ses pieds sont bleuatres; Viris est d’un jaune
éclatant; scs mouvemens sont vifs et agiles; il ne se
perche communément que sur le sommet des plus grands
arbres. Lorsqu’il en descend, c'est pour manger les fruits
de quelques arbres moyens, ou lorsque le soleil, dans toute
sa force, lui fait un besoin de chercher de l’ombrage. II
affectionne certains arbres, et fait retentir les environs de
sa voix percante. Son cri lui devint fatal, parce qu'il
nous indiqua les allures de cet oiseau. Nous l’épiames,
et c'est ainsi que nous parvimes a en tuer; car, lors-
qwun paradisier male est perché, et qu'il entend bruiser
dans le silence de Ja forét, il se tait et ne bouge plus. Son
cri d'appel est un votke, voike, voike, voiko, fortement arti-
culé. La femelle a le méme cri, mais elle le pousse d’une
maniére bien plus faible. Celle-ci, déchue du brillant
plumage de son époux n’a que de sombres atours. Nous
en rencontrions 4 chaque arbre des vingtaines réunies,
tandis que les males, toujours solitaires, n’apparaissaient
que rarement.

“ C’est au lever du soleil et 4 son coucher que l’oiseau
de paradis va chercher sa nourriture. Dans le milieu du
jour, il se tient caché sous le large feuillage du teck, et n’en
sort point. Il semble redouter l’action des rayons brilans
de cet astre; et ne point vouloir s’exposer aux atteintes
d'un rival. Nous apprimes, par une longue expérience, 4
imiter la ruse de ce bel oiseau; mais le zéle des tueurs de
paradisiers était si grand que personne ne voulait tirer sur
aucun autre oiseau de peur de les effaroucher, et que, ré-
duit 4 peu prés a mes seules ressources, le tribut que
quelques personnes me donnaient de leur chasse fut bien
diminué; plus curieux, dans lintérét de la science, d’un petit
volatile inédit, que de posséder plus ou moins de dépouilles
dune espéce connue, bien que prisée, je ne guettai des
paradis que pendant quelques jours, et tuai Wailleurs toute
espéce qui arrivait 4 ma portée.

“ Pour chasser les oiseaux de paradis, les voyageurs
appelés 4 visiter la Nouvelle-Guinee doivent se rappeler
qu'il est nécessaire de partir dés le matin du navire, d’arri-
ver au pied de l’arbre de teck ou du figuier, que ces oiseaux
recherchent 4 cause de leur fruit (notre séjour a eu lieu
du 26 Juillet au 9 Aoit), avant quatre heures et de-
mie du matin, et de rester immobile jusqu’a que quelques
males, pressés par la faim, viennent sur les branches quon
aura jugé 4 distance convenable. II est indispensable de
posséder un fusil 4 trés longue portée, et chargé a gros
plombs, car il est fort difficile de tuer roide un éméraude,
et s'il n’est que blessé, il est bien rare quill ne soit pas
perdu pour Je chasseur, dans des fourrées tellement
€paisses, qu’on ne peut y reconnaitre son chemin sans une
boussole.

“Le paradisier petit éméraude mange sans doute de

—

amihou, blanc rosé, de saveur fade et mucilagineuse, de la
grosseur d’une petite figue d’Europe, et qui appartient 4
un arbre du genre jicus. Ces fruits plaisent 4 beaucoup
d’oiseaux, car ils sont aussi recherchés par les calaos, les
manucodes, et les cassicans calibé et phonygame.

“ J’ai vu deux oiseaux de paradis conservés dans une
cage, depuis plus de six mois, parle chef des commercans
Chinois, A Amboine. Ils étaient toujours en mouvement,
et on les nourrissait avec du riz bouilli; mais ils aimaient
surtout les cancrelas (dlatia). Ce Chinois me les fit 500
francs piéce ; alors, sans argent, et n’ayant point de crédit
dans cette ile, je ne pus réclamer ma solde, et ce fut en
vain que j’offris des objets de valeur a ce trafiquant opu-
lent, il fut sourd 4 mes priéres. Pourquoi, sur l’argent
que nous possédions a bord, pour frais accidentels, et
qu’on a retourné 4 Paris, ne pas avoir acheté, pour le
destiner 4 la France, un de ces magnifiques oiseaux,
qui serait peut-étre mort en route, mais dont les habitudes
vivaces, et analogues a celles de nos pies, nous donnaient
tant de chances de succés ?”?

We shall conclude our miscellaneous extracts in illus-
tration of these birds, by a quotation froma recent English
writer. The principal object of attraction to strangers at
Macao is known to be the splendid aviary and gardens of
Mr Beale, who, after a residence of forty years in that
country, devotes his leisure to the cultivation of many of
the most delightful productions of nature, and among these
not the least remarkable is the living bird of paradise, as
thus described by Mr Bennet. “ The specimen in the
possession of Mr Beale isa fine male, Paradisea apoda ot
Linnezus, the P. major of Shaw. He was at the time I
beheld him arrayed in his full and splendid plumage; he
is enclosed in a large and roomy cage, so as not by con-
finement to injure in the slightest degree his delicate and
elegant feathers. This beautiful creature has been in
Mr Beale’s possession nine years, and was originally
procured from the island of Bouro (one of the Molucca
group), which is situated in about latitude 3° 30’ south,
and longitude 126° 30’ east.... The neck of this bird is of
a beautiful and delicate canary-yellow colour, blend-
ing gradually into the fine chocolate colour of the other
parts of the body ; the wings are very short, and of a cho-
colate colour. Underneath them, long, delicate, and
gold-coloured feathers proceed from the sides in two
beautiful and graceful tufts, extending far beyond the
tail, which is also short, of a chocolate colour, with two
very long shafts of the same hue proceeding from the
uripigium. At the base of the mandibles the delicate
plumage has during one time (according as the rays of
light are thrown upon it) the appearance of fine black
velvet, and at another a very dark green, which contrasts
admirably with the bright emerald of the throat.... The
mandibles are of a light blue, irides bright yellow, and the
feet of a lilac tint. This elegant creature has a light,
playful, and graceful manner, with an arch and impudent
look ; dances about when a visitor approaches the cage, and
seems delighted at being made an object of admiration ;
its notes are very peculiar, resembling the cawing of the
raven, but its tones are by far more varied. During four
months of the year, from May to August, it moults. It
washes itself regularly twice daily, and after having per-
formed its ablutions, throws its delicate feathers up nearly
over the head, the quills of which feathers have a peculiar
structure, so as to enable the bird to effect this object.
Its food, during confinement, is boiled rice mixed up with
soft egg, together with plantains, and living insects of the
grasshopper tribe; these insects, when thrown to him,

1 Manuel @ Ornithologie, t. is p. 387. ~

588

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. the bird contrives to catch in his beak with great celerity ;
— \— it will eat insects in a living state, but will not touch them

when dead.

« T observed the bird, previously to eating a grasshopper
given him in an entire or unmutilated state, place the in-
sect upon the perch, keep it firmly fixed with the claws,
and divesting it of the legs, wings, &c. devour it, with the
head always placed first.....It rarely alights upon the
ground, and so proud is this creature of its elegant dress,
that it never permits a soil to remain on it; and it may be
frequently seen spreading out its wings and feathers, and
regarding its splendid self in every direction, to observe
whether it is in an unsullied condition.”

Dr Shaw alludes to an instance of the bird of paradise
having been brought alive to England. It had, however,
entirely lost the beautiful floating feathers which render its
body apparently so light and buoyant, and did not long sur-
vive its arrival in our murky clime.

Although there are not above seven distinct species of
these birds, they have been formed into no less than four
separate genera by M. Vieillot. The most anciently known
is the kind called in English books the great or common
bird of paradise, /’éméraude of the French, P. apoda, Linn.
to which most of the preceding memoranda may apply.
(See Plate CCCXCII. fig. 6.) It is of a cinnamon colour,
the upper part of the head and neck yellow, the front and
throat emerald green, or black. It is the male of this
species which bears the long, floating, yellow plumes so
prized as articles of commerce, with a view to ornament
in dress. Although the body is no larger than that of a
thrush, the total length is two feet. In the red paradise
bird (P. rubra) the head and throat are emerald-green,
the back and front of the neck orange yellow and velvety,
the throat chesnut or cinnamon colour, and the long fea-
thers of the flanks brilliant carmine red. The two pecu-
liar barbless shafts which proceed from the base of the tail,
are broad, flattened, twisted, and of a brownish-red colour.
These belong to the restricted genus PARADISEA.

The six-shafted paradise bird (P. sexsetacea, Shaw,—
P. aurea, Gmel.) is black, with the throat of golden green,
and three prolonged setaceous feathers proceeding from
behind each eye, and terminating in a little expanded disk
of golden green. It forms the genus Paroria of Vieillot.
We shall merely add, that P. superba constitutes the genus
LopHorina,—BP. regia that called Cicinnurus,—and P.
nigra, Gmel., another named AsTRAPIA. The whole are
figured by Buffon, Vaillant, or Vieillot, and their singular
forms, gorgeous colouring, and exquisite structure of plu-
mage, render them deserving of the most attentive con-
sideration on the part of all admirers of nature.

Trise 47TH.—TENUIROSTRES.

Baron Cuvier here places a variety of generic groups
which agree chiefly in possessing a slender lengthened bill,
sometimes straight, sometimes considerably curved. Ac-
cording to the structure of the tongue, which in seyeral
genera is not yet distinctly known, they feed either on in-
sects or the nectarous juices of fruits and flowers,--a few,
such as the humming-birds, combining both these habits.

In the genus Sirra the bill is straight, pointed, com-
pressed at the extremity, and the tongue short and corne-
ous. The species called nut-hatches climb along the bark
of trees with extraordinary facility, not only upwards, like
the woodpeckers, but downwards, and in all directions.
The European species (S. Europea), though a constant re-
sident in Britain, is rather rare in most localities. It breeds
in hollow trees, not seldom using the deserted habitation
of a woodpecker, the opening into which it contracts by

means of a wall of clay. The female sits very close during Insessores:
incubation, and instead of flying off when approached, she ~~~

will utter a hissing sound, and make a show of striking
at the intruder with her bill and wings. Sir W. Jardine
some time ago enjoyed an opportunity of observing a brood
which had been taken young. They became remarkably
tame, and. when released from their cage, would run over
their owner in all directions, poking into seams and pockets,
as if in search of food upon some goodly tree, and uttering
from time to time a low and plaintive cry. In climbing,
they rest much upon the tarsus, but never use the tail.
Several true nut-hatches occur in North America, but Pen-
nant erred in supposing that the European species was
likewise indigenous to the new world.

In the genus XeEnops of Illiger, the bill is rather more
compressed, and the under ridge more convex, while in
ANABATES of Temm. it is the upper ridge which increases
in convexity, so as to approach to that of the thrushes ; but
the tail in some of the species is long and wedge-shaped,
and exhibits a worn appearance, as if it were occasionally
used in climbing.

In the genus SyNALLAxIs, Vieil., the bill is straight, not
much lengthened, considerably compressed, slender and
pointed, and the tail is generally long and acuminate. (See
Plate CCCXCIL. fig. 7.) We know little of the habits of
these birds, except that they are insectivorous, and dwell
in forests. Most of the species are from South America,
and to these it is probable that the generic term should
be restricted.

The old genus Certuia of Linnzus was characterized
by an arched bill, but the species possessed but little else
in common, and have been therefore formed into several
minor groups. The true or restricted creepers (CeRTHIA,
Cuy.), so called from their habit of running round the trunks
of trees, have the bill of medium length, curved, compress-
ed, slender, sharp pointed. The tail is wedge-shaped, and
composed of stiff, deflected feathers. Our well-known Bri-
tish species (C. familiaris) is the only example of the ge-
nus found in Europe, and it is in fact doubtful whether
there is any other elsewhere. The North American creeper
seems identical, but the numerovs other birds described
as creepers do not belong to the genus Certhia. The so-
litary type alluded to is a retired inhabitant of the woods,
in no way conspicuous in colour, though pleasingly mottled
above with black, brown, and grayish white ; and being of
small size, and seldom showing itself in open places, is
deemed rarer than it really is. Though of a somewhat
lengthened form, it is probably, with the exception of the
golden-crested wren, the smallest bodied British bird. It
is said to feed entirely upon insects, although as a winter
resident in many frost-bound regions, we shall not aver
that it never swallows seeds. It builds in the hollows of
trees, and may be often seen during the delightful autumn,
when the rustling woods are fragrant with fallen leaves,
flitting from the top of one trunk to the bottom of another,
which it ascends by a kind of spiral progression, and then
darting downwards to a neighbouring tree, it thus busily
pursues from time to time its interrupted flight. This bird
chiefly shows itself in our shrubberies and wooded plea-
sure-grounds in winter.

In the genus Denprocotapres, Hermann, the tail re-
sembles that of the preceding, but the bill is much stronger,
and enlarged at the base. In certain species it is greatly
curved. (Plate CCCXCII. fig. 9.) These birds are Ame-
rican, and are usually characterized by a reddish plumage.
In Ticuoproma, Illiger, the tail does not present a worn
appearance at the point, although the best known, if not
the only species, runs up rocks with great agility. The
bill is long, slender, triangular, and depressed at the base.

| (885 8 Ee EEE EEE DI ne een aT nee

1 Wanderings in New South Wales, &c. vol. ii.

ORNITHOLOGY. 589

the uniformity presented by all these circumstances in a Insessores.

Insessores. The European species, called by us the wall-creeper (7.
variety of individuals, that we are enabled to trace out the —~y~——

—\— phenicoptera, Temm.,— Certhia muraria, Gmel.), inhabits

the southern countries of Europe, where it dwells among
lofty and precipitous rocks. It is well known among the
Swiss Alps, and the mountainous parts of Spain and Italy,
where it is said to prey much on spiders and their eggs.

In the genus Necrarinia of Illiger, the bill is arched,
pointed, and compressed, resembling that of the creepers,
with which the species were so long conjoined; but they
do not climb, and their habits, if the name is properly
applied, are not so much insectivorous as honey-sucking.
They are all exotic. The term guit-guit is given by the
French to certain small species, of which the plumage of
the males is very rich and lustrous. Their tongue is bifid
and filamentary. Such are Certhia cyanea, cerulea, &c.
Some species of larger size and less adorned plumage, and
of which the tongue is short and cartilaginous, have been
separated from the others. Such is a South American
species, the Merops rufus of Gmelin, as large as a night-
ingale, of a reddish colour above; the throat whitish. It
constructs a covered nest, and serves as the type of Tem-
minck’s genus OPETIORHYNCHUS.'

The genus Dicaum of Cuv. has the bill longer than the
head, sharp, curved, depressed, and broadened at the
base. The species are of small size, and usually ornament-
ed with portions of scarlet. They are natives of the East
Indies. In MELitHReEPTUus of Vieillot, the bill is extreme-
ly long, and curved almost into a semicircle. Of this form
the hook-billed creeper, Certhia vestiaria, Shaw, affords a
good example. (Plate CCCXCIII. fig. 2.) Itis a native of
the Sandwich Islands, where it is much valued on account
of its plumage, which affords the principal material in the
formation of those gorgeous scarlet mantles worn by chiefs
and persons of distinction.

The sowimangas (a Madagascar name, signifying sugar
eaters, genus CinnyRis, Cuv.) have the bill long, slender,
and finely toothed along the edges. The tongue is capa-
ble of considerable extension, and terminates in a small
bifurcation. The species are widely dispersed over all the
southern regions of the old world (Africa, the Indian
Archipelago, &c.), and seem in those countries to represent
the beautiful humming-birds of the western world. Indeed
these tribes greatly resemble each other both in form and
habits. The souimangas are subject to a double moult,
which occasions a considerable diversity, in the plumage
even of the same species, according to the season of the
year ; and hence our knowledge of this, as of several other
sumptuous groups, though sufficiently voluminous, is pro-
bably not yet remarkable for its accuracy. Several splen-
did works, however, have been devoted, either in whole or
in part, to its illustration.2 The nuptial plumage is remark-
able for its golden lustre, and the richness and variety of
its innumerable iridescent hues; but after the termina-
tion of the breeding season, a much more humble garb is
assumed, and many a bizarre appearance is presented by
the intermediate links of that changeable costume which
connects the holiday-suit of spring with the more quaker-
like attire of autumn. Hence the difficulty of distinguish-
ing in many birds, between a specific difference and an in-
dividual variation, more especially where foreign species
are concerned ; for in such instances we have seldom a
prolonged opportunity of verifying our observations on ex-
ternal characters, by an examination of natural habits and
instinctive modes of life. Yet it is only by ascertaining

exact limits of specificidentity. Several species of Cinnyris
occur in India, but the greater proportion are of African
origin, and may be said to form the most signal and ad-
mired feature in the Ornithology of that country.

In the greater number the tail is equal. Of these we may
name the superb creeper ( C. superba), described and figured
in the magificent work of M. Vieillot. Its length is six
inches; the crown of the head, upper part of the neck,
smaller wing-coverts, back, and rump, are bright-greenish
gold; across the upper part of the breast runs a bar of
bright gilded yellow, beneath which the whole under parts
are deep brownish crimson; the wings and tail are blackish
brown, the legs are also brown, the bill is black. This
beautiful species was discovered at Malimba, in Africa, by
M. Perrein. Another highly adorned species, such “ as
limners love to paint, and ladies to look upon,” is the
Certhia splendida of Shaw (C. afra and. lotenia, Linn. ?).
It usually occurs in woody places, and, in addition to its
splendid plumage, is said to be worthy of admiration for its
musical powers,—its song being by some esteemed equal
to that of the nightingale. The spotted breasted Cinnyris
(C. maculata) also dwells in the forests of Malimba, and
frequently approaches the habitations of the natives, al-
lured by the flowers of the Cytisus cajan, commonly called
the congo pea, which, according to Dr Shaw, is much cul-
tivated by the negroes.

In some of these birds the central'feathers of the tail are
lengthened inthe males. Such is C. violacea, a Cape spe-
cies, which likewise dwells in woods, and is said to build a
nest of a singularly elegant construction. In a few the
bill is almost straight, as in C. rectirostris, Vieillot. Our
restricted limits will not admit of our expatiating on this
delightful group.

The genus ARACHNOTHERA of Temm. has the long ar-
cuated bill of the souimangas, but it is of stronger struc-
ture, and wants the dentations, and the tongue is short and
cartilaginous. The species (such as A. longirostra and
inornata, Temm. Pl. Col. 84, figs. 1 and 2), so far as yet
known, inhabit the Indian islands, and prey on spiders.

The genus Trocuius, Linn., contains the true hum-
ming-birds, a numerous group of fairy and fantastic forms,
which inhabit both continents of America, and some neigh-
bouring islands, but are altogether unknown in the ancient
world. The bill is long and slender, but in its range
throughout the entire species exhibits considerable modi-
fication, being in some nearly straight, in others curved,
and in a few turned upwards. Such as are characterized
by an almost straight bill constitute the genus Ornismya,
Lesson ( Orthorhynchus, Lacepede), Plate CCCXCIIL. fig.
1; while those in which it is more or less bent remain
under the ancient name of Trocuitus, Ibid. fig. 6. The
tongue is long and extensile, and is usually described as
being composed of two muscular tubes united for the great-
er part of their length, and broadening towards the point
into a spoon-like portion. Sir W. Jardine, on relaxing a
specimen of 7’. moschitus, observed the appearance of a fim-
briated opening at the tip, the outer margin of each divi-
sion being beset with recurved, sharp-pointed, pliable spines,
while in all that Mr Swainson examined the two filaments
were perfectly flat. Their feet are extremely small, their
wings long and narrow, their tails comparatively broad,—
whilst their shortened humerus and very large unnotched

* The generic name of Nectarinia was bestowed by Illiger upon those foreign creepers known by the terms guit-guits and souiman-

gas, but it has been applied more exclusively by Cuvier to the former, and by Temminck to the latter.

The souimangas, on the

other hand, fatl into Cuvier’s genus Cinnyris, while the guit-guits are placed in the genus Careba by Temm. These transpositions, as

we have already remarked, are extremely perplexing.

Vaillant, Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux d’ Afrique, 5 vols in 4to, 1799, and subsequent years,—and Audebert, Oiseaux dorés, ow a refiets mé~
éalliques, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1802. A continuation of the latter. work has been published by M. Vieillot.

590 ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. sternum exhibit osteological features in relation to the

old Fernando Oviedo gives a still more alarming state- Insessores,
—.— power of flight resembling those of swifts. The beauty of

ment of their fiery temper. ‘“ When they see a man —~vy—

their plumage, if equalled, is certainly unsurpassed among
the feathered tribes.

Humming-birds, in general, may be said to inhabit
chiefly the intra-tropical regions of America, including the
West Indies; but that they are capable of sustaining a
considerable reduction of temperature, and of spreading
themselves into comparatively rigorous climes, is evident
from the observations of Captain King, who in his survey
of the southern coasts met with numerous examples of
these diminutive creatures flying about in a snow-storm
near the Straits of Magellan, and discovered two species in
the remote island of Juan Fernandez. Two other hardy
species had been long known to migrate during summer far
into the interior of North America, viz. the ruff-necked hum-
ming-bird (7. rufus), discovered during Cook’s voyage in
Nootka Sound, and since traced by Kotzebue to the 61st
degree of north latitude, along the western shores; and the
ruby-throated humming-bird ( 7. colubris), which was found
breeding by Mr Drummond near the sources of the Elk
River, and is known to reach at least as far north as the
fifty-seventh parallel. Mr Bullock also discovered several
species at a high elevation, and of course a coolish tempe-
rature, on the lofty table-lands of Mexico, and in woods in
the vicinity of the snowy mountains of Orizaba. The best
and most ample history of these “ feathered gems” may be
gathered from the pages of Wilson and Audubon, while the
superb adornment of their beautifully pencilled plumage, so
rich in its varied combination of lustrous green and gold,
may be studied with advantage in the sumptuous pages of
M. Lesson.! They are of a most lively and active disposi-
tion, almost perpetually upon the wing, and darting from
flower to flower with the busy rapidity rather of a bee than
abird. In the uncultivated districts of the country they in-
habit the forests, but in peopled regions they flock without
fear into the gardens, poising themselves in the air, while
they thrust their long extensile tongues into every flower
in search of food. According to Bullock, they will remain
suspended in a space so small that they have scarcely
room to move their wings, and the humming noise which
they produce proceeds entirely from the prodigious ve-
locity with which they vibrate these tiny organs, by means
of which they will remain in the air almost motionless
for hours together. An older writer, Fermin, a physi-
cian of Surinam, compares this action to that of the
bee-like flies which in still and sultry weather we of-
ten see hovering in the vicinity of still waters; and Wil-
son says, that when a humming-bird arrives before a
thicket of trumpet-flowers in bloom, he suspends himself
so steadily that his wings become “ invisible, or like a mist.”
They often enter windows, and after examining any fresh
bouquets with which fair hands may have decked the
table, they will dart like sun-beams out by an opposite
door or window. During the breeding season they be-
come jealous of encroachment, and exhibit great boldness
in defence of their supposed rights. When any one ap-
proaches their nest, they will dart around with a humming
noise, frequently passing within a few inches of the intru-
der’s head. A small species called the Mexican star (7.
cyanopogon) is described by Mr Bullock as exhibiting
gteat intrepidity while under the influence of anger. It
will attack the eyes of the larger birds, striking at them
with its sharp, needle-like bill ; and when invaded by one
of its own kind during the breeding season, their mutual
wrath becomes immeasurable, their throats swell, their
crests, tails, and wings expand, and they fight in the air
till one or other falls exhausted to the ground. Indeed

climb y¢ tree where they have their nests, they flee at his
face, and stryke him in the eyes, commying, goying, and
returnyng with such swiftness, that no man woulde ryghtly
believe it that hath not seen it.”?

Although humming-birds may frequently suck the juices
of flowers, those naturalists err who allege that they sup-
port themselves exclusively on that natural nectar. “ For
myself,” says Wilson, “ I can speak decisively on the sub-
ject: I have seen the humming-bird for half an hour at a
time darting at those little groups of insects that dance in
the air in a fine summer evening, retiring to an adjoining
twig to rest, and renewing the attack with a dexterity
that sets all our other fly-catchers at defiance.” Mr Bul-
lock thinks it probable that all the species eat insects, and
he had repeated ocular proof that many of them feed on
flies, which they both caught themselves, and used to
steal from spiders’ webs. It was only the smaller kinds,
however, that they dared to molest, for the stronger spid-
ers showed fight, on which the besiegers would shoot off
with the rapidity of a sun-beam, and could scarcely be
discovered but by the luminous glow of their refulgent
colours. It may easily be conceived that creatures of such
resplendent plumage, in spite of their irascible temper and
pugnacious habits, are universal favourites wherever they
appear; and that in “the sweet serenity of a summer
morning,” their visits to the dewy flower-beds of a cottage
dwelling are surely welcomed with delight.

When morning dawns, and the blest sun again
Lifts his red glories from the eastern main,

Then through the woodbines, wet with glittering dews,
The flower-fed humming-bird his round pursues ;
Sips with inserted bill the honey’d blooms,

And chirps his gratitude as round he roams ;
While richest roses, though in crimson drest,
Shrink from the splendour of his gorgeous breast.
What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly !
Each rapid movement gives a different dye ;
Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show,
Now sink to shade—now like a furnace glow !

In the summer of 1803 a nest of young humming-birds
was brought to Alexander Wilson. ‘They were nearly fit
to fly ; in fact, one of them did fly out of the window the
same evening, and falling against a wall, was killed upon
the spot. The other refused food, and in consequence of
this foolish obstinacy its life next morning was nearly ex-
tinct. A lady in the house undertook to be its nurse, and
placing it in her bosom, it immediately began to revive,
which showed its good taste and natural sense of comfort.
She then kindly dissolved a little sugar in her mouth, and
thrusting its bill into the same, the creature sucked with
great avidity. In this manner it was brought up until fit
for the cage. Wilson kept it for three months afterwards,
supplying it constantly with loaf-sugar dissolved in water,
which it preferred to honey and water. He also gave it
fresh flowers every morning, sprinkled with the sugary li-
quid. It appeared quite gay, active, and full of spirit,
hovering from flower to flower as if in its native wilds
(alas! it still was caged), and always expressed by its mo-
tions and chirping the greatest pleasure at the sight of
every fresh supply of flowers. ‘ Numbers of people,”
says our author, “ visited it from motives of curiosity, and
I took every precaution to preserve it if possible through
the winter. Unfortunately, however, by some means it
got at large, and, flying about the room, so injured itself
that it soon after died.”

Most of the preceding notices apply to the ruby-throat-
ed humming-bird (7. colubris, Linn.), the species of which

‘i Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux Mouches ;—Hist. Nat. des Colibris ;—Hist. Nat. des Trochilidés. ,
* History of the West Indics, translated by Richard Eden, p. 199.

ORNITHOLOGY. 591

tion to which is placed the genus Frecitus of Cuvier, con- Insessvres,

[nsessores. the particular habits and general economy have been the
taining only a single European species, the Corvus gracu- =~

—Y—" most minutely studied. It sometimes makes its appearance

in Louisiana as early as the 10th of March, and shows itself
some weeks later in the northern states, varying not only
with the latitude, but the temperature of each season. Its
nest is described by Mr Audubon as being of the most
delicate nature, the external parts formed of a light-gray
lichen found on the branches of trees, or on decayed fence-
rails, and so neatly arranged round the whole nest, as well
as to some distance from the spot to which it is attached,
as to seem part of the branchor stem. These little pieces
of lichen, he and others allege, are glued together with the
saliva of the bird ; but whether this fact has been proved by
observation, or is onlya natural inference from the actual ap-
pearance of agglutination, we cannot say. The next coat-
ing, however, consists of a cottony substance, and the in-
nermost of all of silky fibres obtained from various plants,
and extremely soft and delicate. In this delightful little
bed the female lays only two eggs, of an almost oval form,
and colour of pure white.!| Not more than ten days are
required for hatching; the young are ready to fly in seven
or eight days; they are fed or cherished by the parents
for nearly another week; and Mr Audubon is of opinion
that they are no sooner able to provide for themselves
than they associate with other broods, and perform their
migrations apart from the old birds, as he has sometimes
observed twenty or thirty young humming-birds resorting
to a group of trumpet-flowers when not a single adult male
was to be seen.2, The migration of birds, as Dr Rich-
ardson has well observed, has in all ages been an object
of pleasing speculation to the philosopher ; but in no in-
stance does it appear more wonderful than when contem-
plated in relation to these tiny tribes. The lofty and sus-
tained flight of the eagle and albatross seems only com-
mensurate with their gigantic size, and the irresistible
sweeping of their mighty pinions; “ but how is our admi-
ration of the ways of Providence increased, when we find
that one of the least of its class, clothed in the most deli-
cate and brilliant plumage, and apparently more fitted to
flutter about in a conservatory than to brave the fury of
the blast, should yield to few birds in the extent of its mi-
grations.’$

The only instance with which we are acquainted of a
humming-bird having been brought alive to England, is
that mentioned by Latham. A young gentleman, a few
days before sailing from Jamaica, observed a female of
Trochilus mango sitting on her eggs. He secured the
bird, cut off the twig, and brought the whole on board his
vessel. The mother was fed with honey and water, and
during the voyage hatched two young ones, which surviv-
ing their parent, were landed in England and lived for
some time in the possession of Lady Hammond, from
whose mouth they readily sipped nectar. The longest
survivor, however, died in about two months after its ar-
rival. These frail creatures are in fact far too impatient
of continuous cold to endure the climate of Britain during
winter. We shall conclude by observing, that the species
are very numerous, and, like the generality of extensive
groups, have been of late partitioned into many minor ge-
nera by M. Lesson, and others who have devoted them-
selves to their consideration. The range of size, as well
as of character, is considerable,— Trochilus minimus, which
is no larger than an able-bodied bee, is the least of all the
feathered race,—while Trochilus gigas, a “ triton ’mong
the minnows,” is the largest of humming-birds, and al-
most equals the dimensions of a swallow.

In proceeding with our exposition of the tenuirostral
tribes, we now approach the Hoopoes, in close approxima-

lus, or red-legged crow of British writers, which we have
already briefly noticed as a Pyrrhocorax. It is in truth so
nearly allied to the Alpine crow (C. pyrrhocorax), or
choucard des Alpes, both in structure and habits, and is
so often seen in company with that species, that wherever
the one may be placed, the other should not be far dis-
tant. M. Temminck, indeed, places them in the same ge-
nus, although the bill of the red-legged bird (or Cornish
chough) is longer than the head, more subulate and slen-
der at the point, and without any notch. Cuvier regards
the Corvus affinis of Latham, and another species from
New Holland, as both belonging to the genus FrEGILUus.

The true hoopoes (genus Upura) are all distinguished
by a crest upon the head, composed of a double row of
lengthened plumes, and capable of being raised at plea-
sure. The only European species ( U. epops, Linn. Plate
CCCXCIII. fig. 3) is a summer bird of passage on the
Continent, where it travels northward even as far as Swe-
den. It never breeds in Britain, though it sometimes ac-
cidentally occurs there. We had one sent us a few years
ago from the county of Fife. This bird is called bub-
bola by the Italians, most probably from its peculiar cry.
It keeps itself concealed among the trees; but is constant-
ly heard repeating the syllable bu, bu, bu, bu, bu, with
such a strong sonorous voice, that it may be heard at a
great distance. Its song properly so called is only utter-
ed during the honey-moon. Although the hoopoe lives
and builds in woods, it may be often seen, in search of in-
sect food, in fields and pastures. The nest is generally
placed either in the natural hollow of a tree, or in the
deserted excavation of a woodpecker. It is composed out-
wardly of feathers, and is lined with the hair of cows and
horses. The eggs are grayish white, finely spotted with
brown. This bird is very common in Egypt. A nearly
allied species (UW. Capensts) is found at the Cape, and oc-
curs also in the East Indies ; but we presume M. Savi is in
error when he says the genus is likewise known in Ame-
rica.

The genus Promerops of Brisson has also an elongat-
ed slender bill, finely pointed, laterally compressed, some-
what convex above, with the nostrils open and cleft lon-
gitudinally. The tail is very long and graduated, and the
tongue is extensile and bifurcated, so that the species are
able to absorb the nectarous juices of flowers. The title
seems now restricted to the African species, of which the
only one distinctly known is the Cape promerops (P. Ca-
pensis, Merops caffer, Gm.), of a grayish brown above,
with a white throat, bordered by two dark lines, the breast
reddish, the abdomen yellow. ‘The tail is of great length
during the completed plumage ; but the long, ribbon-like
feathers are often absent, which greatly alters the exter-
nal character of the bird. (See Plate CCCXCIII. fig. 5.)

In the magnificent and somewhat disputed genus Epi-
MACHUS, Cuv., the bill, though more robust in some of the
species, resembles that of the two preceding genera; but
the base, or region of the nostrils, is beset with short,
rounded, scale-like feathers, after the manner of the birds
of paradise, which they somewhat resemble, moreover, in
the great extension of certain portions of their plumage.
They are also native to the same countries. The Hpima-
chus magnificus has the general plumage of a rich velvet
black, the head and throat lustrous, with changing tints of
green and blue. The tail is of ordinary length and struc-
ture, but the sides are singularly ornamented by long ex-
tended filamentous feathers. (See Plate CCCXCIII. fig. 7.)
The female is much less adorned, being, according to M.

? Dr Richardson describes the eggs as of “ a reddish-white colour, and obtuse at both ends.”

? Ornithological Biography, vol. i. p. 251.

3 Fauna Boreali-Americana, part ii. p. 323.

592

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. Lesson, reddish above and gray oeclow, streaked with -
—\— brown. The Epimachus superbus is likewise of a velvet

black, glossed im various parts with golden green and pur-
ple, the flank feathers greatly developed, and terminated
by a brilliant edging. The tail is of such enormous length
(Plate CCCXCIII. fig. 4) that the total extent of this
species is nearly four feet. ‘The female (Upupa fusea of
Gmelin ?) is described as reddish on the wings and tail, the
body of a mingled black and brown. The two preceding
kinds inhabit New Guinea. The Paradisea alba of the older
systems is by some referred to our present genus, which
has also been made to contain a beautiful New Holland
species, known to the natives by the name of rifle-bird,
and described by Mr Swainson under the title of Pélorus
paradiseus. It is the Epim. regius of Lesson and Gar-
not,! and was previously figured by Mr Wilson as Epim.
Brisbanii, in honour of General Sir Thomas ‘Brisbane,
by whom it is believed to have been first transmitted
to this country.2 If not a true Epimachus, it certainly
greatly resembles that genus, having the form and colour-
ing of E. magnijficus, and the same tendency (though less
strongly developed) to an elongation of the lateral plumes.
The obscure black and brown plumage of the female like-
wise corresponds to what M. Lesson regards as the sexual
distinctions of the other species. We have had recent in-
formation, which confirms our former views, that it is not
of honey-sucking propensities. It rather exhibits a ten-
dency to scansorial habits; and in its search for insects
its bill may be heard from some distance tapping the bark,
like that of a woodpecker.

All the preceding groups of the PasszrINE ORDER
belong to Cuvier’s first primary division, which, as we said
at starting (see page 567), is characterized by never hav-
ing the outer united to the inner toe by more than the
length of one or two phalanges.

Those which follow, on the contrary, forming the second
and much less numerous primary division of our present
order, have the outer toe almost as long as the middle
one, and united to it as far as the base of the terminal
articulation. Such a principle of division might, @ prior?,
be inferred to lead to some serious mal-arrangement of
the groups; for it is extremely. unlikely that so triflmg
a character should be found in uniform accordance with
other and more influential attributes, and the slightest
study or most superficial inspection of this the Syndac-
tylous Division of Baron Cuvier’s passerine order will suffice
to show that the said division is in many points extremely
heterogeneous and unnatural. To prove’ this to the satis-
faction of any one at all conversant with the character of
the prevailing forms in Ornithology, it will suffice merely
to enumerate its component parts, viz. the bee-eaters (Me-
rops), the motmots (Prionites), the king-fishers (Alcedo),
the todies (Zodus), and the horn-bills (Buceros). It is
indeed surprising that any one so gifted with the power of
philosophical observation, so qualified by his profound ac-
quaintance with comparative anatomy to trace the natural
relations of living creatures, and so signally successful in
his usual generalizations, should either have brought to-
gether, or permitted to remain in juxtaposition, so dis-
cordant a group. The regulating character supposed to
be competent to amalgamate these discordant materials is
alleged to consist simply in the close adherence of the
outer and middle toe throughout a considerable portion of
their length, that is, as far as the penultimate joints. Now,
that this character by itself is of no avail in the forma-
tion of natural groups, is evident from two considera-
tions: —1st, From its being found in numerous genera, which
are admitted to bear no affinity to each other ;—2dly,

1 Voyage de Duperrey, pl. xxviii.
Yas i} Y

from its being absent in some of the component members Insessores.
We may illus- —~v—

of a natural family, and present in others.
trate this by an example. In the South American genus
Ampelis there are genuine species, in some of which the
outer and middle toes are united, while in others they are
free. This is well seen in the beautiful Ampelis carnifex, in
which these parts are joined together, while in the closely
allied species A. pompadoura they are disunited. Having
called the reader’s attention to this inconsistency, we shall
proceed to a brief sketch of the different generic groups
above named.

In the beautiful genus Mrroprs, Linn., the bill is elon-
gated, somewhat triangular at the base, slightly arched,
sharp pointed. The wings are long, and narrow at the
extremity. The feet are short. The flight of these birds,
commonly called bee-eaters, is easy and buoyant, resem-
bling that of the swallow. The species are numerous in
Africa and the East; but only one is accustomed to show
itself in Europe, the Merops apiaster, or common bee-eater
of English writers (to whom, however, it is one of the
rarest of the feathered race), an elegantly-formed and
richly-plumaged bird (Plate CCCXCIV. fig. 2). It arrives
in the southern countries of the Continent in March, and
departs in September. It flies in flocks, usually at a con-
siderable elevation, and utters with hoarse and guttural
voice, in startling disaccordance with its slender aspect, a
continual cry of gra, gra, gra. It builds in deep horizontal
holes in sandy banks, which it excavates in whole or in part,
working vigorously with feet and bill, and kicking out the
dry earth behind it with great dexterity. It lays six or
seven eggs, white, lucid, and almost spherical. When the
young are partly fledged, but not yet fit to fly, they creep
to the mouth of their holes, where they seem to enjoy the
happy summer light and genial sunshine ; but on the least
alarm they trundle stern foremost into their inner chambers,
where they lie concealed until tranquillity again prevails. So
accustomed do they seem indeed to this peculiar movement,
that when taken from the nest, and placed in any more ex-
posed position, they seek to escape by running backwards.
In fact, for a time they seem unable to walk in any other
direction. All these birds are exclusively insectivorous,
and prey almost entirely on the hymenopterous tribes.
Although they often take their food upon the wing, they
also gather it from the ground; and whenever they espy
the small hole which leads into the nest of wasp or bem-
bex, they place themselves close beside it, and snap up
the industrious tenants on their exit or arrival. . The Ita-
lian contadini regard the cry of the bee-eater as a sign
of rain when they hear it uttered from a great height.
The appearance of this beautiful bird in England is acci-
dental. We may add, that none of the species occurs in
America.

In the genus PrionirEs, Illiger, the feet and form are
similar, but the bill is much stronger than in the preced-
ing, the margins of both mandibles are crenulated (see
Plate CCCXCIV. fig. 3), and the tongue is feathered.
These birds are natives of South America. The plumage
of their head is loose, like that of our common jay, the tail
is long and graduated, and in adult birds the two central
feathers are often bare or barbless for a space not far from
the extremity. They prey on insects, occasionally attack
small birds, and build their nests in the hollows of trees.
Example, the blue-crowned motmot, Ramphastos momota,
Gmelin.

The genus ALCEDO, containing the king-fishers, has the
legs still shorter than the bee-eaters, and the bill long,
straight, angular, and pointed (CCCXCIV. figs. 1 and 4).
As originally constituted, it contained a numerous assem-
blage of species from various countries of the world, of shape

2 Illustrations of Zoology, vol. i. pl. xi.
SY, Y

ORNITHOLOGY.

Insessores. and proportions rather awkward than elegant, but almost all
——.— remarkable for great splendour of plumage. The size and

593

gan is horizontally depressed, and obtuse at the extremi- Insessores
ty, the tarsi are more elevated, and the tail shorter. Their —~~——~

length of the bill are usually disproportioned to the body,
and the feet and legs seem of a diminutive and apparently
inconvenient form; but the shining silky lustre of the fea-
thers, and their rich and-infinitely varied hues of the most
brilliant green and blue, contrasted with different shades of
orange, black, and brown, render the genus one of the most
showy and attractive within the entire range of the ornitho-
logical system. The Alcedo ispida(our common king-fisher )
is the only species which occurs in Europe, and it yields to
few of its brethren in its lustrous beauty. It is one of the
rarest, and certainly the most highly adorned, of all our
resident species. It haunts the banks of lakes and rivers,
building in hollows near their margin, and preys chiefly on
small fish, on which it darts with the rapidity of an arrow,
plunging its little gem-like body for one flashing moment
in the crystal stream.

Certain modifications observable in the form of the bill,
and accompanied, as usual, by a corresponding change of
habits, have induced the division of the original genus.
For example, we owe to Dr Leach the formation of the
genus DacExo, of which the type is the giant king-fisher
of New Holland (A. gigantea of Latham). The bill is
very strong, curved at the extremity, and bulged beneath.
These species (called martin-chasseurs by the French)
inhabit forests, and build their nests, not in the excavated
banks of rivers, but in the hollows of lofty trees ; whereas
the true king-fishers (martin-pecheurs) are never found at
any distance from the “ pure element of waters.” The
former also feed on insects rather than fish, and, the larger
kind especially, are clothed in a dingier and less adorned
plumage.

The one above alluded to (D. gigantea) is described
by Mr Bennet as well known to the colonists of New
South Wales by the name of laughing or feathered jack-
ass,—a designation which occasioned a lady at home to
declare, that of all the wonderful productions of Australia,
she thought nothing could equal the “ feathered donkey.”
Its peculiar gurgling laugh, commencing in a low and
gradually rising to a louder tone, is often heard by travel-
lers, proceeding from the branch of some lofty tree, where
the bird is watching for its prey. It is said that one sel-
dom laughs without being accompanied by another, ap-
parently anxious to join inaduet. This bird is respected
by Australian gardeners for destroying grubs, &c.; and
Mr Bennet reports, that it also deserves protection on ac-
count of its devouring mice and venomous reptiles. “ A
gentleman told me he was perfectly aware of the bird de-
stroying snakes, as he had often seen them carry the rep-
tiles to a tree, and break their heads to pieces with their
sharp, strong beaks.” “ One of these birds, seen upon the
branch of a tree near a river, looking so stupid, and nod-
ding as if asleep, was shot, and it was then found that this
peculiar manner proceeded from its having swallowed a
small snake, which had got into the stomach, throat, and
bill, but had not yet accommodated itself in the former
cavity.”!

A rare and remarkable species, from the Moluccas,
with a shorter bill than usual, and a much longer tail,
sometimes called the ternate king-fisher (A. dea, Linn.),
forms the genus TanysirTERa of Mr Vigors,—while a few
small species which either want the inner toe, or possess it
in a very rudimentary state, constitute the genus Cex of
Lacepede. The latter occur in India. Example, A. tri-
bachys, Shaw. (Plate CCCXCIV. figs. 5 and 11.)

The genus Topus contains some small American birds,
supposed to resemble the king-fishers in their general
form, their feet, and lengthened bills; but the latter or-

habits are insectivorous, and the species, very few in num-
ber as the group is now restricted, are by most Ornitho-
logists arranged among the Muscicapide, near the genera
Platyrhynchus and Muscipeta. The best-known, if not
the only species, is the green tody (7. viridis, Linn.).
It is found in the Antilles, and some of the equatorial re-
gions of South America, where it hunts insects like a fly-
catcher, but builds in holes in banks, after the manner of
a king-fisher. Its nest is placed in a little chamber at the
termination of a tortuous gallery, and both sexes are re-
markable for their strong attachment to their young. This
delightful bird is named ground-parrakeet by the Creoles
of St Domingo. Though not very rare, it usually dwells
in wild and solitary places, which is probably the reason
of its being by no means frequent in the collections of Eu-
rope. The male utters an agreeable song during the pair-
ing season, but at other times the green tody is a very
silent bird. Its flight is straight and rapid, and it sits at
times both on stones and trees. (Plate CCCXCIV. figs. 6,
7, and 9.)

The genus Buceros, which includes the calaos or horn-
bills, is the last of the great passerine order in the ar-
rangement of Baron Cuvier (Plate CCCXCIV. figs. 8 and
10). Itcertainly differs greatly from those near which he
makes it stand, nor does it amalgamate much better with
its neighbours in more recent systems. The species are
natives of Africa and India, and are characterized by their
enormous bills, toothed along their edges, and frequently
surmounted by an additional horny structure, which be-
stows on them a very striking and peculiar physiognomy.
These excrescences vary considerably with the age of the
individual, and are scarcely perceptible in the young birds.
The horn-bills may be said to resemble the toucans in their
heads, the crows in their general habits, and the syndac-
tylous tribes in the form of their feet. Their tongue is
very smal]. These birds may be regarded as omnivorous,
as they feed indifferently on fruits, mice, small birds, rep-
tiles, and even carcasses. They exhibit an awkward and
uncommon aspect while in the act of flying, in consequence
of the great size of their beaks and lengthened tails, and al-
together their appearance is extremely uncouth. Perhaps
one of the most singular features in their economy consists
in their feeding greedily, and without injury, on the seeds
of nua vomica.” f

The African horn-bill (B. Africanus) is entirely black,
and nearly as large as a turkey. The crowned species (B.
eavtenatia is a much smaller bird, scarcely equalling the
size of a magpie. Le Vaillant saw a flock of more than
five hundred of these birds, in company with crows and
vultures, preying on the remains of slaughtered elephants.
It is figured by Mr Swainson in the third volume of the
first series of his beautiful Illustrations. A large and re-
markable Indian species has been of late years described
by Mr Hodgson. It measures four feet five inches from
tip to tip of the wings, and is three feet six inches in
length. Its body exceeds that of the largest raven, but
is very lean and incompact. It is believed to feed chiefly
on fruits, although it will seize upon reptiles when press-
ed by hunger. Its freedom from any offensive smell, and
the excellence of its flesh, which is much esteemed as an
article of food, go far to prove that its habits are chiefly
frugivorous. In a domestic state it will eat meat either
raw or dressed. Mr Hodgson’s specimen, however, was
fed mostly on boiled rice, mixed with ghee, and made into
large balls. It was never observed to take any water.
Whenever it swallowed a mouthful which on second
thoughts it considered as somewhat too large, it imme-

' Wanderings in New South Wales, i. 222.
VOL, XVI.

2 Edinburgh Cabinet Library, British India, iii. 90.
4F

4

594

ORNITHOLOGY.

Scansores. diately disgorged it for the sake of a little additional mas-

— vv" tication

”

Orver III.—SCANSORES or CLIMBERS.

This somewhat heterogeneous group, continued by Ba-
ron Cuvier as a separate order, forms, in the systems of
our Own more recent writers, merely an additional tribe in
the primary division of the passerine or insessorial order.
As the zoological treatises in our present work have been
hitherto made conformable to the general principles which
regulate the arrangement proposed by the great French
anatomist, we shall not here swerve from our previous
practice, although we doubt not, that among some recent
alterations for the worse, there may also be found not a
few for the better. We fear, however, that it may be
some time before the Scansores, even of the modern sys-
tems, can be regarded as composed of very closely allied
groups,—at least so long as people feel averse to see any
natural connection between a creeper and a cockatoo. Be
this as it may, our present order is composed of species
the great majority of which possess two toes before and
two behind ; that is, one of the three anterior toes com-
monly so called, is either reversible at pleasure, or is per-
manently thrown backwards, so as to give great power and
tenacity of grasp during their infinitely varied movements
over the rugged bark or smoother branches of the forest
trees, on which they chiefly dwell. By this peculiar struc-
ture many species are enabled not only to ascend with ease
a perpendicular trunk, but to suspend themselves from the
lower surface of a branch while searching for their favou-
rite food, which consists of fruits or insects, according to
the form of the bill, so greatly diversified in the scansorial
order. In the parrot tribe the foot is also used in the
conveyance of food to the mouth, and generally as a pre-
hensile organ of a very perfect kind.

We are aware that more than one excellent Ornitholo-
gist has objected to the title of this order, as incapable of
being strictly applied to the whole of the genera of which
it is composed. It is no doubt true that many of the spe-
cies (such as the cuckoo), in which the toes are in pairs,
or yoke-footed, cannot climb, while it is equally evident
that several other species (such as the creeper, C. familia-
ris, the already alluded to very distant connection of the
cockatoo) are excluded from this order by reason of the
structure of their feet, in spite of which, however, they
contrive to climb unceasingly; and that under these cir-
cumstances the denomination cannot be rigorously applied
as alike characteristic of what it contains, and as correct-
ly exclusive of what it does not contain. But we believe
the same objection may be made to apply at least with
equal force to various parts of every other system yet pro-
posed. The ordinal characters, considered in their tota-
lity, are seldom so natural, yet extended, as to admit of no
exception ; and it is extremely questionable whether a title
should be immediately changed upon the discovery of
every species which may not coincide with its most rigo-
rous interpretation. In truth, this could not in many cases
be effected merely on the consideration of a single charac-
ter, without producing greater inconveniences than those
which it is desired to obviate. Among scansorial birds,
for example, we have several species with only three toes,
and which it would therefore be unreasonable to expect
should conform to the ordinal character of having two toes
before and two behind. But in spite of that partial defi-
ciency, they are, in every essential particular, “ true to their
order.”

* Transactions of the Physical Class of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, part i. p. 178.

* Wilson's I/lustrations of Zoology, vol. i. art. SCANSORES.

The bill in the scansorial tribes varies so greatly in the Scansores.
different genera, from the straight, lengthened, angular —~—

mandibles of the woodpeckers, to the deep, curved, com-
pressed organ of the parrots, that we must omit all consi-
deration of it in the ordinal characters, although the study
of its form is essential in relation to the minor divisions.
The species of this order are, with few exceptions, inha-
bitants of the forests, and usually build their nests in the
hollows of ancient trees. Their powers of flight are not
remarkable. The European genera are almost entirely
insectivorous ; the parrot tribe feed on fruits; the toucans
exhibit a tendency to the carnivorous habits of the acci-
pitrine tribes ; while other genera sensibly enjoy a mingled
or miscellaneous diet.?

The genus Ga.Bvra, Brisson, has a straight, elongated,
sharp-pointed bill, with the upper edge rather sharp ; the
legs are very short, and the anterior toes much united (Plate
CCCXCV. fig. 1). The plumage of these birds, usually
known under the name of Jacamars, is remarkable for its
metallic lustre. The species inhabit South America, where
they occur among trees in moist and marshy places. Exam-
ples, G. paradisea and viridis, Lath. They generally sit, ac-
cording to Mr Swainson, on low naked branches in the forest
paths, from whence they dart upon butterflies, spearing
them with their long bills ; and their haunts, indeed, may
be frequently discovered by the ground being strewed with
the beautiful wings of their mangled victims, the bodies of
which they alone devour? “ A bird called jacamar,” says
Waterton, “ is often taken for a king-fisher, but it has no
relationship to that tribe; it frequently sits in the trees
over the water, and as its beak bears some resemblance to
that of the king-fisher, this may probably account for its
being taken for one ; it feeds entirely upon insects ; it sits
on a branch in motionless expectation, and as soon as a
fly, butterfly, or moth passes by, it darts at it, and returns
to the branch it had first left. It seems an indolent, se-
dentary bird, shunning the society of all others in the fo-
rest. It never visits the plantations, but is found at all
times of the year inthe woods. There are four species of
jacamar in Demerara; they are all beautiful ; the largest,
rich and superb in the extreme. Its plumage is of so fine
a changing blue and golden green, that it may be ranked
with the choicest of the humming-birds. Nature has de-
nied it a song, but given it a costly garment in lieu of it.
The smallest species of jacamar is very common in the dry
savannas. The second size, all golden green on the back,
must be looked for in the Wallaba forest. The third is
found throughout the whole extent of these wilds; and
the fourth, which is the largest, frequents the interior,
where you begin to perceive stones in the ground.”4 An
Indian species (M. Lesson, however, assigns it to Cayenne),
of which the bill is shorter, thicker, and somewhat arched,
forms the genus JAcAMEROPS of Le Vaillant (see Plate
CCCXCV. fig. 2); and another from South America, with
only three toes ( G. tridactyla, Vieil.), constitutes the ge-
nus JACAMAR-ALCYON (Plate CCCXCV. fig. 3). These
names, however unmusically composed, point out the na-
tural relationship of our present group to the bee-eaters
and king-fishers, with which (as fissirostral birds) they are
combined in some modern systems.

The genus Picus, Linn., contains the well-marked, nu-
merous, and extensively distributed tribe of woodpeckers,
which occur in all the great divisions of the earth, with
the exception of New Holland. The vast and solitary fo-
rests of North and South America are, however, their chief
dominion, the greatest number, both there and in the old
world, being found within the tropics. The bill is rather
long, straight, angular, somewhat compressed or wedge-

3 Nat. Hist. and Class. of Birds, ii. 154.
« Wanderings, p. 137.

ORNITHOLOGY.

it, did the lilied fields of France’ reflect the sun’s warm Scansores.
rays less brightly, or her sylvan choristers welcome with ~~~

Scansores. shaped at the extremity, and admirably fitted for splitting
~—\—™ the bark or excavating the decayed portions of trees. The

tongue is long, and capable of great protrusion, in conse-
quence of its muscular basis, and the length of the horns
of the os hyoides. It is not only furnished with little spines
pointing backwards, but;is covered by a glutinous mois-
ture secreted by the salivary glands, which aids in the
capture of the smaller insects, the larger, it is said, being
usually transfixed by the point itself. The tail-feathers
are very stiff and elastic, and greatly aid the motion of the
feet in climbing, being pressed upon the bark, so as in some
measure to support the body. Woodpeckers are shy and
solitary birds. During the breeding season they dwell in
pairs, and are only met with in small family flocks through-
out the autumn. With the exception of the parrots, they
form the most extensive group among scansorial tribes,
between one and two hundred species being known to na-
turalists. We have only four in Britain, viz. the green
woodpecker (P. viridis), our most common species; the
great black woodpecker. (P. martius), which is a much
rarer bird; the great spotted woodpecker (P. major) ; and
the lesser spotted kind (P. minor). Besides these, several
others occur on the continent of Europe.

In whatever clime or country woodpeckers are found,
they are characterized by strong affinities of form and co-
lour, and constitute a very natural group, although some
slight modifications of the bill have given rise in recent
times to the formation of a few subgenera.

Buffon has drawn a melting picture of the miseries of a
woodpecker’s life. According to the views of the always
eloquent, but frequently erroneous and sometimes incon-
sistent Frenchman, no bird which earns its subsistence by
spoil leads a life of such painful and uninterrupted labour.
Nature appears to have condemned it to incessant toil,—
for while other species freely employ their courage or ad-
dress, and either glide along on fearless rapid wings, or
lurk insidiously in closer ambush, the woodpecker is con-
strained to drag on a miserable existence in boring through
the scaly bark and tough unyielding fibres of the hardest
trees. Necessity admits no intermission of its labours,—
no interval of sweet repose. Not even the darkness of the
night, nor sleep, that “ soft restorer,” who throws her
balmy mantle over such a mass of human misery, brings
any solace here,—for the nocturnal hours are spent in the
same constrained and painful posture as are those of day.
It never shares in the joyous sports of the other inhabi-
tants of the woods, and so far from joining in their glad re-
sponses, it rather deepens the natural sadness of the forest
glades by its wild and melancholy cries. Now, what is
all this but the most fantastic coinage of the brain ?—as if
the blessed beings which people this gladsome world en-
dured the primal curse, and shared the self-inflicted ruin
of our race! as if their joyful hearts were ever pressed by
sorrow, or responded in wailing sadness to the woes of
man! Spirit of Eblis! not yet has thy malign influence
so encroached upon the “ Benigner Power.” Is there any
thing on earth for which we may not cry alas! saving only
the omnipotent goodness of God, who careth “ for all his
creatures,’—and amid the unmeasured wretchedness which
springs from human folly, the wan faces of our fellow-men
pent up in close-built cities, the drunkard’s hollow eyes, his
shaking limbs, and tattered garments (and all the horrid
ills that vice is heir to), what is more inspiring than to see
even a fragment of the face of nature,—some little open
plot of garden ground, where in spring the blackbird still
may sing his evening hymn, or the autumnal red-breast
cheerily announce approaching winter? Is there sorrow
there or suffering, save what may spring from some dark
spirit in the mind of man, the “immortal rebel?” When
Buffon himself, a great interpreter of nature, in spite of
all his fitful fancies, yielded up his life to God who gave

sadder note the rosy day-break of the ensuing morn; or
when that more wretched hour arrived (which the hoary
but irreverent parent was saved the pain to see) when his
son’s fair locks, dishevelled but not dishonoured, were
streaming on the blood-stained floor of that insatiate scaf-
fold, what cared the gladsome birds in field or tree? It
would indeed be but a doleful thought, if misery such as
man so often meets with among human kind, and which he
is therefore prone to picture, were to spread itself from
his own sad bosom into the depth of darkly shaded forests,
where so many gorgeous feathered inmates dwell, or among
ocean rocks amid upheaving waters, or wave-worn caves,
or crystal rivers with their golden sands.

Let those who dwell with pity on the fate of our condemned
bird go with us to America, and listen to the high-toned note
of Picus principalis (the name itself might “ threaten and
command”), echoing from the giant trunk or moss-grown
arm of some colossal tree, or watch his varied movements,
while from gnarled stems he drives off impetuously broad
flakes of flashing bark, which so accumulate around the base
of pine or cypress, as if a human carpenter had there set up
his habitation. Or if we cannot go to America, let us read
a great observer’s history of another species. ‘“ No sooner,”
says Audubon, “ has spring called them (the golden-winged
woodpeckers) to the pleasant duty of making love, than
their voice, which by the way is not at all disagreeable
to the ear of man, is heard from the tops of high decayed
trees, proclaiming with delight the opening of the welcome
season. ‘Their note at this period is merriment itself, as
it imitates a prolonged and jovial laugh, heard at a con-
siderable distance. Several males pursue a female, reach
her, and to prove the force and truth of their love, bow
their heads, spread their tails, and move sideways, back-
wards and forwards, performing such antics as might in-
duce any one witnessing them, if not of a most morose
temper, to join his laugh to theirs. The female flies to
another tree, where she is constantly followed by one, two,
or even half a dozen of these gay suitors, and where again
the same ceremonies are gone through. No fightings oc-
cur, no jealousies exist among these beaux, until a marked
preference is shown to some individual; when the reject-
ed proceed in search of another female. In this manner all
the golden-winged woodpeckers are soon happily mated.
Each pair immediately proceed to excavate the trunk of a
tree, and finish a hole in it sufficient to contain themselves
and their young. They both work with great industry and
apparent pleasure. Should the male, for instance, be em-
ployed, the female is close to him, and congratulates him
on the removal of every chip which his bill sends through
the air. While he rests he appears to be speaking to her
on the most tender subjects, and when fatigued is at once
assisted by her. In this manner, by the alternate exer-
tions of each, the hole is dug and finished. They caress
each other on the branches, climb about and around the tree
with apparent delight, rattle with their bill against the tops
of the dead branches, chase all their cousins the red-heads,
defy the purple-grakles to enter their nest, feed plentifully
on ants, beetles, and larve, cackling at intervals, and ere

two weeks have elapsed, the female lays either four or six :

eggs, the whiteness or transparency of which are doubtless
the delight of her heart. If to raise a numerous progeny
may contribute to happiness, these woodpeckers may be
happy enough, for they have two broods each season.
Even in confinement the golden-winged woodpecker never
suffers its naturally lively spirit to droop. It feeds well,
and by way of amusement will contrive to destroy as much
furniture in a day as can well be mended by a different
kind of workman in two. Therefore, kind reader, do not
any longer believe that woodpeckers, I mean those of

595

596

ORNITHOLOGY.

Scansores. America, are such stupid, forlorn, dejected, and unprovid-
——~— ed-for beings, as they have hitherto been represented.” !

The other species to which we have above alluded is
the beautiful ivory-billed woodpecker (Picus principalis,
Linn.), of which the broad extent of dark and glossy plu-
mage, with the well-defined snowy markings of the neck
and wings, relieved by the rich tracery of the carmine crest,
and brilliant yellow eye, in some way so reminded the en-
thusiastic Audubon of the noble productions of a great
Flemish painter, that whenever he saw one of these gor-
geous birds flying from tree to tree, he would exclaim,
“ There goes a Vandyke.” The ivory-billed woodpecker
confines its rambles to a comparatively small portion of the
United States, and is never observed in the middle por-
tions of the Union, where the nature of the wood does not
appear to suit its habits. ‘“ Descending the Ohio,” says
Mr Audubon, “ we meet with this splendid bird for the
first time near the confluence of that beautiful river and
the Mississippi ; after which, following the windings of the
latter, either downwards towards the sea, or upwards in
the direction of the Missouri, we frequently observe it.
On the Atlantic coast, North Carolina may be taken as
the limits of its distribution, although now and then an in-
dividual of the species may be accidentally seen in Mary-
land. To the westward of the Mississippi, it is found in
all the dense forests bordering the streams which empty
their waters into that majestic river from the declivities of
the Rocky Mountains. The lower parts of the Carolinas,
Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, are how-
ever the most favourite resorts of this bird, and in those
states it constantly resides, breeds, and passes a life of
peaceful enjoyment, finding a profusion of food in all the
deep, dark, and gloomy swamps dispersed throughout them.
I wish, kind reader, it were in my power to present to
your mind’s eye the favourite resort of the ivory-billed
woodpecker. Would that I could describe the extent of
those deep morasses, overshadowed by millions of dark
gigantic cypresses, spreading their sturdy moss-covered
branches, as if to admonish intruding man to pause and
reflect on the many difficulties which he must encounter
should he persist in venturing farther into their almost in-
accessible recesses, extending for miles before him, where
he would be interrupted by huge projecting branches, here
and there the massy trunk of a fallen and decaying tree,
and thousands of creeping and twining plants of number-
less species! Would that I could represent to you the
dangerous nature of the ground, its oozing, spongy, and
miry disposition, although covered with a beautiful but
treacherous carpeting, composed of the richest mosses,
flags, and water-lilies, no sooner receiving the pressure of
the foot than it yields, and endangers the very life of the
adventurer, whilst here and there, as he approaches an
opening, that proves merely a lake of black, muddy water,
his ear is assailed by the dismal croaking of innumerable
frogs, the hissing of serpents, or the bellowing of alligators !
Would that I could give you an idea of the sultry pesti-
ferous atmosphere, that nearly suffocates the intruder dur-
ing the meridian heat of our dogdays, in those gloomy and
horrible swamps! But the attempt to picture these scenes
would be vain. Nothing short of ocular demonstration can
impress any adequate idea of them.

“ The flight of this bird is graceful in the extreme,
although seldom prolonged to more than a few hundred
yards at a time, unless when it has to cross a large river,
which it does in deep undulations, opening its wings at
first to their full extent, and nearly closing them to re-
new the propelling impulse. The transit from one tree
to another, even should the distance be as muchas a hun-
dred yards, is performed by a single sweep, and the bird

appears as if merely swinging itself from the top of thc Scansores.
one tree to that of the other, forming an elegantly curved ——~.—

line. At this moment all the beauty of the plumage is ex-
hibited, and strikes the beholder with pleasure. It never
utters any sound whilst on wing, unless during the love
season; but at all other times,.no sooner has this bird
alighted, than its remarkable voice is heard, at almost
every leap which it makes, whilst ascending against the
upper parts of the trunk of a tree, or its highest branches.
Its notes are clear, loud, and yet rather plaintive. They
are heard at a considerable distance, perhaps half a mile,
and resemble the false high note of a clarionet. They
are usually repeated three times in succession, and may
be represented by the monosyllable, pait, pait, pait. These
are heard so frequently, as to induce me to say that the
bird spends few minutes of the day without uttering them ;
and this circumstance leads to its destruction, which is
aimed at, not because (as is supposed by some) this spe-
cies is a destroyer of trees, but more because it is a beau-
tiful bird, and its rich scalp, attached to the upper man-
dible, forms an ornament for the war-dress of most of our
Indians, or for the short pouch of our squatters and hunt-
ers, by all of whom the bird is shot merely for that pur-
pose.

“ Travellers of all nations are also fond of possessing
the upper part of the head and the bill of the male; and
Ihave frequently remarked, that ona steam-boat’s reach-
ing what we call a wooding-pluce, the strangers were very
apt to pay a quarter of a dollar for two or three heads of
this woodpecker. I have seen entire belts of Indian chiefs
closely ornamented with the tufts and bills of this species,
and have observed that a great value is frequently put
upon them. ‘The food of this species consists principally
of beetles, larvae, and large grubs. No sooner, however,
are the grapes of our forests ripe, than they are eaten by
the ivory-billed woodpecker with great avidity. I have
seen this bird hang by its claws to the vines, in the posi-
tion so often assumed by a tit-mouse, and, reaching down-
wards, help itself to a bunch of grapes with much apparent
pleasure. Persimons are also sought for by them, as soon
as the fruit becomes quite mellow, as are hag-berries. The
ivory-bill is never seen attacking the corn, or the fruit of
the orchards, although it is sometimes observed working
upon and chipping off the bark from the belted trees of the
newly-cleared plantations. It seldom comes near the
ground, but prefers at all times the tops of the tallest trees.
Should it, however, discover the half-standing broken
shaft of a large dead and rotten tree, it attacks it in such
a manner as nearly to demolish it in the course of a few
days. I have seen the remains of some of these ancient
monarchs of our forests so excavated, and that so singu-
larly, that the tottering fragments of the trunk appeared
to be merely supported by the great pile of chips by
which its base was surrounded. ‘The strength of this
woodpecker is such that I have seen it detach pieces of
bark seven or eight inches in length at a single blow of its
powerful bill, and by beginning at the top branch of a
dead tree, tear off the bark, to an extent of twenty or
thirty feet, in the course of a few hours, leaping down-
wards with its body in an upward position, tossing its head
to the right and left, or Jeaning it against the bark to as-
certain the precise spot where the grubs were concealed,
and immediately after renewing its blows with fresh vi-
gour, all the while sounding its loud notes, as if highly
delighted.

«When wounded and brought to the ground, the ivory-
bill immediately makes for the nearest tree, and ascends
it with great rapidity and perseverance, until it reaches
the top branches, when it squats and hides, generally with

1 Ornithological Biography, voi. i. p. 191.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Seansores. great effect. Whilst ascending, it moves spirally round
—~r— the tree, utters its loud patt, pait, pait, at almost every

597

meadow titlark (A. pratensis), being, however, likewise Scansores.

hop, but becomes silent the moment it reaches a place
where it conceives itself secure. They sometimes cling
to the bark with their claws so firmly, as to remain cramp-
ed to the spot for several hours after death. When taken
by the hand, which is rather a hazardous undertaking,
they strike with great violence, and inflict very severe
wounds with ‘their bill as well as claws, which are ex-
tremely sharp and strong. On such occasions, this bird
utters a mournful and very piteous cry.”

A few species in which the bill is obviously arched
form the genus Couarrtes of Mr Swainson. They seem,
moreover, distinguished by the broad, bright-coloured shafts
of the quill-feathers. Such is the gold-winged woodpeck-
er (P. auratus) already alluded to. These birds perch
more frequently than the genuine woodpeckers, that is,
grasp or encircle the smaller branches, and they also often
feed upon the ground. A Brazilian species is even nam-
ed P. campestris, from its habit of searching about in
fields and plains for insects in the dung of cattle, or on
ant-hills, where it finds an ample supply of favourite food.
This form occurs also in Africa. Certain three-toed
species were formed into the genus PicorpEs by Lace-
pede. (Plate CCCXCV. fig. 3.)

The genus Yunx of Linn., containing the wrynecks, re-
markable for their beautifully brindled plumage, is of very
limited extent. The sole European species ( Yunzx tor-
quilla) is in Britain a rare but regular summer bird of pas-
sage, breeding in hollow trees, laying numerous eggs, and
feeding on insects. The genus Picumnus of Temm. is
nearly allied, but is distinguished by its extremely short
tail. Example, P. abnormis, Temm. Pl. Col. 371, fig. 3,
which comes from Java. Picus minutus, which some au-
thors place here, is by others regarded as a Yunz.

In the genus Cucutus of Linn. were originally placed
a number of different insectivorous birds, commonly called
cuckoos, which agreed in the general form of the feet,
the lengthened tail, the bill of medium size, rather deeply
cleft, somewhat compressed, and slightly curved. But
they have since been formed into numerous minor groups,
the most marked and conspicuous of which we shall here
briefly notice.

The true cuckoos, genus Cucutus, Cuv., have the bill
of moderate strength, the tarsi short, and the tail of ten
feathers. As an example, we name our common British
species, C. canorus, so remarkable for its singular and
somewhat anomalous habit of depositing its eggs in the
nests of other birds, a fact now so well known, and so
frequently recorded, that we need not here dilate upon
the subject, however curious in itself. The nest of the
hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis) is that most usually
chosen in the south of England,—that of the yellow-ham-
mer (mb. citrinella), the wagtail (Mot. alba), and the

devoted to the purpose. ‘“ In Northumberland,” says Mr ~~~

Selby, “ constant experience tells me, that the nest of
the last-mentioned bird is the one almost always chosen.
Taking advantage of the absence of its dupe during the
time of laying (which generally occupies four or five days),
the cuckoo deposits its egg among the rest, abandoning
it from that moment to the care of the foster-parent. As
the same period of incubation is common to both birds,
the eggs are hatched nearly together, which no sooner
takes place than the young cuckoo proceeds instinctively
to eject its young companions and any remaining eggs
from the nest. To effect this object, it contrives to work
itself under its burden (the back at this early age being
provided with a peculiar depression between the ‘shoul-
ders), and shuffling backwards to the edge of the nest,
by a jerk rids itself of the incumbrance ; and this opera-
tion is repeated, till the whole being thrown over, it re-
mains sole possessor. This particular tendency remains
for about twelve days, after which the hollow space be-
tween the shoulders is filled up; and when prevented
from accomplishing its purpose till the expiration of that
time, as if conscious of inability, it suffers its companions
to remain unmolested.”2

Various supposed reasons have been assigned for this
anomalous, and we might almost say unnatural, instinct.
Some have attributed it to the displacement of certain
viscera (the gizzard is said to be situate farther back than
in most other birds), which unfits them for the purposes
of incubation, while others imagine that the early period
at which cuckoos migrate from this country (they are ge-
nerally off by the beginning of July) makes it necessary
that they should leave their offspring to the care of foster-
parents.’ But anatomical investigation has not proved
any thing sufficiently peculiar in their structure to warrant
the first conclusion ; and as to the second, it seems to us
not so much a deduction from a regulating and causative
fact in their history, as the statement of an additional cir-
cumstance which renders that history still more singular,
and which naturally leads to the question, not easily an-
swered, of why do they migrate so early ?4 In short, we
know nothing at all about the matter, further than that
the cuckoo of Europe, like the cow-bunting of America,
always lays eggs, but never hatches them. The same
custom is alleged, we think upon a narrow and ill-consi-
dered generalization, to characterize the other kinds of
cuckoo. It may be a practice common to several species,
but the rare black and white spotted cuckoo (Cuculus Pi-
sanus, Gm., an odd name for an African bird, which hap-
pened once upon a time to visit Tuscany) is stated by the
authors of the Storia degli Uccelli to have built a nest in
the woods of Pisa, and reared four young ones. This spe-
cies is extremely rare in Europe. It is known, however,
in the Genoese territory,° and the young have been occa-

1 Ornithological Biography, i. 341.

2 British Ornithology, vol.i. p. 398.

3 British Ornithology, vol. i. p. 399.

4 Besides, in Italy and other southern parts of Europe, this migration does not take place till September, and yet the habits of the
bird are precisely the same. ‘+ Quelli uccellini,” says Savi, “‘ nel covo de’ quali il cuculo ha lasciato ’'uovo, non vi fanno attenzione ;
come uno de’ loro seguitano a covarlo, e quando é nato imboccano e custodiscono il piccolo cuculo, con lo stesso amore, e con la cura
medesima de’ figli propri. Ma ben presto egli paga d’ingratitudine le premure deli’amorosa sua balia : crescendo molto pitt de’ com-
pagni, dopo poco tempo il nido é per lui troppo stretto : allora ricorre a un barbaro espediente per procurarsi un alloggio piti comodo :”
&c....‘* Ripete quest’ operazione successivamente, in ragione che cresce, e che gli altri compagni lo incomodano, di modo che alla
fine rimane solu nel nido usurpato. Cosi quei miseri uccelli che construirono il nido e che han fatto da balia al cuculo, sono da lui
privati ad uno ad uno di tutti i figli.” "Regarding the movements of the parent bird in Italy, he observes, ‘‘ E uccello migratonio:
arriva nell’ Aprile, e parti in Settembre. Appena arriva comincia a cantare, e quantunque il suo verso non abbia aleuna varieta, non
ostante la voce essendo dolce e rotonda, si sente con piacere. Grandissimo é il numero che ne rimane in Toscana: non vi € bosco in
monte o in piano, che in primavera ed in estate, non risuoni dal cu cu, cu cu, di questo uccello. Nel Settembre comincia a muoversi
per emigare: allora in alcuni anni se ne vede passare una quantita grandissima per la pianura Pisana. Nel Settembre del 1823, gli
alberi dello stradone che da Pisa va al Parco Reale di S. Rossore, attraversando vastissime praterie, ne furono pieni per una diecina
di giorni. Volavano i cuculi da una pianta all’ altra, andavano a posarsi un poco sul prato, ritornavano sugli alberi, ma di. la non si
allontanavano, benché continuamente fossero molestati dai non pochi cacciatori che vi erano acccorsi. Questi uccelli volano con grande
agilita, e spesso, particularmente andando a posarsi, senza muovere le ali, come sogliono fare i Falchi.” (Ornitologia Toscana, t. i. p. 152.)

§ Calvi, Catalogo d@’Ornitulogia di Genova, p. 55.

ORNITHOLOGY.

The one mentioned by Sparrman is said to attract the no- Scansores.
tice of the Dutch and Hottentots by a shrill cry of cher, ~~

598

Scansores. sionally killed in the south of France.}
—~—" cuckoos are found in foreign countries.

Many beautiful

Those of North America belong to the genus Coccyzus
of Vieillot, and are distinguished by a greater length of
tarsus. (Plate CCCXCV. fig. 4.) They seem to delight
more in deep woody solitudes than the true cuckoos, the
latter being often found on hilly pastures and open heathy
ground, if fringed with wood. A stranger who visits the
United States for the purpose of examining their natural
productions, and passes through the woods in May or June,
will sometimes hear, as he traverses the borders of deep,
retired, high-timbered hollows, an uncouth guttural sound.
He will frequently hear this without being able to discover
the source from which it comes, as the yellow-billed cuckoo
( Coccyzus Americanus) is both shy and solitary, and always
seeks the thickest foliage for concealment. This bird is of
a grayish brown, with bronzed reflections, beneath white,
the inner vanes of the primaries reddish cinnamon colour,
the lower mandible white, and the length from bill to tail
about twelve inches. Considerable discussion has taken
place among philologists regarding the native languages of
North and South America,—remarkable, we are led to un-
derstand, for. their great number and striking dissimilarity.
We know not what may be the intention of the yellow-
billed cuckoo in speaking as he does, or whether he is dis-
tinctly comprehended by his neighbours ; but the follow-
ing is Mr Nuttall’s account of the elements of his conver-
sation: “ The male frequently betrays his snug retreat by
his monotonous and guttural how kow kow kow, or koo
hoo koo koo, and ko kuk, ko kuk, koo koo koo kuk, koo ko
hoo, koo ko koo, uttered rather plaintively, like the call of
adove. At other times the kow how how how, and ’thk
th *th th ’tak, or “kh "kh “kh ’kh "hak, how how how kow,
beginning slow, rises, and becomes so quick as almost to
resemble the grating of a watchman’s rattle, or else, com-
mencing with this call, terminates in the distant cry of
how kow kow.” From this peculiar iteration (Shakspeare
would have called it “ damnable,” a word we sometimes
hear in pulpits, but ourselves but seldom use), the species
in question has received the name of kow-bird, and we do
not wonder at it. It may be satisfactory to know, that the
St Domingo cuckoo (C. Dominicus, Nut.) although it
sometimes cries both kow kow kow how and "kh “kh *kh ’kh
"kh hak, yet often utters, in a raucous guttural voice, espe-
cially preceding rain, a word which sounds like orrattottoo
or worrattottoo, exactly which has not been yet determined.

In the genus CenTRopus of Illiger the bill is compress-
ed and carinated, and the nail of one of the hind toes is
long, straight, and pointed, like a lark’s. The tail is greatly
elongated. The species are native to India and Africa,
where they build in hollow trees, and feed on locusts and
other insects. Such are Cuculus Agyptius, Senegalen-
sis, Bengalensis, &c. The genus Leprosomus of Vieil-
lot is constituted by the great Madagascar cuckoo .(C.
cafer, Lath.—Lep. viridis, Vieil.), the female of which, as
described by Buffon, is according to M. Lesson a distinct
species—Lept. crombus. These birds are said to be fru-
givorous. (Plate CCCXCV. fig. 5.)

In the genus InpicaTor, Vail., the bill is short, high, al-
most conical. (Plate CCCXCV. fig. 6.) The tail consists of
twelve feathers, and is somewhat graduated, and at the same
time a little forked. The skin is described to be so hard
and tough as to resist the assaults of most hymenopterous in-
sects ; but bees, which they incessantly torment, are said to
sting them in the eyes. The species, few in number, are
known by the name of honey-guides, and inhabit Africa.

cher ; and when it perceives itself observed, it flutters on-
wards to the hive of a wild bee, in hopes of partaking of the
plundered honey. ‘I have had frequent opportunities,”
he observes, “ of seeing this bird, and have been witness
to the destruction of several republics of bees, by means of
its treachery. I had, however, but two opportunities of.
shooting it, which I did, to the great indignation of my.
Hottentots.” It may be here noticed, we hope without
offence, that naturalists themselves seem not seldom to.
belong to that zrritabile genus, of which poets are usually
supposed to form the greater portion. Though Dr Sparr-
man asserts that he was a frequent eye-witness of the cu-
rious instinctive habits of the honey-guide, yet Vaillant,
doubts if that traveller ever saw the bird at all. He says
that the account is merely a repetition of a fable believed
and repeated by credulous people at the Cape, and thatit
is erroneous to suppose that the bird seeks to draw man
after it for the purpose of sharing the plundered sweets,
the fact being, that it calls not the man, but that the latter
knows, by attending to the cry of the honey-guide while
searching for its natural food, that he will be sure ere long
to find the stores of the industrious insect. According to
Bruce, the moroc, for so this singular species is sometimes
named, occurs in Abyssinia; and he too throws discredit
on Sparrman’s statements,—his own being but ill received
by not a few. However, Sir John Barrow, a careful and
accurate inquirer, though not a professed naturalist, con-
firms it by stating that people in the interior of the South
of Africa are too well acquainted with the moroc to have
any doubts, either as to the bird itself, or its singular in-
stinctive habits.

The Barbacous of Vaillant (genus Monasa, Vieil.) are
South American birds, with rather conical elongated bills,
slightly arched towards the tip, and furnished at the base
with setaceous feathers. (Plate CCCXCV. fig. 7.) Such
are Cuc. tranquillus and tenebrosus of the older systems,
and the Bucco albifrons of Spix. We believe they are in-
sectivorous. The Malcohas of Vaillant, again (genus PH@-
NicoPHa&us, Vieil.), are Asiatic species, of which the most
anciently known is native to Ceylon. (Plate CCCXCVI.
fig. 1.) We here place the Cuculus curvirostris of Shaw,
Latham’s red-headed cuckoo, C. pyrrhocephalus of Forster,
&c. and certain recent species described by Dr Horsfield
and Sir Thomas Raflles. The preceding groups were all
regarded as cuckoos by the older authors.’

The genus Scyruroes of Latham, however, has a much
stronger bill than any of these, marked by two slight lon-
gitudinal furrows. There is a naked space around the eye,
and the nostrils are rounded. Only a single species is yet
known, Se. Nove Hollandiaz, Lath., sometimes called the
channel bill, a most peculiar looking bird, of the size of a
crow, gray above, beneath dingy white. (Plate CCCXCVI.
fig. 2.) In its bill it almost assimilates to the toucans, but its
tongue is simple. Though it is mentioned both by White
and Phillips, we know as yet but little of its habits. It
occurs in New Holland, where it is sometimes seen in small
flocks, but more usually in pairs, frequenting trees, and ut-
tering during flight a loud and screaming cry, not unlike
the crowing of acock. Its food is said to consist both of
fruits and insects. It also occurs in the Celebes, where its
voice presages rain.

The genus Bucco of Linn., is characterized by a thickish
conical beak, bulged laterally from the base, and furnished
with five fasciculi of barbs directed forwards. ‘The wings

1 Roux, Ornithologie Provengale, p. 105.

2 For the various modifications of form exhibited by the Cuculidz, and the numerous minor- groups which have thence resuited,
see M. Lesson’s Traité d’Ornithologic, and a recent paper by Mr Swainson in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Scansores. are short, and the flight heavy. The species feed on fruits
—\— and insects, and occasionally attack small birds. They

599

highly metallic feathers of the tail-coverts, extending about Scansores.
three times the length ofthe whole body, present a com- —~——

build their nests in hollow trees. Cuvier divides them into
three minor groups. The Barbicans of Buffon (Pocontas,
Illiger) have one or two strong teeth on each side of the
upper bill, of which the ridge is arched and blunt. The
barbs are very strong. (Plate CCCXCVI. fig.3.) The spe-
cies occur-in Africa and India, and are more frugivorous
than their congeners. Example, P. szlcirostris, Leach,
Zool. Mise. xi. 76. The Barbus (genus Bucco, as re-
stricted) have the bill simply conic, slightly compressed,
the culmen blunt, and a little raised about the centre.
The species live in pairs during the breeding season,
and in small flocks at other times. They occur in both
continents, and are adorned with lively colours,—Bucco
grandis, viridis, flavifrons, &c. Lastly, the Tamatias,
genus Tamarta, Cuv., have the bill more elongated and
compressed, with the extremity of the upper mandible
curved downwards. Their thick heads, large bills, and
short tails, give them-a stupid aspect. They inhabit
South America, feed on insects, and are of solitary ha-
bits. Example, Z. melanoleucos, melanotis, &c. They
are known by the English name of puff-birds ; and Mr
Swainson describes them as sitting for hours together on
a dead or withered branch, from which they dart from
time to time on such unwary insects as approach within
their reach. He adds, that the hermit-birds (genus Mo-
nasa), already mentioned, do the same, and frequently
rise up perpendicularly into the air, making a swoop, and
returning again to their former station. Similar manners
belong to the jacamars, though their flight is weaker.

In the genus Trocon the bill is also bearded, but short,
and broader than high, the upper edge rounded. Their
little feet are often feathered almost to the toes, and their
soft, full, lax plumage, and lengthened tails, bestow upon the
species a peculiar aspect. (Plate CCCXCVI. fig.4.) These
birds abound in South America, where they conceal them-
selves in the central solitudes of umbrageous forests, and,
except during the breeding season, dwell insulated and
alone. They will sit motionless for half a summer's day,
often upon a withered branch, and if not concealed by some
accidental intervening mass of foliage, they fall an easy prey
to the keen-eyed hunter, who eagerly searches for birds not
less remarkable for the delicacy of their flesh than the beauty
of their plumage. During the morning and evening hours,
Mr Swainson informs us, they become more active; ven-
turing at these times into the open parts of the forest,
and, taking a shady station, dart upon winged insects,
particularly beetles. At other times they feed upon fruits,
especially the rich purple berries of the different melastome,
“‘ at which,” says Mr Swainson, “ they invariably dart, pre-
cisely as if they were insects capable of getting away.”
It has been remarked by the woodland hunters, that the
skins of these birds are of such delicate texture as to be
with difficulty preserved in a natural or complete condi-
tion. It is probably for this reason that in museums they
exhibit a heavy, shapeless aspect, redeemed, it is true, by
the gorgeous colours or metallic splendour of their plu-
mage. The most magnificent of the genus is the quezal
or golden trogon (7. pavoninus, Temm.), a rare and re-
markable species, of which neither delineation nor descrip-
tion can convey an adequate idea. The greater propor-
tion of the plumage is apparently composed of burnished
gold. The head ornamented by a brilliant crest of de-
composed barbs, the wing-coverts falling in flakes of gol-
den green over the deep purplish-black of the primary
and secondary quill-feathers, the rich carmine of the lower
parts bestowing a warmth and depth of effect which no
Venetian painter ever equalled, and the long waving and

bination of beauty almost unexampled in the feathered
tribes. The first specimens seen in this country were
brought, we believe, by Mr Schenley from Vera: Paez, in
central America. They are celebrated in the Mexican
mythology, and are much sought after as head-gear by
the Peruvian damsels. Trogons, of other kinds, occur also
in the Indian islands, and the warmer continental regions
of the old world!

The genus CroropHacGa, Linn., i3 recognised by its
thick, compressed, arched bill, without dentation, elevated,
or surmounted bya vertical cutting crest. (Plate CCCXCVI.
fig. 5.) The species called anis or keel-birds inhabit South
America and the West Indies. They are of a familiar and
gentle disposition in confinement, easily tamed, and may be
taught to speak. Their plumage is black, with metallic re-
flections. They buildin bushes (some say upon the ground),
and several pairs will lay and hatch together in the same
nest, which is made of size proportioned to the partnership.
They feed on insects, keep much upon the ground, where
they also attack maize and rice. M. Lesson says that C.
major dwells more habitually on large trees, while C. minor
prefers the savannahs and marshy meadows. Mr Swain-
son never saw the common ani perch on any thing higher
than a bush.

The genus Rampnasrtos, Linn., is distinguished by its
enormous bill, which in some instances is almost equal in
size to the body. It is, however, extremely light, and
cellular within, arched towards the extremity, and irregu-
larly toothed along the margins. The tongue is long, nar-
row, and barbed on each side, like a feather. These birds,
commonly called toucans, inhabit South America, where
they live habitually in woods, and prey on fruits, eggs,
and new-hatched birds.. The species are pretty numerous,
and almost all distinguished by brilliant colouring, which
however is somewhat too strongly contrasted, and conse-
quently deficient in that fine gradation or harmonious
blending which beautifies less gorgeous tribes. We have
never chanced to see them in the:living state, but in mu-
seums they present a somewhat awkward aspect, from
their disproportioned bills, short feet, and lengthened tails.
Their sense of smell is said to be extremely acute,—a fa-
culty by some attributed to an extended ramification of
nerves within the nasal portion of the bill. The genus is
now divided into two: Ist, The toucans proper (genus
RampuastTos, Plate CCCXCVI. fig. 6), which have the
largest bills, with the ground colour of the plumage usu-
ally black, the throat, breast, and rump being more gaily
ornamented with white, yellow, and red. 2dly, The ara-
caris (genus PrERoGLOssUS, Illiger, Plate CCCXCVI. fig.
7), in which the bill is smaller than the head, and the
ground colour of the plumage generally green, with red
or yellow on the throat and breast. A live specimen
of Ramphastos tucanus, of which the manners have been
described by Mr Vigors, was extremely fond of fruit,
both fresh and dried. These it generally held for a short
time in the extremity of the bill, touching them with ap-
parent delight with its slender feathered tongue, and then
tossing them into its throat by a sudden upward jerk.
Its tendency to prey on animals was, however, strongly
evinced by the excitement produced by the sight of a liv-
ing bird; and the carnivorous propensities of another in-
dividual are curiously related by Mr Broderip. A gold-
finch (though, we repeat, we approve not of the fact), in-
troduced into the toucan’s cage, was seized and com-
pressed so suddenly, that the poor little songster had only
time to utter a short squeak before it was dead, with its
bowels protruding. ‘Lhe toucan then hopped with it to

* Mr Gould has published a Moxograph of the Trogonida, with sumptuous coloured plates.

600 ORNITHOLOGY.

Scansores. another perch,-and began to strip off its feathers. When

be edified by anecdotes of parrots, so we shall devote the Scansoress
—~— it was nearly naked, it broke the bones of the wings and

little space we can afford for miscellaneous matters, to —~~—

legs, taking them in its bill, and giving them a strong la-
teral wrench. Having reduced the little victim to a shape-
less mass, it first swallowed the viscera, and then the re-
maining parts, piece after piece, not even rejecting the
legs and bill. Mr Broderip adds, that he has sometimes
observed it return its food from its crop, and swallow it
again, after a second mastication.

The genus Psirracus, Linn., comprehending the almost
innumerable tribe of parrots, lories, parrakeets, maccaws,
and cockatoos, has the bill thick, hard, solid, rather short,

rounded on all its outlines, deep, curved, and generally-

sharp-pointed. The tongue is almost always thick, round,
and fleshy, and the lower larynx furnished on each side
with three peculiar muscles, which probably contribute to
the great facility with which these birds acquire the arti-
culate intonation of the human voice. Their strong and
powerful jaws are brought into action by muscles more
numerous than usual. Their natural food consists of fruits
and seeds. They climb trees with the greatest facility,
and suspend themselves indifferently from feet or bill.
Their voices are harsh and discordant, their forms often
elegant, their plumage Usually of great richness. They
form indeed a magnificent family, abundant in almost
every region of the torrid zone, and in the new world ex-
tending from the shores of the Ohio to the Straits of Ma-
gellan,—thus presenting a vast and varied assemblage of
species from every country of the world, excepting the
comparatively cold and cloudy clime of Europe. The gor-
geous maceaws are characteristic of South America, the
cockatoos of New Holland and the Asiatic islands, the
lories of the East Indies and the Moluccas; whilst several
groups of parrots, parrakeets, &c. are widely distributed
over various regions of the earth. Above two hundred
different kinds are known to naturalists.

It was the opinion of Buffon that none of the parrot
tribe extended either northwards or southwards beyond
the twenty-fifth degree, on either side of the equator.
Having apparently resolved, @ priori, on these lines of cir-
cumvallation, he despised, as Pennant observed, the au-
thority of the Dutch navigator Spilbergen, who was eye-
witness to the woods of Terra del Fuego, the very south-
ern boundary of the Straits of Magellan, in south latitude
44°, being full of them. He might also have cited the evi-
dence of Captain Hood, who saw a parrot at Port Famine ;
and of Commodore Byron, who notwithstanding the cold-
ness of the climate observed parrots innumerable in the
woods of that same harbour. They were found by Captain
Cook in New Zealand, by Captain Furneaux at Van Die-
men’s Land, and by the learned Forster in the raw wet cli-
mate of Dusky Bay. The emerald parrot, Psit. smaragdinus,
Gmel., was lately seen in great numbers by Captain King,
among thick underwood, in the Straits of Magellan, south
latitude 532° ; and others are well known to occur in Mac-
quarrie Island, which lies in latitude 544° south. A spe-
cies inhabits North America, extending even beyond the
Illinois River to the neighbourhood of Lake Michigan, in
the forty-second degree of north latitude. It was seen by
Alexander Wilson in the month of February, flying in
flocks along the banks of the Ohio, during a storm of snow,
and vet in full rejoicing cry. These, and many similar facts,
are now well known to naturalists.

The modern subdivisions of this great natural family
are too numerous and minute to be here recorded.1_ We
must therefore satisfy ourselves with a brief indication of
the principal groups. We presume nobody at this time
of day, under the pretence of popular reading, desires to

a few notices of some of the species which have bred in
Europe. Of these we may here mention, as the prin-
cipal, the great blue and buff maccaw (P. ararauna); the
gray parrot (P. erythacus) ; the sinciale, ring-necked, and
pavouan parrakeets (P. sincialo, torquatus, Guianensis) ;
and the black-capped or Philippine lory (P. ¢ricolor).
The general belief is that the parrot tribe will not breed
in Europe; but knowing several instances to the contrary,
we wish to impress upon the public the probability that
many more would occur were the experiment tried with
frequency and judgment. .

The gorgeous maccaws form the genus Macrocercus of
Vieillot. The face is either naked, or merely striped with,
feathery lines. The tail is very long, wedge-shaped, and
sharp-pointed. (Plate CCCXCVII. fig.1.) ‘hese birds, the
largest and most magnificent of the parrot tribe, inhabit
South America. The great scarlet maccaw (Psitiacus ara-
canga, Lath.), when in perfect plumage, sometimes mea-
sures above three feet in length, the tail of course included.
The prevailing plumage is scarlet, as its name implies, the
wings blue, the wing-coverts varied with yellow, the cheeks
white and wrinkled. It is certainly a sumptuous creature,
but after all rather too like a richly liveried footman,—an
association somewhat strengthened by its being so often seen
as an inhabitant of lordly mansions, and surrounded by other
menial bipeds, almost as gorgeous as itself. Our feelings
would no doubt have been different had we ever witnessed
their natural evolutions. “ It is a grand sight in Ornitho-
logy,” says Waterton, “ to see thousands of aras flying
over your head, low enough to let you have a full view of
their flaming mantle.” How delightful would it have been,
on some bright and dewy morning, to have accompanied
Lord Anson to view a magnificent rapid in the island of
Quibo. A fine river of transparent water there precipi-
tates itself along a rocky channel, forming numerous falls,
and the great disrupted rocks which form its boundary on
either side are crowned with lofty forest trees. ‘“ While
the commodore and those who were with him attentively.
viewing the place, were remarking the different blendings
of the waters, the rocks, and the woods, there came in
sight as it were still more to heighten and animate the
prospect, a prodigious flight of maccaws, which hovering
over this spot, and often whirling and playing on the wing
about it, afforded a most brilliant appearance by the glit-
tering of the sun upon their varied plumage ; so that some
of the spectators cannot refrain from a kind of transport
when they recount the complicated beauties which oc-
curred at this extraordinary water-fall.’” The blue and
yellow species (P. ararauna, Linn.) is little inferior to the
preceding, either in size or sumptuousness. It is less com-
mon, and seems to have been first described by Aldrovan-
dus, from a specimen which he saw in the palace of the
Duke of Mantua. It is said to be also less easily reclaim-
ed as a domestic bird,—yet we have not seldom enjoyed
the society of a very fine example which makes its way
familiarly (such is its custom in the afternoon) amid the
varied horticultural produce which graces the dessert of Dr
Neill. Many other splendid species are described and
figured in the works of naturalists. ee

In the genus Aratinca of Spix, the bill is slender,
dentated ; the orbits of the eyes naked, the cheeks rarely
so; the tail lengthened, wedge-shaped, the intermediate
feathers prolonged. The species are peculiar to the new
world. Such are Ar. Caroline-Auguste, chrysocephalus,
&c. To these the genus Psirracara of Vigors seems
allied, the bill, however, being shorter and stouter, and

_' The most complete and scientific treatises with which we are acquainted on the parrot tribe are,—Conspectus Psittacorum, ab H.
Kuhl, Ph. Dr. &c. in Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Cur. tom. x. p. 1; and Wagler’s Monographia Psittacorum.

ORNITHOLOGY. 601

rakeets, is finely ciliated at the tip on either side. Hence Scansores.

Scansores. the upper mandible compressed at the tip. The head is
the formation in their favour of Mr Vigors’s genus TrR1- —~~—~

—~,— feathered, but the orbits are naked. The species, such as

P. squamosus, &c. are likewise natives of South America.

The genus Patzornis of Vigors has the bill rather
thick, the culmen of the upper mandible rounded, the
lower broad, short, emarginate. The middle feathers of
the tail are greatly lengthened. The most anciently known
of the parrot race belong to this genus, such as the Alex-
andrine parrakeet, and other long-tailed species, distin-
guished by their elegance of form, their ruby-coloured
bills, their semicircled necks, and the rich verdure of
their plumage. The one just named is native to India
and Ceylon, and derives its designation from the fact, real
or supposed, of its having been first transported from Asia-
tic countries by Alexander the Great. Its most distin-
guishing characters consist in the broad black patch which
occupies the fore-part of the throat, and extends laterally in
two narrow processes on each side of the neck; a black
line stretches from the base of the beak to the eyes, and
there is a deep purplish-red patch at the base of the wings.
Its bill is larger than that of the rose-coloured parrakeet
(P. torquatus), which, however, it greatly resembles in its
general aspect. The last-named species is widely spread
over India, and as far eastward as Manilla. It appears,
indeed, to be identical with another species extremely
abundant on the African coasts, and well known in France
under the title of perruche de Senegal. In so far as any
conclusion can be drawn from the vague and brief de-
scriptions handed down by ancient writers, it would appear
that this species was, as it still continues to be, more fre-
quent in the days of antiquity than any of its congeners. No
allusion is made by these authors to those specific marks by
which the Alexandrine parrakeet is so clearly distinguish-
ed, and the general description applies very closely to the
rose-necked kind. That the latter was extensively known,
and held in high esteem on account of the brilliancy of its
plumage, the docility of its manners, and its successful
imitative powers, is proved by innumerable passages in
the classical writers of antiquity, more especially from the
earliest times of the Roman empire, to a very late period
of its annals.!_ The Alexandrine parrot is generally sup-
posed to have been brought to Europe from the island of
Ceylon, the ancient Taprobane. In the reign of Nero,
the Romans introduced other species from different quar-
ters of Africa.2 They were highly prized by that luxu-
rious people, who lodged them in superb cages of silver,
ivory, and tortoise-shell ; and the price of a parrot in those
days frequently exceeded that of a slave. Nor did Ovid
think it beneath him to write a lengthened elegy on the
death of Corinna’s favourite,—a bird which, in the love it
bore its mistress, seems to have emulated that of the
dying Greek for his country :—

Clamavit moriens lingua, Corinna, Vale.‘

In the same group is generally included that beautiful
and richly varied species from the Molucca Islands, called
the blue-bellied parrakeet, Ps. eyanogaster, Shaw. Its
tongue, in common with that of several New Holland par-

cHoGLossus. Vailliant, during his residence at the Cape,
had an opportunity of studying the manners of a pair of
the species just named, which had been imported from
Amboyna. They bred during their confinement in the
menagerie of M. Van Bletemberg, then governor of the
Cape. The female deplumed her beautiful breast, and
after having collected the feathers into a heap, deposited
two round white eggs, on which she sat most assiduously,
the male feeding her at intervals, by disinterestedly dis-
gorging what he had swallowed, and presenting the same
to his spouse. The young were produced at the end of
nineteen days, and in the space of a few more became co-
vered with a gray cinereous down, which was by degrees
succeeded by green feathers on the body, and by blue ones
on the head. At the end of three weeks they left the
nest, and perched upon the neighbouring sticks, where
the male and female fed them in concert, as above de-
scribed, after the manner of pigeons. The parent birds
continued to tend them in this manner for six months,
and often afforded a very interesting scene,—the young
being frequently seated beyond the female, and the male
not being able to reach them, first presented the food to
his mate, who immediately delivered it to her young.
These, though of different sexes, were perfectly alike till
the first moulting, at which time red feathers bordered
with green began to appear upon the breast, and the male
became distinguished by the blue patch upon the ab-
domen®

In the genus Pratycercus, Vigors, the tail is broad,
depressed, and somewhat rounded. ‘The species inhabit
New Holland, and the islands of the South Pacific and In-
dian Oceans. Examples Pl. Pennantii, Tabuensis, &c.

Among the perruches ordinaires of Cuvier (a portion of
the genus Conurus, Kuhl), distinguished by a regularly
graduated tail, without any disproportionate prolongation
of the central feathers, we have the Carolina parrot of
Wilson (Ps. Carolinensis, Linn.), a green plumaged bird,
with yellow head and neck, the forehead and cheeks orange.
Of more than two hundred species now known to belong
to the parrot tribe, this is the only one which inhabits the
United States, where it is chiefly restricted to the warmer
portions,—venturing but rarely beyond Virginia. West
of the Alleghanies, however, circumstances induce it to visit
much higher latitudes,—so that, following the great valley
of the Mississippi, it is seen to frequent the banks of the
Illinois, and occasionally to approach the southern shores
of Lake Michigan. Straggling parties have even been
sometimes observed in the valley of the Juniata, in Penn-
sylvania ; and a flock, to the great surprise of the Dutch in-
habitants of Albany, are said to have appeared in that vi-
cinity. This species constantly inhabits and breeds in the
southern states, and is so far hardy as to make its appear-
ance, commonly in the depth of winter, along the woody
banks of the Ohio, the interior of Alabama, and the banks
of the Mississippi and Missouri around St Louis and other
places, when nearly all other southern birds have migrated

I! Ancient writers are unanimous in their statements that parrots came to us first of all from India. Aristotle calls the Psittacus
ro Iydixoy opveoy 3”? and Arrian also makes it a native of the Kast (Hist. Ind. cap. xv.). The parrots of Africa became first known to
the Romans in the time of Nero. (Plin. Wat. Hist. lib. vi. c. 29.) For the classical history of these birds, see Mr Vigors’s ‘‘ Sketches

in Ornithology,”—Zoological Journal, vol. ii. p. 37.
* See Zoological Gardens, vol. ii. p. 96.

3 The splendour of a parrot’s cage is thus described by Statius :—
At tibi quanta domvus, rutila testudine fulgens,
Connexusque ebori virgarum argenteus ordo,
Argutumque tuo stridentia limina cornu,
Et querulz jam sponte fores: vacat ille beatus

Carcer.—Sylv. lib. ii
* Edinburgh Cabinet Library, Africa, p. 480.
VOL. XVI.

5 Shaw’s Generd? Zoology, vol. viii. p. 414.
" 46

602 ORNITHOLOGY.

Scansores. before the storms of that inclement season.1 We may

“Oftheir manners at the interesting period of propagation Scansores.
"\—" judge of the abundance of this species, even up toa recent

and incubation we are not yet satisfactorily informed. They —~——

period, from the statement of Vaillant, who assures us that
he saw a package containing above 6000 skins, which had
been sent to a plumassier at Paris, for the formation of
ornamental dresses.2 Mr Audubon, however, informs us
that their numbers are now rapidly diminishing, and that
in some districts where, twenty-five years ago, they were
plentiful, scarcely one is to be seen. “I should think,” he
adds, “ that along the Mississippi there is not now half the
number that existed fifteen years ago.” With a view to
illustrate the natural habits of these birds, we extract the
following account from the work of an English gentleman
now settled in America. ‘The Carolina parrakeets in all
their movements, which are uniformly gregarious, show a
peculiar predilection for the alluvial, rich, and dark forests
bordering the principal rivers and larger streams, in which
the towering cypress’ and gigantic sycamore? spread their
vast summits, or stretch their innumerable arms, over a
wide waste of moving or stagnant waters. From these, the
beech, and the hack-berry,® they derive an important supply
of food. The flocks, moving in the manner of wild pigeons,
dart in swift and airy phalanx through the green boughs
of the forest; screaming in a general concert, they wheel
in wide and descending circles round the tall button-wood,
and all alight in the same instant, their green lustre, like
the fairy mantle, rendering them nearly invisible beneath
the shady branches, where they sit, perhaps arranging

_ their plumage, and, shuffling side by side, seem to caress

and scratch each other’s heads with all the fondness and
unvarying friendship of affectionate doves. If the gun

. thin their ranks, they hover over the screaming, wounded,

or dying, and returning and flying around the place where
they miss their companions, in their sympathy seem to lose
all idea of impending danger. More fortunate in their ex-
cursions, they next proceed to gratify the calls of hunger,
and descend to the banks of the river or the neighbouring
fields in quest of the inviting kernels of the cockle burr,®
and probably of the bitter weed,’ which they extract from
their husks with great dexterity. In the depth of winter,
when other resources begin to fail, they, in common with
the yellow-bird and some other finches, assemble among
the tall sycamores,’ and, hanging from the extreme twigs,
in the most airy and graceful postures, scatter around
them a cloud of down from the pendant balls, in quest of
the seeds which now afford them an ample repast. With
that peculiar caprice, or perhaps appetite, which charac-
terizes them, they are also observed to frequent the saline
springs or licks, to gratify their uncommon taste for salt.
Out of mere wantonness, they often frequent the orchards,
and appear delighted with the fruitless frolic of pluck-
ing apples from the trees, and strewing them on the ground
untasted. So common is this practice among them in
Arkansas territory, that no apples are ever suffered to
ripen. They are also fond of some sorts of berries, and
particularly of mulberries, which they eat piecemeal in
their usual manner, as they hold them by the foot. Ac-
cording to Audubon, they likewise attack the outstanding
stacks of grain in flocks, committing great waste ; and on
these occasions, as well as the former, they are so bold
or incautious as readily to become the prey of the sports-
man in great numbers. Peculiarity of food appears wholly
to influence the visits and residence of this bird, and in
plain, champaign, or mountainous countries, they are
wholly strangers, though common along the banks of all
the intermediate water-courses and lagoons.

1 Nuttall’s American Ornithology, vol. i. p. 546.
2 Hist. Nat. des Perroquets.
2 Cupressus disticha.

4 Platanus occidentalis.
5 Celtis occidentalis.
Xanthium strumarium.

nest in hollow trees, and take little if any pains to provide
more than a simple hollow in which to lay their eggs, like the
woodpeckers. Several females deposit their eggs in the same
cavity ; the number laid by each is said to be only three,
which are nearly round, and of a light-greenish white.9
They are at all times particularly attached to the large sy-
camores, in the hollow trunks of which they roost in close
community, and enter at the same aperture, into which
they climb. They are said to cling close to the sides of
the tree, holding fast by the claws and bill; and into
these hollows they often retire during the day, either in
very warm or inclement weather, to sleep or pass away
the time in indolent and social security, like the Rupicolas””
of the Peruvian caves, at length only hastily aroused to
forage at the calls of hunger. Indeed, from the swiftness
and celerity of their aérial movements, darting through the
gleaming sunshine, like so many sylvan cherubs, decked in
green and gold, it is obvious that their actions as well as
their manners are not calculated for any long endurance,
and, shy and retiring from all society but that to which
they are inseparably wedded, they rove abroad with inces-
sant activity, until their wants are gratified, when, hid from
sight, they again relapse into that indolence which seems
a relief to their exertions.”!!

The pavouan parrakeet (Ps. Guianensis, Lath.) belongs
to our present group. ‘This species is native to Cayenne,
and the Antilles, where it is not uncommon, often flying
about in flocks, frequenting the wooded savannahs, and
feeding by preference on the berries of H/rythrina coral-
lodendron. Its length is about twelve inches, its prevail-
ing plumage green, the cheeks and sides of the neck being
speckled with bright red, which becomes more conspicu-
ous as the bird advances in age; the smaller wing-coverts
are bright red, the greater yellow, and both the quill and
tail feathers are dusky yellow beneath. ‘The bill is whit-
ish, the legs and feet gray. We owe to M. Gabriac the
following interesting particulars regarding the breeding of
a pair of this species in the domestic state. Two cages
were prepared for their reception in the month of April.
They were placed contiguous, but communicating only by
a small door, and the one enjoyed the “blessed light ot
day,” while the other was kept covered, so that no light
could enter but by the mutual door. The latter also con-
tained an abundant supply of saw-dust. The birds were
placed in the open apartment, which was the larger of the
two, and they speedily showed symptoms of tender attach-
ment to each other. They long declined, however, to en-
ter the darkened dwelling, although the female put in her
head, withdrew it again, advanced-part of her body, then
returned tail foremost,—but finally, after several days of
hesitation, she entered the mysterious chamber. ‘There
she expressed her satisfaction by little kindly cheerful
cries, and often called in the male, who exhibited every
proof of affection. She soon began to scrape about, and
arrange a kind of nest, and on the 18th of May she layed
her first egg, succeeded at intervals of three days by a se-
cond, third, and fourth,—after which she sat assiduously.
The male took no share in the hatching, but he kept con-
stantly close by the nest, as if to cheer her sedentary hours.
He did not however allow his affection to his wife to inter-
fere with his duty to his hoped-for family. If the female,
who never left the nest but to solace herself with meat
and drink, appeared to devote too much time to that indul-
gence, he remanded her back by a little blow with his

7 Ambrosia, species.
8 Platanus occidentalis.
® Audubon, Orn. Biog. i. p. 139.

19 Cock of the rock of Peru, which is also somewhat related, apparently, to the parrots. (Note by Mr Nuttall.)

1 Nuttall’s Manual of Ornithology, i, 456.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Scansores. beak, which occasionally produced something approaching
“—~.— to a quarrel. At the termination of twenty-five days, there

603

row feathers, and the face naked. The tongue is cylin~ Scansores,
drical, lengthened, and tubular, capable of being greatly ~~

being no appearance of progeny, the eggs were purposely
withdrawn and broken, and were found to contain young
in different stages of development, but alldead. This re-
sult was attributed to stormy weather, which had pre-
vailed during incubation. Fortunately a second laying,
accompanied by the same circumstances as the first, com-
menced on the 14th of July, and after twenty-three days,
counted rigorously, the young appeared from each egg in
a succession corresponding to the order of laying. They
were at first covered by a grayish down, and were cherish-
ed with the tenderest solicitude by the parents, who on
the approach of any threatened danger defended them
with the greatest courage. It was in truth acurious sight
to see two creatures before so kind and tenderly affec-
tionate to those around them, so grateful for their food,
and so solicitous of human kindness, converted by the
strength of this new passion into little tigers, and so in-
tractable as to attend no longer to fair hands or gentle
voices. This natural wildness showed itself also strongly
in the young ones, who recognised alone their parents,
and bit and scratched at all the world besides.

A few species have the tail square, with the central fea-
thers prolonged, and these in Ps. setarius, Temm. Pl. Col.
15, are bare of barbs, except at the tip.

The great mass of parrots properly so called, belonging
to the restricted genus Psitracus, have the bill rather
strong, the face clothed with feathers, the head large,
without crest, the body thick, and the tail rather short and
square. Green is the prevailing colour of the plumage,
and the species are native to various countries both of the
old world and the new. One of the best known, and
most remarkable for its easy docility, the distinctness of
its articulation, and general loquacious powers, is the com-
mon gray parrot, Ps. erythacus, of which the tail is red,
and the orbits white and naked. It is an African species,
and one of the earliest and most frequently imported. It
has been known to breed in Europe,—a French gentleman
at Marmande having had a pair which produced young
ones for five or six years successively. They made their
nest in spring, in a cask filled with saw-dust, the number
of eggs being four, of which one was always unproductive.
According to Labat a similar instance had previously oc-
curred at Paris. Our present square-tailed group is very
numerous.

The lories (genus Lortus, Vig.) have the bill rather
attenuated, the upper mandible much arched, compressed,
the lower lengthened, and nearly entire. The tongue is
described as bristly and tubular. The tail is rather short,
slightly graduated. Various shades of red form the pre-
vailing colour of the plumage. The species inhabit the
East Indies and the Asiatic islands. LExarhple, Ps. uni-
color, garrulus, &c.

Certain short-tailed species, of small size, which inhabit
the tropical countries of both the new and old world, form
the genus Psirracu.us of Kuhl. Such are Ps. passerinus,
tui, &c. They are erroneously called parrakeets by some
of our English writers, a name which would confound them
with the long-tailed species already alluded to, and more
generally recognised under that title. The vast extent of
the parrot tribe renders subdivision extremely desirable as
a matter of convenience ; but it must be confessed that a
mere difference in size and colour is not of itself sufficient
to authorize the separation of groups, or the formation of
genera.

The genus Microctossus, Vieil., is, however, better
founded. The bill, especially the upper mandible, is very
large and strong, the head ornamented by a crest of nar-

protruded from the mouth, and ending in a kind of corne-
ous gland, cloven at the tip. (See Plate CCCXCVII. figs. 5
and 6.) The legs are more naked than usual, and the tarsi,
on which they occasionally rest while walking, very short
and square. The tail is square or even. We are not ac-
quainted with more than two species, both from eastern
countries. The black or giant cockatoo (Ps. gigas), called
by old Edwards “a parrot of the first magnitude,” and Ps.
aterrimus of Gmelin, are the birds alluded to. Their sy-
nonymy seems confused. They inhabit New Guinea and
the isle of Waigiou ; and Edwards’s figure was taken from
a living specimen in Ceylon, but whether indigenous or
imported does not appear. Vaillant observes of one of
the species (his ara noir @ trompe), that in cold weather
it covered the bare space on each side of its face by low-
ering over them the feathers of the crest.

_ The great New Holland species, called the Banksian
cockatoo, discovered in the course of Captain Cook’s first
circumnavigation, forms, with others, the modern genus
Calyptorhynchus. (Plate CCCXCVII. fig. 2.) These large
dark-coloured species are as yet but ill defined. They are
said to live on roots ; but Mr Bennet alludes to one which
feeds on the larve of insects, as well as on the seeds of
Banksia, Hakea, and even of Xanthorrheea, or grass tree ;
and in the travels of that gentleman we find the following
passage, which relates to a certain locality in New Holland.
“ Black and white cockatoos had lately become very nu-
merous about this part of the country : the former appear-
ed to have been attracted by some trees that had been
felled when clearing a spot of land for cultivation,—as these
birds visit the dead or fallen trees to procure the larve of
insects that breed in them. I have seen, more than once,
small trees lying prostrate, occasioned by the powerful bills
of the large black cockatoos, who, observing on the trunk,
externally, indications of a larva being within, have diligent-
ly laboured to extract it; and should the object of their
search be situated (as often occurs) far in, before they reach
it the trunk is so much cut through, that the slightest puff
of wind lays it prostrate.”!

The white-plumaged cockatoos, with conspicuous crests,
tinged in part with orange, red, or yellow, pertain to the
genus Prycrotopuus, Vieil. (Plate CCCXCVII. fig. 3.)
They inhabit New Holland and the eastern islands, and are
remarkable for their great docility. They are said to pre-
fer the vicinity of marshy places.

A beautiful small parrot, with longer legs than usual,
and straighter claws, forms the genus PEzoporus, Illiger.
It is green and yellow, spotted with black, the frontlet
red, the tail long and graduated. The outer hind claw is
very long. This singular bird, commonly called the ground
parrot (P. terrestris, Shaw,—P. formosus, Latham), differs‘
from its congeners in hardly ever perching upon trees. It
remains upon the ground in sedgy plains, or runs among
the long grass, almost after the manner of a rail. (Plate
CCCXCVIL. fig. 4.)

At the conclusion of the scansorial order Cuvier has
placed two genera which have certainly but little in com-
mon with the preceding groups, and which some consider
as allied to the gallinaceous order, while others have placed
them in the conirostral tribe of Passeres,—we mean Cory-
THAIx and Musopuaca. In both the bill is rather short,
the upper mandible bulged or rounded, the feet have 2
short membrane between the toes, and although these are
not placed exactly in pairs, yet the outer toe 1s versatile
to aconsiderable degree. The nostrils are simply pierced
in the corneous portion of the bill, the margins of which
are dentated. In the plantain-eaters (genus MusorHaca,

+ Wanderings in New South Wales, &c. i. 182.

604 ORNITHOLOGY.

Rasores. Isert, Plate CCCXCVIL. fig. 8) the base of the bill forms

and seeds,—occasionally upon berries, or the buds of shrubs Rasores.
a raised, expanded disk upon the forehead. The violet

and trees,—and, the younger birds especially, show them- —~y~—"

plantain-eater (IV. violacea) is a bird of great beauty, the
general plumage being of a rich glossy violet black, the
crown and primaries crimson, the bill yellow tipt with red,
and a clear white stripe beneath the eye. It occurs in
the province of Acra, in Guinea, and in other parts of
Western Africa, and feeds on the fruit of the musa or
plantain tree. The touracos (genus CoryTuats, Illiger,
Plate CCCXCVIL. fig. 7) want the expansion at the base
of the bill, and have the head adorned by an elongat-
ed crest. Several beautiful species belong to this genus,
such as the Cuculus Persa of Linn., a native of the Cape,
—of a fine green colour, with a portion of the quill-fea-
thers crimson. Vaillant informs us that there are great
numbers of these birds in the country of the Kottinquas,—
that they are very difficult to shoot, as they perch only on
the summits of the tallest trees, and rarely suffer any one
to approach within gun-shot,—but that they are easily
caught alive in snares baited with such fruits as are in
season. He adds, that they are excellent eating. Another
species of this genus, which it is delightful to look upon,
is the Pauline touraco, C. Paulina, also a native of South-
ern Africa. M. Vieillot, who had occasion to examine
one alive in Paris, informs us that its manners were mild
and familiar, that it lived on succulent fruits, and was fond
of sugar. Its habits were active, its voice sonorous, and
apparently ventriloqual.

Orper 1V.—RASORES.!
GALLINACEOUS OR RASORIAL BIRDS.

The species of this order, by far the most valuable to the
human race of all the feathered tribes (how many, regard-
less of Ornithology, yet dwell with pleasure on a roast-
ed turkey), are characterized by a rather short and con-
vex bill. The upper mandible is somewhat curved, and
furnished with a cere, sometimes naked, sometimes fea-
thered. The head is generally small in proportion to the
body. The nostrils are placed on each side of the bill,
and usually in a fleshy protecting membrane. The tarsi
are for the most part elongated. The toes are four in
number, three of which are anterior, and united by a mem-
brane more or less extended, at their bases; the fourth,
posterior, is articulated higher than the others, and is in
some cases very small, or even entirely wanting.

This order, as we have elsewhere noticed, contains se-
veral of the most ornamental, and a great majority of the
most highly prized and useful species of the feathered
race. While the peacock and golden pheasant stand un-
rivalled alike for elegance of form and beauty of plumage,
the turkey and domestic fowl, the grouse quail and par-
tridge, lay claim to more substantial though less sentimen-
tal regard, as conducing in no small degree to the social
enjoyments of civilized life. Gallinaceous birds are gene-
rally distinguished by a bulky form, and a heavy and some-
what laborious flight. In fact, the sternum or breast-bone
is so deeply notched on either side as to diminish the sup-
port afforded to the action of the pectoral muscles ; and the
power of the wings, and consequent duration and velocity
of their movements, suffer a corresponding diminution.

With the exception of the alectors or curassoes, few
of the gallinaceous species build on trees (in which they
differ remarkably from the preceding orders), though all
delight in basking on the ground, and scraping in the dry
and sultry soil, for which purpose they are provided with
tuuscular limbs and feet. They live upon all sorts of grain

selves sufficiently eager and expert in the capture of in-
sect prey. The females lay a great number of eggs, in a
rude and carelessly constructed nest ; and the newly-pro-
duced offspring, unlike the callow nestlings of the other
orders, though they remain for some time associated with
their parents, run swiftly, and pick freely from their first
exclusion. The males, particularly towards the breeding
season, are quarrelsome and courageous,—indulging in
frequent and sometimes fatal contention. They are often
furnished with spurs. In the satyr pheasant both sexes
are so armed, and the males are moreover provided with a
couple of horns. In the polyplectron the tarsi of the male
are doubly armed, there being two spurs on each leg.

In their general form and habits, the particular structure
and functions of the digestive system, and the great bene-
fits which they confer upon the human race, birds of this
order have been observed to bear a considerable resem-
blance to the ruminating or herbivorous quadrupeds. Like
these, their stomach is of a more complex character,
consisting of a dilated membranous pouch or crop, and
a muscular gizzard,—in the former of which their food is
rendered moist and pulpy, in the latter it is bruised and
broken, and otherwise prepared for the production of the
life-sustaining chyle; whereas in accipitrine birds the
crop is either inconspicuous or non-existent, and the sto-
mach, if not membranous, at least has its muscular coating
very thin. The intestine in gallinaceous birds is rather
long and wide, of nearly uniform diameter, and provided
with two enormous ceca. Their flesh, we need scarcely
say, is very delicate, and highly esteemed as a pleasing
and nutritious food. It varies considerably in colour,—
that of the turkey and common poultry being white, of the
moor grouse brownish red, while the breast of the black-
cock presents two distinct layers of red and white, the one
imposed upon the other. We allude at present to its ew-
linary aspect.

Naturalists have erred in assigning the polygamous ha-
bit as a general characteristic of our present order The
instinct to pair, or habit of monogamy, is no doubt be-
stowed only on those species to which it is necessary for
the sustentation of their young, and differs considerably in
the nature and permanence of the attachment, accord-
ing as the nest is placed above or upon the surface of the
ground. ll birds which build on trees, as was long ago
observed by Lord Kames, are hatched blind, or extreme-
ly defective in the sense of sight, and almost without fea-
thers,—thus requiring the sedulous care of both parents.
But the generality even of gallinaceous birds, which breed
upon the ground, do likewise pair, though the hatching of
the eggs is entirely confided to the female, who completes
her task by leading the young towards their proper food,
which they are able to select tor themselves, being active,
completely formed, and well feathered, from their first ex-
clusion. What is indeed more beautiful than the fond
affection of these devoted creatures, teaching in the blind-
ness of instinctive love, a lesson to proud but cold huma-
nity? Who knoweth not (now divinely told) how the
hen “ doth gather her brood beneath her wings ;” how she
shelters them from the nipping blast, expanding her downy
breast and feathery pinions, till she becomes a populous
tabernacle, a living temple of maternal love, beset with
small protruding bills, and bright but gentle eyes; how
she will dare, with upraised ruffled plumes, the fiercest on-
set of the direst foe,—the callous school-boy with his
threatening club, the snarling cur-dog with his ivory fangs,
the insidious weasel, creeping serpent-like through tangled
herbage, or the bolder bird of prey, “lord of the lion

1 Gating, Linn.

ORNITHOLOGY.

trees, and dwelling gregariously in love and amity. They Rasores.
are known under the by no means euphonious names of —~v¥—~

Rasores. heart and eagle eye,” descending swift and sure, like thun-
=" der-bolt from heaven !

What are each or all of these in
dread array, with death itself, to her at other times a fear-
ful creature, but now pervaded by the deep intensity of
mother love? Who knoweth not these things may have
wandered far through wood and wilderness, up vast and
lonely mountains, in moist and green savannahs, o’er dry
and desert sands,—but he has never turned a kindly and
considerate eye towards perhaps the too familiar features
of some lowly farm-stead close by his earlyhome. Yet to
such thoughts the mind, in those that loved them once, not
seldom turns, The hoary worn-out warrior, with “ scars
entrenched,” and decked with emblems of the blood-stain-
ed field—the smooth but hollow statesman, gorgeous on
gala days in regal throngs,—the lawyer with insidious
tongue, by which the worse is made the better reason,—
the nabob “ with visage discomposed,” sallow as his gold
(his heart as pure ?),—the soft physician, with stilly foot
and ever ready palm,—the merchant prince dreaming of
“Tyre and Sidon,” of freighted vessels, and “ the injuri-
ous sea,”—think they not often of their boyish years, when
one bright summer day seemed like a century of such de-
light as all their best planned schemes of proud ambition
since then have yielded never? But in these fantastic
thoughts forget we not our gallinaceous order ?

The male, though somewhat less assiduous than the fe-
male, continues to manifest a certain degree of parental
solicitude, by uttering the alarm note on the approach of
birds of prey, or other dangerous foes. Black game and
wood grouse, however, do not seem to pair at all, but in the
genial spring a male assembles round him a certain num-
ber of devoted females, which afterwards deposit their
eggs, and rear their young altogether independent of the
male parent. These birds are therefore polygamous in
the proper acceptation of the term. Indeed, even among
herbivorous quadrupeds pairing is rare, because the female
can suckle her young while she herself is feeding ;—but
the monogamous habit probably obtains among most carni-
vorous quadrupeds, and certainly among all carnivorous
birds, because incubation leaves the female no sufficient
time to hunt for food,! and because young birds cannot
bear a long fast, and therefore require the assistance of
both ‘parents while unable to provide for themselves.
‘An extraordinary circumstance has been observed in
the females of certain genera of this order, viz. an assump-
tion of the male plumage after a certain period of life.
We believe it to be a fact in the natural history of com-
mon poultry, that all hen-birds which either by accident
or design have been allowed to attain the age of sixteen
years complete, have been observed to assume the plumage
of cocks! ‘The same change has been seen to take place
both in the female pheasant and the pea-hen, but at more
indeterminate periods of life, and less in connection with
an advanced age. Though these facts have not escaped
the observation of the philosophical naturalist, yet the
different circumstances attending their occurrence have
not been detailed with sufficient frequency or fulness to
admit of any satisfactory theory being offered in their ex-
planation.? We shall conclude these general remarks by
observing, that the gallinaceous order, with the exception
of the pigeon tribe, and the genus Opisthocomus (haozin,
Buffon), which certainly offer some very*anomalous cha-
racters, is naturally and consistently composed. We shall
now proceed to a brief notice of the principal genera.

The birds known by the general name of Alectors are
species of large size from South America, somewhat allied
to turkeys. Their tails are broad and rounded, and com-
posed of large stiff feathers. They inhabit woods, living
on fruits and buds, perching and building their nests on

See Kames'’s Sketches.

hoccos and jacous (words which we shall not pronounce ex-
cept when necessary), and are arranged as follows by Ba-
ron Cuvier. The hoccos properly so called, which are also
known as curassoes (genus Crax, Linn., Plate CCCXCVIII.
fig. 1), have the bill strong, and its base surrounded by a
skin sometimes of lively colour, and containing the nostrils.
The head is ornamented by a tuft of long, narrow, recurved
feathers. The most common kind is the Crazx alector, or
crested curasso, which was at one time almost completely
acclimated in Holland, where they were as prolific as com-
mon poultry. It is so frequent in the woods of Guiana as
to form, according to M. Sonnini, the surest resource
of every hungry traveller whose stock of provisions may
be found exhausted, and who has therefore become de-
pendent on his gun. They are gregarious, and even when
a considerable number have been shot, the rest will re-
main quietly perched, as if unconscious of the surrounding
slaughter. Several other species are described in syste-
matic works. C. globicera is distinguished by a large
rounded tubercle on the base of the upper mandible.

In the genus OuRAx, Cuv., the bill is shorter and thicker,
with its basal membrane, as well as the greater portion of
the head, covered with short, velvety feathers. (Plate
CCCXCVIIL. fig. 2.) Here is placed the Ourar pauat
(Crax pauzxi, Linn.), or galeated curasso, a large turkey-
like bird, with plumage of a shining black with green re-
flections, the abdomen and under tail-coverts white. At
the base of the beak is a great oval tubercle, of a pale
blue colour, and as hard as stone. The structure or posi-
tion of the windpipe is peculiar. “Sa trachée,” says Cu-

{ vier, “ descend dehors, le long du cété droit jusqu’en ar-
riére du sternum, se recourbe vers le cété gauche, et re-
vient en avant pour rentrer dans la poitrine par la four-
chette. Tous ces anneaux sont comprimés.” ‘This species
is a native of Mexico, where it lives gregariously, perching
on trees, but building usually on the ground, and leading
about its young after the manner of the pheasant and com-
mon hen. It is easily domesticated.

The guans or yacous, genus PENELOPE of Merrem, have
the bill more slender than the preceding, with a bare space
around the eye, and on the lower part of the throat,—the
latter generally capable of inflation. The individuals of
the same species seem to vary considerably, so that many
doubtful kinds have been described by naturalists. The
guan, commonly so called (Pen. cristata, Gmelin), is the
largest of the genus, measuring about thirty inches in total
length. The whole upper surface of the body is of a dusky
black or bronze colour, glossed with green and olive. The
feathers on the back of the head form a thick erectile crest.
The fore part of the neck and breast are spotted with white,
each feather being surrounded by a white border. The
naked part of the throat is bright scarlet, with a depend-
ing fold of the same colour. The manners of this bird re-
semble those of the curassoes. They search for food along
the ground, but perch and build upon the tops of trees.
They are less gregarious, generally keeping together in
pairs, and remarkable, it is said, for the strictest constancy,
and their strong attachment to each other,—being thus
deserving of the name they bear, that of the devoted con-
sort of Ulysses.

The genus OrtiLpa of Merrem scarcely differs from
the preceding, except in having a much smaller portion bare
around the eye and throat. We are acquainted with only
a single species, the Phasianus motmot of Gmelin (Phas.
parragua, Lath.). Its voice is very strong, and the wind-
pipe descends beneath the skin towards the abdomen, and
then remounts into the chest. The plumage is of a bronzed

2 Wilson's Illustrations of Zoology, vol. i. Order GALLIN#.

605

606

Rasores, brown above, and ashy-white below, the crest red.
—.— habits Brazil, Paraguay, and Guiana.

ORNITHOLOGY.

It in-
Two other species
are described by M. Lesson, Ort. Goudotit and sguamata,—
the former inhabits the mountains of Santa Fé de Bogota,
the latter is native to Brazil. :

The genus OpristHocomus of Hoffmansegg (Sasa of
Vieil.) is associated in our present system with the preced-
ing alectors. The only known species (Phasianus crista-
tus, Lath.) has the bill short and thick, the nostrils pierced
in its corneous portion, without the usual surrounding mem-
brane. The head bearsa crest of long, slender, decomposed
feathers, and the toes (in which character it also differs
from all the genuine gallinaceous kind) have no connect-
ing membrane at the base. The bird occurs in Guiana,
where it is usually seen perched in places subject to inun-
dation. It lives chiefly on the leaves and seeds of a species
of arum. Its flesh has a strong smell of castoreum, and is
used only as a bait for fishes. “Il forme,” says Baron
Cuvier, “ un genre trés distinct des autres gallinacées, et
qui pourra devenir le type d’un famille particuliére quand
on connaitra son anatomie.”* Its true situation in the na-
tural system seems at present quite uncertain, but, from its
great diversity in different works, must assuredly in some
be most erroneous.

In the genus Pavo of Linn., the bill, of moderate size,
is bare at the base, the nostrils lateral, sub-basal, open.
The head is crested, the cheeks are naked, or nearly so.
The tarsi are rather long, and armed with a conical spur.
The upper coverts of the tail are of singular length and
magnificence. The tail itself is erectile and wedge-shaped.
The wings are rather short. This genus, as now restricted,
contains only two species. ‘The common peacock (Pave
cristatus, Linn.), so much admired for the surpassing splen-
dour of its plumage, and now so familiarly known as a do-
mestic bird, has probably been reduced to a state of de-
pendence, if not of servitude, for some thousand years.
The earliest notice we possess of it is contained in the se-
cond book of Chronicles. “ For the king’s ships went to
Tarshish with the servants of Hrram: every three years
once came the ships of Tarshish, bringing gold, and silver,
ivory, and apes, and peacocks.” The introduction of this
beautiful bird to the western countries of Europe has never
been clearly traced,—but every step of its progress has no
doubt been owing rather to the agency of man than the in-
stinct of nature. Its inborn tendency would clearly have
been to return to whence it came,—to seek again the per-
petual sunshine, and ever-verdant forests of Asia, the
banks “ of Ganges or Hydaspes, Indian streams.” It ap-
pears to have been unknown even in Greece during the early
manhood of Alexander the Great, by whom it was first
observed with no less wonder than delight in the progress
of his southern expedition, and then transmitted to his na-
tive country. There, however, it must have multiplied
speedily, as Aristotle, who died in a year or two after “the
great Emathian conqueror,” mentions the peacock as a
well-known bird. It is now distributed among most civi-
lized nations, beautifying with lustrous train our verdant
lawns, and arching its proud emblazoned neck among the
“ ancestral trees” of many lordly dwellings. The cry of
the peacock, unless when mellowed by distance, is harsh
and unmusical, but extends far and wide. Indeed the notes
of all birds, whether musically toned or inharmonious, are
very clear and forcible. The voice of a blackbird may be
heard as far as that of a man,—the clanging cry of the

stork has been calculated to fill a circumference of nearly Rasores.

half a league, and the harsh scream of the peacock extends
as far as that of an elephant. Mr Waterton observes, that
the singular metallic note of the campanero or bell-bird of
America is audible from a distance of three miles.

The only other species of this genus (as now restricted)
is the Japan or Javanese peacock (P. Japonensis, Briss..—
P. Javanicus, Horsfield), of which we have elsewhere
figured both the adult male and young, under the name
of Aldrovandine peacock, from the specimens in the Edin-
burgh Museum.* It occurs in Japan, Java, and other
eastern and southern regions of Asia. The particular
markings and general ‘distribution of the colours in the
train scarcely differ from those of the better-known species ;
but the Aldrovandine bird may be distinguished at first
sight from the common kind, by a difference in the form,
colour, and consistence of the cervical feathers; by the
shape and structure of the occipital crest, of which the
plumes are lance-shaped, or broadly linear, and barbed
throughout their entire length, instead of being merely
tufted at the extremities; by the dissimilar plumage of the
wing-coverts, and the number of feathers in the tail, which
in the former consists of twenty, in the latter of only
eighteen.

The genus PotypLectron, Temm., contains a few spe-
cies formerly classed with the preceding, but of smaller
size, and distinguished by a pair of spurs on each tarsus.
Such is the beautiful Thibet peacock (Pol. Thibetanus), the
peacock-pheasant of Edwards, of which a great proportion
of the plumage is ornamented by large and very brilliant
spots of greenish blue, changing with the varying light to
gold and purple, and surrounded by circles of black and
yellowish white. The male is about the size of the golden
pheasant. The plumage of the female is less brilliant,
and, her tail shorter. The colour in the young of both
sexes is earthy gray, with large spots and small lines of
brown. This species is of easy domestication, and not re-
markable for shyness even in a state of nature. It is na~
tive to the mountains of Thibet, and is said also to occur
in China. At least it is frequent in the aviaries of that
leaf-soaking people.

The genus Lornoruorus, Temm., distinguished by its
tufted hanging crest, and strongly bent and broadly mar-
gined bill, contains that splendid bird the Impeyan phea-
sant (Loph. refulgens), of which the colours of the plumage
are so exceedingly brilliant from their metallic lustre, and
so variable according to the direction of the light or the
position of the spectator, that they cannot be expressed
by words, and even the skill of the most accomplished
painter would in vain attempt to equal the bright original.
Purple, green, and gold, are the prevailing hues. The fe-
male, however, is almost entirely destitute of metallic splen-
dour. This bird inhabits the mountains in the northern
parts of Hindustan. Lady Impey endeavoured to trans-
port it alive to England, but it died on the passage. It is
known to the natives by the name of monaul, which signi-
fies the bird of gold.

The genus Meteacris, Linn., distinguished by its bare
and wattled head and neck, and broad erectile tail, con-
tains the valuable but unromantic turkey, WM. gallo-pavo,
Linn., a heavy and ungraceful bird, as it exists in the poul-
try-yards of Britain, but of a richer plumage and more
powerful wing in its native wooded wilderness. ‘‘ The wild
turkey,” observes Mr Nuttall, “ once prevalent throughout

4 Dictionnaire des Sciences Nat. t. lix. p. 195.

2 Réene Animal, t.i. p. 473, note.

3 We have few opportunities (fortunately) afforded us in this country of judging of the strength of voice in wild beasts. Our own

experience extends oniy to the following homely fact, which, however, it may be worth while to mention.

During the residence in

Edinburgh of Mr Wombwell’s and other travelling menageries, we have endeavoured to test the extension of the lion’s voice from
different quarters. We have often heard it very distinctly on a still evening, about feeding time, from the top of Craigleith quarry,
distant from the menagerie (on the Mound, Princes Street) about two miles and a half.

4 Illustrations of Zoology, yol. i. pl. 14, 15,

ORNITHOLOGY.

Rasores. the whole continent of North America, from Mexico and

the Antilles to the forests of Lower Canada, is now, by
the progress and density of population, chiefly confined to
the thickly wooded and uncultivated tracts of the western
states, being particularly abundant in the unsettled parts
of Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, and throughout the
vast forests of the great valleys of the Mississippi and Mis-
souri. On the banks of the Jatter river, however, where
the woods disappear beyond the confluence of the Platte,
the turkey no longer appears, and the feathers of the wings,
for the purpose of pluming arrows, form an article of small
commerce between the other natives and their western
countrymen. Fora thousand miles up the Arkansas and
Red River, in the wooded alluvial lands, they are not un-
common. They are likewise met with in small numbers
in Tennessee, Alabama, and West Florida. From the At-
lantic states generally they are now nearly extirpated. The
wild turkey is neither gregarious nor migratory, but from
the necessity of wandering after food; it is otherwise re-
sident throughout the whole of the vast region it inhabits,
including the greatest diversity of climate ; and it is pro-
lific in proportion to its natural resources, so that while in
the United States and Canada it only breeds once in the
year, in Jamaica and the other West India islands it is
said to raise two or three broods in the same period. In
quest of mast, they therefore spread themselves through
the country, and insensibly assemble in considerable num-
bers to the district where their food abounds. These
movements are observed to take place in October (the tur-
key moon of the aborigines). The males, pr gobblers as
they are often called, from their note, are now seen apart
from the other sex, in companies varying from ten to a
hundred. The females move singly, or accompanied by
their almost independent brood, who all at first shun assi-
duously the persecuting society of the selfish male. Yet
after a while, when their food proves abundant, separate
mixed flocks of all ages and sexes often promiscuously
join in the bounteous repast. Their migration, very un-
like that of the rapid pigeons, is made almost entirely on
foot, until their progress is perhaps arrested by a river.
Their speed, however, is very considerable, and when sur-
prised, they more commonly trust to their legs than their
wings, running nearly with the velocity of a hound. On
meeting with an impediment of this kind, after consider-
able delay, they ascend to the tops of the tall trees, and, at
the cluck of the leader, they launch into the air for the op-
posite shore. The transit is a matter of little difficulty,
though considerable labour, for the older birds; but the
younger and less robust sometimes fall short of the bank,
and are either drowned or attain the land by swimming.
After crossing, it is remarked that they often become an
easy prey to the hunter, as they seem bewildered by the
new country in which they have arrived, or more probably
are fatigued by the novelty and extent of their excursion.
After long journeys and privations, particularly in frosty
weather, or while the ground is covered with snow, they
are sometimes reduced to the necessity of making their
appearance near farm-houses, where they now and then
even associate with the poultry, and enter the stables and
cribs after grain. In this desultory and foraging manner
they spend the autumn and winter.

“ According to the latitude, and the advancement of
the season, though always very early in the spring, they
begin to be actuated by the instinct of propagation. The
males commence their gobbling, and court the society of
their retiring mates. The sexes roost apart, but in the
same vicinity, and at the yelp of the female the gobbling
becomes reiterated and extravagant. If heard from the
ground, a general rush ensues to the spot, and whether the
hen appears or not, the males, thus accidentally brought
together, spread out their train, quiver and depress their

607

rigid wings, and strutting and puffing with a pompous gait, Rasores.
often make battle, and directing their blows at the head, —~~—

occasionally destroy each other in a fit of jealousy. As
with our domestic fowls, several hens usually follow a fa-
vourite cock, roosting in his immediate neighbourhood,
until they begin to lay, when they withdraw from his re-
sort to save their eggs, which he would destroy if disco-
vered.

“ The females are therefore seen in his company only
for a few hours in the day. Soon after this period, how-
ever, the male loses his ardour, and the advances of affec-
tion now become reversed, the hen seeking out the society
of her reluctant mate. In moonlight nights the gobbling
of the male is heard, at intervals of a few minutes, for
hours together, and affords often a gratifying means of
their discovery to the wakeful hunter. After this period
the males become lean and emaciated, so as to be even
unable to fly, and seek to hide themselves from their mates
in the closest thickets, where they are seldom seen. They
now also probably undergo their moult, and are so dry,
lean, and lousy, until the ripening of the mast and berries,
as to be almost wholly indigestible, and destitute of nutri-
ment as food. So constant is this impoverished state, that
the Indians have a proverb, * As lean as a turkey in sum-
mer.’

“ About the middle of April, in Kentucky, the hens be-
gin to provide for the reception of their eggs, and secure
their prospects of incubation. The nest, merely a slight
hollow scratched in the ground, and lined with withered
leaves, is made by the side of a fallen log, or beneath the
shelter of a thicket, in a dry place. The eggs, from ten to
fifteen, are whitish, covered with red dots. While laying,
the female, like the domestic bird, always approaches the
nest with great caution, varying the course at almost every
visit, and often concealing her eggs entirely by covering
them with leaves. Trusting to the similarity of her home-
ly garb with the withered foliage around her, the hen, as
with several other birds, on being carefully approached,
sits close without moving. She seldom indeed abandons
her nest, and her attachment increases with the growing
life of her charge. The domestic bird has been known
not unfrequently to sit stedfastly on her eggs until she
died of hunger. As soon as the young have emerged from
the shell, and begun to run about, the parent, by her cluck,
calls them around her, and watches with redoubled suspi-
cion the approach of their enemies, which she can perceive
at an almost inconceivable distance. To avoid moisture,
which might prove fatal to them, they now keep on the
higher sheltered knolls ; and in about a fortnight, instead
of roosting on the ground, they begin to fly at night to
some wide and low branch, where they still continue to
nestle under the extended wings of their protecting parent.
At length they resort during the day to more open tracts,
or prairies, in quest of berries of various kinds, as well as
grasshoppers and other insects. The old birds are very
partial to pecan-nuts, winter grapes, and other kinds of
fruits. They also eat buds, herbs, grain, and large insects ;
but their most general and important fare is acorns, after
which they make extensive migrations. By the month of
August the young are nearly independent of their parent,
and become enabled to attain a safe roost in the higher
branches of the trees. The young cocks now show the
tuft of hair upon the breast, and begin to strut and gobble,
and the young hens already pur and leap. One of the
most crafty enemies which the wild turkey has to encoun-
ter is the lynx or wild cat, who frequently seizes his prey
by advancing round, and waiting its approach in ambush.
Like most other gallinaceous birds, they are fond of wal-
lowing on the ground, and dusting themselves.

“ When approached by moonlight, they are readily shot
from their roosting-tree, one after another, without any

ORNITHOLOGY. ,

and five toes,—the rumpless cock, and those of many- Rasores,
mingled colours,—appear to have arisen chiefly from the —~y~——

608

Rasores. apprehension of their danger, though they would dodge or
“~~ fly instantly at the sight of the owl. The gobblers, during

the season of their amorous excitement, have been known
even to strut over their dead companions while on the
ground, instead of seeking their own safety by flight. In
the spring, the male turkeys are called by a whistle made
of the second joint bone of the wing of the bird, which
produces a sound somewhat similar to the voice of the fe-
male; and on coming up to this call they are consequent-
ly shot. They are likewise commonly caught in quadran-
gular pens made of logs crossing each other, from which
is cut a slanting covered passage sufficient to allow the
entrance of the turkey. Corn is then scattered in a train
to this cage for some distance, as well as within; and
the neighbouring birds, in the surrounding woods, hav-
ing discovered the grain, call on each other by a cluck-
ing, and entering one at a time, they become secur-
ed in the pen, as, for the purpose of escape, they constant-
ly direct their view upwards, instead of stooping to go out
by the path by which they had entered. ‘The male wild
turkey weighs commonly from fifteen to eighteen pounds,
is not unfrequently as much as twenty-five, and some-
times, according to Audubon, even thirty-six. The hen
commonly weighs about nine pounds; ‘and the usual
price for a turkey from the Indians is twenty-five cents.”1

The only other species of turkey is a very rare and
beautiful bird (iM. ocellata, Cuv.), of which, we believe,
only a single specimen is yet known. It was captured by
the crew of a vessel who were cutting wood in the Bay
of Honduras, and was brought alive to the Thames, for pre-
sentation to Sir Henry Halford, but met with an accident
which caused its death. It afterwards became the pro-
perty of Mr Bullock ; and on the dispersion of his collec-
tion, was purchased by the French government for the
Paris Museum. It is nearly equal in size to the common
turkey. The tail is less ample, but its colours are more
varied and beautiful, almost rivalling those of the peacock
in its little mirrors of sapphire, surrounded by circles of
gold and ruby.*

The species known to us by the name of Guinea fowls,
form the genus Numipa, Linn. The head is bare, the
top in some crested, and the throat wattled. They are
all either from Africa or Madagascar.

The great genus Puasianus, Linn., including our cocks

and pheasants, has the cheeks more or less bare of fea-
thers, usually covered by a scarlet skin, and the tail-fea-
thers so placed as to slope downwards, roof-like, from
either side. The group was soon found to be too exten-
sive and varied in its component parts to accord with the
preciser views of modern times, and several subdivisions
have been in consequence effected.
. The restricted genus Gaxtus, for example (Plate
CCCXCVIII. figs. 3 and 3a), of which the head is gene-
rally surmounted by a fleshy vertical crest, the base of
the lower mandible furnished with two flattened wattles,
and the tail-feathers, fourteen in number, rising in two
almost upright planes, with ample coverts in the male sex,
contains, among other remarkable species, our domestic
cock and hen ( Gallus domesticus—Phasianus gallus, Linn.).
The general attributes or special qualities of this brave, vi-
gilant, and invaluable species, need not be here recorded ;
and indeed a volume would scarcely suffice to describe its
numerous variations, from the pure undaunted blood of
Derby, fearless of death, to the crested dung-hill breed,
almost equally pugnacious, and by no means cowardly, yet
apt to turn tail on the sudden touch of unexpected steel.

In our present paragraph we avail ourselves in part of
a recent brief compendium. The cocks with ample crests,

various and prolonged circumstances attending domestica-
tion, and the intentional crossing of the breeds. The
most picturesque are those with superabundant crests, and
full auricular plumes. The crest is composed of narrow,
hackled feathers, which grow erect from the head, but
fall down in graceful curves, sometimes of such length as
to shadow or overhang the eyes. In some districts this
breed is much cultivated, being esteemed in proportion
as the colours of the body and crest can be made to form
the most conspicuous contrast, the body black, the crest
white, and vice versa, Other admired fancy breeds are
the Dutch pencilled fowl, which are pure white, with black
spots ; the Siberian fowl], with long tufts of hanging feathers
springing from the lower jaw; and the Barbary fowl, of a
pale dun colour, with the feathers of the neck extremely
ample, and spotted with black. But a more singular ano-
maly is exhibited by those with five toes, commonly called
dorkings, from being bred in most abundance in the neigh-
bourhood of Dorking, Surrey. This race is easily conti-
nued, and is much esteemed for the table, being white
and large. Dr Latham records one which weighed near-
ly fourteen pounds. A still more remarkable race is that
without a tail, the rumpless or Persian cock, as it is some-
times called, which actually wants a portion of the caudal
vertebra. These are usually regarded as mere varieties,
for the most part, probably, of accidental origin. There
are, however, three races of cocks, of a very marked cha-
racter, although their claim to actual specific distinction
cannot be yet made out. The first is Gallus morio, of
which the periosteum of the bones is black, and the comb,
wattles, and skin, of a dull purple. It has received the
name of negro or blackamoor cock, but is scarcely ever
seen in the poultry-yards of this country. The other two
races are more frequent, and are known as the silky cock
(G. lanatus), and the Friesland cock (G. crispus). M.
Temminck is inclined to regard the former as a distinct
species. It occurs in China and Japan, where it is sold
as a rarity to Europeans. In this country it crosses easily
with the white domestic breed, and a mixed race is pro-
duced with the feathers still silky, but less disunited. It
is singular that the skin and periosteum of this kind are of
the same sable hue with those of G. morio, although the
flesh is remarkable for its whiteness. The size is rather
small, the plumage of the purest white, the comb and
wattles purple. The Friesland cock evidently belongs to
the opposition, having all the feathers turned the wrong
way, or standing nearly at right angles with the body.
The- general colour of the plumage of this kind is also
white, but it varies like that of other captive races. It
occurs in the domesticated state in Java and Sumatra;
but M. Temminck thinks it is also a distinct species, pe-
culiar in the wild state to some unexplored quarter of the
Indian islands.* We doubt that nature, in her first in-
tent, should ever have produced such an oddity.

Many fanciful and superstitious feelings are still main-
tained regarding the domestic cock, and his nocturnal
crowing ; and even his more familiar morning salutation is
supposed to dispel all spirits, ‘“ whether in sea or fire, in
earth or air.”

Some say that ever ’gainst that season comes
Wherein our Saviour’s birth is celebrate,

The bird of dawning singeth all night long ;

And then, they say, no spirit walks abroad ;

The nights are wholesome; then no planets strike ;
No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm ;

So hallowed and so gracious is the time.

* Manual, vol. i. p. 640.

2 Mcm. du Museum, vi. pl. 1; and Pi. Col. 112.

3 Nuralist’s Library, Vol. iii. p. 173.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Rasores. Of the numerous benefits which the goodness of God
“—~— has enabled man to derive from the wide circle of the

609

inferred, that if the later of the sacred historians do not Rasores.
mention poultry, it must be from some other cause than —~——

feathered race, there is probably none which surpasses,
either in extent or utility, the domestication of these most
familiar birds. Of so long standing, however, has been the
subservience of the race to man, that no authentic tradi-
tionary traces now remain of its original introduction to any
of the more ancient kingdoms of the earth,—its existence
under human guardianship seeming indeed coeval with
the most antique records. It may therefore be regarded
as one of those particular and providential gifts, which,
like the faithful and accommodating dog, was at an early
period of the world added to the fortunes of the first fa-
milies of the human race, and has since followed man in
his wonderful and far-spread migrations through every
clime and country. For some thousand years the observ-
ers of nature were ignorant of any wild species which, even
in a remote degree, resembled any variety of the domes-
tic breed,—and from the era of Herodotus to that of Son-
nerat, the domestic cock and hen might have been re-
garded as birds, the living analogues of which were no
longer known to exist in a natural and unsubdued condi-
tion.

In consequence of the remote obscurity in which the
subject is thus involved, few points in natural history have
occasioned more inconclusive speculation, or are even now
more difficult to solve with certainty, than the source
from which we have primarily derived our different races
of domestic poultry. That they came originally from Per-
sia, has been inferred from the circumstance of Aristo-
phanes calling the cock “the Persian bird.” Such an
origin, however, is improbable, when we consider that the
researches of modern travellers, and indeed of all who
have visited that country since the revival of learning,
have failed to discover there any species of wild poul-
try,—no gallinaceous bird being found in Persia more
nearly allied to the genus Gallus, than a species of Lo-
phophorus. If, however, it is merely meant that the Greeks,
during the intercourse, hostile or otherwise, which existed
between them and the Persian nation, may have obtained
a breed previously domesticated, the idea is less objec-
tionable ; for it is known that in a domestic state poultry
have existed in Persia from a very remote antiquity.

It appears from an ingenious dissertation by the late
Dr Scot of Corstorphine, to have been the opinion of that
learned Hebraist, that poultry were unknown to the Jews,
or at least that they are not distinctly alluded to in the
Old Testament. It cannot, however, admit of a doubt,
that they were well known over many parts both of Eu-
rope and Asia for several hundred years before the Chris-
tian era. When Themistocles took the field to combat
the Persians, he alluded, while haranguing his troops, to
the invincible courage of the feathered biped. ‘“ Observe
with what intrepid valour he fights, inspired by no other
motive than the love of victory ; whereas you have to con-
tend for your religion. and your liberty, for your wives and
children, for the tombs of your ancestors ;” and it was on
this oceasion that the Athenians achieved one of the most
memorable victories recorded in history. According to
Ailian, it was in commemoration of this signal event, and
of the ornithological image by which the courage of the
soldiery had been excited and sustained, that the Athe-
nians instituted those annual games of which cock-fighting
formed so conspicuous a feature. Now Themistocles died
in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and about the 449th
year preceding the Christian era, and must consequently
have been contemporary with Nehemiah the prophet ; and
as the Old Testament history does not conclude till about
twenty years after the death of Themistocles, it may be

VOL. XVI.

ignorance of their existence,—seeing that as the early
Greek nations had received them prior to that period,
either from Persia or the more south-eastern countries of
Asia, they could scarcely have remained unknown in the
intermediate regions inhabited by the Jews. For these and
other reasons, which it would here be tedious to detail, we
do not agree with Dr Scot.

In regard to the natural origin of these domestic birds,
the first approximation to the truth (and we deem it but
an approximation) resulted from the discovery by Son-
nerat of a species of wild poultry native to the mountains
of the Ghauts, in India. This is the Gallus Sonneratii of
systematic naturalists, better known to British residents
by the now familiar name of jungle-cock. Our knowledge
of gallinaceous birds, however, has so greatly increased
during recent years, and so many additional species have
been discovered, that we are able to proceed upon much
more certain ground than were the naturalists of the last
century. The jungle-cock is not only no longer the only
claimant to the long dormant title which, under whatever
name of honour, may be due to the species so greatly be-
neficial to the human race, but other aspirants have come
forward with such better-founded claims, that his may
fairly be regarded as altogether set aside. In fact, seve-
ral important characters of the jungle-cock have never
been traced in any of the domestic varieties, and many of
these latter present features which, if not incompatible
with, at least bear no resemblance to any attributes of
the supposed original. We may here observe, that the
natural form and structure of any portion of the animal or-
ganization are much less easily effaced or altered than the
more superficial character of colour ; and hence, if a par-
ticular species of bird be naturally distinguished by a pe-
culiar consistence as well as colour of plumage, the influ-
ence of those causes which produce variation less fre-
quently affect the former than the latter. Reasoning
therefore a priori, it would be more natural to expect
that if the jungle-cock were the parent of our domestic
breeds, such breeds, however they might vary in the co-
louring of their plumage, would at least at times exhibit
those marked and peculiar characters of form and struc-
ture by which the feathers of the supposed original are
distinguished. This, however, is not the case. Amid the
infinite varieties which occur among our domestic poultry,
the plumage of none is found characterized by those horny
laminz, or expansions of the shaft, which form so marked
a feature in the plumage of the jungle-cock, and which
assuredly would have either continued a permanent fea-
ture, or been occasionally manifested in one or other of
our domestic breeds, had these been derived from the spe-
cies in question. We may mention another circumstance
on which we believe we were ourselves the first to insist
The native tribes of Indians inhabiting the districts where
the jungle-cock abounds rear a breed of poultry which
differs as much from the supposed original as our own, and
which never intermingles with the forest brood.

According to M. Temminck (and in this we quite agree
with that industrious and observant naturalist), the species
to which our domestic races are most nearly allied, are
the Jago cock of Sumatra (Gallus giganteus), a wild spe-
cies of great size, and the Bankiva cock of Java, another
primitive species, which occurs in the forests of the last-
named island (see Plate CCCXCVIIL. figs. 3 and3a. There
are several circumstances which render the claims of these
two birds much stronger than those of the jungle-cock. 1sé,
Their females bear a strong resemblance to our domestic
hens ; 2dly, the common village cock, in its most ordi-

——————$$__—__——

? See our Essay “ On the Origin of Domestic Poultry,” in the Wernerian Memoirs, vol. vi. p. 402.

4 ou

610 ORNITHOLOGY.

Rasores. nary condition, is intermediate, in respect to size, between

One of the most singularly superb of ail the gallinace- Rasores.
—— these two species; 3dly, the nature of the plumage, which

ous order, we mean the argus pheasant, now forms a se- —~y~——

in its form, consistence, and distribution, is absolutely the
same as in the common cock, greatly strengthens the sup-
position ; 4¢hly, it is in these species alone that we find the
females, as well as males, provided with a fleshy crest and
small wattles,—characters which likewise distinguish both
sexes of our common poultry, although they are for the
most part but slightly developed in the females. Now the
female jungle-cock possesses neither comb nor wattles.

It may be stated as a curious though well-known fact, that
when Captain Cook first visited the South Sea Islands, he
found them well stocked with domestic poultry; and the
more recent as well as more ample narratives of the mission-
aries have confirmed the statements of the great navigator re-
garding the practice of cock-fighting in Otaheite, and other
islands of Polynesia. Mr Ellis describes the Faa-ti-to-raa-
moa, or literally the causing fighting among fowls, as the
most ancient game of the Tahitians; and he informs us, that
according to the tradition of the natives, poultry have ex-
isted in the islands as long as people,—that they either
came with the first colonists, or were produced by Taaroa
contemporaneously with men. Long before the first fo-
reign vessel was seen off their shores, they were in the
practice of training and fighting cocks. However, they
never trimmed, as we do, their flowing plumes, but were
proud to see the beautiful and gorgeous combatants with
ample natural wings, full-feathered necks, and lengthened
tails. We may observe, that the breed of these islands do
not appear to have been what in this country we would
denominate game; for Mr Ellis (in his Polynesian Re-
searches) incidentally mentions, that as soon as one bird
avoided another, he was considered as vi, or beaten, and
victory was declared in favour of his opponent. It is in-
deed a singular circumstance that this barbarous practice
should have pervaded so many unconnected nations, both
savage and civilized. It has entirely ceased among the in-
habitants of the Friendly and Society Islands since the
establishment of Christianity, although still pursued by the
practical heathen of other and more ancient Christian lands.
We ourselves, to our shame be it spoken, once fought a
main of cocks with an English clergyman, who has since
held a high and conspicuous station in the church. We
believe, indeed, that he is now a bishop,—haply forgetful of
us and of our famous Faa-ti-to-raa-moa.

In the genus Puasranus properly so called, the sides
of the head around the eyes are covered for a space by a
naked warty skin. The tail is very long and slender, each
feather laterally inclined or roof-shaped, and the central
pair usually much prolonged. The common pheasant of
our coverts (Ph. colchicus) is the most familiar example.
This bird is now well known in most of the temperate parts
of Europe, though originally introduced from the banks of
the Phasis (now the Rioni), a river of Chalcis in Asia
Minor. Need we describe his glowing bright attire?

Splendid his form, his eyes of flaming gold

Two fiery rings of living scarlet hold ;

His arching neck a varying beauty shows,

Now rich with azure, now with emerald glows.

His swelling breast with glossy purple shines,

Chesnut his back, and waved with ebon lines ;

To his broad wings gay hues their radiance lend,

His mail-clad legs two knightly spurs defend.
The variety called the ring-pheasant (Ph. torguatus), cha-
racterized by a more or less completed circle of white
around the lower portion of the neck, is by some regarded
as a distinct species. The gold and silver pheasants of our
aviaries (Ph. pictus and nycthemerus), and several other
still more magnificent birds, on the beauty of which we
regret we cannot here dilate, pertain to our present genus.

parate genus under the name of Arcus. Of this rare and
remarkable bird (A. giganteus, Temm.) China and the ad-
joining provinces of Tartary have been assigned as the na-
tive country by various writers. This, however, requires
confirmation, as all the specimens of which the origin is
accurately known have been brought from the great east-
ern islands and peninsula of Malacca. There is a passage
in Marco Polo’s Zravels, which may perhaps be construed
as relating to the bird in question. In his description of
the kingdom of Erginal (a district of Tangout, in the north-
west of the empire), he observes, “ pheasants are found in
it that are twice the size of ours, but something smaller
than the peacock. The tail-feathers are eight or ten palms
in length.” “This,” observes Mr Marsden, the learned edi-
tor of the English edition, “‘is probably the Argus phea-
sant, which although a native of Sumatra (where I have
frequently seen it alive), is said to be also found in the
northern ‘part of China.” Though of late years well
known in the Basses-cours of Batavia (from which M. Tem-
minck received a splendid series), we are not aware that
the Argus has been ever imported alive into Europe. It
would certainly prove a more magnificent addition than
any which has been made to our aviaries in modern times.
The great apparent size of this bird arises chiefly from the
peculiar formation of the wings, of which the secondaries
are three times the length of the primaries, being nearly
three feet long. In consequence of the unwieldy extent
of that portion of the wing which is not under the imme-
diate influence of muscular action, this magnificent bird is
alleged to be almost destitute of the power of flight. Its
progress, however, when running on the ground, is greatly
accelerated,—the expanded secondaries, according to M.
Temminck, acting as powerful and capacious sails, and
furnishing a very fleet and effectual mode of transporta-
tion. The body, when stripped of the feathers, scarcely
exceeds that ofa barn-door fowl, but in its “ high andplumy
state” it measures in total length about five feet three
inches,—the tail-feathers being themselves nearly four feet
long. The female is, as usual, less adorned. Her second-
aries want the peculiar breadth and extension, as well as
the beautiful eye-like markings which adorn the male. In
consequence, however, of this homely appearance, she is
less frequently sought for in her native forests, and is thus
(in collections) by far the rarer of the two. M. Temminck,
for example, thought himself fortunate in finding a brace
of females among thirty males.

In the genus EurLocomus, Temm., the head is crested,
the tail much broader than in the true pheasants, and some-
times forked. The beautiful Macartney cock, or fire-back-
ed pheasant (Hw. ignitus), is the most characteristic, if not
the sole example. It was met with by Sir George Staun-
ton in a menagerie at Batavia, and is believed to be a na-
tive of Sumatra.” 4

The horned pheasant of Edwards and Latham has been
made by Cuvier to constitute the genus TRaGoPAN. The
head, though crested, is elsewhere almost naked; a little
slender horn projects backward from behind each eye, and
a loose and pendent skin, inflatable at pleasure, hangs from
the base of the lower mandible (see Plate CCCXCVIII.
fig. 4). The group now consists of about four species, all
remarkable for their richly varied and beautifully spotted
plumage. They are bulkier birds than pheasants, with
rounded tails of ordinary length. The females of sach as
are known are brindled with brown and black. We have
yet learned nothing of the habits or natural economy of the
Tragopans, although their external aspect has been render-
ed familiar in elegant representations by Mr Gould. The

1 Travels, pp. 225-9.

2 Embassy to China, pl. xiii.

3 Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains.

ORNITHOLOGY. ‘

‘Rasores. first discovered species (7. satyrus), though usually brought
—~\—" from Nepaul, has been ascertained also to inhabit Thibet ;

and Chinese specimens from the mountain province of Yun-
nan were seen by Mr Bennet in Mr Beale’s aviary at Ma-
cao.

The genus Crypronyx, Temm., has a bare space around
the eye, the tail of medium size and flat, and the tarsi
without spurs; but the most peculiar character consists
in the hind toe being destitute of claw. The best-known
species is C. coronatus, or rouloul of Malacca (see Plate
CCCXCVIII. fig. 5). The female is described by Latham
under the title of Tetrao viridis. It inhabits deep forests,
is wild and cunning in a state of nature, and in confine-
ment impatient of restraint.

The great genus Terrao of Linn. has also been greatly
subdivided in recent times. All the species seem to agree
in having a bare band above the eye.

The restricted genus TeTrao has the legs covered with
feathers, and without spurs. In some the toes are naked,
and the tail either forked or rounded. Such is the great
wood grouse or capercailzie (J. urogallus), the largest
and finest example of the gallinaceous order indigenous to
Europe. In Britain it has been long extinct in the wild
state (although of late several times imported with a view
to re-establish the breed), and now occurs chiefly in Scan-
dinavia, although not unknown among mountainous and
woody regions southwards, as far as the Alps of Savoy and
the Veronese. Although rather difficult to rear in Britain,
the capercailzie is often domesticated in Sweden, where it
becomes so tame as to eat familiarly from the hand.
Though naturally shy and wary, they sometimes, even in
their unreclaimed condition, manifest a singular and un-
accountable degree of boldness. Mr Brehm mentions a
cock bird that inhabited a wood near Renthendorf, through
which there was a roadway, and whenever any one passed
through, it would fly towards him, peck at his legs, and
strike him with its wings. The black-cock ( T. éetrix) is a
smaller, but very beautiful species, of hardy habits, and much
on the increase in many parts of Britain, where it prefers
alpine pastures, with a sprinkling of natural wood, inter-
mingled with moist places covered by long coarse herbage.
It is widely dispersed over the ndithern and temperate
parts of Europe, and spreads somewhat farther south than
the preceding, being found, though rarely, on the Apen-
nines. We know that it breeds among the lofty hills above
Albenga, near the Colle de Tende. Other species of bare-
toed grouse occur in Europe, and a still greater number in
North America. For the history of the latter we must
refer to the well-known works of Alexander Wilson, C.
L. Bonaparte, Audubon, Richardson, and others.

Of the feather-footed game-birds (genus Lacorus), the
most noted for gastronomic excellence is our common red
grouse, or moor-game (Z. Scoticus), so highly prized and
eagerly pursued by sportsmen. ‘This well-known species
restricts itself chiefly to the sides of sloping mountains,
and those extensive tracts of elevated land called moors,
where it is careless of other shelter than that afforded by
the natural roughness of the ground, and its plentiful co-
vering of heath, or other alpine plants of still more lowly
growth. The most singular fact in its history is its re-
striction to Great Britain and Ireland,—all other parts of
the world, from “ Indus to the pole,” being sought in vain
for a single example. In this little group we also place
the ptarmigans, distinguished from the other grouse by the
assumption of a snow-white plumage during winter. These
birds seem to prefer, in comparatively temperate climates,
such as that of Scotland, the bare and stony sides or sum-
mits of the highest mountains; but under the rigorous
temperature of Greenland, and the most northern portions

1 Wanderings, &c. vol. ii. p. 61.

611

of America, they are chiefly found in the vicinity of the Rasores.
sea-shore, by the banks of rivers, and among the willow —~—

and other copse woods of the lower and more: sheltered
vales. The species of Europe and America are not yet in
all respects sufficiently characterized and distinguished.

The genus Prerocres, Temm., has a naked space
around the eye, but not of a scarlet colour, as in grouse ;
the toes are bare, the hind one very small, and the tail
pointed (Plate CCCXCVIILI. fig. 6). These birds, called
gangas, or sand-grouse, live in sandy plains and deserts in
the warmer regions of Asia and Africa, although two spe-
cies, Pt. arenarius and setarius, Temm., inhabit some of
the southern countries of Europe, especially Spain. The
latter is the pin-tailed grouse of Latham, Teirao alchata,
Gmelin.

The genus Prerpix of Brisson contains the partridges,
distinguished by having the legs or tarsi bare, as well as
the toes. The tail is also very short, although of greater
length among the kind called francolins, and other foreign
species. Of these several are armed with spurs ; and one
especially, the sanguine partridge (P. crwentata, Temm.),
has sometimes three or four spurs on each leg. The fran-
colins perch on trees. The partridges properly so called
always rest upon the ground. Their bill is not so strong,
and their spurs, if they have any, are very short, or simply
tubercular. Four or five sorts are found in Europe, al-
though the common gray partridge (P. cinerea) is our only
truly indigenous kind. The red-legged partridge (P.
rubra), which in Italy is the most frequent, has been in-
troduced of late years into the south of England, where it
continues to breed spontaneously in a ‘state of nature.
Many other species occur in foreign countries.

The quails (genus Corurntx) are of smaller size than
the preceding, the tail. is still shorter, the spurs are
wanting, and there is no coloured space above the eye.
The only British species is the common quail (C. Euro-
peus), a well-known bird of passage, generally but not
abundantly distributed over the island. In Scotland it is
even scarce, although we have found it occasionally near
Edinburgh, as well as in Ross-shire, and along the coasts
of Aberdeen and Kincardine. The whole migrate from
the colder and temperate parts of Europe during autumn,
and re-appear in spring, in certain places, in enormous
numbers. Along the Neapolitan coasts, for example,
100,000 have been taken in a single day.. In some of the
southern countries of Europe, however, many quails remain
throughout the winter.’ In Portugal they are even more
numerous during that season than in summer ; and Signor
Savi says, in regard to’ those of Italy, “ Sono le quaglie
uccelli viaggiatori, giacché la massima parte lasciano ’Eu-
ropa, traversano il mare, e vanno a passare il verno in
Affrica, ed in Asia; ma di Toscana, come pure dalle altri
parti meridionali, non partono tutti, anzi una gran quantita
ne resta per le stoppie delle nostre Maremme, ove trovano
e molto nutrimento e dolce clima. Negli ultimi giorni
d’ Aprile si rimetteno in moto; quelle che avevan passate
il mare lo passan di nuovo, e quelle che eransi ritirate ne’
siti aprici si spargon per tutti i campi e prati-’* A vast
number of quails of various kinds are found in foreign
countries. A beautiful small species (C. excalfactoria,
Temm.,—P. Chinensis, Lath.) is very abundant in China,
where it is bred in the domestic state, and kept in cages
for the singular purpose of warming people’s hands in win-
ter. It is also patronised on account of its pugnacious
disposition, being fought with its own kind, as common
cocks are in this country.

The American quails now form the genus Ortyx, and
are in some measure intermediate between the true quails
and partridges. The bill is thick and strong, but short

2 Ornitologia Toscana, tom, ii. p. 200.

612 ORNITHOLOGY.

Rasores. and rounded ; the tail more lengthened than in those of

or pheasant. We believe these birds never perch, as some Rasores.
—Y—" the old continent. One species, O. Californica, has the

head ornamented by a beautiful slender recurved crest.
(See Plate CCCXCVIII. fig. 7.) Several other kinds were
recently discovered and described by the lamented Douglas,
the botanical traveller and collector, whose tragical fate in
the Sandwich Islands recently excited the sympathy of the
scientific world. They differ from the ordinary quails in
usually perching upon trees at night. The Virginian Ortyx,
O. borealis, has of late years been reared in several parts
of England, and is now almost naturalised in Sussex. It
is considerably larger than the common quail.

The genus Orryeis of Illiger resembles the quails in
general form, but the bill is somewhat compressed. The
toes are so deeply divided, as scarcely to exhibit a vestige
of the usual intervening membrane, and the hind toe is
wanting. The species are of small size, and occur in In-
dia, Africa, and New Holland. They are of polygamous
habits, and dwell in barren places on the confines of de-
serts, seldom taking wing except when closely run. One
of these birds is also much used by the Malays and other
eastern nations for fighting with its kind. (See Plate
CCCXCVIII. fig. 9.)

A bird of a very anomalous aspect and character, called
the heteroclyte grouse ( Zetrao paradoxus of Pallas), now
forms the genus SyRRHAPTEs of Illiger. The bill is rather
slender and compressed, straight, but as usual somewhat
bent towards the tip. The tarsi are short and densely
clothed with feathers ; the toes are also very short and fea-
thered, and connected together almost to theclaws. The
hind toe is not wanting, but seems buried in the feathers.
The wings and tail are very long, and are both terminated
by lengthened slender-pointed plumes. The only known
species (named S. Pallasii by M. Temminck), inhabits the
deserts of Tartary, near the shores of Lake Baikal. Owing
to the peculiar structure of its feet, it can scarcely move
upon the ground; but its flight is brisk and rapid, though
seldom long sustained.

The last group we shall here mention contains the Zina-
mous—genus TinAmus, Lath.,—Crypturus, Illig. (Plate
CCCXCVIII. fig. 8.) The bill is lengthened and slen-
der, slightly arched, blunt-pointed, grooved on each side,
the nostrils central, deepening obliquely backwards. The
wings are short, the tail almost rudimentary. The pal-
mation at the base of the toes is very short; and the
hind toe, reduced almost to a little spur, does not reach
the ground. The bare space around the eye is very cir-
cumscribed. These birds abound in the Brazilian and
other tropical forests of America, where they run swiftly,
seldom fly, conceal themselves among long herbage, and
perch (as some say) upon the lower branches of trees.
They live on fruits and insects, and their flesh is much es-
teemed. Rather than exercise their natural powers of
flight, they will sometimes foolishly allow themselves to be
killed in great numbers with a stick. They are also hunted
with dogs. They build upon the ground, and their eggs
are remarkable among those of gallinaceous birds for their
brilliant tinting, some being bright blue, others of a bril-
liant violet colour. The different species of Tinamous ex-
hibit a great diversity in size, from that of a pheasant to
a very small quail ; and “as for their flesh,” says Mr Swain-
son, ‘“‘ we have often tasted it, and consider it, both in
whiteness and flavour, infinitely above that of the partridge

suppose, but that they live entirely among herbage, prin- —~—

cipally in the more open tracts of the interior.”

The great family of the pigeons (CotumsBa, Linn.)
comes next in order in Baron Cuvier’s arrangement, and
in that indeed of most of our systematic writers. There
are several circumstances, however, which make it doubt-
ful whether the pigeons should not form either a separate
order of themselves, or undergo some other change in
their position. As compared with ordinary gallinaceous
birds, every one will admit that they present numerous
and striking disparities. Their powers of flight, for ex-
ample, if equalled are not surpassed even by those of the
falcon tribe, their habits are monogamous, their haunts
very generally arboreal, their eggs few in number, and
hatched by the male.as well as female, the young are at
first extremely helpless, and are fed for a length of time
from the crop of both parents,—in all these points, and
many more, they differ remarkably from other gallinaceous
birds. Professor Savi, we observe, places the pigeons in
his concluding tribe of Passeres ( Uccelli silvani), as a con-
necting link with the gallinaceous order, and for reasons
closely corresponding with those we have just assigned.*
Mr Macgillivray has recently observed, that “ the beauti-
ful, very extensive, and generally distributed family of
birds commonly known by the names of pigeons, doves, and
turtle-doves, appears to form an order of itself, separated by
well-defined limits; but yet, as in other cases, presenting
modifications of form indicative of its affinity to contermin-
ous groups. The peculiar shape of the head and bill, more
than any other external feature, serves to render the dif-
ferent species readily cognizable as belonging to a single
tribe; for, whatever may be the size, colour, or even shape,
of a pigeon, it cannot be mistaken. But the relations of
the family, it would appear, are not so readily perceived,—
some of our most approved systematists having associat-
ed them with the passerine, others with the gallinaceous
birds,—while a few consider them as constituting a dis-
tinct group. Linnzeus included them all under the single
genus Columba, which has merely been sectioned by M.
Temminck, and from which M. Vieillot has only separat-
ed two genera under the names of Treron and Lophyrus ;
while Mr Swainson and other Ornithologists have convert-
ed it into several generic groups, such as Vinago, includ-
ing the thick-billed species, Ptilonopus, Columba, Turtur,
Ectopistes, Peristera, and others, characterized by differ-
ences in the wings and tail; and Lophyrus, formed, by
Vieillot, of the great crowned-pigeon. The latter seems
to connect this family with the Cracinz, which belong to
the gallinaceous order, while other groups manifest an af-
finity to the partridges and allied genera. The pigeons
vary much in form, some having the body full, others
slender ; while the tail is very short, moderate, or greatly
elongated. In all, however, the head is small, oblong,
compressed, with the’forehead rounded; a circumstance
depending partly upon the form of the skull, and partly
upon the absence of feathers at the base of the bill. The
latter organ is characterized more especially by having
the nasal membrane bare, generally scurfy, fleshy, and
tumid, with the narrow longitudinal nostrils placed un-
der its anterior margin. It varies in size, but the upper
mandible has its ridge always obliterated at the base by
the encroachment of the nasal membranes, and its extre-

* Nat. Hist. and Class. of Birds, vol. ii. p. 168.

? “ Questa tribt forma il passagio dai Silvani ai Gallinacei, giacché i Piccioni, quantunque somigliano pil ai primi che ai secundi,
pure han caratteri comuni agli uni ed agli altri. Somigliano i Silvani, perché avendo ali grandi-e coda larga, volano facilmente, con
velocita, ed a grandi distanze ; sono monogami: nascono nudi, e per un tempo assai lungo (almeno per tutte le specie nostrali) non
essendo capaci né di moversi, né di cercare il cibo, han bisogno d’esser covati, e imbeccati da’ loro genitori: fanno il nido sugli al-
beri, o nelle buche. Somigliano poi i Gallinacei per avere un gozzo molto dilatabile, e dove gli alimenti si trattengono e provano una
certa preparazione alla digestione : i semi, di cui quasi esclusivamente si cibano, li inghiottono senza sbucciarli, o romperli, e final-

mente, come i Gallinacei, hanno lo sterno duppiamente scavato.”

(Ornitologia Toscana, tom. ii. p. 152.)

ORNITHOLOGY.

Rasores. mity horny, arched, or convex, more or less compressed,
—\— with a blunt thin-edged point. The tongue is fleshy, ta-

613

the rachis or shaft. Upon the neck they assume a variety Rasores.
of forms, in some species being rounded and stiff, and dis- ~~~"

pering to a point, and triangular in its transverse section.
The throat is very narrow. The cesophagus is of mode-
rate width, but expanded, or opening into a large crop,
placed on the lower part of the neck and the fore part of
the breast, and terminates below in an oblong proventri-
culus, completely surrounded with large oblong glandules.
The stomach-is a powerful gizzard of a somewhat rhom-
boidal form, and furnished with two very thick lateral
muscles inserted into two tendinous centres, with an infe-
rior-thinner muscle inserted into the same tendons. The
intestine is long and slender ; the ceca very smal] and cy-
lindrical ; the rectum very short, and but slightly enlar-
ged. The tarsi are generally short and stout, either scu-
tellate or feathered. The foot is of that kind equally adapt-
ed for walking and perching, having three toes before and
one behind; the middle toe considerably longer than the
two lateral, which are nearly equal, and the hind toe di-
rected backwards, and shorter than the lateral. They are
covered above with numerous short scutella, laterally mar-
gined, beneath flat and papillate. The claws are short,
compressed, moderately arched, rather blunt. The plu-
mage is various, so that no general character can be derived
from it, farther than that the feathers have the tube very
short, the shaft commonly thick, and are entirely destitute
of the accessory plumule, which is largely developed in
the gallinaceous birds. The wings are for the most part
large, more or less pointed, with the second, third, and fourth
quills longest ; but the primary quills vary in form, and pre-
sent several very curious modifications. The tail is even,
rounded, cuneate, or graduated.”! The skeleton, Mr Mac-
gillivray further remarks, differs very materially from that
of gallinaceous birds, and the intestine is much longer,
the difference, however, in the other Gallinz being made
up by the great development of the czca, which in pigeons
aré merely rudimentary, that is, extremely small, and secret-
ing only a mucous fluid. We may add the following im-
portant character, that the hind toe is articulated on the
same plane with the three anterior ones, instead of being
placed higher up, as in the rest of the gallinaceous order.
Although their legs are short, pigeons walk with great ease
and considerable celerity.

These beautiful birds abound in most of the temperate
and tropical regions of the earth, being, however, both
more numerous and more gorgeously attired in the latter,
where they often rival even the tribe of parrots in the
splendour of their plumage, and literally realize the de-
lightful expressions of the Holy Scripture—“ as the wings
of a dove covered with silver, and her feathers with yel-
low gold.” The old genus Columba is one of the most
cosmopolite with which we are acquainted, being found
diffused alike through Europe, Asia, Africa, and America ;
and even in the forests of the far-distant Southern Ocean,
their radiant plumage

Fills many a dark obscure recess
With lustre of a saintly show.

In no tribe of the feathered race do we meet with more
to delight the eye by its richness and diversity. “ In some,”
says Mr Selby, “ the plumage shines with a dazzling and
metallic gloss, varying in tint with every motion of the
bird, and which vies in lustre with that of the diminutive
and sparkling humming-birds. In texture the plumage is
generally close and adpressed, and the feathers feel hard
and firm to the touch, from the thickness and strength of

posed in a scale-like fashion ; in others of an open, dis-
united texture, or with the tips divided and curiously
notched ; and in the hackled and Nicobar pigeons they are
long; acuminate, and laciniated, like those of the domestic
cock ; and, we may add, that in nearly all they are so con-
stituted as to reflect prismatic colours when held at various
angles to the light.”*

The vast variety of species and numerous sub-genera of
which the Columbide are now composed render a full ex-
position impossible. We must, indeed, rest satisfied with
a very brief notice of a few remarkable kinds. We have
four species of pigeon in Britain, and we are not aware
that more occur in Europe.

1sé, The ring-dove, cushat, or wood-pigeon, C. palum-
bus, Linn., a large, beautiful, and well-known species, very
generally distributed over the more or less wooded dis-
tricts of our island, but avoiding bare and rocky regions.
It breeds on trees in single isolated pairs, but is often gre-
garious to a great extent in winter. It is a wary bird, of
powerful wing, not easily approached even in the forest
glades, yet not seldom building in groves or groups of
trees in the immediate vicinity of human dwellings; and
we have seen a gentle pair sitting for hours upon the
branches of an almost leafless sycamore in early spring,
preening their feathers in assured confidence, within a few
footsteps of our cottage door. Indeed we have often no-
ticed, as others must have also done, what may be called
the discrimination of birds, in relation both to persons and
to places. We allude to what we should call their ac-
commodating rather than their natural instincts,—how, for
example, after a season or two of observation or experi-
ence, they will congregate around a spot where no rude
hands disturb their mossy dwellings, nor climbing urchin
shows his visage grim among the umbrageous boughs.
This is beautifully exemplified (and on a greater scale

than in a cottage garden) among the gladsome palace-’

groves of the Tuileries and Luxembourg in Paris, where,
notwithstanding the gay and giddy stream of human life
which flows for ever through those royal walks, the wood-
pigeon builds her frequent nest, though far her flight to
rural solitudes for every offering which she brings her
much-loved young. ‘This species generally breeds twice
a year.

2dly, The rock or wild pigeon, C. livia, Briss., a smaller
species, totally regardless of all the leafy glories of the
forest, but loving devotedly the craggy cliffs and hollow
caverns by the ocean-shore. This species is believed to
be the original of our common domestic breed, of which
the numerous and extraordinary, yet, with proper care,
permanent varieties, are among the more puzzling pro-
blems of Ornithology.*

3d, The smaller wood-pigeon, erroneously called the
stock-dove, C. gnas, Linn. This bird is much more li-
mited in its distribution than either of the preceding, being
as yet unknown in Scotland, and frequenting chiefly the
southern and midland counties of the sister kingdom. It
is almost entirely confined to wooded districts, its habits,
according to Mr Selby, being strictly arboreal; yet Mr
Salmon records it as abounding in heaths and rabbit war-
rens in the neighbourhood of Thetford, to which it an-
nually resorts for the purpose of nidification.*

4th, The turtle-dove, C. turtur, Linn., a small and delicate
species, unknown in “ bleak Caledonia,” but a constant
summer bird in Kent, and other counties of the south of

British Birds, vol. i. p. 249.

2 Naturalist's Library, vol. v. p. 88.

3 For the domestic breeds, see Temminck's Hist. Nat. Gén. des Pigeons et des Gallinacées, MM. Boitard and Corbie’s Monographies

des Pigeons Domestiques, the Pigeon Fancier, and other works.
4 Magazine of Natural History, vol- 3x. p. 520.

614

Rasores. England, where it breeds in woods.

ORNITHOLOGY.

It. is sometimes seen

rv" towards the end of summer in little flocks of a score or

two together. This bird leaves Britain in the course of
the autumn, and does not to our knowledge remain in any
part of Europe throughout the winter season.

Of the exotic pigeons one of the most remarkable is the
goura, or great-crowned pigeon, Lophyrus coronatus, Vieil-
lot (see Plate CCCXCIX. fig. 1). It is by far the largest
of the tribe, measuring nearly two feet and a halfin length.
It inhabits Java, New Guinea, and most of the Molucca
Islands, and is occasionally brought alive to Europe, where,
however, the climate is too moist and variable to admit of
its ever attaining to a good old age.

One of the most magnificent of the tribe is the hackled

igeon (C. Francie), distinguished by the irregular form
of the feathers on the head, neck, and breast, which are
long and narrow, and terminate in a shining appendage
resembling in consistence, though not in colour, the tips
of the wing-feathers of the waxen chatterer. It inhabits
Southern Africa and the island of Madagascar. Another
singular species is the parabolic pigeon (C. arquatriz),
discovered by Vaillant, and figured in his splendid work on
the birds of Africa. The flight of this bird is very re-
markable. It never proceeds in a straight line, but on
commencing its route describes a parabola, and continues
forming a series of arcs during the whole time, frequently
uttering a peculiar cry. It inhabits the forests of Anteni-
quois, and is so bold as to persecute the white eagle.

The carunculated pigeon (C. carunculata, Temm.) is
placed by Mr Selby with the ground doves, genus GxEo-
PHILUS of that author. This little group is not only dis-
tinguished by a greater length of tarsus and other organic
characters, but by a striking departure from the general
economy of the Columbidz, the number of eggs not being
confined to two, but extending to eight or ten. Incuba-
tion also takes place upon the ground ; and the young, like
those of the true gallinaceous birds, are produced from the
egg in so matured a state as to follow their parents from
the first. They live entirely on the ground, but roost at
night on trees and bushes. The carunculated species just
referred to is observed by M. Temminck to show a strong
resemblance to the gallinaceous tribes both in aspect and
manners. The fleshy scarlet lobes around the eyes and
throat correspond, it is supposed, to the wattles of domes-
tic poultry. It builds its nest in slight depressions on the
ground, of twigs and stems of grass, and lays from six to
eight eggs, which are sat upon alternately by male and fe-
male. The young are able to follow their parents as soon
as hatched, and are led about by them, and brooded over
with extended wings. Their first food consists chiefly of
the larvae of ants and other insects, and when greater
strength is gained, of seeds and berries. The beautiful
Nicobar pigeon (C. Nicobarica, Lath.) has been likewise
referred to the same genus. Though of a heavy form and
ungraceful carriage, it yields to none of its tribe in splen-
dour of plumage, of which the prevailing hue is rich metal-
lic green, with various reflections of copper and purplish
red. It is generally described as residing habitually upon
the ground, where it runs with great celerity,—perching
on the lower limbs of trees at night. Yet Mr Bennet al-
ludes to this species as usually seen perched on trees, even
on the loftiest branches,—where, he adds, it rears its
young “ similar to all the pigeon tribe.”! It inhabits Ni-
cobar, Java, Sumatra, and other eastern islands.

We have already alluded briefly to the turtle-dove. The
most common kind in cages, in this country, is not the
English species, but that called the laughing or collared
turtle, 7’ résorius (torquatus, Briss.). It is bred with great

1 Wanderings, &c. vol. ii. p. 64.

? See his interesting account of the passenger-pigeon, in Ornithologival Biography, vol. i. p. 319-26.

facility in Britain, but the winter cold would probably be Gralla-

too much for it out of doors; and it seems, moreover, to
want that instinct of local attachment which induces our
common pigeon to continue in the place where it was born
and bred. In its natural state this species occurs in vari-
ous parts of Africa.

Somewhat resembling the turtles in the length of its
wings and tail is the famous passenger pigeon of America,
of whose rapid flight and countless congregations we have
such graphic accounts in the delightful pages of Wilson
and Audubon. This bird is the Columba migratoria of
authors, and is placed by Mr Swainson in his genus Ecto-
pistes. It may be presumed to be sufficiently common in
North America, from a fact, or rather calculation, given by
Alexander Wilson. He estimated a flock which continued
to pass above him for the greater part of a day, to have
been a mile in breadth, and 240 miles in length, and to
have contained (three birds being assigned to every square
yard), at least two thousand two hundred and thirty million
two hundred and seventy-two thousand pigeons ! Mr Audu-
bon confirms his predecessor’s account by a narrative still
more extraordinary ; and adds, that as every pigeon con-
sumes fully half a pint of food (chiefly mast), the quantity
necessary for supplying Ais flock must have amounted to
eight millions seven hundred and twelve thousand bushels
per day!* We wonder, after this, that any farmer should
ever dare to migrate to America.

The genus Vinaco of Cuvier consists of pigeons with
strong solid compressed bills, short tarsi, and broad distinct-
ly bordered feet. They inhabit forests, live on fruits and
berries, and occur in the tropical regions of the old world.
Their prevailing colours are various shades of green and
yellow, contrasted with purple or reddish brown. The
Columba aromatica of Latham is a Vinago. (See Plate
CCCXCIX. fig. 3.)

We shall now close our brief sketch of the gallinaceous
order.

OrpvEer V.—GRALLATORES:
SHORE-BIRDS, OR WADERS.

The characters of this order, so far as they can be for-
mally stated, are as follows. The shape of the bill is in-
determinate. The legs are long and slender, and more
or less bare above the tarsus. There are three anterior
toes, more or less united at their bases by a membrane or
rudimentary web. The hind toe is wanting in one division
of the order.

Among the extensive and varied tribes which constitute
the grallatorial order, the bill, as we have just intimated,
is formed after so many different models (though always
in beautiful accordance with the habits of each particular
group), that its structure cannot be generalised, or senten-
tiously expressed. The structure of the feet and legs is
also admirably adapted for the exercise of their peculiar
habits of life, being so lengthened as to admit of the species
wading to a considerable depth without wetting their fea-
thers, and of running with great rapidity along the mar-
gins of lakes and rivers, or the sea’s more sandy shores.
It is to this length of limb that they owe the name of Gral-
latores, as it they went on stilts. The French title of
echassiers is also derived from the resemblance which the
legs bear to the echasses, so frequently used by the natives
of the landes of Aquitaine. A too exclusive attention,
however, to this character seems to have misled some mo-
dern naturalists, who have included several very remotely

3 GRALLA, Linn.

tores.

Gralla- allied genera under one order.

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Indeed a considerable di-
versity of opinion exists as to what ought to form the com-
ponent parts of the grallatorial order. By means of the
flamingoes and others, they are closely allied to the nata-
torial or web-footed birds,—while a dismemberment, partly
from the latter order, partly from the original Gralle, has
been advocated in favour of the Grebes, Phalaropes, &c. as
a separate and intermediate division under the name of Pin-
natipedes.

The Grallatores seek their food in marshes, and along
the banks of rivers and the shores of lakes. They also
frequent the sea-coasts, where many kinds, especially in
autumn, congregate in numerous flocks. But although the
habits of the majority are /itéoral, many haunt habitually
the arid deserts, the green and sedgy meadows, or the up-
land moors. Who knows not the plover’s wailing ery among
the desolate mountains,—the curlew’s shrilly voice, “ a
viewless spirit of the elements,” far up amid those scenes
of pastoral melancholy, where the lonely rocks seem some-
times silent as gigantic spectres, and anon resound with
varied and innumerable bleatings, as some gray-haired
shepherd, “ loving the land which once he gloried in,” his
dog his sole companion, gently leads along the fleecy

eople? In truth we often seek in vain to generalise the
habits of the feathered race. In our systems we can give
them both a local habitation and a name, but in nature
they have wings, and like the wind travel where’er they
please, and no philosopher either from field or college can
say from whence they come, or whither they are going.
The food of our present order varies according to the form
of the mandibles. Such species as are provided with a
long, hard, sharp-pointed bill, as in the heron tribe, live on
fish and reptiles; the species in which that organ is softer
and more flexible feed on worms and insects, whilst a more
limited number, for example the land-rail (Radlus crex).
are partly granivorous, and consequently affect a drier soil.
The jacana (P. chavaria) is said to feed on grass. The
habits of many species are migratory ; and it has been re-
marked, that the young and old birds always perform their
journeys in separate assemblages. A great proportion of
the order congregates in the southern countries of Europe
before the arrival of winter,—a season which many of them
are supposed to spend in Africa. A few are winter birds
of passage, that is to say, the temperate countries of Eu-
rope form their southern boundary, and during the breed-
ing season they seek the colder regions of the north. The
woodcock breeds in Scandinavia, where the observant
traveller may frequently see it, not as with us the har-
binger of storms, but darting across his dappled dusty
path “in the leafy month of June.” However, in several
parts of the north of Scotland, woodcocks are now very
frequent throughout the summer season, rearing their ab-
surd-looking, long-billed progeny along the banks of the
Dee, or in the well-wooded valleys of the eastern parts of
Ross-shire. The smaller species, such as rails and sand-
pipers, run with great celerity ; the paces of the larger
kinds are more measured and sedate. During flight the
legs in many kinds are extended on a line with the body.
In some entire genera, and in certain species of other ge-
nera, the moult is double, that is, takes place both in spring
and autumn, and occasions a great disparity between the
plumage of the winter and summer seasons. The attire of
the sexes is for the most part not very dissimilar. An ap-
parent non-conformity may be said to exist in a few of the
species, between the structure of the feet and the func-
tions of these organs, which would disenable us from indi-
cating, a priori, the habits of such species merely from an
inspection of their organization. For example, the water-
hen (Fulica chloropus) is an excellent and constant swim-

1 Fauna Boreuli-Americana, part ii. Introduc. p. xix.

mer, and much more strictly aquatic than the avocet or
flamingo, yet its toes are long and deeply divided, and fur-
nished with an extremely narrow rudimentary web, while
the last-named species, though semi-palmated, never volun-
tarily venture beyond their depth.

The migratory movements of the Grallatores are proba-
bly determined in a great measure by the necessity of ob-
taining suitable nourishment. The rigour of a Scandina-
vian winter, which entirely congeals the surface of the
moist forest-lands of Sweden and the swamps of Lapland,
drives the woodcock to seek its food in the comparatively
milder copses of Britain and Ireland; while the landrail,
which is with us a native or summer bird, migrates in au-
tumn to more southern regions, where it is probably known
only as a winter visitant. Analogous facts have been ob-
served in various parts of the world. Thus in regard to
North America, the Grallatores, feeding by preference in
marshy and undrained lands, frequent the Saskatchewan
prairies only in the spring; and as soon as the warm and
comparatively early summer has rendered the soil too dry
for their accustomed purposes, they retire to their breed-
ing places within the arctic circle. ‘“ There,” says Dr
Richardson, “ the frozen sub-soil, acted upon by the rays
of a sun constantly above the horizon, keeps the surface
wet and spongy during the two short summer months,
which suffice these birds for rearing their young. This
office performed, they depart to the southward, and halt
in the autumn on the flat shores of Hudson’s Bay, which,
owing to the accumulations of ice drifted into the bay
from the northward, are kept in a low temperature all the
summer, and are not thawed to the same extent with the
more interior arctic lands before the beginning of autumn.
They quit their haunts on the setting in of the September
frosts, and passing along the coasts of the United States,
retire within the tropics in the winter.”

The majority of the Grallatores are swift and powerful
flyers, being provided with rather long, acutely-pointed
wings; but to these attributes we have a few strong and
singular exceptions in such birds as the ostriches and cas-
suaries, which have scarcely any wings, and cannot fly
at all. }

Baron Cuvier has established the five following tribes
among the Grallatores, viz. BREvIPENNES, PRESSIROS-
TRES, CULTRIROSTRES, LONGIROSTRES, MACRODACTYLES.

TRIBE lst.—BREVIPENNES.

The small number of gigantic birds which constitute our
present tribe differ greatly, not only from the other Gral-
lee, but from all known species; 1sé, in the extreme short-
ness of their wings, which, though no doubt useful in their
way, are altogether destitute of power to raise their bo-
dies from the earth ; and, 2d/y, in the sternum or breast-
bone being destitute of a ridge or keel. The muscles of
the breast are also extremely slight and thin. “Il pa-
rait,” says Cuvier, “ que les forces musculaires, dont la
nature dispose, auraient été insuffisantes pour mouvoir des
ailes aussi étendues que la masse de ces oiseaux les aurait
exigées pour se soutenir en l’air.” This is not expressed
according to the English mode of thought and feeling, but
it may pass for what it means. To make amends, how-
ever, for this supposed incapacity of nature, we find that
the muscles of the legs have received an enormous deve-
lopment, which enables the species to run almost with the
rapidity of race-horses, and to be thus independent of aérial
flight. In some of our modern systems these birds form
the family Struthionide, and are placed in the gallinaceous
order.

In the genus StRuTHI0, which contains the true ostrich,

* Reéegne Animal, tom, i. p. 494.

615

Gralla-
tores.

—_——

616

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- the wings are adorned by loose flexible plumes, and though

of small extent, are still sufficient to afford effectual aid in
running. The toes, at least externally, are only two in
number.

The only known species is the ostrich commonly so
called (Struthio camelus, Linn., Plate CCCXCIX. fig.
5), a bird which forms one of the most remarkable cha-
racters in the Ornithology of Africa, to which country it
is believed to be almost entirely peculiar. It presents the
tallest, and in many other respects the most singular ex-
ample of the feathered race. It measures from six to seven
feet in height; its head is very flat, extremely small, and
almost naked; as is also the upper portion of the neck,
which is very slender, and nearly three feet long. The
general plumage of the male is black, varied with white
and gray, the fine full feathers of the wings and tail being
either black or white. Our engraving will best explain its
outer aspect. The female is brown or ashy-gray upon the
body ; the young are likewise of the latter hue, and have
at first the head and neck densely clothed. The ostrich
inhabits the deserts of Arabia, and a vast extent of open
sandy plains in Africa, from Barbary to the Cape of Good
Hope. Being consequently native to one of the most an-
ciently peopled countries of the earth, it has excited the
attention of mankind from the remotest periods of anti-
quity. It is frequently mentioned in the book of Job, and
in other portions of the Old Testament. Herodotus among
the early Greek writers was well acquainted with its his-
tory and appearance, and in after times it was not only
frequently exhibited by the Romans in their games, but
the brains of hundreds at a time were scooped out as a
choice delicacy for the luxurious table of Heliogabalus.

The ostrich is gregarious and polygamous. The female
deposits her eggs, weighing nearly three pounds, in the
sand. These, in equatorial regions, are hatched by the
heat of the sun, with little or no attention on the part of
the mother; but on either side of the tropics are said to
be incubated in the usual fashion. This gigantic bird
feeds naturally on seeds and herbage; but its taste is so
obtuse, and its swallowing propensities so universal, that
there are few substances, however incongruous or indi-
gestible, which it declines. It is said by some to be the
swiftest of all running creatures, and Adanson seemed sa-
tisfied that those he saw at Podor, a French factory on
the southern side of the Niger, would have distanced the
fleetest race-horse that was ever bred in England. ‘There
is no doubt that the peculiar construction of birds, in rela-
tion both to the respiratory and circulating systems, is
such as to admiit of their keeping in much better wind
than is possible for any quadruped; and when, as in the
case of the species in question, great muscular power is
superadded, the natural result must be prodigious swift-
ness.

The nandou or American ostrich now forms the genus
RueEa, of which it is the sole species, characterized by
having three toes, the wings terminated by a little spur,
and the tail wanting. It is not above half the size of an
ostrich, of a whitish-gray, lead coloured on the back, the
head covered with close-set blackish feathers, almost as
stiff as hair. . This bird inhabits the pampas of Paraguay,
in troops of a few dozen, and extends almost as far south
as the Straits of Magellan. It isa gentle, innocent crea-
ture, of herbivorous habits, easily tamed if taken young,
and laying an enormous number of eggs. As several fe-
males sometimes sit together, it is probable that the num-
ber of seventy or eighty eggs, alleged to have been found
in a single nest, are not the produce of one bird, but ra-

ther the result of a kind of joint-stock incubating com- Gralla-

pany. Its flesh is eaten by the Indians, and its feathers,
from their peculiar structure, make very good hair-brooms.

In the genus Casuartus, the wings are still shorter than
in either of the preceding, and seem of no use even in run-
ning. They consist, in fact, merely of a few hard, stiff,
sharp-pointed, barbless shafts. The head is surmounted by
a bony crest, and the bill is laterally compressed (see Plate
CCCXCIX. fig. 2). The sole species is the common cas-
suary (C. galeatus, Vieil.), a bird first imported to Europe
by the Dutch in 1597. Like the rest of its tribe, it is ex-
tremely large, measuring about five feet in height. Its plu-
mage is very peculiar, being long, narrow, decomposed. and
hair-like, and the plumule, or short inner feather (which
exists in almost all birds except pigeons), is of nearly equai
length with the outer portion, so that an appearance is pro-
duced of there being a double feather to each quill. The
prevailing colour is blackish.- The cassuary inhabits the
Moluccas, Ceram, Bourou, and especially New Guinea.
These birds usually live in pairs, and the female lays three
eggs, of a greenish hue, and punctured surface. They run
with great swiftness, and defend themselves from dogs and
other animals, by kicking like horses. The inner claw is
very large and strong.

The emeu, or New Holland cassuary, forms the genus
Dromecius of Vieillot. The bill is much depressed, the
head feathered, without osseous crest, the throat naked.
The claws are of nearly equal length. The general co-
lour is dull brown mottled with dingy gray; the young
are striped with black. The plumule is equally extended
as in the preceding species. (See Plate CCCXCIX. fig.
6.) Next to the ostrich, the emeu is the tallest bird we
know. Its flesh affords admirable eating,—“ truly exqui-
site,” says Peron, “ and intermediate, as it were, between
that of a turkey and a sucking pig.” Mr Cunningham com-
pares it to beef, which is also an excellent thing. This
bird is widely spread over the southern parts of New Hol-
land and the adjacent islands. It is tamed with great ease,
and of late years has frequently bred in Britain.

In the genus ApTEeryx of Shaw,! the bill is slender and
of considerable length, the legs short, with three anterior
toes, and a posterior spur to represent the hallux. The
wings are rudimentary. The only known species was ob-
tained a good many years ago on the south coast of New
Zealand, by Captain Barclay of the ship Providence, and
was presented by him to Dr Shaw. It equals a goose in
size. This bird, of which the history was long obscure,
has been recently received in London.?

The last ornithological form to which we shall allude
under our present tribe is the mysterious Dopo (Didus
ineptus), a bird which some regard as an extinct, others
as a fabulous, species. In neither supposition would it fall
within the limits of our present treatise, which seeks to
present a sketch, however imperfect, of living nature ; and
we shall therefore not occupy our narrow limits by a sub-
ject of “ doubtful disputation,” on which we cannot our-
selves throw any light, having neither been in the Mauri-
tius, nor studied the works of Clusius and the early Dutch
navigators.°

Tribe 2D.—PRESSIROSTRES.

This tribe consists of the bustards, plovers, and other
species which, like all the preceding, either want the hind
toe, or have it so short as not to touch the ground. The
bill is of medium size, but of sufficient strength to pierce
the ground in search of worms and inseets, the feebler

1 Naturalist’s Miscellany, pl. 1057-8.

2 Yarrell, in Zool. Trans. i. pl. 10.

3 Whoever desires it, will find a summary view of authorities regarding the dodo, by Mr T. S. Duncan, in the Zoological Journal,

No. xii. p, 554

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- species often frequenting moist meadows and tilled ground

tores.

in search of food. The stronger billed kinds feed also on
grain, &c.

The genus Oris, Linn., possesses the bulky massive
form of the gallinaceous order, and the upper mandible is
somewhat arched ; but the bare space above the tarsus,
the want of the hind toe, and the general structure both
outward and internal, connect them more closely with the
Grallatores. The great bustard ( Ofis tarda) is the largest
of the European birds, and one of the rarest of our Bri-
tish species. It sometimes weighs nearly thirty pounds,
and is now believed to be confined exclusively to Nor-
folk. We have another species called the little bustard
(O. tetrax), also very rare. Many fine species occur in
Africa and the East. (See Plate CCCXCIX. fig. 4.)

The genus Cuaraprtus, Linn., likewise wants the hind
toe. The bill is compressed, and somewhat enlarged to-
wards the tip. It contains the various species commonly
called plovers, and may be divided into two. 1st, CEpic-
NEMus, Temm., in which there is an inflation towards the
terminal portion of the bill in both mandibles, and the
nasal fossze are less prolonged. ‘These are the larger spe-
cies, of which the great plover (dic. crepitans), or thick-
knee’d bustard of our English writers, affords a good ex-
ample. It is a migratory bird, of rare occurrence, confin-
ed chiefly to our southern and eastern counties, which it
visits about the end of April. It is as yet unknown in
Scotland. This bird is a nocturnal feeder, and preys
principally upon insects. 2d, CHARApDRIUuS, in which the
bill is inflated only above, and two thirds of its length on
each side are occupied by the nasal fossze, which renders
the organ comparatively feeble. The species are grega-
rious, and, like the gulls, beat the moist soil with their pat-
tering feet, to terrify the incumbent worms. ‘ The mem-
bers of this genus,” says Mr Selby, “ are numerous, and
possess a very wide geographical distribution, species be-
ing found in every quarter of the globe. Some of them,
during the greater part of the year, are the inhabitants
of open districts and of wild wastes, frequenting both dry
and moist situations, and only retire towards the coast
during the severity of winter. Others are constantly re-
sident upon the banks or about the mouths of rivers,
particularly where the shore consists of small gravel or
shingle ; such are most of the smaller species. Except
during the season of reproduction, most of them live in
societies, larger or of less amount, according to the spe-
cies. Their migrations are also performed in numerous
bodies, the old birds usually congregating by themselves,
and preceding the young in their periodical flights. They
run with much swiftness, as might be expected from the
simple structure of their feet; and from the shape and
dimensions of their wings, they fly with strength and ra-
pidity. They live on worms, insects, and their larve,
&c. and most of them are nocturnal feeders, as indicated
by their large and prominent eyes. They are subject ‘to
the double moult, and the change at the different seasons
is in many species very marked. Their nest is on the
ground, and their eggs are always four in number. The
flesh of the larger species, and such as inhabit the plains
of the interior, is delicate and high flavoured; but in
many of the smaller kinds, that live on the coast, or on the
banks of rivers, it is not so palatable.”! The beautiful gold-
en plover (Char. pluvialis) is the best-known example to
which we need refer. The prevailing plumage of the up-
per parts is brownish, or very deep hair-brown, each fea-
ther being tipped and otherwise spotted with yellow. The
chin and throat are white, the fore part of the neck, breast,
&c. ash-gray, streaked with darker gray, and tinged with

yellow. During the breeding season, the cheeks, chin,
throat, fore part of the neck, centre of the breast, and ab-
domen, are of an intense black, and in this state it has been
erroneously regarded as a distinct species. To the same
group belong the dotterel (Char. morinellus), the ring-
plover (Char. hiaticula), and many other kinds, exotic and
indigenous. Several of the foreign plovers have sharp spurs
upon the anterior margin of the wing, as well as fleshy flat-
tened lobes upon the head.

The genus VaneLtus of Bechstein differs but little
from the plovers, except in the possession of a small hind
toe. We here place our elegant crested Japwing, or green
plover (V. cristatus), commonly called in Scotland the
pees-weep. The gray plover (C. squatarola, Linn.) forms
the genus Squararota of Cuvier, distinguished, like the
preceding, by a very small hind toe; but the bill is more
bulged beneath towards the extremity, and the nasal fosse
are short.

The genus Hamarorus, Linn., commonly known by
the name of oyster-catcher, has the bill rather long,
straight, pointed, compressed. The hind toe is wanting.
Our British species (H. ostralegus), breeds along the
rocky ledges of friths and bays, and is said: to open oyster
and other shells by means of its bill, We could never
detect it in the performance of this feat, and we rather
doubt the fact, till assured of it by a credible eye-witness,
Oysters are by no means easily opened, even with a knife.
Several nearly allied species have been discovered of late
years in Asia, Africa,and America. One is found in New
Holland.

In the genus Cursortvs the bill is slender, rounded,
somewhat arched, without furrow. The legs are long,
the hind toe wanting. Five or six species occur in Afri-
ca and Asia, and of these, C. Isabellinus, Meyer, some-
times accidentally appears in the south of Europe. A few
specimens have been even seen in Britain.

The genus Micropactytus, Geoffroy (Dicholophus,
Illiger), has the bill stronger and more curved; with a
wider gape. The legs are of great length, the toes slight-
ly palmated at the base, the hinder one very small, and
not reaching to the ground. The only known species is
a singular South American bird called) the gariama or
crested screamer (MM. cristatus, Geott.,—Palamedea cristata,
Gm.). It is larger than a heron, the plumage reddish
gray waved with brown, the forehead ornamented by a
crest of recurved slender feathers (see Plate CCCXCIX.
fig. 8). The plumes of the head and neck are also de-
composed. The cariama inhabits elevated plains in Brazil
and Paraguay, where it feeds on serpents and other rep-
tiles, as well as on insects and their larvae. It flies feebly,
owing to the shortness of its wings, but runs with consi-
derable swiftness. When pursued, it is apt to conceal it-
self by squatting in some cunning corner. Its flesh af-
fords excellent food, and it is sometimes reared by the
Spaniards in a domestic state. The female lays only two

eggs.

Tribe 3D.—CULTRIROSTRES.

In this tribe the bill is usually strong, of considerable
length, straight, cutting, sharp-pointed. In many spe-
cies the trachea undergoes a peculiar duplication in the
male sex. The ceca are short. Cuvier divides the tribe
into three lesser groups,—the cranes, the herons, and the
storks.

The cranes properly so called (genus Grus) have the
bill longer than the head. The most noted species is the
common crane of Europe (G. cinerea), a migratory bird,

a

' British Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 230.

VOL. XVI.

41

617

Gralla.
tores.

—_—o—

618

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- well known in Britain during former ages, and still breed-

tores.

W

ing in the northern and eastern countries of Europe.

Part loosely wing the region, part more wise,

In common, ranged in figure, wing their way,
Intelligent of seasons, and set forth

Their airy caravan high over seas

Flying, and over lands with mutual wing,

Easing their flight ; so steers the prudent crane
Her annual voyage, borne on winds, the air

Flotes as they pass, fann’d with unnumber’d plumes.

In our own island the appearance of this bird now-a-days
may be regarded as accidental. _ It is a very large species,
measuring above four feet in height. The prevailing plu-
mage is of a deep ash-gray, the face and throat black, the
rump and tertial feathers very long, loose, flowing, decom-

osed.

The whooping crane of the new world (Grus Americana)
has a pure white plumage, with black primaries. (See
Plate CCCC. fig. 1.) _ This stately bird, when standing
erect, measures nearly five feet in height, and is the largest
of the feathered inhabitants of the United States (bating
Lynch law and the use of tar). It is widely spread over
North America, from which it usually retires in winter to
the West Indies, although a few hybernate in the warmer
parts of the Union, or even linger throughout that inclement
season in the swamps of New Jersey, near Cape May. When
wounded this crane defends itself with vigour, and has been
known to strike its bill through a person’s hand with the
strength and sharpness of a dagger. It builds upon the
ground, and sometimes congregates in vast flocks, the cla-
mour of which is more easily imagined than described. It
was heard with astonishment by Captain Amidas, the first
Englishman who ever landed in North America, when he
visited the island of Wokokou, off the coast of North Caro-
lina. “Such a flock of cranes,” says he, “ (the most part
white) arose under us, with such a cry, redoubled by mary
echoes, as if an army of men had shouted all together.” The
bustle of their great migrations, and their passage, as of
mighty armies, fill the mind with wonder. Mr Nuttall, while
descending the Mississippi in December, observed the
whooping cranes in countless thousands, as if assembled
from all the swamps and marshes of the north and west,—as
if the entire continent was giving up its quota to swell the
mighty host. Their flight took place during the night, down
the great aérial valley of the river, whose southern course
conducted them every instant towards more genial climes.
“ The clangour of these numerous legions passing along,
high in the air, seemed almost deafening ; the’confused cry
of the vast army continued with the lengthened procession,
and as the vocal call continued nearly throughout the whole
night without intermission, some idea may be formed of the
immensity of the numbers now assembled on their annual
journey to the regions of the south.” Several other fine
cranes inhabit America, as well as Africa, and the East.

The beautiful Balearic crane (A. pavonina, Linn.) be-
longs to the genus AnTHRoFroiDEs of Vieillot. (Plate
CCCXCIX. fig. 9.) It occurs in Africa and in some of
the Mediterranean islands. The Demoiselle (A. virgo), re-
markable for its peculiar and what may be almost called
affected gestures, is nearly allied. It is likewise of African
origin, as is also the Stanley crane (Anth. Stanleyanus),
belonging to the same restricted group, and more recently
described by Mr Vigors.!

In the genus Psoputa, which contains the South Ame-
rican trumpeters, so called from their peculiar voices, the
bill is less elongated, and the head and neck clothed with
short down-like feathers. P. crepitans is easily domesti-
cated, and becomes much attached both to places and to
persons. It is even said to act as a guard or conductor to

domestic poultry. It flies indifferently, but runs with great Gralla-

swiftness. (Plate CCCXCIX. fig.'/.) There are only two
species.

The genus ArAmus of Vieillot is constituted by the
courlirt of Buffon, or scolopaceous heron, of which the
bill, slenderer and more deeply cleft, is inflated towards the
tip. The toes, all rather long, have no palmation. The
only known species (Ar. scolopaceus) inhabits Cayenne,
Brazil, and Paraguay, spreading into Florida and other
southern parts of the Union. It is a shy and solitary bird,
dwelling in pairs, and crying in a loud sonorous voice, con-
tinually by night and day, carau, carau. It runs swiftly,
and builds upon the ground, but often lights on trees. It
is not fond of wading.

A still more singular bird, classed by Linnzeus with the
herons (Ardea helias), is the caurale snipe of Latham, which
now forms the genus Euryeyea of Illiger. “ C’est un
oiseau,” says Cuvier, “de la taille d’un perdrix, 4 qui son
cou long et menu, sa queue large et étalée, et ses jambes
peu élevées, donnent un air tout différent de celui des au-
tres oiseaux de rivage. Son plumage, nuancé par bandes et
par lignes, de brun, de fauve, de roux, de gris, et de noir,
rappelle les plus beaux papillons de nuit. On le trouve
le long des riviéres de la Guiane.”*

The second group of the cultrirostral tribe, composed
chiefly of the herons, is more strictly carnivorous than the
preceding.

The first genus is Cancroma, Linn., composed likewise
of asingle species called the boat-bill—C. cochlearta. The
bill is comparatively short, but very broad, boat-shaped,
with the upper mandible overlapping the lower. It inha-
bits the moist hot regions of South America, frequenting
the banks of rivers, preying on fish, and building its nest
on low bushes. It is of an irritable passionate nature, and
when enraged raises the feathers of its crest, so as to al-
ter its usual aspect surprisingly. As it scarcely ever fre-
quents the sea-coast, its alleged propensity to feed on crabs
is probably ill founded.. The boat-bill varies considerably
in plumage, but it does not appear that there is more than
one authentic species.

The genus ARDEA, Cuv., contains the true herons. The
bill is as long or longer than the head, strong, hard, straight,
compressed, sharp-pointed ; the masticating edges sharp,
the culmen rounded. The eyes are encircled by a bare
skin, which extends to the base of the bill. The herons
form a considerable group, almost all of which, according
at least to our particular taste, are remarkable for beauty
of plumage. They seldom, however, exhibit a preponde-
rance of the brighter or more gaudy colours, such as red
or yellow, being chiefly distinguished by a delicate har-
monious blending of pearly-gray and brown, black, white,
pale blue, slate-colour, and other sober hues. The forms
of the plumage are graceful and elegant. Long pendent
plumes frequently ornament the hinder portions of the
head and neck, the lower part of the breast, and the dorsal
region. The body is usually small and light, the limbs long
and delicate, the toes narrow and taper, and the neck thin,
pliant, and extremely graceful. Many species formerly re-
garded as true herons are now excluded from the modern
genus. The habits of the heron tribe are fully as aquatic as
those of the majority of Grallatores. They usually walk,
or rather wade, along the shores of lakes, rivers, stagnant
marshes, or the land-locked waters of narrow seas, in search
of their natural food, which consists of fish, frogs, several
marine and fresh-water shells, slugs, worms, and various
insects. During flight they extend their legs backwards
instinctively, as if to counterbalance the weight of the an-
terior extremity, and by a duplication of the neck they
lower the head between the shoulders. In some instances

1 Zool. Journal, vol. ii. p. 234, pl. viii.

3 Reégne Animal, tom.i. p. 509.

tores.

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- they are gregarious, in others solitary. In the former case

they build in trees,—in the latter, more frequently among
reeds or rushes. Several species afford an excellent
though now much-neglected article of food, and were not
only prized as such in England in the olden time, but were
objects of still higher interest and regard, as affording the
finest display of strength and intrepidity in the practice of
the noble art of falconry. Birds of this genus occur in al-
most every quarter of the known world. The species
which inhabit high northern latitudes, such as. Kamts-
chatka and the shores of Hudson’s Bay, migrate south-
wards before the arrival of winter. Such as breed in warm
or temperate climates are more stationary.

Our common or long-necked heron (Ardea major et
cinerea, Linn.) affords a familiar example of the genus.
“ Yon Cassius hath a lean and hungry look,” yet when ex-
amined close at hand he is an elegant and beautifully plu-
maged species. The heron usually builds on the tops of
lofty and umbrageous trees, yet in an island of Loch Conn
we have seen its nest on podlards not more than ten feet
high ; and we lately noticed a large heronry among the
precipitous cliffs which overhang the sea about a mile out-
side the entrance to the Cromarty Frith, upon the northern
shore. We have several other British herons, the majo-
rity of which, however, must be regarded rather as strag-
glers or accidental visitors, than as truly indigenous spe-
cies. The egrets are beautiful crested herons, with the
plumage usually pure white, and in part decomposed, or
very loose and flowing. Of these, the little egret (Ardea
garzetta, Linn.) is common in Turkey, and the east of Eu-
rope, as well as in many parts of Asia, Africa, and the
islands of the Mediterranean. It is frequently alluded to
in the ancient household books of England; and in the re-
corded bill of fare of the famous feast of Archbishop Ne-
ville, in the reign of Henry IV., a thousand are said to
have been served up at a single entertainment. It is in-
deed extraordinary that a bird now so rare in all the west-
ern countries of Europe, should have been at any time so
superabundant in Britain; and Dr Fleming has judicious-
ly suggested that the lapwing, which is so beautifully
crested, may have been indicated under the old title of
egritte. The true egret is not even alluded to as an indi-
genous bird so far back as the time of Willughby and
Ray. The great egret (Ardea egretta, Temm.) is well known
in Poland and Hungary, but scarcely ever shows itself in
the western parts of the European continent.

The bitterns have the plumage of the neck extremely
full and elongated. Their colours are usually brownish
yellow, radiated or spotted with black. They form the
modern genus Boraurus. The night-herons constitute
another generic group, under the title of NycTicorax.
The term, which signifies night-raven, has been no doubt
applied from the circumstance of their feeding at night,
and remaining in a state of comparative rest and inactivity
throughout the day. The European species (Ardea nycti-
corax, Linn.,—Nye. Europeus, Stephens) is more common
in America than in the old world. New Holland and Af-
rica each possesses a species. In form, Sir William Jar-
dine observes, these birds are intermediate to the bitterns
and true herons ; the bill is short, and stronger in propor-
tion than in either, and the hind head is adorned with
(generally three) narrow feathers in the form of a crest.
They feed by twilight, or in clear nights, and take their
prey by wary watching, like the herons. They are grega-
rious and build on trees, and are noisy and restless during
the period of incubation. The prevailing colours are ash-
gray and black, or pale fawn and chesnut. The young are
always of a dingier hue than their parents, and have their
feathers marked with whitish spots.

619

The remaining genera of the Cultrirostres form Cuvier’s Gralla-

third group.

tores.

In the genus Ciconra, Cuv., the bill is large, without ~~~

nasal groove or furrow, the nostrils pierced near the base,
and towards the dorsal portion. The tarsi are reticulated,
and the anterior toes strongly palmated, especially the ex-
ternal. The mandibles are broad and light, and when
struck together produce a frequent and peculiar snapping
sound, almost the only one they ever utter. The best-
known European species is the white or common stork
(Ciconia alba), a bird somewhat smaller than the crane,
but larger than the heron. The bill and legs are red, the
whole plumage pure white, except the greater coverts,
scapulars, and quill-feathers, which are black. It is a com-
mon summer bird in several European countries, espe-
cially Holland, where it is esteemed and protected, and
has become so familiar as to build on the tops of houses
even in the centre of Jarge towns. Its periodical migrations
have long excited the admiration of naturalists by their
extent and regularity. They are indeed beautifully and
wisely directed. ‘“ Yea, the stork in the heavens knoweth
her appointed times; and the turtle, and the crane, and
the swallow, observe the time of their coming.” The species
appears to have been regarded with peculiar favour in al-
most all ages and countries. By the ancient Egyptians it
was looked upon with a reverence only inferior to that
which they paid to the mystical ibis ; the same feeling still
preponderates in many parts of Africa and the East; while
nearer home the Dutch are remarkable for their affection-
ate attachment to this “ household bird.” On the other
hand, the stork itself appears to reciprocate this friendly
feeling. Undismayed by the presence of man, it builds its
capacious nest upon the house-top, or on the summits of
‘ancestral trees” in the immediate vicinity of human dwell-
ings, or even environed by the busiest haunts of men. “ It
stalks,” says Mr Bennet, “ perfectly at ease along the busy
streets of the most crowded town, and seeks its food on
the banks of rivers, or in fens in close vicinity to his abode.
In numerous parts of Holland its nest, built on the chim-
ney top, remains undisturbed for many succeeding years,
and the owners constantly return with unerring sagacity
to the well-known spot. The joy which they manifest in
again taking possession of their deserted dwelling, and the
attachment which they testify towards their benevolent
hosts, are familiar in the mouths of every one. Their af-
fection for their young is one of the most remarkable traits
in their character. It is almost superfluous to repeat the
history of the female which, at the conflagration of Delft,
after repeated and unsuccessful attempts to carry off her
young, chose rather to perish with them in the general
ruin than to leave them to their fate ; and there are many
other and well-authenticated proofs of a similar disposition.
They generally lay from two to four eggs, of a dingy yel-
lowish white, rather longer than those of the goose, but
not so broad. The incubation lasts for a month, the male
sharing in the task during the absence of the female in
search of food.”!

Of the foreign species, the gigantic stork (C. argala)
is well known in India by the name of adjutant. It mea-
sures upwards of six feet in height. A nearly allied spe-
cies is the marabou of Africa (C. marabou, Temm.), very
common in many parts of the interior. According to Ma-
jor Denham, it is protected by the inhabitants on account
of its services as a scavenger. Its appetite is most vora-
cious, and nothing comes amiss to its omnivorous propen-
sities. Mr Smeathman has given a long account of a bird
of this kind which regularly attended at the dining table,
and frequently helped itself to what it liked best. It one
day darted its enormous bill into a boiled fow], which it

EN

! Zoological Gardens, ii. 21.

620

Gralla- swallowed so instantaneously that all hope of rescue was
tores. in vain. On another occasion it actually bolted a cat.

ORNITHOLOGY.

wards, and slightly notched on either side. A portion of Gralla-
the head, and sometimes of the neck, is bare’ of feathers. tores.

—~—__‘ The genus Mycrenria, Linn., contains the birds called

jabirus.

They scarcely differ from the storks, except in
the bill exhibiting a slight curvature upwards. The spe-
cies, if correctly referred to by naturalists, though few in
number, inhabit widely distant regions,—M. Americana
being native to Cayenne, MM. Australis to New Holland,
and M. Senegalensis to Western Africa. Is the latter sy-
nonymous with Dr Ruppell’s saddle-billed stork, C. ephip-
prorhyncha 2

The genus Scopus is composed of a single species, .S.
umbretta, Linn., an African bird, of the manners of which
we are still entirely ignorant. In English books it is called
the tufted umber. Its generic title (Zxoros) is Greek for
sentinel. It is probably watchful and solitary.

The genus ANAsTomus, of which the Pondicherry and
Coromandel herons of Latham serve as examples, is pecu-
liar to the East Indies. These species present a remark-
able peculiarity in the structure of the bill. The mandibles
touch each other only at their points and bases, thus Jeav-
ing a gaping intervening space. An. Coromandelianus is
common on the banks of the Ganges, and other eastern
rivers, and likewise frequents the Coromandel coast during
the months of September, October, and November, feed-
ing on fish and reptiles. A more recently discovered spe-
cies is An. lamelligerus of Temm. (P7. Col. 236), a native
of the Cape.

The genus Dromas of Paykull has the bill compressed
and swollen at the base beneath, with the commissures
close. The only known species is D. ardeola, Temm. Pl.
Col. 362, an African bird, with white plumage, the back
and pinions, as well as the legs and bill, being black. It is
of rare occurrence, but rather extended distribution, spe-
cimens having been obtained both from the shores of the
Red Sea and the Senegal coast.. “ L’ardeole,’” says M.
Lesson, “tient des cedicnémes par son bec, et mémes des
sternes, de l’avocette, par son plumage et les tarses. C’est
un véritable oiseaux de transition dans l’établissement des
familles.”1 Some recent writers regard this bird as iden-
tical with the corrira so long ago described by Aldrovandi*
as an Italian species, but not since seen either in Europe
or elsewhere. The descriptions however do not accord.
Bechstein, Vieillot, and others, think the Italian corrira
a fictitious species, made up from the body of an avocet
and the legs of a thick-knee’d plover ; but Professor Ran-
zani is of opinion, that as its name is a vernacular one, and
there is no proof that Aldrovandi possessed any stuffed
birds (none being mentioned in the catalogue of his mu-
seum, and the art in those days being almost unknown), a
well-known living species must have been alluded to. In-
deed it appears that Charleton, at least seventy years after
the printing of the Italian author’s third volume, received
a specimen from Merret of what he considered as the bird
in question.2 ‘Non vi ha al certo,” observes Ranzani,
“alcun giusto motivo di rivocare in dubbio, che al tempo
di Aldrovandi si trovasse ne’ luoghi vallivi del territorio
Bolognese un uccello steganopodo, il quali venisse da’ cac-
ciatori chiamato corrira, perché correva velocémente.” “ E
quantunque,” he afterwards adds, “ oggidi niuno de’ molti
cacciatori Bolognesi da me consultati conosca la corrira,
non cessero io per questo dal farne le piu diligenti ricerche,
potendo benissimo accadere; ch’essa torni alcuna volta a
visitare i nostri terreni vallivi.”

In the genus Tanvatus, Linn., the bill, nostrils, and
feet resemble those of the storks, but the back of the
upper mandible is rounded, its point curved a little down-

! Traité @ Ornithologie, }>. 531.
® Ornithologia, t. iii. p. 288.

The species, formerly confounded with the ibises, are of
large size, and inhabit Asia, Africa, and America. The
best known is Tantalus loculator, called the wood ibis in
the United States. It is white, with the face and head
greenish blue, the quill and tail feathers black, with co-
loured reflections. It measures above three feet in length,
and the bill itself is about nine inches long, very broad at
the base. The wood ibis is a solitary indolent bird, sel-
dom associating in flocks, but resting alone, like a feather-
ed hermit, listlessly on the topmost limb of some tall de-
cayed cypress, with his neck drawn in upon his shoulders,
and his enormous bill resting like a scythe upon his breast.
Thus pensive and lonely, he has a grave and melancholy
aspect, as if ruminating in the deepest thought; and in
this sad posture of gluttonous inactivity (for in truth he
has only over-eaten himself) he passes much of his time,
till aroused by the cravings of hunger. He feeds on
snakes, young alligators, fish, frogs, and other reptiles, and
wisely migrates southwards on the approach of winter?
In the United States the principal residence of this bird
is in the inundated wilds of the peninsula of East Florida.
The Zantalus ibis of Linn. is an African species, long er-
roneously regarded as the bird so highly venerated by the
Egyptians ; but it scarcely occurs in the country of the py-
ramids, being usually imported from Senegal. The other
species of this genus are 7. leucocephalus, trom Ceylon and
Bengal; and 7. lactea(Temm. Pl. Col. 352), from Java.
The last genus we shall mention of our present tribe is
Praratea, Linn., containing the birds called spoon-bills,
which, like the preceding, are also few in number. The
chief character is constituted by the rounded flat enlarge-
ment or dilatation at the extremity of the bill, from which
they derive their English name. They inhabit marshy
and muddy places, where they grope about with their
spoons in search of worms and mollusca. They are gre-
garious and migratory, build on trees, occasionally among
rushes, and occur in Europe’(Pl. leucorodia), Africa (Pl.
nudifrons), and America (Pl. ajqja). The last-named
species, called the roseate spoon-bill, is a beautiful bird,
the ground-colour white, but richly tinged with rose-colour,
deepening in part into carmine-red. The feet are half
webbed, and the toes are very long (see Plate CCCC.
fig. 2). This bird is more maritime in its habits than the
European kind, and wades about the coast in quest of shell-
fish and small crabs. According to Captain Henderson
(in his account of Honduras), it occasionally both swims
and dives. Although it now and then’ straggles up the
Mississippi towards Natchez, into Alabama, and even as
far north as the banks of the Delaware, it is a truly tropi-
cal bird, frequent in Jamaica and other islands of the West
Indies, as well as in Mexico, Guiana, and Brazil. Ina
southerly direction, it is said to spread as far as Patagonia.

Triste 4TH.—LONGIROSTRES.

In this tribe the bill may be characterized as lengthened
and feeble. The species belong chiefly to the old genera
Scolopax and Tringa of Linn. ‘They bear a general resem-
blance in their forms and habits, and frequent moist places,
where their slender bills can probe for worms and insects,
without the risk of fracture.

In the genus Isis, Cuv., the bill is long, arched, broad,
and squarish at the base, with the point depressed, obtuse,
rounded, and the upper mandible deeply furrowed through-
out its whole length. The nostrils are narrow and oblong,

3 Exvercitationes de differentiis Animalium, Oxonii, 1677, p. 102-3.
4 Elementi di Zoologia, t. iii. parte ix. p. 300-2.

® Nuttall’s Manual, vol. ii. p. 83.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- and pierced through the membrane of the furrow near its
tores. base. The forehead and lores are bare of feathers.
“—— The species of this remarkable genus are distributed

621

to an expression of the priest of Hermopolis, sometimes Gralla-
attains to so great an age that “it cannot die,” unless tores-
when, removed from the sustaining soil of its beloved

over the warmer zones of all the four quarters of the
globe, the green or glossy ibis (Ibis faleinellus), being it-
self found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and oc-
casionally in Great Britain. The sacred or Egyptian ibis
(Ibis religiosa, Cuv.,— Tantalus Ethiopicus, Latham) is a
bird of a more striking and peculiar aspect, though undis-
tinguished by much diversity in the colours of its plumage.
It measures about two feet six inches in length. The head
and neck are, in the adults, bare of feathers, presenting
nothing but a dark cutaneous surface. The prevailing
colour is white, with long funereal-looking plumes of a
purplish black colour, proceeding from beneath the ter-
tiary wing-feathers, and hanging down not ungracefully
on either side. The legs and feet are deep lead-colour.
Among the ancient Egyptians, a people prone to award
divine honours to the brute creation, the ibis was regarded
as an object of superstitious worship, and its sculptured
outline frequently occurs among the hieroglyphical images
which adorn the walls of their temples. The conserva-
tion of its mystical body occupied the assiduous care of
their holiest priests while living, and exercised the gloomy
art of their most skilful embalmers when dead. To slay
or insult it would have been deemed a crime of the dark-
est hue, and sufficient to call down upon the offender the
immediate vengeance of heaven. The incarnation of their
gods was effected through the medium of this sacred bird,
and the tutelary deity of Egypt was supposed to be thus
imaged to the eyes of adoring mortals when he descended
from the highest heavens. The embalmed bodies of this
species are still found in the catacombs, and other places
of ancient sepulture ; and the antiquary and the natural-
ist marvel alike at the wonderful art which, for some
thousand years, has handed down unimpaired to a far-re-
moved posterity the form and features of so frail a crea-
ture. The perfection of an unknown process has almost
defied the ravages of time, and through its intervention
the self-same individuals exist in a tangible form, which
wandered along the banks of the mysterious Nile in
the earliest ages of the world, or “ in dim seclusion
veiled,” inhabited the sanctuary of temples, which though
themselves of most magnificent proportions, are now
scarcely discernible amid the desert dust of an unpeopled
wilderness.

The natural and mythological histories of this remark-
able bird are so closely combined by ancient authors, that
it is scarcely possible to gather from their statements any
rational meaning. Those, indeed, whose province it is to
illustrate the history of mankind, by explaining the rise
and progress of superstition, and the frequent connection
between certain forms of a delusive worship, and the phy-
sical conditions of clime and country, may find in the dis-
torted history of Egyptian animals an ample field for the
exercise of such ingenious speculations; but the Zoologist
has to do rather with things as they are, than as they
were supposed to be,—and his province’ is to explain (or
attempt so to do) the works of the God of nature as they
exist in their most beautiful and harmonious simplicity,
undeformed by the multitudinous fables of a remote an-
tiquity. We need not, then, to inquire whether the basi-
lisk be born from an egg produced in the body of the ibis,
by a concentration of all the poison of all the serpents
which it may have swallowed in the course of a long and
reptile-eating life ;—nor whether the casual touch of its
lightest plume still suffices not only to enchant and ren-
der motionless the largest crocodile, but even to deprive
it at once of life ;—nor whether the ibis itself, according

Egypt, it sinks beneath the nostalgia of a foreign land !
For we know that the basilisk does not exist ; that young
ibises have been seen flapping themselves across the out-
stretched bodies of sleeping crocodiles, which afterwards
sought the waters of the Nile with their accustomed ala-
crity ; and that the age of the sacred bird, though from
the skill of the embalmers it may be said to be “ in death
immortal,” does not exceed that of the rest of its con-
geners.

The sacred ibis is usually observed either in pairs, or
in small groups of eight or ten together. They build
their nests on palms and other elevated trees, and lay two
or three whitish eggs. They do not breed in Egypt, but
arrive in that country when the waters of the Nile begin
to swell. This apparent connection (as of cause and ef-
fect) between the presence of these birds and the ferti-
lizing flow of the mighty and mysterious river, probably
gave rise to their worship as divine agents in immediate
connection with those grander processes of nature by
which the surface of the earth was regulated, and sustain-
ed in a fit condition for the health and prosperity of the
human race. A slight knowledge of natural history would
indeed have sufficed to show, that such divine honours had
not been awarded as a consequence of their destruction
of serpents and other venomous reptiles ; for the modern
Egyptians confirm the views of Colonel Grobert, that the
ibis does not prey on serpents at all, but feeds very much
after the manner of the curlew, on insects, worms, small
fishes, and molluscous animals.

A smaller sized though much more splendidly attired
species, is the scarlet ibis (Z. ruber) of America. This
brilliant bird is confined to the new world, where it is
chiefly tropical, abounding in the West Indies and the
Bahama Islands, and stretching southwards of the equator
at least as far as Brazil. In the course of the summer (ge-
nerally in July and August) it migrates into Florida, Ala-
bama, Georgia, and South Carolina, retiring into Mexico
and the Carribbean Islands on the approach of the winter
season. It is gregarious, feeding along the sea-coast, the
shores of estuaries, and the banks of rivers, on small fry,
shell-fish, insects, and worms. Although they often perch
on trees (where the contrast of their fiery plumage with
the surrounding foliage is said to produce a most resplen-
dent effect), they build their nests upon the ground. The
young for several seasons exhibit obscure shades of brown,
they afterwards become spotted with red, and then assume
the splendid attire of the parents, which is a uniform and
dazzling scarlet, with the exception of the extremities of
the first four primaries, which are of a rich bluish black.
Pennant says that the scarlet ibis has been domesticated in
Guiana; and Dr Latham possessed one which was brought
alive to England, and lived for some time with his poul-
try. © It is clear from the statements of American writers,
that it is, at least in temperate countries, a bird of pas-
sage, although Cuvier observes, “‘ que cette espéce ne
voyage point.” When taken young it is easily tamed, and
submits to domestication without repining. Delaet says
it has even propagated in captivity; and M. Delaborde
has given the history of an individual which he kept for
above two years, feeding it on bread, raw or cooked meat,
and fish. It was fond of hunting in the ground for worms,
and was in use to follow the gardener in expectation of that
favourite food. It roosted at night upon the highest perch
in the poultry-house, and flew out at an early hour of the
morning, sometimes to a great distance from home. Our
climate is probably too cold and variable for a bird which

2 Wilson's Ilustrations of Zovlogy, vol. i. pl. xix.

622

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- on the approach of winter always migrates southwards,

otherwise it would assuredly form a splendid (it is even

—Y— said a savoury) addition to our stock of domestic fowls."

In the genus Numentvs, Cuv., the bill is arched, as in
the preceding, but still more slender, and rounded through-
out its entire length, instead of being square at the base.
The extremity of the upper mandible extends beyond the
under one, and projects a little over it at the base. There
is an obvious palmation at the root of the toes.

To this genus belong the curlews,—well-known birds, of
shy and wary habits, which, according to the season, haunt
either the hilly pastures or the sandy shores. The North
American species (JV. longirostris, Wilson) is remarkable
for the extraordinary length of its bill. (See Plate CCCC.
fig. 3.) The common curlew of Britain (V. arquata) seems
to inhabit exclusively, during the breeding season, our up-
land moors and pastures, and descends to the sea-coasts in
winter. The smaller British species, called whimbrel (lV.
pheopus), seems scarcely known in England during sum-
mer, but is then frequent in the north of Scotland, where
it breeds. It is distinct from any of the American curlews,—
with one of which, however, it has sometimes been con-
founded. A nearly allied species, first described by M. Vieil-
lot under the title of Numenius tenutrostris, as a native of
Egypt, has been ascertained by C. L. Bonaparte to exist in
great numbers along the banks of the Tiber, where it occurs
during winter. It has also been discovered by Signor Savi
in the neighbourhood of Pisa, by Dr Pajola in the Venetian
territory, and by Professor Bonelli in Piedmont. We doubt
not it occurs occasionally in most parts of Europe (espe-
cially the eastern countries), although it escapes detection
in consequence of its strong resemblance to the common
whimbrel. Its distinctive phrase is—Numenius pileo ci-
cerino e nigro maculato: pennis longioribus ilium candi-
dis, immaculatis.2 The small esquimaux curlew (J. bo-
realis, Lath. and Richardson) passes over a vast extent
of territory in its migrations,—breeding in the barren
lands within the arctic circle, and spending the winter in
Brazil.

In the genus Scotopax, Cuv., containing the snipes and
woodcocks, the bill is very long, but straight, and pervaded
almost throughout its entire length by a nasal furrow.
The upper mandible is slightly inflated at the tip, which
is rather soft, and extremely delicate in its perceptions.
The feet are not palmated. The head is compressed, the
eyes large, and situate far back upon the head,—“ ce qui,”
says Cuvier, “leur donne un air singulierement stupide,
quils ne démentent point par leurs meeurs.” Now, though
the birds in question may want those accommodating in-
stincts which elevate the character of many other species al-
most into a semblance of reason, we are not aware that they
are in any way of defective intellect, that is, that their pro-
ceedings are at all discordant with self-preservation, the
enjoyment of their natural propensions, or the continuance
of their kind; and as to the position of the eye, whatever
may be its physiognomical effect, is it not admirably adapt-
ed to their general modes of life, and their particular habit
of plunging their bills into the mud of marshes, enabling
them so to do, and yet to keep a sharp look-out around
them? Depend upon it, their eyes are in the right place,
and their large size cannot be otherwise than advantageous
to birds which feed by night.

We have five British species of Scolopax, of which the
woodcock (.S. rusticola) is the chief, a bird much admired
by epicures, who eat him, entrails and all,—a dirty practice,
we opine: but, de gustibus non disputandum est. During

the day this species usually frequents the. closest brakes,
where the ground, from depth of shade, is nearly free from
herbage. They abound most in thickets by the sides of
open glades, or where roads intersect; for by these they
pass to and from their feeding ground at evening and the
dawn of morn. “ Unless disturbed,” says Mr Selby, “ they
remain quietly at roost upon the ground during the whole
day; but as soon as the sun is wholly below the horizon,
they are in full activity, and taking flight nearly at the same
instant, leave the woods and cover for the adjoining mea-
dows or open land, over which they disperse themselves,
and are fully engaged in search of food during the whole
night. Advantage has long been taken of this regular
mode of going to and returning from the feeding grounds
by the fowler, in those districts where woodcocks are
abundant, by suspending nets across the glades, or by the
sides of hedges, where they are observed to pass conti-
nually ; and though the adoption of the fowling-piece has
in general superseded the modes of capture formerly prac-
tised, great numbers are still taken in this manner in De-
vonshire and Cornwall. Another method of entrapping
woodcocks (as well as snipes) is by the springe, which is
set in places where those perforations made by the bill of
the woodcock in search of food, and technically called
borings, are observed to be most frequent. It is formed
of an elastic stick, of which one end is thrust into the
ground, the other having affixed to it a noose made of
horse- hair ;’ the stick being then bent down, this noose is
passed through a hole in a peg fastened to the ground,
and is kept properly expanded by means of a fine trigger,
so set as to be displaced by the slight pressure of the
bird’s foot. To conduct them to this trap, a low fence of
twigs, or of stones placed so closely together as to leave
no passage through the interstices, is extended to some
distance on each side of the springe, and generally in an
oblique direction ; over which obstacle, however trifling,
it seems the birds never attempt to hop or fly, but keep
moving along it, till they approach the part occupied by
the noose of the springe : upon attempting to pass through
this apparently open space, they displace the trigger, and
are almost invariably caught by the noose, and retained
by the spring of the stick against the opposing peg. Day
being the woodcock’s time for repose, it sits very close,
and is not easily flushed; the sportsman then requiring
the aid of the busy spaniel, or the bush in which it is en-
sconced to be actually beaten by an attendant, before it
will take wing. It rises, however, with much quickness,
and threads its way through the branches with great ra-
pidity, until the underwood and trees are fairly cleared,
when its flight becomes measured, and offers an easy aim
to the sportsman. When roused, it seldom flies to any
great distance, but alights in the first thicket that attracts
its attention, closing its wings, and dropping suddenly
down, and in such cases it is not unusual for it to run a
little way before it squats. Just before rising, upon be-
ing disturbed, or when running, it jerks its tail upwards,
partly expanding it, and fully showing the white that dis-
tinguishes the under surface of the tips of the tail-fea-
thers. In feeding, the woodcock inserts its bill deep into
the earth in search of worms, which are its favourite
and principal food. This instrument is most admirably
calculated for the offices it has to perform when thus im-
mersed in the soil; for, in addition to its great length, it
possesses a nervous apparatus distributed over a great por-
tion of its surface, and especially on such parts as are
likely to come first into contact with its prey, giving it

1 Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society. We do not know how it has happened that the wood-cut of the scarlet ibis in the
work just referred to is copied into Mr Nuttall’s excellent Manual of American Ornithology, under the name of wood ibis, Tantalus

doculator,—a bird which belongs to a different genus.
2 Ornitologia Toscana, tom. il. p. 324.

Gralla-
tores.

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla-_ the sense of touch in the highest perfection ; and to enable

it to secure the object thus detected by the discriminat-
ing sensibility of the bill, it is further provided with pe-
culiar muscles (common, I believe, to all the members of
the genus), which by compression of the upper or basal
part of the bill, are brought into action so as to expand
the tips of both mandibles sufficiently wide to lay hold of
and draw forth the hidden treasure. The digestion of this
bird is rapid, and the quantity of worms it can devour in
the course of a night is astonishing. I have known one
that consumed at a meal (that is, within the night) more
large earth-worms than half filled a garden-pot of consi-
derable size. It may, however, by management, be brought
to eat other food ; as Montagu mentions one that was in-
duced to feed on bread and milk, by worms cleanly washed
being put into a mess of that kind; and by this practice
being persisted in, the bird soon acquired a relish for this
new sort of aliment, and, with the addition of a few worms,
throve well upon it.” We have already mentioned that
the woodcock is now of frequent and constant occurrence
as a breeding bird in several of the northern parts of Scot-
land.

Our other species of this genus are the common snipe,
S. gallinago, Linn., which also occurs in the temperate
parts of Asia; and the jack-snipe, S. gallinula, a winter
visitant, which breeds, though sparingly, in the north of
Scotland. Besides these, we have as occasional visitants,—
the great or solitary snipe, S. major, Gmel., which haunts
the vast marshes of the north of Europe,—and a species
of which only one or two examples have been as yet dis-
covered (it was first shot in Queen’s county, Ireland, we
believe in 1822), named S. Sabini, by Mr Vigors.? Al-
though some of these birds have an extended geographical
distribution, the great similarity of several species, both in
size and plumage, has caused misapprehension. ‘There is
now no doubt that the species of Europe and America are
quite distinct. The lesser woodcock, S. minor, is a beauti-
ful bird, well known in the United States. The brown
snipe of Pennant (S. grisea, Gmel.) forms the genus Ma-
CRORAMPHUS, Leach. Its toes are webbed at the base.

The genus Ruyncua, Cuv., has the bill very similar to
that of the snipes and woodcocks, but it is slightly arched
towards the tip, and wants the furrow on that part. The
toes have no palmation. The species are more richly co-
loured than their congeners, and, in consequence of their
occasional variation, have been as yet but indifferently dis-
tinguished. TheCape species so called (&. eapensis,—Scol.
capensis, Gm., Plate CCCC. fig. 4), occurs in Java and
the East Indies; while &. variegata, by some regarded as
its young, has been received both from China and the south
of Atrica. A very distinct species, however (B. hilarea),
described by M. Valenciennes, has been discovered in South
America.?

In the genus Lrmosa of Bechstein, the bill is still longer
than among the woodcocks, straight, or even slightly turned
upwards, and pervaded by lengthened grooves, although
the terminal single groove is wanting. The tip is blunt
and depressed. ‘There is a palmation at the base of the
outer toes. The general form of the species is more slen-
der, and the legs longer, than in the immediately preceding
groups. They haunt more habitually saline marshes and
the sea shore. :

We here place the birds called godwits, of which we have
two British species,—the black-tailed godwit, Z. melanura,
Leisler and Temm. (Scol. egocephala, Linn.), and the red
godwit, Z. rufa, Briss. (Scol. Lapponica, Linn.). Of both
of these birds the synonyms, till lately, were greatly con-
fused, owing to the double moult to which they are sub-

! British Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 110.
2 Linn. Trans. vol. xiv. p. 556.

623

ject, and which, producing a remarkable change in the nup- Gralla-

tial plumage from that of autumn and winter, led to a cor-
responding multiplication of names,—each kind being de-
scribed as two species, according to the season in which it
was observed. Although the bill in the godwits possesses
much of the general form of that of the woodcocks, it wants
the extraordinary plexus of nerves, and therefore does not
become rugose by exsiccation after death, but continues
smooth and polished. It is also more solid, less flexible, and
thicker towards the base. These birds inhabit marshes, and
the banks and mouths of rivers, where the mud is soft and
deep, and there they probe with their long extended bills
in search of worms and insects. When thus engaged, they
are frequently seen with their heads entirely under water ;
and we accordingly find them provided with that peculiar
gland above the eye, of which the function appears to be
to lubricate and defend that delicate and important organ
from the irritating effect of saline waters. The females
considerably exceed the males in size. Several fine god-
wits, distinct from those of Europe, occur in North America ;
and a semi-palmated species, with a strongly recurved
bill (Scol. terek, Lath.), is found both in India and Van
Diemen’s Land, and seems in some of its characters to lead
towards the avocets. F

In the genus Trinca of Temm., Selby, &c. (Calidris
and Pelidna, Cuv.), the bill equals or is longer than the
head, is straight or slightly arched, compressed at the
base, the tip blunt, smooth, and dilated, semi-flexible, and
furrowed throughout its length. The legs are of medium
length, very slim, the feet four-toed, divided to the base,
slightly margined, with the hind toe scarcely reaching to
the ground.

The elegant and interesting species which compose this
rather numerous genus are commonly known by the name
of sea-larks or sandpipers, a term likewise bestowed upon
the Totani. Many of them breed by the margins of lakes
and rivers in the interior, although the majority congregate
in autumn in numerous flocks along the sea coast. They
moult twice a year, and their spring and summer plumage
is generally very different from that of autumn and winter.
This has occasioned great confusion in the history of seve-
ral species. The sexes present no great disparity in point
of plumage, but the females are of larger size. We coin-
cide in Mr Selby’s opinion, that the new genera Calidris
and Pelidna, which Baron Cuvier has proposed in place of
Tringa, are not so distinct or well defined as to warrant their
adoption, being in fact only such slight modifications of form
as might naturally be expected in birds placed at the ex-
tremes of the group to which they belong, and of which the
intimate connection is shown by the intervention of species
of intermediate form, leading gradually, almost impercep-
tibly, from one to the other. Besides, if these two generic
groups are adopted, it would appear that Z7ringa would
cease to exist as a recognised title, which is surely not in
accordance with established rule. The species of our
present genus are very widely distributed, and several are
identical in Europe and America.

The dunlin or purre, 7. variabilis, Temm. (7. alpina and
cinclus, Linn.), is a strictly indigenous bird in Scotland,
where it breeds both near the margins of our inland waters
and along the sea-shore,—residing with us throughout the
year. In America it penetrates during the summer season
to the utmost habitable verge of the arctic circle, breeding
on the desolate shores of Melville Peninsula. It likewise
inhabits Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia, and probably
most of the coasts of Europe. We know that at least during
winter it frequents the Italian shores. In the southern
hemisphere it sometimes wanders as far as the Cape of

3 Ferrussac’s Bulletin des Sciences, 2d cah.
* Selby’s British Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 94.

tores.

624

Gralla- —

tores.

——

ORNITHOLOGY.

Good Hope, and has been met with both in the West Indies
and South America. When flying in great autumnal flocks,
its aérial movements are extremely beautiful, each indivi-
dual of the vast assemblage yielding so instantaneously to
the same impulsion as to exhibit alternately the upper and
the under surface of the body, so that we have for a time
a living moving cloud of dusky brown, and then a brilliant
flash of snowy whiteness.

The larger species, called the knot ( 7. canutus, Linn.),
has also a vast range in a northerly direction. It passes
the summer within the arctic circle, breeding in Melville
Peninsula, and in Hudson’s Bay, as far south as the fifty-
fifth parallel. It lays four eggs of a dun colour, spotted
with red, upon a tuft of withered grass. The knot win-
ters in Britain, but many proceed much farther south, as
we know they occur towards the end of autumn in the
Venetian territory. The great mass of the North Ame-
rican knots pass over the United States, and spend the
winter within the tropics. The other British species
are T. rufescens, Temminckii, minuta, maritima, and sub-
arquata.

The genus ARENARIA, Bechstein, closely resembles the
sandpipers of the genus Tringa, but is distinguished by
the entire absence of the hind-toe. The only known spe-
cies is the sanderling (A. calidris), one of our winter birds
of passage, which breeds in the remotest northern re-
gions, forming a rude grassy nest among the desolate
marshes, and laying four dusky coloured eggs, spotted
with black.

The genus FALCINELLUus, Cuv. (composed of Scol. pyg-
mea, Linn.), has the bill considerably arched, and the hind
toe wanting. The only known species is an African bird,
which occasionally makes its appearance in Europe. M.
Temminck seems to think it should be regarded rather
as a synonym than a distinct actual species.

The genus MacuerEs, Cuv., bears a great resemblance
to Tringa, except that there is an obvious palmation at
the base of the toes. It contains only one species, com-
monly called the ruff (Z. pugnazx, Linn.), well known in
the Lincolnshire fenns and the London markets (see Plate
CCCC. fig. 5). It is a summer bird of passage, arriving in
the fenny districts of England in the month of April, and
departing towards the end of September. The ruff, as its
specific name implies, is a remarkably pugnacious species,
a disposition which probably arises from its polygamous ha-
bits, in which it differs from its congeners. Some people
say there are more males than females. Be this as it may,
as soon as these birds arrive, each male fixes upon a small
hillock or dry grassy spot among the marshes, where he
keeps turning about till he has almost trodden it bare ; but
the moment a female makes her appearance, a general com-
bat commences, the male birds lowering their heads, ex-
panding their neck-feathers, and flying at each other with
the action of fighting cocks. These battles are obstinate
and long continued, and whoever proves the victor for the
time obtains the female. They disperse at night for the
sake of feeding, but every morning soon after daybreak
each male returns to his hillock, where the same scenes
of rivalry and love take place, and continue till their pas-
sionate fervour is abated, towards the end of June. The
plumage of the ruff presents an almost infinite variety,
scarcely two individuals being ever found precisely the
same. The lengthened feathers of the head and neck
are produced in spring, and shed towards the close of
summer ; and during autumn and winter the plumage be-
comes so different from that of the breeding season, that
the birds would not be recognised’ as the same by any one
previously ignorant of such mutation. Their flesh is high-

ly esteemed as a delicate and nutritious food. Though Gralla-

these birds extend northwards as far as Iceland, and the

tores.

colder parts of Russia, they never visit Scotland, the —~—~

marsh of Prestwick Car, near Newcastle, appearing to
be their British boundary. They occur, though rarely,
in North America. Though their natural food is worms
and water insects, they fatten soon in confinement on
boiled wheat, or bread and milk mixed with bruised hemp-
seed.

The genus Heteroropa of Nuttall has the bill straight,
rather enlarged and punctate at the extremity, the tarsus
of moderate length, the three anterior toes connected at
the base by amembrane. Example, Tringa semipalmata,
Wilson. In the genus Hemrpatma, Bonaparte, the bill
is much larger than the head, partly arched, dilated, and
studded at the tip with minute tubercles. The tarsus is
very long, and the toes are usually connected by a mem-
brane as far as the first articulation. The species are call-
ed stilt sandpipers, of which H. iimantopus was discover-
ed by C. L. Bonaparte and Mr Cooper. Both these genera
are American.

In the singular genus EurtnoruyNncHus, Wilson, the
bill is short, thin, depressed, spoon-shaped, the tarsi short,
slender, reticulated. The only known species is a very
rare and remarkable bird, #. griseus, native, it is suppos-
ed, both to Europe and America! It was formerly class-
ed with the spoon-bills (Platalea pygmea, Linn.), though
scarcely larger than a sparrow. ‘There is a specimen in
the French Museum, which was accidentally killed near
Paris. The plumage is gray above, white beneath.

In the genus Puaxarorus of Brisson, the bill, though
more flattened, resembles that of Zringa, but the toes
are margined by a broadish membrane. In their habits the
species are more aquatic than most of their congeners; for
though they cannot dive, they float buoyantly on the sur-
face, or even make their way by swimming with almost
the ease of the regularly web-footed birds. The gray
phalarope or scallop-toed sandpiper (Phal. lobatus, Flem.)
is found occasionally in Britain during winter. It breeds
habitually within the arctic circle, in Hudson’s Bay,
among the North Georgian Islands, and along the sterile
shores of Melville Peninsula. According to Mr Bullock,
it is not uncommon in the marshes of Sunda and Westra,
the most northerly of the Orkney Isles. When seen
swimming in pools, it is continually dipping its bill into
the water, as if feeding on some minute aquatic creature.
The plumage varies greatly with the season, and a variety
of names have been bestowed in consequence of these mu-
tations. The red phalarope ( Zringa fulicaria, Linn.) re-
presents the summer plumage. It was seen by our north-
ern navigators on the 10th of June, in latitude 68°, swim-
ming at its ease though several miles from land, but sur-
rounded by mountains of ice.

In the genus Srrepsivas, Illiger, the legs are rather
low, the bill short, and the toes without palmation as in
Tringa, but the bill is conical and pointed, with the nasal
fissure extending only one half its length. The hind toe
nearly touches the ground. The only known species,
St. interpres (of which Sé. morinellus is the young) is a
winter bird of passage on the mainland of Britain, though
it breeds and remains throughout the year among the
Shetland Isles. The turnstone, as it is vernacularly called,
is one of the most generally distributed of birds, being
found at some season or other in almost every region of
the globe. The English name is derived from its habit of
turning over little stones along the shore in search of food,
which it is enabled to do by its bill being proportionally
stronger and stiffer than that of its congeners.

I Acad, Suec. 1816, pl. vi.

Gralla.
tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

In the genus Toranus, Cuv., the bill is slender, round,
pointed, firm, the upper mandible slightly arched, with the
nasal groove not extending above half its length. The
form is light and active, the legs rather long, the toes
webbed at the base, more especially between the outer
and middle toe. In birds of this genus, as Mr Selby has
observed, the comparatively hard and sharp-pointed bill
indicates a corresponding change in habits and economy ;
so that instead of seeking their food by probing in the
sand or softer mud, they search for it along the pebbly
banks of lakes and rivers, or the ocean’s gravelly shore.
Some reside habitually in inland districts, while others
prefer the sea-coast, or migrate thither during the autum-
nal season. The British species are the dusky sandpiper,
T. fuscus, Leisler ; the redshank, 7. calidris, Bechst. ; the
green sandpiper, 7. ochropus, Temm. ; the wood sandpiper,
‘T. glareola, Temm.; the common sandpiper, 7. hypoleucos,
‘Temm. ; and the greenshank, 7. glottis, Bechst. Besides
which, the spotted sandpiper, 7. macularia (a very com-
mon species in North America), &c. are of occasional oc-
currence. Regarding the last-named species, Mr Bartram
informed Alexander Wilson, that he saw one of these birds
defend her young for a considerable time from the repeat-
ed attacks of a ground squirrel. The scene of action was
on the river shore. The parent had thrown herself, with
her two young behind her, between them and the land ;
and at every attempt of the squirrel to seize them by a
circuitous sweep, she raised both her wings in an almost
perpendicular position, assuming the most alarming aspect
possible, and rushing forwards on the squirrel, which for a
time drew back intimidated ; but soon returning, was met
as before by the affectionate but infuriated bird, her wings
and whole plumage bristling up to twice their natural size.
This interesting, but, for one of the parties, fearful play,
continued for about ten minutes, when the strength of the
bird began to flag, and the attacks of the quadruped be-
came more audacious, on which Mr Bartram interfered,
“ike one of those celestial agents,” says Wilson, “ who in
Homer's time so often decided the palm of victory”! The
green-shank (7. glotéis), though usually regarded as mere-
ly.a passenger in spring and autumn, is now known to breed
in Scotland. It inhabits the northern parts of both conti-
nents, but is rarer in the new world than the old. Mr Au-
dubon traced it as far south as the Tortugas, near the’ex-
tremity of East Florida, and Latham received it from Ja-
maica. It also occurs in Bengal. Our common red-shank
(Tf. calidris) is found occasionally in North America. A
large species well known in the western world by the name
of willet, and characterized by all the anterior toes being
conspicuously webbed at the base, forms M. Bonaparte’s
genus CarorprRorHorus. This bird not only wades, but
swims. It is the semi-palmated snipe (Scol. semi-palma-
tas) of the older systems.

The genus Loztrgs of Cuvier combines the bill of the
preceding genus ( Yotanus) with the lobated toes of Pha-
laropus. We may mention as an example the red-necked
phalarope,—Tringa hyperborea, Linn. (Lob. hyperborea,
Cuv.), a species not uncommon among our northern islands,
where it swims with great ease,—resembling when in the
water a beautiful miniature representation of a duck. Itlike-
wise breeds all along the forlorn shores of arctic America,
resorting to Hudson’s Bay in autumn. Another species
(Z. Wilsonii) seems confined to the new world, where it
breeds on the banks of the Saskatchewan, and occurs at
least as far south as Mexico. It does not advance to so
high a northern latitude as the hyperborean species, being
as yet unknown beyond the fifty-fifth parallel. It forms
an artless nest within the shelter of some grassy tuft, lay-
ing two or three pear-shaped eggs, of a tint between yel-
lowish gray and cream colour, interspersed with small
roundish spots, and a few larger blotches of umber-brown

VOL. XVI.

625

towards the obtuser end. It can only be regarded as a Gralla-

straggler in the United States. This bird forms the sub-

tores.

genus Hotopopius of Bonaparte, the basal web between ~~

the inner and middle toe being less than in the preceding
species. The synonyms of both are still somewhat con-
fused.

The genus HimanrTorus, Brisson, has the bill round,
slender, pointed, the nasal furrow extending only half its
length. But the principal and most peculiar character
consists in the enormous length of the leg and tarsus, from
which the species have derived the title of stilts, or long-
legged plovers. The toes are united by a basal web, larger
on the outer than the inner portion of the foot. These birds
have a greater predilection for the borders of the sea, and
for brackish lakes, than for the banks of rivers or pure
fresh-water lakes. Their movements are rapid on the
wing, but their gait is somewhat staggering, from the dis-
proportionate length of their legs. The kind which occurs
in Europe (Him. melanopterus, Meyer), called the black-
winged stilt, has been known to breed in France, and ac-
cidentally visits England, but its chief resorts are the great
salt marshes of Hungary and Russia. It is often seen in
Italy in little flocks in spring, travelling northwards. It
likewise occurs in Asia, Africa, and America ; but the spe-
cies of the new world, described by Wilson, is the Him. ni-
gricollis of Vieillot. We shall here quote his account of its
manners and mode of nidification, as the history of the Eu-
ropean stilt, in these particulars, is scarcely known. “This
species arrives on the sea-coast of New Jersey about the
25th of April, in small detached flocks of twenty or thirty
together. These sometimes again subdivide into lesser
parties ; but it rarely happens that a pair is found soli-
tary, as during the breeding season they usually associate
in small companies. On their first arrival, and indeed dur-
ing the whole of their residence, they inhabit those parti-
cular parts of the salt marshes pretty high up towards the
land, that are broken into numerous shallow pools, but are
not usually overflowed by the tides during the summer.
These pools or ponds are generally so shallow that with
their long legs the avocets can easily wade them in every
direction ; and as they abound in minute shell-fish, and
multitudes of aquatic insects and their larvee, besides the
eggs and spawn of others deposited in the soft mud below,
these birds find here an abundant supply of food, and are
almost continually seen wading about in such places, often
up to the breast in water.

“In the vicinity of these bald places, as they are called,
fifty yards off, among the thick tufts of grass, one of these
small associations, consisting perhaps of six or eight pair,
takes up its residence during the breeding season. About
the first week in May they begin to construct their nests,
which are at first slightly formed of a small quantity of old
grass, scarcely sufficient to keep the eggs from the wet
marsh. As they lay and sit, however, either dreading the
rise of the tides, or from some other purpose, the nest is
increased in height with dry twigs of a shrub very com-
mon in the marshes, roots of the salt grass, sea-weed, and
various other substances, the whole weighing between two
and three pounds. This habit of adding materials to the
nest after the female begins sitting, is common to almost
all other birds that breed in the marshes. The eggs are
four in number, of a dark yellowish clay colour, thickly
marked with large blotches of black. These nests are
often placed within fifteen or twenty yards of each other ;
but the greatest harmony seems to prevail among the pro-
ptietors. While the females are sitting, the males are
either wading through the ponds or roaming over the ad-
joining marshes; but should a person make his appear-
ance, the whole collect together in the air, flying with
their long legs extended behind them, keeping up a cen-
tinual yelping note of click, click, click. Their flight is
; Ak

ORNITHOLOGY.

Americana, Linn., Plate CCCC. fig. 6) has the head and Gralla-
neck pale rufous, and the bill takes a downward curve to- __tores.
wards the extremity. Though abundant on the banks of ~>—7

626

Gralla- steady, and not in short, sudden jerks, like that of the
tores. plover. As they frequently alight on the bare marsh, they
drop their wings, stand with their legs half bent, and

trembling, as if unable to sustain the burden of their bo-
dies. In this ridiculous posture they will sometimes stand
for several minutes, uttering a curring sound, while, from
the corresponding quiverings of their wings and long legs,
they seem to balance themselves with great difficulty.
“This singular manceuvreis, no doubt, intended to induce
a. belief that they may be easily caught, and so turn the
attention of the person from the pursuit of their nests and
young to themselves. The red-necked avocet practises the
very same deception, in the same ludicrous manner, and

both alight indiscriminately on the ground or in the water.”

Both will occasionally swim for a few feet, when they
chance in wading to lose their depth, as I have had seve-
ral times an opportunity of observing.”

The singular birds called avocets form the genus RE-
CURVIROSTRA, Linn. Their feet are almost as fully pal-
mated as those of certain Natatores, yet they are gene-
rally classed among the Grallatores, by reason of their
lengthened tarsi, and legs bare above the knee. The bill
also has the same lengthened, slender, pointed form, and
smooth elastic structure, which characterize our present
order, with which the birds in question agree in their ge-
neral mode of life. The character which distinguishes
them from all other birds is the extraordinary upward cur-
vature of the bill (see Plate CCCC. fig. 6). The avocets
live either in pairs or small companies in the midst of
marshes, where they wade about with great ease, and toa
considerable depth, in consequence of their bodies being
raised so high above the surface. Though web-footed,
they do not swim except by compulsion; yet one which
Wilson wounded attempted repeatedly to dive, but the
water was too’shallow for his purpose. They run rapidly,
and their flight is powerful and long sustained. Their
nests are described as small cavities in the earth, lined
with a few weeds, or merely the bosom of the bare sand ;
sometimes, however, they are raised several inches above
the surface, as if to avoid the effects of moisture or inun-
dation. The European species (£. avocetta, Linn.) is not
uncommon along the eastern coasts of England south of
the Humber. It breeds in the fenny parts of Lincolnshire
and Norfolk, as well as in Romney Marsh in Kent. ‘They
assemble during winter in small flocks, frequenting the
oozy shores about the mouths of rivers, where they scoop
out small worms and mollusca. Buffon indulges in one of
his characteristic vagaries while discussing the singular
bill of this bird, which he supposes to be “ one of those
errors or essays of nature, which, 7 carried a little further,
would destroy itself; for if the curvature of the bill were
a degree increased, the bird could not procure any sort of
food, and the organ destined for the support of life would
infallibly occasion its destruction.” This essay of nature
is, however, as it happens, a most successful one; for by
means of its lengthened legs and upturned bill, the avo-
cet feeds with facility in muddy marshes, where if other-
wise organized it would probably starve. Jf a devoted
servant of God, while tonsorially engaged on some beau-
tiful Sabbath morning, were to move the edge of his glit-
tering blade an inch nearer his carotid artery, he would
die, leaving behind him, in all probability, a disconsolate
widow, and a large family of small children; but as he
takes especial care to move his useful weapon in another
direction, the artery remains intact, and the crime of sui-
cide unaccomplished. We doubt not that the curvature
of the bill in question could not have been better project-
ed even by Buffon himself, although he was addicted in
his youth to mathematics. The American avocet (R.

1 American Ornithology, vol. iii. p. 76.

the Saskatchewan, as far as the fifty-third parallel, it does
not seem to proceed into the more northern regions. Be-
sides these species, there are the FR. alba of Latham (R.
orientalis, Cuv.), from India; and the R. rubricollis, Temm.,
a native of New Holland. Our indigenous species also oc-
curs both in Asia and Africa.

FAMILY V.—MACRODACTYLES.

The prevailing character of this group consists in the
extremely long narrow form of the toes, which are with-
out any connecting web. Nevertheless the species run
with great ease in moist places, and some of them swim
very swiftly. The bill, more or less compressed laterally,
varies in length in different genera, but is never so deli-
cately slender as among the preceding family. The body
in these birds is much compressed, a form determined in
a great measure by the narrow nature of the sternum.
The wings are of medium length, or short ; and the power
of flight, though necessarily efficient in suchas are birds of
passage, is on the whole restricted, or but sparingly exer-
cised. The posterior toe is of considerable length.

The first genus, called Parra by Linnzus, contains
the jacanas, by some named spur-winged water-hens. The
bill israther longer than the head, nearly straight, laterally
compressed, and somewhat enlarged both above and below
towards the extremity. There is usually a small fleshy shield
upon the base of the forehead. The toes are of great length,
very narrow, unwebbed, and the claws, especially the hin-
der one, very long and sharp (see Plate CCCC. fig. 7). The
anterior angle of the wing is armed with a spur. The jaca-
nas occur in the warmer countries of the world—in Ben-
gal, Java, the Celebes, China, South America, and parts of
Africa. They inhabit marshy places, and run with great
facility over the surface of aquatic plants, their long, ex-
tended toes spreading over so much space as to prevent
their sinking in the water. They feed on insects, build
their nests among the moist herbage, and lay four or five
greenish eggs spotted with brown. Their flight, though
low, is rapid. They are shy and silent birds, except at
night, when their voices are often heard among the marshes.
The Chinese jacana of Latham (Parra sinensis, Gmelin)
is found both along the marine shores and the moist plains
of the interior. This species, as Mr Gould observes, is
distinguished not more by grace and beauty of form, than
by its admirable adaptation to the particular localities to
which nature has allotted it. Formed for traversing the
wide morass, or lotus-covered surface of water, it supports
itself upon the floating weeds and leaves by its extraordi-
nary extent of toes and unusual lightness of body. Like
our common water-hen, of whose habits and manners it
partakes largely, it is no doubt capable of swimming, al-
though the long and pendent tail-feathers seem an incon-
venient appendage for such a purpose. Its powers of flight
appear deficient, the quill-feathers being terminated by a
slender process proceeding from the tip of each shaft.
This singular bird has been long known as a native of the
low lands of India and other eastern countries, but was
not till lately ascertained to occur in the Himalaya, where
it inhabits lakes and swamps among the hills. Another
eastern species (P. gallinacea, Temm. Pil. Col. 464) is
provided with a crest, but wants the spurs upon the wings.

In the genus PaLAMEDEA, Linn., the bill is rather short,
conical, compressed, convex, and curved at the extremity.
There is a bare space around the eyes, the wings are am-

2 Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains.

tores.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gralla- ple, furnished with strong spurs. The tarsi are short and

thick, the toes and claws long. Some systematic writers

—\— include in this genus only a single species, P. cornuta,

Linn., called kamichi or the horned screamer, a South
American bird, larger than a goose, with a slender move-
able horny projection on the forehead. ‘Though this bird
affects inundated places, its toes are without palmation.
In its general aspect, and several of its special habits, it
exhibits an approach to the gallinaceous order; and al-
though its stomach is but slightly muscular, it lives much
on grain and herbage.’ It is also easily reduced to the
domestic state; and although it lays only two eggs, the
young speedily follow the parents. ;

It is by no means easy to conjecture the natural uses .

of these formidable weapons on the wings of this and se-
veral other species. One would suppose them intended
to wage war among their kind,—yet the birds so endowed
are for the most part peaceable, and averse to broil and
battle,—even in most instances of a timid and fearful na-
ture ; and in the case of several of the plover tribe, there
is no appreciable difference in the habits of the armed and
unarmed kinds. All who have studied the manners of the
kamichis agree that they are the gentle inhabitants of
moist savannahs, or the shores of those extensive rivers
which intersect the southern portion of America, and that
there is nothing pugnacious in their temper. Yet they
are “ doubly armed,” the margin of each wing bearing a
pair of very large spurs, thick at the base, but tapering
sharply to a point, and, no doubt, when driven forcibly for-
ward by the muscular action of a powerful wing, capable
of inflicting such a blow as would at once deprive most
small animals of life.

Another bird, by some referred to our present genus,
is Pal. chavaria, Temm. (Pl. Col. 219), the Parra chava-
ria of Linn., known in some English works as the faithful
jacana. Instead of a horn, its head is ornamented by a
feathered crest, and there is an obvious palmation between
the outer and middle toes. , For these and other reasons

- it forms the genus Cuauna of Illiger. Its head and upper
neck are clothed with down, the latter being surrounded
by a black collar. The rest of the plumage is lead colour
and blackish, with a white spot upon the front of the wings,
and another on the base of the primaries. Linnzus, on
the authority of Jacquin, gives the following history of this
bird :—“ It inhabits the rivers, lakes, and marshes, near the
river Sinu, about thirty leagues from Carthagena, in South
America. It feeds on vegetables; its gait is solemn and
slow, but it flies easily and swiftly ; it cannot run unless
assisted by the wings at the same time. When any part
of the skin is touched by the hand, a crackling is felt,
though it is very downy beneath the feathers; and this
down adheres so closely as to enable the bird at times to
swim, notwithstanding the length of its legs and of its
cleft feet ; which latter enable it also to walk on the aqua-
tic plants of the pools. It has two strong and pointed
spurs on the bend of the wing, which are, however, hid-
den when the latter is closed, but when expanded they
become formidable weapons, aided by the strong and
lengthened wing ; and by means of them it is able to drive
off birds as big as the carrion vulture, and even that bird
itself. The natives, who keep poultry in great numbers,
have one of these tame, which goes along with the flock
about the neighbourhood to feed during the day, when
this faithful shepherd defends them against birds of prey:
it never deserts the charge committed to its care, although
able to fly, but returns home with them safe in the even-
ing. It is so tame as to suffer itself to be handled by a
grown person, but will not permit children to attempt the
same. Its voice is clear and loud, but far from agreeable.”

627

Baron Cuvier here places the genus Mzcaropius, Quoy Gralla-

et Gaim., of which the bill is slender, straight, flattened,
and enlarged at the base, restricted at the centre, and in-
flated towards the point. The tail is small and wedge-
shaped. The general form is massive, the plumage usual-
ly brown, without lustre. The species inhabit New Gui-
nea, the Marianne Islands, &c. and are described in the
voyages of Freycinet and Duperrey. They are remark-
able for the largeness of their eggs. Some authors place
them with the genera Crax and Penelope, rather than in
the grallatorial order.

The extensive genus Rauus, Linn., is in one or other
of its forms known in almost every country of the world.
With Bechstein, we would restrict the title to such as have
the bill longer than the head, rather slender, compressed
at the base, with the tip cylindrical, and slightly curved.
As a British example may be mentioned our common
water-rail (A. aquaticus), a shy and solitary bird, which
resides throughout the year in Britain. It is extensively
spread over Europe, but does not occur in America. The
land-rails form the genus Crex, Bechstein, and have the
bill shorter than the head, thick at the base, somewhat
cultrate, and compressed. The wings are armed with a
small concealed spine. Besides the well-known corn-crake
(C. pratensis), a summer bird of passage, of which the de-
ceptive note is heard so often during evening twilight, we
have the spotted crake, C. porzana, Baillon’s crake, C.
Baillonii (Olivaceous gallinule of Mont.?), and the little
crake, C. pusilla. The Carolina rail seems a Crex in the
form of its bill, though its aquatic habits assimilate it to
Rallus. It assembles during autumn in vast numbers on
the reedy shores of the larger rivers in the middle and
southern states of North America, and affords abundant
occupation to sportsmen. Any active and expert marks-
man may kill ten or twelve dozen in a few hours. It win-
ters to the south of the Union. The diet of the different
species probably varies with time and place. The Ame-
rican bird just named is very fond of rice. Our own spe-
cies feed both on grain and insects. Sir W. Jardine found
a short-tailed field-mouse in the stomach of a land-rail.
This bird is called king of the quails in some continental
countries, in consequence of its arriving and departing
with these birds.

The old genus Furica, Linn., has, like the preceding,
been also subdivided, in accordance with the form of the
bill and lobation of the toes. For example, the genus
Gacuinuta of Briss. and Lath. has the bill resembling
that of Crex, but there is a flat fleshy shield upon the fore-
head. The toes are long, and bordered by an extremely
narrow lateral margin. We here place our British galli-
nule, familiarly known by the name of water-hen, G. chlo-
ropus, Lath. This bird, though with us a permanent re-
sidenter, is migratory in all the more northern parts of
Europe. It occurs both in Asia and Africa, but not in
America, as some erroneously suppose. It swims and
dives well, though its feet might, a priori, be deemed but
little fit for such aquatic service. The water-hen is of
rather familiar habits, that is, a pair are sure to make
their appearance as soon as any small artificial piece of
water has been formed, even in the closest proximity to
human dwellings. It builds by the water-side, and lays a
great number of eggs, from eight to ten, which it is said
to cover carefully during its occasional absence in search
of food. The purple and Florida gallinules (G. Martinica
and galeata) occur in North America; and a Javanese spe-
cies (G. ardosiaca) is described by M. Vieillot.

In the genus Porruyrio of Brisson, the bill is higher
in relation to its length than in the preceding. The
toes are extremely long, with scarcely a perceptible bor-

? Bajon, Mém. sur Cayenne, t. ii. p. 284.

2 Shaw’s General Zoology, vol. xii. p. 272.

tores.

628

Gralla-
tores.

YS —

ORNITHOLOGY.

der; and the frontal disk, sometimes rounded, sometimes
square above, is of considerable size. The species are
remarkable for richness of colouring. P. hyacinthinus,
Temm. (Fulica porphyrio, Linn.), is an African species,
not unfrequent in Sicily and Sardinia.

The genus Furica, as now restricted, is chiefly distin-
guished from its congeners by a scallop-shaped or broadly-
festooned membrane on each side of the toes. It con-
tains the coots, of which F’. atra, Linn., our common coot,
affords a good example. This bird, as generally distri-
buted in Britain throughout the summer season as the
water-hen, leaves the northern portions of the island on
the approach of winter. It dislikes being approached in
open water, though a good diver, and quickly betakes it-
self to some protecting cover of reeds or other water-plants
on every slight alarm. The cinereous coot of the western
world (£. Americana, Gmel.) is a distinct species, though
not so regarded by Alexander Wilson. It is widely spread
over a vast extent of territory, from the steaming marshes
of Jamaica to the cool and grassy lakes which skirt the
plains of the Saskatchewan.

Baron Cuvier terminates his systematic exposition of
the grallatorial order by three genera of a somewhat ano-
malous nature, which certainly do not amalgamate either
with their neighbours or each other.

The genus Cuionts of Forster has the bill short, strong,
compressed, the nostrils tubular, and protected by hard,
elevated, and compressed folds, which envelope the base.
(Plate CCCC. fig. 8.) The front of the head and part of the
face are naked, the wings long, the feet short. There is
only a single species known. It is called the sheath-bill,
Ch. Forsteri, or necrophaga, or vaginalis, and is of snowy
whiteness, and of the size of a pigeon. A great diversity
of opinion exists regarding its position; some writers re-
moving it into the ensuing order, while Mr Swainson places
it among the Columbide. It inhabits New Zealand, Ker-
guelen’s Land, Staten Land, and other countries of the
southern hemisphere, where it is said to frequent the sea-
shore in flocks, feeding on mollusca and carrion, which lat-
ter renders its flesh offensive to the taste. It was dis-
covered during Cook’s circumnavigation.

The genus GuarEoLA, Gmel., contains the pratincoles,
or sea-partridges as they are sometimes called. The bill
is short, compressed, somewhat arched throughout, and
rather deeply cleft. The wings are of great length, and
very sharp pointed, somewhat resembling those of swal-
lows. The legs are of medium length, and there is a
slight palmation between the outer and middle toes. The
tail is usually forked. These birds fly in numerous noisy
flocks, and feed on insects, “ particuliérement des mouches
et autres insectes ailés qui vivent parmi les joncs et les
roseaux; il se lance” (M. Temminck alludes particularly
to the European species) “sur ces insectes avec une rapi-
dité étonnante, et les saisit au vol ou 4 la course.”! The
pratincoles inhabit the temperate and warmer regions of
the old world, and are unknown in America. The col-
lared or Austrian species (G. torquata, Meyer) is com-
mon in the south-eastern countries of Europe, and has
been killed occasionally in Britain? G. lactea, Temm.,
inhabits Bengal ;3 G. grallaria of the same author is na-
tive to New Holland.

Lastly, the genus Paa@nicorrerus, Linn., contains

1 Manuel, ii. p. 502.

2 Bullock, in Linn. Trans. xi. 177.

3 See Planches Col. 399 ;—also Leach in Linn. Trans. xiii. pl. 12.
4 Annal. des Sciences Nat. xvii, 454.

those extraordinary birds called flamingoes. The bill is Palmi-
higher than wide, dentated, conical towards the point, the _ Pedes-

upper mandible suddenly bent from its centre downwards
upon the under one, which is the broadest. The neck and
legs are of extraordinary length, and the anterior toes are
united by a broad palmation. Mr Swainson regards this
genus as the grallatorial type of the Anatide, and he con-
sequently places it in the natatorial order, which we are
just about to enter. The only species known in Europe is
Ph. ruber, Linn., a bird well known in Sicily and Caiabria,
and very abundant in Sardinia, especially among the la-
gunes and marshes in the neighbourhood of Cagliari.
Large flocks occur almost every year along the southern
coasts of France, and a few sometimes stray as far north-
wards as the banks of the Rhine. It is common in many
countries of Africa and Asia; but the American species,
regarded as synonymous by Wilson, is a distinct kind, men-
tioned long ago as such by Molina. (See Plate CCCC. fig.
9.) It is the Ph. Americanus of Mr Nuttall, and the bird
alluded to by Thomas Campbell in his Gertrude of Wyo-
ming :—
Then, where of Indian hills the daylight takes

His leave, how might you the flamingo see
Disporting like a meteor on the lakes.

Another western kind occurs in South America (Ph.
ignipalliatus, Isid. Geoff.),* while a fourth (Ph, minor)
is native to the Cape and Senegal.’ These birds in ge-
neral inhabit solitary sea-coasts in most of the warmer
regions of the earth, where they associate in flocks, and
migrate in bodies formed into an angular phalanx, like
wild geese. They feed upon mollusca, insects, and spawn,
which they fish up by means of their lengthened necks,
sometimes turning their bill upside down, to take advan-
tage of its peculiar, and apparently inconvenient form.
They are said to be extremely shy and watchful (although
Dampier and his*two companions succeeded in killing
fourteen at once®), and place sentinels, which on the ap-
proach of threatened danger, give alarm bya loud and
trumpet-like cry. They also breed together in inundated
marshes, raising their nests to a considerable height, by
collecting the mud into a pyramidal hillock with their
toes, after which they brood and hatch their eggs in what
may be called a standing posture, their feet and legs be-
ing often in the water. The young are only two or three
in number, and run almost as soon as excluded from the
shell. They sleep standing upon one leg, with the neck
folded back upon the body, and the head reclined beneath
the wing. They run swiftly, but never swim from choice.”
The tongue of the European flamingo was much admired
by ancient epicures; and Apicius, that “ deepest abyss
of wastefulness,” as Pliny calls him, is supposed to have
been the first to discover its exquisite flavour?

Orver VI.—PALMIPEDES, or WEB-FOOTED
BIRDS?

The birds of this orderare especially characterized by their
peculiar adaptation for swimming, their feet being gene-
rally short and placed far behind, their tarsi short and com-
pressed, and their anterior toes connected by membranes,

5 Temminck, Pl. Col. 419.
§ Voyage, i. 70.
7 Nuttall’s Manual, ii. 70.

® On concluding this portion of our present treatise, domestic circumstances, with which it does not concern the reader to be-

come acquainted, but which the author could not control, rendered impossible the continuance of his own labour.

The sketch of

the ensuing (natatorial) order was therefore kindly undertaken by Mr Mazcgillivray, whose well-known acquirements in Ornitho-

logy will render the substitution advantageous to the public.

9 Natatonres, Illiger. .

ORNITHOLOGY. 629

is rapid, and their motions on the water extremely quick. Palmi-

Palmi- or inlayed by lateral lobes. Their plumage is close, often , 1
They dive and pursue their way under water with extreme Pees.

pedes- glossy, and imbued with an oily fluid, which repels the

water ; and their skin is moreover covered with a dense
layer of down, which prevents the rapid escape of the heat
generated in their bodies. They are the only birds whose
neck exceeds their legs in length, the reason of which ar-
rangement is, that while swimming on the surface of the
water they have often tosearch for their food at some depth.
Their sternum is elongated so as to cover the greater part
of the viscera, and has only a lateral notch, or oval fora-
men, so that a large surface is afforded for the insertion of
the pectoral muscles. Their cesophagus is always wide,
their gizzard generally muscular, and their intestine fur-
nished with two rather long ceca. Their windpipe varies
in form, but the inferior larynx is simple, although in one
family it has a curious bony and cartilaginous dilatation.

This order has been divided into four families :

1. The Brachyptere, or short-winged sea-birds, having
the wings very short, and the feet placed so far behind
that they are obliged to assume a nearly erect posture when
on shore. :

2. The Longipenne, or long-winged sea birds, having
the wings extremely long, the hind toe free or wanting,
and the bill horny.

3. The Totipalme, of which'the hind toe is connected
with the rest by a common web, the wings long, and the
bill horny.

4. The Lamellirostres, whose bill, which is thick and co-
vered with a soft skin, has the edges furnished with trans-
verse horny plates or teeth.!

FAMILY I.—BRACHYPTER#, OR DIVERS.

The organization of these birds renders them more aqua-
tic than those of any other family. Many of them reside
almost entirely on the waters, fly little, and walk with diffi-
culty, their feet being placed very far behind. Their wings
are generally extremely short, and their flight, although
sometimes rapid, is neither undulated nor buoyant. § In
some species they are reduced to mere organs of natation,
the quills not being developed. All the species are furnished
with a dense and short plumage, swim and dive with re-
markable agility, and pursue their prey under the surface,
employing their wings as well as their feet to aid their
progress. They are generally distributed, migrate exten-
sively, and breed in society, often on rocky islands or abrupt
cliffs. This family may be divided into three tribes.

Ist. The divers,— Colymbide, are characterized by their
straight, compressed, pointed, smooth bill, linear and lateral
nostrils, narrow wings, and short tail. In some the feet
are lobed, in others webbed.

_ The grebes, genus Popicers (Plate CCCCI. fig. 1), re-
_ semble the coots in the form of their feet, their anterior
toes, instead of being connected by webs, being merely
dilated by means of lateral lobes. Their body is generally
short and depressed ; their neck long and slender ; their
bill straight, compressed, tapering, and pointed ; their nos-
trils linear and pervious. The legs (tibie) are entirely
concealed in the abdomen; the tarsi are extremely com-
pressed ; and the claw of the middle toe is flattened and
dilated. The plumage is remarkably soft, silky, and often,
especially on the lower part, has a shining gloss. Their
wings are very narrow, and their tail is generally reduced
to a slight tuft of scarcely distinguishable feathers. These
birds when on shore are obliged to stand in a nearly erect
posture; but although they walk with difficulty, their flight

agility, and when apprehensive of danger generally disap-
pear under the surface, instead of flying off. Their food
consists of small fishes, crustacea, mollusca, and insects,
as well as seeds of aquatic plants ; and they nestle in marshy
places, laying several eggs, generally of a white colour.
Their plumage varies so much, according to age and sex,
that the species have been erroneously multiplied by au-
thors. Four species inhabit Europe, of which two may be
particularly mentioned.

The great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus, is of the size
of a mallard, blackish brown on the upper parts, with a
white band on the wing, and of a silvery white beneath.
The adults have a double black crest, and a large reddish
ruff or tippet margined with black, on the upper part of the
neck. This species inhabits the northern part of both con-
tinents, where it breeds, and whence it migrates southward
on the approach of winter. The nest is made of rushes
and flags, or other aquatic herbage ; and the eggs, three
or four in number, are of a greenish white. Several au-
thors allege that the female sometimes succours her young,
when fatigued or in danger, by carrying them on her back
or beneath her wings. From their surprising agility in
diving they are not inappropriately named water-witches
and dippers in America. The skins are dressed and made
into muffs and tippets.

The little grebe, or dobchick, Podiceps minor, is the
smallest of the species, not exceeding ten inches in length.
It is not uncommon in most parts of Europe, as well as in
the north of Asia, and the country around Hudson’s Bay.
In large rivers and lakes individuals are said to be some-
times devoured by pike and other fishes. In the adult the
upper parts are deep black, the lower silvery gray, the
throat black, and the neck ferruginous.

The finfoots, Popoa, Illig., have the feet lobed like the
coots and grebes; but their tail is more developed, and
their claws more pointed. (Plate CCCCL fig.2.) To this
genus have been referred the African finfoot, P. Senegalen-
sis, and the Surinam species, P. Surinamensis, which latter,
however, is by some considered as belonging to Anhinga.

The divers properly so called, genus CorymBus, greatly
resemble the grebes in form, but differ from them in hay-
ing the toes regularly webbed, and the tail moderately de-
veloped. Their body is elongated, and somewhat depressed ;
their neck long, their head small, oblong, and compressed ;
their bill rather long, straight, and tapering to a point;
their plumage short and close; their wings of moderate
length, but very narrow. These birds are peculiarly aqua-
tic, and while in search of food remain often longer sub-
merged than on the surface, to which they seem occasion-
ally to come merely for the purpose of respiring. They
feed on fishes of various kinds, but generally of small size,
as well as on crustacea. Like the grebes, they dive when
alarmed, and are not easily raised from the water, although
their flight, which is direct, is very rapid. On land they
stand erect, and walk with difficulty. They are generally
solitary, breed on the margins of lakes in the arctic re-
gions, and lay two or three very elongated, dark-coloured,
and spotted eggs. Their flesh is dark-coloured and unsa-
voury. Of this genus the more remarkable species are the
following.

The great northern diver, Colymbus glacialis, is about
two feet and three quarters long, with the upper parts
black, spotted with white ; the head and neck glossy black,
with green reflections, the lower parts white; the tail has
twenty feathers. This species is generally distributed in

* For some interesting general observations on certain genera of this order, the reader may consult ‘“‘ Remarks on the Pelagic Birds,
and on certain other Palmipedes, considered especially as regards their habits and their geographical distribution in the Oceans of the
Globe,” published in Freycinet’s Voyage autour du Monde,—Partie Zoologique, par MM. Quoy and Gaimard.

630

ORNITHOLOGY.

The puffins, genus FRATERCULA, have the bill shorter Palmi-

Palmi- the cold and temperate climates of the northern hemi-

pedes.

sphere. It breeds in the arctic regions, generally on the
margin of lakes, or on islands, laying three eggs of a
dull olive tint spotted with dusky. “ Far out at sea in
winter,” says Nuttall, “and in the great western lakes,
particularly Huron and Michigan, in summer, I have
often heard, on a fine calm morning, the sad and wolfish
call of the solitary loon, which like a dismal echo seems
slowly to invade the ear, and rising as it proceeds, dies
away in the air. This boding sound to mariners, suppos-
ed to be indicative of a storm, may be heard sometimes
for two or three miles, when the bird itself is invisible, or
reduced almost to a speck in the distance. The abori-
gines, nearly as superstitious as sailors, dislike to hear
the cry of the loon, considering the bird, from its shy and
extraordinary habits, as a sort of supernatural being. By
the Norwegians its long-drawn howl is, with more appear-
ance of reason, supposed to portend rain.” The flesh of
this bird is dark and unpalatable; but its skin, with the
feathers on, is used by various barbarous tribes as an arti-
cle of clothing.

Two other species, of inferior size, the red-throated di-
ver, C. septentrionalis, and the black-throated, C. arcticus,
inhabit the same regions, and are nearly similar in ha-
bits. Both these birds breed in some of the northern parts
of Scotland. =

The guillemots, genus Ur1a, have the bill of moderate
Jength, robust, straight, compressed, and pointed; the
nostrils nearly basal, lateral, linear, and partially covered
by short feathers. The head is rather large and oblong,
the neck short. The legs are placed far back, and their
feet differ from those of the divers in wanting the hind
toe. Their wings are short, narrow, and pointed ; but
they fly with considerable speed, and their tail is very
short and rounded. These birds migrate in small flocks,
and collect in vast assemblages to breed on the abrupt
precipices and rocky islands of the northern seas, whence
they again retire towards the end of autumn. They form
no nest, but deposit their single egg, which is pyriform
and of great size, on the bare rock.

The common guillemot, Uria troile, is somewhat less
than the mallard, and has the bill longer than the head;
its upper parts are black, the lower white, as are the tips

of the secondary quills ; in summer the head is brown, and _

the adult has a black stripe behind the eye. This spe-
cies is very abundant along the northern coasts of Eu-
rope and America, and nowhere more so than in the Bri-
tish seas.

Another species, about the same size, but distinguishable
by having the bill shorter and much more robust, is the
thick-billed guillemot, Uria Brunnichii, which also occurs
in the northern seas of both continents, but does not ex-
tend so far south as the former.

The Greenland dove, or little guillemot of authors, has
been considered by some as constituting a distinct genus,
to which Cuvier has given the name of Cepnus. It is
about the size of a Jarge pigeon, and is entirely black, ex-
cepting a large white space on the middle of the wing, and
the feet, which are red. This species, unlike those men-
tioned above, breeds under stones or in the crevices of
rocks, where it lays two or. three light-coloured eggs,
spotted with dusky. It is frequent in the northern seas,
and breeds on the Scottish coasts in great numbers.

2d. The auks,—Alcade, which form the next group, are
yery closely allied to the guillemots, from which they are
easily distinguished by their extremely compressed and
vertically elevated bill, which is usually transversely fur-
rowed. ‘The toes are entirely webbed, but the hind toe
is wanting, as in the guillemots, which they further re-
semble in their habits and distribution. This tribe may
be divided into several subordinate genera.

than the head, and as high at the base as it is long, a cir-
cumstance which gives these birds an extraordinary ap-
pearance, and has given rise to the appellations of coulter-
nebs and parrot-bills, vulgarly applied to them. At the
base of'the bill there is generally an elevated fold of bare
skin; and the nostrils, which are close to the margin, are
mere slits. The puffins fly with rapidity, in a direct line,
at the height of only a few feet over the waves; swim and
dive with extreme dexterity; and nestle in the crevices
of rocks, or more generally in holes formed by themselves
in the turf.

The species best known and most extensively distribut-
ed is the common puffin, Fratercula arctica, which is of
the size of a pigeon or jackdaw, with the upper parts dusky,
the lower white, a broad black band round the neck, the
bill red, with three grooves across each mandible. It is
abundant on the northern coasts of Europe and America,
where it breeds in burrows formed by itself in the soil of
unfrequented islands and headlands, making no proper
nest, and laying a single whitish and pyriform egg.

Another species, having a still more singular appear-
ance, on account of two tufts of silky feathers on its head,
inhabits the shores of Kamtschatka, the Kurile Isles, and
others lying between Asia and America. The skins are
employed by the natives as an article of clothing.

Some species having the bill less elevated, somewhat
quadrangular, and notched near the tip, have been distin-
guished by M. Temminck under the generic name of PHa-
LERIS. Of these may be mentioned the Ph. psittacula,
and Ph. cristatella, both inhabitants of the north-western
coast of America, Kamtschatka, and the Kurile Isles.

The auks properly so called, or restricted genus ALcA,
have the bill more elongated, and in shape somewhat re-
sembling the blade of a common pocket-knife, its base being
feathered as far as the nostrils. As an example of the er-
rors into which persons little conversant with living birds
may fall, may be adduced the following statement of Cu-
vier with regard tothe auks: ‘‘ Their wings are decidedly
too small to sustain them, and they. do not fly at all.” So
far is this from being the case with our common species,
that it flies with as much celerity as the guillemot and
puffin, and in its ordinary flight outstrips the gulls and
terns, although these birds fly with greater buoyancy.
The statement, however, is correct as applying to the
great auk, which might perhaps with propriety be referred
to a separate genus.

The species so common on our coasts, as well as on
those of Europe and North America, is the razor-billed
auk, Alcea torda, which is about the size of the common
guillemot, and similarly coloured, being black above and
white beneath, with a white band on the wing, and a line
or two of the same colour on the bill.

The great auk, Alca impennis, is the largest bird of this
family, equalling a goose in size. Its colour is similar to
that of the common species; but its bill, which is marked
with eight or ten grooves, is entirely black, and it has an
oval white spot between the bill and the eye. Its wings
are reduced to a kind of paddles, and are similar to those
of the penguins, so that it does not possess the faculty of
flying. It inhabits the highest latitudes of the globe, but
is extremely rare, so that specimens are of very unfre-
quent occurrence in collections, and the only one in this
country is that of the British Museum. A few instances
have occurred of its being seen on the northern coasts of
Scotland. In the northern seas this remarkable bird
seems to represent the species of the next group, which
belong to the other extremity of the globe.

3d. The penguins,—Aptenodide, are entirely destitute
of the faculty of flying, their wings being converted into
small, oblong, flattened paddles or fins, covered with mi-

pedes.

ORNITHOLOGY. 631
Palmi- nute scale-like feathers. Their body is elliptical and de- two feet long, with the upper parts, a band on the breast, Palmi-
pedes. pressed, their neck of moderate length, their head oblong, anda collar on the middle of the neck, black, inhabits pedes.

——— their bill of moderate length, generally slender and point- Terra del Fuego, the Straits of Magellan, and other parts

ed, the upper mandible covered with feathers for a third
of its length, or as far as the nostrils, whence a groove ex-
tends to the tip. Their legs are very short, and placed so
far behind that they cannot support themselves on land,
even in a vertical position, without resting on their tarsi,
which are flattened behind, somewhat like the foot of a
quadruped. Their life is chiefly spent on the ocean, and
as they possess the faculties of swimming and diving in
the highest degree of perfection, they are the most truly
aquatic of all birds, and the analogues of the swallows,
which are the most aérial. If any bird approaches nearly
in structure and habits to a quadruped, the penguins
may claim kindred with the seals, which they greatly re-
semble in their mode of life, going on shore merely to
breed, and dragging themselves over the rocks in a similar
manner.

The penguins peculiarly so named, genus APTENODYTES,
as restricted, have the bill rather long, slender, and point-
ed, the upper mandible slightly arched towards the end,
and covered with feathers at the base; the nostrils linear,
with the nasal groove extending to the tip.

The Patagonian or great penguin, Aptenodytes Pata-
gonica (Plate CCCCI. fig. 4), is nearly of the size of the
great auk, of a dark-grayish blue above, white beneath,
the head black, and a yellow curved band on the fore
neck. It occurs in great flocks on the coasts of the Falk-
land Isles, New Guifiea, New George, the Straits of Ma-
gellan, and other antarctic lands; feeds on fish, crusta-
cea, and mollusca ; and is employed by the natives as an
article of food, although its flesh is dark-coloured and rank.

The gorfous, genus Curysocoma, have the bill short,
strong, and somewhat conical, with the point a little arch-
ed. (Plate CCCCI. fig.34.) The groove from the nostril
ends about a third from the tip. In other respects they
do not differ materially from the penguins.

The leaping gorfou, Chrysocoma saltator, is a handsome
bird, of the size of a domestic duck, with the head and
upper parts grayish black, the lower white, and the head
ornamented with a large crest, of which the central part
is erect and dusky, the lateral portions deflected, and of
a yellow colour. It is common in the Falkland Islands
and other parts of the southern seas; and, like the Pata-
gonian penguin and other birds of this group, is said to be
so stupid as to allow itself to be assailed without attempt-
ing to escape. It is extremely expert at diving ; and like se-
veral birds of different families, such as the cormorants and
darters, is often observed, while about to plunge beneath
the surface, to leap several feet out of the water,—whence
our sailors have named it the hopping penguin, or jump-
ing Jack. The word gorfou is a corruption of goir-fugel,
or gare-fowl, applied in Ferroe and the north of Scotland
to the great auk, Alca impennis.

Several other species of this genus are known, and in-
habit the same seas, such as the Papuan gorfou, Chr. Pa-
pua; the collared, Chr. torquata; the red-footed, Chr.
catarractes ; and the little gorfou, Chr. minor.

The sphenisques, genus SPHENISCUS, form a group cha-
racterized by their straight, compressed bill, which is irre-
gularly grooved at the base, and has the tip of the upper
mandible curved, while that of the lower is obliquely trun-
cate, as in the cormorant. (Plate CCCCI. fig. 3 a.)

The Cape sphenisque, Spheniscus demersus, is about
twenty inches long, black above, white beneath, with the
throat and cheeks black, a white line over each eye, and
a black band across the fore part of the neck, and extend-
ing along each side of the body. It occurs in the vicinity
of the Cape of Good Hope, where it nestles in the rocks.

Another species, Spheniscus Magellanicus, upwards of

of the antarctic regions, where they are very numerous.
This species, like the gorfou, and probably all the birds of
this tribe, has a habit of leaping several feet out of the
water, either when about to dive, or when it meets with
any obstacle on the surface.

FAMILY IlL—LONGIPENNZ.

To this family belong those wandering sea-birds which,
having a flight characterized by extreme buoyancy and
rapidity combined, are met with on all parts of the ocean,
frequently at the greatest distance from land. Their wings
are always very long, although often extremely narrow ;
and their tail is proportionally developed. Their hind toe
is small and free, or wanting; their bill pointed or hooked
at the tip, but without lamelle; their inferior larynx has
only one muscle on each side; their cesophagus is wide,
their stomach muscular, their caeca short. They are inca-
pable of diving and pursuing their prey under the surface,
but they swim with ease, and sit lightly and gracefully on
the water. Some of them obtain their food by dipping or
plunging from on wing, others by picking it up as they
swim, while several wander to great distances in quest of
dead animals of all kinds, and are in fact the vultures of
the sea.

The petrels, Procellarie, have their bill hooked at the
tip, which seems as if formed of a separate piece articu--
lated to the rest (Plate CCCCI. figs. 5, 6, and 9); their
nostrils placed close together, and enclosed by a tube which
lies on the back of the upper mandible; and their hind
toe reduced to a knob with a claw upon it. These birds,
although many of them are very small, reside on the open
ocean, where they are met with by voyagers in the most
tempestuous as in the calmest weather. ‘Their food con-
sists of small fishes, crustacea, and especially oily sub-
stances of all kinds; and most of them when seized, whe-
ther on being wounded or on being dragged from their
holes, disgorge an oleaginous matter, or squirt it through
their nostrils. They are incapable of diving, and seldom
swim, but are generally seen flying or gliding over the sur-
face of the waves, mounting upon their ridges and descend-
ing into the hollows, often so close as to seem walking on
the water. Hence the name Petrel, or Little Peter, be-
stowed upon them, in allusion to St Peter’s progress on the
waves. In stormy weather they frequently fly in the wake
of a ship, to shelter themselves from the wind. On account
of this habit they are held in aversion by sailors, who, ima-
gining them to be predictive of tempests, and in league
with the mysterious source of evil, bestow on them the
opprobrious appellation of Mother Carey’s chickens. Their
flight is rapid and buoyant; they breed in holes and cre-
vices of the rocky coasts ; and are more numerous in the
antarctic than in the northern seas.

Those which have the lower mandible truncate are more
peculiarly named petrels, genus PRocELLARIA.

OF these the largest is the giant petrel, Procellaria gi-
gantea, which has a length of about three feet and a half,
and is of a dusky colour above, whitish beneath, with the
bill and legs yellow. It is of frequent occurrence in the
southern seas, is observed to be most lively in stormy
weather, and feeds on fishes, and the carcasses of seals,
birds, and other animals.

The pintado, or Cape petrel, Procellaria Capensis, is
about fourteen inches long, variegated with brown and
white, and occurs in large flocks in the antarctic seas, par-
ticularly in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope. Like
most of the other species, it flies very law, feeds on fish

ORNITHOLOGY.

the nostrils opening, not by a common orifice, but by two Palmi-
distinct apertures. (Plate CCCCI. fig. 9.) pedes.
Of this genus may be mentioned the cinereous puffin- —~W——~

632

Palmi- and the carcasses of cetaceous animals, and when caught
pedes- squirts out a quantity of oil from the nostrils.
—_—" ‘In the arctic seas a very abundant species is the fulmar

petrel, Procellaria glacialis, which is nearly of the size of
the herring gull, and has the upper parts of a light bluish-
gray, the head and lower parts white. It is extremely
voracious, and although its principal food consists of fish,
it devours indiscriminately any floating animal substance,
and follows in flocks the track of a wounded whale, until
the huge animal is exhausted, when it alights on the car-
cass, and devours the blubber until satiated. This bird is
one of those most familiar to the sailors of the whale-ships,
on which it constantly attends, to pick up any offal that is
thrown overboard, and come in for its share of the plunder
when a whale has been captured. It breeds abundantly
in the island of St Kilda, the inhabitants of which obtain
a large quantity of oil from the stomachs of the individuals
which they catch for that purpose.

Of the smaller dark-coloured species may be mentioned
the common or storm petrel, P. pelagica, which is not
larger than a lark, and in its flight resembles a swallow
(Plate CCCCI. fig. 5); Leach’s petrel, P. Leachit ; and
Wilson’s petrel, P. Wilsonii. Respecting the latter, we
may quote the following passage from the description given
of it by M. Audubon, in his Ornithological Biography.
«« But now, ever flapping its winglets, I have marked the
little bird, dusky all over save a single spot, the whiteness
of which contrasts with the dark hue of the waters, and
the deep tone of the clear sky. Full of life and joy, it
moves to and fro, advances towards the ship, then shoots far
away, gambols over the swelling waves, dives into their
hollows, and twitters with delight as it perceives an object
that will alleviate its hunger. Never fatigued, the tiny
petrels seldom alight, although at times their frail legs
and feet seem to touch the crest of the foaming wave. I
love to give every creature all the pleasure I can confer
upon it, and towards the little things I cast over the stern
such objects as I know they will most prize. Social crea-
tures! would that all were as innocent as you! ‘There
are no bickerings, no jealousies, among you; the first that
comes is first served: it is all the result of chance; and
thus you pass your lives. But the clouds gather, the gale
approaches, and our gallant bark is trimmed. Darkness
spreads over the heavens, and the deep waters send back a
blacker gloom, broken at intervals by the glimmer of the
spray. You meet the blast, and your little wings bear
you up against it for a while; but you cannot encounter
the full force of the tempest; and now you have all come
close beneath me, where you glide over the curling eddies
caused by the motion of the rudder. You shall have all
possible attention paid you, and I will crawl to the cam-
boose, in search of food to support your tiny frames in
this hour of need. But at length night closes around,
and I bid you farewell.... The gale is over ; the clear blue
of the sky looks clearer than ever, the sun’s rays are
brighter, on the quiet waters the ship seems to settle in
repose, and her wings, though widely spread, no longer
swell with the breeze. At a distance around us the dusky
wanderers are enjoying the bright morning ; the rudder-
fish, yesterday so lively, has ended its career, so violently
was it beaten by the waves against the vessel ; and now
the petrels gather around it, as it floats on the surface.
Various other matter they find; here a small crab, there
the fragments of a sea-plant. Low over the deep they
range, and now with little steps run on the waters. Few
are their notes, but great their pleasure, at this moment.
It is needless for me to feed them now, and therefore I
will return to my task.”

The puffin-petrels, genus Purrinus, are separated from
the rest on account of their having the extremity of the
lower mandible decurved as well as that of the upper, and

petrel, Pufjinus cinereus ; the Manks petrel, Pr. anglorum ;
and the dusky petrel, Pr. obscura.

In the genus Hataproma of Illiger, the throat is di-
latable like that of the cormorants, and the hind toe is
entirely wanting as in the albatrosses. In the genus Pa-
CHYPTILA of the same author, the bill is enlarged at the
base, and its margins are garnished interiorly with fine
delicately-pointed vertical lamelle. (See Plate CCCCI.
fig. 6.)

The albatrosses, genus DiomeEpEa, are the largest and
most powerful of all the feathered wanderers of the ocean.
Their bill, which is large, strong, and sharp-edged, is
terminated by a strong hook ; their nostrils, which are tu-
bular, are placed apart; and their feet are destitute of
the hind toe. Their plumage is full, soft, and elastic, and
their wings, although narrow, are exceedingly long. They
are thus equally organized for swimming and flying, and
are met with in all parts of the intra-tropical and southern
oceans, sometimes following a ship in full sail for many
days, to pick up the refuse thrown overboard. They fly
with surprising buoyancy and speed, and are able to bear
up against the most violent tempests. When fatigued or
satiated they rest upon the waters. Their food consists
of the carcasses of all sorts of animals, as well as live fishes,
crustacea, mollusca, and other creatures, and their voracity
is such that sometimes having gorged themselves to ex-
cess, they are unable for a time to fly, and may be caught
or destroyed. Under these circumstances, however, birds
generally disgorge the contents of their gullet and sto-
mach, and by thus lightening themselves, are enabled to
escape.

Of the different species of this genus, that which is the
best known, as well as the largest, is,the wandering alba-
tross, Diomedea exulans. It is as large as a swan, being
four feet in length, and measuring ten feet between the
tips of its extended wings ; its upper parts dusky, the low-
er white, the neck and sides transversely streaked with
brown, the primary quills black, the bill yellowish white,
the feet flesh-colour. This celebrated bird is principally
met with in the seas adjacent to the Cape of Good Hope,
and insthose that separate the Atnerican continent from
the Asiatic. It is extremely voracious, feeding on fishes,
mollusca, and the carcasses of whales and other animals
It is said that when it cannot swallow a large fish at once,
it introduces part of it, and waits until it is digested be-
fore swallowing the rest. Its flesh, although hard and dry,
is eaten by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka, who use its
bones for tobacco-pipes and needle-cases.

From the albatrosses to the larger birds of the next ge-
nus the transition is but slight, both as regards form and
habits.

The gulls, genus Larus, Plate CCCCI. fig. 8, consti-
tute an extensive group, of which representatives are
found in all parts of the globe. They are characterized
by their longish, compressed bill, of which the upper man-
dible is arched towards the end, while the lower is there
furnished with an angular prominence. The nostrils,
which are placed near the middle, are linear-oblong and
pervious. Their body is generally light, the neck of mo-
derate length, their head ovate and rather large, their legs
of ordinary length, and their hind toe very small, or some-
times obsolete. Some of the species are met with in
the open ocean, but it is chiefly along the coasts, and
especially near the mouths of rivers, that they are most
frequently seen, and in stormy weather they often make
incursions over the land in search of worms, larve, and
carrion. Their food consists chiefly of small fishes,
crustacea, and mollusea; but to the larger species hardly

ORNITHOLOGY.

the lower, and grooved beneath, so as to receive the edge Palmi-

Palmi- any animal substance comes amiss. They breed along the

_ pedes.

shores, on unfrequented islands and headlands, laying in a
hollow on the ground from two to four eggs, spotted with
dusky. :

Among the larger species, some are remarkable for the
dark or blackish hue of their back and wings; but in ge-
neral the colour of those parts is a light-grayish blue,
while that of the lower is pure white. One species, the
ivory gull, Larus eburneus, has the plumage entirely of the
latter colour when in the adult state. The greater black-
backed gull, Zarus marinus, the smaller black-backed
gull, Zarus fuscus, and the thick-billed gull of New Hol-
land, Zarus melanoleucos, afford examples of the first kind
above alluded to. The largest known species is the bur-
gomaster, Larus glaucus, of a light-grayish blue above,
white beneath, with the tail and tips of the wings also
white. It inhabits the arctic regions of Europe and Ame-
rica, seldom making its appearance in the temperate cli-
mates. One of the most common species on our coasts is
the herring gull, Zarus argentatus, which remains with
us throughout the year. A gradual transition is observ-
able from these larger species, which assimilate to the alba-
trosses, to the smaller, which are intimately connected with
the terns.

Some species having very peculiar characters, have been
separated from the gulls, and formed into a genus apart.
These are the jagers, genus Lesrris, which have the tip
of the upper mandible hooked, and the nostrils larger and
placed nearer the end of the bill than those of the gulls.
Their tail is generally pointed, their wings long, and their
flight is extremely rapid. Although they occasionally fish
for themselves, they obtain their food chiefly by attacking
various species of gulls and terns, which they teaze to make
them disgorge their food, which they then swallow.

Of this genus the more remarkable species are the skua,
Lestris catarractes, which is nearly equal in size to the
great black-backed gull; the pomarine jager, Z. pomari-
nus; and Richardson’s jager, L. Richardsonii, which is
common on our coasts in autumn, and breeds in the Shet-
land Islands and Hebrides.

The terns, genus STERNA, are generally of small size,
and remarkable for their slender body, long and narrow
wings, and forked tail. Their feet are extremely short,
and their bill longish, compressed, and pointed. They very
seldom swim, but, when fatigued or satiated with food, re-
pose on the rocks or sands. ‘Their flight is extremely
buoyant, and they usually obtain their food by plunging
after it into the water from on wing. From their form
and the peculiar mode of flying, they have also obtained
the name of sea-swallows.

The most common species on the coasts of Europe are
the arctic tern, Sterna arctica ; the common tern, St. Hi-
rundo; and the little tern, St. minuta; but several other
species occur there.

The noddies, genus Anovs, differ from the terns in hav-
ing the tail even at the end, and nearly equal with the
wings. Their bill also is more like that of the smaller
gulls. They are said to be so stupid as to allow themselves
to be killed without attempting to fly off; but this only
happens in places where they have not been accustomed
to meet with man.

The species best known is the black noddy, Anous
niger ( Sterna stolida, Linn.), which is very common in the
tropical seas, and is of a sooty-brown, excepting the top of
the head, which is grayish white. It often settles on the
rigging of vessels, when the sailors sometimes catch it at
night while asleep.

The skimmers, genus RuyncHops, Plate CCCCI. fig. 7,
are very nearly allied to the terns, but are distinguished
from all other birds by the extraordinary form of their bill,
of which the upper mandible is considerably shorter than

VOL. XVI.

633

of the latter, which is extremely thin. They procure their pedes.
food in the same manner as the terns, skimming along the ~~~"

surface of the water, and dipping their bill into it to seize
a small fish, as opportunity occurs.

The only species whose habits are known is the black
skimmer, Rhynchops nigra, which is about twenty inches
long, its bill and feet red, its upper parts black, the lower
white, its wings considerably longer than the tail. It oc-
curs along the coasts of America, from New York to Bra-
zil, breeding on the sandy shores in June, and continuing
in flocks all the year.

FAMILY III.—TOTIPALM.

The birds of which this family is composed are those to
which the epithet palmipede is more peculiarly applicable ;
for not only are their anterior toes connected by webs or
membranes, as in the other tribes, but their hind toe is
similarly connected with the inner. Their tarsi are gene-
rally short, their wings and tail long, their neck elongated,
and their bill rather slender, somewhat conical, but gene-
rally hooked at the joint. They swim, and for the most
part dive, with admirable dexterity, generally fly with
great celerity, feed entirely on fishes and other marine ani-
mals, and are remarkable among web-footed birds for fre-
quently perching on trees.

The pelicans, Pelecani, comprehend those which have
at the base of the bill a space destitute of feathers. The
skin of their throat is extensile, their tongue very small,
their gullet of great width, their czeca small, their nostrils
mere slits, sometimes obsolete.

The pelicans properly so called, genus PELECANUus, Plate
CCCCL. fig. 10, are distinguished from all other birds by
the singular structure of their bill, of which the upper man-
dible, however, presents nothing very remarkable, while
the lower has its rami extremely slender and elastic, with
a large dilatable membranous bag attached to it. They
are birds of large size, with wings of moderate length, the
tail rounded, the feet short, and the claws curved.

The most remarkable species is the common pelican,
Pelecanus onocrotalus (above referred to), which is as large
as a swan, and entirely of a white colour tinged with red,
excepting the alula and primary quills, which are black.
Its length is nearly six feet, and its extended wings mea-
sure about fifteen. Its upper mandible is flattened, with
a hook at the point ; and the sac appended to the lower
mandible extends about nine inches down the neck, and
may be dilated so as to hold a man’s head with ease. This
pelican occurs in the tropical and warmer temperate re-
gions of the old continent, and is common in the eastern
countries of Europe. Its principal food is fish, which it
catches with great dexterity, by plunging after it from on
wing. In fishing it fills the gular pouch, and does not im-
mediately devour its prey, but when it has obtained a suf-
ficiency, returns to the shore, and swallows it at leisure.
The female forms a large nest of grass in a marshy place,
and lays two or three white eggs, similar to those of a
swan.

The brown pelican, P. fuscus, of a grayish-brown colour,
and nearly four feet in length, is common in most parts of
America, and especially in the West Indies. A very large
species, P. australis, ot a white colour, with the upper part
of the back, the quills, and tail, black, inhabits New Hol-
land.

The cormorants, genus PHaLAcRocoRAx, resemble the
pelicans in their general form, but are destitute of the
large gular sac, having merely a bare dilatable mem-
brane at the base of the lower mandible. They differ far-
ther in not procuring their prey by plunging after it from

, 4.

634 ORNITHOLOGY.
Palmi- on wing, their mode of fishing being similar to that of the caught. See him now! yonder, over the waves leaps the Palmi.
pedes. divers. : brilliant dolphin, as he pursues the flying-fishes, which he Pedes-
—\—" ‘The common cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo, is nearly expects to seize the moment they drop into the water. ~~~

as large as a goose, and has a brownish-black colour, with
a white spot on the thigh, and streaks of the same colour
on the head and neck. It nestles in the cavities of rocks,
or on trees, laying three pale-green eggs, crusted with white
calcareous matter ; and is common in the northern parts of
both continents.’ It is stated that this species was formerly
trained in England for the purpose of catching fish. “When
they come to therivers,” says Willughby, “they take off their
hoods, and having tied a leather thong round the lower part
of their necks, that they may not swallow down the fish they
catch, they throw them into the river. They presently
dive under water, and there for a time, with wonderful
swiftness, they pursue the fish, and when they have caught
them, they rise presently to the top of the water, and
pressing thé fish lightly with their bills, they swallow them,
till each bird hath in this manner swallowed five or six
fishes ; then their keepers call them to the fist, to which
they readily fly, and, little by little, one after another,
vomit up all their fish, a little bruised with the nip they
gave them in their bills. When they have done fishing,
getting the birds on some high place, they loose the string
from their neck, leaving the passage to the stomach free
and open; and for their reward they throw them part of
the prey they have caught, to each, perchance, one or two
fishes, which they by the way, as they are falling in the
air, will catch most dexterously in their mouths.”

A very common species on our coasts is the crested
cormorant, Phal. eristatus, which is of a dark-greenish
colour, with a recurved frontal tuft, and resembles the
preceding in its habits, breeding in the rocky caverns of
islands and headlands. Many other species occur in differ-
ent parts of the world, the genus being generally distri-
buted.

The frigate-birds, genus TacuyPErss, differ from the
cormorants in having the tail forked, the wings extremely
elongated, the feet very short, with their webs emarginate,
and the tip of both mandibles decurved. Their flight is
extremely rapid and buoyant, and they prey upon fishes,
which they capture by plunging after them from on wing,
or obtain by forcing the gannets to disgorge. Only one
species is well known.

The common frigate-bird, Tachypetes aquilus, is of a
dusky colour, more or less variegated with white on the
neck, and sometimes measures ten feet between the tips
of its extended wings. It inhabits the tropical regions, and
is found in great abundance on the island of Ascension.
Its principal food consists of flying-fishes, which it cap-
tures during their aérial excursions. The following ac-
count of this remarkable species, generally known to na-
vigators by the name of the man-of-war, or frigate, is
given by Mr Audubon. “ This bird is possessed of a
power of flight, which I conceive superior to that of per-
haps any other bird. However swiftly the Cayenne tern,
the smaller gulls, or the jager, move on wing, it seems a
matter of mere sport to it to overtake any of them. The
goshawk, the peregrine, and the gyr-falcon, which I con-
ceive to be the swiftest of our hawks, are obliged to pur-
sue their victim, should it be a green-winged teal or pas-
senger-pigeon, at times for half a mile, at the highest
pitch of their speed, before they can secure them. The
bird of which I speak comes from on high with the velo-
city of a meteor, and on nearing the object of its pursuit,
which its keen eye has spied while fishing at a distance,
darts on either side to cut off all retreat, and with open
bill forces it to drop or disgorge the fish which it had just

The frigate-bird, who has marked them, closes his wings,
dives towards them, and now ascending, holds one of the
tiny things across its bill. Already fifty yards above the
sea, he spies a porpoise in full chase, launches towards the
spot, and in passing seizes the mullet that has escaped
from its dreaded foe ; but now, having obtained a fish too
large for his ‘gullet, he rises, munching it all the while, as
if bound for the skies. Three or four of -his own tribe
have watched him, and observed his success. They shoot
towards him on broadly extended pinions, rise in wide cir-
cles, smoothly, yet as swiftly as himself. They are now
all at the same height, and each, as it overtakes him,
lashes him with its wings, and tugs at his prey. See!
one has fairly robbed him, but before he can secure the
contested fish it drops. One of the other birds has caught
it, but he is pursued by all. From bill to bill, and through
the air, rapidly falls the fish, until it drops on the waters,
and sinks into the deep. Whatever disappointment the
hungry birds feel, they seem to deserve it all.”

The boobies, or gannets, genus Suua, have the bill
straight, conical, a little compressed, and with the point
somewhat deflected, the edges serrate, or cut into by short
parallel lines. The throat and the space around the eyes
are bare; the claw of the middle toe serrate, the wings
long and very narrow, and the tail cuneate or tapering.
They hover over the water when fishing, and plunge head-
long after their prey, resting a few moments on emerging
before they resume their flight.

The common gannet or solan goose, Sula bassana,
occurs on the coasts of Europe and North America, and
breeds in vast numbers on remote and rocky islands. The
Bass Rock at the entrance of the Frith of Forth is a well-
known haunt of this species, as are Ailsa Craig in the
Clyde, St Kilda, and Suliskerry. The nest is very bulky,
and composed of sea-weeds ; the single egg not larger than
that of a domestic duck, and of a white colour ; the young,
at first covered with snow-white down, is when fledged
of a dark-brown colour, spotted with white. Although the
flesh of this species is rank and oily, it was formerly con-
sidered a kind of delicacy, and is still sparingly used in
the south of Scotland.

The booby gannet, Sula candida, is inferior in size to
the species just mentioned, which it closely resembles in
form and habits. It is common on the coasts of the warm-
er parts of America, particularly in the Bahama Islands
and the Brazilian seas. Although it sometimes nestles on
the ground, it generally builds on trees, and reposes there
at night. It is said to be a very stupid bird, allowing it-
self to be knocked on the head or seized, without attempt-
ing to escape,—whence the name of booby, commonly
given to it by the sailors, who frequently employ it as an
article of food, although its flesh is dark-coloured and dis-
agreeable.

The darters, genus Ptotus, resemble the cormorants
in the form of their body and feet, but are more slender,
and have a very elongated neck, with a small head, and a
straight, slender, and pointed bill. Like the cormorants,
they swim deep in the water, but with agility, and in div-
ing spring fairly out of it to plunge headlong after their
prey. ‘They inhabit the warm countries of America.

The black-bellied darter, Plotus melanogaster, Plate
CCCCII. fig. 1, is upwards of three feet long, of a dusky
colour, with the neck and back streaked with white. The
white-bellied darter, P. anhinga, is about the same size,
but has the lower parts white. It inhabits Brazil and

! Ornithological Biography.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Palmi- other parts of America, roosting at night on trees, whence,

pedes.

should one approach, they drop into the water as if dead;
and on emerging at a distance, show only their long slen-
der necks and heads, which bear so much resemblance to
those of serpents, that this species is frequently named the
snake-bird. :

The tropic birds, genus PHAETON, which form the last
group of this section, bear a considerable resemblance to
the gannets, but are readily distinguished by the two
extremely elongated feathers of their tail, on account of
which the French give them the not inappropriate name
of paille-en-queue. Their head is entirely feathered ; their
bill straightish, tapering, pointed, and denticulated on the
edges; their feet are short, and their wings long. The
flight of these birds is rapid and buoyant, and they are
often seen far out at sea. As they seldom extend their
range beyond the tropics, their occurrence apprises navi-
gators of their entrance into the warmer regions. They
perch and nestle upon trees.

Two species are distinguished ;—the common, or white-
tailed tropic bird, Phaeton @thereus ; and the red-tailed
species, Ph. phenicurus. The former is white, with the
ocular region and shoulders black, the primary quills of
the same colour, and the bill red. It inhabits the Atlantic
Ocean. The latter is of a pale rose-colour, or reddish
white, with the ocular region and wing-coverts deep black,
and the two elongated feathers of the tail red. It occurs
in the Indian and African Seas, at Madagascar, the Cape
of Good Hope, the Isle of France, and many of the South
Sea islands. j

FAMILY IV.—LAMELLIROSTRES.

The birds of this family are readily distinguished from
those of the preceding by the peculiar structure of the
bill, which has its margins furnished with horny lamellz, or
dentiform processes, and its surface covered with soft-skin,
in place of the horny envelope which is spread over that
of the other Palmipedes. The tongue, which is broad and
fleshy, has its margins also lamellate ; the gizzard is ex-
tremely muscular, although not of large capacity, and the
cca are rather long. Another remarkable distinction is
found in the lower larynx, which generally has a very ex-
traordinary dilatation in the males. Their body is usually
somewhat depressed, their wings of moderate length, their
feet short, and their neck more or less elongated, some-
times of extreme length. They swim with ease, but walk
in a constrained and vacillating manner; and are for the
most part phytophagous, though many feed on mollusca,
crustacea, and fishes. They occur in all parts of the
globe.—some being maritime, but the greater number
lacustrine or fluviatile, that is, frequenting lakes or rivers.
They are naturally arranged into two groups ;—the one
(Anatide) comprising the swans, geese, and ducks; the
other (Mergide) composed of the mergansers.

The great group of Anatide includes all those web-
footed birds which have their bill large and broad, covered
with a thin membrane, and having its edges furnished with
transverse or oblique lamellz, the object of which seems
to be to allow the water to escape when the bird has
seized its food. Vegetable substances, especially seeds,
roots, and blades of grasses, form the principal nourish-
ment of many of the species; but others feed on fishes,
mollusca, insects, and worms. The piscivorous species
dive in pursuit of their prey, while those which feed on
vegetable matter either procure it on shore, or along the
margins of the water, or, while floating on the surface, ob-
tain it from some depth by means of their long neck. The
flesh of many of these birds is much esteemed, but is not
so readily digestible as that of the waders and gallinaceous

order. Many of them moult twice in the year, and after
the summer change the males assume in part the colours
peculiar to the females, which, on the contrary, exhibit no
variation. They generally breed in marshy places, and
deposit numerous eggs. The young, which are at first
covered with stiffish down, are capable of walking and
swimming immediately after birth.

The characters by which the subdivisions of this group
are distinguished are derived chiefly from the form of the
bill. In the swan that organ is as broad at its fore part
as at the base, where its height is greater than its breadth,
and the nostrils are placed about the middle. In the
geese, the bill is shorter than the head, higher than broad
at the base, and narrower towards the end. Lastly, in the
ducks properly so called, the bill is at least as broad at its
extremity as at the base, where it is broader than high ;
the nostrils are placed on the back of the bill near the
base. In the swans the neck is extremely long, in the
geese of moderate length, and in the ducks generally rather
short.

The swans, genus CyeNnus, are the largest birds of the
family, and are characterized by the elegance of their form,
and the graceful ease with which they glide over the sur-
face of the water, although on land their motions are more
constrained. Their body is large, their neck extremely
elongated, their head oblong, their wings large, and their
feet short and strong. They live chiefly on the seeds and
roots of aquatic plants, and nestle among the reeds by the
margins of lakes and rivers. They are strictly monoga-
mous, and the young swim and walk immediately after
exclusion.

The wild swan, Cygnus ferus, has the bill yellow at the
base, and black towards the end, the plumage pure white,
but in the young of a gray colour. It is readily distin-
guished from the domestic swan by having the base of the
bill flattened above, and by the curvature formed by the
wind-pipe, which enters into a cavity in the crest of the
sternum, from which it is reflected anteriorly, and then
passes into the thorax. This species inhabits the northern
regions of both continents, whence it migrates southward
on the approach of winter, remaining in the temperate
countries until the return of spring. The female lays from
five to seven or eight eggs, of a whitish colour tinged with
olive, and is said to incubate six weeks. The flesh and
eggs are highly esteemed, and the skins are prepared with
the down to be made into garments. The down itself
forms an article of commerce, which is in considerable de-
mand in the colder countries of Europe. The song of the
swan is familiar to all the lovers of poetry ; but, like many
equally accredited facts, has no real existence ; for the cry
of this bird, although clear and shrill, is never modulat-
ed into harmony. When heard at a distance, however,
especially from a fiock on wing, it is extremely pleasing.
Another fable regarding the vast strength of wing of this
bird was long believed,—a blow from it being alleged
as sufficient to break a man’s thigh. “It is high time,”
says Montagu, “ such absurdities should be erased in this
philosophic age, and that the mind of man should reason
before he continues to relate such accounts, only calcu-
lated to frighten children. Let the bones of the wing of
the swan be. examined, and compared with the thigh of a
man, or even of his arm, and it will be evident that it
would be as impossible for a swan to break a man’s arm,
as it would be to break his head with a reed. The bone
of a man’s arm would bear a pressure fifty times as great
as the bone of a swan’s wing; how, then, is the inferior in
size and strength to break the superior, without at least
being itself fractured? It should also be recollected, that
a bird is incapable of striking with any degree of force
while all its quill-feathers are perfect, the resistance of
the air against such a surface being too great to allow of

635

Palmi-
pedes.

636

ORNITHOLOGY.

Palmi- its moving with sufficient velocity to inflict any sensible

pedes.

ain.”!

S A species very nearly allied to the above is Bewick’s
swan, Cygnus Bewichii, which was first distinguished as a
species by Mr Yarrell and Mr Richard Wingate of New-
castle. It has the bill black, with its base orange yellow,
the plumage white, and the tail of eighteen feathers,
whereas there are twenty in that of the common wild
swan. The curvature of the trachea is also different, and
the size of the species is about a third smaller. It inha-
bits the arctic regions of both continents, migrating south-
ward in winter.

The mute or tame swan, Cygnus olor, has the bill red, its
edges, the nail at its tip, anda large knob at the base of the
upper mandible, black ; the plumage white, the tail of twen-
ty-four feathers. In this species the trachea has no extra
thoracic curvature. The tame swan is said to be found in
its wild state in the eastern countries of Europe and Asia.
It is generally distributed over Europe in a domesticated
state, forming a great ornament to our rivers and artificial
pieces of water. It makes its nest of grass, among reeds,
and deposits seven or eight eggs of a greenish-white co-
lour, which are hatched in seven or eight weeks. The
young are of a gray colour, and were formerly much es-
teemed as an article of food.

The black swan, Cygnus atratus, of which the general
colour of the plumage is brownish black, with part of, the
wings white, and the bill red, inhabits various parts of New
Holland, and is now not uncommon in a domesticated state
in this country. (See Plate CCCCII. fig. 5.)

Intermediate between the swans and geese are several
species, such as the Guinea goose, Anas cygnoides of Lin-
nus, and the spur-winged or Gambia goose, Anas Gam-
bensis of the same author,—which, although less elegant
than the swans, are yet nearly allied to them in the form
of their bill.

The geese, genus ANSER, are distinguished, as has been
already said, by the form of their bill, which is short, and
narrowed towards the point. Their feet are also pro-
portionally longer than those of the ducks, so that they
have a greater facility in walking. They swim less, how-
ever, and are incapable of diving. They live in flocks,
feed on gramineous plants and seeds, migrate in large bo-
dies, which during their flight are usually disposed in di-
vergent lines, and breed in marshy places, laying nume-
rous eggs. Those species which have the bill more slen-
der and somewhat cylindrical, are separated by some au-
thors to form the genus Bernicra. Three species of
geese properly so called, and two of bernicles, are not
uncommon during winter in this and other countries of
Europe.

That to which the origin of the domestic goose is attri-
buted, the gray lag, or common wild goose, Anser ferus, is
nearly three feet long, with the bill large and of an orange
colour, the feet flesh-coloured, and the plumage light gray
and clove brown ; the rump and lower parts white. It was
formerly very abundant in this country, where it resided
all the year, but is now met with only in small flocks in
the winter season, although a few individuals have recent-
ly been found to breed in the north of Scotland—for ex-
ample, in the islets of the lochs of Sutherland.

The bean goose, Anser segetum, is a little smaller, with
the bill more elongated, and of an orange colour, with its
base and the nail black; the upper part ash-gray tinged
with brown, the rump dark brown, the abdomen and lower
tail-coverts white. ‘This species is much more plentiful
with us than the last, appearing in large flocks in Novem-
ber, and retiring northward in April and May.

1 Ornithological Dictionary.

The white-fronted goose, Anser albifrons, has the bill Palmi-
and legs orange, the plumage gray on the upper parts, on pedes.

the lower white, and a patch of the same colour on the
forehead.

The common bernicle, Anser leucopsis, which has the
forehead, cheeks, and throat white, with the crown of the
head, the neck, and the breast black, is not unfrequent on
the western coast of Britain in winter; and the brent goose,
Anser torquatus, characterized by having the head, neck,
and breast black, with a white patch on each side of the
neck, is also common in many parts, especially along our
eastern shores. The former of these species was long be-
lieved, even by the learned, to be the produce of a species
of cirripodous animal, the Lepas anatifera of Linnzus, the
long feather-like branchiz of which gave rise to this ab-
surd fable.

Another species of bernicle was observed, on Captain
Parry’s second voyage, on Melville Peninsula, and named
by Dr Richardson, in the Fauna Boreali-Americana, in ho-
nour of Mr Hutchins, from whom Pennant and Latham
derived most of their information respecting the birds of
Hudson’s Bay. It is about twenty-five inches in length,
with a very short black bill; the head, neck, rump, and
tail pitch-black, and a white kidney-shaped patch upon the
throat.

From the bernicles and geese some authors distinguish,
under the generic name of spurwing, CHENALOPEx, the
species usually named the Egyptian goose, which has the
bill longer than the bernicles, and has the wings armed
with a spur upon the bend. It inhabits various parts of
Africa, especially Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope,
whence it has been introduced into this country.

The next genus, CEREOPSIS, is formed by a New Hol-
land species, resembling the bernicles in form, but with
the bill smaller, and having at its base a membrane ex-
tending over the forehead. ‘The palmation of the feet is
not so full as usual.?_ (Plate CCCCII. fig. 2.)

The ducks, properly so called, have the legs much shorter
than the geese, and placed farther back, the neck shorter,
and the body more depressed. ‘Their trachea also has a
large dilatation at its bifurcation.

Some of them, having the hind toe margined with a
membrane or lobe, the tarsi more compressed, the head
larger, and the wings shorter, feed on fishes and other
aquatic animals, and are less expert at walking, but dive
with greater agility. These species have been variously
grouped by authors into numerous genera, of which the
following are among the more remarkable.

The scoters, genus OrpEmta, have the bill short and
broad, with an elevated tumour or knob at the base, but
towards the tip much depressed and flattened, the nail ob-
tuse and roundish ; the lamellz widely set, and scarcely
projecting ; the nostrils oval and sub-medial, the tail short
and graduated.

To this genus belong the velvet scoter, Oidemia fusca ;
the black scoter, O. nigra ; and the surf scoter, O. perspi-
cillata ; which occur along the coasts of the northern tem-
perate regions in winter, feeding on fishes, and especially
mussels and other testaceous mollusca. Like that of the
other sea-ducks, their flesh is held in little estimation, be-
ing dark-coloured and tough, with a fishy flavour.

The garrots, genus CLANGULA, have the bill shorter
than the head, elevated at the base, narrowed towards the
end; the lamellz numerous, but not projecting ; the nos-
trils roundish, and medial; the tail of moderate length, and
graduated.

The golden-eye, Clangula chrysophthalma, which is
white, with the head, the back, and the tail black, a small

* For the history of the only known species, Cer. Nove Hollandia, see Zoological Gardens, vol. ii. p. 315.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Palmi- spot before the eye, and two bands on the wing, white,

pedes.

breeds in the arctic regions of both continents, and appears
on the estuaries and lakes of the more temperate countries
in winter. The female is of a gray colour, with the head
brown. 5

To this genus belongs the harlequin-duck, Clangula his-
trionica (Plate CCCCII. fig. 3), which is distinguished by
having a large patch of white on the lore, a spot on the ear,
a longitudinal band on the sides of the neck, a transverse
band on the neck, and another on each side of the breast,
white ; with the speculum or wing-spot blue, and the legs
dusky. It derives its name from the singularity of its mark-
ings, and inhabits the northern parts of both continents.

The pochards, genus FuLicuta, have the bill as long as
the head, broad and much depressed anteriorly, and a little
dilated towards the tip; the upper lamellze not projecting
beyond the margin; the nostrils oblong, sub-basal ; the
wings and tail short, the latter rounded. This section con-
tains a great number of species, most of which are mari-
time and piscivorous, although the flesh of many is consi-
dered palatable, and that of one, the canvass-backed duck,
has been celebrated by the epicures of the western world.

The red-headed pochard, Fuligula ferina, of which the
head and neck are bright chesnut, the breast black, the
sides and scapulars marked with undulated lines of black
and grayish white, is not uncommon on the coasts of Europe
during the winter, and is not unfrequently seen in our
markets.

Another common species is the scaup-pochard, Fuligula
marila, which has the head and neck black glossed with
green, the back and scapulars whitish with undulating black
lines, and the alar speculum white.

The canvass-backed pochard just alluded to, Fuligula
valisneria (Plate CCCCII. fig. 4), resembles the red-
headed species, and is characterized by having the fore-
head and cheeks dull brown; the head and upper part of
the neck fulvous, the lower part with a black belt; the
back, scapulars, and belly white, marked with narrow
black lines. These birds arrive in the United States from
the arctic regions about the middle of October, and fre-
quent the large rivers and lakes, where they feed chiefly
on the roots of a grass-like plant, the Valisneria spiralis.
Although extremely shy, vast numbers of them are killed
on account of the delicacy of their flesh. Towards even-
ing they collect into large flocks, so extensive as some-
times to cover several acres, and, when rising simultaneously
on wing, to produce a noise like thunder.

The eiders, genus SoMATERIA, have the bill more elon-
gated than that of the garrots, tumid and elevated at the
base, and extending over the forehead in the form of two
narrow processes ; the lamelle large and distant; the nos-
trils small, oval, and medial; the wings and tail short.
The males are distinguished by their greater size and su-
perior beauty. Only two species of this genus are known,
both inhabiting the northern and temperate regions of Eu-
rope and America.

The common or St Cuthbert’s eider, Somateria mollis-
sima, is characterized by having the bill furnished at its
base with lateral prolongations, in the form of two narrow
flat lamellz. The male has the lower parts black, the up-
per parts and the neck white, the top of the head violet-
black, and the cheeks pale green. The female has the
whole plumage reddish brown, with transverse black bars.
This species is extremely abundant in Iceland, Lapland,
Greenland, Spitzbergen, and the countries bordering on
Hudson’s and Baflin’s Bays; but it is also common in all
the northern parts of Europe and America. The female
lays five or six pale greenish-gray eggs, and lines her nest,
which is composed of sea-weeds and other maritime plants,
with the fine and elastic gray down, which she plucks from
her breast for that purpose. This down is carefully collected

in northern countries,—each nest being generally robbed
twice in the season. One female is stated to yield half a
pound of down, which, however, is reduced to one half by
being cleaned. It is extremely soft and warm, and so elas-
tic that two handfuls are sufficient to fill a quilt five feet
square. In 1750, the Iceland Company at Copenhagen
sold so much of this article as produced 3747 rix-dollars,
in addition to what was sent directly to Gluckstadt. Be-
sides supplying this valuable down, the eiders afford an es-
teemed article of food to the Greenlanders, who moreover
convert their skins into warm and comfortable under gar-
ments. Although the species occurs in Britain, it is no-
where so plentiful as to afford enough of down to render it
available as an article of commerce.

The king-eider, Somateria spectabilis, which has the la-
teral prolongations at the base of the bill in the form of
two elevated, compressed tubercles, is very similar to the
other species, and inhabits the same countries, breeding
in the same manner, and lining its nest with down of equal
quality, plucked from its own plumage. The skins are
formed into winter garments by the inhabitants of Siberia
and Kamtschatka ; but as this species is not so numerous
as the other, its down is not of equal importance in a com-
mercial point of view.

Other groups of ducks have the hind toe not bordered
by any membrane, the head smaller, the feet narrower,
the neck longer, the bill less tapering, and the body more
slender. They feed chiefly on vegetable substances, al-
though they also devour fishes, insects, worms, and mol-
lusca. In this section, likewise, various generic divisions
have been made.

The shovellers, genus RuyncwasPis, have the bill longer
than the head, with the upper mandible semi-cylindrical,
and enlarged at the end, and the lamellz so long and slen-
der as to resemble filaments.

The common shoveller, Rhynchaspis clypeata, inhabits
various parts of the north of Europe and America, and is
sometimes met with in England. It is about twenty inches
in length, with the head and neck glossy-green, the back
brown, the breast and abdomen brownish red, and the small-
er wing-coverts pale blue. -

Another species, the fasciated shoveller, Rhynchaspis
fasciata, of a rusty-brown colour, transversely striped with
white beneath, and having the tip of the bill membranace-
ous, is a native of New South Wales.

The shielducks, genus Taporna, have the bill tumid
and elevated at the base, where there is a small tubercle,
but much flattened towards the point; the lamellz short
and distant; the nostrils oval and medial.

The common shieldrake, Tadorna Belloni, which is one
of the most beautiful species of this family, is not very un-
common in some parts of Britain, and occurs also on the
coasts of the northern and western countries of Europe. It
is characterized by having the head and upper part of the
neck greenish black; the back, wing-coverts, and flanks
white ; the scapulars black, and a broad band on the breast
ferruginous. ‘The female nestles in a rabbit-burrow, or
other hole in the sandy pastures on the sea-shore, gene-
rally forming her nest of down plucked from her breast,
and laying from eight to twelve white eggs. Instances
have occurred of its breeding with the common duck; and
Montagu states that it bears confinement well, appearing
to enjoy perfect health, provided access to a pond is al-
lowed it.

The musk-ducks, genus Cairina, have the bill also
furnished with an elevated tubercle at the base ; the edges
of the mandibles sinuated ; the face and lores covered with
a bare tuberculated skin ; and the wings furnished with a
knob or spur at the bend.

The common musk-duck, Cairina moschata, which is
now generally distributed over Europe in a domesticated

637
Palmi-
pedes.

638 ORNITHOLOGY.
Palmi- state, is a native of the warmer parts of America. Inits keep it distended. Supposing the circular bend of the Palmi-
pedes. natural state it has the plumage entirely of a black colour, pipe to be to the right, when you stand with your back to _ Petes.

glossed with green and blue, excepting the wing-coverts, the lake, on the left-hand side, a number of reed-fences —~~—

which are white.

The pintails, genus Dariza, have the bill destitute of
tubercle at the base, narrow, somewhat cylindrical, with
its edges dentato-laminate ; the nostrils are basal, and the
tail elongated, and tapering to a point.

The common pintail, Dajfila acuta, has the head umber-
brown, with a longitudinal white line on each side of the
occiput and hind neck ; the back and flanks undulated with
black and grayish white ; the lower parts white ; and the
two central tail-feathers black. It breeds in the arctic re-
gions of Europe, Asia, and America; retires southward in
winter ; is very shy and vigilant ; and is much esteemed as
an article of food.

The ducks, strictly se called, genus Anas, are distin-
guished by having the bill simple at the base, as long as
the head, depressed, broad, and obtuse ; the nostrils oval
and small; the tail moderate, even, or rounded, often with
the middle feathers and their coverts recurved.

Of this genus, the most common species in Europe is
that which is supposed to be the original of the domestic
duck, and which with us is named the wild duck or mal-
lard, Anas boschas. The male is a very beautiful bird,
having the head and upper part of the neck deep green,
the latter with a white ring ; the four middle tail-feathers
recurved; the upper parts marked with fine undulated
grayish-brown and white lines, the breast deep chesnut,
the lower parts grayish white, undulated with grayish-
brown lines; the alar spot green, edged above and be-
low with white. It inhabits all the northern countries of
the globe, and is common in Britain, where it breeds,
forming its nest of withered plants in marshy places, and
laying from ten to fifteen bluish-white eggs. Instances
have cccurred of its occupying the deserted nest of a crow.
Its flesh is justly held in great estimation, and vast num-
bers are shot and caught in decoys. The following ac-
count of the method employed in capturing wild ducks in
the fens of Lincolnshire is given by Bewick.

“ In the lakes where they resort, the most favourite
haunts of the fowl are observed : then in the most seques-
tered part of this haunt they cut a ditch about four yards
across at the entrance, and about fifty or sixty yards in
length, decreasing gradually in width from the entrance
to the farther end, which is not more than two feet wide.
It is of a semicircular form, but not bending much for the
first ten yards. The banks of the lake, for about ten
yards on each side of this ditch (or pipe, as it is called),
are kept clear from reeds, coarse herbage, &c. in order
that the fowl may get on them to sit and dress themselves.
Across this ditch, poles on each side, close to the edge of
the ditch, are driven into the ground, and the tops bent to
each other, and tied fast. These poles at the entrance
form an arch, from the top of which to the water is about
ten feet. This arch is made to decrease in height as the
ditch decreases in width, till the farther end is not more
than eighteen inches in height. The poles are placed
about six feet from each other, and connected together by
poles laid lengthwise across the arch, and tied together.
Over them a net with meshes sufficiently small to prevent
the fowl getting through is thrown across, and made fast to
areed fence at the entrance, and nine or ten yards up the
ditch, and afterwards strongly pegged to the ground. At
the farther end of the pipe a tunnel-net, as it is called, is
fixed, about four yards in length, of a round form, and
kept open by a number of hoops about eighteen inches in
diameter, placed at a small distance from each other to

are constructed, called shootings, for the purpose of screen-
ing from sight the decoy-man, and in such a manner that
the fowl in the decoy may not be alarmed when he is driv-
ing those in the pipe: these shootings are about four
yards in length, and about six feet high, and are ten in
number. From the end of the last shooting a person can-
not see the lake, owing to the bend in the pipes: there is
then no farther occasion for shelter. Were it not for
these shootings, the fowl that remain about the mouth of
the pipe would be alarmed, if the person driving the fowl
already under the net should be exposed, and would be-
come so shy as to forsake the place entirely. The first thing
the decoy-man does when he approaches the pipe, is to take
a piece of lighted turf or peat, and hold it near his mouth,
to prevent the fowl smelling him. He is attended by a dog
taught for the purpose of assisting him ; he walks very si-
lently about half-way up the shootings, where a small piece
of wood is thrust through the reed fence, which makes an
aperture just sufficient to see if any fowl are in; if not, he
walks forward to see if any are about the mouth of the pipe.
If there are, he stops and makes a motion to his dog, and
gives him a piece of cheese or something to eat; upon
receiving it, he goes directly to a hole in the reed-fence,
and the fowl immediately fly off the bank into the water ;
the dog returns along the bank between the reed-fences
and the pipe, and comes out to his master at another hole.
The man now gives him another reward, and he repeats
his round again, till the fowl are attracted by the motion
of the dog, and follow him into the mouth of the pipe.
This operation is called working them. The man now re-
treats farther back, working the dog at different holes till
the fowl are directly under the net; he now commands
his dog to lie down still behind the fence, and goes for-
ward to the end of the pipe next the lake, where he takes
off his hat, and gives it a wave between the shooting; all
the fowl under the net can see him, but none that are in
the lake can. The fowl that are in sight fly forward, and
the man runs forward to the next shooting and waves his
hat, and so on, driving them along till they come to the
tunnel-net, where they creep in: when they are all in
he gives the net a twist, so as to prevent their getting
back ; he then takes the net off from the end of the pipe
with what fowl he may have caught, and takes them out
one at a time, and dislocates their necks, and hangs the net
on again, and all is ready for working again. In this man-
ner five or six dozen have been taken at one drift. When
the wind blows directly in or out of the pipes, the fowl
seldom work well, especially when it blows in. If many
pipes are made in the jake, they are so constructed as to
suit different winds.”! The better to entice the fowl into
the pipe, hempseed is strewed occasionally in the water.
The season allowed by act of parliament for catching
these birds in this way is from the latter end of October
till February.

The Chinese duck, Anas galericulata, with a pendent
crest, and the inner wing-feathers enlarged and raised in
a vertical direction, is an extremely beautiful species, a
native of China and Japan,

The summer duck, Anas sponsa, which also has a pen-
dent crest, is not less beautitul. (Plate CCCCII. fig. 8.)
It inhabits Mexico and other parts of North America,
migrating northward in summer, rarely visiting the sea-
shore or salt marshes, but frequenting the muddy creeks,
ponds, and mill-dams of the interior.

The tree duck, Anas arborea, of a gray colour, the ab-

T British Birds, vol. ii. p. 294.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Illiger’s domen spotted with black and white, and the head
System. slightly crested, inhabits the warmer parts of America,

and is remarkable for building in the holes of decayed
trees.

The gadwall or gray, Anas strepera, the Dominican
duck, A. Dominicana, the Spanish duck, A. viduata, and
many other species, belong to this genus,—which might
include the teals, although these are separated by several
authors. . ‘ped,

The wigeons, genus Mareca, may be distinguished
from the ducks, as they have the bill shorter than the
head, higher than broad at the base, depressed and nar-
rowed towards the end; the lamellz slightly projecting ;
the tail short and acute. They are, however, very inti-
mately allied to the pintails. ;

Of this genus one of the best examples is the common
wigeon, Mareca Penelope, which has the forehead yellow-
ish white, the rest of the head and the neck chesnut-red,
the back and flanks undulated with black and white. The
male of this species has been known to pair with the fe-
male pintail, and produce a hybrid brood. It also pairs
with the common duck. Wigeons are abundant in winter
in many parts of Britain, and are very much esteemed for
the table.

The teals, genus QUERQUEDULA, are distinguished
from the other groups by their diminutive size. Their
bill is narrower than that of the wigeons, proportionally
longer, and has its base more elevated. The species are
generally very beautiful. ’

The garganey teal, Querquedula circia, of a gray colour,
variegated with black, and having a white streak above
the eyes, with’a green spot on the wing, inhabits the more
temperate parts of Europe, and is abundant in Holland
during its winter migration. :

The common teal, Querquedula crecca, which has the
head brownish red, the body transversely undulated with
dusky, a white line above and another beneath the eye,
and the alar spot black and green, is plentiful in man
parts of Europe and North America; while the blue-
winged teal, @. discors, characterized by the light blue

colour of the wing-coverts, is peculiar to the latter conti-
nent, as is likewise the American teal, Q. Carolinensis.
The second principal group named Mergide, consist-
ing of the genus Mercus of Linneus, includes the re-
maining birds of the great family of Lamellirostres, which
are usually designated by the vernacular name of mer-
gansers. They differ from the ducks in having their bill
slender, almost cylindrical, and furnished on the margins
with dentiform points directed backwards, and resembling
the teeth ofa saw. (Plate CCCCII. fig. 6.) Their sum-
mer residence is in the colder regions of both continents,
whence they migrate southward on the approach of win-
ter. Their body is elongated and depressed, their feet
short and placed far behind, their wings rather long and
narrow, their neck of moderate length. They fly with ra-
pidity, swim and dive with the greatest facility, and gene-

rally feed on fishes. In their habits they are interme-

diate between the ducks and divers; but in their organi-
zation and plumage they are more nearly allied to the for-
mer. Their trachez, besides having an exceedingly large
dilatation at its bifurcation, is also enlarged previous to its
entrance into the thorax. In accordance with their pisci-
vorous propensities, their gullet is wider than that of the
ducks, and their gizzard less muscular.

Three species occur in the temperate parts of Europe.
The goosander, Mergus merganser, of which the male is
black, with the lower parts buff-coloured, and the head
purplish green, with a slender elongated crest; the red-
breasted merganser, MW. serrator, about the size of the mal-
lard, also crested, the male black above, white beneath,
with the head dark green; and the smew, M. albellus,
which is smaller than the golden-eye, varied with black
and white, and having a large compressed white crest.
All these occur also in the northern parts of America,
which has moreover a species peculiar to itself, the hooded
merganser, JM. cucullatus (Plate CCCCII. fig. 7), of a
blackish colour above, white beneath, with a semicircular
black crest, white on each side. The females and young
of all the species differ greatly in colour from the adult
males. (7.)

THE ORDERS, FAMILIES, AND GENERA, OF BIRDS, ACCORDING TO THE SYSTEM OF ILLIGER.!

Orper I.—ScansoreEs.

Family Psitéacini............

Gen. Psittacus, Pezoporus (eZozogos, pedester).

Family Serrati.......02..... Gen. Rhamphastos, Pteroglossus (xrago, penna, ydooou, lingua), Pogonias (raryuviens,
barbatus), Corythaix (xoguda, galea, cristam movens), Trogon, Musophaga.

Family Amphiboli........... Gen. Cane Scythrops, Bucco, Cuculus, Centropus (xevren, stimulus, calcar ;
mous, pes). .

Family Sagittilingues....... Gen. Yunx, Picus.

Family Syndactyli.......... Gen. Galbula.

OrpER I].—AMBEULATORES.

Family Angulirostres....... Gen. Alcedo, Merops.

Family Suspensi............ Gen. Trochilus.

Family Tenuirostres......... Gen. Nectarinia (nectar florum haurientes), Tichodroma (reixos, murus, dgou0s, cursitans),
Upupa.

SC Kh

1 Prodromus Mammalium et Avium, Berlin, 1811.

639
Illiger’s
System.

640

Illiger’s Family Pygarrhichi.........
System. Family Gregarit .....0... +++

Family Canori.........0.+
Family Passerini.......+.+.

Family Dentirostres.........
Family Coraces .....++0000+
Family Sericati .......+.00++
Family Hiantes......00+00

Family Nocturnt..........+.
Family Accipitrini..........
Family Vuléurini....0......

Family Gallinacet...........

Family E/pollicati..........+.
Family Columbini...........
Family Crypturi.........+ :
Family Inepti...........0000

Family Procert.........se0++-
Family Campestres..........
Family Littorales............-

Family Vaginati............
Family Alectorides..........

Family Herodit............+-

Family Faleati.........000...
Family Limicole@............

Family Macrodactyli........
Family Lobipedes.........++-
Family Hygrobate..........

Family Longipennes........-
Family Tubinares........+...

Family Lamelloso-dentatz...
Family Steganopodes........
Family Pygodopes........++

Family Impennes........<.-++

ORNITHOLOGY.

Gen. Certhia, Dendrocolaptes. Illiger’s
Gen. Xenops (Zev0s, inusttatus, novus, wl, vultus), Sitta, Buphaga, Oriolus, Cassicus, System-
Sturnus. Po
Gen. Turdus, Cinclus, Accentor, Motacilla, Muscicapa, Myiothera (wuia, musca, Inouw,
venor, capto), Lanius, Sparactes (oragaxrns, lanio, lacerator), Todus, Pipra. C
Gen. Parus, Alauda, Emberiza, Tanagra, Fringilla, Loxia, Colius, Glaucopis, Phyto-
toma.
Gen. Prionites («giwy, serra), Buceros.
Gen. Corvus, Coracias, Paradisea, Cephalopterus, Gracula.
Gen. Ampelis, Procnias.
Gen. Hirundo, Cypselus, Caprimulgus.

Orver II].—Raprrorss.

Gen. Strix.
Gen. Falco, Gypogeranus (yu), vultur, yeguvos, grus), Gypaétus.
Gen. Vultur, Cathartes (xaéuegrns, purgator).

OrprEr IV.—Rasores.

Gen. Numida, Meleagris, Penelope, Crax, Opisthocomus (Hoffmansege, omicSoxoju0s, oc-
cipite comatus), Pavo, Phasianus, Gallus, Menura, Tetrao, Perdix.

Gen. Ortygis (ogrv&, coturnix), Syrrhaptes (cuppamrsi, consuere).

Gen. Columba.

Gen. Crypturus (xgurrey, occultare, oven, cauda).

Gen. Didus.

OrpeR V.—CurRsoREs.

Gen. Casuarius, Struthio, Rhea.

Gen. Otis.

Gen. Charadrius, Calidris, Himantopus, Hematopus, Tachydromus (rarudgowos, velociter
eurrens), Burhinus.

OrpER VI.—GRALLATORES.

Gen. Chionis.

Gen. Glareola, Cereopsis, Dicholophus (é:ya, bifariam ; ropes, erista), Palamedea, Chauna
(uur, fungosus, infiatus, inanis), Psophia.

Gen. Grus, Ciconia, Ardea, Eurypyga (cvgus, atus, ruyn, anus, cauda), Scopus, Cancroma,
Anastomus,

Gen. Tantalus, Ibis.

Gen. Numenius, Scolopax, Ereunetes (cgewyrns, explorator), Actitis (axrizis, in littore
degens), Strepsilas (orgeew, veriere, Ads, lapis), Tringa.

Gen. Parra, Rallus, Crex.

Gen. Fulica, Podoa (sous, pes, wa, limbus, Aimbria), Phalaropus.

Gen. Corrira, Recurvirostra, Platalea, Phzenicopterus.

Orver VII.—NATATOREs.

Gen. Rhyncops, Sterna, Larus, Lestris (Anorgs, predatriz).

Gen. Procellaria, Haladroma (aAadgowas, in mare cursitans), Pachyptila (raxus, densus,
aridoy, pluma), Diomedea.

Gen. Anas, Anser, Mergus.

Gen. Pelecanus, Halieus (aAcus, piscator), Dysporus, Phaéton, Plotus.

Gen. Colymbus, Eudytes (<u, bene, facile, durns, wrinator), Uria, Mormon (woguor, larva),
Alca.

Gen. Aptenodytes.

Tem-
minck’s
and Vi-
zors’s Sys-
tems.

—_—_——

ORNITHOLOGY.

THE ‘ORNITHOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF M. TEMMINCK.!

Orper I—Rapaces.

Genera.—Vultur, Cathartes, Gypztus, Gypogeranus,

Falco, Strix.
Orver IJ.—Omnivorses.

Genera.—Opisthocomus, Buceros, Prionites, Corvus,
Nucifraga, Pyrrhocorax, Barita, Glaucopis, Gracula, Bu-
phaga, Bombycivora, Pfilonorhynchus, Coracias, Colaris,
Oriolus, Icterus, Sturnus, Pastor, Paradisea, Lamprotornis.

OrveEr IIJ.—InseEcTivores.

Genera.—Turdus, Cinclus, Menura, Pitta, Myothera,
Tamnophilus, Vanga, Lanius, Psaris, Sparactes, Ocypte-
rus, Criniger, Edolius, Ceblepyris, Coracina, Ampelis, Cas-
marhinchos, Procnias, Rupicola, Phibalura, Pipra, Parda-
lotus, Todus, Platyrhinchos, Muscipeta, Muscicapa, Ma-
lurus, Sylvia, Saxicola, Accentor, Motacilla, Anthus.

Orpver IV.—GRANIVORES.

Genera.—Alauda, Parus, Emberiza, Tanagra, Ploceus,
Loxia, Psittirostra, Pyrrhula, Fringilla, Phytotoma, Colius.

OrpeR V.—ZyGoDACTYLI.

First Family.

Genera—Musophaga, Indicator, Cuculus, Coccyzus,
Centropus, Pheenicophaus, Leptosomus, Scythrops, Ptero-
glossus, Ramphastos, Crotophaga, Trogon, Capito, Bucco,
Pogonias, Psittacus.

Second Family.
Genera.—Picus, Yunx.

Orver VI.—ANISODACTYLI.
Genera.—Oxyrincus, Orthonyx, Dendrocolaptes, Xe-
nops, Anabates, Opetiorynchos, Certhia, Cereba, Trochi-
lus, Nectarinia, Climacteris, Tichodroma, Upupa, Epi-
machus, Drepanis, Meliphaga.
Orpver VII.—AtcIonEs.
Genera.—Merops, Alcedo, Dacelo.

Orper VIII.—CueE.ipones.
Genera.—Hirundo, Cypselus, Caprimulgus.

Orver [X.—CoLumsBz.

Genus.—Columba.

OrpeR X.—GALLIN2.

Genera.—Pavo, Gallus, Phasianus, Lophophorus, Poly-
plectron, Meleagris, Argus, Numida, Pauxi, Crax, Pene-
lope, Tetrao, Pterocles, Syrrhaptes, Perdix, Cryptonyx,
Tinamus, Hemipodius. - A

Orver XI.—ALEcTORIDEs.

Genera.—Psophia, Dicholophus, Glareola, Palamedea,
Chauna.

Orper XII.—Cursores.

Genera.—Struthio, Rhea, Casuarius, Otis, Cursorius.
Orver XIII.—GratLaTorEs.

First Family.
Genera.—CEdicnemus, Calidris, Falcinellus, Himanto-
pus, Hzematopus, Charadrius.
Second Family.

Genera.—Vanellus, Strepsilus, Grus, Aramus, Ardea,
Ciconia, Anastomus, Scopus, Pheenicopterus, Recurviros-
tra, Cancroma, Platalea, Tantalus, Ibis, Numenius, Trin-
ga, Totanus, Limosa, Scolopax, Rynchza, Eurypyga, Ral-
lus, Gallinula, Parra, Porphyrio.

OrperR XIV.—PINNaTIPEDES.

Genera.—Fulica, Podoa, Phalaropus, Podiceps.

OrpEeR XV.—PALMIPEDES.

Genera.—Cereopsis, Chionis, Rynchops, Sterna, Larus,
Lestris, Procellaria, Pachyptila, Haladroma, Diomedea,
Anas, Mergus, Pelecanus, Carbo, Tachypetes, Sula,
Plotus, Phaéton, Uria, Phaleris, Mormon, Alca, Sphenis-
cus, Aptenodytes.

OrvEer XVI.—IneERTEs.

Genera.—Apteryx, Didus.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS, AS PROPOSED BY MR VIGORS.?

NX

Orper I.—Raprorss, Ill. (Accipitres, Linn.)

Ist Famtty. ?—Gen. Gypogeranus, Ill. (Serpen-
tarius, Cuv.; Ophiotheres, Vieill.).

2p Famity. VuLtTuripz#.—l. Gen. Cathartes,
Ill. (Catharista, Vieill.); 2. —— Gen. Sarcoramphus,
Dum. (Cathartis. pars, Ill.; Gypagus, Vieill.); 3.
Gen. Gyps, Sav.; Vultur, Auct. (Zgypius, Sav.); 4.
‘Gen. Gypztus, Storr. (Phene, Sav.) ; 5. Gen.
Neophron, Sav. (Cathartis pars, Temm.).

3p Famity. Fatconipz#, Leach.—1. Sub-fam. Aqui-
lina. Gen. Ibycter, Vieill.; Daptrius, Vieill.; Polybo-
rus, Vieill.; Pandion, Sav.; Halizetus, Sav.; Aquila,
Auct.; Harpyia, -Cuv.; Physeta, Vieill.; Morphnus,
Cuv. (Spizaétus, Vieill.); Cymindis, Cuv.; Asturina,

1 From the Manuel d’ Ornithologie, i. xlviii. 1820.
VOL. XVI.

Vieill. 2. Sub-fam. Accipitrina. Gen. Dedalion, Sav.;
Astur, Auct. (Sparvius, Vieill.); Accipiter, Auct.; Har-
pagus; Gampsonyx. 3. Sub-fam. Faleonina. Gen. Hie-
rax, Vig.; Falco, Auct. 4. Sub-fam. Buteonina. Gen.
Ictinia, Vieill.; Circus, Auct.; Pernis, Cuv.; Buteo,
Auct. 5. Sub-fam. Milvina. Gen. Elanus, Sav.; Nau-
clerus, Vig. ; Milvus, Auct.

47H Famity. Stricipm, Leach.—l. Sub-fam. Woc-
tuina. Gen. Surnia, Dum.; Noctua, Sav. 2. Sub-fam.
Bubonina. Gen. Scops, Sav.; Bubo, Cuv. 3. Sub-
fam. Asionina. Gen. Asio, Antiq. (Olus, Cuv.). 4.
Sub-fam. Striging. Gen. Ulula, Cuv.; Strix, Auct. 5.
Sub-fam. Syrniana. Gen. Syrnium, Linn.

oTH FamMity.. ——?

2 In the Zoological Journal, No. vii. p. 392. 1825.

4M

641

Tem-
minck’s
and Vi-

gors’s Sys-
tems.

_—_—o—

642 ORNITHOLOGY.
Vigors’s OrpeER II.—InsxssorEs. (Pice, Passeres, Linn.) fam. Passerina. Gen. Fringilla, Auct.; Passer, Auct. Vigors’s
System. Tribe I Fissi c (Pyrgita, Cuv.). 5. Sub-fam. Pyrrhulina? Gen. Lina- System-
SaaS ribe £.—frisszrostres, Cuv. ria, Bechst.; Vidua, Cuv.; Pyrrhula, Briss. ? =v

- Briss.; Ploceus, Cuy. (Agelaii pars, Vieill.).

lst Faminy. Meropip#.—Gen. Merops, Linn. (Api-
aster, Briss.). F

2p Famity. Hrrunpinip#.—Gen. Cypselus, Ill.
(Apus, Cuv.; Micropus, Meyer); Hirundo, Auct.

3p Famity. CaprimuLcip#.—Gen. Caprimulgus,
Auct.; Podargus, Cuv.; /igotheles, Vig. and Hors.;
Steatornis, Humb.; Nyctebius, Vieill.

4tH Famity. Topi>p#—Gen. Eurylaimus, Horsf. ;
Eurystomus, Vieill. (Colaris, Cuv.); Todus, Auct.

57TH Famity. Hatcyonrp#—Gen. Alcedo, Linn.
(Ispida, Briss.); Haleyon, Swains.; Dacelo, Leach ; Ta-
nysiptera, Vig.; Galbula, Briss.; Capito, Vieill.? Mo-
nasa, Vieill.?

Tribe I1—Dentirostres, Cuv.

Ist Fami.y. Muscicarip#.—Gen. Platyrhynchus,
Desm.; Muscicapa, Auct.; Muscipeta, Cuv.; Onychor-
hynchus, Fisch.; Vireo, Vieill.? Icteria, Vieill.?

2p Faminy. Laniapz.—1. Sub-fam. Tyrannina,
Swains. Gen. Tyrannus, Cuv.; Tityra, Vieill. (Psaris,
Cuyv.) ; Gubernetes, Such. 2. Sub-fam. Dierurina, Swains.
Gen. Artamus, Vieill. (Ocypterus, Cuv.); Dicrurus,
Vieill. (Edolius, Cuv.); Trichophorus, Temm.? Irena,
Horsf. 3. Sub-fam. Zaniana, Swains. Gen. Sparactes,
Tll.; Lanius, Auct.; Falcunculus, Vieill.; Cyclarhis, Swains. ;
Lanio, Vieill.2 4. Sub-fam. Zhamnophilina, Swains.
Gen. Vanga, Cuv.; Thamnophilus, Vieill.; Malaconotus,
Swains.; Formicivora, Swains.; Drymophila, Swains.;
Laniarius, Vieill.; Prionops, Vieill. 5. Sub-fam. Campe-

hagina, Swains. Gen. Grauculus, Cuv.; Campephaga,
Vieill. (Ceblepyris, Cuy.).

3p Famiry. Merurtipa—l. Sub-fam. Myotherina,
Swains. Gen. Urotomus, Swains.; Myothera, Ill. (Myr-
mothera, Vieill.); Pitta, Vieill.; Grallaria, Vieill.; Co-
nophaga, Vieill.; Cinclus, Bechst. ? (Hydrobata, Vieill.) ;
Chameza, Vig. 2. Sub-fam. Merulina. Gen. Merula,
Ray; Sphecotheres, Vieill.? 3. Sub-fam. Oriolina. Gen.
Oriolus, Auct. 4. Sub-fam. Cossyphina. Gen. Cossy-
pha, Vig.; Timalia, Horsf.? 5. Gen. Petrocincla, Vig.

47H Famity. Syiviap#.—l. ? Gen. Hylo-
philus, Temm.; Tora, Horsf.; Accentor, Bechst.; Pru-
nella, Gessn.? 2. ? Gen. Brachypteryx, Horsf. ;
Curruca, Bechst.; Ficedula, Bechst.; Cégithina, Vieill. ?
3. Sub-fam. Sylviana., Gen. Sylvia, Auct.; Melizophilus,
Leach ; Synallaxis, Vieill.; Malurus, Vieill.; Troglodytes,
Cuv.; Regulus, Cuv.; Tyrannulus, Vieill. 4. Sub-fam.
Motacillina. Gen. Motacilla, Auct.; Budytes, Cuv.;
Enicurus, Temm.; Anthus, Bechst.; Corydalla, Vig.;
Megalurus, Horsf. 5. Sub-fam. Saxicolina. Gen. Saxi-
cola, Bechst. (CEnanthe, Vieill.).

5TH Famity. Pipripz—Gen. /Egithalus, Vig.; Pa-
rus, Linn.; Megistina, Vieill.; Pardalotus, Vieill.; Pipra,
Linn. (Manacus, Briss.); Rupicola, Briss.; Calyptome-
na, Raffles; Phibalura, Vieill.; Bombicilla, Briss.; Am-
pelis, Auct. (Cotinga, Briss.; Tersa, Vieill.); Procnias,
Hoffm. ; Casmarhynchus, Temm. (Ampelis, Vieill.) ;
Querula, Vieill.; Coracina, Vieill. (Cephalopterus, Geoff.) ;
Pachycephala, Swains.

Tribe III.—Conirostres, Cuv.

Ist FAMILY. FRINGILLIDZ.—1. Sub-fam. Tanagrina ?
Gen. Euphonia, Vieill.; Nemosia, Vieill. ; Tachyphonus,
Vieill. ; Saltator, Vieill.; Tanagra,-Auct.; Pyranga,
Vieill.; Ramphopis, Vieill.; Arremon, Vieill.; Dulus,
Vieill.? Pipilo, Vieill. 2. Sub-fam. Alaudina. Gen.
Emberiza, Linn.; Passerina, Vieill.; Alauda, Auct.; Mi-
rafra, Horsf. 3. Sub-fam. Carduelina. Gen. Carduelis,
4. Sub-

2p Famity. Srurnip#.—l1. Sub-fam. Jcterina. Gen.
Xanthornus, Cuv. (Yphantes, Vieill.); Icterus, Cuv. (Pen-
dulinus, Vieill.); Sycobius, Vieill.? Quisealus, Vieill. ;
Cassicus, Daud. ; Leistes (Agelaii pars, Vieill.). 2. Sub-
fam. Sturnina. Gen. Sturnella, Vieill.; Sturnus, Linn. ;
Amblyramphus, Leach; Dilophus, Vieill.? 3. ? Gen.
Lamprotornis, Temm.; Acridotheres, Vieill. (Gracula,
Cuv.). 4. ? Gen. Pastor, Temm. (Psaroidos, Vieill.);
Grallina, Vieill.? 5. ? Gen. Buphaga, Linn.

3p Faminy. Corvin, Leach.—l. ? Gen. Crae-
ticus, Vieill. (Barita, Cuv.); Nucifraga, Briss. 2. Sub-
fam. Corvina. Gen. Pica, Briss.; Garrulus, Briss. ; Cor-
vus, Auct. 3.Sub-fam. Coraciana. Gen. Coracias, Linn.
(Galgulus, Briss.); Gracula, Auct. (Eulabes, Cuv.); Pti-
lonorhynchus, Kuhl; Glaucopis, Forst. (Callaas, Lath.) ;
Crypsirina, Vieill. (Phrenotrix, Horsf.). 4. Sub-fam. Pa-
radiseana. Astrapia, Vieill.; Parotia, Vieill.; Paradisea,
Linn. (Manucodiata, Briss.); Lophorina, Vieill.; Cicin-
nurus, Vieill.; Epimachus, Cuv.? 5. ? Gen. Fregi-
lus, Cuv. (Coracias, Briss.) ; Pyrrhocorax, Vieill.

47H FAMILY. BuceR1p#, Leach.—Gen. Buceros, Linn.
(Hydrocorax, Briss.) ; Momotus, Briss. (Prionites, Ill. ;
Baryphonus, Vieill.).

57H Famity. Loxiap#.—Gen. Phytotoma, Gmel.; Coc-
cothraustes, Briss.; Pytilus, Cuv.; Loxia, Briss.; Psitti-
rostra, Temm.; Colius, Linn.? Cissopis, Vieill. (Bethy-
lus, Cuv.) ; Strobilophaga, Vieill. (Corythus, Cuv.).

Tribe 1V.—Scansores, Atct.

Ist Famity. RAMpHAsTID#.—Gen. Scythrops, Lath. ;
Ramphastos, Linn. (Tucana, Briss.) ; Pteroglossus, Ill.

2p Famity. Psirracip#, Leach.—l1l. Sub-fam. Psit-
tacina. Gen. Psittacus, Auct.; Androglossa. 2. Sub-
fam. Plyctolophina. Gen. Plyctolophus, Vieill.; Calypto-
rhynchus, Vig. and Hors. ; Microglossum, Geoff. 3. Sub-
fam. Macrocercina. Gen. Macrocercus, Vieill. 4. Sub-
fam. Paleornina. Gen. Psittacara; Nanodes, Vig. and
Hors.; Platycercus ; Pezoporus, Ill. ; Palzornis, Vig. ; Tri-
choglossus, Vig. and Hors. ; Lorius, Vig. ; Brotogeris, Vig.
5, Sub-fam. Psittaculina. Gen. Psittacula, Kuhl.

3p Famity. Picip#.—Gen. Pogonias, Ill.; Bucco,
Auct.; Picus, Linn.; Colaptes, Swains.; Yunx, Linn.
(Torquilla, Briss.).

47H Famity. Crertutap#.—Gen. Dendrocolaptes,
Herm. (Dendrocopus, Vieill.); Certhia, Auct.; Climac-
teris, Temm.; Orthonyx, Temm.; Tichodroma, Ill. (Pe-
trodroma, Vieill.); Upupa, Linn.; Sitta, Linn. ; Xenops,
Hoffm.; Orthotomus, Horsf.; Neops, Vieill.; Mniotilta,
Vieill. ; Thriothurus, Vieill.; Pyrrota, Vieill.? Opetiorhyn-
chus, Temm. ; Oxyrhynchus, Temm.

5TH Famity. CucuLipm, Leach.—Gen. Coccyzus,
Vieill.; Leptosomus, Vieill.; Cuculus, Auct.; Indicator,
Vieill.; Centropus, Ill. (Corydonyx, Vieill.); Saurothera,
Vieill. ; Phznicophaus, Vieill.; Crotophaga, Linn.; Tro-
gon, Linn.; Corythaix, Ill.? (Opzthus, Vieill.) ; Muso-
phaga, Isert. ?

Tribe V.—Tenuirostres, Cuv.

Ist Famity. NEcTARINIADZ ?—Gen. Nectarinia, IIl.;
(Cereba, Vieill-); Dacnis, Cuv.; Furnarius, Vieill. ?

2p FamMity. CyNNyRID#.—Gen. Cinnyris, Cuv. (Mel-
lisuga, Vieill.) ; Dicaeum, Cuv.; Drepanis, Temm.

3p Famity. Trocuitip#.—Gen. Trochilus, Auct.
aleata Briss.) ; Mellisuga, Briss. (Orthorhynchus,

acepede).

47H Famity. Promeropip#.—Gen. Promerops, Briss.
(Falcinellus, Vieill.). ‘

57TH Famity. Me,ipHacipn£—Gen. Meliphaga, Lewin

ORNITHOLOGY.

Swainson’s (Philedon, Cuv.; Philemon, Vieill.); Melithreptus, Vieill. ;
System. Creadion, Vieill.; Mimetes, King? Sericulus, Swains. ?

643

47H Famity. Raryiip#, Leach.—Gen. Parra, Linn. Swainson’s
(Jacana, Briss.); Palamedea, Linn. (Anhima, Briss.) ; System.

Ptiloris, Swains. ; Pomatorhinus, Horsf.? Prinia, Horsf. ?

Orpver JII.—Rasorss, Ill. (Gallinze, Linn.)

Ist Famity. Cotumsip®, Leach.—Gen. Treron,
Vieill. (Vinago, Cuv.); Columba, Auct.; Ptilinopus, Swains.;
Lophyrus, Vieill.

2p Famity. PxHastanip®.—Gen. Meleagris, Linn.
(Gallopavo, Briss.) ; Pavo, Linn.; Diplectron, Vieill. (Po-
lyplectron, Temm.); Gallus, Briss.; Monaulus, Vieill.
(Lophophorus, Temm.); Phasianus, Auct. ; Argus, Temm. ;
Numida, Linn. (Melegris, Briss.).

3p Famity. Trerraonip#, Leach.—Gen. Liponyx,
Vieill. (Cryptonyx, Temm.) ; Odontophorus, Vieill. ; Co-
turnix, Cuv.; Perdix, Briss.; Ganga, Vieill. (Pterocles,
Temm.) ; Tetrao, Auct.; Lagopus, Vieill.; Syrrhaptes, Ill.
(Heteroclitus, Vieill.); Ortygis, Ill. (Ortygodes, Vieill. ;
Hemipodius, Temm.); Tinamus, Lath. (Crypturus, Ill. ;
Cryptura, Vieill.).

4TH Famity. StrurHionip&.—Gen. Rhea, Briss. ;
Struthio, Linn. ; Casuarius, Briss.; Dromiceius, Vieill.; Di-
dus, Linn. (Raphus, Briss.) ; Otis, Linn.

5TH Famity. Cracip#—Gen. Ourax, Cuv. (Pauxi,
Temm.) ; Crax, Linn. ; Penelope, Merr. ; Ortalida, Merr.;
Opisthocomus, Hoffm.? (Orthocorys, Vieill.); Menura,
Lath.; Megapodius, Temm.

Orver IV.—Gra.atTorss, Ill. (Gralla, Linn.)

Ist Famity. Gruip#.—Gen. Psophia, Linn.; An-
thropoides, Vieill.; Balearica, Briss.; Grus, Pall.; Caria-
ma, Briss. (Dicholophus, Il].; Zophorhynchus, Vieill. ; Ma-
crodactylus, Geoff).

2p Famity. ArpE1Ip#, Leach.—Gen. Aramus, Vieill. ;
Eurypyga, Ill. (Helias, Vieill.); Ardea, Auct.; Canchro-
ma, Linn. (Cochlearius, Briss.); Phzenicopterus, Linn. ;
Platalea, Linn. (Platea, Briss.) ; Ciconia, Briss.; Mycte-
ria, Linn.; Scopus, Briss.; Anastomus, Ill. (Hians, La-
cep.); Tantalus, Linn. ; Ibis, Lacep. (Falcinellus, Bechst.).

3p Famity. ScoLtopactp#.—Gen. Numenius, Briss. ;
Totanus, Bechst. (Actitis pars., Ill.) ; Recurvirostra,
Linn. (Avocetta, Briss.); Limosa, Briss. (Actitis pars.,
Ill.; Limicula, Vieill!.); Ereunetes, Ill. ; Macroramphus,
Leach? Scolopax, Auct.; Rusticola, Vieill.; Rynchza,
Cuv. (Rostratula, Vieill.); Machetes, Cuv. (Actitis pars.,
Ill.); Pelida, Cuv.; Phalaropus, Briss. (Crymophilus,
Vieill.); Lobipes, Cuv. (Phalaropus, Vieill.); Tringa,
Auct. (Actitis pars., Ill.) ; Pheeopus, Cuv.

Chauna, Ill. (Opistolophus, Vieill.); Glareola, Briss. ;
Rallus, Auct. ; Chionis, Forst.? (Vaginalis, Gmel.) ; Crex,
Bechst. (Ortygometra, Steph.); Gallinula, Briss.; Por-
phyrio, Briss. ; Podoa, Ill. (Heliornis, Vieill.); Fulica,
Auct.

5rH FAaminy. CHARADRIADZ&, Leach.—Gen. Hzema-
topus, Linn. (Ostralega, Briss.); Calidris, Ill. (Arena-
ria, Briss.) ; Falcinellus, Cuv.: Erolia, Vieill.? Curso-
rius, Lath. (Tachydromus, IIl.); Strepsilas, Ill.; Squa-
tarola, Cuv.; Vanellus, Briss. (Tringa, Ill.); Pluvianus,
Vieill.; Charadrius, Auct. (Pluvialis, Briss.) ; Burhinus,
Ill.? Himantopus, Briss. (Macrotarsus, Lacep.) ; Cidicne-
mus, Cuv.

Orper V.—Nartatortss, Ill. (Anseres, Linn.)

Ist FAMILY.—ANATIDA, Leach.—1. Sub-fam. Anseri-
na. Gen. Anser, Briss.; Bernicla, Steph.; Cheniscus,
Brookes’s MS.; Chenalopex, Steph.; Plectropterus, Leach.
2. Sub-fam. Cereopsina. Gen. Cereopsis, Lath. 3. Sub-
fam. Anatina. Gen. Tadorna, Leach; Cairina, Flem. ;
Anas, Auct.; Dafila, Leach; Mareca, Steph.; Quer-
quedula, Ray ; Rhynchaspis, Leach. «4. Sub-fam. P
Gen. Clangula, Flem.; Harelda, Ray; Fuligula, Ray;
Mergus, Linn. (Merganser, Briss.); Somateria, Leach ;
Oidemia, Flem.; Biziura, Leach. 4. Sub-fam. Cygnina.
Gen. Cygnus, Meyer.

2p Famity. Conympipm, Leach.—Gen. Podiceps,
Lath. (Colymbus, Briss. Ill.); Colymbus, Auct. (Mer-
gus, Briss.; Eudytes, Ill.).

3p Famity. Atcap#.—Gen. Uria, Briss.; Cephus,
Cuv.? Mergulus, Ray ; Phaleris, Temm. (Alca, Vieill.) ;
Fratercula, Briss. (Mormon, Ill.; Larvze pars, Vieill.) ;
Alca, Auct. (Larve pars, Vieill.); Spheniscus, Briss. ;
Catarractes, Briss. (Eudytes, Vieill.); Aptenodytes,
Forst.

47H Faminty. Pr.ecanrp®, Leach.—Gen. Onocrota-
lus, Briss.; Phalacrocorax, Briss. (Carbo, Meyer; Hali-
eus, Ill.; Hydrocorax, Vieill.); Sula, Briss. (Dysporus,
Ill.; Morus, Vieill.) ; Tachypetes, Vieill.; Phaéton, Linn.
(Lepturus, Briss.) ; Plotus, Linn. (Anhinga, Briss.).

5TH Famity. Laripa@, Leach.—Gen. Sterna, Linn.;
Rhynchops, Linn. (Rygchopsalia, Briss.) ; Larus, Auct.;
Stercorarius, Briss. (Lestris, Il].; Praedatrix, Vieill.) ;
Diomedea, Linn. (Albatrus, Briss.); Haladroma, II. ;
Procellaria, Auct.; Pachyptila, Ill.; Puffinus, Ray; Tha-
lassidroma, Vig.

THE ORDERS, FAMILIES, AND SUB-FAMILIES OF BIRDS, ACCORDING TO THE SYSTEM OF MR
SWAINSON.?

Orper I.—Raprtores. Rapacious Birps.

Famity Vutturipz#. Vultures. ,

Famity Fautconip#. Falcons.—Sub-families: Aquili-
ne, Eagles; Cymindine, Kites; Buteonine, Buzzards ;
Falconinz, Falcons; Accipitrine, Hawks.

Famizy Stricipz. Owls.

OrpeEr IJ.—InsEssorEs. PrErcHING Birps.

Tribe I—Dentirostres.
Famizty Lanrapz. Shrikes.—Sub-families: Laniane,

True Shrikes ; Thamnophiline, Bush Shrikes; Dicrurine,
Drongo Shrikes; Ceblepyrinz, Caterpillar-catchers; Ty-
ranninz, Tyrant Shrikes. :

FamityMeruipz&. Thrushes.—Sub-families: Brachy-
podinz, Short-footed Thrushes; Myotherinz, Ant Thrush-
es; Merulinz, True Thrushes; Crateropodine, Babblers;
Oriolinz, Orioles.

Famity Sytyiapm. Warblers.—Sub-families: Saxico-
linze, Stonechats; Philomeline, Nightingales; Sylviane,
True Warblers; Parianz, Tit-mice ; Motacilline, Wag-
tails.

Famity AMPELID&. Fruit-eaters, or Chatterers—Sub-

1 From the Natural History and Classification of Birds, vol. ii. p. 205, published in Dr Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia, vol. xcii. 1837.
The accessible form of this recent work renders it less necessary that we should give a full exposition of its systematic portion, and
the great amount of its generic groups renders their insertion somewhat incompatible with those prescribed limits which in truth we
have already exceeded. But we take it for granted, that every sincere lover of Ornithology will possess himself of Mr Swainson’s

volumes, to which any abstract we could offer would do injustice.

644

Birds of families: Leiotrichanz, Silky Chatterers ?

ORNITHOLOGY.

Vireonine,

Europe. Greenlets and Thick-heads; Bombycillinz, Swallow-chat-

terers; Ampelinz, Typical Chatterers; Piprine, Ma-
nakins.

Famity Muscicarip®. Fly-catchers.—Sub-families :
Queruline ; Psarianez, Black-caps; Fluvicoline, Water-
chats; Muscicapine, Fly-catchers ; Eurylaimine, Broad-
bills.

Tribe II.—Conirostres.

Famity Corvin. Crows.—Sub-families: Corvine,
Typical Crows; Garruline, Jays; Glaucopine, Wattle-
crows; Coracine, Fruit-crows ; Frigiline.

Famity StTurnip&. Starlings.—Sub-families: Sturnine,
Typical Starlings; Lamprotornin, Grakles; Scaphidurine,
Boat-tails; Icterinz, Hang-nests; Aglainz, Maizers.

Famity Frincituip&. Finches.—Sub-families: Coc-
cothraustine, Hard-bills; Tanagrine, Tanagers ; Fringil-
line, Ground-finches ; Alaudine, Larks; Pyrrhulinz,
Bullfinches.

Famity MusorHacip&. Plantain-eaters.—Sub-fami-
lies: Phitotominz, Plant-cutters; Colina, Colies; Muso-
phagine, Plantain-eaters.

Famity Bucrrip. Genus Buceros.

Tribe ITI.—Scansores.

Famity RampHASTID&. Toucans.

Famity Psirtacip®. Parrots.—Sub-families: Macro-
circine, Maccaws ; Psittacine, Parrots ; Plyctolophine,
Cockatoos ; Lorian, Lories ; Platycircine, Loriets.

Famity Picipm. Woodpeckers.—Sub-families: Pi-
cian, True Woodpeckers; Buccoinz, Barbuts.

Famity Crertuiap&. Creepers.—Sub-families: Cer-
thiane, True Creepers; Anabatine, Tree-runners ; Sit-
tine, Nut-hatchers; Troglodytine, Wrens; Buphagine,
Ox-peckers.

Famity Cucutip®. Cuckoos.—Sub-families: Cucu-
line, Parasitic Cuckoos ; Coccyzinz, Hook-billed Cuckoos;
Leptostomine, Long-billed Cuckoos ; Indicatorine, Ho-
ney-guides.

Tribe IV.—Tenuirostres. Suctorial Birds.

Famity MELIPHAGIDz.
FamiLy CINNYRID&.
Famity TROcHILIDE.
Famity PROMEROPIDE.
FamiLy ParaDIsIADZz.

Honey-suckers.

Sun-birds.
Humming birds.

.Hoopoes.
Paradise Birds.

Tribe V.—Fissirostres. Fissirostral Birds.

Famity MERopipz.
Famity Hatcyonip2.
Famity TRoGoNIDA.

Famity, CAPRIMULGIDE.
Famity HirunDINnip&.

Orpver II].—Rasores.

Famity Pavonip2.

FamMiLy TETRAONIDA.

FaMILy STRUTHIONIDZ.

Famity CoLuMBIDz.
bine.

Famity MEGAPoDIAD2.

OrpER 1V.—GRALLATORES.

FamMIty ARDEADZ.’

Bee-eaters.

King-fishers.

Trogons.

Night-jars.
Swallows.

RaAsoRIAL BirDs.

Peacocks and Pheasants.

Partridges and Grouse.
Ostriches.

Pigeons.—Sub-family : Colum-

Great-foots.

Waders.

Herons and Cranes.

Famity TantTALip&. Ibis.

Famity RaLiipz.
FamIty ScOLOPACID2.
FamiLy CHARADRIADZ.

Orper V.—NATATORES.

Rails.

Sand-pipers and Snipes.
Plovers.

SwIMMERs.

Famity Anatip#. Ducks.—Sub-families: Pheenicop-
tine, Flamingoes; Anserinz, Geese and Swans; Anatine,
River-ducks ; Fuliguline, Sea-ducks; Merganine, Mer-
gansers.

Famity Cotympipz. Grebes.and Divers.

Famity Atcap&. Auks.

FamiLy PELECANIDS.
Famiry Laripz!

ENUMERATION OF THE BIRDS OF EUROPE.?

Orprr I—Raprorgs.

Vultur fulvus, Linn. Griffon Vulture.

Vv. cinereus, Linn. Cinereous Vulture.
Neophron percnopterus, Sav. Egyptian Neophron.
Gypaétus barbatus, Storr. Lammer-geyer.
Aquila imperialis, Briss. Imperial Eagle.

A. — chryszta, Briss. Golden Eagle.
A. Bonelli. Bonelli’s Eagle.
A. nevia, Meyer. Spotted Eagle.

A. pennata, Steph. Booted Eagle.

Halizétus albicilla, Selby. Sea-Eagle.

a pee! eS \ White-headed Eagle.
av.

Pandion haliaétus, Sav. Osprey.

Circzetus brachydactylus,

Vieill. \ Short-toed Eagle.

Buteo vulgaris, Bechst.

B. lagopus, Flem.
Pernis apiyorus, Cuv.
Astur palumbarius, Bechst.
Falco islandicus, Lath.

F. —_ Janarius, Linn.

Falco peregrinus, Linn.

e subbuteo, Linn.

. rufipes, Bechst.
zsalon, Temm.
concolor, Temm.
tinnunculus,. Linh.

3 tinnunculoides, Natt.
Milvus vulgaris, Flem.

M. ater.

Nauclerus furcatus, Vig.
Elanus melanopterus, Leach

fa bf Ff

Pelicans.

Gulls.

Common Buzzard.
Rough-legged Buzzard.
Honey Buzzard.
Goshawk.
Jer-Falcon.
Lanner Falcon.
Peregrine Falcon.
Hobby.
Red-footed Falcon.
Merlin.
Lead-coloured Falccn.
Kestril.
Lesser Kestril.
Kite.
Black Kite.

’ Swallow-tailed Kite.

. Black-tailed Kite.

' This and the preceding family are placed as sub-families in Mr Swainson’s synopsis,—we presume, by an oversight in typogra-
phical correction. A similar inadvertency occurs among the tenuirostral tribe.

* From Mr Gould’s Birds of Europe, recently completed in five volumes royal folio, 1887. According to the author of this sump-
tuous work, the number of European birds may now be stated to amount to 462 species, of which 310 may be regarded as British.
Of the latter, about 170 are permanent residents in our island, eighty-five are summer birds of passage, which visit us from the south,
and forty-five are winter birds of passage, which visit us from the north. This seems to leave ten species unaccounted for: these
may probably be regarded as accidental stragglers. We may add, that Mr Doubleday, in his Nomenclature of British Birds (1836),
states the total number of species actually killed or captured-in Britain as amounting to 323, of which the Raptores are thirty, the In-
sessores 117, the Rasores seventeen, the Gratlatores sixty-six, and the Natatores ninety-three.

Birds of Circus rufus, Briss.

Europe. C, cyaneus, Meyer.
——"C. pallidus, Sykes.
Cc. cineraceus, Meyer.

Strix flammea, Linn.

Bubo maximus, Sibb.

B. _ ascalaphus, Sav.

Otus vulgaris, Flem.

oO. brachyotus, Cuv.

Scops Aldrovandi, Will.and
Ray.

Surnia cinerea.

Ss. nyctea, Dum.

S. Uralensis, Dum.

Ss. funerea, Dum.

Ulula nebulosa, Cuv.

Syrnium aluco, Sav.

Noctua nudipes, Wils.

N. ? tengmalmi, Selby.

N. passerina.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Marsh Harrier.

Hen Hatrier.

Pallid Harrier.
Ash-coloured Harrier.

Barn Owl.

Great-horned or Eagle Owl.
Eastern Great-horned Owl.
Long-eared Owl.
Short-eared Owl.

\ Scops-eared Owl.

Great Cinereous Owl.
Snowy Owl.

Ural Owl.

Hawk Owl.

Barred Owl.

Tawny or Wood Owl.
Little Owl.
Tengmalm’s Owl.
Sparrow Owl.

_OrveErR II.—InseEssoreEs.!

Caprimulgus Europzus,
Linn.

C. ruficollis.

Cypselus murarius, Temm.

Cc. alpinus, Temm.

Hirundo rustica, Linn.

‘Ete rufula, Temm.
H. rupestris, Linn.
H. urbica, Lion. -
H. riparia, Linn.

Merops apiaster, Linn.
Coracias garrulus, Linn:
Alcedo ispida, Linn.

A. rudis, Linn.
Muscicapa luctuosa, Temm.

M. albicollis, Temm.

M. parva, Bechst.
M. grisola, Linn.
Collurio excubitor, Vig.
Cc. meridionalis, Vig.
C. minor, Vig.
Lanius collurio, Linn.

L. rufus, Briss.
Oriolus galbula, Linn.
Merula vulgaris, Ray.

M. torquata, Briss.
M. migratoria, Swains.
Turdus atrogularis, Temm.

18 pilaris; Linn.

a. viscivorus, Linn.

216 musicus, Linn.

dle iliacus, Linn.

Ty Naumannii, Temm.

£18 pallidus, Pall.

ie Whitei, Eyton.

Age Sibericus, Pall.

Cinclus aquaticus, Bechst.

C. melanogaster,
Brehm.

OF Pallasii, Temm.

Petrocincla saxatilis, Vig.

P. cyanea, Vig.

axicola cachinnans, Temm.
leucomela, Temm.
cenanthe, Bechst.
stapazina, Temm.
aurita, Temm.

mnnng:

\ European Goat-sucker.

Red-collared Goat-sucker.
Swift.
White-bellied Swift.
Chimney Swallow.
Rufous Swallow.
Rock-Martin.
Martin.
Sand-Martin.
Bee-eater.

Roller.

Kingfisher.

Black and White Kingfisher.

Pied Fly-catcher.
White-collared Fly-catcher.
Red-breasted Fly-catcher.
Spotted Fly-catcher.
Great Shrike.

Great Gray Shrike.
Lesser Gray Shrike.
Red-backed Shrike.
Wood=-Chat.

Golden Oriole.

Black Ouzel or Blackbird.
Ring-Ouzel.

Migratory Ouzel.
Black-throated Thrush.
Fieldfare.

Missel-Thrush.
Song-Thrush.

Redwing.

Naumann’s Thrush.
Pallid Thrush.

White’s Thrush.

Siberian Thrush.
Water-Ouzel.

Black-bellied Water-Ouzel.

Pallas’s Water-Ouzel.
Rock-Thrush.

Blue Thrush.

Black Wheat-ear.

Pied Wheat-ear.
Wheat-ear.

Russet Wheat-ear.
Black-eared Wheat-ear.

SSSSSPP PPP

Saxicola rubetra, Bechst.
S. rubicola, Bechst.
Pheenicura ruticilla, Swains.

Ph. tithys, Jard.
and Selb. f

Ph. suecica, Jard.
and Selb. \

Erythaca rubecula, Swains.
Accentor alpinus, Bechst.
A. modularis, Cuv.
A. montanellus, |
Temm.

Locustella fluviatilis.

: avicula, Ray.
L, luscinoides.
L. certhiola.
Salicaria turdoides, Selb.

.

arundinacea, Selb.
palustris.
phragmitis, Selb.
melanopogon.
aquatica.
galactotes.
cisticola.

? Cetti.

? sericea.
Philoinels luscinia, Swains.
Ph. turdoides, Blyth.
Calliope Lathamii.
Curruca Orphea.

eines eee

C. atricapilla, Bechst.

Or hortensis, Bechst.

C. Rupellii.

C. melanocephala,
Lath.

C. leucopogon.

C. cinerea, Bechst.

(G5 garrula, Bechst.

C. conspicillata.

Cc. sarda.

(G5 nisoria.

Melizophilus provincialis, |
Leach. f
Troglodytes Europzus, Cuv.

Sylvia trochilus, Gmel.
rufa, Lath.
sibilatrix, Bechst.
icterina, Vieill.
hippolais, Temm.
Nattereri, Temm.
nthus Richardi, Vieill.
pratensis, Bechst.
rufescens, Temm.
aquaticus, Bechst.
arboreus, Bechst.
rufogularis, Temm.
otacilla Yarrellii.
lugubris, Pall.
alba, Linn.
neglecta, Gould.
M. boarula, Lath.
Regulus ignicapillus, Cuv.
R. vulgaris, Cuv.
R. modestus.
Parus major, Linn.

SrAnNPDDA

P. __ lugubris, Natt.
yee Sibericus, Gmel.
124 bicolor, Linn.

olivetorum, Strickl.

645
Whinchat. Birds of
Stonechat. Europe.
Redstart.

Black Redstart.

Blue-throated Warbler.

Robin.
Alpine Accentor.
Hedge Accentor.

Mountain Accentor.

Reed Locustelle.
Brake Locustelle.
Willow Locustelle.
Creeping Locustelle.
Great Sedge Warbler.
Olive-tree Salicaria.
Reed Wren.

Marsh Warbler.
Sedge Warbler.
Moustached Warbler.
Aquatic Warbler.
Rufous Sedge Warbler.
Fan-tail Warbler.
Cetti’s Warbler.
Silky Warbler.
Nightingale.

Thrush Nightingale.
Gorget Warbler.
Orpheus Warbler.
Black-cap.

Garden Warbler.
Ruppell’s Warbler.

Sardinian Warbler.

Sub-alpine Warbler.
Common White-throat.
Lesser White-throat.
Spectacle Warbler.
Marmora’s Warbler.
Barred Warbler.

Dartford Warbler.

Wren.

Willow Wren.
Chiff-Chaff.

Wood Wren.

Yellow Willow Wren.
Melodious Willow Wren.
Natterer’s Warbler.
Richard’s Pipit.
Meadow Pipit.

Tawny Pipit.

Rock or Shore Pipit:
Tree Pipit.
Red-throated Pipit.
Pied Wagtail.
White-winged Wagtail.

* White Wagtail.

Gray-headed Wagtail.
Gray Wagtail.
Fire-crested Wren.
Golden-crested Wren-
Dalmatian Regulus.
Great Tit.

Sombre Tit.

Siberian Tit.

Toupet Tit.

1 Including the ScansonEs of the preceding Treatise.

646

ORNITHOLOGY.

Birds of Parus cyanus, Pall. Azure Tit.

Europe. P, ceruleus, Linn. Blue Tit.

—Yo"’ Pp. ater, Linn. Cole Tit.
P. palustris, Linn. Marsh Tit.

Crested Tit.
Long-tailed Tit.

Bearded Tit, or Reed Bird.
Leach.

CEgithalus pendulinus, Vig. Penduline Tit.
Bombycivora garrula, Temm. Waxen Chatterer.
Alauda tartarica, Pall.

P. cristatus, Linn.
PR caudatus, Linn.
Calamophilus biarmicus,

A. calandra, Pall. Calandra Lark.
A. brachydactyia \ Short-toed Lark.
A. alpestris, Linn. Shore-Lark.

A. cristata, Linn. Crested Lark.
A. arvensis, Linn. Sky-Lark.

A. arborea, Linn. Wood-Lark.
Certhilauda bifasciata. Bifasciated Lark.

Plectrophanes Lapponica, Larkcheeled Banga
Selb. 8

Pi. nivalis, Meyer. Snow-Bunting.
Emberiza miliaria, Linn. Common Bunting.

E SEE hala, Black-headed Bunting.

E. citrinella, Linn. Yellow Bunting.

E. aureola, Pall. Yellow-breasted Bunting.
E. cirlus, Linn. Cirl Bunting.

E. hortulana, Linn. Ortolan Bunting.

E. rustica, Pall. Rustic Bunting.

E. lesbia. Lesbian Bunting.

E. cia, Linn. Meadow-Bunting.

E. pithyornus, Pall. Pine-Bunting.

E. cesia, Cretz. Cretzschmar’s Bunting.

E. palustris, Savi. | Marsh-Bunting.

E. scheeniculus, Linn. Reed-Bunting.

Pyrgita domestica, Cuv. Common Sparrow.

PB montana, Cuv. Tree-Sparrow.

126 Hispaniolensis, Cuy. Spanish Sparrow.

P: cisalpina, Cuv. Alpine Sparrow.

1B. petronia. Doubtful Sparrow.
Fringilla ccelebs, Linn. Chaffinch.

F mon aeEly \ Mountain or Bramble Finch.
F. nivalis, Linn. Snow- Finch.

F. ? hyemalis. Winter-Finch.

Linaria cannabina, Swains. Common or Brown Linnet.
105 montana, Ray. Mountain Linnet or Twite.
L. canescens. Mealy Redpole.

L. minor, Ray. Lesser Redpole.

Serinus flavescens.
Carduelis elegans, Steph.

Serin Finch.
Goldfinch.

C. spinus, Steph. Siskin or Aberdevine.
C. citrinella. Citril Finch.
Coccothraustes vulgaris,

Briss. Hawfinch.
C. chloris, Flem. Green Grosbeak.

Loxia pityopsittacus, Bechst.Parrot Crossbill.
curvirostra, Linn. Common Crossbill.

L. leucoptera, Gmel. | White-winged Crossbill.
Corythus enucleator, Cuv. Pine Grosbeak.
C. longicauda. Siberian Grosbeak.

Erythrospiza erythrina, Bon. Scarlet Grosbeak.

E. rosea. Rosy Grosbeak.

E. githaginea. | Vinous Grosbeak.
Pyrrhula vulgaris, Temm. Bullfinch.

Sturnus vulgaris, Linn. Starling.

S. unicolor, Marm. Sardinian Starling.
Pastor roseus, Temm. Rose-coloured Pastor.
Nucifraga page te) i } “Sprrenenva Pe

Garrulus glandarius, Briss. Jay.

G. infaustus, Temm. Siberian Jay.

Pica caudata, Ray. Magpie.

P. cyanea, Wagl. Azure-winged Magpie.
Pyrrhocorax Pyrrhocorax,

Temm Alpine Chough.

Fregilus graculus, Cuv. Chough.
Corvus corax, Linn. Raven.

C. corone, Linn. Carrion Crow.
C. cornix, Linn. Hooded Crow.
C. monedula, Linn. Jackdaw.

C. frugilegus, Linn. Rook.

Great Black Woodpecker.
Green Woodpecker.
§ Gray-headed Green Wood-
pecker.
White-rumped Woodpecker.
Great Spotted Woodpecker.
medius, Linn. Middle Spotted Woodpecker.
minor, Linn. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker.
Apternus tridactylus, Swains. Three-toed Woodpecker.
Yunx torquilla, Linn. Wryneck.
Sitta Europea, Linn. Common Nuthatch.
S. Syriaca, Ehrenb. Dalmatian Nuthatch.
S. _Asiatica, Temm. Asiatic Nuthatch.
Certhia familiaris, Linn. Common Creeper.
Upupa epops, Linn. Hoopoe.
Tichodroma pheenicopte- Wall-Creeper.

Picus martius, Linn.
viridis, Linn.
canus, Gmel.

leuconotus, Bechst.
major, Linn.

ra, Temm.
Cuculus canorus, Linn. Common Cuckoo.
C. glandarius, Linn. Great Spotted Cuckoo.

Coccyzus Americanus, Vieill. American Cuckoo.

Orper III.—Rasones.

Columba palumbus, Linn. | Wood-Pigeon.
C. Cinas, Linn. Stock-Dove.
C. livia, Linn. Rock-Dove.
C. turtur, Linn. Turtle-Dove.

Phasianus colchichus, Linn. Common Pheasant.
-Capercailzie, or Cock of

the Wood.

Hybrid Grouse.

Black Grouse.

Hazel Grouse, or Gelinotte.

Red Grouse.

Common Ptarmigan.

Tetrao urogallus, Linn.

T. hybridus, Sparrm.
T. tetrix, Linn.
Bonasia Europea.
Lagopus Scoticus, Lath.
L. mutus, Leach.

L. rupestris, Leach. Rock Ptarmigan.

L. saliceti, Swains. Willow Ptarmigan.

L. brachydactylus. | Short-toed Ptarmigan.
Pterocles arenarius, Temm. Sand-Grouse.

P. setarius, Temm. Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse.

Francolinus vulgaris, Briss. European Francolin.

Perdix rubra, Ray. ' Red-legged Partridge.
P. petrosa, Lath. Barbary Partridge.
Pp. saxatilis, Meyer. Greek Partridge.
P. cinerea, Lath. Common Partridge. .
Coturnix dactylisonans, ;

Meyer. \ Quail.
LER IGR aretha ac Andalusian Turnix.

Glareola torquata, Briss. Collared Pratincole.
Cursorius Isabellinus, Meyer. Cream-coloured Courser.
Otis tarda, Linn. Great Bustard.

O. houbara, Linn. Ruffed Bustard.

O. tetrax. Little Bustard.

OrperR [V.—GRALLATORES.

Grus cinerea, Bechst. Common Crane.

G. leucogeranus, Temm. White Crane.
Anthropoides virgo, Vieill. Numidian Demoiselle,
Ardea cinerea, Lath. Common Heron.

ORNITHOLOGY. a 647

Birds of Ardea purpurea, Linn. Purple Heron. Phalaropus platyrhynchus, | Birds of
Europee A, —_comata, Pall. Squacco Heron. Tenm. f Gray Ehalatope. Europe.
A. alba, Linn. Great Egret. Fulica atra, Linn. Coot. aa age

Rallus aquaticus, Linn. Water-Rail.
Porphyriohyacinthinus, Tem. Hyacinthine Porphyrio.
Gallinula crex, Lath. Land-Rail.

A. garzetta, Linn. Little Egret.
A. russata, Wagl. Biranehacked Egret.
Nycticorax Europzus, Steph. Common Night-Heron.

Botaurus stellaris, Steph. | Common Bittern. G. chloropus, Lath. . Common Gallinule.
lentiginosus, Steph. Freckled Bittern. Zapornia porzana. Spotted Crake.

B. minutus, Selby. Little Bittern. Z. Baillonii, Leach. _Baillon’s Crake.

Ciconia alba, Bellon. White Stork. Z. pusilla, Steph. Little Crake.

Cc. nigra, Bellon.
G: Maquari, Temm.
Platalea leucorodia, Linn.

Black Stork.
Maquari Stork.
Spoonbill.

Pheenicopterus ruber, Linn. Common Flamingo.
Qidicnemus crepitans, femm. Thick-kneed Bustard.

Himantopus melanopterus,

Meyer.
Squatarola cinerea, Cuv. |
Vanellus cristatus, Meyer.

\ Long-legged Plover.

Gray Plover.
Lapwing.

V. Keptuschka, Temm. Keptuschka Lapwing.

Pluvianus spinosus.

Charadrius pluvialis, Linn.

Spur-winged Plover.

’ Golden Plover.

morinellus,-Linn. Dotterel.

C. hiaticula, Linn. Ring-Dotterel.

C. minor, Meyer. Little Ring-Dotterel.
C: Cantianus, Linn. Kentish Plover.

C. PY 2 ie at \ Red-chested Dotterel.

Hematopus ostralegus, Linn. Oyster-Catcher.

Ibis Falcinellus, Temm.
Numenius arquata, Lath.

N. Phzopus, Lath.
N. tenuirostris, Sav.
Limosa melanura, Leisl.

ule rufa, Briss.

Ls terek, Temm.

Glossy Ibis.

Common Curlew.
Whimbrel.
Slender-billed Curlew.
Black-tailed Godwit.
Bar-tailed Godwit.
Terek Godwit.

RecurvirostraAvocetta, Linn. Avocet.

Totanus fuscus, Leisl.

Ts calidris, Bechst.

T. semipalmatus,
Temm.

T. glottis, Bechst.

ks Bartramius, Temm.
3% stagnatilis, Bechst.
T. ochropus, Temm.

H bes glareola, Temm.

T. hypoleucus, Temm.

T. macularius, Temm.

Strepsilas collaris, Temm.

Scolopax rusticola, Linn.
major, Linn.

S. Sabini, Vig.
S. gallinago, Linn.
Ss. gallinula, Linn.
Macroramphus griseus,
Leach.
Calidris canutus, Briss.
and Cuy.

Machetes pugnax, Cuv.
Tringa rufescens, Vieill.
pectoralis, Bonap.

Hf Ie subarquata, Temm.

T. variabilis, Meyer.
Bs Schinzii, Bonap.

Spotted Redshank.
Redshank.

\ Semipalmated Sandpiper.

Greenshank.
Bartram’s Sandpiper.
Marsh Sandpiper.
Green Sandpiper.
Wood Sandpiper.
Common Sandpiper.
Spotted Sandpiper.
Turnstone.
Woodcock.

Great Snipe.
Sabine’s Snipe..
Common Snipe.
Jack Snipe.

Gray Snipe.

Knot.

Ruff.

Buff-breasted Sandpiper.
Pectoral Sandpiper.
Pygmy Curlew.

Dualin or Purre.
Schinz’s Sandpiper.

T. platyrhyncha, Temm. Broad-billed Tringa..

T. minuta, Leisl.
Te Temminckii, Leisl.
T. maritima, Brunn.

Arenaria calidris, Meyer.

Little Sandpiper.
Temminck’s Tringa.
Purple Sandpiper.
Sanderling.

Phalaropus tata Red-necked Phalarope.

Lath

Orpver V.—NATATORES.

ae hyperboreus, Pall.
ferus, Steph.
segetum, Steph.
albifrons, Steph.
leucopsis, Bechst.
ruficollis, Pall.
brenta, Flem.
Chenalopex figyptiaca,
Steph.
Cygnus mansuetus, Gmel.
Cc ferus, Ray.
Cc. Bewickii, Yarr.
Tadorna vulpanser, Flem.
T. rutila, Steph.
Mareca Penelope, Selby.

PP PP b>

Snow-Goose.
Gray-Lag Wild Goose.
Bean Goose.
White-fronted Goose.
Bernicle Goose.
Red-breasted Goose.
Brent Goose.

\ Egyptian Goose.

Domestic Swan.

Whistling Swan or Hooper.

Bewick’s Swan.
Common Shieldrake.
Ruddy Shieldrake.
Wigeon.

Rhynchaspis clypeata, Steph. Shoveller Duck.

Anas Boschas, Linn.

Common Wild Duck.

Querquedula Crecca, Steph. Common Teal.
Q. _ glocitans, Vig. Bimaculated Teal.

circia, Steph.
Dafila caudacuta, Leach.

Gargany Teal.
Pin-tail Duck.

Chauliodes strepera, Swains. Gadwall.

Fuligula ferina, Steph.
F. leucophthalma, |
Steph. f
rufina, Steph.
cristata, Steph.
marila, Steph.
dispar, Steph.
marmorata.

Red-headed Pochard.

White-eyed or Castaneous

Duck.
Red-crested Duck.
Tufted Duck.
Scaup Pochard.
Western Duck.
Marbled Duck.

materia mollissima, Leach. Eider Duck.

S. spectabilis, Leach. King Duck.
Oidemia perspicillata, Flem. Surf Scoter.
O. fusca, Flem. Velvet Scoter.
O. nigra, Flem. Black Scoter.
Clangula vulgaris, Leach. Golden Eye.
C. Barrovii, Sw. and | B

Rich. arrow’s Duck.
C. histrionica, Leach. Harlequin Duck.

Harelda glacialis, Leach.
Undina leucocephala.
Mergus merganser, Linn.
M. serrator, Linn.
M. cucullatus, Linn.
M. albellus, Linn.
Podiceps cristatus, Lath.

P. rubricollis, Lath.
P. cornutus, Lath.
P. auritus, Lath.
P. minor, Lath.
Colymbus glacialis, Linn.
C. arcticus, Linn.
C. septentrionalis,
Linn.

Uria troile, Linn.

U. _lachrymans, Lapyl.
U. Brunnichii, Sab.
U. grylle, Lath.

Alca impennis, Linn,

Long-tailed Duck.

White-headed Duck.
Goosander.
Red-breasted Merganser.
Hooded Merganser.
Smew.

Great crested Grebe.
Red-necked Grebe.
Horned Grebe.

Eared Grebe.

Little Grebe, or Dabchick.

Northern Diver.
Black-throated Diver.

Red-throated Diver.

Foolish Guillemot.
Bridled Guillemot.
Brunnick’s Guillemot.
Black Guillemot.
Great Auk.

648

Index.

Alca torda, Linn.

=~ Mergulus alle, Bon.

Mormon fratercula, Temm.
M. glacialis, Leach.
Pelecanus onocrotalus, Linn.
ips crispus, Feld.
Phalacrocorax carbo, Steph.

Ph. graculus,
Briss. _ ff
Ph. pygemus, \
Steph.
Ph. cristatus,
Steph. and Flem. f
Ph. Desmarestii.

Sula Bassana, Briss.
S. melanura, Temm.
Sterna Caspia, Pall. ~

Ss. cantiaca, Gmel.
S: Anglica, Mont.
Ss. ial Linn.
S. Dougallii, Mont.
Ss minuta, Linn.
Ss. stolida.
Viralva nigra, Leach.
Wo leucoptera, Leach.
V. _- leucopareia, Steph.
Page

Abou-duck'n....+++ bi see 560
ACCENEOT.......eceeeeeeenes 576
AGUA. 0. ...01eecceeeeeeee 619
Allauda: Geaaesensedenencicee 579
AIBQETOSS .6 eves csesrersenees 632
JA G8 iste alance townie seers 630
AlGedO..<.conccceareuiiecses 592
AlCCtOTS 0000s. as\nnssseo <0 605
AMpelis........--e+eseneeeee 570
Anabates ......c0eseeseeeee 588
JAMASE oc sk asausninnddnceas aniaee 638
AMaStOMUS....-...seseeeeee 620
ATIOUS oi vic ccccncscsoneciasean 633
AMDSETL ....eceseceneeee ..636
Anthropoides.............-618
AMithus)...c.ccanssoccuetesines elit

ptenodytes ...-.....+++.+ 631
APteryX .....ccncerrseresnne 616
Aquila......cecccseeeveeeeee 562
ATQCATIS .cccecesecerensveces 599
Arachnothera...........++: 589
AYAMUS|cececksodtaenane eset 618
ATAPONGA..+..+e0eeerereeee 570
Aratingalr..pde.-teenecses 600
Ardea... casesiegeeteeste Bee 618
IATENATIA. <: .<0sshaetncniconeiad 624
J Aira Spee cerenccececo “pete cc 610
ATTA nae ovas'dsce cancseee 558
PASEN AIA) on asoscdennssmanen 588
IACHIeh inwoaccesencescweeres 563
AUTRE eh ial Se gis cictblads 630
ADOBE poeicannasidiestocielest 626
BOrGacous). cranny ess asen46 598
Barbicans.......00eceses00ee 599
Baryta.....\esccerrsesseeses 568
BQY A. ccavurtetenevedmuss si 580
Beccamoschino.......00+++ 576
Bee-eater,

COMMOM wasusesactseekens 092

ORNITHOLOGY. .

Razor-billed Auk. Xema ridibunda, Boié. ~ Laughing Gull. Index.
Little Auk. X. atricilla. Black-winged Gull. =o
Puffin. X. melanocephala, Boié. Black-headed Gull.
Northern Puffin. X. minuta, Boié. Little Gull.
Pelican. X. Sabinii, Leach. Sabine’s Gull.
Dalmatian Pelican. Larus marinus, Linn. Great black-backed Gull.
Common Cormorant. L. fuscus, Linn. Lesser black-backed Gull,
L. laucus, Brunn. Glaucous Gull.
Spee een Li Sinndicea teil. cincdlcclai gle
é I argentatus, Brunn. Herring Gull.
Linde Cerntonse: tae Kittiwake Gull.
Li. eburneus, Gmel. Ivory Gull.
Green Cormorant. L. canus, Linn. Cae Gull.
Desmarest’s Cormorant. L. Audouinii, Temm. Audouin’s Gull.
Solan Goose. Lestris catarractes, Temm. Skua.
Black-tailed Gannet. Wes pomarinus, Temm. Pomarine Gull.
Caspian Tern. L. Richardsonii, Swains. Richardson’s Lestris.
Sandwich Tern. L. parasiticus, Ill. Parasitic Gull.
Gull-billed Tern. Puffinus Anglorum, Ray. Manks Shearwater.
Common Tern. Re obscurus. Dusky Shearwater.
Roseate Tern. IP cinereus, Steph. Cinereous Shearwater.
Little Tern. Procellaria glacialis, Linn. Fulmar Petrel.
Noddy Tern. Tphaaeiceome Leachii. Fork-tailed Petrel.
Black Tern. h. elagica, :
White-winged Tern. : Selby. \ Coo
Moustache Tern. Th. ? Bulwerii. Bulwer’s Petrel.
INDEX.
Page Page Pa
Bee-eater, Buzzards......... ceccosensDOM Cirecetus...cctsees. seceesers 563
cowled.....++++. Saateice ste 574 Cineus)2neieeeee acess «00 064
hnob-fronted ....+...0000+ O74 Cairina.............0.......637 Clangula..,........ seeseeee 636
Falah decencctbccuarcee-cas 574 Cala0s.....0.00e.ee0220000-093 CLIMBERG...........-... 594
Beef-eaters.......006 epoocee 582 Caloptrophorus............625 Coccothraustes.........++ 581
Bell-bird ......000...0es00e 570 Calyptorhynchus......... 603 CoccyZus........cseceeere -.098
Bethylus........sescceseeeee 568 Campanero........ 221.0000 570. Cock,
Bernicla..........seesereseee 636 CANaryn..c.seserecseeceeenee 581 Bankiva.........0..+....609
Bidengeetercqaeeaserde-- od 565 Cancroma...... Bae ecenina’ 618 domestic. ........4+...++.608
Birds, Capercatlzie......cccc0cee-61 1 —— TAGOseesec cee ceeeceaes .--609
SETUCEUTE Of... 20. .ce0e00s 554 Caprimulgus. ... sos enernnonth 578 Jungle... ....s0eeeeee aeoes ib.
plumage Of......+...0000 Oba Caracarata:....sc0e--<s<ces 561 Macartney............-..610
of Europe, List of.....644 Carduelis............ce0000 581 Cockhatoos .......00.0+00++0e603
Of paradise ...+... 000000 585 Cariama........eeeccseeeessO17 Colaptes....scerseeeeeeeeee- 097
BIRDS OF PREY......557 Caryocatactes........0060.985 Colaris......c0++seeee eee 10080
DIURNAL... ee .seceeeee 558 Casmarhynchus...........+ D370 Colius......creveeecseeereees 582
NOCTURNAL.......c0008 565 Cassicus....... neue tieetse ate 582 Columba.........0.02seeeee 612
Bitter ns... .eccecesecnceneens 619 Cassuary.........+. fo seascc 616 Colymbus..............-...629
Blackbird.........000...00 571 Casuarius...........0...008 ib. Condor........
Blach-cap .......00s001ee 008 576 Cathartes............00000 559° CONIROSTRES «2.0... s0000
Blackhcoch.........++00005++ 611 Catoptrophorus............625 Conophaga......... weeeeeesD09
Blue bird... secccc sevens 576 Ceblepyris............0.0008 571° Conurus........-+.+ Reeeeer 601
Blue-throdt......00.c000008 575 CentropuS.......eeseeeeseee 598 - Coots...... olicnevatapeetese ns 628
Boat-bill........cseeecceees 618 .Cephalopterus............. 569, Coracias......000+.,.ereeeee 585
Bombycilla...........0se08+ 570 Cephus............seeeccees 630 Cormorants. ......+.00000+ 633
BBOObIStie de calecnaalveasssens 634 Cereopsis............00000+ 636. Corn-crakes... ....00. 0000 627
Botaurus .....0...eseeeeeees 619 Certhia................0008 B88 COTTivd.....seerseeeeeeee nes 620
BRACHYPTERZ ...e000..04 GEE) (Oey BRhoobsessasnnncosnesssese 593 COrvus....e0e ceseeeeseee eee 083
Brambling.......c0eseceeeee 581 Chaffinehijsssi.c..c<.0ecos 581 Corythaix sade eae 603
BREVIPENNES.....00++00+ 615 Chalybeeus.................568 Corythus.............++++-082
Bubo.... ..566 Charadrius.......0...0s00 617 Cotingas....0...1..0eseeeees 570
Bucco.,......0...+0. “Soochioce 598 Chatterers.......0cceceeeeee 670 Coturnix....... eeeckeecteee 611
BUGETOS......s0ece-.s00000ee S93 Channa... assccescsesn<eees 627 Cow-pen bird......... 202 082
Budytes...+...eseseceeeeees 577 Chenalopex............0.6. 636 COwr ye... vecceccereceereces 568
Bulfinch. ccccscceceveees 581 Chionis...........ceeceeeees G28 Craness....c0csrcerecseoeses 617
Bunting seee ieee ceeeeeee.580 Chrysocoma...........000- GBT) Craxcct.c. sees ees -.605
Buphaga .582 Cicinnurus..............008 588 Creadon............. oho
UBUSLAT earn aude seetesseouses G17 Ciconia.......0..sseeneeeee G19 © Creepers. ....1....seeeeneees 588
Butcher-birds..............568 Cinclus......... Seapan Aan 573 Crex. pee 2?

BUteOcas tees secretes.

; CInNYris’.....00...020ee0se 089

Cross- “bills... A Sapeae ee ae

Page

—~—— Crotophagas verses sevense00D99

Crow,
GAA, wnnanccascestivivassO9
CATTION»...+. 3
hooded... ...s00sevsevaee ib.
TeA-leggede.s.s.200rgre00 991
Cryptonyx...sscsccesoe se -611
2 Siesesetresepemhaaeceton
Cuculus. ...ssescccesecseceee IDs
CULTRIROSTRES«..000005 617
CUTASSOES .00 202202006 000000005
CUrlews...srecercssecereesesO22
CUrruca,......c0vserceeee00976

Cursorius .........00e008 666617
Cushat ......++. seo esannd 613
Cygnus.......00000 00002000635
Cymbirhynchus............577
Cymindis................0.563
Cypselus.......sccessseeeees 578
Dacelo .....2.2....000200000090
583

638

soos 061

Se aera faeaehitess es 588
DENTIROSTRES......+ 2000067

PUG ekeoterss cece se cscicoe

Diomedea..........240......632
IGEN Secescesscaseaccseseos 629
Dobchich. ......20000c000008 ID.
MUTI ona wscucaaesecenacthd 616
Dotterel ......s0cesveeeeesee-OL7
Dromas.........- sae cceseeees 620
Dromecius. ..........+0+ 616
Drongos.

Duchsvicseceecee

Dunlin

eagles. ...00000000000es00 00.562
Ectopistes.......0s00+00+...614

Edolius.

Eigrets ....
Eiders...
Elanus.......000s ae
Emberiza
Emmet. 2.20...
ERMICHTUS: ccccancvecdscdeeceD Ue
Epimachus....... Reevaesee 591
BRGTSHES sanacccesseeccbies se02 573
Euphonia..........s00seee0 571
Euplocomus....+..++...... 610
Eurinorhynchus........... 624
Eurylaimus................577
EUrypyga......s20..ceeees 618
Falcinellus...... FS ica 624
Falco.......... .565
FALCONIDZ. ........ ‘ones 560
PB ICOTS s\n oni 5 <sisin cS 565
Falcunculus............... 568
Field-fare....0. 2.0000 oe OTL
PN ChES ioc cactvevsaadgens 581
UGCA Sees oases tence ttt 629
FissiROsTREs.. Od
Flamingoes. .....+...000008 628
Ply-catchers..s.ccvee reece 569
Francolins......0.00 pinata 611
Fratercula. .........s0sc0ees 630
Fregilus........0000.0.074, 591
Frrigate-birds....0...0008 + 634
VOL. XVI.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Page
Fringilla........++000+se0+2+980

BitliGay sdssvccacasavesteacese O20
Fuligula. ... pobayn setelenaitantent 637
Faulmar....... wlieavetalvas 632
peti eS a ee 594
ALLINACEOUS
BIRDS. nscaccessss o oe
Gallinula.... ..627
Giliiasiles. cic. Cian.
Gallus ey kee 608
GONGAS..10...rccereeneeee one 611
GNNEES...secccevee cov eee eee 534
Gar7rots...0..000000000000000.030
Garrplisi os Be 584
Geese. ...+. Reebenes Bonn Ata. 636

Geophilus.......c0eesereesee

Glareola. ..............2.2+-628
Glaucopis..............0008 585
Goatsuchers.......+» ae oat 578
Godwits ..... WesteeAooeneees 623
Goldfinch .......0c..c000008 581
Go0sAnder ness ssereceeeees039
(GON fT nara nnoantovose na 631
GOUTA ose cccceccanceeseeeesBlLh
Grackle,

WOMlessssvocnsepeessadanece lS
bare-necked.... earl
PATAISC...aseeeseerene cee 574
ome a -.068
Gracula.. ac . ib.
Girallaria.. copnnnncee cen eele
GRALLATORES poeta 614
Grallina........ acaadeer nate 572
Grauculus........- Pre 568
Grr eBes. ess cecceccecseesesses029
Greenshamh. o...00..00e00008 625
GiffOM. ...seerseeesneseenes DOS
Gross-beak,
EVENING sara sererereetson ees 581
PUNE, asmanasessseesdeniees 582
Philippine. .....++.+. ....080
SOCIALE... .eecseceeveeeee ib.
Grouse,
heteroclyte.......+.. ele
pin-tailed......+....0000 611
WED Set cad cadaaciootdesaes .. ib
SOT s\cecsmsinennanractotecds’s ib
WOOD saeeenys veoSekeekenes ib
Girls atespececescacceeccees 617
GAORiiosccercoee Santee vate 605
Guillemots....0...002c0eecee

Guinea-fowl.......0000000.
Guit-Guit......000

Gymnocephalus...

Gymnodera..........-
GyMMNoPS......-.2+0eeeeeree
Gypetos......... vecunaesessO00
Hematopus.......... coer BLT
Haladroma............ oo 632
Haliztus........s.-+seeere 562
HA1fanginssererseereneceees 566
FHA Pies ...cesseseceseeeeeees 563
Harpyia....e.seseseree nes +063
FTArrte7s..0.0000e00e0e eee ee OOK
Haw finch... csccrcerserees 581
WTO ES..20c0so0cannncninciees 563
Hemipalma........+. 624

Page
FLOP OMS 002.2 000eee seveeeye.818
Heteropoda....... 624
Himantopus...... 625

Hirundo......
Hobby........ 2...

FTOCCOS 5 40. shee cnet

605
Holopodius.........++..+++. 625
Honmey-gquides. ........0+++ 598
FTO0PO€S...+..eevereeeeeeeee 591
Hfornbills........... eaters 593
Humming-birds. ..........590
1 1 CBee socrboasscen 620
Tbycter.......0...000s000000L
Tcterussc.:c2/2s00 01s 582
Fctinianci..ccsoeteece eee OL
WERAX: «Reduces dee sse see DOD
Tndicatorciecce heeds 598
INSESSORES............ 567
Ixos....... .572
Jacamars ....... acteaee 100094
Jacamar-alcyon............ ib.
Jacamerops.......... ween ID.
TACANA ....00cerenseeee woe 627
eo ae 084
STACOUS. 22.00 soe eeeee0005
TAGES. .cersccancensesceeees093
Jarra-war-nang Basctcanteee 568
SAYS....ssceccsees sepermetees 584
Sean-le-blanc.....10+.0 «2063
KAMICHI ....ccccceseseeseees 627
Keel. birds.....+.. pacbartont 599
Kestrile soc 565
Rieti pa -c.sccce.cceuenseetee 566
King-bird.. +0 00.069
ee ee +0092
Kites... 0.00 ceeeee 000963, 564
Knot... ..624
Te 110-598
Lagopus..........0 monocnice 611
LAMELLIROSTRES........ 635
Lammer-geyer...... “63500 560
Lamprotornis.............. 572
Baniusssa\ose deste. 08s 568
Dapwingeeesecccecccsseseees 617
Dar hse. cvccsscas es BCI 579
AUS 2) cockasias sctese ROS 632
Leptosomus............... 598
Testrisn'...cecctecseeeny 633
UTM OSA |e isnnklose cucseeeeeees 623
Minarias.:.2. veces 581
Linnets........ 581
Lobipes.......... +625
LONGIPENNA. oe. eee eeeees 631
LonGIrosTRES............620
Lophophorus............... 606
Lophorina...........0...0.. 588
Lophotes...........0cce000s 565
BlOrBESesconacsen cet eeenoes 603
TROT US susaies Se senscerwesa tes ib
HOKID: . see ewes teereene 581
Lyre-tiiler.crecsecevseeseces 574
Macca o...ccceeeeereecees 600
Machetes...........0sse000. 624
Macrocercus..........2..++ 600
MaAcRoDACTYLES...,.....626

Page
Macroramphus............ 623
Mag pies....0..6.c00cereeeee DBA
Mialeohas. 01... s0ccacvoeees 598
WM GNIS i .silasacassees 577
Marabori... isccsccsccseeee 619
IMare@a.cScicte esc esceress
OPEB oe daseeesensubvteee
Megapodius...............
Meleagris.............0006
Melithreptus... ;
Menwra.......
Mergansers.....sseceeecens
MErgusecs \cotecineesnoceses i
MePlin, c.tetstecdecoesenses
Meropsi......sssencntens son 592
Microdactylus............. 617
Microglossus.........+++...603
Milvus......... denvsttecesres DOS
Mina-bird......0006e0.00006573
Mocking bird..........006 572
Monasa...... Rideceetes +0998
Monautl........0.00 peceees
Morphnus........
Motacilla......... é
Muggy... v.00 poeeecheres ib.
Muscicapa.......s.seeeeees 569
Muscipeta...s.ce.ssseeeeeee ib.
Mush-ducks ....00.0600000+ 637
Musophaga..........+0..+. 603
Mycteria.........00+.sseres 620
Myothera........cceeseeees 573
Nandou...... seaeseveceas ---616
Nauclerus.......00. 2.000... 564
Nectarinia..........+...+...589
Neophron...... +-..060
Nightingale.... 576

ISUS....c0ceecenee gaenos60 563
Noctua...... cavenetoes +e---066
NOAICS....vovverecervavees 633
Numenius... vee O22
Numiday...cc-cssssserseccss 608
Nutcrackers. .....s0+sseeees 585
Nut-hatches.s..c.ve0.s000s 588
Nyctibius....... seeneccesers 579
Nycticorax........006+ .- 619
Ocypterus.....+....+...+...968
Cidicnemus.............+ 617
Oidemia........6..s0.s.000s 636
Opetiorhynchus..........589
Opisthocomus............ 606
Oriole,

Baltimore... ..+1000004...083

golden...... Aaceeosocconab 574

red-shouldered ......... 582
Oriolus: jcinsecevtececces +oes 574
Ornismya.........00+.0.008 589
ORNITHOLOGY......545

FTistory Of... vseveveseeee 545

Illiger’s system of......639

LAnn@us’ Sr .sereverer sens 546

Swainson’s...... daveres 643

Temminch’S...0...00000s 641

VAG ORES: cacao cavicer ies ib.
OrthonyX.........sceeceees 573
Ortilda..........00.00+0+++.605

...080
- 612

Ortolan
Ortygis..........0
OPtyX..seccsceseseceee

649

Index.
——

ORNITHOLOGY.

a, Seapila.b, Coracod bone,
or Clavide. ¢.c,
ad, Ulna. ee. Radius.

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCLXXXVIL.

Se. Scapulars. Sm. C. Smaller Coverts.
S.M Spurious Wing. S.C. Secondary Coverts.
P. C. Primary Coverts. P. Primaries. bal

S. Secondaries. T. Tertials.

Wing of Starling — Sturnus vulgaris.

Sm.C. Smaller Coverts. S.C. Secondary Coverts.

SW. Spurious Wing. B.C. Primary Coverts.

I to 10, Primaries. 1 to 6, Secondaries.

Wing of Pigeon Columba livia.

a, Scapula. b, ap of Coracnd bone. c, Humerus. a, Ulna.
e, Radius. £7 Garpus. 9,9. Metaompus. h,Follex. 7, Digits.

S

k, Femur or thigh bone.

2,2, Its two Condyles.

m, m, Tibia or leg bone.

7.7, Tarsus. 0, small Meta-
-tarsal bone. 1,2, 3,4. Toes.

Humerus.

Wing of Pigeon Columba bivia.
ud] Me

S. WK Spurious Wing.
S..S. Secondaries.
LP Frimaries.

Gov. Aikman Sadp®

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCLXXXVIT,

wha)?

Cathiarles alse.

\
Gypaclus barbatus. \\ i

\

Curacara LPranlwensis.

ogc ey

desttuclor. ; J Taluielus albilla. Gon xan

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCLXXXIX.

Surcadlus.

7

ef Pernis ‘Ct

falco

Svraum pagedanum.

CUrCuls

vulgaris.
woe | ne
Bubo Virginianus. CY pogauanus SCrpcrlaruts.

Geo. Aikman, Sau

HN
i

ART
ian

y
aah)
her eT

; ees ' ORNITHOLOGY. - PLATE CCCXC.

§

€

4

a

Bethy lus picals. :
ae
t/

q

me
NINN

Beak of Vanga.

Beak of Tyrannus.

Beak of Chalybaus.

Llead of ta mnocephialus.

As

Lidolius rentter

is .
3)
Ps
d

} we 53

mi { +B mis agin)»

| ae s ahha
‘ Casmurhynchus varugals.

: ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCXCI.

HOD SN
Ma Ili ! \ i \
FEiulabes Savanus.

G6, a.

Toe of Caprimulgus.

2
4

conven Lemminckt

Geo, Aikman, Seulp'

4 ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCXCI.

*

¥

Synallaxis Tupiniert. m

Se
Lill of Dendrocoluptes Procurvus. Sa.

faradisea apo.

Geo, Mikman, Sai'p

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCXCL

Soa aS = —S

Ornismya superba." . Pocus 0 sy

ao:

“

Trochilus pelli.

Epimachus magniticus.

Geo. Aikman, Sadp*

we as ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCXCIP

Prionites momota.

Todus virus.

(

Loot of Whine.

———<..-

so

i i ee,

Buceros hydrocorax. fei Buceros rhinoceros.

Geo, Aikman, Seu

7

Galbula ruficauda.

Coceyzus cristatus.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Aientes Galatl

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCXCVI

a \

Phuenicoplueus supercuwosus.

Gro, Aikman Scalp!

Corviliux Paulina.

ORNITHOLOGY.

Calyptorhynchius
Barksi.

Ihicroglossum aterrrmun.

PLATE CCC NCVI.

Musophaga gigantea.

Zz

d
; ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE COCXCVIL.

Bank

Eig ii
Gallus Bankiva, Female.

Tinamus

Orbis: pugnax..

. ORNITHOLOGY. ATE “CCOLEIE

Ze : LOR - }
Microdactylus cristatus en ileal EAN 5
5 WOMAN” Fay | Apes
Anthropoides pavonna.

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE CCCC.

Jumenus longuostis.

Grus

WOSTTU

Pehynhaa capensis.

ORNITHOLOGY. PLATE COCCI

Pill of Lutiinits.

Lrocellarit

¥

TATU: TUTTI:

ip

te

un ~ ORNITHOLOGY, 3 PLATE. 06

*

Cou

ie