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Book
JACQUES’ NEW MANUAL
OF THE
Garden, Harm and Darn-Vand,
EMBRACING ene
PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE, AGRICULTURE, AND
CATTLE, HORSE AND SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
WITH INSTRUCTIONS TO
CULTIVATE VEGETABLES, FRUIT, FLOWERS, ALL THE FIELD
CROPS, EXECUTE THE DETAILS OF FARM WORK, AND
BREED AND REAR THE VARIOUS SPECIES
OF DOMESTIC ANIMAI*.
C7
By D. H. JACQUES
AUTHOR OF “ THE HOUSE,” “HOW TO DO BUSINESS,” BIG,
Rew and Revised Edition.
Sens
NEW YORK:
THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY;
89 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET.
J/E2L0 7
Aosk
——
Hit GARDEHN:
A MANUAL
ractical Horticulture;
OR, HOW TO CULTIVATE
VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND FLOWERS.
EMBRACING
AN EXPOSITION OF THE NATURE AND AOTION OF SOILS AND MANURES AND THE
STRUOTURE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS; DIRECTIONS FOR THE FOEMING A
GARDEN; DESORIPTION OF IMPLEMENTS AND FIXTURES; INSTRUO-
TIONS FOR SOWING, TRANSPLANTING, BUDDING, GRAFTING, AND
CULTIVATING VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND FLOWERS;
WITH A OHAPTER ON
Ornnmental Trees and Strubs.
By DoH. JACQUES,
AvurTHoE or “THE Farm,” “Tur Hovusz,” “Tae Barn-Yarp,” “How
to po Business,’ “How To BEHAVE,” ETO,
Gardening was the primitive scaployment of the first man; and the first of men, among his descan-
dante, have ever been attached to t occupation. Indeed, we can hardly form an idea of human
folicity, in which a garden is not one of its most prominent characteristics.—T. G. FEssenDEN.
REVISED EDITION.
NEW YORK:
THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY,
89 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year
GEO. E. WOODWARD, |
Southern District of New York.
ey transfer ive
Pat. Office Lib,
April 1914
language; but there seemed to be room and a demand for
ES ‘another. No other work fills just the place that this is intended
i to fill—no other quite meets the popular want which we have
_ aimed to satisfy in this.
s We saw the need of a small, cheap work, embracing not only
brief, simple, and easily understood directions for the cultivation
ae of vegetables, fruits, and flowers, but also a succincé exposition
of the theory of horticulture, as deduced from the nature of
soils and manures, and the laws of vegetable life and growth; .
to give the reader something to fall back upon, whenever the —
practical instructions, which can not be adapted to every change
of circumstances, shall fail to furnish a sufficient guide. How
_ well we have succeeded in meeting this need we leave the reader
to judge. We will only say, that our little book has been care-
fully prepared, and combines the results of experience, observa-
‘tion, and study. In preparing it, we have aimed simply at use-
fulness, and have made no effort for the attainment of any
further originality than the end in view required. We are neces-
sarily placed under heavy obligations to our predecessors in the oe
walks of horticultural literature ; but what we have derived from
them has, in most cases, been re-written, and so modified. to
Vil
PREFACE.
instances, been impracticable. Among the numerous works con-
sulted, we take pleasure in acknowledging our indebtedness for
valuable aid to each and all of the following :
*Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Gardening.
*Mrs. Loudon’s Gardening for Ladies
Delamer’s Kitchen Garden.
- Flower Garden.
Neill’s Gardener’s Companion.
*Buist’s Family Kitchen Gardener.
Fessenden’s American Kitchen Gardener.
Every Lady Her Own Flower Gardener.
Barry’s Fruit Garden.
*Downing’s Fruits and Fruit-Trees.
Jaques’ Fruits and Fruit-Trees.
Tucker’s Annual Register.
Farm and Garden Essays.
Thorburn’s Descriptive Catalogues.
«White’s Gardening for the South.
Horticulturist.
Country Gentleman.
Southern Cultivator.
Allen’s American Farm Book.
Boussingault’s Economie Rurale.
Downing’s Landscape Gardening.
*Lindley’s Theory of Horticulture.
Gray’s Botanical Text-Book.
©Darby’s Botany of the Southern States.
To the works marked thus (*) we are under special obligations,
either for matter derived from them, or for valuable facts or sug:
gestions made more indirectly available.
Trusting that this little manual will be found worthy of a
measure of the favor with which his previous humble attempts
at usefulness has been received, the author now submits it to the
judgment of the great Public.
Bit
i
:
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
The Garden of Eden—History of Gardening—Attractions—No Fruits like Out
Own— Gardening favorable to Health—The Scienze of Horticulture—Object
ofthis Work—How. to Use it. 2.2 oon 2 cee non cece nc ceneteccccce Page 9-11
I.—STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS.
Germination—Conditions Essential to Germination—Time Required—The
Process—The Root—How Roots Grow—Functions of the Root—Kinds
of Roots—The Stem — Structure—Uses—Leaves—Siructure and Functions—
Flowers and their Structure—Fruit—Growth and Ripening—The Food of
Plants—State in which it must be Taken up— Conditions Essential to Growth
— Warmth, Moisture, Food, Air, Light................... cece ceeeeees 13-29
I.—SOILS AND MANURES.
Classification of Soils—Heavy Soils—Light Soils—Loamy Soils—Caleareous
Soils—Marley Soils—Vegetable Mold—Alluvial Soils—Subsoils—Improve-
ment of Soils—Manures—Theory of Manures—Composts.............. 80-40
I.—FORMATION OF A GARDEN.
Situation—Exposure—Size and Shape—Laying Out—Fencing—Hedges—Prep-
aration of the Soil—Draining—Trenching—Subsoil Plowing ......... A145
IV.—IMPLEMENTS AND FIXTURES.
The Various Implements Required—Care of Implements—Fixtures—The
Walled Pit—Hvut Beds—Trellises—Rustic Structures...............008 46-50
V.—HORTICULTURAL PROCESSES.
Stirring the Soil—Applying Manures—Forcing—Sowing Seeds—Transplanting
—Watering—Hoeing—Protection from Frost-Mulching—Destroying In<
sects—Saving Seeds—Rotation of Crops—Propagation—Suckers—Layers—
Cuttings--Slips— Budding — Grafting --Pruning—Training eeieieie mon sees 51-72
vii CoNnTENTS.
VI.—THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
Esculent Rocts—The Legumes—The Cabbage Family—Spinaceous Plants—
Asparaginous Plants—Esculent Bulbs—Salad Plants—The Cucumber Family
—The Pumpkin Family—Miscellaneous—Sweet Herbs......... -..e. 73-110
VII.—THE FRUIT GARDEN.
The Apple—Origin—Varieties—Difficulty of Selecting—List of Summer Ap-
ples—Autumn Apples—Winter Apples—Crab Apples—Culture—Gathering
and Preserving—The Pear—Lists of Pears—The Quince—Varieties—The
Peach, with Lists of Varieties—The Nectarine—The Apricot—The Cherry—
The Olive—The Orange—The Lemon—The Grape—Tihe Currant—The
Gooseberry—The Raspberry—The BlackLerry—The Strawberry—The Fig—
The Pomegranate—The Mulberry..............2c0-eeees <a 111-142
VIIN.—THE FLOWER GARDEN.
Uses of Flowers—A Word to the Ladies—How to become Healthy and Strong
-Implements for Ladies’ Use—Laying Out a Flower Garden—Arrangement
of Plants—Climbing Plants—Shrubs and Trees—General Directions—Lists
of Flowering Plants and Shrubs—Hardy Annuals—Hardy Biennials—Hardy
Perennials—-Tuberous Rooted Plants—Bulbous Rooted Plants— Flowering
Shrabs—Climbers and Creepers ’..2<. -- ce ser cs ces vase ooo s sa ceeene 148-156
IX.—ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS.
General Hints—Picturesqueness—Pruning—American Trees—Transplanting
—Lists of Trees—Large Trees—Deciduous and Evergreen—Small Trees and
Shiribs—Hed ge! Planta: s.12.2<s- cs. 0 seicnsjejns odiece soho nie eee 157-161
APPENDIX,
The Bearing Year—Cause of Diminished Fertility—Removing Large Trees—
New Varieties of the Potato—Luxuries of a Fruit Garden—Hyacinths ip
Glasses—R ses for Pot-Culture ............ cece eee eeeeeceeee e++-. 162-164
oy REO Es rn
bet
INTRODUCTION.
Tz is written that God placed the first man in a garden to drena
and to keep it; and that woman was there created as a help
meet for him. That garden was the primitive paradise ; and to
this day, a tastefully planned, judiciously planted, and well-kept
garden has, still lingering about it, many of the charms we are
wont to attribute to the original Eden. To the true lover of rural
life it seems, in the fullness of its summer beauty, to be indeed
almost a Paradise Regained.
Gardens are frequently mentioned in ancient writings, both
sacred and profane, but little is told us either of their productions
or their cultivation.
At the close of the Roman commonwealth the catalogue of
cultivated fruits had become considerable, and the principles of
pruning and grafting were understood and practiced. With the
decline of the empire, horticulture, in common with other useful
arts, seems to have declined, and to have revived only when
learning arose from the slumber of the dark ages. Since that
time, it has kept pace with the general improvement of society.
England, France, and Belgium have taken the lead in modern
horticultural progress. ‘The United States will not long remain
behind.
It would be interesting te trace, at considerable length, the
1*
x INTRODUCTION.
history of gardening, and show how, both as an art and asa science,
it has been perfected, step by step, by means of study, observation,
and experiment ; but our limits will not permit this course, and
we must refer the inquiring reader to ‘‘ Loudon’s Encyclopedia of
Gardening,’’ the most thorough and complete work on the sub-
ject in the English language. It is, however, too large and
expensive to be generally accessible, except in public libraries.
Gardening, the earliest employment of man, is also the most
attractive. It is Emerson, we think, who says, that after work
ing in one’s garden, nothing else seems worth doing. Here we
seem to come into close communion with Nature, and to co-
operate with her in adorning and enriching the earth. To plant
one’s seeds, to await hopefully their germination, to watch the
daily development of the tender plant, to protect it from the
encroachments of weeds and the attacks of insects, to loosen the
soil around it, to care for it, watch over it, and rejoice in its
growth and fruitage, and finally to enjoy the fruits of one’s labors
in the ripened harvest—what mere sensuous pleasure can be
greater? The market affords no such pears, apples, peaches, or
plums as grow on the trees we have with our own hands grafted
and pruned. Our own squashes and melons are sweeter than any
that our money could buy; and no potatoes, or cabhages, or
turnips are like ours !
And health flows to us from the garden in two broad streams.
One has its source in the invigorating out-door exercise it calls for
and renders so delightful, and the other in the wholesome food
which it furnishes to take the place of much less desirable ali-
ments which would otherwise be supplied by the butcher and the
grocer.
A taste for horticulture is almost universal in this country, and,
as land is abundant and cheap, and the facilities for obtaining it
great, very few outside of our cities and large towns are debarred
from gratifying it, to a greater or less extent.
INTRODUCTION. x1
But a knowledge of the science of horticulture is far from being
co-extensive with the practice of the art, and a truly satisfactory
degree of success is only occasionally attained. A rich soil and a
genial climate conspire to render the rudest and most empirical
cultivation, under favorable circumstances, moderately produc-
tive. Plodding industry, however blindly applied, is looked upon
with favor by all-loving Nature ; but her richest gifts are reserved
for united science and skill. In the cultivation of the earth, as
in every other department of human effort, ‘‘ knowledge is
power.”’
To increase and extend a knowledge of the theory and practice
of gardening is the object of the following pages, in which we
have given due attention to both branches of the subject. The
former is almost entirely ignored in most popular works on hor-
ticulture; they being nearly restricted to details of practice.
These, though highly useful and even essential to the novice, are
liable to lead him frequently astray, unless he is guided in their
application by a knowledge of the principles on which they are
founded.
The theoretical part of our work is necessarily brief, but will be
found a useful auxiliary to the practical directions which follow.
Carefully studied, thoroughly mastered, and constantly applied,
it will be of more value to the reader than a heavy volume imper-
fectly understood and confusedly remembered. We would by ne
means, however, discourage those who have the leisure and dis-
position from pursuing the subject further.
NOTICE TO THE READER.
In making use of the practical directions given in this work,
the reader should bear in mind that it was written in southern
New York, and that where no other place or latitude is men-
tioned, in designating the time for planting seeds, etc., about 40°
N., with a very slight elevation above the sea, is to be under-
stood. Allowance must be made for situation north or south of
this, and also for elevation of site, soil, aspect, exposure, and the
general character of the season.
Our directions must also, of necessity, be subject to many
modifications, in other respects, by soil, situation, and climate ;
but if the reader will study the general principles of horticulture,
even in our brief and imperfect exposition of them, in the first
part of this work, and exercise a little sound judgment, he will
1eadily overcome the obstacles presented by local and temporary
circumstances. ;
THE GARDEN.
ile
STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS.
With what increased satisfaction are the common prveesses of manuring or transplanting
garried on, to say nothing of the more delicate operations of budding, grafting, and propagating
py layers, etc., when we are acquainted with the structure of the plants we are endeavoring to
tontrol, nd compreliend the why and the wherefore of every step we pursue.—4A,. J. Downing.
I.—GERMINATION.
VERY perfect and matured seed contains the
germ of a new plant of the species to which
it owes its own existence. If you separate
the two lobes of a bean, or other seed of a
similar character, you will discover, pressed
f between them at the undivided or stem end,
7) WSS or side, a minute kernel or bud. This, though a
Ss mere point, as it were, contains the rudiments of two
or more undeveloped leaves, united by a solid or undi-
vided portion, called, in the language of botany, the
radicle, and constitutes an embryo plant, holding within
itself all the elements of vegetable life. The commencement
of the vital action which produces the development of this
embryo is called germination.
The conditions essential to germination are the presence of
moisture, warmth, and oxygen gas.
In the absence of moisture, no effect toward germination is
produced by the presence of warmth and oxygen, or any other
gas. Moisture and oxygen gas without warmth, are equally
14 Toe GaRDEN.
inefficacious; sndsoare moisture aud warmth in the absence of
the oxygen; for seeds will not germinate in a vacuum, nor in
distilled or recently-boiled water.
Moisture is necessary to soften and expand the various parts,
to dissolve soluble matter, and to establish a sort of circulation.
The embryo seems also to have the power of decomposing
water; and it is probable that a portion of the oxygen required
is obtained in this way. The rest must come from the air; for
it is found that a communication with the atmosphere is abso-
lutely essential to perfect germination. The effect of heat ap-
pears to be to set the vital principle in action, to expand the
air in the numerous microscopic cavities of the seed, and to
produce distension of all the organic parts. The degree of
heat required varies with different species. The common
chickweed will germinate at a temperature but little above the
freezing-point, while the seeds of many tropical plants require
a heat of from 90° to 110° (Fahrenheit) to call them into
action. Wheat, rye, and barley will germinate at 449°. A
degree of heat vary-
ing from 113° to
167° is capable of
destroying the vital-
ity of the various
grains, beans, peas,
ete. Direct light,
so essential to sub-
sequent vegetation,
is unfavorable to
germination.
The time required
for germination is
very different in dif-
ferent species of
plants. Much alse
depends upon soil,
FOUNG FADISH, SHOWING SEED-LEAVES. climate, degree of
* 35-
ae ee BAe
wo
STRUCTURE AND GRowTH. 15
moisture, etc. Under favorable circumstances, wheat, rye,
oats, and millet will germinate in one day ; bean, turnip, radish,
and mustard in three days; lettuce in four days; melon, cucum-
ber, squash, and pumpkin in five days; barley in seven; cabbage
in ten; parsley in fifteen; almond, peach, and peony in one
year, and hawthorn in two years.
The time that seeds will retain their vitality also differs in
_ different species, but in all cases depends partly upon the degree
in which they are excluded from the action of moisture and
light. Kidney-beans, peas, and carrot, parsnep, and rhubarb
seeds are generally considered as losing their vitality at the end
‘of one year, but will sometimes germinate after being kept
rouch longer.
These facts have ‘caycetaent bearings upon the subject of
horticulture, and should be constantly borne in mind; and
especially is it requisite that the essential conditions of germi-
nation be held in remembrance. A failure to germinate is
doubtless often attributed to bad seeds, when the fault is en-
tirely in the planting. It must be perfectly evident that if your
‘seeds are insufficiently covered in a light, dry soil, they will
lack the first essential of germination, and will be liable to
wither and perish for want of moisture. This is why light
soils should be pressed together and upon the seed in planting,
either by means of a roller or otherwise. Seeds buried too
deeply, or covered with a heavy, dense soil, pressed too closely
upon them, fail to germinate for want of communication with
the atmosphere. If there be not sufficient warmth in the soil
at the time of planting, aud it remain cold for a considerable
time thereafter, the seeds just as surely perish. Remember the
conditions of germination—moisture, warmth, and oxygen gas
(or air containing oxygen).
Germination being established by the action of moisture and
warmth, and maintained by the oxygen of the atmosphere, all
_ parts of the embryo enlarge, and new parts are formed at the
expense of a saccharine or sugary secretion, which the germinat-
ing seed possesses the power of forming. With the assistance
ie
5
16 Tue GARDEN.
of this substance, the root or radicle, at first a mere rounded
cone, extends and pierces the earth in search of food, while
the other extremity elongates in the opposite direction, bringing
the cotyledons, or seed-leaves (except when these remain per-
manently in the ground, as in the pea, wheat, rye, etc.), and
the rudimentary leaves and stem, to the surface of the soil.
The process of germination is now completed—the plant is
born.
II.—_THE ROOT.
The root, the stem, and the leaves are called the fundamental
organs of plants. Of them vegetables essentially consist; and
the various organs known by other names are really but repeti-
tions, under more or less modified forms, of these essential parts.
Germination, as we have seen, pushes the root downward
into the earth, where, extending by the addition of new matter
to its point, it soon enters upon the exercise of its funetion—
the absorption of the crude food of the plant from the soil.
This is carried up through the stem into the leaves, to be di-
gested or assimilated, and returned to the stem and root, and
used in the formation of new branches, leaves, and rootlets, as
well as for increasing the length and size of those already
formed. The more a plant grows, therefore, the more are the
means of growth multiplied.
As the roots are extended by the addition of new matter to
the extreme points, these points are exceedingly delicate and
zasily injured. Jt is mainly through them, too, that absorption
takes place, It is readily seen, therefore, why the careless or
unskillful removal of plants from the earth, for the purpose of
transplanting, by destroying the delicate points of the roots, or
spongelets, as they are called, always checks so greatly their
growth, and often destroys their life.
Their peculiar mode of growth admirably adapt roots to
pierce the earth and insinuate themselves into the minutest
crevices. Thus they pass on frem place to place in search of
fresh pasturage, shifting their mouths, although their bodies
remain stationary.
Structure anDd GrowrTH. 17
‘Roots seem to possess a principle akin to instinct, which
guides them in their search for food ; for they invariably extend
themselves most rapidly and widely in the direction of the
richest soil. If a strawberry plant be set in a sandy soil, defi-
cient in nutritive matters, and rich earth piaced on one side of
it, the roots will immediately seek the fertile spot, although at
first nowhere in contact with it. A decaying bone or a piece
of rotten wood will in the same way be sought out by the
roots of a plant requiring the nutritive elements it may contain ;
and such objects are often found completely covered by a net-
work of minute rootlets.
The reots of plants have, to a certain extent, the power of
selecting their food. In general, they absorb only those sub-
stances which are needed to develop and perfect their various
parts. Thus, if a pea and a grain of wheat be planted side by
side, and made to grow under the same circumstances, the
wheat plant will absorb silex (in solution) from the earth, while
the pea will absorb none. This power of selection, however,
does not enable the roots of plants to reject, under all circum-
stances, any deleterious agents which may be brought in con-
tact with them; and it is a curious circumstance that sub-
stances which are fatal to man are equally so to plants, and in
nearly the same way.
In addition to their principal office, as feeding organs, the
roots of plants are believed to be, to some extent, organs of
excretion, throwing off any superfluous or deleterious matter
which may have been imbibed either by themselves or by the
leaves. They also possess the power of accumulating a store
of sap, upon which the plant may draw in time of need.
Striking examples of the last-named property are furnished by
the turnip, the beet, the carrot, and other plants of the same
class.
In general, roots do not produce buds, and are therefore
incapable of multiplying the plant to which they belong; but
to this rule there are many exceptions, some species having
the power, under certain circumstances, of forming what are
us
ti
ap
18 Tore GARDEN.
called adventitious buds. In such cases they may be employed
for the purposes of propagation.
Roots are not inactive during the winter, as many suppose,
except while actually frozen, but are perpetually extracting food
from the earth, and storing it up for the next season’s use. A
long, mild winter is there-
fore favorable to the vege-
tation of the succeeding
spring.
Roots are of various
kinds. In reference to
their duration, they are
classed as annual, bien-
nial, and perennial. An
FIBROUS ROOT. annual root lives but a sprxpiz root
single year. It is always jibrows, or composed of numerous
branches or rootlets. Biennial roots are those of plants which
do not blossom till the second year, at the end of which they
perish. They are thickened or fleshy, and of various shapes—
conical, as in the carrot; spandle-shaped, as in the radish; twr-
TUBEEOUS EOOT. OREEPING ROOT.
nip-shaped, clustered, tuberous, ste. TLerennial roots are those
which, like the roots of trees aad woody plants, and some
others, survive from year to year indafinitely.
A tuber, of which the potato is the best example, is not
strictly a root, but a modification of the stem, running beneath
ee
SrrRuctTURE AND Growra. 15
the surface of the soil, and having buds (eyes) embedded in a
cellular substance, consisting principally of starch. ;
Bulbs, whether formed in the earth, as is generally the case,
or on the summit of the stem, as in the top or tree onion, are
simply leaf-buds inclosed in scales or concentric layers.
Ill.—THE STEM.
As soon as the root enters upon the performance of its proper
function, the stem begins to extend itself upward, and the pri-
mary leaf-bud, attracting to itself the food procured for it, and
a part of the nutritive matter stored up in the seed-leaves, ex-
‘pands, and the two or more parts or leaves of which it is
composed separate, and begin to manifest their distinctive
features.
The stem is at first composed entirely of cellular tissue,
possessing neither strength nor tenacity; but at the moment
that the first rudiment of a leaf appears upon its growing point,
the formation of woody matter commences. It consists of tough
fibers of extreme fineness, which take their rise in the leaves,
and thence pass downward through the celluar tissue and are
incorporated with the latter, giving it the necessary strength
and flexibility. In trees and shrubs these fibers combine
intimately with each other, and form what is properly called
wood; but in herbaceous and annual plants they constitute a
lax fibrous matter. The woody matter thus plunged, as it
were, into the cellular tissue, forms within the circumference
of the stem a tubular partition, separating it into two parts—
the bark and the pith. This gives us, in perennial stems, the
three general divisions of pith, wood, and bark.
The pith consists entirely of cellular tissue, gorged at first
with the nourishing juices of the plant, but afterward becom
ing empty and dry.
The wood consists of the proper woody fiber, interwoven
with and bound together by thin plates or layers of cellular
tissue, passing horizontally across it, and forming what are
called the silver grain in maple, oak, etc. They represent the
20 Tore GARDEN.
horizontal system of the wood—in botanical language, the
medullary rays.
The dark consists originally of cellular tissue alone, but after-
ward the inner portion next the wood has the woody tissue
formed in it, and becomes the liber, or fibrous inner bark.
Whenever a stem is wounded, it is the cellular or horizontal
system which forms granulations that eventually coalesce into
masses, within which the woody tissue is subsequently devel-
oped, and the communication between the two sides of an inci-
sion effected. In cuttings, the callus which forms at the end
placed in the ground is the cellular or horizontal system pre-
paring for the woody fibers, which are to pass downward in
the form of roots.
The description we have given of the structure of a stem
applies to all plants whose woody matter is augmented annually
py external additions below the liber, and which are called ewo-
gens, or outside growers. All the trees and shrubs of the
United States, except the few palms of our Southern confines,
belong to this class. In the palms, which belong to the elass
of endogens, or inside
. growers, the woody
‘{ matter is augmented
Yj :
4a] annually by internal
y additions to their cen-
ter, thus constantly
EXOGEN,. pushing the woody ENDOGEN,
growth of former years to their circumference. The stem of
the asparagus exhibits a similar structure in anherb. In endo-
gens, the cellular and fibrous systems are all mixed together,
their mode of growth not requiring the same arrangement of
parts as exists in the eogens.
Stems, during their growth, form on their surfaces minute
vital points, each of which becomes, or may become, a leaf-
bud, capable of forming another stem or branch like that on
which it is found. These buds appear immediately above the
point of union between the leaf and the stem, and are not,
STRUCTURE AND GRowTH. 21
under ordinary circumstances, found anywhere else. They
occasionally, however, appear on other parts, when they are
called (as when found on the roots) adventitious buds. It
is by means of the leafbuds that a cutting is capable of pro-
ducing a new individual like that from which it was taken.
Leaf-buds are also capable, under fitting cir- aN
cumstances, of growing when separated from OY) 4
the parent branch. In some cases they are Ne, ig
planted in the earth, when they put forth roots, V 7
and thereby sustain an independent existence. (
In others they are inserted below the bark
of a kindred species, and, forming new wood,
adhere to that on which they are placed.
The principal functions of the stem (aside
from its continual multiplication of itself by BUDS.
means of buds) are the support of the leaves and the convey-
ance and distribution of the sap. In trees, the sap or crude
food procured by the roots rises principally through the newer
wood; but the assimilated sap returns from the leaves in the
newest bark, or liber, whence it is horizontally diffused, through
the medullary rays, into the sap-wood and other living parts.
It is in the bark, therefore, and not in the wood, that we must
look for the proper juices of a plant.
IV.—LEAVES.
A leaf, as defined by Dr. Lindley, is an appendage of the
stem of a plant having one or more leaf-buds in its azil, or
point of union with the stem. In some cases no leaf-buds are
visible, but they are present, nevertheless, although latent, and
may be developed by favorable conditions.
“A complete leaf consists of the lamina, or blade, and the
petiole, or leaf-stalk. In some leaves the petiole is wanting,
the Jamina resting immediately upon the stem, and in others
there is no proper blade, the whole organ being cylindrical or
stalk-like. ;
Considered in reference to their structure, it may be said
29 THE GARDEN.
leaves are extensions of the green layer of the bark (which,
where no proper leaves exist, fulfills their function) expanded
into thin lamina and strengthened by woody fibers connected
with the dider, or inner bark, and with the wood. These woody
fibers form their frame-work, and afford, at the same time, by
their microscopic ramifications, a complete and beautiful system
of veins. The leaf, therefore, like the stem, consists of two
distinct parts, the cellular and the woody. The cellular por-
tion is not the structureless, pulpy mass which it appears to be
to the naked eye, but presents a regular and beautiful arrange-
ment of cells. The woody part forming the veins, and having,
as we have seen, a double origin, is arranged in two layers; the
upper, arising from the wood, and conveying the ascending
sap to every part of the leaf, and the lower, connected with
the liber, and establishing a communication with the bark, by
means of which the assimilated juices pass downward. En-
casing the whole of this wonderfully beautiful apparatus is the
epidermis, or skin, pierced by numerous invisible pores or holes,
called stomates, through which the plant breathes and per-
spires.
It would be interesting, in connection with the foregoing
brief outline of the structure of the leaf, to give some account
of the different forms of leaves, their various modifications,
and their systematic and beautiful arrangement on the stem;
but as the practical ends we have in view do not require us to
pursue the subject further in this direction, we must forego it.
Leaves have been called the lungs of plants. They are
something more than this, being not only organs of respiration,
but of perspiration and digestion also. They are, at the same
time, stomach, lungs, and skin. They receive the crude sap
from the roots through the stem, and, by means of exposure to
air and light, the decomposition of water and carbonic acid,
and the throwing off of superfluous moisture, condense it and
change it into organizable matter—the true food of plants,
This elaborated sap is sent immediately downward, to serve for
the nourishment of every part.
STRUCTURE AND GROWTH. 23
The nutrition of a plant depending upon its leaves, the furmer
may be destroyed by simply destroying its foliage. In general,
it does not immediately die, because it has the power of putting
forth new leaves, which come into action and supply imper-
fectly the places of those removed; but if it be deprived of
these essential organs during the entire season, its power of
producing them ceases, and all functions are suspended.
V.—FLOWERS AND FRUIT.
A flower is that part of a plant which is formed for the pur-
‘pose of reproducing its species by means of seeds. Fruit is
the seed, or the seed and its pericarp, or covering. The peri-
carp includes whatever goes to make up the seed-vessel,
whether it be a mere thin husk, a hard, bone-like shell, or a
soft, fleshy pulp.
. Anatomically considered, the parts of a flower are merely
modified leaves, the whole forming a very short branch.
What causes a plant to convert some of its leaf-buds into
flowers, by fashioning the leaves into calyz, corolla, stamens,
and pistils, while other buds become ordinary branches, it is
not essential to our purpose to explain. It is pretty clear,
however, that their production depends upon the presence in
the plant of a sufficient quantity of secreted matter, fit for
their maintenance when produced. If it happen, then, that,
from any cause, there be not, at the usual time of flowering,
any store of nutritive juices beyond what is required for the
-production of leaves and the growth of the stem, no flower-
buds are put forth. This is illustrated in the failure of fruit-
: - trees to bear at all the season next succeeding one in which an
excessive crop has been produced.* Sometimes flowers are
produced, but, the supply of nutriment proving insufficient,
they drop off without producing fruit.
Lindley syllogistically says: “‘A flower being a kind of
branch, as has been already shown, and the fruit being an ad-
* See Appendix, A.
24 Toe GaRrpDEN.
vanced stage of the flower, it folows that a fruit is also a kind
of branch.” It has certainly the same organic connection with
the plant as other branches, and, like them, requires to be sup
plied with focd, without which it must perish.
So long as a fruit retains its original green, foliaceous char-
acter, it is capable of performing, partially at least, the fune-
tions of a leaf, decomposing carbonic acid, etc. A portion of
the food required for its maturation may therefore be derived,
by its own action, from the air; but the greater part must be
prepared by the leaves from material furnished by the roots.
This shows the necessity of the healthy and regular action of
the leaves and roots in perfecting fruit, and the importance of
fruit being placed near the leaves, so that it can readily attract
the required nutriment from them. If you remove all the
leaves from a branch containing fruit, you stop the growth of
the latter almost as effectually as by separating it from the
stem.
The juices furnished by the leaves undergo further altera-
tions by the vital forces of the fruit itself, and this alteration
varies according to the species. The fruit of the peach is
sweet, but there is no perceptible sweetness in its leaves; and
the fruit of the fig is sweet and nutritious, while the leaves of
that plant are acrid and deleterious.
Among the principal immediate causes of the changes which -
occur in the secretions of fruits are heat and light. Fruits
produced in warm seasons are always much sweeter than those
which are matured in cold ones; and the products of hot cli-
mates abound in sugar, while in those of cold climates acidity
prevails.
The ripening of fruit is hastened by dryness, and retarded
by an excess of moisture.
Seeds are affected by all the circumstances which affect the
fruit, which is created primarily for their nutrition and preser-
vation. The fruit attracts organizable matter from the leaves,
and the seeds attract it from the fruit. The better the fruit,
therefore, the more perfect are the seeds,
_ plumpest and heaviest seeds should be selected.
A seed always produces a plant of the same species as that
from which it was derived, but is not certain to reproduce any
_ peculiarity that may have existed in its parent. For instance,
the seed of a Green Gage plum will grow into a new individual
_ of the plum species, but it is not certain, or even likely, to pro-
~ duce the variety known as the Green Gage. The variety must
be propagated in some other way.
VI.—THE FOOD OF PLANTS.
The gardener should know precisely what substances plants
require for their growth and the maturation of their fruit—
that is, their natural food. This is ascertained by analysis.
_ Wher we have learned of what plants are composed, we know
_ what their food must necessarily contain.
The constituents of plants, as shown by analysis, are of two
kinds, organic and inorganic. Only the organic constituents,
a however, are universally indispensable. These are oxygen,
_ hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon, which make up at least from
eighty-eight to ninety-nine per cent. of every vegetable sub-
_ stance. The inorganic constituents, which are essential to the
perfection of any but the lowest grade of plants, consist mainly
_ of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silex, sulphur, and
phosphorus.
Now, where and how are the different kinds of food which
plants require obtained? Mainly, no doubt, from the soil, and
by means of the roots, which, we have seen, are the proper
feeding organs. The air may, however (and evidently does, in
some cases, as in the epiphytes, or air-plants), either directly or
: indirectly, supply all the organic elements.
‘But whether derived from the earth or from the air, the
plants nourishment is wholly received either in the gaseous or
the liquid form ; for the leaves can imbibe air or vapor only
2
26 THE Gavouy.
while the tissue of the rootlets is especially adapted to absorb
liquids, and 7s incapable of taking in solid matter, however
minutely divided. Let these facts be borne in mind while pre-
paring your soils and manures.
The oxygen and hydrogen required by plants is probably de-
rived principally from water.
The nitrogen is ottained mostly by the decomposition of
ammonia (hartshorn), a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen,
always produced when any animal and almost any vegetable
substance decays. It is dissolved in water, absorbed by porous
substances in the soil, and thus furnished to the roots of plants.
The source of the carbon, which forms much the larger por-
tion of the bulk of plants, is still to be sought. Carbon itself
is a solid, absolutely insoluble in water, and therefore not avail-
able. The chief, if not the only fluid composed of carbon,
naturally presented to the plant, is that of carbonic acid gas,
which consists of carbon united with oxygen. This gas makes
up, on the average, one two-thousandth of the atmosphere,
from which it may be directly absorbed by the leaves; but,
being freely soluble in water, up to a certain point, it must be
carried down by the rain and imbibed by the roots. The car-
bonic acid of the atmosphere is, therefore, the great source of
carbon for vegetation. Carbonic acid is also produced in small
quantities by the action of manures in the soil.
The carbonic acid absorbed is decomposed in the leaves by
the action of solar light; the carbon being retained and the
oxygen thrown off—beautifully reversing the process of animal
respiration, and thus preserving the proper balance in the
atmosphere.
The mineral matters which form the inorganic constituents
of plants are all either soluble in water, or in the acids or alka-
lies mixed with it, and are therefore readily absorbed by the
roots.
The following analysis of wheat will give the reader an idea
of the principal mineral constituents of plants generally, as to
the number of their elements; their preportion will vary
tly in different species. The wheat (the entire plant, in-
20 luding the seed) in 1,000 Ibs. gave 11 Ibs. of ashes, a
as follows:
Magnesia.
PAMIUITINLINS ices sialcieveisie esac visits -26 | Iron, a trace,
_ An analysis of perfected plants of the same species, although
‘growing in very different soils, will give the same proportion;
while different species, although growing in the same soil, will
give very different proportions, showing that plants require
- definite quantities of the inorganic elements in order to perfect’
growth, and that in soil that does not yield these elements an
imperfect growth only can be obtained.
_ These facts lie at the foundation of rotation of crops and
‘manuring. When any given plant has exhausted the soil of
the soluble elements requisite for its growth, another plant
requiring different elements, or the same in different propor-
tions, may grow luxuriantly and in perfection in the same soil.
Generally the grasses, such as wheat, rye, oats, etc., require
_ large quantities of silica; peas, clover, and tobacco, much lime;
turnips, beets, and sweet potatoes, potash and soda. The stalk
and fruit often require different elements in different proportions.
Both of course must be supplied. These elements might exist
_ in the soil, but not in a soluble condition, and of course yield
no benefit to the plant.* 3
VIIL—CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO GROWTH.
All the conditions essential to growth have already been
either specially explained or incidentally mentioned; but it may
be useful briefly to recapitulate:
1. Warmth.—Without this, as we have seen, the latent
powers of vegetable life can not be called into action. It is
®* See Appendix, B. and also “The Farm,” for more on this point.
28 THE GARDEN.
not less essential to their continued activity. Although many
plants will live at a temperature much below the freezing-point,
yet no plant is able to grow unless the temperature is above
82°, for physical reasons which require no explanation. A
temperature permanently much higher than a plant requires for
its healthy growth over-excites, enfeebles, and finally destroys it,
2. Moistwre.—Moisture is obviously essential, both because
water itself in its pure state furnishes two of the essential ele-
ments which enter into the composition of all plants, and
because it constitutes the medium through which the other
substances required are conveyed into the roots. Excessive
moisture, however, is destructive to most plants. It is a great
point in horticulture to determine the degree of moisture most
congenial to a given species, under given circumstances. As a
general rule, the plant should be most abundantly supplied with
moisture when it begins to grow, and the quantity gradually
diminished as it approaches maturity. However, as one effect
of excessive moisture is to keep the newly-formed parts of a
plant tender and succulent, those the leaves or roots of which
(as in the case of lettuce, radishes, etc.) are to be eaten un-
cooked, should be constantly supplied with moisture. Excess
of moisture will also cause strawberries and other fruits to
swell beyond their natural size; but their flavor is diminished
in the same proportion.
3. Food.—A plant can no more live without food than a
human being can. Deficiency of food dwarfs it, and prevents
perfect development; and it must not be forgotten that the
presence in the soil of the nutritive elements is of no avail so
long as they remain in an insoluble condition. It is only in a
gaseous or liquid form (allow us to repeat) that plants are ca-
pable of receiving their food.
4, Air..—Plants breathe (in their way), and must therefore
have air. Much of their nourishment is derived either imme-
diately or remotely from it.
5. Light.—It is by the aid of solar light alone that the leaves
can properly perform their grand function—the assimilation of
STRUCTURE AND GRowTH. 29
the crude sap furnished them by the roots. It is only under
the influence of light that they decompose the carbonic acid
gas from which the large proportion of carbon they require is
obtained. It is to light also that they owe their green color.
In the dark this coloring matter is not formed, potatoes and
other vegetables kept in cellars throwing out white stems and
leaves. Some plants, however, require less light than others,
and flourish in shady places. When we wish to blanch a plant,
as in the case of celery, we exclude the light.*
* For a further elucidation of the various subjects discussed in the forogoing
pages, see Lindley’s “Theory of Horticulture,” Gray’s “Botanical Text-
Book,” Boussingault’s “ Hconomie Rurule,” and Darby’s “Botany of the
Southern States,” to all of which, and especially to the first-named, wo have
been indebted in the preparatien of this chapter
30 Ture GARDEN.
Il.
SOILS AND MANURES.
The soil should be goud to the depth of two feet, and any necessary deepening beyond this,
By manures or otherwise, should not be neglected.— Neill,
I.—CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
E are accustomed to recognize three prim-
itive earths—silex (which includes sand
and gravel), clay, and lime. These, to-
gether with decayed vegetable and animal
matter, enter more or less into the compo-
sition of all soils. On the relative propor-
tion of these ingredients and their texture, or degree
of fineness or coarseness, depends mainly the character
of each variety.
Soils may first be considered in two grand divisions
—heavy and light, the former being characterized by
a predominance of clay, and the latter by an excess of sand or
gravel.
1. Heavy Soils.—The heavy or clayey soils are also known
as wet and cold, from their strong affinity for water. In dry
weather, however, they are liable to bake, or become hard an,
brick-like. They are difficult to work, and, till much modifia.
by art and labor, generally unproductive.
2. Light Soils.—The light or sandy and gravelly soils are
denominated dry and warm, because they permit the water to
pass readily through them. They are subject to drouth, and
have the further disadvantage of allowing a large proportion
of the manure applied to them to pass through into the sub-
soil. They are easy to work, and crops can be brought to per-
fection much earlier on them than on clayey soils.
I se tale
\
ve
Sorts anp Manvess.
ie F These grand classes of soils, running into each other by
imperceptible gradations, and being variously modified, may be
eonsidered as embracing every variety found on the face of the
globe. :
3. Loamy Soils.—A mixture of from fifteen to sixty per
_ cent. of sand with clay forms a loamy soil. If the sand do not
exceed thirty per cent., it is called a clay loam; more than
thirty per cent. constitutes it a sandy loam.
4, Oaleareous Soils—Caleareous soils are those in which
lime, exceeding twenty per cent., becomes the distinguishing
constituent. Calcareous soils may be either calcareous clays,
calcareous sands, or calcareous loams, according to the propor-
- tions of sand or clay which may be present in them.
5. Marly Soils—Soils containing lime, but in which the
_ proportion does not exceed twenty per cent., are sometimes
called marly.
_ 6. Vegetable Molds.—When decayed vegetable matter exists
in so great proportion as to give the predominant character to
a soil, it receives the name of vegetable mold. Vegetable
molds are of various kinds, and may be either clayey, sandy, or
loamy, according to the predominant character of the earthy
admixtures.
1. Alluvial Soils—Aluvial soils are such as have been
formed by the washings of streams, They are generally loamy,
and very fertile.
_ Besides their principal component parts, every soil must
contain, in greater or less quantities, all the elements which
enter into the composition of vegetables. They may have cer-
tain substances which are not necessary to vegetable life, and
such as are necessary may be in excess; yet to sustain a healthy,
prolific vegetation, they must hold, and in a form fitted to its
support, sélex, alumina, carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime,
potash, soda, magnesia, sulphur, phosphorus, oxyd of iron,
anganese, chlorine, and probably iodine. These are called
he inorganic or earthy parts of soils. In addition to these,
82 Tore GARDEN.
gen, which are called organic parts of soils, from their great
preponderance in vegetables and animals.
For gardening purposes, a loamy soil, composed of nearly
equal proportions of clay, sand, and lime, and enriched by de-
posits of decayed animal and vegetable matter, is perhaps the
best; but a sandy loam similarly enriched is good. Very
heavy and very light soils are objectionable; but the latter less
so, since it may be much more easily improved.
Subsoils.—The productiveness of a soil depends to a con-
siderable extent upon the subsoil or bed on which it rests,
which may be either clayey, sandy, gravelly, or calcareous. A
clayey subsoil is unfavorable, as it renders the soil wet and cold.
Loose and leachy subsoils, consisting mainly of gravel or sand,
are also undesirable, on account of the facility with which
moisture and the soluble portions of manures escape into them.
Calcareous subsoils are considered best.
Il.—_IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS.
As the original soil of one’s garden can not always be a
matter of choice, the garden being properly situated near the
house, and the house depending for its location upon other cir-
cumstances besides the soil, it becomes important to know how
to improve it if it happen to be of an undesirable character.
In order to set yourself about the work of improvement with
a reasonable prospect of success, you should have a clear com-
prehension of the end to be attained. What, then, are the
qualities desirable in a garden soil?
A garden soil should be loamy, rich in all the elements essen-
tial to the growth of plants, sufficiently light and friable to be
easily cultivated, and to allow the roots to penetrate it in every
direction, and at the same time sufficiently adhesive to retain
moisture and the soluble portions of manures till they may be
required by the growing plant.
Improvement of Olayey Soils.—If it be a clayey soil with
which you have to do, you will probably, in the first place,
find it too wet. The only effectual remedy for this defect is
So1ts AND MANURES. 33
thorough underdraining. This not only draws off the surplus
water, but opens the soil to the action of the atmosphere,
which, in its passage through it, imparts its nutritive gases, and
helps to warm and disintegrate it. Deep trenching will aid in
the process of draining.*
Having thoroughly drained your plot, you should next give
your attention to improving the texture of the soil in other
ways. The natural remedy for their too dense and adhesive
character seems to be sand; but to produce the desired effect
large quantities are required—so large that the improvement
in that way of large tracts of land is considered impracticable.
In treating a small garden, however, the expense of the appli-
cation may often be disregarded.
Lime is a valuable auxiliary in the improvement of clayey
soils, forming, with their ingredients, chemical combinations,
whereby their extreme tenacity is broken up, and adding, at
the same time, an element of fertility, in which they may be
deficient. Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, has the same effect in
a still more powerful degree. Ashes, coarse vegetable manures,
straw, corn-stalks, leaves, chips, etc., are also very useful, as
they add new materials, and also pep to separate the particles
of the original soil.
In cold climates, clayey soils should be plowed or dug in the
fall, the action of the frost and snow tending to break them up
and destroy the adhesion of their particles. In the South,
where there is little frost, and frequent and copious rains occur
during the winter, this course is injurious rather than beneficial.
The frequent working of clayey soils with plow, harrow,
spade, or hoe, if done when they are not too wet, will greatly
improve them.
A persevering application of the various means we have
indicated, will gradually bring the heaviest clay soil into the
proper loamy consistency for horticultural purposes.
A loamy soil resting upon a clayey subsoil shvuld in general
* For a chapter on Draining, see The Farm.”
9x
os
ey
s
fs
Re
©
E
se
®
84 Tor GARDEN.
be underdrained ; but if the stratum of clay be shallow, trench-
ing or subsoil plowing will answer a good purpose.
Improvement of Sandy Soils.—If your plot be sandy, its
improvement, though equally necessary, is less difficult. The
defects of sandy soils, as we have seen, are lack of adhesive-
ness, want of affinity for water, and a leachy character, which
permits the escape of manures. Clay is the principal remedy
indicated, and a few loads, well incorporated with the original
soil, will have an astonishing effect in improving a sandy gar-
den. The required tenacity is thus very readily imparted.
Lime is scarcely less valuable for application to sandy than
to clayey soils; for while it separates the latter, it renders the
former more adhesive. Gypsum, ashes, and clay marls are
also exceedingly useful. To these applications should be added
the frequent use of a heavy roller.
Where a sandy soil rests upon a clayey subsoil, as is not un-
frequently the case, it may be greatly improved. by trenching
or deep plowing, by means of which a portion of the subsoil
is thrown up and mixed with the surface soil.
Sandy svils, modified as we have indicated, being warm,
quick, and easy of cultivation, are the best in the world for
tap-rooted plants and bulbs, and for the production of early
crops of almost every kind.
Gravelly soils resemble sandy soils in their characteristic
defects, and require similar treatment; but they are less desir-
able, and require greater modifications to adapt them to gar-
dening purposes.
The other soils named require similar treatment in proportion
as they approach the clayey or sandy character.
Depth of Soil.—The soil of most gardens (except on the
alluvial bottoms of the West) requires improvement in depth
quite as much as in any other particular. In no part of your
garden should you be satisfied with less than two feet of good,
friable soil, easily permeable by the roots of plants. <A still
greater depth is desirable, especially in the fruit department,
Few who hare not had their attention specially trawn to the
as!
——
+x
a“, Ad
cn tae
Fe
reat
Sorts anp Manvures.
_ plants penetrate, when permitted by a proper state of the soil,
The roots of a strawberry plant are said to have been traced
Oe _ five feet in a deep, rich soil.
_ Trenching and subsoil plowing are the processes by which
_ the depth of soil is increased. The former is an expensive
_ process, but, in gardening, a remunerative one; the latter is
oe much cheaper, and, where it can be applied, serves a good
_ purpose. -
. Trenching, or subsoil plowing, is positively essential where
the summers are long and dry, as in portions of the Southern
States. Mr. White, in his ‘Gardening for the South,” says
very truly that there is no point of greater importance than
_ this. “Poor ground, deeply moved,” he adds, “is better than
_ rich land with shallow tillage; and when the ground has been
once prepared in this way, it will feel the benefit forever after.
Increasing the depth of the soil in this mode is, to all intents
and purposes, increasing the size of your garden; for one fourth
of an acre thus prepared will yield, in a dry season, as much
as an acre will with shallow tillage, and the growth of plants
ein good seasons will be fully doubled.”
_ Trenching should be performed in the fall, and any coarse
manures you may wish to apply dug in at the time. For a
description of the process of trenching, see Chapter III.
Color of Soils.—The color of a soil has an important relation
to its capacity for heat and moisture, and consequently to its
_ adaptedness for horticultural purposes. Dark-colored earths,
all other things being equal, are the best.
Old Gardens.—Some old and small gardens are in a very —
bad state from excess of nutritive matters, or rather from the _
unavailable state in which these matters exist in the soil, which, __
- instead of consisting of friable mold, presents only a black,
So shining substance, known to chemists as humic acid. This is —
the product of manures saturated with stagnant water, and is
36 Tore GARDEN.
growth of plants than this, and if they grow at all in such svil
they will be gross, pungent, and unwholesome. The remedy is
trenching, underdraining, and the application of lime, gypsum,
ashes, etc.
Further means of improving soils will be treated of in the
next section, under the head of Manures.
III.—_MANURES.
If your soil be either wholly or partially deficient in any of
the constituents of plants, these constituents must be supplied
by adding to it substances which contain them. The substances
thus added are called manures, which, in the Lroadest sense of
the word, embrace everything which, being added to the soil,
promotes directly or indirectly the growth of plants.
Manures directly assist the growth of plants either by enter-
ing into their composition, or by absorbing moisture and nutri-
tive gases from the atmosphere, and holding them for their use.
Indirectly, manures assist the growth of plants by destroying
vermin or weeds, by decomposing the soil and rendering its
elements available, by protecting vegetation from sudden
changes of temperature, or by improving the texture of the
soil. They are divided into two classes—organic and inorganic.
The former embraces ordinary vegetable and animal substances,
and the latter mineral substances.
Organic Manures.—The principal organic manures are the
dung of animals, human excrements, urine, flesh, blood, fish,
swamp-muck, sea-weed, and decayed leaves, hay, straw, and
wood. Guano, though an animal product, contains so large a
proportion of salts, and is so deficient in the characteristics of
recent animal matter that it is generally classed with the imor-
ganic manures,
Inorganic Manures.—The principal inorganic manures are
ashes, lime, the marls, gypsum, bones, salt, charcoal, soot, and
guano.
Theory of Manures.—The kind of manure which will prove
most useful in a given instance must be determined by refer-
Sorts AND MANURES. oh
ence to several circumstances—the chemical composition and
mechanical texture of the soil, the character of the climate or
season, and the kind of crop to be produced. The manures
most generally applicable are those composed of substances
which directly enter into and are essential to the growth of
plants,
The fertility of a forest is not only maintained but inereased
oy the constant decay of its leaves, branches, and trunks,
which returns to the earth not only the nutritive matter origin-
ally drawn from it, but also much that has been supplied by
the atmosphere. This manure is just what the trees need—it
keeps good the supply of the elements essential to their growth.
So the parts of any plant decayed and rendered soluble are the
best manure for its species. But the products of our gardens
are mainly taken from them, and used as food. Every particle
not thus made use of should be returned, mixed with other
vegetable and animal matter, in the form of compost. For the
rest, stable manures (of which the dung of the horse is the best)
should be relied on as the grand staples.
All the ordinarily cultivated plants, as has already been
stated, contain potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silica,
iron, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen. The four substances last named may, as we
have seen, be derived either immediately or remotely from the
air; but they are all essentials of a fertile soil, and, to perpetu-
ate its fertility under cultivation, must be supplied in the form
of manures.
Stable Manure.——Common stable manure contains potash,
soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silica, oxyd of iron, sulphur,
phosphorus, chlorine, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
Lime exists both as a carbonate and as a phosphate, potash as
_amuriate and a sulphate, and soda as acarbonate. A compari-
son of this list of chemical substances with those enumerated
in the preceding paragraph as the essentials of a fertile soil,
will at once show the value of stable manure. Every part of
it has been formed from vegetabl3 substances, and it has only
88 THe GARDEN.
to be rendered friable and soluble to enter again into thei
composition. As plants can not, it will be remembered, absorb
manures in a gross or solid form, the last point is an important
one, and of universal application.
Nigké Soil—Human excrements, composted with charcoal:
dust, leaves, turf, loam, etc., form a most powerful fertilizer.
Quicklime should never be mixed with night-soil, for while it
neutralizes the odor, it also expels its fertilizing qualities.
The Dung of Fowls.—The dung of fowls contains the essen-
tial qualities of guano, and is next to night-soil in value. It
should be kept dry, or else mixed at once with a compost which
will retain all the volatile and soluble matters which it contains.
Other Organie Manuwres.—Dead animals, blood, butchers’
offal, fish, hair, bristles, hay, straw, leaves, sea-weed muck,
rich turf, the refuse from the kitchen, and the slops from the
chamber are all of great value as materials for a compost.
Ashes.—If any dried vegetable product be burned, the incom-
bustible substance remaining behind is called the ash or ashes,
This, though generally less than one tenth of its substance, is
all that the plant necessarily derived from the soil. The sub-
stances expelled are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
They return to the air, from which they were either immedi-
ately or remotely derived. The ashes of vegetables, then, fur-
nish just the inorganic elements required for their growth.
Their value as a manure is evident, and it is astonishing that
any person with a garden or a farm can allow a spoonful of
them to be wasted. Leached ashes contain all the elements of
the unleached, but are somewhat less valuable from having lost
a porcion of their potash and soda. Coal ashes, though inferior
ti wood ashes, are still very valuable as manure.
Lime.—We have already spoken of the value of lime in im-
proving the texture of soils. It also condenses and retains the
volatile gases brought in contact with it by the air and rains,
and converts the insoluble nm.atters of the soil into available food
for plants, besides entering itself directly into the composition
of nearly all vegetation.
Soins AND MANUREsS. 39
The Marls.—Marls are composed of carbonate of lime mixed
with clay, sand, loam, and frequently with phosphate and sul-
_ phate of lime and potash, and are valuable as manures in pro-
portion to the lime and potash they contain.
Guano.—This substance is composed of the dung, food, and
carcasses of sea-birds which have been accumulating for ages on
some of the islands of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Of its
value as a manure there can be no doubt. There is much
fraud in its sale, however, and if great caution be not exercised,
an adulterated article may be palmed off upon you. It must
never, in a fresh state, come in direct contact with the seeds or
roots of plants, as it is certain to destroy their vitality.
- Other Inorganic Manures.—Common salt is valuable in small
quantities for garden use. On account of its great affinity for
water, it attracts the dews and atmospheric vapors, and is
therefore a preventive of drouth. It is also useful in destroy-
ing worms, slugs, and larve. Old plaster, broken bricks, bones,
charcoal, soot, and even broken glass, are useful as manures, and
should be carefully saved and applied.
Having said so much of the various manures, we must repeat,
in order to impress it upon the reader’s mind, that our principal
reliance should be upon stable manure (with which we would
include that from the pig-sty) and the composts formed of
home-made materials, according to directions we are about to
give. The special manures most likely to be required by soily
in general are lime, phosphate of lime, and potash.
Composts.—In or near the garden, and in some out-of-sight
corner, there should be at all times a compost heap for receiving
all kinds of rubbish that can have the least value as manure.
Make a shallow excavation of sufficient size, and a little
lower at one end than at the other, forming with the earth
thrown out a small embankment ali around it. Into this throw
green weeds, the sweepings of the yard, the refuse of vegeta-
bles, leaves, decayed vegetable matter of all kinds, woolen rags,
old plaster, charcoal-dust, scot, soap-suds, brine, slops from the
kitchen and chambers, etc. The heap should be dug over occa-
40 Tue GARDEN.
sionally, adding a little ashes and lime. Anima] manures
should be composted in a separate heap, to which ashes and
lime should not be added, as they would do harm by setting
free the ammonia. In the latter case, charcoal-dust, plaster of
Paris, and vegetable mold, leaves, turf, or swamp-muck should
be used.
One who has never tried the experiment of carefully hus-
banding the elements of fertility which accumulate abvat a
house, yard, and garden will be astonished at the annual amount
and value of the compost which may, with very little trouble,
be thus manufactured. Try it.*
* For a more complete exposition of the whole subject of Soils and Ma
nurea, see “ T'ho Farm.”
Formation or A GARDEN.
IIT.
FORMATION OF A GARDEN.
_ Nothing condaces mor to the successful completion of any piece of work than a gi od begin:
I.—SITUATION.
S it is desirable, if not absolutely necessary,
house, the situation of which must be de-
termined, in part, at least, by independent
considerations, our range for the selection
of a plot is generally quite limited. But it
is well to know what kind of a situation is best, that
we may exercise understandingly any liberty of choice
that may be allowed us.
For early crops a southeastern exposure, with a slight
inclination, is best, as it receives the full benefit of the
morning sun. If sheltered on the north and northwest by
ie higher grounds or by trees or high walls, so much the better.
is In warm climates, however, a northwestern exposure is better
for many garden crops.
In selecting a situation for a garden, reference should also be
had to soil. If this be originally good, the expense of making
it so, artificially, will be saved, and only ordinary manuring
required. Diversity of soils and exposures are also desirable
combinations of advantages. Proximity to water is important, -
_ but very low grounds are, if possible, to be avoided.
IIl.—SIZE AND SHAPE.
: ‘The size of a garden will naturally depend mainly upon the
wants, tastes, and means of its owner. An acre is not too
49 THe GARDEN.
nured and skillfully cultivated, will furnish vegetables and fruits
sufficient for the use of a small family. If you can consist-
ently appropriate an acre or more for the purpose of a garden,
do not be content with less. You will find a ready market for
its surplus products, and at high prices, too, unless you happen
to be situated at a great distance from any city or large town.
The form of a garden, like its situation and size, must depend
upon circumstances. For convenience in laying out and culti-
vation, a square or a parallelogram is a good shape. If the
form be a parallelogram, it is better that it should extend from
east to west than from north to south.
III.—LAYING OUT.
The fruit and kitchen garden are to be looked upon from an
economical rather than an esthetic point of view, and their
mternal arrangement should be simple, and, so far as circum-
stances will permit, regular and geometrical. In laying out a
flower-garden or a lawn, however, no matter how small it may
be, there is room for the exercise of taste and the creation of
beauty ; and we will reserve our directions on that point for
the chapters devoted specially to those topics, confining our-
selves here to the fruit and kitchen departments.
Whether within the same inclosure or not, the flower-garden
will naturally be placed nearest the house. Passing through
that, we enter the kitchen department, beyond which is the
fruit-garden. It is better, however, in some cases to reverse
the order of the last two, placing the fruit department next
the flower-garden. In small gardens, too, these departments
necessarily intermingle to some extent; but this should be
avoided so far as is possible, as the trees are very detrimer tal
to other crops—shading the ground, injuring tender plants by
the drippings from their branches, and exhausting the soil by
means of the heavy drafts made upon it by their roots. Dwarf
pears may be admitted into the vegetable department with
comparative imp nity, provided the soil is sufficiently ma-
nured to withstand the double demand thus made upon it.
3
ES
%
FORMATION OF A GARDEN. 43
A large garden should have a walk through the center, ex-
tending the whole length, with a turning place at the extremity,
and broad enough to admit a cart for bringing in the manure
and conveying the heavier crops to the cellar or other place
of storage. This walk may be crossed by another at right
angles, and both should be bordered with currant or gooseberry
bushes, or other shrubs. In small gardens these walks may be
narrow and without borders, or may be omitted altogether.
A border from four to twelve feet wide, and skirted by a walk
three or four feet wide, should run entirely around the garden.
The smaller compartments need not be separated by permanent
walks, and their arrangement must be left to be decided by the
circumstances of each case.
The only general direction that seems necessary in reference
to laying out the fruit department is, that care should be taken
to give the less hardy trees the most sheltered and warmest
position, and to so dispose the various kinds that the larger
trees shall not shade and dwarf the smaller. The fruit-gardep
should have its wall-borders for the cultivation of raspberries,
blackberries, currants, gooseberries, ete. (unless these, as is
generally the case in small gardens, are transferred to the bor-
_ ders of the kitchen department), and its trellises and arbors
for grapevines.
IV.—FENCING.
A garden should be surrounded by a close fence, at least seven
feet high, and picketed, to prevent the entrance of thieves.
The height and closeness of the fence will increase the warmth
of the air, break the force of high winds, which might injure
tender plants and trees, and prevent, in a measure, the seeds
of weeds from being driven into it bythe wind. A close board
fence, however, is an unsightly object, and a high close hedge,
SO soon as it can be grown, may advantageously take its place. —
The Osage Orange and, at the South, the Cherokee and single-
_ white Macartney roses are suitable for this purpose.
Tur Garpen.
4 V.—PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. ‘*
é. 1. Draining.—If your soil require draining, this is the first
fi thing to be attended to. If in digging a hole two feet deep,
‘4 water be found to collect and stand in it, even during the wettest _
: times, you may be sure that draining is required. ‘No one,
i: J. J. Thomas says, “who has never given draining a full an
: fair trial can appreciate its importance. Very often the soil —
% may be worked and planted from two to four weeks earlierin
ee the spring—a most important advantage for early vegetables, =
a Scarcely less is the benefit during the rest of the season in pre- tee a
, venting hard-baked soil in times of drouth.” Do not neglect
ie this on account of the expense. No operation in gardening —
4 “pays” better, A quarter of an acre well underdrained will
ee. be more valuable than an acre of wet, cold, tenacious, undrained =
ig soil. Dig parallel ditches from twenty-five to thirty feet apart, —__
and from three to four feet deep, forming a slightly inclined .
plane on the bottom, which may be from six inches to a foot =
wide. These ditches may be filled to a sufficient depth with
rubble-stones or brush, and then covered with soil, if the arched
tiles or tubes of burned clay, now mostly used, can not be pro-
cured, The average expense of the best underdraining is esti- _
mated at only from twelve to eighteen dollars an acre. Re:
2. Trenching.—We have already (in Chapter II.) spoken of
the necessity of depth of soil for horticultural purposes, and iS j
especially for the growth of trees, and of the means for deep- —
ening soils naturally too shallow, as nearly all are. Trenching —
is thus performed : Bos:
“ At one end of the plot to be trenched, dig with the spade
a trench three feet wide and at least two feet deep, throwing
the earth out on the side opposite to the plot. Now open an- S a?
other trench of the same width, and put the surface spadeful __
spadeful upon that, until it is opened to the depth of the first
one. When the plot is entirely trenched in this way, the last x 7
trench will remain open, and must be filled with the earth
If the soil require it, as it generally will, layers
manure may be added to those of earth alternately.”
it up.
[he foregoing preparatory operations being thoroushly per-
ned, we =i consider the garden ready for ate ordinary
46 THE GARDEN.
ive
IMPLEMENTS AND FIXTURES.
Next to knowledge and skill are good tools.—The Workman.
I.—_IMPLEMENTS.
OU should supply yourself with good ime
plements of the various kinds essential to 4
the proper performance of every necessary |
Megs operation. To purchase those of an infe-
ES yior quality because they can be procured
& 4 at a somewhat lower price is false economy. Ex-
perience will prove them the more costly in the
end. They soon get out of repair and become
VYARD useless; besides, in their best estate, much less
Eo work can be accomplished with them, and that
imperfectly.
The Spade.—It is convenient to have several spades of dif-
ferent sizes, but a No. 2 of Ames’ cast steel will serve for most
purposes. For the flower-garden, a lady needs a smaller and
lighter one, manufactured especially for feminine use.
The Shovel.—A shovel is necessary for loading and spreading
composts and for various other operations. The round-pointed
ones are perhaps more generally useful in a garden than the
square-bladed,
Hoes.—You need several hoes, of different sizes and shapes,
The common square draw-hoes are most used. They are of
various sizes. One of three or four and another of six or seven
inches will be found most useful. To these it is desirable to
add a pronged hoe, a thrust-hoe, and a triangular draw-hoe.
The latter is useful for digging furrows for seeds.
Rakes.—The garden rake should be of the best wrought
- ImpLtemenTs anp Fixtures. 4%
= iron, with teeth about two and a half inches .ong and one and
__ ahalf inches apart. The handle should be from six to eight
feet long. Drill-rakes, which are very useful, if not indis-
-___ pensable, are made of wood, with obtusely-pointed teeth, three
or four in number, placed at a greater or less distance apart,
for sowing different seeds. In using the drill-rake a line is
stretched to guide it in making the first drill, and afterward the
first tooth is kept in the drill last made, as a guide, and thus
; all the rows in a long bed can be made perfectly parallel.
Several different sizes are required.
pues The Trowel.—The trowel is very useful for removing plants,
__ with balls of earth for transplanting. It should be from five
___ to nine inches long, exclusive of the handle.
ae The Dibber.—This is a short piece of round wood, obtusely
pointed. A serviceable one may be made from an old spade
or shovel handle.
The Reel and Line.—These are essential—at least the lina
which may be used without the reel—where anything like
: straight rows and regularity are desired. The reel may be
___ either of wood or of iron.
ES The Watering Pot.—One boiling four galions is the best
size. It-should be made of double tin, and kept well painted.
; Garden Shears.—These are of various sizes, and are used
for clipping hedges and many other purposes. The seven and
nine-inch size are very convenient. There is a smaller article
made express.j for the ladies.
The Saw.—The pruning saw is from fourteen to eighteen
inches long, and is made with fine teeth and a hooked handle,
for hanging on the limb of a tree.
Knives.—A pruning knife of modern size and a budding
Knife will be essential in the fruit-garden.
sai Hand- Glasses. —Hand-glasses, either made of panes set in
_ boxes, or bell-glasses, are necessary for protecting early plants
of the tomato, egg-plant, etc.
_ Ladders.—A light, common ladder and a standing ladder
will be found indispensable in the frutt department.
able. It should be 5 Hight, but strongly made.
fi Additional.—Several other implements are desirable, andes in
; particular cases indispensable, among which are, @ crowbar, a
pick, a manure fork, a forked spade, pruning shears, a garden
roller, a lawn scythe, a hedge hook, vine scissors, a hand-cultix tog
vator, an orchardist’s hook, a hand-syringe, etc.
The plow, subsoil plow, and cultivator belong rather to the
farm, and if you cultivate only a small garden, you will findit
more economical to pay for the occasional use of these imple-
ments than to invest money in their purchase.
Preservation of Implements.—Having procured implements
of a good quality, do not allow them to be destroyed for the ©
lack of a little care on your part. An implement that in the
hands of a careful and economical gardener will last and con- ig
tinue serviceable for ten years may be ruined in a single season ~
by a negligent and wasteful one.
In or near the garden should be a tool-house or a room set
apart for the purpose of storing the implements when not in
use. Carefully clean your spades, hoes, and other implements
of steel or iron, before returning them to their place. Imple-
ments of wood should be painted.
Il.—FIXTURES, ETC. » e
The gardens and grounds of every rural residence of taste
should have seats, arbors, and other structures of rustic work
—that is, work made of the trunks and branches of trees, with
their bark on and in their natural forms, They may be cheaply i,
erected, and will add greatly to the out-of- door atrachaaeay
The tool-house we have recommended may be of this charac —
ter, and be made ornamental as well as useful.* £5 4
Pits.—What is called a sunk pit is made by excavating the
earth and forming walls of brick, stone, or boards. These are oa
>
* See “The House,” for designs and descriptions.
\
2 Py age 2 die dil Sat en rte Miidie®,” dg ae Le
IMPLEMENTS AND FIxTURES. 49
sometimes covered with glass frames, and at other times with
mats or boards. They are mostly used for the preservation of
vegetables, such as celery, endive, lettuce, cauliflower, etc.
The walled pit is partly sunk in the ground and partly above
it. The walls are formed of brick or stone, finished with a
wooden or stone cop-
ing, and covered with
movable glazed sashes.
Of this pit Buist says:
“There is no ap-
_ pendage to the garden
of greater utility than 22==\
this pit. It is two feet THE WALLED PIT.
under ground and one foot above it in front, and two feet above
it at the back, and six or seven feet wide in the clear. It is
an excellent winter apartment for plants when covered with
sash and mats. Filled with very rich earth, it produces very
fine cauliflowers, which will be in use from March to May. If
filled with warm manure early in February, it will produce
cucumbers that will be in use from April to July, or radishes
and small salading in any quantity.”
Hot Beds.—The common hot-bed frame is a bottomless box
7 gl
THE HOT-BED.
of wood, with a sloping top and covered with a sash. It may
be of any length or breadth, but from four to six feet wide,
and from six to ten feet long is & good size. The sashes are
made without cross-bars, the glass overlapping like the shingles
ofa house. The glass should be proportionally much smaller
than it is represented in our engraving—not larger than seven-
= by-nine at most. The lap of the panes should not be over
3
i
)
‘ex
Ba 32) TSE Coe Cay were
‘and earth is condensed by the cool air passing over the surface of the shade,
Tne GARDEN.
half an inch. It should be bedded in soft vite and the sash
well painted. The sashes should be made to slide in grooves,
80 as to be conveniently moved whenever the bed may require
to be opened, either wholly or partially, to the air.* The —
whole should be kept under cover when not in use. Directions: aad
for preparing hot-beds will be found in the next chapter, under *
the head of “ Forcing.”
Trellises.—Every garden should have one or more trellises”
for vines. They are of different kinds to adapt them to differ-
ent situations and purposes. The postsshould be madeofsome —_
durable wood. Red cedar is the best. Under the head of the —
grape we shall describe the construction of the trellises required —
for its support. Designs for ornamental trellis-work may be
found in ‘“‘ The House.” so ae ;
* Instead of the sashes for covering the frames, the following mode, called -
the German plan, may perhaps be adopted with advantage ; but we have not
tried it:
“Take white cotton cloth, of a close texture, stretch, and nail it on frames
of any size you wish; take two ounces of lime-water, four ounces of linseed Ee
oi], one of white of eggs, two ounces of yellow of eggs; mix the lime and oil _
with very gentle heat, beat the eggs separately, and mix them with the former;
spread this mixture with a paint-brush over the cotton, allowing each coat to —
dry before applying another, until they become water-proof. The following
are the adyantages this shade possesses over glass ones: 1. The cost being —
hardly one fourth. 2. Repairs are easily and cheaply made. 38. The light.
They do not require watering; no matter how intense the heat of the sun, the ©
plants are never struck down or burned, or checked in growth, neither do they — ;
grow up long, sick, and weakly, as they do under glass, and still there is —
abundance of light. 4. The heat arising entirely from below is more equable _
and temperate, which is a great object. The vapor rising from the manure
and stands in drops upon the inside, and therefore, the plants do not require
as frequent watering. If the frames or stretchers are made large, they should |
be intersected by cross-bars about a foot square to support the cloth. These
articles are just the thing for bringing forward melons, tomatoes, flower-soods,
etc. in season for transplanting.” ;
HorTIcCuLTURAL PROCESSES. 51
V.
HORTICULTURAL PROCESSES.
Every operation in gardening depends for its complete and universal success upon a knowl:
edge of the structure of plants, the nature of soils and manures, and the laws of vegetable
life and growth.—WM. Le Jardinier.
I.—S8TIRRING THE SOIL
> HE attentive reader of the foregoing chap-
ters will not require to be told that a thor
ough stirring and pulverizing of the soil, as
one of the first operations in gardening, is
absolutely essential to any high degree of
: success in the steps which follow. His
knowledge of the structure of roots and the nature
of their food has prepared him to appreciate the im-
portance of the mechanical division of soils. He
‘knows that the ground must be readily permeable by
the tender rootlets, pervious to moisture and air, and
so broken up that the water, acids, and alkalies penetrating it
may efficiently act upon its soluble parts.
Spading is the most effectual method of stirring the soil,
but, where the plow can be advantageously used, will hardly
“pay” in this country. In small gardens, and in portions of
all gardens, spading is the only practicable operation. What-
ever the means used. let the work be thoroughly done. Down-
ing says: “If I had to preach a sermon on horticulture, I
should take this for my text—‘Stir the soil.’”
Ait it i A Lp Alli
IL—APPLYING MANURES.
As the roots of plants usually penetrate every part of the
soll of a garden, manures, as a general rule, should be as thor-
~~ s ie eee A
i a eS
™ Ty =
52 Toe GARDEN.
oughly mixed as possible with every part. Where the ground
is to be plowed, they are generally spread upon the surface,
and turned in by that process. In special cases, as will be
seen further on, manuring in the hill or drill is advisable.
Manures are also sometimes applied as top-dressings—that is,
are spread upon the surface and not dug in. Vegetable and
animal manures for common garden use should be thoroughly
rotted and finely pulverized.
III.— FORCING.
Every garden should have one or more hot-beds for for- —
warding early tomatoes, cucumbers, cabbages, radishes, let-
tuce, etc. We have described the hot-bed frame in Chapter
IV. The bed itself should be composed of stable manure and
leaves, and must be not less than three feet deep. The manure
should be first thrown in a heap to ferment, and worked over
several times, adding water if it should become dry or musty.
Sometimes the bed is made on the surface of the ground, and at
others an excavation ten or twelve inches deep is made, in order
to give the bed a less inconvenient elevation above the general
surface. The manure and leaves should be spread evenly in
layers, and pressed down. The bed should be at least six
inches larger every way than the frame which is to cover it,
and slope slightly toward the south. When neatly finished,
put on the frame, close the sash, and keep all tight till the heat
rises and steam appears on the glass. So soon as the heat
rises, give the bed air at noon, or the warmest part of the day,
but keep it carefully closed the rest of the time. In three or
four days you may cover the surface with from four to six
inches of fine, rich garden mold, and so soon as this is warmed
through, the bed is ready for use. The seed may be sowed in
drills, but, for facility of transplanting and to secure an un-
checked growth, it is better to sow them in small pots, which
are to be plunged in the mold. Sprinkle gently with water of
the same temperature as the bed. When the plants appear
they should have the air every day in which the weather will — Ps
HorTicuLtTuRAL PROCESSES. 53
e
permit. Open the bed also to warm, gentle rains, but keep it
carefully closed against cold or heavy storms. At night keep.
it well covered with matting or straw. Transplant as soon as
danger from frost will permit.
In the South this forcing process may be commenced early
in the winter, but at the North not till February or March,
according to the latitude and the season.
IV.—SOWING SEEDS.
The first thing to be attended to in seed-sowing is the prep-
aration of the bed by thoroughly pulverizing the soil; and the
smaller the seeds the more finely should the earth be pulver-
ized. ‘The soil should be freshly stirred and moist, but not too
wet. The depth at which seeds should be buried varies with
species and with the state of the soil. The objects are to ex-
clude the light and secure sufficient moisture for the purposes
of germination. The latter object requires large seeds, other
things being equal, to be covered more deeply than small ones.
If seeds are covered too deeply, unnecessary impediments are
thrown in the way of the ascending shoots; and germination
may be prevented altogether by the exclusion of the air.
Most garden seeds are sown in drills. The earth should be
pressed upon them with more or less force, according to the
nature of the soil, in order to secure the necessary degree of
compactness to retain the moisture and to support the plant
after germination. Specific directions, where they are required,
will be given under the name of each plant.
V.—TBANSPLANTING.
In transplanting, the principal points to be attended to are—
care in taking up, to avoid injuring the tender extremities of
the roots, through which, as we have seen, the plant receives
its nourishment; planting firmly, to give it a secure hold of
the soil; shading, when necessary, to prevent the evaporation
from its leaves being greater than the plant, in its enfeebled
state, can support; and watering, that it may not lack moist
BA THe GARDEN.
ure. Moist weather should also, if possible, be chosen for ss
performing the operation.
As a general rule, in transplanting, the collar of the root
should not be buried. Cabbages, balsams, and some other
annuals, which throw out roots above the collar, furnish ex-
ceptions; also pears on quince stocks, which must be set so as
to bring the place where the scion is inserted below the surface
of the soil.
The operation of transplanting herbaceous plants should -
always be performed with a trowel, removing a little ball of
earth with the plant. A damp, cloudy day, an evening, or
just before a shower, is a favorable time.
Tap-rooted plants are transplanted with great difficulty, and,
if the operation be attempted, should be taken up with a con-
siderable ball of earth.
In transplanting trees much depends upon the knowledge
and skill exercised. Thousands of fine trees are lost every
year through the ignorance and carelessness of transplanters,
In taking up a tree or shrub for transplanting, be careful to
injure the roots as little as possible. But in all cases the roots
will be maimed more or less. The feeding power of the tree
is to the same extent decreased, and it will not be able to sus-
tain the draft made upon it by the stem and leaves. These
must be diminished correspondingly by heading back or short-
ening. In preparing a place for the reception of the tree, avoid, —
if possible, the sites of old trees. Dig a hole considerably
larger than the clump of the tree’s roots, and from fifteen to
twenty inches deep, placing the sods, if in sward land, in one
heap, the soil in another, and the subsoil in a third. The hole
should be filled with a mixture of the soil, subsoil, and rich,
black loam, or well-rotted compost manure, to the height
where it is proper to place the tree. With the hand or spade,
shape the soil for the roots into the form of a little cone, on
which to set the hollow in the center of the clump of roots.
If this is done some weeks, or even months, before setting the
tree, it will be all the better.
HortTicuLttuRAL PROCESSES. 55
If the ground be dry, or if the roots have been much exposed
to the air since the tree was taken up, soak the roots and the
lower part of the trunk in water twelve or twenty-fcur hours.
Cut off all bruised and broken ends of roots smoothly with a
knife, and shorten-in the longest, so that the clump of roots
may have asomewhat circular form. In cutting a root, always
enter the knife upon the under side, and bring it out, with a
slope, to the upper side, so that the fibers which may shoot out
from the edges of the cut shall strike downward into the
ground, instead of upward, as they would were the cut made
as it commonly is.
With good, rich soil fill up under, among, around, and above
the roots, straightening them out with the fingers, and placing
them in a fan-like and natural position, being very cautious not
to leave any, even small, hollow places among them, [If the
root is one-sided, make the most you can of the weaker part.
At this stage of the work, if you have patience, it is an ex-
cellent plan to make a circular dam around the edge of
the hole, and keep it full of water for a half hour or more.
In setting evergreens, this, by some, is deemed almost indis-
pensable, unless the ground is quite moist. Next, put in a little
more earth, pressing it around the tree with the foot. After
this, throw on an inch or so of loose earth, and the work is
done.
Another mode of filling up around the trees, called mudding-
an, has proved very successful. Make the circular dam around
the tree first, or as soon as it is needed, then let one person
slowly sift the soil into the hole upon the roots, while another
constantly pours in water, thus keeping the earth in a thin,
muddy state.
Very large trees are most successfully transplanted by re-
moving them with large balls of frozen earth in mid-winter,
and placing them at once in a hole previously prepared to
receive them.*
* See Appendix, C.
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THe GARDEN.
The fundamental principle to be generally observed in trans-
planting is to head back the top of the tree in proportion to ~ e
the loss of root that it has sustained by being removed.
Some fruit-trees may be moved much more easily than
others. Downing arranges them with reference to this point
in the following order: Plums, quinces, apples, pears, peaches,
nectarines, apricots, and, last and most difficult, cherries. It
is an invariable rule, that the larger the tree the less the chances
of success. In the northern parts of the United States small
trees should always be set in the spring.
Medium-sized trees—say five to ten feet high—may be set
equally well either in the autumn or spring. Trees of large
size should be moved late in autumn, in the winter, or quite
early in the spring.
The evergreen tribe are, however, best planted out just ‘as
their buds begin to swell in the spring; but they are some-
times successfully set in autumn, and also during the last of
May and first of June. If their roots are exposed to dry,
out of the ground, they are almost certain to die.
VI.—WATERING.
Watering. like every other operation in gardening, has its
rules, founded on the general principles laid down in our first:
and second chapters. The most important points to be remem-
bered are: 1. That on the nature of the plant, the stage of
its growth, and the dryness or dampness of the atmosphere
depends the quantity of water required; 2. That the soil
should never be saturated with water, too much moisture
proving injurious as well as too little; 8. That the water
should not be applied at the base of the stem, as it is through
the extremities of the rootlets mainly that it must be taken up,
and these, except in tap-rooted plants, are at a greater or less
distance from the original starting-point; 4. That in summer,
the proper time for watering plants is evening, but that in
colder weather it is better to water them at mid-day; 5. That
rain water is better than well or spring water, and that when |
HortTIcuLtTuRAL PROCESSES. Bf
the latter is used it should be exposed to the air for some time
before applying it; 6. That the water should never be colder:
than the plants to be watered.
VII. HOEING.
The necessity for stirring the soil before planting has been
already showr. As soon as the plants are well above ground
it should be stirred again. In field culture, and to some extent
in large gardens, this is done with the plow and cultivator.
Where these can not go, the hoe must be faithfully applied.
The soil can not be stirred too often.
One object in hoeing is the destruction of weeds. This
should be thorough—the extermination should be complete.
Spare not even the smallest. But keeping the weeds down is
not the only good result attained by hoeing. The soil is
thereby kept friable and porous, opened to the atmosphere and
the fertilizing gases, and new, fresh, and cool surface is pre-
sented for the absorption of moisture. Hoe deeply. A mere
scratching of the surface is not enough; and do not fail to kill
every weed.
One year’s seeding makes seven years’ weeding.
VIII.—PROTECTION FROM FROST.
Straw and leaves laid several inches deep about their roots
are very useful in protecting half-hardy plants during the win-
ter. Garden-pots, empty boxes, barrels, hand-glasses, and cold
frames should be brought into requisition in particular cases,
for the protection of early plants from spring frosts, and later
ones from those of the autumn. Common tumblers may be
used for very small plants, but they must be raised whenever
moisture accumulates.
Fruit-trees in blossom, or covered with young fruit just
formed, may be protected by keeping up smoldering, smoking
fires during the night in various parts of the garden, at the
windward side. But little fire is required, the clouds of smoke
effectually warding off the frost. The amount of fruit which
3*
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Pe. POS
a
a a ri Saeal Bp eo ae ee
58
might often be thus saved would repay a hundred-fold the
labor and care bestowed in this way.
THE GARDEN.
IX.—MULCHING.
Mulching is placing mulch or moist litter of various kinds
upon the surface of the soil over the roots of trees, shrubs, and
herbaceous plants. Its uses are the retention of moisture, the
prevention of injury by frost, and the promotion of an equable
temperature. Strawberries thinly mulched, the crown being
uncovered, are rendered more productive and continue longer
in bearing, especially in hot, dry climates. Newly-planted
fruit-trees are often greatly benefited by mulching. ‘
X.—DESTROYING INSECTS.
The foes against which the gardener is forced to wage a per-
petual war of extermination, though individually insignificant,
are in the aggregate most formidable. We will try to give a
few useful hints of a general character to aid the reader in this
warfare.
Sowing a garden with salt, at the rate of six or eight bushels
to the acre, will cause many insects to disappear. It should
be done in the autumn. Digging the soil in the winter, and
thus exposing it to the frost, will destroy many grubs, etc.
Wide-mouthed bottles, partly filled with molasses and water,
and hung up in a garden, make excellent traps for the moths,
which are the parents of many destructive vermin, Mr.
Downing mentions an acquaintance who thus caught and de-
stroyed in a single season three bushels of insects, and preserved
his garden almost free from them. A bright fire of resinous
pine, tar, shavings, or any other combustible, kindled in the
garden at night, on a platform erected for the purpose, will
attract and destroy millions. Birds are among the best friends
of the gardener, and should by no means be destroyed,
although some of them may eat a few raspberries or cherries,
Toads live almost entirely upon insects, and do no harm in a
garden. Induce as many of them as possible to make it their
4
HorTICULTURAL PROCESSES. 59
home. Hens and chickens should have access whenever it
can safely be permitted. :
To drive insects away from plants various preparations ‘are
useful. A writer in the Southern Cultivator recommends the
following :
“Put into a barrel of water a quarter of a pound of cam-
phor, in pieces of the size of a hickory nut, and let it stand a
day before using. Water your plants with this. The barrel
may be refilled many times before the camphor will have all
been dissolved. A cupful of strong lye put into the water
will add to the strength of the mixture by causing the water
to take up more camphor. Camphor is very offensive to most
insects.” Tobacco-water is another efficient remedy. Lime,
charcoal-dust, ashes, soot, snuff, and sulphur sprinkled upon
plants prove a defense against most destroyers. To expel the
striped bug from cucumbers, squashes, etc., water the plants
daily with a strong decoction of quassia, made by pouring four
gallons of boiling water on four pounds of quassia, in a barrel,
and, after twelve hours, filling the barrel with water. The
intolerable squash or pumpkin bug may be thoroughly driven
off by a decoction of double strength, containing a pound of
glue to ten gallons, to make it adhere.
The most effectual and the cheapest remedy for the striped
bug, however, consists in defending each hill of melons, cu-
cumbers, squashes, etc., by a box about fifteen inches square,
the sides being eight to ten inches high, covered with millinet
or some similar thin material.
The following recipe for making a “barrier to insects” is
given in the Gardener’s Chronicle. It may be easily tried: —
“Take of common resin 13 lbs.; sweet oil, 1 lb.; place them
in a pipkin over the fire until the resin is melted ; stir the mate-
rials together, that they may be well blended; when cold the
substance formed, which the discoverer calls ‘rezoil,’ will be
of the consistency of molasses. To use the rezoil it should be
- spread with a brush upon shreds or any fitting material, and
‘wrapped round the stem of the plant; if any support is used,
Tor GARDEN.
that should be brushed over also. No insect can possibly, o
will attempt to cross this barrier; the rezoil never dries, but
oe always remains sticky and Roe action as a trap is
ae therefore obvious.” : ae
But, however numerous and effective the other remedies, _
“eternal vigilance” can not be dispensed with in dealing with —
Ph the pests of the garden. ais,
"
% XIL—SAVING SEEDS.
: Choose the best plants for seed—the most true to their kind
s and the most perfectly developed; allow the seeds to become
K perfectly ripe before gathering them; gather when dry, and
Mi especially take care that they are perfectly dry when put up;
3 store them in paper bags carefully labeled, and keep themin a
3 dry, cool place. Great care is necessary in raising seeds to
4: preserve the sorts unmixed, as varieties of the same species
sf or similar species are almost sure to mix if planted near each
ee other. If you raise more than one kind of corn, or pumpkin,
4 or cucumber, or melon in the same garden, you can not be
ba sure of pure seed. The squashes and pumpkins may mix, or si a
. the melons with either, the pollen of one being conveyed by
md the wind, or sometimes by bees or other insects, to the pistil
“a of the other.
’
XIIL—ROTATION OF CROPS.
Si Why rotation of crops is beneficial has been already shown, . 3
4 and if the reader has forgotten, let him turn back to the first
: ; chapter. The following is a good rotation for a given portion
: of a garden:
BS: c First year, cabbages.
ie Second “ onions.
2 Third “ carrots, beets, or parsneps.
e _ Fourth “ potatoes or turnips.
i : Fifth “celery, spinach, or lettuce.
ff Celery is excellent to precede asparagus, onions, csuliflowers, a
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HoRTICULTURAL PROCESSES. 61
or turnips; old asparagus beds are good for carrots, potatoes,
ote. ; strawberry and raspberry beds do well for the cabbage
tribe, and the cabbage tribe may be followed by the tap-rooted
plants—carrots, beets, etc.
A large portion of every garden, even at the North, should
be made to produce two crops each season. All the space occu-
pied by early peas. beans, and potatoes can be made available
for turnips and cabbages. Turnips (English or Dutch) may also
be sown broadcast among the corn and later potatoes after the
last hoeing.
XIIL—PROPAGATION.
There are, properly speaking, but two modes of propagating
plants—by seeds and by division. By the first the species is
perpetuated, and new varieties raised. The second mode mul-
tiplies specimens of the individual itself, with all its peculiari-
ties, which may be and generally are lost in the seed.
There are several distinct modes of propagating plants by
division, all, however, depending for their success upon the
presence of leaf-buds, each of which, as we have seen, being
capable, under favorable circumstances, of forming a distinct
and independent individual.
1. Suekers.—Some plants, such as the rose, the raspberry,
the lilac, etc., throw up suckers or sprouts from their roots.
_ These spring from what have been described as adventitious
buds. We have only to divide these from their parent and
transplant them in a suitable soil to secure their independent
erowth. Offsets and runners are of a similar nature to the
suckers of the woody plants. The former are young bubs
which form by the side of the old one, and merely require
breaking off and planting. The latter are shoots springing from
the collar or crown of a plant, and throwing out roots at their
joints. These have only to be separated from the parent plant
to become independent individuals. The strawberry is the
most noted example of this mode of propagation.
2. Layers.—The tendency manifested by many plants to
throw out roets from their joints early suggested to gardeners
pe ee
Sill aes ag
62 Toe GARDEN.
the idea of making layers. A twig growing out of a tree, ata
point not far from the ground, is bent down, and the middle
portion of it buried just under the surface of the soil, and fast-
ened there by means of a hooked peg, or by a stone or turf
placed above it. Success is rendered more certain by checking
the downward flow of the sap. This may be accomplished by
cutting a slice off the under side of the part of the twig that is
placed under ground, or, more perfectly, by entering the knife
on the under side at this point, and splitting the twig upward
about one or two inches, fastening the split open with a little
wedge or pebble. The sap accumulating at this point induces
the throwing out of roots, and the conversion of the shoot into
a new plant. Trees or shrubs purposely headed down for —
raising layers are called stools. A single quince-bush, thus
made into a stool, and its twigs layered, is capable of producing
many finely-rooted plants in a single season. Of some kinds
of layers nearly every bud will form roots of its own.
3. Cuttings.—Cuttings are shoots removed from the parent
tree or plant without roots. The branches nearest the ground
are considered best for cuttings, as the tendency to throw out
roots is greater in them than in those more elevated. They
should be cut off just below a joint. Some species, however,
as the willow, the currant, etc., will throw out roots from any
part of the stem, and generally succeed with even the most
careless planting. The best time to take off cuttings is in No-
vember, but in a cold climate they are more likely to succeed
if kept in damp mold in a cellar, and not planted till spring.
In planting, bury them to the second joint, leaving one or two
joints above the surface of the soil. Press the earth com-
pactly about the lower end. Cuttings of delicate plants are
generally struck (rooted) in pots, and sometimes it is necessary
to cover them with a bell-glass, to prevent too rapid evaporation.
4, Slips.—Slips are cuttings made from the root or collar of
@ plant, or branches stripped off, with a small portion of the
root or stem attached. They are treated like other cuttings,
Many kinds of fruit-trees may be readily propagated by slips.
- HorticuLtuRAL PRocESsSEs. 63
5. Budding.— Budding consists in introducing the bud of one
tree or shrub, with a portion of the bark and wood adhering
to it, below the bark of another tree or shrub. The operation |
is thus performed: With a sharp budding-knife, upon a smooth
place on the side of the stock, cut a longitudinal slit an inch or
more long. Across the top of this cut a transverse slit from a
quarter to half an inch long, so that both slits, taken together,
shall resemble the letter T. Next, cut from your stick of buda
a thin slice of bark, with a little wood in the central portion
of it, entering the knife about half or three fourths of an inch
below, and bringing it out about as far above a bud. This
slice of bark and wood, taken together, is called a bud, the part
of the bud which grows into a twig being technically called
its eye.
With the ivory haft of your budding-knife, or, if you have
not such a knife, with any little wedge of wood or ivory, raise
up the corners of the slit in the stock. Taking hold of the
bud by its foot-stalk, enter it, and gently push it down to the
bottom of the incision. The eye of the bud will
now be from one fourth to three fourths of an inch
from the transverse part of the slit. The part of the
bud, if any, projecting above this transverse slit,
should be cut off, by passing the knife through it, into
the transverse slit again, so that the upper end of the
bud and this transverse part of the slit shall make a
good joint together. Bind the bud firmly with shreds
of bass-matting, so as to cover every part of it except
the eye. Woolen yarn or corn husks will answer
when no matting is at hand. The stock (trunk or \
branch) should be from an eighth of an inch to not
more than an inch in diameter.
To prepare a stick of buds for budding, take a scion
of the present season’s growth, and cut off the por-
tions of each end of it containing buds that are im- Ba on
perfectly developed. Next, cut off the leaves at a *°?*
point about in the middle of their stems or footstalks. The
64 Tue GARDEN.
buds which are to be used lie in the angle on the upper side
of these stems.
Budding is generally performed in the summer or early pare
of autumn. It is essential to success—Ist. That the bark of
the stock should part freely from the wood, and 2d. That the
bud which is to be inserted should be well ripened, otherwise it .
will not have vital energy sufficient to establish itself in its
new location. Whenever these conditions can be secured,
budding may be successfully performed. The buds put in
early, however, especially in the South, make a censiderable
growth the same season. Buds should be inserted on the
north side of the stock, if practicable. The operation is one
of some nicety, and to be successful must be performed rapidly,
and with fresh, healthy buds, smooth cuts, and cleanly rising
bark. A few days after budding, the stock should be cut off
within ten or twelve inches of the bud, and when this has
grown three or four inches, the stock may be cut off again
near the budded shoot. All sprouts, or ‘‘robbers,” as they are
called, that appear on the stock must be carefully removed.
Care should also be taken not to allow branches
from the main shoot of the bud to grow, and to
secure an upright position of it, a ligature of the
matting may be passed around the sprout and the
upper end of the old stock.
In spring budding, some gardeners recommend
to make the incisions in the form of an inverted
41, but we see no good reason for this inversion,
and believe that the other mode is seen 2 suc.
cessful.
Annular budding is applied with success to trees
of hard wood and thick bark, or those which, like
the walnut, have buds so large as to render the
common mode of budding difficult and uncertain.
A ring of bark is taken from the stock, and one of
equal size, containing a bud, from the scion. If
SEEATMENT OF .
mz pup. the stock be larger than the scion, an entire ring
fs
7
HorTIcuLTuRAL PROUSSSES. 65
wili not be taken off, but only what may be filled by the ring
of bark from the scion. If the ring of bark from the scion be
too large for the stock, it will be reduced so as to just inclose
the stock. When thus fitted, tie with matting, and cover the
wound with clay or grafting-wax, and the work is done.
6. Grafting.—In grafting, a shoot with two or more buds on
it, instead of a single bud, is transferred from one tree or shrub
to another. The operation, in all its forms, consists essentially
in bringing in contact portions of growing shoots, so that the
liber or inner bark of the two may unite and grow together.
The same general principles apply to it as to budding.
The shoot to be transferred is called a scion. The best time
to cut scions is from the middle of January to the last of Feb-
ruary, although they may be taken from the trees at any time
from late autumn until spring. In order to keep them until
they may be used, nothing more is necessary than to thrust
their lower ends into the ground, in a shady place—say close
on the north side of the trunk of the tree from which they
were cut; or a better way is to set them half their length deep
‘in a box of fine soil in a cellar.
In cutting scions, take from the extremity of the limb of a
tree that part of it which grew the preceding season,
and keep the shoot or twig entire till wanted for use.
. Scions are united to their stocks in several ways. Af
Whatever may be the mode of operating, however, [t= i
the principle is always the same—namely, the sap- am
vessels of the graft and the stock must be so adapted |
to each other that the sap can flow uninterruptedly
jrom the one to the other.
Cleft grafting is the mode in most common use. guprr
Stocks from half an inch to two inches in diameter ¢®4?™N¢
are usually worked over in this way. The whole top of a
Jarge tree may thus be headed back and grafted, so as to
become even more valuable than one that was grafted in the
nursery.
The operation is performed as follows: Saw off the stock
66 THE GARDEN.
crosswise, then pare the end smoothly with a knife. Next, : :
split it down about two inches with a thin, sharp knife, driven
with a hammer. A narrow wedge is now driven into the
middle of the cleft, so as to keep the top of it open about a
quarter of an inch. Out the scion (which should not contain
more than three or four buds) at the lower end, in the form of
a wedge, about one and a half inches long, contriving to have
a bud or eye at the top of the part so formed, to insure greater
success. The scion is next to be inserted on one side of the
stock, and fitted nicely into the cleft, so that the inner bark of
the outer side of the scion shall exactly meet that of the stock.
On large stocks two scions are thus inserted, one on each side.
The scions being adjusted, carefully withdraw the wedge
which stands erect between the scions. Make a ball of wax,
and Jay it on the head of the stock, between the scions, and
press it down, and spread it so as to cover the head, and lap
over three fourths of an inch all around upon the bark, and rub
it down smoothly, being careful to make an air and water-joint
around the scions and over the end of the stock. Where the
wax passes over the corner of the stock, it should be quite
thick, to prevent it from cracking. Then cover the cleft on
each side quite below its lower extremity, and the work is
done. The next spring cut off nicely the poorest scion in each
stock, as one is usually quite sufficient.
For small seedling stocks, or small sprouts on larger trees,
less than half an inch in diameter, it is well to adopt the whip
or splice method.
Cut the stock with a sharp knife, obliquely upward, without
bruising or starting the bark, and the scion downward, with a
corresponding angle, to make the two parts fit meely, care
being taken that the inner bark of the stock and scion exactly
meet. Then lay the parts together, and bind them snugly with
a strand of matting or bass-bark, and cover the splice with
grafting-wax or clay, to shield it from the air and water.
Allied to splice geafting is what is called saddle grafting,
On stocks of half an inch or more in diameter and scions of
ic
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dog
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HortTiIcuLTURAL PROCESSES. 67
the saine size, this mode is sometimes emplcyed with excellent
success. In this process, cut the stock with a drawing-knife
upward, forming a wedge; then split with a fine saw the scion,
and with a knife pare away each side to a point, so as to fit
the stock; place the parts together, and bind them firmly with
matting or bark, and cover the whole with clay or grafting-
wax. At the end of two months the union will generally be
sufficiently perfect to allow the removal of the covering and
the ligature, which, if left on too long, will injure the growth.
In-arch grafting is used when others will scarcely succeed.
The two trees must stand close to each other. <A twig of each,
without being cut from its tree, must be pared with a long,
corresponding slanting cut, and the two raw edges must be
fitted nicely, and bound firmly together, and the joint covered
with the composition. When the union has taken place, the
trees are so separated as to leave the scion on the tree where
it is wanted.
A mode called root grafting is practiced extensively in nurs-
eries. The two-year seedling stocks are headed down to within
an inch or so of the collar or crown; they are then split, and
the scion inserted, asin common cleft grafting. The scion is
held in its place by a piece of matting bound round the stock.
The stocks to be used for this purpose are generally taken up
in the fall, grafted in the winter at the fireside, and packed
away in the cellar till spring, when they are properly planted;
the point of insertion of the graft being covered with the soil.
No wax or clay is necessary. Scions may also be grafted on
small roots by common splice grafting. The point of union
should be covered with soil to the depth of two inches.
Grafting may be performed at almost any season of the year
with scions properly kept; but by far the best time is from
the middle of February, in mild weather, all along until the
middle of May at the North, and till the end of March at the
_ South—stone-fruits first, and other fruits somewhat later.
Neither grafting nor budding can be successful, unless be-
_ tween different varieties of the same species, as the apple upon
68 Ture GARDEN.
a seedling apple-tree stock; or between nearly allied species —
of the same genus, as between the apple and the pear, which
unions are comparatively imperfect and short-lived ; or, thirdly,
between nearly allied genera, as between the cherry and the
plum, which maintain a feeble existence for a limited period,
and then die. All unions, therefore, between widely different
genera and species, are utterly impossible, as the graft can not
live upon the sap supplied by the stock, any more than a lion ~
can be fed upon grass.
To produce dwarf trees, Apple is grafted upon Paradise (or
Doucin) stocks; the Pear upon the Quince, Thorn, or Mountain
Ash; the Peach upon the Plum; the Plum upon Mirabelle
Plum seedlings; the Cherry upon the Cerasus Mahaleb, and,
in general, any tree upon any other kindred tree of slower or
smaller growth. .
The stock and the graft (scion or bud) exert influences upon
each other mutually. The stock often affects the size and
flavor of the fruit borne by the graft. Of a graft or stock,
either may communicate its own diseases and infirmities to the
other. It is pretty well established, also, that stocks bearing
early fruits have an influence in accelerating the ripening of
the fruits which may be made to grow upon them by grafting.
Grafting Wax.—To make grafting wax of an excellent
quality, take four parts of resin, two of beeswax, and one of
tallow; melt the whole together, pour the composition into
cold water, and work it over thoroughly, pulling it as you
would molasses candy. The hardness of the wax may be in-
creased or lessened by applying more or less tallow. In cold
weather keep the composition in warm water, and in warm
weather in cold water, to secure the proper consistency for use,
In using it, the hands should be slightly greased.
XIV.—PRUNING.
The principal objects sought to be attained by pruning are
to promote the growth, improve the form, and increase the
fruitfulness of trees. No operation in horticulture requires
HorTIcCULTUBAL PROCESSES. 69
_ the exercise of more knowledge, judgment, and skill, in order
to the attainment of complete success; but in general no opera=
tion is more carelessly, ignorantly, and bunglingly performed,
or more frequently neglected.
Pruning to promote the growth of a tree proceeds upon the
principle that the sap which would have been appropriated
to the support of the branches, or parts of the top, taken off,
_ will go to increase the vigor of the parts which remain. This
is true within certain limits, but the process must not be car-
ried too far. Sufficient top must be left to supply leaves for
the elaboration of the sap.
Young trees, two or three years from the seed, or one year
from the graft, are not infrequently headed down to two or
three buds, on purpose to strengthen their growth. A single
bud is then trained vertically, and the rest pruned away in the
course of the summer. In such cases, the growth of the tor
being attended with a corresponding increase of fibrous roots,
the tree at once becomes vigorous and healthy.
Peach trees, in our climate, are highly benefited by thus
shortening-in annually, in the spring, one half, or thereabouts,
of their entire growth of the previous summer, all over the
heads of the trees.
Dwarf pears on quince also require a similar heading-in, an-
nually each spring, so long as they continue to make a growth
of scions.
Pruning to improve the form is applied mostly to ornamental
trees, to which almost any desirable shape may be given by
this means. If one part of a tree should outgrow another part,
the former may be shortened-in in winter, and the shoots pinched
off the next summer, till the sap is thrown in the right direc-
tion into the weaker branches, and the balance restored.
When you desire the new shoots of a branch to take an upright
direction, prune to an inside bud; while, if you wish an open,
spreading top, prune to an outside bud, etc. Do not trim the
stems or trunks of your trees (whether ornamental or fruit-
trees) to bare poles, but allow the branches to form near the
70 . Tue GARDEN. Bis
ground, as they naturally will in open ground. Your orna- — m
mental trees will thus be more beautiful, and your fruit-trees
more likely to bear well.
Everything that is favorable to rapid and vigorous growth is
unfavorable to immediate fruitfulness, hence pruning to induce
fruitfulness is performed after vegetation has commenced. This
checks the growth of the wood, impedes the circulation of the
sap, and promotes the formation of fruit. Top pruning or
shortening-in is the most common form of pruning to induce ©
fruitfulness. Pruning the roots has a similar effect. The oper-
ation of root pruning is thus performed:
At a few feet from the trunk of the tree, varying the dis-
tance according to its size, dig a circular ditch around it,
eighteen or twenty inches deep, cutting off all the lateral roots
smoothly, close to the circular mass of earth in which the tree
stands, removing the outer pieces of roots from the surrounding
ground, as much as can be done conveniently. Fill up the
trench with good, rich soil, and the tree will, in this country,
generally be brought into a permanent fruit-bearing state.
Repeating the operation annually, apples, pears, and other
fruit-trees may be rendered productive dwarfs—even so as to
be planted only six or eight feet apart. And, if at the same
time we apply the shortening-in process above described, they
may be kept in a beautiful pyramidal form, and rendered very —
profitable. This work may be done in autumn, in winter, or
early in the spring.
Pruning ought to be performed with sharp tools. When the
saw is used, the ends of the limbs should afterward be care-
folly pared with a knife, They should then be covered with
some composition to protect them from the weather. Down-
ing’s Gum-Shellac is admirably adapted to this purpose. This
preparation is made by dissolving a quantity of the gum in
alcohol, so that the composition shall be of the consistency of
thin molasses. The liquid should be kept in a wide-mouthed
bottle, the cork of which should have a wire (running through
it into the bottle), with a sponge attached to the end of it.
7
HorricuLttuRAL PROCESSES. 71
When the object of pruning is to promote the growth or
improve the form of a tree, the operation is generally performed.
in the winter or early in the spring. Some, however, recom-
mend praning in May or June.
XV.—TRAINING.
in England, where fruit-trees generally are trained on walle
and trellises, this process requires much time and labor on the
part of the gardener. In this country it is hardly applied at
all, except to vines and pear-trees, and to the latter only occa-
sionally. The principal object of training is to produce from a
certain number of branches a larger quantity of fruit than
would grow on them if left in their natural state. This is
effected by spreading and bending the branches so as to form
numerous depositions of the returning sap, aided, where the
tree is trained against a wall, by the shelter and reflected heat
which the latter affords.
Directions for training the grapevine will be given under its
proper head.
A new mode of training fruit-trees, practiced in the north
of Russia, is well deserving of trial in the colder parts of New
England, especially for cultivating the peach. A tree, one year
from the graft, is headed down to two healthy, strong wood-
buds. These are trained horizontally, about ten or twelve
inches from the ground, to a south wall—perhaps the north
side of a wall might do quite as well, in ovr more changeable
climate. These arms are suffered to throw up vertical shoots,
which become covered with fruit-spurs. These vertical shoots
are kept shortened-in, to a length of not more than about
one or two feet; ‘and these, with the two horizontal arms
from which they spring, and the short trunk of about ten
to fourteen inches in length, constitute all there is of the
tree above ground. The whole tree may be covered, through
the winter, with two feet or more of soil heaped over it,
with a deep bank of snow, or with straw, evergreen boughs,
or the like.
Sol at) MRE bee eee, BRO eee ER
72 THe GARDEN. Se eS
Peaches, we are convinced, can be raised in this way where 3
they fail entirely under ordinary treatment. It has hardly 4
been fairly tried, however, in this country.*
-*
= ied 4
SS z
* In preparing the condensed directions for transplanting, budding, grafting, = :
4 pruning, training, etc., contained in this chapter, we have been deeply in- a.
debted to the valuable little manual of George Jaques, entitled “A Practiomn, —
m Treatise on the Management of Fruit-Trees,” which we cordially recommend. ¢ :
; See aleo Barry’s “ Fruit Garden” on these points. see.
4
t
4
.
‘ f .
VI.
THE KITCHEN GARDEN.
l consider the kitchen garden of very considerable importance, as pot-herbs, salads, and
roots of various kinds are useful in housekeeping. Having a plenty of them at hand, a family
will not be so likely to run into the error which is too common in this country, of eating flesh
in too great a proportion for health.—Dr. Deane.
I.—ESCULENT ROOTS.
1. Tot Potato—Solanum Tuberosum.
a” HE potato, called by the French la pomme
i sil de terre, and by the Germans bie Kartoffel,
+~ is a native of the elevated equatorial regions
of South America, and is still to be found
in a wild state in the neighborhood of
Quito and other places. It appears to have
been introduced into North America and cultivated by
the Virginia colonists as early as 1584. A few years
later it was carried to England by Sir Walter Raleigh.
The varieties of the potato are numberless; and,
while old sorts are constantly disappearing, new ones
are every year coming into notice and taking their places.
The duration of a variety is believed by Knight and others to
be limited to fourteen years. Very few sorts continue to he
cultivated even that length of time. New varieties are readily
produced by planting the seed found in the balls. The opera-
tion is a simple one, and should more frequently be undertaken.
There is no doubt but that varieties will yet be obtained in this
way far superior to any yet known. We give in the Appendix
full directions for producing and proving new sorts.
To give a list of the best varieties of the potato, were it
practicable, would be useless. The best sorts of this year
may be put in the second or third rank next year; besides,
Bit 4
74 THE GARDEN.
considered inferior in Pennsylvania, and worthless in Georgia.
Select for planting those varieties which experience has decided
to be best adapted to your soil and climate, and to combine
the various qualities required for table use.
In a cold, moist climate the potato thrives best in a light
but rich loam. Ina dry, hot climate a heavy loam is prefer-
able, except for the earliest crop. Vegetable manure is best —
for the potato. Ashes and, where the soil needs it, lime, may
be added with advantage, but, in garden culture, animal ma-
nures should, so far as possible, be avoided, as their use tends
to make the tubers moist and waxy. The manure should be
well rotted, and thoroughly mixed with the soil. Where you
can not get sufficient manure of the right kind to properly
enrich the whole soil, you may scatter it into the drill or hill
to the thickness of three or four inches.
In garden culture, plant in drills made with the plow or the
hoe, from eighteen to twenty-four inches apart (some varieties
requiring more room than others), placing the sets about nine
or ten inches apart in the drills. Cover to the depth of from
four to six inches, according to the texture and condition of
the soil—a heavy, moist soil requiring less depth of covering
than a light and dry one.
In reference to the sets or seed, many and contradictory
opinions prevail. Some contend that the largest-sized potatoes
alone should be used for planting; others prefer a medium
size; while many use those which are too small for the table.
‘Some plant them whole, while others divide them, making
from two to eight sets from each. Even scooped-out eyes
have had their advocates. We have no room in this little
work to advance arguments or adduce evidence, and must be
content to give our opinion (as indicated by the mode pursued
in our own garden), which, however, we believe to be based
on sound theory and supported by general experience. We
choose for planting medium sized, fully matured, and every
way sound and perfect tubers—such as we would select for th«
vont
on Re
rly
those tu which the preference is given in New York may be —
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THe KitcHen GARDEN. 45
table—and, if we have plenty of seed, plant them whole. If
_ there be a deficiency of seed, or the price be very high, we-
divide them longitudinally, making two sets of each potato,
and plant them with the eyes-upward. They should be cut a
week before planting; and it is a good plan to roll them in
ground plaster of Paris or old slaked lime. Something may be
gained in earliness by cutting the potato transversely in the
middle, and planting only the seed end, which should be set
upright in the ground,
In garden culture, potatoes should generally be hoed at least
three times, to keep the weeds down, earthing them up a little
each time; but if the ground be little infested with weeds.
twice will do. The first hoeing should be given soon after the
shoots appear above the surface of the ground. If they should
be partially covered with earth by the operation, no harm will
be done. Potatoes should never be hoed after the blossoms
appear. Pinching off the flower-buds will considerably increase
the crop of tubers.
Potatoes should not be harvested till the tops are mostly
Jead. They should be exposed to the sun only long enough to
dry them for storage. Store in a dry cellar (when there is
danger from frost), and cover them with sand or straw. When
sprouts begin to grow, as they will toward spring, carefully
rub them off. Their growth will greatly injure the quality of
the tuber for table use. Those intended for seed should be fre-
quently turned over to prevent premature growth.
Of the potato rot, as it is called, little can be profitably said.
Its cause and remedy are yet to be made known. As pre-
ventives, a dry soil, the use of lime and ashes, the absence
of fresh stable manure, early planting, and new, healthy varie-
ties are recommended. For arresting the disease, cutting off
the tops on the first appearance of the blight is sometimes
effectual.
Potatoes for an early crop are planted in this country from
the first of January to the first of May, according to the cli-
mate and season. In the latitude of New York they may in
%6 THe GARDEN.
ordinary seasons and in favorable situations be put into the ~
ground from the tenth to the twentieth of March.
For raising Jrish potatoes (as they are invariably called
there) at the South, the plan published by Mr. Peabody of the
Soil of the South is undoubtedly a good one. We have tried
the same mode with fair success at the North, using here,
however, less straw. Mr. Peabody’s directions are substantially
as follows:
‘“‘ As soon after Christmas as possible, plow or spade up the
plot of ground designed for the potato patch, and lay it off in
furrows two feet apart, and eight or ten inches deep. Fill —
these furrows with decomposed straw or leaves. Divide each
potato once, and place the sets, cut side downward, upon the
straw; now level the ridge made by the furrow, covering seed, —
straw, and all, and then scatter straw evenly over all to the
depth of eighteen inches or two feet. No further culture is
required. In the dryest seasons the yield will be greater than
when planted in the ordinary way. Many have failed in this
mode of culture because they have not applied half straw
enough.”
2. Toe Sweet Potato—Convoloulus Batatas.
This best of all esculent roots belongs to the convoluulacee or
bind-weed family. It is a native of the East Indies, but grows
in perfection in our Southern States. It is raised in large
quantities in Delaware and New Jersey, and even farther
north, but the quality of the tubers is inferior to that of those
produced at the South.
A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best for the sweet
potato. It should be well manured. The special manure
indicated by an analysis of the root are potash and the phos-
phates.
Where the season is sufficiently long to mature it, the sweet
potato may be propagated by cutting the seed into slips, and
planting them where they are to grow; but at the North the
sprouts must always be started in a hot-bed, Place the pota-
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Te era oF ee ee ee oT ee ee eee ES ey ee SP ee
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toes in the bed early in April, covering them three or four
inches deep. They will throw up sprouts in three or four ~
weeks. When these are about four inches above the surface,
they may be separated from the parent tuber and planted out
in hills, leaving the latter to put out other shoots for future
plantings. The hills or beds should be about four feet apart,
and raised from six inches to a foot above the common level of
the ground. Some make continuous ridges four feet apart, and
plant the sprouts on the top, about a foot asunder. They must
be kept free from weeds till the vines cover the ground. They
are fit for gathering when the vines are dead. They are very
difficult to preserve through the winter. A careful seclusion
from air and light, the absence of frost, and absolute dryness
are essential to their preservation. The best way to cook them
is by baking.
3. THE Turnip—Brassica Repa.
The French call the turnip le navet, and the Germans ber
Stedrithe. It has been in cultivation at least two hundred and
fifty years. There are many varieties. For early crops the
Purple-Top Strap-Leayed, Snow-Ball, and the Early Yellow
Dutch are to be preferred. For later sowing we would name
Robertson’s Golden Stone, Stone Globe, Golden Ball, Sweet
German, the Purple-Top Swede, Skirving’s Improved Swede,
- the White French, River’s Swede, and Ashcroft’s Swede. Skirv-
ing’s Improved is, perhaps, the best of the Swedes.
Turnips thrive best in a rich, sandy loam. Bone-dust, lime,
ashes, and plaster of Paris are good special manures. Sow in
drills about two feet apart. Thin out the plants gradually to
six or eight inches apart. They may be readily transplanted
if desired. Stir the soil well, and keep the weeds in subjec-
tion. English turnips do well sown broadcast. Sow the early
_ sorts from February to May, according to climate and season,
Other sowings may be made in July and August for winter
use. In the latitude of Georgia they may be sowed as late as
October. Harvesting should >e deferred till the approach of
78 . THe GARDEN.
cold weather—or at the South they may remain in the ground
all winter.
4. Tot Bert—Beta Vulgaris.
The beet (Fr. Beterave) is a native of the south of Europe. —
It takes its name from the form of its seed-vessel, which resem-
bles the Greek letter beta (8). The best varieties are Extra
Early Turnip or Bassano, the Early Turnip, the Long Blood,
and the London Blood.
A light soil, well enriched with manure and well broken up,
suits the beet. It will grow in almost any soil. Sow in drills
a foot apart and about an inch deep. Drop the seeds three
inches apart, cover smoothly, and press the earth firmly upon
them. Radishes may be sown in the same bed, as they will
be removed before the beets are ready for thinning, Keep
the ground well stirred and free from weeds, and thin the
beets to about six inches. apart. Sow the early sorts in March,
or the first of April, in the latitude of New York. The later
varieties may be sowed in May or June.
In gathering your beets, cut off the leaves an inch or two
above the collar, and be careful not to break or bruise the root.
To preserve them through the winter, store in a dry cellar.
They keep best packed in sand.
5. Toe Carrot—Daucus Carota.
The carrot (Fr. Carotte) is supposed to have been introduced
into Europe from the island of Crete. The Early Horn is the
most forward in ripening, and fully equal in color and flavor to
any other sort. It may be sown from the middle of April to
the middle of July in the latitude of New York, and in the
South from January to April inclusive. The Long Orange
grows very long and large, but is not equal in flavor to the
Early Horn. The Altringham is a bright-red variety, of an
excellent flavor, and keeps well for winter use. It is not quite
so hardy as the other sorts.
The carrot succeeds best in a light, rich soil. It must be
deeply dug and wel: broken up, or the roots will grow forked
7
OS EE eee aE Pe eee eS,
ee KitcHen GARDEN. "9
and crooked. Choose a warm spot and a calm day for sowing.
Sow in drills half an inch deep, and for the Early Horn nine |
inches apart. For the other varieties twelve inches apart is
better. Radishes may be sowed in the same bed. Stir the
ground frequently and deeply, and thin out to from three to
six inches apart. The latter is the proper distance when the
plants are to be left to grow to the full size. The directions
for preparing and preserving them for winter use are the same
as for beets.
6. Toe Parsnerp—Partinaca Sativa.
This very palatable and exceedingly nutritious root is a native
of Sardinia, and in its wild state is said to be poisonous. In
French it is called le panais. The best variety is the Sugar
or Hollow Crown. Soil and culture the same as for the carrot
and beet. Bone-dust and ashes are the special manures most
likely to be required. Late in the fall take up as many as you
need for winter use. The rest may remain in the ground, as
frost seems to improve their flavor. In the South, lift them
as wanted during the winter.
7. Satsiry—Tragopogon Porrifolium.
The Salsify, or Oyster Plant, is a native of England, and is
less known in this country than it deserves to be. Sow and
cultivate the same as the parsnep. A portion of the crop may
remain in the ground all winter. Prepared and cooked accord-
ing to the following directions, it will be found to resemble the
oyster in flavor:
Serape the roots slightly, soak them in water for an hour,
and then boil till quite tender. Now let them drain for a short
time; meanwhile make a thick batter with white of eggs
beaten up with a little flour. Grate the roots tolerably fine,
__ press them into flattened balls of the size of an oyster, dip
_ them in the batter, roll them into grated crackers, and fry
them in a pan till brown. Another way is to parboil, cut in
slices, and fry either wit or without the batter. Try it,
80 Tre GARDEN.
8. Jerusatem Articnoxe—Helianthus Tuberosus.
This plant is a species of sunflower, and is occasionally culti-
vated for its tuberous roots. It nay be planted like the potato,
and will grow anywhere.
Il.—THE LEGUMES.
Tue Pra—Pisum Sativum.
This universally cultivated plant originated in the south of
Europe. The catalogues of the seedsmen embrace twenty or
more varieties, and new sorts are constantly appearing. Of the
early peas, the earliest at present known is Dillisotone’s Early,
and next, perhaps, and better known, is Early Dan O’Rourke.
Hovey’s Extra Early and Landreth’s Extra Early, improved
American varieties of great merit, are nearly if not quite as
early as the Dan O’Rourke. Champion of Paris, Champion of
England and Advancer, all excellent sorts, are a little later. Tom
Thumb is an early variety remarkable for its extreme dwarfness,
seldom rising over twelve inches in height.
Blue Imperial, King of the Marrows, and the Ne Plus Ultra
are among the best to succeed the early crops. To follow the
last-named, for late crops, British Queen or Mammoth; Carter’s
Victoria, Competitor, Knight’s Tall Green Marrow and Cham-
pion of Scotland may be recommended.
It is well enough to give the new varieties yearly introduced
a fair trial, as sorts superior to any now named may be origin-
ated; but the claims set up for new kinds by interested propa-
gators are often unfounded and preposterous.
For the early sorts a light, warm, dry, and moderately rich
soil is to be preferred. If manure be used, it should be wel.
rotted; but it is better to take ground which has been made
sufficiently rich by a previous year’s manuring. The later and
taller varieties require a heavier soil.
You may plant your early peas at almost any time when the
ground is not actually frozen, covering with mulch if necessary.
In the .atitude of New York they may generally be planted
before the twentieth of March—sometimes on the first—and
THe KitcHen GARDEN. 81
require no protection. In the South, any time from January
to March will do. Plant in double drills, from six to nine -
inches apart, according to the variety. The rows should be
three feet apart for the smaller sorts, and from four to six for
the larger. Cover the early kinds one inch deep, and the late
an inch and a half. The sticks should be from two and a half
to three feet for the early sorts. The British Queen reaches
the height of five or six feet, and Knight’s Tall Marrow isa still
loftier grower. When the plants are about two inches high,
stir the ground well, and earth them up a little. Repeat this
operation several times before setting the sticks or brush,
which should be done when the peas are from six to eight
inches high. If the season be dry, watering will much increase
the crop. Topping off the points of the vines soon after the
first blossoms appear will hasten the growth of the fruit. The
smaller kinds of early peas may be planted about half an inch
apart in the drills, and the later and larger sorts from a third
of an inch to an inch. It is well to soak them twenty-four
hours before planting.
To forward an early crop, plant in lines from east to west,
and stick.a row of cedar, spruce-fir, or other evergreen branches
along the north side, sloping so as to bend over the plants at
one foot or eighteen inches from the ground. These protect
them from cold rains and at the same time leave them open to
the full influence of the sun. Behind this temporary hedge
there should be a close board fence, a brick or stone wall, or a
high close hedge.
Beans, cabbage, lettuce, radish, or celery may be planted
between the rows of peas, especially of the earlier sorts.
_ Peas which are to be ripened or dried should not be sowed
before the tenth of June, as all earlier crops will be infected
with bugs,
2. Tae Busu-Bran—Phaseolus Vulgaris.
The bean is believed to be a native of India, whence it was
prought to England near the close of the sixteenth century. In
4*
Ae
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82 THe GARDEN.
one form or another it is universally esteemed. Of the come
mon Bush, Snap, or Kidney bean there are many varieties,
Among the best are the Early Mohawk (a very hardy sort),
Early Six Weeks, Early Valentine, Early Dun Colored, Early
Pink Eye, Early White Marrow, Late Valentine, and the Royal
Kidney. The tender pods of all these sorts are eaten as string- _
beans; but they are also excellent taken from the pods after
they are nearly or quite grown, and boiled and prepared in the
same way that Lima beans usually are. For this mode of cook-
ing we prefer the Pink Eye and the Early White Marrow.
Beans will thrive in almost any soil; but for an early crop
it should be light and dry. If the ground be too wet, they are
liable to rot. Bone-dust, ashes, and super-phosphate of lime
are very useful as manures. The bean is destroyed by a slight
frost, and can therefore seldom be planted, in this climate, till
the middle of April, or even later. Plant once in two weeks
till the last of August, to keep up a succession for the table.
Plant in drills from eighteen inches to two feet asunder, drop-
ping the beans two inches apart, and covering them about an
inch deep. Give them frequent and deep hoeings, drawing a
little earth to the stems.
The Small White bean, so extensively used in New England
for baking, may be planted in any vacant spots in the garden
in June or July, and will require no care except to keep the
weeds down.
3. Tux Common Pott Bean—Phaseolus Multiflorus.
Of the common running or pole bean (le haricot a rames of
the French), the best varieties are the Dutch Case Knife, London
Horticultural, White Cranberry, and Scarlet Runner. Plant
in hills from the first to the middle of May, and give them
poles when they begin to put forth runners; or, better, set the
poles first, and plant the beans around them. Or they may ba
planted in drills along a border, or on each side of a walk, and
trained on a slight trellis of laths and lines, and thus be made
ernamenta. as well as usefol,
Tur KitroHEeNn Cian: 83
4. Toe Livwa Bean—Pahaseolus Limensis.
Of the Phaseolus Limensis there are three varieties cultivated -
in the United States—the Green Lima, the White Lima, and
the Carolina Sewee. The White Lima is to be preferred. It
requires a strong, rich soil, and should not be planted till
settled, warm weather, as the seed is very liable to rot in the
ground if the weather be cool.
Beans of all kinds can easily be preserved for winter use,
with very little loss of flavor. You have only to pick them in
the same state as when for immediate use, and dry them thor-
oughly in the sun. You may have green beans all the year
with very little trouble.
5. Tot Pra-Nur—Arachis Hypogea.
This plant, known also as the pindar ground pea and ground
nut, is a legume bearing its seed under ground. It is cultivated
extensively in some of the Southern States as a field crop, but a
few hills may find place in the Southern garden. Make the
hills two and a half or three feet apart, and drop three or four
of the shelled seeds in each. Cover them two inches deep.
Thin the plants to two in a hill, and keep the ground free from
weeds.
Il.—THE CABBAGE FAMILY.
1. Taz Common Caspace—ABrassica Oleracea.
The cabbage (Fr. chou pomme) is one of the most ancient of
garden vegetables. It is mentioned by Pliny as being much
esteemed in his times. It was a favorite with the Romans, who
probably introduced it into England. Its varieties are almost
numberless. Of the common cabbage, the following are the
most desirable: Early York (very early, and of a delicate flavor),
Atkins’ Matchless (small but tender and delicately flavored,)
Large York, Early Drumhbead, Winningstadt (intermediate in
- season), Bergen Drumhead, Large Drumhead, Marblehead
Mammoth, Champion of America, Mason, and Stone-Mason
(ate). The Bergen Drumhead, Marblehead Mammoth and
-Stone-Mason grow to a very large size, and are favorites witk
“A
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84 THE GARDEN.
market-gardeners. The large Red Dutch is one of the latest
of cabbages. It is chiefly used for pickling. The Utrecht Red
is a smaller red cabbage of fine quality.
The cabbage will grow in any soil sufficiently enriched and
properly prepared. It must be plowed or dug deeply, and well
pulverized. Common salt, ashes, plaster of Paris, and bone-
dust may be used with advantage, as the plant abounds in sul-
phur, phosphorus, soda, and potash. Animal manures may
also be freely used.
For producing early spring cabbages, various plans are pur-
sued. The best mode for general adoption is the following:
About the tenth of September, for southern New York (a little
earlier for New England, and a little later for the South), sow
seeds of the Early York, Nonpareil, or Vanack in a seed-bed
of rich, light soil. If the weather be dry, sprinkle the bed
with water a few times, to promote germination. When large
enough to transplant, set them quite thickly in a cold frame or
walled pit, for protection during the winter. The frame or
pit may be covered with boards, adding straw, if necessary,
when the frost is severe. Give the plants air whenever the
weather will permit. Carefully exclude the rain, as too much
moisture will injure them. LEarly in the spring transplant into
~the compartment of the garden designed for them. Where the
winters are not too severe, they may be brought forward a
week or two earlier by planting them out in the fall in good,
rich soil, previously prepared by throwing it up into high
ridges, running east and west, and about two feet apart. On
the south sides of these ridges set out the plants one foot apart.
They will then be shielded from the north winds, and receive
all the benefit of the sun. When the weather becomes severe,
cover with straw, laying it across the ridges. This may be
removed whenever mild weather returns. Early cabbages —
may also be obtained by starting the plants in a hot-bed, sowing
in February or March.
In transplanting cabbages, especially the early ones, the
growth of which it is important not to check, take them un
/
Tue Kitcuen Garpen. 85
with a trowel. removing considerable earth with them, in order
- not to disturb their roots.
For summer, autumn, and winter use, sow Early Dutch and-
Drumhead in April and May. Transplant into rows two feet
apart, and eighteen inches apart in the row. Give the plants
a copious watering the evening previous to taking up, and
water again after setting out. The whole secret of their after-
culture lies in frequent and deep hoeing. Hoe while the dew
is on, if practicable. Never strip off the lower leaves.
To preserve cabbages in perfection through the winter, the
following is the best mode with which we are acquainted: As
late in the fall as the weather will permit, dig trenches eighteen
or twenty inches apart, parallel to each other, and of any con-
venient length. Now dig out your cabbages with a spade, and
transplant them into these trenches as close together as they
_ will stand, covering root and stem to the lower leaf. Around
this bed raise a kind of frame with old pows, rails, or boards
and earth, making it a little higher at one side than the other,
and high enough at the lower side to prevent its roof or cover-
ing from coming in contact with the cabbages. Across this
frame place poles, lath, or narrow boards, and cover the
whole thickly with straw, bean haulm, corn-stalks, or any ma-
terial of that sort. In this way you may have cabbages up to
April, of as fine a flavor as when transplanted into the trenches.
A few may be transplanted into a similar trench in the cellar,
where, of course, they will require no covering.
9. Savoy Caspace—SZrassica Oleracea Sabauda.
This member of the great cabbage family takes its name from
Savoy. It differs from the common cabbage in the wrinkled
character of its leaves. There are cnly two varieties worthy
of culture—the Curled and the Drumhead. The former is to
be preferred for family use. It is superior in delicacy to the
common cabbage. Cultivation the same as the winter varieties
vf the latter.
Brussels Sprouts (chou de Bruxelles) is considered a sub-
L areas ;
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86 Tur GARDEN.
variety of the Savoy. It is a celebrated vegetable in Europe,
like cabbages: The stem grows to the height of two feet or
more, and is crowned with numerous little heads of from one
to two inches in diameter. After they have been frosted
(which is necessary to their perfection), they may be gathered.
To prepare them for the table, soak an hour in cold water;
boil about twenty minutes; drain; season to the taste; stew
gently in a sauce of cream or floured butter, stirring them con-
stantly. They are sometimes served with tomato sauce. They
may also be cooked simply as cabbages, and eaten with meat.
8. BorzEcoLtE—Brassica Oleracea Fimbriata.
This plant, also called German Greens (Fr. chou vert) and
Scotch Kale, is one of the most delicate and valuable of the
cabbage tribe. It has large, wrinkled leaves, forming an open
head or stool. It is perfectly hardy, frost only improving it.
It remains green and eatable all winter, requiring only a slight
protection in the Northern States, and none at all at the South.
For winter and spring greens it is unequaled. Sow and
cultivate the same as the cabbage. No garden should be
without it.
4, Toe CavLirLowEr—Brassica Oleracea Botrytis.
The cauliflower is a kind of cabbage, with long, pale green
leaves, surrounding a mass or head of white flower-buds. The
French very appropriately call it le chou-flewr. It was intro-
duced into England from the island of Cyprus. There are only
two true varieties—the Early and the Late.
The cauliflower requires a very rich soil and careful culture.
For the early spring or summer crop, sow the seed from the
first to the twentieth of September, in a properly prepared
seed-bed. When the plants are two inches high, transplant
them into a bed of very rich, light soil, three inches apart each
way, so that they may grow firm and stocky for removal to their
5
but is not often seen in American gardens. Sow in April, and 4
transplant in June into rows eighteen inches apart. Cultivate
ry
Tue KitcHEen GARDEN. 87
_ final place of growth. This should be a bed of the richest
- light earth, two feet deep, and one third of it well-decomposed _
manure, surrounded by a frame or wall, and covered with glass
or shutters. An open exposure, sheltered from the northwest,
is essential. The bed should be prepared about the first of
October, to give it time to settle. Into this bed remove your
plants about the middle of October (or earlier in a very cold
climate), setting them eighteen inches apart. Take them up
carefully with a trowel, anc in planting press down the soil
pretty firmly upon the roots, giving it a gentle watering at the
same time. No further watering will be required till spring.
Protect the plants carefully against frost, covering the sash or
shutters with matting or straw if necessary ; but do not neglect
to give them the air every mild, clear day. They must not be
left open to the rain, as too much moisture will cause them to
“damp off,” as it is called, at the neck. When the weather
becomes warmer in spring, copious waterings may be given.
Soap-suds and other liquid manures are applied with advantage.
Early lettuce may be sowed in the same bed between the rows
of cauliflowers.
When a cauliflower has attained its full size, which will be
indicated by the opening of the border, cut off the head with
several inches of the stem, and most of the leaves, these being
taken off, however, before cooking. ©
For the autumn crop sow in April, transplant into rich soil,
two feet apart. Hoe frequently and deeply, and if the season
be dry, water copiously. They must not suffer from drouth.
You may know when they need water by the drooping of the
leaves. The hills about the plant should form a hollow basin
to retain the moisture.
The cauliflower is a wholesome and nutritious vegetable, and
should be more generally crlitivated. To cook, soak an hour
_ in cold water with a handful of salt in it; then boil till tender
in milk and water, taking care to skim the surface, so that not
the least foulness may fall on the flower. It may be served up
with sauce, gravy. or melted butter.
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88 THE GARDEN.
5. Brocooti—Brassica Oleracea Botrytis Cymosa.
This plant is similar to the cauliflower, from which it is sup-
posed to have originated. It differs from the latter in its undu-
lating leaves, its larger size, and its color. It is also a hardier ~
plant, but not so delicate in flavor. Grange’s Early White
and the Purple Cape are the best varieties. White recommends
the latter for the South. Sow in April or May, and treat in the
same manner as the late cauliflower. They will commence
heading in October. To have them during the winter, in a
northern climate, they must be pitted in a cellar or shed,
South of Virginia they need little, if any, protection.
The turnip cabbage (Fob! rabi), Brassica napo brassica, and
the turnip-rooted cabbage, Brassica caulo rapa, may be added
to our list, although they are little cultivated. The former, of
which the Char Navet de Laporie, from France, is the best,
requires the same cultivation as the cabbage, and the latter
should be treated like the Swede turnip. The Green Stemmed
and the Purple Stemmed are recommended.
IV.—SPINACEOUS PLANTS.
1. Sprvace—Spinacea Oleracea.
This vegetable—V’epinard of the French—is a native of
Spain, and is extensively cultivated on the continent cf Europe.
It is excellent for greens, and should receive more attention
than has yet been accorded to it in this country. There are
three varieties—the Prickly-Seeded, the Round-Seeded, and the
Flanders. The first is best for sowing in the fall for winter
crops, in a cold climate; but for spring sowing, and for a mild
climate, the second is to be preferred. The Flanders is little
known in this country, but is said to be superior to either of
the other sorts.
Spinach requires a rich soil. Sow in drills a quarter of an
inch deep and nine inches apart. For winter and early spring
crops, sow about the last of August, and again about the mid-
dle of September. For summer use, sow from the first of
THe KircHen GARDEN. 89
April te the twenty-fifth of May. Select an open situation.
If the soil be light and dry, it must be trodden down or rolled.
with a roller on sowing. Thin out the plants to nine inches
apart. Hoe frequently and thoroughly. The winter crop will
require the protection of a thin layer of straw during the
severe weather.
2. New ZeaLanp Spivaocn—Tetragonia Hzpansa.
This is an annual plant from New Zealand. It furnishes a
good substitute for spinach during the summer, when the latter
fails, but, as it requires to be forwarded in a frame or hot-bed,
is hardly worth the trouble it costs in a northern climate.
Garden Orache (atriplex hortensis) and Garden Patience
(rumez patienta) are sometimes used in the place of spinach,
- but are only worthy of a mere mention here.
V.—ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS.
1. Asparacus—Asparagus Officinalis.
The asparagus plant is a native of the sea-coasts of Great
Britain. The varieties may be reduced tc two—the Green Top
and the Purple Top.
Asparagus is propagated only by seed, but in forming a new
bed it is the most economical plan to procure plants two or
three years old from some nurseryman or gardener. If you
purpose to raise your own plants, sow early in the spring, in a
seed-bed formed of rich, sandy loam, in drills an inch and a
half deep, and eighteen inches from row to row, pressing the
earth firmly upon the seed. Keep the bed free from weeds by
frequent hoeing. About the first of the following November
spread stable litter or something of the sort over the ground, to
keep the young plants from the frost.
For the permanent bed, a rich, sandy loam is best. Select,
__ if possible, an open situation and a warm southern exposure.
Trench or spade deeply, digging in a plenty of manure, as the
szil can hardly be made too rich or too deep. Over a plot
= _ forty feet long and twenty feet wide (which will be large
Vi
Nie
ae: a
90 Tue GARDEN.
enough for a moderate family), sow from fifty to a hundre¢ —
pounds of salt, incorporating it with the soil to the depth of ©
four or five inches. The ground having been well pulverized —
and leveled, lay it off into beds about four feet wide, with
alleys two feet wide between them. Drive a stake at each —
corner. This work should all be done toward the end of
March. Now cut a small trench or furrow six inches deep,
lengthwise of the bed, and about nine inches from the edge.
Take up the plants very carefully from the seed rows, and set
them in this trench or furrow, nine inches apart, with the
crown of the root two inches below the surface, and cover
them at once. Proceed in the same manner with the whole,
making the rows twelve or fourteen inches apart. A damp
day should be chosen for the operation, which must be care-
fully and skillfully performed. Keep the weeds down during
the summer, and on the approach of sevére weather cover the
beds to the depth of three or four inches with rotten manure.
The first two years the plants are permitted to run up to
stalks, that strong crowns may be formed at their base fora _
future crop. The winter dressing of manure must be continued —_
while the bed lasts, the tops being cut off and removed each
fall. In the spring, so soon as the frost will permit, loosen the
surface of the beds with a manure fork, introducing it three
or four inches into the soil, and turning it up, being careful
not to injure the crown of the roots. A full crop may be ex-
pected the fourth year after planting, or at the South a year
earlier. Cut when about four or five inches above the surface.
The shoot should be cut off slantingly about three inches
below the surface, using a long, sharp-pointed knife. The
cutting should never extend beyond the middle of June.
With good culture, an asparagus bed will continue product-
ive for fifteen years, but too many shoots must not be cut from
it, nor the cutting prolonged beyond the time we have named,
2. Sza Katze—Cramba Maratima.
This plant is closely related to the cabbage, and is called by —
Tae KrircuEn GARDEN. 91
the French le chow marin, It is easily cultivated, and we rec-
ommend our readers to try it.
Sea Kale flourishes best in a sandy soil, well enriched with
decomposed vegetable manure and a top-dressing of salt. Sow
the seed in March or April, watering the bed freely if the
weather bedry. Thin out the plants gradually to two or three
inches apart, keeping the bed free from weeds by frequent
hoeing. In November cover the crowns of the plants with a
few inches of earth. In the spring, prepare beds as for aspara-
gus, and remove your plants in a similar manner, setting them
about two feet apart, and covering the crown of the root about
two inches deep. Water occasionally, if the season be dry,
and hoe frequently. Allow no plants to go to seed. Early in
November give the bed two inches of well-rotted manure,
forking it over lightly at the same time. Now cover the
crowns of the plants with three or four inches of light soil, or
with pure sand if you can readily procure it. The bed being
thus finished, cover the crowns of the plants with large pots
or boxes, sinking them one or two inches in the ground, and
carefully stopping any holes in them. Then procure a quantity
of leaves from the woods, mix them with about the same
quantity of warm stable manure, and cover the ground and
boxes to the depth of twenty inches. In severe weather
throw over this some dry litter or boards. The materials will
come to a heat in two or three weeks; and in three or four
weeks more it will be time to examine a pot or two, and when
the plants are found to have sprouts from six to eight inches
long, they may be cut for use. Remove a portion of the earth,
and cut close to the crown, and then replace the box or pot,
and the other materials, and other shoots will soon appear.
The plants will continue in a vigorous state of growth for two
months, giving you a supply for the table nearly the whole
winter; and having your bed once formed, the forcing process
just described may be repeated every year for fourteen or fif-
teen years. In the spring remove the covering gradually, dig-
ging in a few inches of the decayed material to strengthen the
plant for a future crop.
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9 Sy ieee ead ee ae ea a
99 Tur GaRpDEN.
_To have sea kale without forcing, cover the plants early in +
the spring with eight or ten inches of sand, or fine, light soil.
They will produce strong shoots, which, on clearing the grouna
around them, will be found to be of a clear white color; or
they may be blanched by covering them deeply with oat-straw.
They are useless unless well blanched. The shoots are cooked
in the same way as asparagus.
VI.—ESCULENT BULBS.
1. Taz Onton—Allium Cepa.
The onion is supposed to be a native of Asia. Its culture
is of “inscrutable antiquity.” The most useful varieties are
the following: Red Dutch, Portugal, Strasburg, and Silver
Skinned. The first two varieties named are very hardy and
keep well, but are of too strong a flavor to suit a delicate
taste; the last two are mild-flavored, but are not good keepers.
The Silver Skinned is much used for pickling. For winter use
we should choose the Strasburg.
The onion requires a light and friable, but rich and some-
what moist soil. The manure used should be well decomposed.
It need not be deeply mixed with the soil, as the roots of the
plant do not extend far below the surface. The whole must
be thoroughly pulverized. The onion may be sowed so soon
as the ground is in a condition to be worked in the spring.
Sow in drills half an inch deep and nine or ten inches apart.
After sowing, press the soil down firmly with a board. Keep
the bed free from weeds, and stir the soil frequently, but not
deeply. The onion should not be earthed up at all. It is bet-
ter that the bulb should be formed entirely above the surface.
They should be thinned out to two inches apart. This we con-
sider the best mode of culture for the main crop.
For an early crop, sow the seed thickly in drills early in
April; and when the bulbs have grown to the size of peas, lift
them, and put away in an airy loft, to keep till the next spring,
when set them in shallow drills, covering very lightly, if at all.
They will be ripe in June or July. Soap-suds will not be
Tor KitcHen GARDEN. 93
wasted on the onion bed. Soot and ashes are also good for
top-dressings.
To preserve the winter crop, pull in a dry day, put them
under a shed or similar shelter to dry, and store in a loft where
they can have plenty of air.
Onions may be sparingly eaten as a salad, but in the raw
state are rather difficult of digestion. They are most whole-
some boiled. Boil twenty minutes in water, with a little salt;
then pour off the water entirely, and put in equal parts of hot
water and milk, or skimmed milk alone, and boil twenty min-
utes more. They may be fried or roasted, but are more dif_i-
cult of digestion in those modes of cooking.
2. Tor Tor or Tree Onton—Allium Proliferum.
This is a very hardy species, producing little bulbs at the tor
of its seed-stem. It is easily cultivated, comes early to maturity,
and never fails to produce a crop. Plant the little bulbs very
early in the spring, cultivating the plants in the same way as
the other species. They will be ready for use in May or June.
If large bulbs are required, the seed-stem must be broken off.
Those not thus treated will produce seed for the next year.
The top bulbs are considered excellent for pickling.
8. Potato Onton—Allium Tuberosum.
This is supposed to be the kind of onion that was worshiped
by the Egyptians. It is said never to produce either flowers
or seed. It is propagated by offsets from the bulbs which
should be planted in March, in drills eighteen inches apart.
Set them three inches below the surface, and six inches apart.
Keep the ground well stirred, but do not earth up the plants.
They may be lifted by the top as they ripen, which will be
shown by the drooping and withering of the leaves. In this
climate they generally ripen in August. They are milder in ©
flavor than those raised from the seed, but the bulbs are not so
large.
4, Tam SHattot—Allium Ascalonicum.
This plant—l'eschalote of the French—was introduced inte
oe
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94 Tue GARDEN.
Europe from the town of Ascalon, in Syria. It 1s little used
in this country, except by the French, but is to be preferred
to the onion for some of the purposes of ccokery. It is propa
gated by offsets, which may be planted in the spring, like the
sets of the onion. Store in the same way as other onions.
5. THE Lan —Ataum Porrum.
The leek (Fr. porreau) is cultivated in France to an almost
incredible extent, as it forms an absolutely essential ingredient
of the soup on which the great body of the nation lives. The
London Flag and the Musselburgh are improved varieties of
the common leek.
The soil for the leek must be rich, deep, and well worked.
The manure used must be well decomposed. Sow the seed
thinly, in drills six inches apart and half an inch deep. Thin —
out the plants to an inch apart. When about eight inches —
high, transplant them into a bed previously prepared for them.
Shorten the roots to about an inch from the plant, and cut off
two inches or more from the extremity of the leaves. Dibble
them in drills eight inches apart, and so deeply ss the plant
will admit, without covering the young !eaves pushing from its
center. Choose moist or cloudy weather for the operation ; or,
if dry, give the plants a copious watering. Hoe frequently,
drawing the earth about the plants as they grow. They will
be fit for use in October. The whole plant is much used in
soups and stews, but the most delicate part is the blanched
stems.
6. Tue Gartic—Allium Sativum.
The garlic is much used in scuthern Europe in sauces and
salads; but its unpleasant odor will, we suspect, debar it from
American tables almost entirely. The bulb is divisible into
numerous parts called ‘‘ cloves,” by means of which it is propa-
gated. Plant in the spring, in drills two inches deep and six
inches apart. When the bulbs are grown, take thee up, clean
them, and hang up in bundles. A very slight flayur of garlie ig
is not unpleasant in soups and stews.
Tue KitcHen GARDEN. 95
7 Tae Ontve—Allium Schenoprasum.
This little alliaceous plant is sometimes used as a spring
salad, or a seasoning for soups. It is easily propagated by
_- dividing the bulbs or roots either in autumn or spring, and
planting them in any bed or border. It will grow anywhere,
but prefers a moist, rich soil. It is generally spoken of in the
plural as chives or cives.
VIL—SALAD PLANTS.
1. Lerruce—JLactuca Sativa.
The lettuce is appropriately placed at the head cf the list
of modern salad plants. There are two grand varieties of the
lettuce—the Cabbage and the Cos or Upright—and numerous
sub-varieties of each. The best of the cabbage sorts are the
Harly White Spring, White Gotte, Early Simpson, Summer
Cabbage, Green Curled, Green Winter Cabbage, White Silesian,
Ice Cabbage, India, Versailles and Victoria. The last will make
good heads most of the summer. Of the Cos or Upright sorts -
the best are the White and the Green Paris.
A deep, rich, sandy loam suits the lettuce plant. Salt and
ashes are useful as special manures. Sow as early as the sea-
son will permit, and repeat at different times during the spring
and summer. For forcing in a hot-bed, the Early Cabbage
should be chosen. For a winter crop, the Brown Dutch may
be treated as we have recommended for Early York and Non-
pareil cabbages. In the South it will need no protection. _
The Cos lettuce must be sowed in September, protected
during the winter, and transplanted out in the spring; or sowed
in a hot-bed in February. The Cos varieties are improved by
tying up the leaves several days before cutting, to blanch them.
Lettuce may be had through the winter, by sowing in Octo-
per in a walled pit or frame, and protecting from frost by
means of sash and straw mats, giving it air in warm, clear
days. The earth should be within eight inches of the glass.
Let the plants stand eight or ten inches apart. Water occa-
sionally, and pick off all decayed leaves. It is a good precau-
>
p> > eon 2 es ty ep ee TA ee ee meee hee Tk Coe ae.
. Pe. ee 2 ai . Ni .
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96 Tue GARDEN. ae
tion to surround the frame or pit with leaves or straw. Lettuee
requires frequent and deep hoeings.
2. Cress—Lepidum Satioun.
Of the garden cress there are two varieties—the OCurled or
Pepper-Grass and the Broad-Leafed. The former is generally
preferred. It forms an excellent salad, and is easily cultivated.
To have it early, sow in a hot-bed in February. In the open
ground it may ke sowed about the last of March. The soil
should be light and warm for the first sowing. Sow in shallow
drills, covering the seed very lightly. To have it during the
season, sow every fortnight. It should grow rapidly, and be
used when quite young and crisp.
Water-cress is found in brooks, in various parts of the United
States, but is seldom cultivated. It also is excellent for a salad.
3. Musrarp—Sinapis Alba.
This salad plant is cultivated in the same manner as cress.
Cut the leaves for use while they are crisp and tender. Wash
them carefully in water to free them from the sand that is
liable to adhere to them. To have a constant supply, make
frequent sowings. Table mustard is made from the seeds of
Sinapis nigra.
4, Enpive—Cichorium Endiva.
This plant is a native of China and Japan, and is much cul-
tivated in Europe. The variety generally used for salads is the
Green Curled. The Broad-Leaved or Batavian is used for
cooking, in stews and soups.
A light, rich soil is desirable for the endive. An open expo-
sure should also be chosen. The best time to sow for an early
crop is about the first of July in this climate. If sowed ear-
lier, it is apt to run quickly to seed. In New England, how-
ever, it may be sowed by the middle of June. In the South,
White says, sow in August and September. Sow in drills
about four inches deep, and about a foot apart, and scatter suf-
ficient earth upon the seeds to cover them, leaving the drills
Tan KitcHEN GARDEN. 97
to be filled up in the process of future cultivation. Water
once or twice, if the weather be dry. When about two inches ~
high, thin out the plants to ten inches apart; and when neariy
full grown, the leaves may be gathered up in a close, rounded
form, and tied with a shred of matting or other soft string,
drawing up a little earth to the stems at the same time.
Choose a dry day for this operation, and tie up only a few
plants at a time, or in proportion as they may be wanted for
use. They may also be blanched by covering them with pots
or boxes. It will take about ten days in warm weather, and
about twenty in cold weather, for the leaves to blanch for use.
For late crops, sow about the end of July. To have endive
in perfection during the winter, it must be moved into frames
or walled pits about the first of November, taking up consider-
able earth with the roots. Give air and light in mild weather,
but protect from heavy rains and severe frosts.
5. Catery—Apium Graveolens.
Celery is a native of Great Britain, and in its wild state is a
coarse, rank weed. Cultivation has made it one of the pleas-
antest-flavored of all salad plants. There are several varieties.
The Red Solid is the hardiest, and is therefore generally pre-
ferred in the colder portions of our country; but the White
Solid is crisper and more delicately flavored. Cole’s Superb
Red, Laing’s Improved Mammoth Red, Seymour’s Superb White,
Boston Market and Turkey or Prussian are the kinds to be preferred
The soil best suited to the celery plant is a moist, rich vege-
table mold, to which salt, ashes, and lime may be advantage-
ously added, as special manures. The animal manures used
must be thoroughly decomposed. The cultivation of celery
embraces three distinet operations:
1. Forwarding the Plants.—Sow in a hot-bed from the first
to the middle of March, or in a warm border in the open
ground, at several different times, from the first of April to the
tenth of May. The seed-beds should be of light and finely-
pu.verized soil. Rake in the seeds lightly and regularly, and
3 5
eT A Sal oe, ey ee as tS eee
Pac
Toe GARDEN.
in dry weather water moderately, both before and after germi
nation. Liquid manures are very beneficial. Thin out the
plants to half an inch apart.
2. Stocking or Hardening.—When the plants are two or
three inches high, prick them out, at successive times, into
intermediate beds, three or four inches asunder, watering if
the weather be dry, and protecting from frost with boards or
mats, if necessary. This intermediate bed should be made
very rich with well-rotted manure. The plants that remain
in the seed-bed should be shortened by cutting off their tops
occasionally, to make them grow more stout, and watered fre-
quently. Of the transplanted ones, those intended for late
celery should also be cut off nearly to the crown several times,
which will retard them and make them grow stout. When the
plants are from six to twelve inches high, they must be trans-
planted into trenches previously prepared for them.
8. Trench Culture.—It is well to trench the compartment
of the garden intended for the permanent culture of celery, as
this process turns the richest soil to the bottom where it will
be most needed for the nurture of the plant. In ground thus
prepared, or at least deeply spaded or plowed, mark out the
trenches a foot wide, and from three to three and a half feet
apart; dig out each trench lengthwise, ten or twelve inches in
width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight inches. Lay
the earth dug out equally on each side of the trench; put at
least four inches of very rotten dung into the trench, then pare
the sides, and dig the dung and parings with several inches of
the loose mold at the bottom. <A pint of salt to every fifty
feet of trench, thoroughly mingled with the soil, is recom-
mended by some, and must, we think, prove beneficial. Trim
the tops and roots of the plants, and then set them in single
rows along the middle of each trench, allowing four or five
inches distance from plant to plant. When this work is fin-
ished, give the plants water in plenty, and occasionally water
them from time to time, if the weather be dry, and likewise
let them be shaded, till they strike root and begin to grow.
@ ‘
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Tue KitcHen GARDEN. 99
Their after-culture consists in stirring the soil in the trench
frequently with a small hoe, and watering copiously in dry -
weather. About the middle of August or the first of Septem-
ber, you may begin to earth up your plants for blanching. Tie
the leaves together, or hold them tight with one hand, while
you draw the earth, which must have been finely pulverized
with the spade, around the stems, being careful not to cover
the heart or center of the plant. You may now repeat this
operation once in ten days, till the plants are fit for use; but
this earthing-up must never be done when the plants are in the
least wet. About the first of October earth up firmly and
evenly, and with a decided slope from the base, nearly to the
tops of the leaves. To take up the crop, it is best to begin at
one end of a row, and dig clean down to the roots, which then
loosen with a spade, and they may be drawn up entire, without
breaking the stalks.
To preserve this plant during the winter, on the approach of
frost take up a part of the crop, and lay it under sand for win-
ter use. That left in the beds may be covered with litter, to
be removed in mild weather. In planting, the white and red
sorts may conveniently be mixed in the same trench, so that
only one trench need be opened to obtain both.
6. Toe Rapviss—Raphanus Sativus.
The radish (Fr. rave, Ger. ritig) is a native of China. Of
the numerous varieties, the Scarlet Short Top is the earliest
and best. The Early Salmon, Red Turnip-Rooted, White Tur-
nip-Rooted, White Summer, and Yellow Summer are all
desirable sorts. For supplying the table in winter, the Black
Spanish should be chosen.
Any deep, rich soil, well broken up, will do for the radish,
but for early crops it is desirable to have it light, dry, and
warm. Sow as early as the weather will permit, and for a
continued supply repeat your sowings about once in two weeks
through the season. The Black Spanish may be stored in the
sellar, and will keep till spring.
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i00 THe GARDEN. a ef
%, Horsz Rapvisu—Cochlearia Armoracia.
The horse-radish grows best in a rich, moist soil, contiguous 4
to water, but may be cultivated in almost any situation. It is
propagated by sets from the root, which may be dropped inte
boles made with a dibble fifteen inches deep, in soil previously
trenched or deeply spaded. Fill up the holes with fine earth.
The plants should stand about ten inches apart. It may be
planted either in spring or in November. In taking up the_
roots for use, you may leave a small portion at the bottom to
serve as anew set. In the fall, lift enough for winter use, and
leave the rest in the ground. It is an excellent condiment. —
The root is scraped into shreds, or grated fine, and eaten with
vinegar.
8. Corn Sarav—edia Olitoria.
This plant, sometimes called lamb’s lettuce, is a native of
Europe. It is in use to some extent as a spring salad. Sow
from the tenth to the twentieth of September, in shallow drills
six inches apart, and cover lightly, pressing the soil with a
roller or a board, Keep it clear of weeds, and in November
cover with straw, and pick the leaves as wanted. If the win-
ter prove mild, it may be in use the whole season.
VUUI.—_THE CUCUMBER FAMILY
1. Toe CucumBer— Cucumis Sativus.
The cucumber is found wild in almost all warm countries,
and is cultivated all over the world. The best varieties for
forcing, or for an early crop in the open air, are the Russian
and the Early Frame. London Long Green, Long Green Tur-
key, White Spined and Underwood’s Short Prickley are good
for the main crop. The White Spined is one of the best for table
use, and Underwood’s Short Prickly for pickling. The Gherkin,
a French variety, is also much prized for the latter purpose.
A light loam is best for the cucumber, but it will grow in
almost any soil, and is very easily cultivated. Make excaya-
tions for your hills a foot in diameter and fifteen inches deep,
Toe KitcHeEN GARDEN. 101
at the distance of six feet apart each way. Fill these holes
with a rich mixture of well decayed manure and light soil,
adding, if convenient, a little ashes, bone-dust, and common
salt. Raise the hills a little above the level of the ground, by
covering the manure mixture with loam, and make them
slightly concave on the top. Plant about the first of May, or
so soon as the season will admit, putting eight or ten seeds in a
bill, When the plants have made rough leaves, thin them out
to three in a hill. Nipping off the points of the vines to make
them branch out will hasten their fruiting. Stir the ground
frequently, and keep it free from weeds.
By forcing in hot-beds, cucumbers may be had in March or
April; but few except professional gardeners care to undertake
the somewhat delicate operation. They may be much for-
warded, however, with little trouble, by the use of small boxes
covered with glass, or by the following method :
Make a hole, and put into it a little hot dung; let the hole
be under a warm fenee. Put six inches deep of fine rich earth
on the dung. Sow a parcel of seeds in this earth, and cover at
night with a bit of carpet or sail-cloth, having first fixed some
hoops over this little bed. Before the plants show the rough
leaf, plant two into a little flower-pot, and fill as many pots in
this way as you please. Have a larger bed ready to put the
pots into, and covered with earth, so that the pots may be
plunged in the earth up to their tops. Cover this bed like the
last. When the plants have got two rough leaves out, they
will begin to make a shoot in the middle. Pinch that short off.
Let them stand in this bed till your cucumbers sown in the
natural ground come up ; then make some little holes in good,
rich land, and, taking a pot at a time, turn out the ball, and fix
it in the hole. These plants will bear a month sooner than
those sown in the natural ground.
The second week in July is sufficiently early to plant for the
fal and pickling crop, in the Northern States. In the South,
the late planted crops are apt to be destroyed by the melon<
worm.
aw > oT es
102 Tore GARDEN.
Cucumber plants being climbers by means of their tendrils,
some braachy sticks being placed to any advancing runners,
they will ascend, and produce fruit at a distance from the
ground, of a clean growth, free from spots, and well flavored.
2. Tot Meton—Cucumis Melo.
The melon is a tropical plant. Our finest varieties are sup-
posed to have come from Persia and Affghanistan. In the
south of Europe it is much used as an article of food by the
lower classes. This use may be made of it with advantage by
all classes in every country where it can be produced. Its
varieties are numerous and constantly increasing. The com-
mon mush-melon, formerly so extensively cultivated, has gen-
erally given way to newer and better sorts, among which the
Green Citron, Monroe’s Green Flesh, Nutmeg, Christina (very
early), White Japan, Prescott Cantaloup, (a French variety,
Orange Cantaloup, Pine Apple and Skillman’s Fine Netted are
much esteemed. [For the water-melon which belongs to a
different genus of the same natural order, see the next section. |
The melon should have the same soil and culture as the
cucumber (except that it requires Jess moisture), and may be
forced in a hot-bed, or forwarded by means of the glass-covered
Ddoxes in the same way. Never allow more than three plants
to grow ina hill. Three will produce more fruit than six. As
the fruit appears and attains the size of a walnut, place under
each a piece of tile, slate, or glass to protect it from the damp-
ness of the earth, and assist it in ripening by reflecting the rays
of the sun.
IX.—THE PUMPKIN FAMILY.
1. Toe Pomprin— Cucurbita Pepo.
The pumpkin is a native of India and the Levant. Numer-
ous varieties are cultivated, some of which, originated by
means of crossings with the squash, can hardly be distinguished —
from that vegetable. The Cashaw and Large Cheese are the
best that we have tested. The Valparaiso is said to be a good
Toe KitcHen GARDEN. 103
variety , and the Honolulu, from the Sandwich Islands, and the
Citronelle de Towraine, from France, are new varieties which
we would recommend for trial.
The pumpkin will grow anywhere, and with almost any
treatment. The culture indicated is the sazne as that for the
melon or the cucumber. It should never be planted in a gar-
den, if one has other ground in which it can be cultivated, as
it will be sure to mix with and contaminate the squashes,
melons, and cucumbers. New England farmers often raise a
large crop by planting it with their field corn.
2. Toe Squass— Cucurbita Melo pepo.
This plant forms the connecting link between the pumpkin
andthe melon. It originated in the Levant, The best summer
varieties are the Early Bush Scalloped, and the early Bush
Crooknecked. Of fall and winter sorts the Boston Marrow
is the best that has had a fair trial in various soils and climates.
It is difficult now, however, to obtain it pure. The Hubbard,
Custard, Green Striped Bergen, Egg-shaped, Turban, Honolulu,
Mammoth and Yokohama are more recent and esteemed varie-
ties; the Hubbard in particular being deservedly popular.
The soil and cultivation required are the same as for pump-
kins, melons, and cucumbers.
8. VEGETABLE Marrow—Cucurbita Succada.
This is a species of gourd. It is cooked like the ege-plant
when young; when half grown is used as squash; and when
matured is used for pies. Cultivated the same as the squash.
4, Tot Water Meton—Cucurbita OCitrullus.
The water-melon belongs to the same natural family or order
as the musk-melon or cantaloup, but to a different genus or
subdivision. It is a native of the tropics. The best varieties
are the Black Spanish, the White Spanish, the Orange, the
Mountain Sweet, the Carolina, the Texas, the Sugar White,
the Syrian, and the Lawson. The Texas, the Sugar White
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104 Tur GARDEN.
varieties—new to us, at least. We have tested only the Texas,
which is a superior sort.
The best soil for the water-melon is a light, sandy loam.
Anima. manures, well decomposed, bone-dust, and super-phos-
phate of lime should be used in moderate quantities. Cultivate
the same as mush-melons or cucumbers. If grown near any
other melon, squash, pumpkin, or cucumber, you can not be
sure of pure seeds; and the same remarks will apply to the
other members of the pumpkin and cucumber families.
X.—MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION.
1. Inpian Corn—Zea Mays.
Every garden should have a few rows of Indian corn. The
best garden sorts are the Extra Early and Eight-Rowed Sweet.
New varieties, however, are constantly being produced.
To produce a good crop, Indian corn requires a good soil,
and there need be no fear of giving it too much manure. A
handful of ashes in each hill wil! benefit the crop. Plant in
hills three feet apart, dropping five or six seeds in a hill, but
thinning out to three or four at the first hoeing. If sufficient
manure have not been mixed with the soil on plowing or dig-
ging, put a small shovelful in each hill. Plant so soon as the
season will permit, and make successive plantings till August,
if you desire a continuous supply. Hoe frequently, making
broad, flat hills in earthing up the plants. Never plant more
than one kind of corn in the same garden at one time, as it
will mix and deteriorate. Change your seed every two or
three years, getting it, if possible, from a more northern lati-
tude.
2. Tue Tomato—Solanum Lycopersicum.
This plant belongs to the same family as the potato, and,
like that vegetable, is almost universally esteemed and culti-
vated. It is a native of South America. There are several
sorts—~yellow and red. The Large Smooth Red and the Pear.
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Tren a ee ee ee, ee eee eer lO
Tur KitcHen GARDEN. 105
Shaped are the best for table use; but the Large Red, a scol-
loped or indented variety, is preferred for marketing, as it
grows much larger. The Large Yellow differs in flavor from
the Red, and is preferred by some. It comes into use some-
what earlier than the other sorts. It is much used for pre-
serves. The Red Cherry-Shaped and the Yellow Cherry-
Shaped are beautiful varieties, much used for pickling and
preserving.
A light, loamy, and moderately rich soil is best for the
tomato. To have early tomatoes, the plants must be started
in hot-beds in March. Sow the seeds thinly, or thin out the
plants soon after they come up. As they advance in growth,
they may be transplanted into a cold frame or walled pit, pro-
tected by glass, where they may stand three inches apart to
harden for final transplanting into the open air; or they may
remain in the hot-bed till settled warm weather—from the
middle to the end of May in this latitude—when they may be
planted out into a warm, sheltered situation in the open air.
Those who have no hot-bed or pit may very easily forward
a few plants in a large pot or box of rich earth placed in the
kitchen window, sowing the seeds in it from the middle of
March to the first of April. Two or three weeks may be
gained in this way over those planted in the open air.
For early tomatoes, we form conical hills, a foot or more in
height, and three feet apart, with a little well-rotted manure
in the center. Into a little crater-like excavation in the sum-
mits of these hills we set the plants, which should be taken up
with a trowel in such a way as not to check their growth. A
still better way is to sow the seeds in small pots, and in trans-
planting to transfer the whole ball of earth from the pot to the
hill. The advantage of the elevated hills is, that the earth
around the roots is more readily and thoroughly warmed by
the heat of the sun. For a late crop, or for a hot, dry climate,
this plan is not to be recommended.
In the South a plenty of tomatoes may be raised from self-
sown seed, which will spring up in the garder, an1 require
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106 THE GARDEN.
little care; but if they are wanted earlier, the plants may be
forwarded in a frame, or glass-covered boxes, sowing in Febru-
ary or the first of March, and transplanting when the frosts
are over.
The earliest tomato plarts should be shortened by taking off
a few inches of their tops, so soon as they have set their first
fruit, which will cause it to ripen more rapidly. Stir the soil
frequently, and keep it free from weeds. Support the plants
with branches or a little trellis, as you would peas, to keep the
fruit from the ground. The plants, too, when supported, run
less to vines, and are much more fruitful. One dozen plants
properly supported will yield more and better fruit than three
times that number will when allowed to rest on the ground.
3. THe Eaa Prant—Solanum Melongena.
This plant also, as may be seen by its botanical name, belongs
to the potato family. It is a native of Africa. One of its
varieties bears a white fruit resembling an egg, whence its
name; but the purple varieties only are used in cookery. Of
these the Large Prickley Purple produces the largest fruit, but
the Long Purple is superior in flavor, and should be preferred
for family use. They may be cultivated in the same way as
tomatoes, but are rather more sensitive and tender. They may
be sowed in April or the first of May in the open air, selecting
a warm border, with a southern exposure.
The fruit is fit for use when two or three inches in diameter,
and continues so till the seeds begin to change color. It is cut
in thin slices, and fried, and is also sometimes used in stews and
soups.
4, THE STRAWRERRY Tomato—Physalis Edulis.
This is a newly-introduced annual plant, producing fruit of the
size of a cherry. It is excellent eaten raw, made into pies or
simply stewed. We have tried it and esteem it highly. It is
cultivated the same as the tomato.
Tur KitcHen GARDEN. 107
5. Tor Prrpper—Capsicum Annum.
The pepper is a tropical plant, but may easily be matured in
ene open air in this climate. It is better, however, to start the
plants in a hot-bed, if practicable, and transplant in May or
June. A warm situation and a light, rich soil suit it best.
The plants should stand in rows eighteen inches apart, and a
foot apart in the rows. Earth them up a little in cultivation.
The Bell or Sweet is the best for pickling. The Cayenne is
more used in its ripe state as a seasoning.
6. Oxra—AHibiscus Hsculentus.
This vegetable, which belongs to the natural family of the
cotton plant, was introduced from the West Indies, and is much
cultivated in the Southern States. It is often called gumbo
(Fr. gombo), and is used as an ingredient in stews and soups.
It is cultivated to a considerable extent in New Jersey, and
may be produced still farther north. A light, dry soil is best
suited to it. Plant in drills three feet apart, scattering the
seeds sparsely, and thin out to eighteen inches apart in the
drill. It requires careful culture in a northern climate. Hoe
very frequently, and keep the ground free from weeds. The
‘pods must be gathered while quite green and tender. They
may be cut into thin slices and dried for winter use.
7. Raupars—Rheum Rhaponticum.
Rhubarb, sometimes called pie-plant, although it has been
cultivated to a small extent for centuries, and used for medic-
inal purposes, has not till quite recently been popularly appre-
ciated. It certainly deserves a place in every garden. It is a
native of Asia. Myatt’s Victoria, Myatt’s Linneus, Buist’s
Early Red, and Downing’s Colossal are all excellent varieties.
The soil for rhubarb should be a light loam, rich, and moder-
ately moist. Bone-dust and guano are excellent special ma-
nures for it.
Rhubarb is propagated either by seeds or by division of the
roots The latter is, in ordinary cases, the preferable method.
\
THEre GARDEN.
From ten to twenty plants will be sufficient for a moderate a
family, and these may be had by dividing one or two good
roots, leaving an eye on each set. The ground should be pre-—
pared in October, by spading it at least eighteen inches deep,
digging in a large quantity of well-rotted manure, and breaking
it up thoroughly in the process. Allow it to settle, and then
plant out your sets two feet apart in the row, and four feet
between the rows. The crowns or eyes of the sets should be
about two inches below the surface, and should be immediately
covered with four or five inches of litter, leaves, or straw, to
prevent the frost from throwing them out during the winter.
In this way a crop may be obtained the first year after plant-
ing. The only after-culture required is to cover the ground
with a few inches of manure every fall, digging it in with a
fork in the spring, and keeping the ground free from weeds.
If you wish to raise it from the seed, sow in the spring, trans-
plant in the fall, and treat as just directed. You will get new
varieties. It will be ready for the table in three years.
To make the edible leaf-stems of your rhubarb grow long
and tender, place barrels, pots, boxes, and so forth over them
when they begin to grow in the spring; but the air and light
should not be entirely excluded, unless you wish to obtain 9
very mild flavor.
Rhubarb may easily be forced by inverting boxes, pots, or
half barrels over the plants in the autumn, and afterward coy-
ering the whole with leaves and hot stable manure. The
boxes, etc., should be placed over the plants before the ground
shail be frozen, covering the ground with eight or ten inches
of litter. The mixture of leaves and manure may be applied
about the middle of January or the first of February. By
merely covering your plants with six or eight inches of litter,
leaves, or almost any dry material, you may ferward them from
seven to ten days, without further trouble.
To gather, remove a little earth, and, bending down the leaf
you would remove, slip it off from the crown without breaking
or using the knife. The stalks are fit to use when the leaf is
Pee ates oa
Toe KircHen GARDEN. 109
half expanded. A larger, but inferior produce is obtained by
letting them remain till in full expansion, as is practiced by the
market-gardeners.
For use, peel the stem, and cut it into thin slices, and pre:
pare as you would apples, for pies, tarts, or sauce. The
English gardeners say, however, that it should be grown so
quickly and be so tender as to require no peeling.
8. ParstEy—Apium Petroselinum.
Parsley is but little cultivated in this country, and is princi-
pally used for garnishing. It is a native of Sardinia. The
curled variety is most worthy cf cultivation. Sow in April,
in drills half an inch deep. It may form an edging around
beds, borders, or compartments. From the long time the seed
lies in the ground without germinating, it has been said that it
goes nine times to the devil and back before it comes up!
These journeys require ordinarily a month or more; but by
soaking the seed twenty-four hours Lefore sowing, the process
is somewhat hastened. When the plants are three or four
inches high, thin them out to six inches apart. With a little
protection, it will grow all winter in this climate. It is
esteemed by many as a seasoning for stews and soups.
XI._SWEET HERBS, ETO.
Of the sweet herbs and medicinal plants more or less culti-
vated in gardens, a brief mention may properly be here made.
They are generally planted in borders, and, to secure their
peculiar virtues in perfection, should not be manured. Com-
mon garden soil is sufficiently rich for most of them. As a
general rule, they are gathered when in bloom, and carefully
dried in the shade.
1. Shrubby Plants.—Sage (Salvia officinalis); Winter
Savory(Saturica montana); Rosemary (Rosmarius officinalis) ;
_ Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) ; Rue (Ruta graveotens) ; Wormwood
(Artimesia absinthium); Southernwood (Artimesiu abrota
num); Lavender (Lavendula spica); Hyssop, Hyssopus (offict
Toe GARDEN.
nalis). The foregoing are all propagated by dividing the roots i” *
ae or by cuttings, and require little cultivation. 9
‘ 2. Perennial Herbaceous Plants.— Peppermint (Mentha
ie piperita); Spearmint (Mentha viridis); Pennyroyal (Mentha
7 pulegium); Balm (Melissa officinalis); Tansy (Tanacetum oul-
a garis); Burnet (Poterium sanguisorba) ; Chamomile (Anthemis
Bi nobilis); Elecampane (luna helinium); Fennel (Anethum
P JSeniculum) ; Thoroughwort or Boneset (Hupatoriwm perfolia-
- tum); Liquorice (Glycirrhiza glabra). These are all increased
4 by parting the roots.
4 3. Biennial and Annual Plants.—Caraway (Carum carni) ; :
. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum); Dill (Anethum graveolens);
s Anise (Pimpinella anisum); Sweet Marjoram (Origonuwm ma-
a jorana); Summer Savory (Satwrega hortensis); Sweet Basil
ae (Ocimum basilicum); Bush Basil (Ocimum minimum); Angelica
a (Angelica archangelica); Borage (Borago officinalis); Hore-
= hound (Varrubiwm sulgare). All propagated by sowing the \
4 seeds.
RE SPOR ea ey
THe Frovuit GAaRpEN. 111
VI.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.
But rorwaca fu the name of God, graffe, set, plant, and nourish up trees im every corr.er of
your grounds, the lapvur is small, the cost is nothing, the commoditie is great, yourselves
shall have plexty, the poore shall have somewhat in time of want to relieve their necessitie,
and God shall reward your good mindes and diligence.—Gerarde.
I.—A HINT OR TWO.
= ‘i * HE lamented Downing says: ‘‘He who owns
AD GN Ie vm a a rood of proper land in this country, and,
‘ WEP ji i in the face of the pomonal riches of the
day, raises only crabs and choke-pears,
deserves to lose the respect of all sensible
men. Yet there are many in utter igno-
rance of most of the delicious fruits of modern days—
who seem to live under some ban of expulsion from
all the fair and goodly productions of the garden.”
Such persons are still to be found, but their number
is rapidly decreasing; and there are few who will not
thoughtfully heed the quaint exhortation which we have chosen
for the motto of this chapter.
After what we have said in our third and fifth chapters
(which see), but few introductory hints will here be necessary.
Let it be remembered that the plot set apart for the fruit gar-
den should be thoroughly prepared before you commence
planting; that the soil should be very deep (mot less than two
feet), and thoroughly broken up; that it must be moderately
rich; that it should be well drained if the nature of the soil
require it, and that a careful attention to the directions we
_ have given under the heads of transplanting, budding, grafting,
pruning, etc., are essential to success. Specific directions,
when necessary, will be given under the name of each species,
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112 THE GARDEN.
The best manure for fruit-trees in general is composed of
about equal parts of meadow mud, muck, or peaty earth, and
common stable manure. A small quantity of wood-ashes, say
four bushels to a cart-load of manure, and charcoal-dust in
about the same ratio, may be intermixed with this composition
to great advantage. This manure should be prepared and well —
worked over several months before using. Half a peck of
bone-dust and a little lime, well mixed with the soil when set-
ting the tree, or from a peck to a bushel of old broken bones,
put into the bottom of the hole before setting, will be of great
benefit for years. The general manuring of a fruit garden
should be performed in autumn; and the holes for setting out
the trees in the spring may be dug and filled with compost and
earth at the same time with decided advantage. Rotted chips
make an excellent manure for fruit-trees, and may be applied
either in the holes or as a top-dressing.
Having set out your trees properly in well-prepared ground,
the work is rightly begun—that is all. If you stop here, you
might as well have never commenced—nay, better; for in that
case you would have saved the cost of the trees and the labor
of preparing the soil.
After your trees are planted, it is absolutely essential that
the ground around them shall be kept loose and mellow by culti-
vation. Cultivate potatoes or some other low-growing crop
between the rows of trees, keeping an area of more than the
diameter of the head around each tree clear from both the
crop and the weeds. So far as the tree’s roots extend, the
ground belongs to them, but it must be kept well stirred.
Newly transplanted trees sometimes, especially if the season
be uncommonly dry, require watering; but a little water
poured on the surface never reaches the roots, and, by causing
the ground to bake, does more harm than good. To produce
the desired result, take off a few inches of the surface above
the roots, apply the water, and then replace the earth.
Mulching is exceedingly beneficial to young fruit-trees. A
sufficient quantity of straw, litter, leaves, or tan-bark applied
Toe Frovit GarRpeEN. 113
in a circle covering the whole area of the roots will tend to
retain the moisture, and render watering, in ordinary cases,
unnecessary. In winter, where the climate is severe, it is still
more useful, and often saves young trees from entire destruc-
tion by frost. A small space immediately about the trunk may
be left uncovered, as it might harbor mice.
Every spring, wash the bodies of your young trees with soft
soap, or one of the following preparations :
1. Dissolve one pound of potash in two gallons and one
half of water, and then apply with a flat varnish-brush to the
limbs and trunks of the trees. A varnish-brush is best, as the
bristles are held together by tin bands on them, and not tied
together with strings, as paint-brushes are, which the potash
soon cuts through, and the brush falls to pieces.
2. Mix fresh cow-dung with urine and soap-suds, and with
the mixture wash over the stems and branches of the trees as
you would your room with whitewash, first cutting off the
cankery parts, and scraping the moss and rough bark off the
trunks of the trees before applying it. This is particularly
applicable to large and old trees. It will destroy the eggs of
insects, and prevent moss growing on the trunks.
The following, it is said, will prevent rabbits [and probably
mice] from girdling fruit-trees:
Make a solution of, say half a pound of tobacco to three
gallons of water. Mix with clay, a little lime, a little fresh
cow-dung, and an ounce or two of glue or paste. Thicken to
the consistency of thick whitewash, and put on with a brush.
The following is Bridgeman’s recipe for causing trees to
thrive:
“The ground where they are planted must be kept well cul-
tivated. Young trees will not thrive if the grass be permitted
to form a sod around them; and if it should be necessary to plant
them in grass grounds, care must be taken to keep the earth
mellow and free from grass for three or four feet distant around
them, and every autumn some well-rotted manure should be
dug in around each tree, and every spring the bodies of the
Cece are ag a SRO
ii be 3 eared sig LIE
PA SIT Sb Oe Se!
114 Tur GARDEN.
trees washed or brushed over with common soft-soap, undilutea
with water. This treatment will give a thriftiness to the trees,
surpassing the expectation of any one who has not witnessed
its effect.”
II.—POMACEOUS FRUITS.
1. Toe AppLre—Pyrus Malus.
All the varieties of the apple cultivated in this country have
originated from the small, acid crab-apple of Europe. When
cultivated with the same care and skill, it seems to succeed
even better here than in its native localities. It is well worthy
to stand at the head of all the fruits of temperate climates.
The apple-tree requires so much room that, in an ordinary
garden, we must confine ourselves to a small number. The
choice of our varieties, then, becomes an important affair,
and, we may add, a difficult one. 1. In the first place, the
varieties are very numerous, being numbered by thousands ;
2. Sorts which are considered “ best” in one section of our
widely extended country, often prove inferior or worthless in
another; 8. Soil, seasons, and modes of cultivation modify
them greatly in the same climate; 4. Many new and appa-
rently excellent varieties have not yet been sufficiently tested
in reference to their adaptation to general cultivation; 5.
Tastes differ widely in reference to flavors; 6. Some sorts are
known by from three to twenty different names—every neigh-
borhood, almost, having its local appellation for them. The
reader must make the necessary allowances, as the circum-
stances of his locality, soil, and climate, and his own expe-
rience and observation may dictate; and none but the best
should be allowed to occupy the limited space of a fruit gar-
den.
Apple-trees should be planted thirty feet apart each way.
As special manure, lime and ashes are indicated. About half
a peck of each, applied annually to each tree, will be useful.
In common management, apple-trees in general bear only
alternate years, which are called their bearing years; but by
4
Tue Froit GAaRpDEN. 115
thinning out half the blossoms on the bearing year, you may
easily have about an equal quantity of fruit every season. The
bearing year may be entirely changed, by taking off all the
blossoms or young fruit on that year, and allowing them to
remain on the year which we wish to make the bearing one.
To preserve winter apples, gather them carefully by hand
on a dry day; lay them gently by hand twelve or fourteen
inches deep on the floor of a cool, dry room, and let them dry
and season there for three weeks. Then carefully take them
up, on a clear day, and pack them by hand in clean, dry bar-
rels, filling the barrels so full that a gentle pressure will be
necessary in order to head them up.
Smaller quantities may be put up in common, tight, wooden
buckets. The best place for keeping them is a dry, airy
room or cellar, of which the temperature ranges from 35° to
45° Fahr.
Thomas recommends packing alternate layers of apples and
dry chaff mixed with a small portion of dry, pulverized lime.
Apples for exportation are often wrapped each one separately
in clean, soft, coarse paper, like oranges, and then put up in
_ boxes or barrels, as above directed.
2. THE Prar—Pyrus Communis.
The pear is second only to the apple in general utility, and
superior to that fruit in delicacy and flavor. The pear was
cultivated so long ago as the earliest times of the Romans,
but it is only in modern times that it has reached a high
degree of those delicious qualities for which it is now so
much esteemed.
The best soil for the pear is a strong loam on a dry subsoil.
Tt requires the same manure as the apple, with the addition
of a larger quantity of ashes or potash in some other form.
Set standard trees twenty feet apart each way; dwarfs from
ten to twelve. Give bearing trees a moderate top-dressing of
manure every autumn. Pear-trees require comparatively little
pruning.
116 Tue GARDEN.
To dwarf the pear, it is grafted on Anger’s quince stocks. —
The fruit produced by trees thus grafted is usually better than
that of those on the pear stock. They also come into bearing
sooner, and take up less room in the garden; but they are not
so long-lived as on the pear. Quince-bottomed pear-trees
must be very carefully cultivated. They will not bear neglect.
They should be headed-in more or less every_year.
Winter pears are all necessarily ripened in the house; and
nearly all summer pears, and a very large proportion of the
autumn varieties, are greatly improved by ripening them in
the house also. As a general rule, take summer and early
autumn pears from the trees, just when some of the earlier
full-grown specimens begin to ripen. Gather them carefully
by hand on a dry day, spread them on the shelves of your
Jruit-room, or upon the floor of a cool, dry chamber. Here
they will ripen by degrees, and without further care.
Late autumn and winter pears should also be gathered very
carefully by hand, in dry weather. Put them away very care-
fully, so as not to bruise or indent them in the least, in tight,
clean wooden boxes, buckets, or barrels, and keep them in a
cool, dry, airy room or cellar, of which the temperature shall
be from about 38° to 45° Fahr. Examine them occasionally,
and if they should be sweating, take them out carefully, and
dry them on the floor, removing any that may have begun to
decay, and re-packing them as before. About ten days before
their usual time of ripening, bring them into a warm room.
The result of this process will surprise, as well as gratify, one
who has never tried it.
3. Toe QuinceE—Cydonia Vulgaris,
This tree is a native of Germany. It was cultivated, and
its fruit much esteemed by the Greeks and Romans. It was
used by them, as by the moderns, for preserving.
The quince is easily propagated from seeds, layers, or cut-
tings. A moist, strong soil suits the quince, as it grows natu-
rally along the borders of streams. Set the trees ten feet
* 3
Mele i ‘
err oT ee.
Tur Fruit Garpen. 117
apart, and give them the same cultivation as the apple and
the pear. Little pruning is required, except to improve the
form of the head.
j jII.—STONE FRUITS.
1. THE Pracu—Persica Vulgaris.
The peach derives its name from Persia (It. persica, Fr.
pecher), from which country it originated. It is now culti-
vated to a greater extent in the United States than in any
other country in the world. In its perfection, it does not
yield the palm to any other fruit. A Seckel would hardly
tempt us to lay aside a Rareripe.
Set peach-trees about sixteen feet apart each way. Bone-
dust and wood-ashes are the special manures most likely to
be serviceable to them.
The peach is somewhat dwarfed and rendered hardier in a
northern climate by grafting on a plum stock. It requires
but little pruning, except “ shortening-in,” which should be
done early in the spring every year so long as the tree lives.
Cut off half the last year’s growth over the whole outside of
the tree. This method will increase the size and value of the
fruit, and cause the tree to live and continue in bearing seve-
ral years longer than under the old system.
Hyery one who cultivates peaches should preserve a quan-
tity for winter use, either in air-tight cans or by drying.
2. THe Nectarine—FPersica Vulgaris Levis.
The nectarine is only a distinct accidental variety of the
peach with a smooth skin. The well-known Boston Nectar-
ine originated from a peach-stone. Soil, manure, and culture
are the same as for the peach. It is a beautiful fruit, but, on
account of its liability to be destroyed by the curcutio, is lit-
tle cultivated. Good crops are rare.
3. Tue ApRicot—Armeniaca Vulgaris.
The apricot is native of central Asia, and is the most beau-
tiful of all the stone fruits. It ripens about midsummer, or
a ahd 2 Bo
eee
/
Pie ses Pe ee ee Wid tees te oe Sa
fe eet ee er
cultivated in the open air, in almost any locality south of
"
-
v
te
118 THe GARDEN.
immediately after the cherries. In this countryit maybe
Massachusetts. Like the nectarine, it is very liable to be de-
stroyed by the curculio. Let the poultry or pigs have access —
to the trees when the fruit begins to drop.
The apricot is generally budded on the plum stock. It
should be placed on a north, east, or west aspect, and be pro- —
tected by a wall or fence. It requires no pruning.
4, Toe Prum—Prunus Domestica.
Several varieties of the plum are found growing wild in
this country, but the original parent of most of our culti-
vated sorts is supposed to have been brought from Asia.
The varieties are numerous. The Green Gage, an old Eng-
lish plum, still keeps its place, in popular estimation, at the —
head of the list.
The best soil for the plum is a strong loam on a dry sub-
soil, but it will grow in any tolerably fertile soil. An annual
top-dressing of common salt will be found very useful, not
only promoting the growth of the tree, but driving away most
of the insects to which it is liable. The tree should be set
about sixteen feet apart each way. The great enemy of the
plum is the curculio, against which you must wage a war of
extermination.
The plum is generally propagated by budding, but may be
grafted with success, if the operation be skillfully and care-
fully performed. Little pruning is necessary, except when the
tree is young, to improve the form of the head.
5. Toe CHerry—Cerasus Sylvestris et C. Vulgaris.
The cherry was brought originally from Asia by the Roman
general Lucullus, and has been in cultivation in Europe for
more than cighteen hundred years. It was introduced into
America on the first settlement of the country.
All sorts of cherries are generally worked on Black Maz-
zard stocks. They may be cithcr budded or grafted. Set the
Tue Frvit GARDEN. 119
trees from sixteen to twenty feet apart, and cultivate the same
as the plum.
6. Tae OLriveE— Olea Huropéea.
The olive should be more widely cultivated in the Southern
States. The seaboard States of the
South are well adapted to its cul-
ture. It will thrive farther north
than the orange. It is a low ever-
green tree, and commences bearing
in five or six years after being “
planted. The oil is made by crush-
ing the fruit to a paste, and pressing
it through a coarse, hempen bag,
into hot water, from the surface of ;
mich the oil is skimmed off. The: 07" 32°80 4X? tar
common European olive is the best variety for general culti-
vation. It is propagated by means of little knots or tumors,
which form on the bark of the trunk, and are easily cut out
with a penknife. “These are planted in the soil like bulbs.
It may also be propagated by cuttings or seeds.
IV.—THE ORANGE FAMILY.
1. Toe OrAncE— Citrus Aurantum.
This delicious tropical fruit is successfully cultivated in Flor-
ida, and to some extent in Louisiana, Texas, Georgia, South
Carolina, and other Southern States. With only slight pro-
tection, it will succeed so far north as Baltimore. Of the
sweet orange, which alone is worthy of garden cultivation,
the best varieties are the Havana or Common Sweet, the Mal-
tese, the Blood Red, the Mandarin, and the St. Michael.
The orange requires a deep, rich loam. To procure stocks
for budding with the sweet varieties, sow early in the spring
the seeds of the wild; bitter orange of Florida. They may
be budded the same or the next season.
The great foe of the orange-tree is the scale insect (Coccus
Snes AN ae ie
Tuer GARDEN.
Hesperidum), but the common chamomile is found to be
specific against it. This herb, in bunches, hung on the |
branches of the trees, drives it away, and by cultivating the
plant about the roots of the tree, it is protected against its ;
attacks. ‘
2. THe Lemon— Citrus Limonum.
The lemon is cultivated like the orange. Besides the com-
mon lemon, there is an Italian variety called the Sweet Lemon, 3
The lime, the citron, and the shaddock belong to the same
family, and are subject to the same culture.
V.—SERRIED FRUITS.
1. Toe Grapre— Vitis of species.
The grape should undoubtedly head the list of berried
fruits. It has been cultivated from the earliest ages, and in
almost every country in the temperate zones. The varieties
cultivated in Europe are all of one species ( Vi/ts vinifera), and
originated in Asia. Our native grapes are of different species.
The foreign grapes do not succeed in this country in open-
air culture. The Black Burgundy and the Sherry may per-
haps be considered as partial exceptions at the South. Under
glass they may be successfully cultivated in all parts of the
United States; but as our plan does not embrace hot-house
cultivation, we must refer the reader to Chorlton’s “ Grape-
Grower’s Guide,” and other works devoted specially to grape-
culture.
“GRAPES AND WINE,” a standard work on the cultivation
of the native Grape and manufacture of American Wine, by
Geo. Husmann, of Missouri, is one of the best authorities on
the subject, and we recommend it to all who wish full and
practical information on Grape-culture and Wine-making.
Published by Geo. E. Woodward, N. Y., and sent, post-paid,
for $1 50.
The grape will succeed in most soils, if properly prepared,
but dry, rich loam is preferable. It must be deeply worked,
Tue Frourr Garpen. : 121
and, if at all wet, thoroughly underdrained. Lime, ashes,
plaster of Paris, and bone-dust may be added to the common
compost, or used as a top-dressing with great advantage.
Choose a warm, sunny exposure for your grapery. In the
shade the fruit is liable to mildew.
All the varieties of the native grape are very readily propa-
gated by means of layering, and most of them will grow from
cuttings. Cuttings—unless struck where they are to remain,
which is the better plan— should be left where they are started
for two years before planting out. Layers may be planted out
the first year. Set the plants from twelve to twenty feet apart,
according to the height of the trellis and the mode of train-
ing to be adopted. When planted, cut them down to about
two eyes from the ground, and allow only one of these to
grow the following season.
In garden culture, grape-vines are trained in various ways,
as fancy or convenience may dictate. Downing directs as
follows:
“The two buds left on the set are allowed to form two up-
right shoots the next summer, which at the end of the season
are brought down to a horizontal
position, and fastened each way to
the lower horizontal rail of the
trellis, being shortened to three or
four feet, or such a distance each
way as it is wished to have the
plant extend. The next year up-
right shoots are allowed to grow
one foot apart; and these are
stopped at the top of the trellis. The third year, the trellis
being filled with vines, a set of lateral shoots will be produced
from the upright leaders, with from one to three bunches on
each. The vine is now perfect, and it is only necessary at the ©
autumnal or winter pruning to cut back the lateral shoots or
- fruit-spurs to within an inch of the uprights, and new laterals
producing fruit hile: annually supply their places. If it should
oe
The best mode of propagating it is by planting out cuttings |
122 Tue GARDEN.
be found, after several years bearing, that the grapes fail in
size or flavor, the vines should be cut down to the main hori-
zontal shoots at the bottom of the trellis. New uprights will —
be produced, which treat as before.” ;
This is the way to have good crops of perfect grapes. If
you desire wood and leaves instead, less pruning will do. The
annual pruning should be performed either in November, in
February, or early in March—at least a month before vegeta-
tion commences. All the other pruning required may be
performed with the fingers or a pair of scissors. Only two
bunches should be allowed to grow on one shoot; and the end
of the shoot should be pinched off, four or five joints beyond
the last of these, when the grapes are about half grown. All
suckers and supernumerary shoots should be rubbed off so
soon as they appear. Beyond this, no leaves must be re-
moved, as they are absolutely essential to the full develop-
ment and ripening of the fruit. very third year, at least,
the borders where the grapevines are growing should have a
heavy top-dressing of manure.
Grapes may be preserved for a considerable time by taking
the ripe bunches when ‘free from external moisture, and pack-
ing them in jars, filling all the interstices with baked saw-
dust or bran.
2. THe Currant—RKibes Rubrum.
The currant,is more easily cultivated than any other fruit.
in the fall, or quite early in the spring. It is well to procure
the cuttings in the fall, and keep them like scions until spring.
By taking out all the eyes of a cutting except the three or
four upper ones, currants can easily be kept in the form of
little trees.
3. THE GoosEBERRY—Ribes Grossularia.
The gooseberry requires a deep, strong, rich soil. It is very 5
THe Frovit GARDEN. 123
liable to suffer from drouth, and in dry seasons should be
mulched. It is rather shy of bear-
ing in this country, and does not
succeed in all localities, even at
the North. At the South it is
nearly useless, in ordinary locali-
ties, to attempt its culture.
The tree form is best for the
Ak gooseberry; and one half of the
HIM top should be thinned out at the
" winter pruning, so as to admit
HOUGHTON’S SEEDLING. = ji sht and air through the head of
the plant. When the berries are fairly set, thin them out, tak-
ing away one half or more of them for the benefit of the rest.
The best preventive and remedy for mildew is to keep the
plants well manured and pruned every year.
4. Tuer RAspBeRRY—Rudus Ideus.
_ A deep, rich loam, rather moist than dry, suits the rasp-
berry best. Itis propagated by suckers or offsets. Plant in
a sunny quarter of the garden, in rows from three to four feet
apart each way. Three or four suckers may be planted to-
gether to form a group. This should be done in the autumn
or very early in the spring.
All dead wood and the smaller stems should be cut away in
the spring, even with the ground. Four or five shoots should
be left, and tied to a stake, the tops having a out one foot of
their upper extremities headed off. A slight top-dressing of
manure, with a sprinkling of salt, dug in every spring, is all
the further cultivation required.
The raspberry plant is in perfection when it is three years
old. When it is about six years old, it should be dug up, and
a new plantation made, on a piece of ground where the plant
has not recently grown before. It is an excellent mode to
make a small plantation every year, so as to continue a supply
of the fruit. In extreme cold latitudes, it is necessary to bend
4
a a ot a
po
aw
= *
y
ee oS ap ee epee ae
eS to
ae eon
\
‘
LS ee ee ee
; >
Tue GARDEN.
the plants down, and cover them with earth or straw through
the winter.
To have a fine crop of late raspberries, cut down some of
the canes or stems, in the spring, to within a few inches of
the ground. The new shoots which will spring up will come |
into bearing in August or September.
5. BLACKBERRY—Lubus of species.
The low blackberry or dewberry (rubus Canadensis) has
never, we believe, been cultivated, but the fruit, when well
exposed to the sun and fully ripened, is sweet, high flavored,
and not to be despised. It is also doubtless susceptible of
improvement. Of the high blackberry (rudus villosus), the
following improved varieties are highly esteemed, and the
first two much cultivated.
The blackberry requires similar culture to the raspberry.
6. THE StrRAWBERRY—Fragaria of species.
This is the queen of all berries—delicious, wholesome, and
universally esteemed. It is a native of the temperate latitudes
of Asia, Europe, and America. The best varieties now culti-
vated in this country have originated from native species—
the Scarlets and the Pines.
In its wild or natural state, the strawberry generally pro-
duces hermaphrodite or perfect blossoms. Cultivated varieties
have not all retained this property. They are properly di-—
vided, with reference to their blossoms, into three classes—
hermaphrodite, staminate, and pistillate. Varieties of the first
class are, like the wild plants, perfect in themselves, and bear
excellent crops. In the second class, the staminate or male
Hermaphrodite. Staminate.
BTEAWBEREY BLOSSOMS,
Tur Froit GARDEN.
organs are perfect, but the female or pistillate organs are more
or less imperfect. They bear uncertain and comparatively
small crops, because only a part of the blossoms develop the
pistils sufficiently to swell into perfect fruit. Plants of the
third class bear only pistillate or female blossoms, and are by
themselves entirely barren; but when grown near a proper
number of the staminate plants, they bear the largest crops
and the most perfect berries. In planting a strawberry bed,
therefore, it is important to know which are staminate, which
pistillate, and which hermaphrodite varieties, and to arrange
them accordingly.
Form your strawberry bed in an open exposure, free from
the shade of trees or buildings. For an early crop, a slight
inclination to the south or east is desirable. The ground
must be deeply spaded, and a plenty of decomposed leaves
and other vegetable manure and ashes well turned under and
mixed with the soil. Pulverize the soil thoroughly. Now
mark off your bed into rows two feet apart, and set the plants,
if of the large growing sorts, two feet apart. For some of
the smaller sorts one foot or eighteen inches will do. “ Care
should be taken that the plants are put into the ground just
as they came out of it—that is, with all their laterals spread-
ing, and not all gathered together and crammed into a little
hole.” If your principal sort is a pistillate, you must plant a
sufficient number of staminate plants to impregnate the others.
Of less vigorous kinds, more are required. It is well to plant
them in alternate strips, thus :
EPP ip ep. pl Pp pop Ppo pp pp ere
PG ope poo ppl pi pale py ipl pps) Ba yee
meeps Pp. Pp. prop Cp Pp P.O Pp Pp ple
Petre pep pos py) pope ppl Ryo py op pe
PATH
RESEenue SiS. SB. Ban So 8 aS, 8 CS She Sies
PATH
eee peep. es PoP kPa PPS PPL ape
Popp pisp sp p pop) Sp) pe) pe) pe pare
PEG Pid Bey Po PP PPS, oP age Pals By ee
Be PPP PO Pp PPE BB By pete
-
oa,
126 THE GARDEN.
The staminate strip may, of course, consist of several rows
if desirable.
In planting the hermaphrodite or perfect flowered varieties, —
as the Woods, Alpines, and Hautbois, of course no such
arrangement is required. Planting may be done with success
either in autumn or spring. Keep the ground well worked
between the rows, to keep it free from weeds, and, unless you_
want new plants for a future setting, cut off all the runners so
soon as they appear. A light mulching with partially decayed
leaves or straw, covering the whole ground, but not the plants,
will prove highly beneficial, especially in dry seasons and at
the South. Before the fruit begins to ripen, cover the ground
with a thin layer of straw, hay, or new-mown grass, to keep
the fruit clean. Every autumn, if the plants be not sufficiently
luxuriant, a light top-dressing of manure should be applied. —
A strawberry bed must always be renewed after the fourth
year. An easy mode of renewing a strawberry is what is
called cultivation in alternate strips. On the third summer
from planting, suffer the runners to grow and root into the
spaces between the rows; then, in the fall or spring, dig up
the old plants, and your new rows are already formed in what
were last year the spaces between the rows. At the end of
three years repeat the process, and so on, not forgetting to
spade in a generous quantity of vegetable manure whenever
you dig up the old rows.
“To accelerate the ripening of strawberries,” Downing
says, “it is only necessary to plant the rows or beds on the
south side of a wall or tight fence. A still simpler mode is to
throw up a ridge of earth three feet high, running east and
west, and to plant it in rows on the south side.” Ten days
or more may be gained in this way; and if later fruit be de-
sired, rows planted on the north side would probably have
their fruiting retarded nearly as much. ;
Mr. Peabody, of Georgia, one of the most successful straw-
berry culturists in the world, insists with great emphasis that
no animal manure should be used in the cultivation of this
Tue Frouit GARDEN.
plant. The grand secret of success, he says, is to feed the
plant for fruit, and not for vine—to stint the natural luxu-
riance of the latter, and turn all the vital forces of the plant
to the production of berries. In this way, and by keeping
the ground shaded by mulch, and continually watering his
plants, he has fine strawberries for nine months out of the
twelve. “Let the cultivator remember,” he says, “the four
great requisites for a profitable strawberry bed: Proper loca-
tion, vegetable manures, shade to the ground, and WATER,
WATER, WATER.” The shade to the ground is secured by the
mulching we have recommended. The watering is less essen-
tial at the North than at the South, but is often very advan-
tageous. Let no reader of this little work neglect to plant a
strawberry bed, and enjoy with thankfulness its delicious
fruits.
VI.—MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS.
1. Toe Fie—VFicus Carica.
ete nM, ty
This delicious southern fruit is a native of Asia and Africa,
and has been cultivated from the earliest times. In our South-
ern States it grows almost spontaneously everywhere. In the a
Middle States it may be cultivated in the open air, by keeping “ae
it low, and covering it well during the winter.
The fig is propagated by cuttings either of the shoots or the
root, and planted either in the fall or the spring. Planted in
hot-beds in January, they will form handsome plants the same
season. Layers also may be made, and suckers taken off for
planting. Set them out fifteen feet apart, and the first winter
after planting they may be cut off nearly to the ground. The
next year they will make vigorous shoots, one or more of which
may be allowed to grow, and the rest rubbed off. When
young, it is best even at the South to protect the tree during
the winter by covering it with evergreen branches. Little
pruning is required. North of Philadelphia the branches
must be bent down to the ground on the approach of winter,
and covered with three or four inches uf soil. No one who
128 Tur GARDEN. iG es 2
lives in a climate adapted to their growth, should fail to cul.
tivate a few fig-trees.
2, Tue PoMEGRANATE—Punica Granatum.
This unique and beautiful fruit should receive more atten-
tion than has hitherto been given to it in all Southern gar-
dens. It will grow readily so far north
as Maryland, but does not always ma-
ture its fruit perfectly north of South
Carolina. The tree is quite ornamental,
and the fruit has a very refreshing
acid pulp. Its singular and beautiful
appearance renders it a welcome addi-
tion to the dessert. It is also used —
medicinally in fevers, on account of
its cooling nature. It might be ex-
ported from the South to any extent.
It is propagated by cuttings, layers, or
suckers, and is very easily cultivated. The finest varieties
are the Sweet Fruited, the Sub-acid Fruited, and the Wild
Acid Fruited. Besides these, there are several double-flow-
ering varieties, which are very beautiful. ;
BRANOH AND FBUIT.
3. THE MuLBERRY—WMorus of species.
The mulberry deserves mention here, and a place in the
garden or lawn. It is a hardy and handsome tree, and pro-
duces a palatable and wholesome fruit.
The Red Mulberry (morus rubra) is a native species, but is
less desirable for the garden than the Black Mulberry (morus
nigra), & species much esteemed and widely cultivated in Eu-
rope. This sort will hardly succeed, except in very warm and
sheltered situations, north of New York. It is propagated
by cuttings, and easily cultivated.
Tuer GARDEN. 129
A CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS
IN EACH MONTH OF THE YEAR, FOR THE ORCHARD, VINEYARD,
FARM, GREENHOUSE AND GARDEN.
JANUARY.
Orchard.
Destroying eggs of insects, protection of trees against the depredations of mice
and rabbits, which in some sections do much damage by girdling the trees, is
about all that can be done at this season. A wash of cow-dung, lime, and sul-
phur is recommended as a preventive against the rabbit. ice work only
under the snow, and if this is trodden down occasionally, immediately around the
tree, there is little danger from their attacks. x
Vineyard.
In the northern sections of the country, vines, if not already protected, should
be Jaid down on the ground and some litter thrown over them; or if the ground
is not frozen, cover with three inches of earth. In the latter case, the vines
should be raised early in the spring, or the buds will be apt to rot. If vines are
not already pruned, do so, selecting a mild day when the temperature is above
the freezing-point.
Farm.
The ground being now frozen, out-door operations are in the main suspended ;
still, the industrious farmer will find plenty of occupation in planning for next
season’s operations. His cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, cows, and especially the
young stock, will require his attention, that they may be in good condition in the
spring.
Fences may be repaired, firewood cut, ice-houses filled, manure thrown into
heaps and prepared for spring use, and tools of all kinds repaired. t
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t Garden. jj ; wy rc
‘ There is but little that can be done at this season. Ifnot done already, andthe
ground is not covered with snow, clear up all rubbish, put away poles, stakes,
etc., under cover, and prepare new ones, if required, for next season’s use. If
there are any cold frames in use, they should be aired when the weather will
permit. See that a good stock of seeds is provided for spring use,
ie
Green-house.
Admit air at every favorable opportunity when the thermometer out of doors
is above the freezing point; 45° to 50° is high enough as a night temperature for
general green-house plants. Camellias and Azaleas do better at 40°. Look out
ey for insects, and fumigate with tobacco as soon as seen. Be careful that the smoke
is not too strong. Camellias will soon be in bloom; also some of the early-
: blooming Azaleas. Avoid wetting the flowers when syringing the plants. Water
4 plants only when needed; perform the operation in the morning, using water five
| to ten degrees higher than the temperature ofthe house. A few Achimenes and
Gloxinias may be potted and plunged in bottom heat, for early bloom. Keep
plants of Calla Ethiopica well watered. Cyclamen persicum will now be in bloom,
and make a fine show if the bulbs are large. Scarlet Geraniums will require but
little water at this season. Cinerarias should be kept near the glass, and repot-
ted ieee Keep all plants neat and clean, and tie into neat shape when re-
quired.
_ FEBRUARY.
Orchard.
. But little can be added to the directions given last month. Cions may be cut
; when the wood is not frozen, and may be preserved in damp sand or moss in a
cool cellar, Keep a look-out for mice and rabbits. It is the general practice with
; farmers, and some professed fruit-growers, to prune apples, pears, cherry, and
% other trees in mid-winter. We do not regard the season as the correct or best
= one for the labor, and why? because if the operation is correctly performed, that
is, the cut made close to the bud or body, it is liable to dry hard, crack, and cause
death of the bud in the one case, or decay of the trunk or large limb in the
other. It is better to delay pruning until June.
% Vineyard,
There is nothing to be done here to which the directions of last month will
2 not apply. If any vines ave not pruned, do it when the wood is not frozen.
Garden.
4 —
~ Sketch out plans for flower-beds, and arrange the position of plants therein,
80 that there may be no delay when the time arrives for commencing work. _
Tue GARDEN. 131
ae 2
Materfa™ should be got ready for starting hot-beds. About the last of the
_ month will be soon enough to make the bed, but in the mean time secure a supply
of materials. Fresh horse manure, to which should be added an equal bulk of
léayes, may be thrown together in heaps, and turned over every three or four days
until it ig thoroughly heated. Manure alone gives the greatest heat, but a mix-
ture of Jeaves and manure the most permanent. Earth should be proviaed for
he bed at the first opportunity, and covered over to prevent freezing up again
‘until wanted. Look over the shrubbery, hardy roses, etc., and if they need prun-
ing, it may be done now. Thin out the old wood of the currant and gooseberry
bushes, and thus improve the size and quality of the fruit next season.
Farm.
Our directions for last month will apply to this. The principal business will
be the care of the animals, and looking after a supply of wood for next season,
as wellas getting out posts and rails for new fences, and for the repairs of old
ones. While the snow is on the ground, hauling from the wood-lot can be done
to great advantage.
Green-house.
The house should now be gay with flowers. Camellias will be in full bloom,
and in warm houses Azaleas also. Both should be carefully attended, that they
do not lack for water. One of the best plants for winter bloom is the Monthly
Carnation, and if a good supply of plants has been secured, there will now be
lenty of blooms. Look carefully to the fires, that frost may not get into the
ouse on cold nights. Endeavor to keep the night temperature as regular as
possible, and air the house in the daytime at every favorable opportunity. Prop-
agate cuttings of Verbenas, Petunias, Carnations, and such other plants as are
wanted for bedding out in the garden, or for the green-house next winter. Cut-
tings put in now will make fine strong plants by the time for planting out. Ci-
nerarias and Primroses in bloom may be watered occasionally with manure water.
The Double-White Chinese Primrose is a splendid object when well grown. It
must be propagated by cuttings. If plants of Deutzia Gracilis, Weigelia Rosea, or
Double-Flowering Plum were potted in the fall, they may now be started in the
warmest corner of the house. Insects will now begin to be busy. Give them
occasional doses of tobacco smoke.
MARCH.
Orchard.
If new orchards are to be planted the coming spring, make out lists of trees
wanted, and send toa reliable nurseryman at once. You will be able to secure
better trees now, than if the order is sent just at the planting season. Continue
searching for eggs of insects under the rough bark, and on limbs of trees. It will
be advantageous to apply a wash of strong soft soap and water to the body and
larger branches, to destroy any eggs that may otherwise ee Look out for
the apple-borer now. Remove the earth for a few inches in depth immediately
around the tree. Scrape the bark gently with the back of the pruning-knife, to
ascertain where the borer is located, then cut him out. We have found in our
practice that a mallet and a half-inch carpenter’s gouge are the best instrument1.
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Don't be satisfied with poking a wire into the holes. We know to our cost tha:
it is not always effectual.
Vineyard.
As soon as the frost is out of the ground, uncover all vines that have been pro-
tected by earth or litter. If left covered after the ground begins to get warm,
the buds are lable to decay. Tie the vines up to the trellis, and if new vines are
to be planted, secure them at once.
Farn,
Improve ail the favorable weather this month to haul manure into the fields,
ready to be plowed in at the proper time. Manure should be thrown into
compact heaps, and spread when the frost is not in the ground. Select the best
grain for seed, and see that it 1s free from seeds of weeds. Considerable work
may be done the latter part of this month in picking up and hauling off stone
from fields that require it. Fences may be put in repair, and new ones made.
Garden.
Make hot: beds for starting seeds of early vegetables, and sow seeds of Pepper,
Egg-plant, Tomato, Early Cabbage, Cauliflower, Celery, etc. Hardy vegetable
seeds may be sown in the open ground the last of the month—Onions, Beets,
Peas, Parsnep. Lettuce, Radish, Spinach, etc. Remove covering from Asparagus,
Spinach, Raspberry-canes, etc. Prepare all vacant ground for general planting in
April and May. Seeds of hardy flowers may be sown as soon as the eromne will
admit. Tender annuals should be sown in the hot-bed, and transplanted into
open ground in May.
Green-house.
Camellias will be now making their growth, and will need more water than at
other times, also an increase of temperature. About the commencement of
owth is a good time to graft or inarch with better varieties. Azaleas will be in
loom unless they have been kept very cool: but in a large collection, flowers
may be had from December to May, some varieties flowering early, others late.
Cinerarias will now be in bloom; fumigate them if attacked with green-fly. -
Start Gloxinias and Achimenes for succession.
Flower seeds may be started in pots and boxes.
_ Propagate Chrysanthemums. Cuttings make better plants than those procured
by division of the old roots. Fuchsias struck now will make fine blooming
plants for next summer. -
Push the propagating of plants to the utmost now, to have an abundance at
time for planting out of doors. Also put in cuttings for next winter’s stock. The
season is so far advanced that the sun will furnish all the heat by day, and mod-
erate fires only will be required at night. Give air freely in all moderate weather,
and close the house early, to retain as much sun-heat as possible.
Orchard.
This is the month when the most of the planting is done, though we prefer
doing this in the fall, in this latitude. Prepare your ground peer! over the ©
whole orchard, if a new one is to be planted: by plowing, subsoiling, and en-
riching. If new trees are to be planted in places where old ones have died, dig
the holes not less than six fect in diameter, and fill up with fresh soilif possible.
ay THE GARDEN. 135
Grafting may now be done. Cions should have been cut during the winter;
but if tms has been neglected, they should be cut a few days before wanted for
use. Don't be in a hurry to graft too early, but wait until the buds begin to start.
If your trees are not growing thriftily, give your orchard a good top-dressing of
ojd manure, and plow it in.
Vineyard.
Unless the soil is naturally drained, it is absolutely necessary to success that
jt should be thoroughly drained. Fifteen to eighteen inches is deep enough
to work the soil for a vineyard. Plant only well-tested varieties found to suc:
ceed in your locality. Test new varieties, if you have the time and space for
experiments.
Farm.
Plow as soon as the ground is in a fit state, which it will be when it will
crumble and fall to pieces. In some soils plowing, done when the ground is
wet, leaves it to bake hard on becoming ‘dry. ‘Spread the manure hauled
out last month, and plow it under. Spring grain of all kinds will need to
be sown as soon as the ground is prepared properly. If root crops are culti-
vated, carrots, parsneps, and beets should be sown at once. A seed drill
will be found very useful at this time. Plant potatoes on rich ground, or made
so at the time of planting. Do not plant the small potatoes; better cut up the
Jarge ones in pieces, if seed is scarce.
Garden.
Uncover the strawberry beds, or rather expose the crowns of the plants. The
mulch will be better left to keep the ground moist. Make new beds if needed.
Beds made now, and properly cared for, will give a full crop next spring. Fork
up the asparagus beds lightly, taking care not to injure the buds or roots. Make
new beds now, preparing the ground to the depth of eighteen inches. and incor
porating with it a considerable amount of old manure. Salt is considered an ex-
cellent, fertilizer for this vegetable—it may be applied in spring or fall.
Early Cabbae plants may be planted out the latter end of this month. Plants
in hot-beds should be thinned out, or better transplanted three to four inches
apart into a cuoler bed. Plant Peas for a succession. Early Potatoes should now
be put in drills. It is rather too soon to plant beans or corn this month.
Plant out flowering shrubs, roses, etc. Seeds of hardy plants may be sown,
but all seeds of tender plants should be kept until next month, or sown in a
hot-bed. Hyacinths and tulips should have their winter covering removed, and
the surface of the soil stirred. Transplant herbaceous plants. |
Green-house.
There will be httle or no fire heat required this month if care is taken to
shut up the house before the sun leaves it. Give all the air possible during
favorable weather, to harden the plants for removal out of doors next month.
Prepare for a general potting by getting soil, pots, etc., in order, but do not leta
plant wait for a ¢zme when it wants attention. Water for all plants will now be
required oftener. Plants that are to be left in the house during the summer will
require some shading material to be put upon the glass. Lath-screent made with
openings about an inch and a half between, and placed outside of the glass, expe-
rience has shown to be an effectual and cheap mode of shading. Propagate by
seeds, roots, and_ cuttings, inarching and grafting; young plants thus get strong
before winter. Remove seedlings as soon as possible from seed pans, and put
them single into pots. Keep Camellias rather close and warm to promote a vigor-
ous growth.
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Orchard, bd
The season for planting is pretty well over by this time, but if any remains te
be done, do it as soon as it is possible to doit well. If trees are received ina
dry state, bury them root and branch for a few days, then prune severely when
planted out. Grafting, if not already finished, may be continued.
If plowing is to be done in the orchard, see that a careful man holds the
plow, that as few roots may be injured as possible. Make war on insects this
month. Remove nests of tent-caterpillar on their first appearance, and get your
neighbor to join you in your efforts for their destruction,
Vineyard.
If vines are not already planted, it may yet be done. Vines, if not tied to the
trellis, should be so at once. After the buds start, they are very liable to be rub-
bed off in handling. The time to tie up vines is while the buds are dormant.
Layers may now be made if it is thought desirable to increase vines in this way ;
preference will generally be given to vines raised from cuttings planted out in
well-prepared ground. .
Farm.
This will be a busy month. Most of the spring grains will have been sown in
April, but the latter part of this month is the time for corn-planting. It is useless
to put the seed in until the ground is warm, and equally useless to plant upon any
but arich soil. Some of the larger-growing beets should be sown for feeding the
cowsand other stock during the fall and winter. The white sugar beet and yellow
globe mangel-wurzel are the best for this purpose. Potatoes for the general
crop should be put in as early as possible, Let the pastures get a good start be-
fore the cattle are turned out. Putin a good supply of corn fodder now, to use in
the hot months, when pastures fail.
Garden.
Plant early Valentine and China beans for using green, and Limas for shelling.
Plant sweet corn about first of month, and again in about two weeks, fora succes- —
sion. The first planting may be cut off by frost, but is often successful. Trans-
plant tomatoes and other plants from hot-beds and frames as soon as danger
from frost is past. Cabbage and cauliflower plants should have a very rich soi
Plant cucumbers, melons, and bush squashes in hills at least six feet apart, and =~
mature well. Sow late sorts of peas. In the flower-garden, by the middle of
the month, seeds of most flowers may be planted; those kinds that bear trans-
piannas may be sown in a reserve bed, from which they may be taken when
wanted. ;
Plant bulbs of Gladiolus, Tigrida, Tuberose, etc,, and prepare beds for the
bedding-plants from the green-house. :
2
THE GARDEN. 135
Green-house.
Admit air freely in good weather; toward the end of the month leave a little
air on all night, increasing the quantity by degrees. é :
shifting plants into larger pots must be carefully proceeded with. Seedlings
and cuttings must be potted off in time, or they will destroy each other.
Bedding-plants of all kinds may be planted out about the middle of the month.
Carnations should be planted out, and if required for winter blooming, the
flower shoots pinched off frequently. Neapolitan Violets should be divided, and
planted out in rich ground, partially shaded. Water and syringe Camellias and
Azaleas freely while making their growth.
About the middle of the month some of the most hardy of the plants may be
brought from the green-house, and placed in a position where they will be shaded
for a portion of the day; they shonid be carefully attended to for water.
JUNE.
Orchard.
If large limbs are to be removed, this month is the time to doit. The sap is
now in active operation, and wounds quickly heal over. Consider well before
ou remove a branch what is to be gained by it. Never send an ignorant laborer
into an orchard to prune if you would not have an indiscriminate cutting of limbs,
but study the form of the tree carefully, and if the branches need thinning, use a
sharp saw and knife, and leave the wound smooth. Cover the wounds with graft-
ing wax, or shellac dissolved in alcohol. Rub off all shoots from the stock about
new-set grafts, and renew the wax if it has melted-or cracked off, Continue the
war upon the insect tribe, and especially the caterpillars and borers.
Vineyard.
Vines will now be making rapid growth, and will require attention in tying
up, pinching, etc. It is the usual practice to stop the shoots at three or four
joints or leaves beyond the last cluster of fruit, The bunches will require thin-
ning out, leaving only one bunch to each shoot, if fine fruit and well-ripened
wood is to be obtained.
Farm.
Corn is planted in some sections as late as the first of this month, and if an
early-maturing kind is selected, and the land is in a good condition, fair crops are
often the result. It is not too late to put in a good supply of corn fodder to help
out the pastures in the dry weather in August. The plow and hoe must be kept
pusy: im the fields of early planted corn and other hoed crops, to eradicate the.
weeds.
The latter part of this month haying will commence in many sections. Get
everything ready beforehand, that there may be no delay when the time comes.
Garden.
The puncpal work in the garden this month will be keeping down the weeds.
Don’t let them get astart. Plant sweet corn for succession, also beans, peas,
lettuce. Celery for early use should be set in trenches well manured. Thin out
_ beds of onions, beets, carrots, salsify, etc., and keep them free from weeds.
Tur GARDEN.
Green-house.
‘ Green-house plants should be mostly placed out of doors this month. In plac-
2 ing plants out of doors, try to have them so that they will be in shade soon after
3 mid-day. This is especially a point of importance as we go farther south, where —
the heat of afternoon suns often nearly destroys the plants. ‘
Camellias should remain in the house until growth ceases and the wood he-
comes brown. Azaleas should be re-potted, if needed, and vigorous shoots pinch-
ed to make the plants bushy. Prepare soil for winter use. Neapolitan violets for
winter bloom should be divided, and planted out in rich soil. Achimenes, Glox-
id inias, Caladiums. etc., will now take the place of the plants taken out of doors.
The house should be well shaded by the lath screens before recommended. and
careful attention given to watering. Torrenia Asiatica will now be a fine object;
it looks best in a vase, or hanging basket, the shoots being allowed to droop
over the side.
F: RED ANTWERP. ILORNET.
JULY.
Orchard.
Pruning may be continued as directed last month, Look to the grafts setlast
epring that they be not robbed by the numerous suckers that are sure to push
out Rat the stocks in which they are set. If any trees were set last spring and 1
not mulched, do it now, that their roots may be preserved from the influence of
the sun this month and next. If it is desirable to have large, fine fruit, the crop
should be severely thinned now.
ee
Vineyard.
Continne to tie shoots to trellis as growth progresses. Look over the bunches
and see that too many are not left on. An over-crop this season will be followed
t by unripe wood in the fall, which will be still further weakened by the cold of
5 winter, and a meagre crop the following season will be the certain result.
If mildew makes its appearance, give the vines a dusting of sulphur. De La
Vergnes’ Sulphur Bellows is the best means of applying it.
‘ Farm,
This month will commence the haying and harvest, and those who would keep
up with their work have already secured sufficient assistance. Reapers, Mowing- —
machines, Hay Tedders, and Horse Pitchforks save an immense amount of hard —
. labor, and even on farms of moderate size will be found to save more than their _
cost in two or three seasons. Cut hay before it becomes withered and dry, Itis
A frequently left standing too long. 4
Cut wheat before it is fully ripe, and while it is in the dough state. e
vs
Sow buckwheat early in the month to avoid frosts when ripening. Turnips —
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Tue GARDEN. 137
should be sown the latter part of the month. Continue the cultivation of hoed
crops, and keep down all weeds.
ies Garden.
Transplant cabbage and cauliflower plants for alate crop. Continue to trans-
plant celery into trenches, and see that the soil in which they grow is well en-
riched. Corn forusing as green corn may be planted as late as the 15th, to give
a supply until frosts. Hoe melons and cucumbers until the vines cover the
round. If melons are thinned on the vines, those remaining will be all the
mer. Dig up all the vacant spaces from which early vegetables have been re-
moved, and sow turnips, spinach, and other late crops.
Green-house.
The majority of the plants will be out of doors, as before advised, but will re-
quire to be leoked over every day or two to see that they are not over or under
watered. Those who have large collections will find it to their advantage to con-
struet a sort of shed, with the sides and roof of lath, placed about an inch and a
halfapart This will admit sufficient light and air on all sides, as well as the rain.
Some of our large florists and nurserymen have used such structures much to their
advantage, for the protection of Camellias, Azaleas, etc., from the sun. It is im-
portant now to prepare plants for winter bloom. Chinese Primroses, Cinerariag,
Calceolarias may be sown this month, and cuttings of all desirable (Plants put in.
off to make
them branch freely and prevent bloom now, Look over the plants, and see if any
need re-potting. Tuberoses, for late blooming in-doors, may be potted now.
Mignonette and Sweet Alyssum seeds may be sown in pots or boxes.
MME CLEGG, BYSAXWWWY
WWD,
AUGUST.
Orchard.
There will be little remaining to be done in the orchard this month if previous
hints have been followed. If pruning is not completed, it is not too late to
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138 THE GARDEN.
finish it now. Early fruit should be gathered and marketed as soon as ripe,
and all windfalls or wormy apples gathered and taken to the pig-pens. he? >
fruit intended for market should be carefully picked by hand. Fruit bruised by
shaking from the tree brings a lower price, and quickly decays. ;
Vineyard. ;
The directions given last month apply so well to this, that we can add but little.
Some of the fruit of the early varieties will begin to color the last of the month.
Continue to tie shoots to the trellis, and use the sulphur remedy for mildew.
Farm.
The harvesting of Fae and grain crops will be completed early this month,
the time somewhat depending upon the season. See that the grain is properly
dried before it is put into barns or stacks. If in stacks, they should be well built,
that they may effectually shed the rain. Grass and grain will both keep well in
stacks if they are properly put up.
Fall plowing may commence the last of the month. Where farms are large,
plowing should be continued at all favorable times, when other work is not
pressing.
Garden.
Continue to eradicate the weeds whenever they make their appearance. Pro-
vide a good supply of seeds for next season’s use, of those varieties found to be
successful and of good quality. Select the earliest ripening and best vegetables
of the different varieties for seed, and not, as is too often the case, gatherthem
after the crop is nearly over, and the best have beenused. Sow turnips on vacant
places. Earth up celery wanted for early use, and set out plants for the latest
crops.
Green-house.
Green-house plants in general, if healthy, and wood matured, will be now out of
doors ina sheltered spot, defending the pots from the sun, which is even of more
importance than shading the tops. Finish potting all plants in need of the oper-
ation as soon as possible, that they may become well established before winter.
Almost everything may now be successfully propagated. Gather seeds of desira-
ble plants as they ripen. Oxalis and Lachenalias sheuld now be potted. Plants
out of doors, as well as in the house, will receive much benefit by a syringing
every evening. Sow seeds of annuals required for winter bloom. Bocas a goo!
supply of soil, pots, etc., for future use.
ow is a good time to look over houses; make any necessary repairs; paint
and put in order for the reception of the plants.
Orchard.
Tf trees are to be planted in the fall, which is the best time in this latitude, pre-
are the ground thoroughly beforehand. Order the trees in season, that they may
te on hand when wanted. Select only such varieties as are known to succeed in
your localities. Look out for the borers this month, and do not leave any to per-
petuate the race another season. Gather varieties of fruit maturing this month
as soon as fit to pick.
Vineyard.
All the varieties of grapes worth having will mature this month. Let the fruit
become fully Ee before picking, which will not be before some days after it is
fully colored. the fruit is intended for wine, the longer it is left on the vine,
so that it escapes frosts, the better will be the quality of the wine. If fruit is to be
sent to market, pack in boxes about one foot long by six inches wide, and of suf-
ficient depth to hold two layers of bunches; pack the fruit, close that there be no
movement of it in transportation.
Farm.
Prepare soil thoroughly for winter wheat, and sow early. Sowing with a drill
will be found advantageous on smooth ground. Grass-seed may be sown alone
this month on well-enriched soil, or with the winter grain. Early potatoes may
be dug and marketed, or put under cover. Cut buckwheat as soon as it ripens.
Select the best ears of corn for seed. Thisis a good time to drain land, dig out
gue from the bogs for winter use in the barn-yards, and grub up bushes, briars,
ete:
Garden.
Keep the garden clear from rubbish. As soon as one crop is off, even if no
other is to be sown, clear off the dead vines, etc., and carry them to the manure
heap; dig up the ground and keep clear from weeds. Continue to earth up celery,
when the soil is not wet. Sow seeds of early cabbages and cauliflower plants for
preserving over winter in frames.
Green-house.
Clear out and repair the house, if not already done, preparatory to bringing in
the plants the latter part of this, or early next month. Sow seeds of annuals for
winier or early spring blooming. Pot bulbs of Hyacinths, Crocus, Narcissus, Lach-
enalias, for early bloom. Propagate Geraniums, Fuchsias, Salvias, Petunias, Ver-
benas, etc.; Primroses, Cinerarias and Chyrsanthemums should be repotted, and
encouraged to grow. Water sparingly all plants in a state ofrest. Take up such
plants as were planted out during the summer, pot and put them in a sheltered
- place out of the sun fora few days. See that you havea good stock of Monthly
Carmations. Heliotropes for winter flowering should not be planted out, but be
grown in pots all summer, and the pots plunged. Clean, tie, and arrange plants
of all kinds. Where there is not plenty of room, cuttings put in early will an-
swer better than old plants taken up, and will also save much labor. Take up
plants of Neapolitan Violets, plant them in frames to be covered with sash and
mats on cold nights With careful management flowers may be had all winter.
_ They may be also potted for the green-house, but will be required to be kept
very cool to insure bloom. é
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OCTOBER.
Orchard.
Pears and apples, usually termed fall varieties, should be gathered a week or
ten days before they would naturally drop. Pick them by hand; lay them in bar-
rels or boxes, inclosing them tight, and place them in a cool but dry room or cel-
lar. So cared for they will often keep till near or quite mid-winter. Winter va-
rieties, especially long-keeping sorts, should be left on the tree as long as the
weather will permit. Planting may be done the latter part of this month, on
ground previously prepared.
Orchards that have been many years in grass, as well as the trees in young or-
chards, will receive far greater benefit from plowing the ee and leaving it in
a rough state for action of the winter frosts, than if the work is left until
spring.
Farm.
Fall plowing should not be neglected this month. Keep the teams going in all
favorable weather. Dig potatoes and get in all the root crops before the ground —
freezes. Turnips can be left out until the last. See that all roots are put away
dry. Root crops generally keep better in pits out of doors than when stored in
cellars. Those wanted for spring use may be placed in pits and lightly covered
ree arte at first. When hard freezing is likely to occur, cover with two feet of
earth.
: Vineyard.
Gather all grapes before frosty nights occur. Prune vines as soon after the fall
of the leaf as possible. Grape-cuttings made as soon as the foliage of the vine
drops, and planted out in well-prepared land, will start early in the spring, and
make a stronger and better growth than when made during winter and Pi anted
out in the spring. Plant new vineyards the last of the month, on ground preyi-
ously well-prepared,
Garden.
Mow off the tops of asparagus, and cover the beds four to six inches dee
with manure. Cauliflower and cabbage plants should now be taken up an
placed in frames for wintering. Plant deep, and about three inches pe eave
off the sashes until cold weather. Continue to earth up celery. urnips and
salsify for spring use may be left in the ground all winter; those wanted for use
may be taken up and preserved in sand through the winter. Strawberry beds
should be looked over and all weeds removed.
Green-house.
Tender plants should be taken in early this month. The house should be
abundantly ventilated, care being taken to close up early to avoid frosts. Look over
the plants and see that they are free from insects. Fire may be needed at night
the latter end of the month. Avoida high temperature, 45 to 50 degrees should
not be exceeded. Hyacinths should be potted early this month; place them
under the stage in the house, and keep the soil moist. Chrysanthemums for
winter blooming shelter from cold rains and early frosts, water with manure
water alternately with clean. Pot all young struck plants. Plants to be taken
up from the flower-beds should previously have their roots cut round, and then
atter potting should be placed in frames or in the green-house, to encourage
fresh roots. Water should now be given with a careful hand, and only when
necessary. Bear in mind that bad watering is the great cause why pot plants. —
so often languish and die. :
NOVEMBER.
Orchard.
Tree planting may be continued all this month, or until the ground becomes
frozen. All dry soils work better and easier in fall than spring, and all hardy
trees succeed as well or better transplanted in the autumn. All apples intended
for late keeping should now be taken to the cellar, which should be well ventilated
whenever the weather will permit.
Vineyard.
Geapevines should receive their pruning back this month for next spring’s
growth. As to the number of buds to be left on each cane, and the number of
canes to a vine, much depends on the vigor and age of the vine. No universal
rule can be laid down for vineyard pruning. After pruning, lay the vines upon
the ground, and cover with earth or leaves, in this latitude and farther north.
Farm.
Continue plowing as long as possible. All clayey lands if plowed deeply and
turned up rough and exposed to the winter frosts will improve in quality fully as
much as the covering of one coat of manure given and worked in in the spring.
All the stock should now be taken into the barns and well cared for. Young stoc
especially should be well fed and kept growing all winter. All root crops left in
the ground should be at once secured, either in the cellar or in pits out of doors.
Secure a good supply of fire wood.
Garden.
Lose no time in attending to the gathering and storing of roots of all kinds.
Cabbages, celery, etc., should at once be trenched and prepared for early ob-
tainment in winter. Leave no fence corners or by-places occupied with heaps of
rubbish, old melon vines, bean haulm, etc., for these are almost invariably the
‘harbors of insects, and if left will cause you to regret your neglect another sea-
son. Asparagus beds, if not already done, should at once have the old tops mowed
and cleared off, a good dressing of salt given, and the whole covered with half-
rotted stable-manure, say three inches deep.
Green-house.
Admit air rather freely when the weather will permit. Azaleas for bloomin
early, keep at the warmest part of the house. tr the buds are well set, an’
prominent, and the heat about 60 degrees, some will be in bloom by Christ-
“mas; those once forced will come earlier of their own accord again. Those for
spring flowering keep as cool as possible, so that the temperature is above 35
degrees. The buds on the earliest Camellias wil: now be swelling, and should be
placed with the forward Azaleas. Cinerarias, encourage the forwardest to grow
in amoist gentle heat; chrysanthemums encourage with manure water. Keep
puants clear from dirt and insects by washing and fumigation. Temperature
from 40° to 45° at night. Water only when necessary. Clean pots, paths, stages,
and tie and train plants in bad weather.
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DECEMBER.
Orchard.
All fruit trees should be carefully looked over at this season for the purpose of
destroying insects. Borers may have laid themselves up cosily for winter quar-
ters in the bodies of the trees. Search for as recommended before. The eggs
of caterpillars should be sought for on the small branches and in the forks of
the trees. The cocus, or scale insect, should be destroyed by washing the bodies
and limbs of trees to which they have attached themselves. Strong Wve water, or
a mixture of soft soap and fresh-slacked lime will destroy them. you have
not yet mulched around your newly planted trees, do so at once.
Vineyard.
Pruning, if it has been deferred, should be completed and the vines laid upon the
ground and covered. Ifthe wood is wanted for propagation, cut it up into suit-
able lengths and store away in moist sand in the cellar.
Farm.
The winter is often a comparatively leisure season. It is profitably occupied in
most cases in draining wet lands. Make the ditches narrow, two and one half
to three feet deep, and use two-inch tiles for the primary drains, and four to six
ineh tiles for the main or outlets. Cutting mond getting out fence posts, and
fencing will occupy the attention of the farmer now. See that a good stock is
now provided, that work may not be interrupted in a hurrying time. All kinds
of livestock will now require careful attention ; see that they are properly fed, and
with a variety of food, if possible.
Garden.
The hints of last month, if heeded, will leave but little to be done now. Look
to the roots, celery, cabbages, etc., stored in trenches and pits, and put on the
final winter covering, which should be sufficient to exclude entirely the frost.
Keep cold frames used for protection of cabbage and cauliflower plants well aired
at all favorable opportunities.
Green-heuse.
Admit air freely when the external temperature is above 35°, especially among
plants designed for late blooming. Azaleas for late bloom, keep cool those
swelling their buds, not below 45°.
Poinsettia Pulcherima will make a warm green-house gay for several weeks,
Chinese Primrose, water with liquid manure when it shows flower buds; give
the Double White a fayorable and warm position. Water seldom; be regulated
by temperature, evaporation, and the wants of the plants; when the flower buds
are swelling and opening, give it oftener and after breakfast, and with the water
rather higher than the temperature of the house. a,
~
VIU.
THE FLOWER GARDEN
God might have bade the earth bring forth
Enough for great ard small,
The oak-tree and the cedar-tree,
Without a flower at all.
He might have made enough, enough
For every want of ours—
For luxury, medicine, and toil,
And yet have made no flowers
Our outward life requires them not—
Then wherefore have they birth?
To minister delight to man ;
To beautify the earth ;
To comfort man—to whisper hope:
Whene’er his faith is dim ;
For whoso careth for the flowers,
Will much more care for him.—Mary Howitt.
J._INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
\) 2=E who loves not flowers, and grudges the
i BA few square feet of soil which they are
grumblingly permitted to occupy in a cor-
Yirwe> ner of his garden, may skip over this
‘ sl chapter. We give him our heartfelt pity ;
and to the wife or daughter, whose more re-
: fined and elevated tastes have not allowed him to
devote his front yard to the cultivation of potatoes
and cabbages, we offer our thanks.
Had we room, we could prove even to the devotee
of literal utilitarianism, that the flower garden has its uses—
{}
tl
_ that lilies and dahlias have quite as important a mission in the
world as beets and carrots; but we must forego the argu-
_ ments and illustrations which this course would call for, and
iis ey
THE GARDEN.
confine ourself to the .ess interesting, but perhaps more use-
ful, details which follow.
A word, however, to the ladies, to whom we most respect-
fully dedicate this chapter. We shall take it for granted that
you love flowers; for we hold that she who does not, is no true
woman. But perhaps you are ready to declare that, positively,
you have no time to devote to their cultivation, that you have
not sufficient strength for such labor; or, possibly, that all
out-of-door employments are ungenteel and unfeminine.
Unless you have time to be sick, which you will hardly ad-
mit, you have time to take care of your health. To do this
properly, you must have daily exercise in the open air, Where
can you take this more pleasantly or more profitably than in
your flower garden? You are not strong enough, do you say ?
This is just the way to acquire strength. Begin very moder-
ately, allowing some stronger person to do the heaviest work.
An hour or two of light, active, and pleasurable employment,
out-of-doors, each fair day, take our word for it, will prove
more beneficial than the best tonic mixture that your good and
much respected doctor, with all his skill, can prepare for you.
Try it. You will soon be able to use the light hoe and spade,
which we recommend you to procure at once, with ease and
pleasure. The quack’s Female Pills find few patrons among
the wives and daughters who cultivate their own flower gar-
dens. The idea that the employment is unsuited to woman is
a preposterous and absurd one. Where is her place if not
among the flowers—herself the fairest flower of all? Shall
she blush to own that her own fair hands have reared the
floral gems with which she adorns her hair? But we rejoice
in believing that few of our readers will urge this plea. They
will, for the most part, fully agree with us that floriculture
should have a prominent place among the female “‘ accomplish
ments?
For her light work, a lady requires implements made spe-
cially for her use. A spade; a hoe; a rake;-a fork; a trowel;
® watering-pot; a pruning-knife; a pair of small shears; a a
Tue Frowrer Garpen. 145
basket, for the weeds and clippings; a small hammer; s ball
of twine; a stout apron, with pockets for the pruning-knife, -
shears, etc. ; a pair of strong leather gloves, for handling prickly
shrubs; and a pair of overshoes, will make up a very good
outfit. The implements should all be light, and of the. best
quality. The pruning-knife should be kept very sharp. Use
it for cutting slips, and for removing branches, leaves, etc.
The shears are used for clipping hedges, box, borders, etc.
In connection with her gardening operations, we recommend
to every lady who has sufficient leisure the study of botany—
both structural and systematic.
IL—LAYING OUT A FLOWER GARDEN.
To attempt, within the limits of a few pages, to fully instruct
those who have extensive grounds to lay out, would be pre-
sumptuous. Such persons will need to study Downing’s
“‘ Landscape Gardening,” or seek the aid of a practical land-
scape gardener. Our brief hints and suggestions are intended
for those whose ornamental grounds are measured by rods
instead of acres.
_ We will suppose that, as is generally the case, you wish to
devote a portion of the space immediately around your dwell-
ing-house to the cultivation of flowers.
If the distance between the entrance gate and the house be
small, you must be content with a straight walk from the one
to the other; but this should be relieved, and its necessary
stiffness somewhat modified, by curved side-walks, branching
from the main walk near the front door, and running back to
the vegetable garden in the rear of the house. Where the
space is a little greater, the straight walk should not be toler-
ated. It may be curved in various ways, as taste may sug-
gest, and the nature of the case permit. The walks may all
have edgings of dwarf box. Near these walks we recom-
mend cutting a sufficient number of flower-beds in the turf.
This gives a much more beautiful appearance to the yard than
it would have if devoted exclusively to flower-beds. If mora
; rf
146 THE GARDEN.
space be wanted, it may, perhaps, be found behind the house
and next the fruit or vegetable garden. The beds thus cut in
the turf may be of various shapes and sizes, but should always
be bounded by curved lines. The grass-plots in which they
are situated should be kept smoothly shaven.
In arranging the plants in your beds, place the tallest in the
center; but very tall growers, like the hollyhocks and sun-
flowers, should, in general, be disposed as a back-ground in
borders next the walls. So arrange all the kinds that the
smaller shall not be hidden or too much shaded by the larger,
but all be seen in their order, and each contribute to the gen-
eral effect. Reference must also be had to colors and their
proper combination. It is well, so far as is possible, to select
plants which appear well through the season, whether in blos-
som or not. A constant succession of flowers in each bed
may be secured by commencing with the early flowering bulbs,
following these with the best herbaceous perennials, and clos-
ing with a good selection of annuals.
Climbing plants of various kinds, both annual and perennial,
if judiciously introduced, add greatly to the beauty of the
grounds around a dwelling. Walls may be mantled with them;
doors and windows enwreathed ; any unsightly object hidden ;
arbors covered; and posts and the trunks of trees entwined.
They may also be permitted to trail among the smaller shrubs—
care being taken, of course, that they do not, in their luxuri-
ance, overpower or hide other plants. Various kinds of sup-
ports for climbers may be introduced into the portions of the
yard devoted to trees and shrubs, The simplest of these is a
single upright pillar of cedar or other durable wood in its
rough bark, or a sawed piece of timber with holes bored
through it at regular intervals, through which the leading
shoots may be drawn as they advance in growth. Prairie
roses, bignomas, and other hardy climbers, if skillfully trained,
make a very handsome appearance on such pillars. Two
climbing roses, of unlike colors, may be thus trained together
witb a fine effect. These posts should be nine or ten feet high
Tor FLowER GARDEN. 147
In some cases it is better to drive strong wooden rods through
the holes we have spoken of, for the support of the climber.
Slender climbers, like the cypress vine and the morning glory,
require a lighter and more elegant support.
In the arrangement of the shrubs and trees the same prin-
ciple applies as to the herbaceous plants. We should endeavor
to produce the effect of banks, and irregular and picturesque
conical] masses of foliage, rising higher as they recede from the
eye. We therefore place the larger growing kinds in the back
row, or in the center of a group, as the case may be; some-
what smaller ones next in order, and still smaller ones in front.
IIl.—_GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
Our very limited space will not permit us to go into details
in reference to the cultivation of flowers. With a few general
directions, however, one may get on very well in the manage-
ment of a small flower garden. What is most needed is some
guide in the selection of plants to be cultivated; and this we
shall furnish in the next section.
1. Soil, ete.—For most kinds of flowers a rather sandy soil,
well enriched with vegetable mold and well-rotted stable man-
ure, is the best. It must be thoroughly broken up or pulver-
ized before planting. This is even more necessary here than
in the kitchen garden. The ground should be dug to the depth
of fifteen inches, and raised a few inches above the general
level of the garden or yard.
2. Annual and Biennial Plants.——Annual* and biennialt
plants are in general very easy of cultivation, merely requir-
ing, in a majority of cases, to be sown where they are to
bloom, thinned out (with a few exceptions, which will be noted
in their place) to give them room, and kept free from weeds.
Never sow till the soil has become tolerably warm and dry,
as some flower-seeds are very liable to rot in the ground. In
—
* Annual plants are those which live but one year.
+ Biennial plants are such as endure two years; blooming on the second.
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148 Tor GARDEN.
this climate, from the middle of April to the first of May, im a
ordinary seasons, will be sufficiently early for most of them,
A little farther north, from the first to the middle of May will
be the average time. The smaller seeds must be very lightly
covered, but larger ones, like the lupines, may be covered to
the depth of two inches. It is a good way to sow in small
circles—say from four to nine inches in diameter. In the cen-
ter of this circle place a tally, or label of some kind, with the
name, to prevent mistakes. Soon after they come up, the soil
must be carefully stirred, the plants thinned out, if they re-
quire it, and all weeds removed. A few kinds do better with
transplanting than to remain where they are sown. Of this
nature are the balsams, the China aster, the marigold, the
hibiscus, and the zinnia, and several other very free-growing
plants.
3. Bulbs.—The best season for planting hardy bulbous roots,
such as the lilies, peonies, etc., is late in autumn, but they
may be set out in December if the ground be not frozen, and
the bulbs remain sound.
“‘ Hyacinths, Amaryllis, Martagon, and other large lilies, and
peonies, should be planted at the depth of four inches; Crown
Imperials and Polyanthus Narcissus, five inches; Tulips, Double
Narcissus, Jonquilles, and Colchicums, three inches; Bulbous
Tris, Crocus, Arums, small Fritillarias, Gladiolus Byzantium,
and Snowdrops, two inches; Ranunculus and Anemones, one
inch; always measuring from the top of the bulb. The roots
should be placed from four to six inches apart, according to
their size.
‘“‘ Take up bulbous roots about a month after the blossom is
completely over, in the following manner: When the plants
put on a yellowish, decayed appearance, take up the roots, cut
off the stem and foliage within an inch of the bulbs, but leave
the fibers, etc., attached to them; spread them in an airy room
for two or three weeks to dry, after which wrap each root
carefully in paper (as the air is very injurious to bulbs), or
cover them in sand perfectly dry.” |
Tux FLOWER GARDEN. 149
4, Shrubs——Flowering-shrubs may be planted out so soon
as the frost is out and the ground sufficiently dry, which wil
generally be in April. The same general directions apply as
have already been given for trees. Tall shrubs should be sup-
ported for a while by a stake. The roots must not be permit-
ted to dry before planting; and if they are to be carried toa
distance, they must be kept from the air by means of moss, or
straw mats bound about them.
IV.—LISTS OF FLOWERING PLANTS AND SHRUBS.
We now proceed to give lists of choice herbaceous plants
and flowering shrubs. We might make our catalogues much
more extensive, and still fail to embrace all that are desirable
in particular localities and under particular circumstances.
We trust that they will be found useful, if not wholly satis-
factory, to the novice. For the professional gardener, of course,
we do not write.
HARDY ANNUALS.
1. Broz Fiowrrep Arcrratum (Argeratum Mexicanwm).—Color, blue;
height, one foot: in bloom all the season.
2. Sweet Aryssum (A. calycina).— White: fragrant; six inches; all season.
8. Love Lizs Breepine (Amaranthus caudatus).—Red and yellow ; sum.
4, Prince’s Fratuer (A. hypochondriacus).—Red ; summer.
5. THREE-coLORED AMARANTH (A. ¢ricolor).—Is most beautiful on rather
poor soil ; summer
6. PHEASANT’S EyE (Adonis miniata).—Red ; showy ; summer.
7. Cumna Aster (A. Chinensis).—Various colors; some lately imported
varieties are very beautiful; eighteen inches; summer.
8. Cockscoms (Celosia cristata).—Crimson ; eighteen inches ; autumn.
9. Swxer Suttan (Centawrea of species).—(C. moschata), purple; (C. cre
tica), white ; (C. swaveolens), yellow ; two feet; summer.
10. Morning G@Lory (Convoloulus major).—Various; climbing; summer
and autumn.
11. Dwarr Mornine Giory (C. minor).—Blue; eighteen inches; summer.
12. Curyszis (C. crocew).—Orange ; one foot ; all the season ; (C. Californica)
yellow.
18. Lurrms (Lupinus of species).—Many varieties; various; one to five
feet; some are perennial.
14. Cypress Vinx (Ipomaa of species).—(I. guamoclit), crimson; (I. alba),
white ; climbing; summer and autumn. J. coccinea,a native Southern plant
_ is generally classed with the morning glories; red; climbing; autumn.
150 Tue GARDEN.
15. Panox (P. Drummondii).—Crimson ; rose, lilac, and white; (P. Van
Houtii), variegated ; two feet; all the season.
16. ZinntA (Z. elegans).—Various ; two feet ; very showy ; should be watered
copiously ; all the season.
17. Batsam, oz Laptss’ Siiprer (Balsamina hortensis).— Various ; two feet
summer and autumn.
18. MianonettTE (Reseda odorata).—Yellowish green; six inches; chiefly
valued for its perfume ; all the season.
19. Nasturtium (Zropewolum airosanguinewm).—Crimson ; climbing; in
bloom all the season.
20. Canary Birp FLtower (7. aduncwm).—A beautiful climber.
21. PortuLacoa (P. splendens).—Purple; splendid; (P. Thorburnit), yel-
low ; (P. alba), white; (P. elegans), crimson; (P. Thellusoniz), red; should
be grown in a mass to give the finest effect.
22. Matopr (JL. grandijfiora).—Scarlet and white ; three feet; summer.
23, TEN-WEEK-STOOK (Mathiola annua).—At least a dozen distinct colors ;
one foot; summer. All the varieties are well worthy of cultivation.
24. Maricoup (Zagetes erecta).—_Orange, yellow, straw-colored; eighteen
inches; autumn. French Marigold (7. patula), striped with deep brown,
purple, and yellow.
25. CuarK1a (C. elegans).—Rose-colored ; elegant; (C. Pulchella), purple ;
showy ; (C. alba), white ; one foot; all the season.
26. Canpyturr (Iberis amara).—White; (I. wmbellata), purple; (Z. vio-
tacea), violet; (7. odorata), sweet-scented. All these species are desirable.
27. Larkspur (Delphinum ajacis).—Many varieties, double flowered, and
superb. Branching Larkspur (D. consolida), various colors ; summer.
28. THREE-COLORED GILIA (G. tricolor).—Light-blue margin and dark cen-
ter; dwarf; summer.
29. Poppy (Papaver Marseilli).— White, edged with red; eighteen inches ;
summer,
380. SwRet Pxa (Lathyrus odoratus).—Many varieties—white, black, scarlet,
and variegated ; three or four feet ; summer and autumn.
81. Hisiscus (H. manihot).—Yellow; (ZZ. Africanus major), buff, with a
black center; two feet; summer.
82. Cuintonta (C. elegans).—Blue ; six inches; very slender; autumn.
33. VERBENA (JV. of species).—Every shade of color from white to crimson;
procumbent; very pretty ; all the season.
84. Dwarr SunrLower (Helianthus Californicus).—A double flower.
85. Sun Love (Heliophila araboides).—Blue ; very pretty.
86. Pansy (Viola tricolor).—Various; all the season. [A perennial, but
treated as an annual.]
87. Perunta (P. violacea).—Every variety of color; dwarf; all the season.
88. YuLttow Everuastine (Xeranthewm of species).—Eighteen inches; aut
89. Eventne Priwrose (@nothera macrocarpa).—Y ellow ; large flowered
dwarf; summer and autumn.
40. Loasa (ZL. lateritia).—Orange colored ; a beautiful climbing plant. —
41. CALANDRINIA (C. discolor).—-Rosy purple ; very fine; sum. and autume
THe FLowER GARDEN. 151
42, CaLiiorsis (C. bicolor).—Three feet; very showy; autumr..
43. MARVEL oF Prru (Mirabilis Jalapa).—Many varieties; autumn.
44, GRove Love (Nemophila maculata).—Spotted ; beautiful.
45. HELIOTROPE (Journefortiaheliotropioides.)—White and blue; very fras ©
grant; autumn.
46. Love-1n-a-Mist (Nigella Dumacena)—Showy ; autumn.
For twelve sorts, the following would be a good selection:
Numbers 1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 14, 15, 21, 28, 25, 33, and 37. To make
up twenty sorts add 6, 11, 18, 16, 19, 22, 29, and 41.
HARDY BIENNIALS.
1. Rosz Campton (Agrostemma coronaria).—Blooms all summer.
2, FoxGLove (Digitalis of species).—Purple, white, and spotted.
8. CANTERBURY BELL (Campanula of species).—Various; blooms in July
and August.
4. HotiyHoock (Althea roesa.)—All its varieties; summer and autumn. Des
sirable varieties can be propagated by diviumg the roots. Biennial-perennia..
5. GEEARDIA (G. of species).— Yellow, purple, and spotted.
6. Dwarr Eventne Primrose (@nothera corymbosa).
7. Humea (H. elegans).—All the season.
8. Caton Fry (Silene multijiora).
9. MusxK-Scentep Scaxsious (Scabiosa atropurpurea).
10. Naxrep-StemMeD Porry (Papaver nudicaule).
Though all the biennials are generally propagated by seeds,
the double ones may also be successfully continued by cuttings
and slips of the tops, and by layers and pipings. Biennials, it
should be remembered, never flower till the second year.
HARDY PERENNIALS.*
1, HERBACEOUS PLANTS.T
1, CoLUMBINE (Aquilegia vulgaris).—Single and double, and many colors.
2. HAREBELL (Campanula of species).—All the species of this genus are
very beautiful. Flowers single and double; many colors. @. grandijfioru
has superb blue flowers.
8. CARNATION (Dianthus caryophyllus).—A much noted and very beautiful
flower ; propagated by seeds and by layers.
4, Sweet WittraM (D. barbatus).—Many colors and shades of color—white.
red, pink, and crimson. The French call it boquet parfait.
* Perennial plants are those which endure from year to year indefinitely.
+ Those which die down to the root every year. In a restricted sense (in
which we use it here), the term herbaceous is not made to include the bulbous
and tuberous rooted plants.
Be
>
pity ed ae
152 TUE Gapun.
5. Pinx (D. plwmarius).—Many varieties.
6. CurysantuemuM (Pyrethrum of species).—Varieties and colors number
less ; the last showy flower of the season. The following are all very beautiful
LARGE FLOWERED. SMALL FLOWEBRED.
Defiance—lemon-yellow. La Fiancée—white.
Baron de Solomon—rosy-crimson. Harriette Lebois—rosy-carmine,
Julia Langdale—rosy-purple. Cybelle— amber and gold.
Liencour—lilac and orange. Mignonette—vose.
Magnificent—blush. Vartigene—crimson.
Mrs. Cope—crimson-purple. Paquerette—white-shaded crimson.
Sphinx—bright claret. Sacramento—dark yellow, red center,
White Perfection—pure white. Louise—pale rose.
7. Doustx Daisy (Bellis perennis).—Many varieties and various shades of
white, pink, and crimson.
8. Dretytra (D. spectabilis).—A very beautiful plant; flowers pink and
white; June and July.
9. FoxGLove (Digitalis of species).—Various and beautiful. Theoretically
a biennial; but may be continued by dividing into off-sets.
10. GenTIAN (Gentiana of species).—Blue, yellow, and white; very showy.
11. Geranium (Pelargunium of species).—Species numerous ; varieties num-
berless. For bedding plants the Scarlet, the Nutmeg-scented (white), and the
Rose are the most desirable.
12. Forert-mr-Not (Myosotis sylwatica).—Blue, pretty, and indispensable.
13. Hoxitynock (Althea rosa).—We have mentioned this among the bien-
nials, where it theoretically belongs; but it is practically a perennial, from the
way in which it increases by off-sets. Hollyhocks are very beautiful im their
proper places—in borders and among shrubbery. The varieties and colors
are numberless. Choose the double-flowering sorts.
14. Lupine (Lupinus of species).—Some of the perennial herbaceous sorts
are very beautiful; early in summer.
15. Dovsie Raccep Rossin (Lychnis of species).—Scarlet and white. -
16. Pansy, or Hearrsease ( Viola tricolor).—V arieties innumerable ; some-
times treated as an annual; blooms all the season.
17. Viouer ( Viola of species).—Many of the species, both native and foreign,
deserve a place in the garden. Of V. odorata plena, the white and purple
varieties are very beautiful ; bloom early.
18. Putox (P. of species).—Various colors; no garden should be without
some of the perennial species ; summer.
19. Veronica (V. chamedrys).—Blue flowers; a good border plant; early
in summer.
20. VALERIAN (V. hortensis et V. Pyrenaica).—White and red; grow and
bloom well on walls and rock-work.
Nearly ali the foregoing plants are easily propagated by
dividing the roots, and will grow in any garden soil. A few
of them will not prove hardy north of New York
Toe Frowrr GarRpeEnN. 153
2. TUBEROUS-ROOTED PLANTS.
1. Dania (D. variabilis).—Colors and varieties numberless; a splendid
autumn flower for large beds and among shrubbery. The following are a few
of the finest varieties: ‘
Amazone—yellow, margined with carmine.
Anna Maria—violet, tipped with white.
Belle Amazone—bright yellow, edged with gold.
Favorite—dark carmine.
Gazelle—delicate blush.
Grand Sultan— dark purple, with light edges.
Emperitrice Eugenie—black brown.
Madame Becker—maroon, tipped with white
Malvina—purple, shaded with darker purple.
Renuncale Imperiale—lilac and purple.
Prétrose—dark carmine.
Wonderful—dark yellow, with purple stripes.
2. Inis (J. of species).—More than fifty species, some of which are tuberous:
rooted ; all very beautiful. J. swszana is the finest; flowers large and spotted
with brown.
8. Magvet or Perv (Jirabilis Jalapa).—Generally treated as an annual
very beautiful ; requires a warm border.
4. EVERLASTING Pra (Lathyrus of species).—The common Everlasting Pea
is Z. latifolius. Once planted it will, for the most part, take care of itself.
Some of the species are annuals.
5. Prony (P. officinalis).—Many varieties. The Chinese Peony (P. fra-
grams) has pinky-purple flowers and a rose-like perfume.
6. RANuNcuULUS (R. of species).—Several species are hardy and desirable for
border-plants. The Double Buttercup (2. acris) is well known.
7. Lapiss’ Surprer (Cypripedium of species).—Several species are natives
of our woods; very beautiful, but difficult of propagation.
8. ANEMONE (A. of species).—Many species ; white, purple, yellow, and scar-
let ; sueceed best in cool latitudes. Our native Wood Anemone (A. nemorosa)
deserves mention among the garden flowers.
The tuberous-rooted plants are propagated by tubers, and
some of them also by seeds. Dahlias require a sandy soil.
Sand and vegetable mold make a good mixture for them. No
animal manure should be applied.
8. BULBOUS-ROOTED PLANTS.
1. Crocus (@. of species)—Many species, yellow, lilac, white, ete. Tho
Yellow Crocus (@. dutews) is the greatest favorite. The Spring Flowering (C.
vernus) works in well among shrubs and trees, blooms early in the spring.
2. Crown Imperial (Fritillaria Imperialis)—Colar varies from light yel-
low to orange red; showy; suitable for borders.
a
154 THE
assortment of various colors.
beautiful.
Common White (Z. candidum).
Scarlet (Z. chalcedonicum).
Japan (ZL. lancifoliwm of var.)—white, red, rose, spotted; very beautiful,
Turk’s Cap (L. martagon)—various.
Tiger (ZL. tigrinwm).
6. Narcissus (WV. tazetta).—Yellow and white variously combined ; varieties
numerous.
- Darropin (WV. pseudo narcissus).—Many varieties.
8. Jonquit (N. jonquilla).—Bright yel. ; fragrant; requires copious watering.
9. SNowprop (Galanthus nivalis).—Double and single; both desirable.
10. Squitz (Scilla of species).—Blue and white; S. ama@na and 8. Siberica
are exceedingly brilliant and beautiful; blossom early in spring.
P 11. Svar or BeTuLeneEM (Ornithogalum of species).— White and variegated ;
easy of cultivation.
12. Toure (Tulipa Gesneriana).—YVarieties innumerable and of every shade.
Choose some of both.
There are early and late sorts.
FLOWERING SHRUBS.
1. Rosx (Rosa of species).—Multitudinous in species and countless in varictys
No two persons would make the same selection. For the few sorts wanted in
a common garden, we suggest the following:
HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSES.
3 Augusta Mie—blush.
Caroline de Sansal—flesh color.
Lord Raglan—fiery crimson.
Matharin Regina—lilac.
» General Jaqueminot—crimson-searlet.
Mrs. Elliott—rosy-purple.
Duchess d’Orleans—rosy-carmine.
Baron Hallez—light crimson.
Sydonie—light pink.
Baron Prevost—deep rose.
La Reine—deep rosy lilac.
Louis Peronny—deep rose, shaded.
PERPETUAL MOSS ROSES,
Miudam Edward Ory—rosy carmine.
OR 4 - r- = ae i BO re
GARDEN. s
8. Hyacinta (Zyacinthus Orientalis).—Varicties innumerable; choose an
4, Inis (J. of species).—Of the: bulbous species, the Persian (2. Persica) is
the most beautiful, but does better in a pot or frame, with some protection.
5. Lity (Lilium of species).—The species are very numerous, and all very
The following is a selection:
Double White (Z. candidum flore pleno)
Geant des Battailles—brilliant crimson.
Marie de Burgoyne—clear red.
Salet—bright rosy red.
General Drouot—purplish crimson.
Perpetual White—pure white.
d SUMMER ROSES.
Coupe de Hebe—brilliant pink.
Paul Ricaut—rosy crimson.
Perle de Panche—white and red.
Persian Yellow—deep golden yellow,
Madame Plantier—pure white.
OLIMBING ROSES.
Queen of the Prairies—red, striped
with white.
Baltimore Belle—blush, nearly whita
Mrs. Hovey—pale blush,
Perpetual Pink—purple pink.
Ture FLrowEeR GARDEN. 155
2. RHopODENDEON (R. Cutawbiense).—This splendid American flowering
shrub is worthy of a place in every garden.
8. AzaLia (A. vicosa et A. nudijiora).—White and purple; fragrant; too
much neglected.
4. FLrowermve Atmonp (Amygdalsus nanda).—Beautiful pink flowers.
Very desirable in every garden. Spring.
5. Maenouia (1, abovaia).
6. Tree Prony (P. Moutan).
7. JAPAN Quince (Pyrus Japonica of var.).—Scarlet and white; very early
n the spring.
8. Japan GuLoBE FLower (Kerria Japonica).—Double yellow flowers.
Showy. Spring.
9. Sprrza (S. of species).—Many very beautiful species. The Lance-Leaved
Spireza (S. Zancolat.) is the most beautiful of all. Flowers, white; blooms in
May. Very desirable indeed.
10. Devrzia (2. gracilis eb D. scabra).—F lowers white. D. scabra is the
more hardy. Both should be cultivated where the climate will permit.
11. GuELDER RosE or SNowBALL Trex (Viburnum opulus).
12. Gagpen Hypranera (ZZ. Hortensis) —White flowers.
13. Lizac (Syringia of species). —Some of the new varieties are very fine.
14, POMEGRANATE (Granatum jiore pleno).—Beautiful; should be a favorite
wherever the climate is sufficiently mild.
15. SWEET ScENTED SHRUB (Calycanthus Floridus).
16. AtTHEA oR Rosz or SHAron (/iliscus Syricus).—Many varieties.
17. HonrysvucKk Le (Lonicera of species).—Beautiful shrubs.
18. Pink MEzEREUM (Duphne mezerewm).—Dwarft, pretty ; flowers in March.
19. Rosz Acacia (liobina hispida).
20. Mock OnanGE (Philadelphus coronarus).— White ; fragrant. May ana
dune.
21. Forsytsia (Ff. vividissima).—A magnificent new shrub from China;
flowers bright yellow ; very early in spring.
22. Crimson CURRANT (Riles sanguinewm).—Single and double crimson;
early in spring.
- 23. ASHBERRY (Dfihonia aquéfolia).—Evergreen; bright yellow flowers ;
blossoms very early in spring. x
24, RosE-CoLoRED WIEGELA ( W. rosea).—Delicate rose-colored blossoms.
25. SIrvER BELL (Halesia of species).—H. diptera is much finer than the
eommon Silver Bell (H. tetraptera).
OLIMBERS AND CREEPERS.
1, VirGrInra Creeper (Ampelopsis hederacea).
2. Trumpet FLower (Tecoma radicans*).
8, CLEMATIS (C. of species).—Several species; white, blue, and purple. The
Bweet Scented (C. jlamuia) is exceedingly fragrant.
a
* Gray; the Bignonia of the old botanists.
Tur GARDEN.
4. Ivy (Zedera of species).
5. HonrysuoxK x (Lonicera of species).—The Sweet Scented (Z. Belgica) J
one of the most desirable species; in bloom through the summer; very fra-
grant. The Chinese Evergreen (ZZ. sinensis) is also a very fine sort.
6. CuinEse WistTaria (W. sinensis)—A very beautiful climbing
blue flowers in clusters.
7. Curing Ross (Rosa of species).—For these, see preceding list.
8. JASMINE (Jasminum revolutum).—Bright golden flowers; very fragrant. a
Southern. Deserves a place in every garden at the South. 4
9. Passion FLoweer (Passiflora of species) —The most beautiful one is the
Purple Flowering (P. incarnata).
10. Brrtawort ok Dutonman’s Pipe (Aristolochia sipho),—An excellent
6rbor vine.
ORNAMENTAL TREES AND Supruss. 157
IX.
@RNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS.
Happy is he who in a country life
Shuns more perplexing toil and jarring strife ;
Who lives upon the natal soil he loves,
And sits beneath his old ancestral groves.
L—GENERAL HINTS.
\) == APPY indeed is he
Who lives upon the natal soil he loves,
And sits beneath his old ancestral groves;
2 but this happiness is the lot of compara-
; W tively few in this country. Our forefathers
5 " were too deeply absorbed in the work of hewing
: down forests to think of planting groves, or to ap-
preciate their beauty. They waged a war of exter-
mination against trees, and, so far as they went,
nothing but blackened stumps and unsightly skeletons
remained. The effects of their indiscriminate “clearing” have
been partially remedied in the older portions of the country
(for which more thanks to nature than to man); but even
there the language of our motto applies to only a few. Each
man’s natal soil is in the hands of a stranger. What American
lives where his father and grandfather lived and died? We
Lave been a migratory people. It will not always be so, how-
ever, and if we can not, except in rare cases, “‘sit beneath our
old ancestral groves,” we may yet sit beneath those of our own
planting—may learn to
Love our own cotemporary trees,
and die with the hope that our children and grandchildren may
enjoy their shade after we have ceased to need it.
{
x
s:
Ried
be
ae
158 THe GARDEN.
The exhortation, “‘ Plant trees! plant trees!” which has gone
forth of late, and been so often reiterated, has not fallen upon
heedless ears. Thousands have obeyed it, and tens of thou-
sands stand ready, and only wait to be told what trees to plant,
and how to plant them.
For planting trees, we have already given such general direc-
tions as the limits of our work would permit. With a careful
attention to the fundamental principles set forth in the first and
second chapters, these directions will be found sufficient. It
remains for us to add a few hints on arrangement, etc., and to
give lists of the most desirable species for common use, as
ornamental and shade trees and shrubs.
As a border for a straight road or street, we must, of neces-
sity, have a straight row of trees, if any; but in laying out the
road or street, simple utility, and not beauty, was the end in
view. In laying out ornamental grounds, straight lines and a
geometrical arrangement of objects must be avoided; and any
necessary straight line, like a boundary fence, should be wholly
or partially hidden, and its effect neutralized, by curving rows
and irregular groups of trees and shrubs.
This principle applies to the smallest village plot as well as
to the extensive park. Something may be done in arrangement
and grouping to produce a pleasing and beautiful or picturesque
effect, in a very limited space. To tell the reader how, in
detail, would require a volume. The hint we have just dropped
will at least lead him to think and inquire. His own taste,
once awakened, will do the rest.
Do not, we beg of you, distort and deform your ornamental
trees by trimming. If any accident or unnatural condition
may have caused a tree to grow into an ungraceful and unnat-
ural shape, you may, by a judicious use of the pruning-knife,
aid it to returr to its natural form; but you can not improve a
free-growing and symmetrical tree. If it put out branches near
the gruand, do not, by any means, remove them. Therein
consists much of the beauty of many of our handsommet trees,
eepecially the evergreens,
ORNAMENTAL TREES AND Suruss. 159
Other things being equal, preference should be given to
native trees and shrubs, and we have so many beautiful species ©
that but few foreign ones need be placed on our lists.
Trees taken from the nursery or forest before they can be
used must be “heeled in”—that is, their roots must be placed
in a trench prepared for the purpose, and covered with earth.
Roots left exposed to the sun and winds soon lose their vitality.
Avoid the common error of too deep planting. The tree should
be set only two or three inches deeper than it stood before, in
the nursery or forest, to allow for the settling of the soil.
II—LISTS OF TREES AND SHRUBS.
Those who desire more extensive lists to select from than
our space allows us to give, can readily obtain them from the
nurserymen. Our object is to aid the novice in making a
selection of a few kinds.
LARGE-GROWING TREES.
DECIDUOUS.*
1. Oak (Quercus of species)—Well known; indispensable in extensive
grounds—éspecially the White Oak (Q. alba).
2. AMERICAN Etm (Ulmus Americana).
8. Marie (Acer of species).—In an article condemnatory of the ailanthus,
the lamented A. J. Downing says: “‘Take refuge, friends, in the American
maples; clean, sweet, cool, and umbrageous are the maples.” For the Middle
and Western States the Silver Maple (A. dasycarpum) is the best. For the
North and East the Sugar or Rock Maple (A. saccharinwm) is better. The
Red Flowering (A. rubrum) and the Norway (A. platanoides) are beautiful
trees, but of slower growth.
4, BLAcK WALNuT (Juglans nigra).—Adapted to extensive grounds.
5. Aso (Fraxinus Americana).—Fine to group with other trees.
6. Horsr CHEstnut (@sculus of species). The White Flowering (2. hip-
po-castanum) and the Red Flowering (2. rubicundo) are desirable.
7. Tut Tren (Liriodendron tulipifera).—Lofty and magnificent ©
_ 8. CucumBer Tree (Magnolia acuminata).—A large, beautiful tree, with
bluish-white flowers. All the magnolias are desirable where they will succeed.
The most magnificent of them all (JZ grandéfiora) will flourish only at the
South, where it is deservedly a favorite.
9. Larou (Larix of species).—The European (ZL. Zuropea) is the best. The
* Deciduous trees are those whose leaves fall in autumn—not evergreens.
mar, ~ a typ
Re RO AE RN ye pease toa i
, | 7 ae
Er 160 Toe GarvDeEN. Re
af. American or Black Larch Tamarac (L. Americana) resembles it, but grows
only in very moist soils,
10. American Cypress (Tarodium distictiwm).—Lofty and magnificent,
but requires a moist, rich soil. For the Middle and Southern States.
11. Caratpa (C. 8 ringa@folia).—Makes a large, round head, and large
4 leaves and showy flowers.
% 12. AMERIOAN WHITE Brrcx (Betula alba).—A tall, slender, and beautiful
tree ; has a fine effect for grouping.
13. Honry Loousr (Gladitschia triacanthos).—Highly ornamenta.; fine for
lawns and for grouping.
14. Pavtownia (P. imperialis).—_Rapid growing; large-leaved; large blue
flowers in clusters; bloomsin June. Suitable for Middle and Southern States,
15. WrenPine WILLow (Silew Bubalonicum).
EVERGREENS.
1. Spruce (Abies of species).—The Hemlock Spruce (A. Canadensis) is one
of the most beautiful of all evergreen trees. Fine for a lawn. The Norway
Spruce (A. excelsa) is also a stately and magnificent tree.
2. WmitE Pine (Pinus strobus).
8. Batsam Fir (Picea balsamea).
4. DEopar Crepar (C. Deodura).—Graceful and beautiful; rapid growing ;
é not perfectly hardy at the North.
5. Cepar or LeBAnon ((. Libani).—Scarcely hardy at the North, but ex-
ceedingly desirable where it will succeed.
6. AmupioaNn AgBor VIT& (Thuja occidentalis).
SMALL TREES AND LARGE SHRUBS.
DECIDUOUS.
1, Wxerine Asu (Fracinus excelsior pendula).—Very graceful.
2. Jupas Trex (Cercis Canadensis),
8. Lasurnum (Cytissus laburnum et C. Alpinia).
4. Mountain Asu (Pyrus of species)—European and American. The
Weeping Mountain Ash (P. aucuparia pendula) is a beautiful drooping va-
riety of the European.
5. Frunce Tree (Chionanthus Virginicu).— Covered in sprmg with a pro-
fusion of white flowers.
6. Hawtnorn (Crutegus oxyacantha of var.).—White, scarlet, and rose-
colored flowers; single and double.
7. MAGNOLIA i. conspicua vt M. Soulangiana).—The first has white and
She second purple flowers.
8. Burnine Busy (Huonymous atropurpureus).
9. Lance Frowrrine Syrinea (Philadelphus grandijiorus),
10. CorneLtian Cuerry (Cornus mascula),
se
P| Sade) Ped
—* -
x
EVERGREENS,
1. Tree Box (Buwus aborescens).
2. CoMMON JUNIPER (Juniperus communis).
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in Thee WR te Tile Vee ae eS ee es «
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i
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ORNAMENTAL TREES aND Suevss. 1€@1
8. Intsh Yew (Zaxus Hibernicus).
4, Mountarw Lavret (Kalmia latifolia).
5. AMERIOAN Houzy (Jlex opaca). -
HEDGE PLANTS.
DECIDUOUS.
1. Osacz Oranex (Maclura auraniiaca).
2. BucktTHorn (Rhamnus Catharticus).
& HawtHoEn (Crategus oxyacantha).
4, ALTHEA OR RosE oF SHARON (Hibiscus Syriacus).
5. BERBERRY (Berberis vulgaris).
EVERGEEENS.
1 AmeEEIcAN ARBor VitTz (Thuja occidentalis).
2. Ammrican Hoty (/lex opaca).
8. Hemiock Spruce (Abies Canadensis).
4. Norway Spruce (Abées excelsa).
5. WHITE CEDAR (Cupressus thyoides).
6. Hotty-LeavepD BEerBerry (Mahonia aquifolia).
7. Dwarr Box (Buous suffruticosa).—F¥or edging.
8. EVERGREEN THORN (Cratwgus pyracantha).—For the South.
9. CHEROKEE RosE (Losa levigata).—Southern.
10. Wurre Macartney Rose.—The best of all hedge plants for the Scuth.
Live hedges must gradually take the place of our unsightly
fences in the older parts of the country, where timber is already
scarce. On the prairies of the West there seems to be no other
resource. See “The Farm” for directions for their cultivation.
Some of the foregoing hedge plants have not been well proved,
but are all more or less perfectly adapted to the purpose. The
Osage Orange seems as yet to be most generally approved.
For further information on the culture of forest trees, for
shade, for sbelter, for timber, for fuel and for profit, see
“ Fuller’s Forest Tree Culturist.” And for the selection and
management of ornamental, deciduous and evergreen trees,
see “Elliot’s Lawn and Shade Trees.” Both published by
Gro. E. Woopwarp, and sent post paid for $1.50 each.
APPENDIX.
A.
THE BEARING YEAR.
Tus arises simply from the tendency in the apple, when. left to itself, to bear
Bo large crops one year as to require the next year to recover sufficient strength
to bear again. This becomes a kind of fixed constitutional habit in a given
variety, and is continued by grafting, so that whole orchards bear one year, and
are unfruitful the next, with great regularity. On the other hand, certain sorts,
like the Belle-fleur and Holland Pippin, which bear but moderate crops, in
strong soils bear every year.
The habit itself may be corrected or changed, when the tree or orchard is
young, by picking off all the fruit that sets the first year the tree bears a good
crop, thus forcing it to take its bearing year the next season.—A. J. Downing.
B.
CAUSE OF DIMINISHED FERTILITY.
The first colonists of Virginia found a country the soil of which was mech in
a, alkalies. Harvests of wheat and tobacco were obtained for a century from one
. and the same field, without the aid of manure; but now whole districts are
converted into unfruitful pasture land, which without manure produces neither
: wheat nor tobacco. From every acre of this land there were removed in the
‘5 space of one hundred years 1,200 Ibs. of alkalies, in leaves, grain, and straw.
It became unfruitful then because it was deprived of every particle of alkali
which had been reduced to a soluble state, and because that which was ren-
dered soluble again in the course of a year was not sufficient to supply the
demands of the plants. . . . Itis the greatest possible mistake to suppose
that the temporary diminution of fertility in a soil is owing to the loss of vege-
table mold. It is the mere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies.—
Liebig.
6 ge el et ae
C.
REMOVING LARGE TREES—“‘ BALLING.”
Late in the autumn, dig a circular ditch at a distance of from two to five feet,
according to its size, from the trunk of the tree, and from eighteen to thirty
inches deep, smoothly cutting off all the lateral roots close to the central mass
of earth. This ditch must be kept free from snow, until the inclosed ball con-
taining the roots of the tree is thoroughly frozen. With iron bars and levers
force up this circular mass of earth, and place two or more strong skids under ‘
it. By means of a strong set of pulleys, with oxen attached, if necessary, the _
APPENDIX. 163
mass of earfh, and the tree altogether, must be drawn over the skids up out of
the hole, upon a stone-boat or sled, the tree standing vertically, just as it grew.
Thus loaded and secured, it may easily be drawn to the spot selected for it.—
George Jaques.
D.
NEW VARIETIES OF THE POTATO FROM THE SEED.
The plants from the seeds are about as hardy as tomatoes [and may be sown
in the same way either in a hot-bed or in the open air. The former is the pref-
erable way.] They should be hoed often, and dug early, or before the fall
rains and cold nights. Some years they will grow large enough for the table,
but are not fit to eat until three or four years old.
Each hill should be dug by itself, and all small and unhealthy tubers thrown
away, and the good ones labeled and put away carefully for another year’s
planting. Any plants that have been well cultivated, and only produce small
tubers the first year, will never afterward ripen in season.
The second planting will need care and close attention through its growth.
Observe the time of flowering, and time of the decay of the vines, that when
digging them you may have the history of every hill, for almost every hill isa
family by itself.
At this time many sorts can again be rejected, reserving only those that
promise good, or indicate the object in view. I threw away a great many
varieties at every digging till the fourth year. I had but three families, all
white skin and flesh, to which I gave the name of “Stone Hill,” the quality of
which has been well tested by use, as they have gone into almost every State
in the Union, and have been exhibited at very many fairs, and always attracted
notice, and a premium.—A. D. Bulkeley.
E.
LUXURIES OF A FRUIT GARDEN.
A friend of ours, in whose reliability we have implicit confidence, has a
small plot of ground, of which he tells us the following facts:
From a row of currant bushes, about eight rods long, he and his neighbors
gathered over two bushels of currants this year. The currant season, from
the first picking to the last, was, from June ist to August 15th, two and a half
months.
From a row of gooseberry bushes, two rods long, he gathered about a bushel
ef gooseberries.
From a plot of strawberry vines, four rods long and one rod wide, he gath-
ered nearly three bushels of strawberries. The strawberry season lasted about
three weeks, ending about the middle of July.
Then his raspberries came on, and lasted about three weeks. Of these he had
about half a bushel. They stood next to the strawberries in point of delicacy.
He has a number of cherry-trees. They yielded well this year. His family =
and friends used a bushel or so, and the children of the neighborhood fed
themselves upon them, without stint, for two weeks.
OS cee ll a ee
Cee ee ee ee es
“a
x
i aT ae
f
p
164 APPENDIX.
Soon after the raspberries were gone, his peaches began toripen. Oneofthe —
trees ripened its fruit late, and it has lasted till within a few days past; of these
he has had two or more bushels. ;
Ali along since the first of August his apples and pears have been ripening, _—
and have furnished an abundant supply for his family, for the cow and pig, and +
some to sell or give away besides. He will have a large quantity of excellent
winter apples. He has just gathered from two or three grapevines as Many _
bushels of fine grapes. Some of these his wife made into marmalade, and
some she has preserved in paper, for use hereafter. The best—and greater
portion of the whole—were eaten as a dessert, or given to children or friends,
all of whom enjoyed them much.
These are some of the enjoyments drawn from a small plot of ground during
the season just closing. They were at small cost, but they sweetened many a
meal, ministered to health, and added to the comfort of many guests.
Why may not nearly every man have as large a plot of ground, and as many
comforts? Simply because he is negligent.—Ohio Farmer.
F.
HYACINTHS IN GLASSES.
Hyacinths intended for glasses should be placed in them during October and
November, the glasses being previously filled with pure water, so that the bot-
tom of the bulb may just touch the water; then place them for the first ten
days in a dark room, to promote the shooting of the roots, after which expose
them to the sun and light as much as possible. They will blow, however, with-
out any sun, but the color of the flowers will be inferior. The water should be
changed as it becomes impure; draw the roots entirely out of the glasses, rinse
off the fibers in clean water, and wash the inside of the glass well. Care
should be taken that the water does not freeze, as it would not only burst the
glass, but cause the fibers to decay. Whether the water be hard or soft is not
of much consequence—soft is preferable—but must be perfectly clear to show
the fibers to advantage.—Thorburn’s Catalogue.
CEDAW cia isis: is a'sjeicins
MPBTOCEONM feces mistcicicls sisinielee e1yicizeiols s =
SEPACECEDV reloiciaic)s cleieleisicicinisisic)aicls ic
HRCMMTAIS Es sors s(e)=)arect<s- =\ é
Bulbous Rooted Plants
WOMIPOStS ccc ciaicies'- o-)-/<isiiecicie nie
Crops, Retation of ...............
CHU 3s Seas ebicoae poeeoeee
Carrot cin cscesccs sSaccboasscooeor 78
(CHI 0) DER®) pesos Bodo cacdadsosenS 83
Remeed ELV OV crc vere cici- cteicis eter ateie © 85
Corn Salad ............. adowedne 100
Cape Gooseberry ...............- 106
(ONG INS Sere cae EGee Re CeIn RCE 128
GTI 52 se oss doncacaoecegoodor
Draining
¢ Bulbous Rooted.......... 153
Flower Garden, Laying Out...... 145
Cultivation of.... 147
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sf earcening Due eo eesiey oats
Food of Plants .
Garden, Situation ofa .........,- 4%
we Sizeyonai ese - owes acsanee at
fe Shape of Aneta ceee a2
aying Out....... So5sc50 42
GORING gecodadoodsonaccanoscnaods 94
Gig POvoscoc bosbioosocspcusancbees 130
Grape Vines, How to Train ...... 132
Germination .................... 13
Growth, Conditions Essential to.. 2%
GWONO socaosqo0ogpengoncacHonose 39
Grattin ee oe. sc accw aie secogodc eeee 69
Grafting Wax .......... Socconsns 68
Gooseberry ......-... Beacenodnsee 134
HOtBedsiga-aeiteen Noses nereeee
IEG. 55 sono andosdeo soon cobe 46
Horse Radish...
Hedge Plants.....
Pmplementsiaeeemercce scene
Bs for Ladies
Insects, Destruction of ........... 58
Indian Corn...................-. 104
TCAaVeS te sete s hercc eco cutee ee 21
IANS haces acu aonvecausc conodonosn 38
IDERVENES conggenasscosccesce B00s000 61
IWGB cssnoabbocopocacecoddoanccce 94
MettaCeseaeas acistessisisoneee ues aon Ae
CMON jeiincerseeisietoisinisictveinc 130
bby WY aR akoosooascoces a codesS 130
NWiwmiiger! Bas ondacgacacasobacoUdKOd 6
“Application of.......... 51
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Propagation...........-...-.---.- 61
TRING ooooscaccasoo sass cosoocEs 68
IRS. S soba dcooss oonebeoucadoear 73
Soup Obercerars 15
G2 WSRSEN ccogéogosces sean zens sede
IBATSWC Den ets esieiein velieis cleats 79
THE) on snoaobdacnoo sos0 sonpaaooe
Pea, Sweet .... ........-
SC AUEIVEPIASEING®. "c\aio\e'clec'sje siecle wales 153
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Trees, Pruning
Heading-in....
POMESFANALE.. ccnier nacleaeeis viewers 141
kg of
Pee yretion Of. she ; . seats
“ Stirring ....
Situation ........... x
Subsoil Plowing. Neate rst ASSAE
Stirring the Scil
Bowing Seeds.......
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A MANUAL
OF
g@ractical Agriculture;
OR, HOW TO CULTIVATE
AY TEE PIL D CROPS: ~ =
EMBRACING
a ©
A THOROUGH EXPOSITION OF THE NATURE AND ACTION OF SOILS AND MANURES
THE PRINCIPLES OF ROTATION IN CROPPING}; DIRECTIONS FOR IRRIGATING,
DEAINING, SUBSOILING, FENCING, AND PLANTING HEDGES; DESCRIP-
TIONS OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS; [NSIRUCTIONS IN THE
OULTIVATION OF THE VARIOUS FIELD CROPS, ORCHARDS,
ETO., ETO. ;
WITH A MOST VALUABLE
Gasvy on Sarm Hlanage ment.
By D. H. JACQUES,
AvtTHor or “Tue Garpen,” “Tue Housz,” “ Domzstic ANmaALs,” “ How
To vo Busrvsss,” “How Tro BEHAVE,” ETO.
‘ ! To render agriculture more productive and beneficial to all, it is necessary that its principles should
be better understood, and that we should profit more from the experience of each other x
upGE BuEL.
iad REVISED BDITION.
we NEW YORK:
THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY, ~
89 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870,
GEO. KF. WOODWARD, ~
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States |
Southern District of New York.
PREFACE.
Bewievine that good books on farming can hardly be too greatly
multiplied, and that a cheap manual, embodying not only compre-
hensive practical directions for the cultivation of the various field
crops, but also a brief exposition of the fundamental principles
which underlie all the operations of the farm, is a special want
at the present time, we have essayed, in the work now before the
reader, to supply this lack. How well we have succeeded, we leave
it for the public to judge.
In the details of cultivation we have been intentionally brief,
because we believed that the mass of those into whose hands this
book would fall, stand less in need of these than of the information
condensed into the first six or seven chapters.
Having a correct notion of the fundamental principles of agri-
cultural science, and with clear outlines of the common practical
operations of farming before him, any intelligent man will readily,
by means of observation and experience, make himself master of
the minor details. Without the theoretical part, the rules of prac-
tice laid down in most agricultural works are liable constantly to
lead astray.
In the preparation of this little book we have consulted a large
number of the best agricultural works—American, English, French,
and German—to some of which we have been largely indebted for
facts and suggestions. In addition to the formal credit given in
the body of the work, we take pleasure in mentioning the following
vi PREFACE. Bassi"
works as among those from which we have received more or less —
ee valuable aid :
ie Stephens’ Book of the Farm.
‘h The American Farmer’s Encyclopedia.
Allen’s American Farm Book.
Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office.
7 Fessenden’s Complete Farmer.
a Thaer’s Principles of Agriculture and Manures.
§ Beatty’s Southern Agriculture.
a White’s Gardening for the South.
x Norton’s Scientific Agriculture.
4 Dana’s Muck Manual.
. Boussingault’s Economie Rurale.
Downing’s Fruits and Fruit Trees.
:
a Munn’s Practical Land Drainer.
oS Tucker’s Annual Register.
D Harris’ Rural Annual. “
fi ee The Country Gentleman.
* The American Agriculturist. $
Z The Southern Cultivator.
a Hoping that his little book will aid largely, in its humble way, — i
s iu the promotion of agricultural progress, and prepare the way for
‘ many a larger and better work, the author most respectfully dedi-
i tates it a
i TO THE YOUNG FARMERS OF AMERICA.
a
INTRODUCTION.
AGRICULTURE may be said to have had its origin when it was
ordained that man should earn his bread by the sweat of his brow.
From that time to the present, among all nations and tribes of men,
more or less attention has been given to the cultivation of the
earth ; although in the earlier stages of social progress the prin-
cipal reliance of mankind for subsistence has been first upon the
chase, and then upon flocks and herds. Man is first a hunter, then
a Shepherd or herdsman, and then a farmer.
Of the existence of agriculture as one of the prominent occupa-
tions of the people among the ancient Israelites, we have many
notices in the Bible. We gather from various scattered. passages
in the books of sacred history and prophecy that they had plows;
that they turned the soil up into ridges; that they plowed with
two oxen; that they sowed the seed broadcast from a basket and
plowed it in; that they used hoes or mattocks for extirpating the
weeds; that when the grain was ripe they cut it with a sickle or a
scythe ; that it was bound into sheaves and carried in carts imme-
diately to the threshing floor or to the barn; that threshing was
variously performed by means of a threshing-machine or instru-
ment (Isaiah xviii. 27, 28), cart wheels, the treading of horses and
cattle, and beating with poles; and that the grain was winnowed
by being thrown up against the wind by means of a shovel.
Among the ancient Greeks, agriculture received great attention,
and was evidently conducted with great skill and success; in fact,
it seems to have been much the same thing as at the present day,
our superiority consisting more in the improved implements we use
_ than in our better knowledge of the art and science of cultivation.
Le
Ne ag oe
viii INTRODUCTION.
The Romans probably derived their knowledge of agriculture
from the Greeks and other older nations, adding to it from their
own experience. They well understood the nature of soils and the
use of manures, and practiced irrigation and underdraining. The
Roman farmers, Pliny tells us, were very particular in drawing
straight and equal-sized furrows. They always plowed three times
at least before they sowed. The furrows in the first plowing were
usually nine inches deep.
In the early days of Rome, when they praised a good man they
called him an agriculturist and a good husbandman; and he was
thought to be very greatly honored who was thus praised.
The first of modern countries to improve the practice of agri-
culture was Flanders; and the Flemings or Belgians have con-
tinued to this day the model farmers of Europe. Their whole
country resembles a series of gardens. Their farms are small, and
they devote their efforts to three grand points—the accumulation
of manures, the destruction of weeds, and the frequent and deep
pulverization of the soil. They were the first among the moderns
to raise crops for the purpose of plowing them in.
Nowhere at the present time is agriculture pursued with greater
skill and success than in England; and there is in that country a
steady and continued progress both in the science and the art of
cultivation.
American agriculture commenced at the point which that of
England had reached at the time her colonies were planted on the
shores of the Western Continent. It has not kept pace, we are
sorry to say, with that of the mother country. A virgin soil,
abounding in all the elements of the highest fertility, and requir-
ing at first but slight tillage to produce large crops, the abundance
and cheapness of new lands, and the lack of persistent, steady
effort, which soon became an American characteristic, led at once — y
to a superficial and exhausting mode of cultivation which has re- :
sulted in reducing thousands of acres of once fertile soil to a bar- :
- -
ren wilderness.
But there has been a reaction. American husbandry is now 4
INTRODUCTION. ix
rapidly improving, and we shall not long be left behind by the
leading agricultural nations of Europe. The old or exhaustive
system is giving place to the new or fertilizing system, under which
the productiveness of lands is constantly increased instead of being
diminished. The worn-out lands of Virginia and the other old
States have, in many instances, under the new system, been re-
stored to more than their original fertility. This will go on
till the older States will rival, if not excel, the new in productive-
ness.
The conditions requisite for the improvement of agriculture, and
the elevation of the agriculturist to the high social position to
which his contributions to the general welfare and the prosperity of
the State entitle him, are thus happily stated by Hon. L. Chandler
Ball, in a late agricultural address:
«1. By adopting a higher standard of education, both general
and professional.
«© 2. By a more thorough cultivation of the soil, by which its fer-
tility shall be increased, and permanently maintained.
«<3. By the more general introduction of improved implements
of husbandry, by which farm and household labor may be more
easily and more economically performed.
«4. By improving the breeds of domestic stock, and rearing only
those animals which are the best of their respective kinds.
“5. By growing only those roots, grains, grasses, and fruits
which are the most nutritious and the most productive.
“6. By pursuing that particular branch of industry which gives
the strongest probabilities of success; having reference to climate,
soil, markets, and amount of foreign and domestic competition.
«‘7. By making the business of farming attractive to educated
men, and the farm-house and all its surroundings pleasant te re-
fined taste and cultivated manners.”
The extensive demand for books on farming, and the wide circu-
lation of agricultural papers and magazines, show that “‘ a redeem-
ing spirit” is truly abroad among our farmers. The vast amount
of sound agricultural teachings which is now being almost univer-
SN fk OS
id a Fe
&
Saat
“sce
ae
sally diffused, can not fail to show itself everywhere in a rapié
permanent improvement of our system of cultivation. —
But much still remains to be tai Ignorance and prgtin are
come. We send this little ‘ick out into the world to aid as it may
in the work.
CONTENTS.
I.—SOILS.
Importance of the Subject—The Organic and the Inorganic Parts of Soils—
Origin of Each—Classification of Soils—Heavy Soils—Light Soils—Crops
adapted to Each - Sandy Soils—Clayey Soils—Limy Soils—Loamy Soils—
Marly Soils—Alluvial Soils—Vegetable Molds—Subsoils—Analysis of Soils
—Professor Johnson’s Tabular View—The Causes of Fertility and of Barren-
ness—How to Ascertain the Per-centage of Sand in any Soil—A Test for
Lime—Physical Properties of Soils—Texture—The Value of the impalpable
Powder in Soils—A Mechanical Analysis—Consistency of Soils—Depth of
Soil—Colors of Soils—Humidity—Infiuence of Subsoils—Position and Form
of Surface—Improvement of Soils—Management of Clayey Soils—Draining
=—The Addition of Sand, Lime, Plaster of Paris, ete.—Fall Plowing—Paring
and Burning—Management of Sandy Soils—Vegetable or Peaty Soils—Man-
agement of Subsoils—Subsoil Plowing—Benefits of Subsoiling...... Page 18
I. —MANURES.
Necessity of Manures—Why the Soil of a Forest does not become Exhausted—
Exhaustion of Cultivated Soils—Decrease of Productiveness of the Soils of
New York—Instructive Facts—Land, like Animals and Plants, must be
Fed—Food of Plants—Organic and Inorganic Substances found in Plants—
Both made up from their Food—Where Plants obtain their Food—What the
Different Crops Take from the Soil—A Tabular View—Classification of Man-
ures— Vegetable Manures—Green Crops as Manures—Advantages of Green
Manures—Straw, Leaves, etc.—Sea- W eed—Composition of Sea- W eed—Cotton
Seed—Turf—Swamp Muck—Great Value of Muck—Muck and Ashes—How to
Compost Muck—Animal Manures—Stable Manures— Value of Urine—How to
Preserve and Apply it—Waste of Manures by Fermentation—How to avoid it
—Hog Manure—-The Manure of Fowls—How to Treat it—Guano—Composition
of Guano—Fish Manures—Night Soil—How to Preserve and Compost Night
Soil—Flesh, Blood, ete., as Manures—Bones—Process of Dissolving Bones—
Mineral Manures—Lime—Marls—Green Sand—Gypsum—Major Dickinson’s
Method of Applying Mineral Manures to Seeds—Common Salt—Other Salts
—Ashes—Management of Manures—Fermentation—Overhauling Manures—
Drawing Manure in Winter—A Caution in reference to Quicklime—Bury-
ing Manure—Importance of Texture -Composts—Irrigation.......... 2. 2
Leo.
ConrTENTS.
II.—ROTATION OF CROPS.
Theory of Rotations—The Three Grand Classes of Crops—The Grain Crops —
The Root Crops—The Grass Crops—Systems of Rotation—Benefits of Rota-
tion in Cropping—Astonishing Neglect of a Great Source of Profit..Page 48
IV.— DRAINING.
Bad Effects of Excess of Moisture— How Draining remedies them—Ten Reasons
for Underdraining—Conditions Requiring Drainage—Practical Directions—
Examination of the Field—Draining Springy Ground—Direction of Drains—
Depth and Distance Apart—Digging—Implements— A Ditcher’s Level—Ma-
terials and Construction—Brush-Wood Drains—Stone Drains—Different
kinds of Stone Drains—Tile Drains—Rationale of their Action— Will Drain-
ing Pay ?—A Farmer’s Reply—Some Facts—Estimates— Economy of Tiles 51
V.—FENCES,.
Requisites of a Good Fence—Various kinds of Fence—Stone Fence—The Zig- £
zag Fence—Posts and Rails—The best Wood for Posts—Board Fence—The
Sunken Fence—The Wire Fence Illustrated—Cost of Wire Fence—Wire
Netting—Hurdle Fence—Hedges—Causes of Failure in Cultivating Hedges
—The best Hedge Plants—Directions for Planting and Trimming—Hedges
for the South—How to Form a Hedge of Cherokee or Macartney Rose—A
Hint or Two—Are Fences Necessary ?—No Fences in France, Belgium, ete.
—The Ohio Harmer’s Opinion... 0... 01 «sos stessee rae eee Pa Aas 61
VI.—AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USE.
The Plow—Ancient Plows—Modern Improvements—The Eagle Plow—The
—Michigan Plow—The Double Mold-Board Plow—The Subsoil Plow—The d
= /:
Oe ee ae OTe Moat
bg 7 af - al
?
a - aoe are Fe
—— sa
ue rat
. = Harrow — The Cultivator—The Horse Hoe—The Field Roller—Seed Sowers
” —The Horse Rake— Mowers, Reapers, etc.—Conclusion....... sisrwate's dais SOD)
& VIL—FARM MANAGEMENT.
a Introductory— Capital — Livestock—Implements—Seeds—Labor—Recapitula-
a tion of Estimates ~ Size of Farm—Laying Out Farms - Fences—Gates—Build-
x ings—Choice of Implements—Choice of Animals—Soils and their Manage- __
c ment—Manures—Rotation of Crops—Operations in Order of Time—Conclu-
BLOM oe o'n psoictes + <50.0y5- 6 aippe'c cce.ainieioiale nici ake Win ea ele eee eee ee Biers oiihoteds teen
VIll.—FARM CROPS.
Indian Corn—Wheat—Rye—The Oat—Barley—Rice—Buckwheat—Millet—
How to Shock Grain—Potato—Sweet Potato—Turnip—Kohl Rabi—Carrot—
Parsnep—Beet—Chinese Yam—The Grasses—Timothy—Meadow Grass--
Red Top—The Fescue Grasses—-Orchard Grass—Egyptian Grass—German
Millet or Hungarian Grass—The Clovers—Other Grasses—Cotton—Sugare
Cane— Chinese Sugar-Cane—Imphee — Broom Corn—Flax— Hemp—
LOD BS ova aye ie 2/aje 6 bininse/eisie = bias Joly apa(t wit, ardiajoialdleia clglaha eae oemamg ee
IX.—THE ORCHARD.
Laying Out Orchards—Squares—Quincunx—Soil and Situation—Planting— ~ k
Cultivation—Profits of Apple Culture..............ceeeceeecceecccreees 140
“
1
Ses Re See ee Ee ee a ee, Se
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A
7
a
oS
a
THE FARM
I.
SOILS.
Fo: the reagon that a plart would die in a vacuum, for the same reasot (¢ would die in a sof 3
destitute of the bases necessary for its organic constitution. . . . . #or to live is to com-
bine, and without elements no combination would be possible.—Raspaxl. :
I.—CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
HEN selecting a farm, or when entering :
upon the cultivation of one already in
possession, the farmer should, first of
all, turn his attention to an investiga-
composed. These form the basis of all his oper-
y ations; and his success will depend in no small
Bi oe degree upon the skill with which he avails him-
self of the capabilities and adaptations of each. He should be
familiar with their several characteristics, understand the va-
rious methods of improving them, and know to what crops
each is best adapted. To aid him in this investigation is the
object of this chapter.
__ All soils adapted to agricultural purposes are composed of two
classes of substances--organic and inorganic. The inorganic
14 THE Farm.
parts are derived from the decay of animal. and vegetable mat
ter. There must have been a time, in the geological history of
the earth, when the soil was destitute of these elements. A low
grade of animal and vegetable life was possible without them.
Living things found nourishment in the crumbled rocks, which
formed the primitive soil. Enriched by their decay, it became
capable of sustaining a higher order of existence. The result
gradually attained, we see in the present condition of the earth’s
surface. ’
The organic part of the soil is generally called vegetable
mold, but scientific writers designate itas humus. To be fertile,
a soil must contain a considerable portion of this organic mat-
ter; but we know of no rule by which to determine precisely
what quantity is essential. Probably from five to ten per cent.
must be present in all permanently rich, strong soils,
Besides ministering directly to the growth of plants, by fur-
nishing them with a portion of their necessary food, this vege-
table mold or humus promotes fertility by improving the tex-
i ture of the soil, making sandy land more tenacious and clayey
- land more friable; and by giving it a darker color, and thus
*s increasing its power of absorbing heat. More than fifty per
cent. of humus, however, in a moist soil has an injurious effect,
rendering it what is called sour. ,
We have already hinted at the origin of the inorganic por-
tions of the soil, in speaking of the crumbled rocks which nour-
ished the first living things. The process of decomposition or
crumbling down is still going on under our eyes. Some rocks
crumble very slowly, others more rapidly; but all wear away
more or less. Each rock gives its own peculiar character to the
soil which it forms.
Of the various soils several distinct classifications may be
made. It will be well for us, at the outset, to consider them
all as embraced in two grand classes—/eavy or light. The dis-
; tinction indicated by these terms is familiar to every farmer,
He knows, too, that it is a predominance of clay which constie
tutes a soil heavy, and that an excess of sand or gravel makes a
a
7
?
;
:
So1ILs. 15
soil what is called light. We will look at these two lasses of
soils a little more in detail.
1. Heavy Soils.—Heavy soils, also often denominated cold and
wet, are distinguished for their affinity for water, their tenacity,
their softness when wet, and their hardness when dry. They
are comparatively difficult to cultivate, and require more skill and
caution In their management than light soils; but they are gen-
erally fertile, and not easily exhausted. They not only hold
securely the various solid manures applied to them, till they are
required for the support of the growing crops, but greedily absorb
the fertilizing gases brought within their reach by the air and -
the rains. They are admirably adapted to wheat, oats, Indian
corn, and the various grasses; hence they are sometimes styled
grass lands. They of course exist in great diversity, and vary
much in value, but are generally susceptible of being made
highly productive.
2. Light Soils——Light soils are easily cultivated, friable, dry,
and warm; but their porousness facilitates the escape of both
the water and the manure applied to them, and renders them
liable to drouth and exhaustion. They are particularly adapted
to rye, barley, buckwheat, and the tap-rooted plants. The
English farmers sometimes distinguish them as turnip soils.
Although soils contain small quantities of a large number of
substances, they are chiefly made up of what are sometimes
called the three primitive earths—silex (including sand and
gravel), clay, andlime. Aseither of these predominates, it gives
its peculiar character to the soil, whence we have the arrange-
ment into three grand classes—silicious, argillaceous, and cal-
careous, or, in other words, sandy, clayey, and limy soils.
1. Sandy Soils—A soil containing not less than seventy per
cent. of sand may be considered sandy, in the sense in which
the term is here used.
2. Clayey Soils—Clay with a mixture of not more than
twenty per cent. of sand forms a clayey soil.
8. Limy Soils.—Limy or calcareous soils are those in which
lime, exceeding twenty per cent., becomes the distinguishing
Tur Farm.
ia characteristic. Czlcareous soils may be either calcareous clays,
calcareous sands, or calcareous loams, according to the propor-
4 tions of clay or sand that may be present in them.
| 4, Loamy Soils.-—Loamy soils are intermediate between those
. denominated sandy and those with predominant clayey charac-
a. teristics. There are sandy loams, clayey loams, calcareous
£ loams, and vegetabie loams.
; 5. Marly Soiis.—-Soils containing lime, but in which the pro-
f portion does not exceed 20 per cent., are sometimes called marly.
e 6. Alluvial Soils—Soils made up of the washings of streams
:. _ are called alluvial. They contain portions of every kind of soil
: existing in the surrounding country, and are generally loamy
and very fertile.
7. Vegetable Mclds—When decayed vegetable and animal
matter or humus exists in so great a proportion as to give the
predominant character to a soil, it sometimes receives the name
of vegetable mold.
: 8. Subsoils,—The stratum or bed on which a soil immedi-
i ately rests is called the subsoil. Subsoils, like soils, may be
either silicious, argillaceous, or calcareous.
F II—ANALYSIS OF SOILS.
:: Chemical analysis shows that the organic parts of a soil are
composed of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. The in-
s, organic parts of a fertile soil, in addition to the silex, clay, and
lime, of which we have already spoken, contain smaller quanti-
: ties of magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine,
oxyd of iron, and oxyd of manganese. All these are essential
to independent fertility.
It may be remarked here, that while chemical science is a
highly useful ally of agriculture, its decisions must, for the
present, be held sabject to reversal by practical experiments.
This lack of perfect and universal reliability comes from the
imperfection of the most careful analyses, and from the influ-
ence of conditions of which chemistry can not take | snizance;
and not from the unsoundness of chemical theori« sel make
ae Se
BBE ee ee Pe ee
s ;
>
wr
*
>
£
“wate SORT
SoILs. 17
Professor J. F. W. Johnson has given the following tabular
view of the composition of soils of different degrees of fertility :
Fertite Fertile Weare
IN ONE HUNDRED POUNDS. iho i Very
Manare:.| Manure, || Same?
OEM GAMA tie bas -cie'= 212 ei opossiaiei« cio sla nie Bice el teicisie’s 9.7 5.0 4.0
MIC Ree eats ct otaicjursisiaiaj<eisejeeisie oss eles sda's vtec 64.85 §3.3 78
Alumina (the base of clay)..........0........2-- 5.7 5.1 9.1
AEN Cnet se ye aha cts | oimint steric 6 cise ekats ois. ais Sle aia iaiaia/iecals 5.9 1.8 4
MIG ERE Bos oe ooece coco spec oUoN ese souNE boOscsOrcS 9 8 ai
Mtoe ened PTs te sor- yes sie) sistajd ccseie dis acctayasciew ajeis elsysiaiess 6.1 3.1 8.1 |
OXVELOP MAN GANESCr cet see e ese ns cece te a eee al 3 al *
OfASwi ess csteizicis eaisiaisie < Sait aisle cae stabe sis wergeiesiale 2 :
POA iaevalaia stole lave cie\cinials c.sicje isieieeisie sjereleinincrnie'e ace 4
MDTOTING Has oe eae seeds OSs Foal Vedas Ae Sa ease ees 2
PUMPER CLACIG cee kc aeigcraniern cine wie sieiareersisaeeieee 2 al
Osphorie acides: (Sic. ccdeiade soakteces usiek/ es A 2
CHnIDOIIG HOG Nek Sana spacetos bacon sapoccuandecs 4.0 4
Loss during the analysis.................-..5.--- 1.4 A
100.0 | 100.0} 100.0
The soil of which the composition is given in the first column
contained all the elements required for the growth of plants,
and so long as these remain unexhausted will produce good crops
without manure.* Some of the alluvial soils of the West are of
this character. They will all be found to contain every one of
these constituents. The proportions may vary in soils of equal
fertility. This is immaterial, so long as there shall be a suf-
ficient quantity of each to supply the wants of the crop. The
soil the analysis of which is recorded in the second column lacked
potash, soda, and chlorine. These are essential, and therefore
the soil, in its natural condition, was barren; but as these con-
stiteents are all supplied in considerable quantity by ordinary
manuring, fertility was thus easily attained. In the third col-
umn half the inorganic substances present in the first are en-
tirely lacking, and two others—lime and magnesia—are greatly
reduced in their proportion. No ordinary manuring would sup-
ply all these deficiencies, and therefore the soil was, in a practi-
cal point of view, hopelessly barren.
Does not this illustration make the cause of fertility on the
NOS
cu * See “ The Garden,” Chapter I.
me en
om
Rae eg al
wea gee ERIN A
Fae
> F « oN ee
at st t i 7: Pee ae ge ae Sw
18 Tur Farm.
one hand and of barrenness on the other perfectly obvious!
Here it is in the compass of a nut-shell. A soil is fertile (as a
general rule) when it contains in sufficient quantity all the sub-
stances which plants require, and barren when some of these
substances are either entirely wanting or deficient in quantity.
The exceptions to the first part of this rule are an unfavorable
physical condition and the presence of certain substances in
hurtful excess.
The time is coming when every farmer, thoroughly educated
at an agricultural college, will possess both the knowledge and
the apparatus necessary for making any required analysis of
soils, but at present we must, in general, be content with the
knowledge of their composition which we are able to obtain by
a few simple processes.
To ascertain the per-centage of sand which a soil may contain,
dry a quantity thoroughly; weigh it; boil it in water; stir it in
a convenient vessel, and when the sand has settled pour off the
liquid, which will hold the fine clay, etc., in suspension; after
doing this a few times nothing will remain in the bottom of the
vessel but nearly pure sand, which may be dried and weighed,
and the quantity will show whether the soil be sandy, loamy, or
clayey.
Any considerable quantity of lime in asoil is readily detected
by pouring upon it a little muriatic acid, which may be obtained’
at any apothecary shop. So soon as this acid comes in contact
with lime, if there be any, a brisk effervescence will take place,
owing tothe bubbling up and escape of carbonic acid gas. This
simple test would save many a farmer from the expensive mis-
take of applying lime to land which already contains a sufficient
quantity of that important element of fertility.
IlIl.—_PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS.
In judging of the value of a soil, the nature and proportions
of the elements of which it is composed are not the only cireum-
stances to be considered. Its physical properties must also be
taken into account.
- _ . LS
~
SoILs. 12
1. Texture of Sotls—Considered in reference to texture, a
soil may be described as essentially a mixture of an impalpable.
powder with a greater or smaller quantity of visible particles
of all sizes and shapes. Now, although the visible particles are
absolutely essential, their effects are, as it were, indirect; the
impalpable powder alone exerting a direct influence upon
vegetation, by entering into solution with the water and acids
with which it comes in contact; for plants are incapable of
taking in solid matter however minutely divided ; and it is in 6
liquid or gaseous form only that their food can be received.*
From this it will be readily understood how a soil may possess
all the elements of fertility and yet be barren, as stated in a pre-
vious section, on account of some of these elements being locked
up in it, as it were, in an insoluble condition. The stones and
smaller visible portions of the soil are gradually but constantly
crumbling down under the action of air, moisture, and other
chemical agents, thus adding, from year to year, new impalpable
matter to the soil. The greater the proportion of this impal-
pable matter, all other things being equal, the greater will be
the fertility of the soil, This proportion may be ascertained
with considerable accuracy by the following simple experiment:
“Take a glass tube about two feet long, closed at one end;
fill it about half full of water, and put into it a sufficient quantity
of the soil to be examined to fill two or three inches of the tube
at the bottom; then put in a cork, and having shaken the tube
well, to mix its contents thoroughly, set it in an upright position
for the soil to settle. Now, asthe largest particles are of course
heaviest, they fall first, and form the undermost layer, and so on
in regular gradation, the impalpable powder forming the upper
stratum. By examining the various layers and noting their pro-
portions you may make a very good mechanical analysis of soils.”
Soils must also be examined in reference to their consistency
or tenacity, which is nothing more than the strength with which
their molecules or particles are bound to each other by what is
~
* See “ The Garden,” Chapter I.
20 Tue Farm.
called, in the language of natural philosophy, the attraction of — ia
>
m
cohesion. Clayey soils have the greatest degree of consistency, __
and sandy soils the least. Both extremes are unfavorable, a ;
medium in this respect agreeing best with vegetation.
2. Depth of Soil.—Another very important point is depth of
soil. A deep soil has not only the advantage of giving the roots
of plants a wider range and a greater mass of food, but it retains
moisture better in seasons of drouth, and is not so readily sat-
urated in rainy weather. For the tap-rooted plants, such as
beets, carrots, parsneps, etc., depth of soil is particularly im-
portant. :
8. Colors of Soils.—Soils are of various colors—black, white,
gray, yellow, red, etc., and the effects and indications of these
hues are not to be disregarded in estimating the value of land
for agricultural purposes. The brown and red soils are gener-
ally best. They are termed warm, and are mostly loamy and
fertile. Yellow and gray indicate clayey soils, which are cold in
their nature. Black generally indicates peat or deep vegetable
mold. Dark-colored earths absorb heat more rapidly than
others, but they also allow it to escape with equal readiness.
4. Humidity of Soils.—Too great moisture is not less injurious
to a soil than extreme dryness. The proper medium should
be sought, and where land is too wet, thorough underdrain-
ing should be practiced. But more on this point in another
chapter.
5. Influence of Subsoils—A subsoil of clay beneath a clayey
soil is unfavorable; but beneath a sandy soil it is beneficial,
especially if deep plowing and subsoiling be resorted to, for the
. purpose of improving the latter. On the same principle a sandy
or gravelly subsoil is desirable under clayey soils, as it permits
F the infiltration of any superabundant moisture, and may ameli-
orate the soil by mixing with it. A calcareous or limy sub- —
h soil is beneficial to both clayey and sandy soils.
. 6. Position and Form of Surface.—The position in which a
4 piece of land lies and the form of its surface increases or detracts
‘ from its value according to its composition. Sandy soils are
‘<
aa
SoiLs. 21
most fertile when flat and situated lower than the surrounding
country. On the declivities of hills, such soil is of less value,
as it is liable to become parched by drouths and washed away
by rains. Clayey soils, on the contrary, especially where the
subsoil is impermeable, are favorably situated when on a hill-
side. Southern and eastern exposures are favorable to early
vegetation, and in a cold climate or with a clayey soil are very
desirable for many crops.
IV.—_IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS
Even the most valuable farms generally contain many acres
which require considerable amelioration, aside from ordinary
culture and manuring, to bring them into the highest state of
fertility of which they are capable; and the farmer should be
well acquainted with the various means and methods to be
made use of in improving each kind of soil.
The means of ameliorating soils may be divided into two
classes, mechanical and chemical. The former includes drain-
ing, trenching, subsoil plowing, paring, the addition of various
substances to improve texture, etc.; the latter embraces the
various kinds of manures. Practically, however, the two
classes run into each other, the mechanical processes leading
to chemical changes, and the addition of manures to mechanical
improvement.
To draining and manures, separate chapters will be devoted.
We will speak here briefly of a few other means of improve-
ment which should not be neglected.
1. Improving Clayey Soils.—One of the principal defects of
clayey soils, especially where they rest upon a subsoil of the
same nature, is the excess of water which is heldin them. The
only effectual way, in a majority of cases, to get rid of this is
by thorough underdraining. This draws off by imperceptible
degrees all the excess of water and opens the soil to the free
admission of the air, which in its passage through it imparts
warmth and such fertilizing gases as it may contain. Open
drains or ditches, though less effectual, are useful. In some
SE .
ee ee ae lg Pee aT
een
Yi ee
- serve a very good purpose.
92 THE Farm.
eases “water furrows,” terminating in some ravine or ditch, —
To break the too great tenacity of clayey soils, sand seems to
be the ingredient indicated ; but so large a quantity is required
to produce the desired effect, that its application on a large
scale is generally considered impracticable. Lime is exceed-
ingly useful as an ameliorator of clayey soils, inducing chemical
combinations the mechanical effect of which is to break up the
too great tenacity of the clay, while it adds, at the same time,
an element of fertility which may perhaps be wanting. Gyp-
sum or plaster of Paris has the same effect in a still more power-
ful degree. Ashes, coarse vegetable manures, straw, leaves,
chips, etc., are also very useful, adding new materials to the soil
and tending to separate its particles and destroy their strong co-
hesion. In cold climates, plowing clayey lands in the fall, and
thus exposing them to the action of the frosts and snows, has a
beneficial effect. At the South, where there is little frost, and
frequent and heavy rains occur during the winter, the effect of
fall plowing is very iujurious. Olayey lands must never be
plowed when wet.
Where a clayey soil rests upon a sandy subsoil its improve-
ment is easier, as deep plowing, by which a portion of the sub-
soil is turned up and mixed with tbe soil, soon modifies it very
sensibly.
In Europe, paring off the surface containing vegetable matter,
drying, and burning it, and spreading the charred mass to which
it is thus reduced upon the surface, to become again mixed
with it, is frequently resorted to for the improvement of clayey
soils; but this process is too expensive to be generally applic-
able in this country, where labor is so dear and land so cheap.
2. Improving Sandy Soils—Sandy soils require a treatment
in most respects the reverse of that applied to clayey soils. Clay
is the great ameliorator, and as the quantity required to produce
a decided beneficial effect is not great, it may generally, when it
can be obtained in the immediate neighborhood, be applied __
with profit. It should be thinly spread in the fall uponsward
Sorts. 23
land previously plowed, so that the frosts of winter may act upon
it and separate its particles. The land should be thoroughly -
harrowed in the spring and subsequently plowed, if necessary.
Lime and gypsum, which render clayey soils more friable, in-
crease the adhesiveness of sandy soils, and when cheaply ob-
tained furnish a profitable dressing. Ashes may also be ap
plied with great benefit, as may vegetable manures and vege-
table mold. Sandy soils are plowed to the greatest advantage
when wet, and are improved by the frequent use of a heavy
roller. Pasturing sheep upon them is very beneficial.
Gravelly soils (except calcareous gravels) are more difficult
of improvement than sandy soils, and are most profitably ap-
propriated to pasturage. Sheep will keep them in the most
useful condition of which they are capable.
3. Improvement of Vegetable Soils—Soils composed mainly
of humus or vegetable mold, such as are found on low, swampy
levels, and sometimes called peaty soils, are generally, in their
natural state, totally unfit for any profitable vegetation. When
it is desirable to cultivate such a soil, the first processis to drain
from it all the excess of water whichit may contain. Then the
hommocks, if any, must be cut off, dried, and burned, and the
ashes spread over the surface; after which sand, fine gravel,
ashes, air-slacked lime, and barn-yard manure should be liber-
ally added. These soils, thus ameliorated, make valuable grass
lands, but require subsequent dressings of sand, lime, ashes,
etc., as their fertility decreases.
4. Management of Subsoils.—We have already spoken of the
benefits resulting from mixing the soil and subsoil by deep plow-
ing, in cases where they are of adifferentnature. To break up
the subsoil and prepare it for mixing, and also to deepen soils
and give the roots of plants a greater scope, a variety of sub-
soil plows have been invented. In subsoil plowing a common
plow goes first and is followed in the same furrow by the sub-
soil plow, which thoroughly breaks up the subsoil to the depth
of from twelve to sixteen inches, without displacing it. At
subsequent plowings portions of this subsoil are turned up by
94 THE Farm.
allowing the common plow to run more deeply than before; _
but care should be taken not to bring it up too rapidly or in toc
large quantities.
Besides allowing the roots of plants to penetrate more deep-
ly in search of nutriment and moisture, subsoil plowing, by
opening the stratum broken up to the action of the atmosphere,
gradually prepares it to become an integral part of the soil,
increases its warmth by making it a better conductor of heat,
and renders it far less liable to suffer from drouth. This last
point is particularly important, as subsoiled lands frequently
produce excellent crops in seasons in which those subjected to
common plowing alone fail to return even the seed deposited
in them. Subsoil plowing should be repeated once in five or
six years; going each time a little deeper than before, till the
greatest practical depth is attained.
Subsoil plowing is not applicable, however, to all lands.
Where the subsoil is loose and leachy, consisting of an excess of
sand or gravel, it is not only unnecessary but positively injurious.
The gradual mixing of the subsoil with the soil which results
from subsoil plowing is especially beneficial to lands which
have been for a long time under cultivation, and have become
partially exhausted. A fresh supply of the inorganic elements
is thus furnished for the nourishment of vegetation, and new
avenues opened to those powerful agents of fertilizing decom-
position, the air and the rains.
Where underdraining is required, it should precede the sub-
soiling, and the surface of the drains should be sufficiently
below the surface not to be disturbed by the subsoil plow.
With the exception we have noted, where the subsoil is loose
and leachy, subsoil plowing, though expensive, will most cer-
tainly ‘‘ pay,” as experience has amply proved.
The subject of improving soils will be continued in the next
two chapters, under the heads of Manures and Draining.
MANURES. 25
IT
MANURES.
Manures, in soms orm, must be considered absolutely essential to sustaining soils subjected
to tillage.—Allen.
I.—NECESSITY OF MANURES.
we, >
“ R11
i bee
SS y (‘ 4
3 MS = ff ey, Lf
SS =, q i i 4 w (} a
: uy teaver soils remain covered by unbroken for-
if ests, they not only retain their fertility, but
i actually grow richer and richer from year to
-* year, notwithstanding the vast amount of nutritive
* matter annually absorbed by the roots of the grow-
\ ing trees. Everything thus taken from them is ulti-
mately returned with interest. The leaves and
broken twigs, and eventually the branches, trunk, and roots, in
their decay, give back not only what they received from the
soil, but much, in addition, that they have elaborated from the
atmosphere. We receive from the hands of nature no worn-
out lands; but her system of tillage is very different from
ours.
The productive power of soils subjected to cultivation is grad-
ually exhausted by the process. Some of the alluvial lands of
Virginia produced large annual crops of corn and tobacco for
more than a century, without any return being made to them
for the elements of fertility abstracted; but these lands are now
nearly valueless. The secondary ‘‘ bottoms” of the Scioto and
26 Tue Farm.
Miami may retain an apparently undiminished fertility for a
still longer period, but they must ultimately fail, and unless a
system of cultivation radically different from that now pursued
be adopted, become like the worn-out lands of some of the
older portions of the country. Reliable statistical tables prove
beyond a doubt that, notwithstanding our improved farm im-
plements and superior methods of cultivation, the average
yield, per acre, of the cultivated lands of the State of New York
has decreased considerably since 1844, when the records on
which these tables are founded were commenced. In corn the
decrease is nearly four bushels per acre; in wheat nearly two
bushels; and in potatoes, partly owing to the rot, no doubt,
twenty-two and a half bushels. The falling off would have
been still greater had not deeper tillage and better husbandry
furnished a partial offset to the decreased fertility of the soil.
These are instructive facts, and should cause the farmer to
pause and reflect.
The fruitfulness of a soil is decreased or increased according
to inexorable laws. With each crop that is taken from a plot
of ground a greater or less amount of each of the elements of
fertility—silex, potash, lime, soda, magnesia, chlorine, ete.—is
necessarily removed. Another portion is lost in the process of
cultivation independently of what is taken up by the plants.
Continue this process year after year, and what must be the
result? Ultimate barrenness, of course. There is no remedy
but to supply in the form of manures what is thus taken away.
The farmer must feed the land which feeds him and so many
3 others, or in the end all must starve together. In the older
| portions of our country at least, the time has come when the
importance of manuring should be more fully appreciated.
Il—THE FOOD OF PLANTS.
In burning a dried plant of any kind, we find that the great-
er portion of it is dissipated in the process, Generally only
from three to ten per cent. is left. This is in the form of ash —
2 or ashes. The portion driven off has evidently disappeared in
c i
ee fe ‘ rT oN
i a m sid as ry % ibe 7
MANURES. 27
the air, in a gaseous form. It is found by a method of unalysis
which we can not here stop to describe, that it was composed ~
of four elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
These are called the organic parts of plants.
An analysis of the incombustible portion remaining shows
it to be composed, as a general rule, of these ten substances—
potash, soda, magnesia, lime, oxyd of iron, oxyd of manganese,
silica, chlorine, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. All these
substances are generally present in our cultivated crops, but
not invariably ; one or two of them being sometimes absent.
In some species of plants one of these is wanting and in other
species another, and the proportions vary greatly in different
species of plants. Of these differences we shall have occasion
to speak further under the head of rotation of crops.
Both the organic and inorganic parts of plants are made up
from their food, which must of course consist of both organic
and inorganic materials. The former are obtained partly from
the soil and partly from the air; the latter come exclusively
from the soil. A fertile soil must therefore contain, in sufficient
quantity and in an available form, all the constituents of plants ;
and to maintain its fertility under cultivation, these constituents
must be supplied in the form of manures so fast as they are
taken up by the crops produced.
The food of plants, so far as it is derived from the soil, is all
received through the roots in a state of solution; and the roots
have, to a certain extent, the power of selecting their food and
of rejecting whatever would prove hurtful to the plant. Dele-
terious agents brought in contact with them may, however,
under certain circumstances, be takea up by mere capillary at-
traction, and the plant thereby poisoned.
Ill.—WHAT THE DIFFERENT CROPS TAKE FROM THE SOIL.
In examining the ash of the different cultivated plants, we
observe, as we have already hinted, great differences in the
proportions in which the various elements exist. The ash from
the stem or the leaves of a plant and from the seeds of the same
28 “Tur HAgm: ee - ‘
plant also varies considerably. The following table gives the —
composition of our most common cultivated crops:
%
Indian
Corn Wheat,
Carbonic acid..... a trace — _ —_ _ 10.4); — _—
Sulphuric acid.... m5) 1.0} -1.0]_ 1.5}, 10.5 7.1 |, 38.6i)veetea
Phosphoric acid..| 49.2) 47.0} 8.1] 47.8] 48.8} 11.8] 7.6) 6.0
Chlorine ......... 0.3 |a trace! 0.6 — 0.3 2.7 3.5 2.6
DUG se eae siete. = 0.1 2.9 8.5 2.9 | 4.9 1.8} 18.6] 22.9
Magnesia ........ 17.5 15.9 5.0} 10.1] 9.9 5.4) 68| 87
IPOLISI Sees co cle.s s 23.2 29.5 7.2) 82.8| 27.2 51.5 | 42.0] 18.2
Sodan sii. sks ese 8.8 ja trace| 0.3 4.4] 27.2 ja trace| 5.2 2.8
ICR ycic,s ere cielstoe 0.9 1.3) 67.6 02) 2.7 8.6| 7.9] 87.9
MYO os Sonatas 0.1 |a trace} 1.0 0.8} 0.4 0.5 1.3 1.7
HEOSSS wis.c's(etaisinis wise 4.5 2.4) 5.7 _ 0.3 07; — _
100.0 | 100.0 100.0 | 100.0 | 160.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0
With reference to the character of their ash, we may arrange
these crops into three grand classes:
1. The grains in which phosphoric acid predominates
2. The roots in which potash and soda abound.
3. The grasses in which lime is an important element.
In straw and the stems of the grasses silica is abundant, con-
stituting from one half to two thirds of the whole weight. The
wood of trees gives an ash in which lime is a prominent ingre-
dient. There are particularly large quantities in that of fruit-
trees.
The foregoing facts furnish hints toward a sound system of
manuring, and show how important to the farmer is a knowledge
of the composition and mode of action of the various manures.
IV.—CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF MANURES.
Manure, in the broadest sense of the word, is anything which
added to the soil, either directly or indirectly, promotes the
growth of plants. All manures might be considered under
two heads-- -organic and inorganic ; but it will better serve our
present purpose to arrange them in three grand classes, veget-
wble, animal, and mineral. 3
1. VEGETABLE ManuREs.
Vegetable manures are not so energetic in their action ag
MANURES. Y9
those of animal or mineral origin, but their effects are more
durable; and the wise agriculturist will avail himself largely of
the cheap means of ameliorating his soil which they afford.
1. Green Crops.—Plowing in green crops, such as clover,
spurry, sainfoin, buckwheat, cow-peas, turnips (sown thickly),
Indian corn, etc., is one of the best modes of renovating and
sustaining a soil. Worn-out-lands, unsalable at ten dollars
an acre, have by this means, while steadily remunerating their
proprietors by their returning crops for all the outlay of labor
and money, been brought up in value to fifty dollars an acre.
For the Northern States red clover has been found best fitted
for a green manure; but in particular cases some other crop
may be used with greater advantage. At the South, the cow-
pea (which is no pea, but a bean) is considered the best fertilizer.
R. L. Allen, in the “ American Farm Book,” says, ‘‘ The advan-
tages of green manures consist mainly in the addition of organic
matter which they make to the soil. The presence of this aids
in the liberation of those mineral ingredients which are there
locked up, and which, on being set free, act with so much ad-
vantage to the crop. The roots also exert a power in effecting
this decomposition, beyond any other known agents, either of
nature or art. Their minute fibers are brought into contact
with the elements of the soil and they act upon them with a
force peculiar to themselves alone. Their agency is far more
efficacious for this purpose than the intensest heat or strongest
acids, persuading the elements to give up for their own use
what is essential to their maturity and perfection. By sub-
stituting a crop for a naked fallow, we have all the fibers of the
roots throughout the field, aiding the decomposition which is
slowly going forward in every soil.
_ “Clover and most broad-leaved plants draw largely for their
sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the appli-
_eation of gypsum. By its long tap roots, clover also draws
much from the subsoil; as all plants appropriate such saline
substances as are necessary to their maturity, and which are
brought to their roots in a state of solution, by the up-welling
_ of improvement to the soil. The amount of carbon drawn
30 THE Farm.
moisture from beneath. This last is frequently a great source
from the air in the state of carbonic acid, and of ammonia and —
nitric acid, under favorable circumstances of soil and crop, is
very great; and when buried beneath the surface, all are saved
and yield their fertility to the land; while such vegetation as —
decays on the surface loses much of its value by evaporation
and drainage. In the green state, fermentation is rapid, and ~
by resolving the matter of plants into their elements, it fits the
ground at once for a succeeding crop.”
The proper time to turn in most plants used as green manure
is at the season of blossoming.
The same effects follow the plowing of grass lands, and turn-
ing under the turf; and the thicker and heavier the sward the
better, since then a larger amount of organic matter in the form
of roots is added to the soil.
1. Straw, Leaves, etc.—Straw, leaves, hay are usually applied
to the lands after they have either been worked over by ani-
mals and mixed with their manures, or composted with other
substances and decomposed; but clayey soils are benefited by
their application in an undecayed state.
Potato tops or haulm; bean haulm; weeds, pulled before
they have seeded, and all kinds of vegetable refuse, are readily ‘
decomposed by the addition of a small quantity of animal sub-
stances or lime, and should be carefully composted. ;
3. Sea-weed.—Sea-weed and pond-weed form valuable ma-
nures. The former is particularly rich in the substances most
needed by our crops, the ash containing, according to Professor
Johnston, the following constituents and proportions : :
POtASH AME SOOD 5:0 « o0\0'e ere «1s o/'c eistelefuise ofataiialeieaiara from 15 to 40 per cent.
TG TG ase as siphon is eisict clos anes minisheceisremla see enineee SS ee Si ee
NTS Ser PHIL eratel ate cite inlets feloin’elainiontcn alae = ipia(a einen ote stamina fete (ak
COMMON Ral bite o ers ani eaten tes sole cial teens eke 6) 3 Seab ee
Phosphate of iMe <e semteiee se wicleejnasiee-eielesies =e 6) BESO ae
sri And tah Hagman ae Sanne ae seme Sa Srie 14 SI
BEC osu tis cov oe sive te me ceemmitonl nen ee myetew ae 60) Sea
MANURES. él :
portunity of getting it. It may be plowed in green or applied
as acompost. In either case, it decomposes very rapidly, and
its effects are immediately seen.
4, Cotton Seed.—At the South, cotton seed is much used as a
manure, and is very valuable for that purpose. It is applied at
the rate of from eighty to a hundred bushels per acre. It may
be sown broadcast and plowed in during the winter, when it
will rot before spring, or it may be left in heaps to heat till its
vitality is destroyed, when it may be thrown upon the corn
hills and covered with the hoe or plow.
5. Turf, Muck, Mud, ete.—Rich turf, full of the roots of the
grasses and decayed vegetable matter, is valuable as an absorb-
_ent of animal or other manures in compost heaps. Mixing it with
lime, and leaving it several weeks to decompose, is a good pre-
paratory process.
Swamp muck, pond mud, and the scourings of old ditches,
are exceedingly rich in vegetable matter, and may as well be
mentioned here as anywhere else. These are all exceedingly
useful as manures; but differ in richness according to the cir-
cumstances under which they have been formed. When there
is no outlet for the water and sediments, and the mud, besides
containing a large proportion of salts, the result of ages of evap-
oration, is the receptacle of the remains of myriads of minute
shell-fish, animalcule, infusoria, and the spawn and exuvia of
frogs and other occupants, the mud is especially valuable. Such
reservoirs of vegetable nutrition are mines of wealth to the
farmer, if judiciously applied.
Dana, in his valuable ‘‘ Muck Manual,” says:
“The salts of geine* in a cord of peat are equal to the ma-
nure of one cow for three months. It is certainly very curious
that Nature herself should have prepared a substance whose
agricultural value approaches so near to cow-dung, the type of
manures. Departing from cow-dung, and wandering through
* Geine, in its agricultural sense, includes all the decomposed organic mate
ters of the soil. In some form it is absolutely essential to agriculture.
32 THe Farm.
all the varieties of animal and vegetable manures, we land in a
peat-bog. The substance under our feet is analyzed, and found
to be cow-dung, without its musky breath of cow odor, or the
power of generating ammonia, except some varieties of peat.
..... The power of producing alkaline action on the in-
soluble geine is alone wanting to make it equal to cow-dung.”
According to this statement, we have but to add an alkali
in the proper proportion, to produce a manure equally valu-
able with cow-dung. From sixteen to twenty-four bushels, ac-
cording to their strength, of wood ashes, or about sixty pounds
of soda ash, will supply in full the lacking elements; but as
clear cow-dung may profitably be mixed with two parts of loam
or muck, so two thirds of the alkali may be omitted from the
muck mixture, to make it correspond with the cow-dung com-
post.
“The best plan,” Dana says, “for preparing the artificial ma-
nure, is to dig the peat in the fall, and mix it in the spring with
eight bushels of common house ashes or twenty pounds of soda
ash to every cord of muck, estimating the quantity when fresh
dug, and making no allowance for shrinkage. If ashes be used,
they may be mixed at once with the muck, but the soda ash
should be dissolved in water and the heap evenly wet with it.
In either case it must be well shoveled over. If leached or
spent ashes be used, add one cord to three cords of the muck.”
The salt and lime mixture, described in another section,
may be added to muck in the proportions of four bushels of the
mixture to one cord of the muck, making a very effective ma-
nure; or the latter may be composted with stable manure or
any animal matter found about the house or barn.
2. AntmaL MANuRES.
These comprise the flesh, blood, hair, bones, horns, excre-
ments, etc., of animals. They contain more nitrogen than vege
etable manures, and are far more powerful.
1. Stable Manures.—The standard manure of this country
is that from the stable and barn-yard. The principal varietiea
: ~ oe
~ “+ ee ee
_ = h a ee eee Se a ee ee
MAnvres. 33
are those of the ox, the cow, the horse, and the sheep. Of
these, that of the horse is the most valuable in its fresh state,
but is very liable, as ordinarily treated, to lose much of its value
by fermentation ; that of the sheep comes next; while that of
the cow is placed at the bottom of the list, because the enrich-
ing substance of her food goes principally to the formation of
milk. That of the ox is better. The value of each of these
manures varies aiso with the food and condition of the animals
from whom it is obtained.
The manure of any animal is richer than the food given to it,
because it contains, in addition to the residuum of the food, cer-
tain particles belonging to the body of the animal. The extent
- to which it is animalized depends upon the thoroughness of the
digestion, fatness of the animal, and the drain made upon the
elements of nutrition by the system. The manure of well-kept
cattle, it is readily seen, is far more valuable than that from
those which are barely kept alive.
All the urine, as well as the solid excrements of animals,
should be carefully preserved. It is very rich in nitrogen and
the phosphates, and some writers on agriculture contend that
its value, if properly preserved and applied, is greater than that
of the dung.~ From an experiment made in Scotland, it appears
that in five months each cow discharges urine which when ab-
sorbed by loam furnishes manure enough of the richest quality
and most durable effects for half an acre of ground. Think of
this, ye American farmers, who are accustomed to allow so
much of this richness to run to waste! The urine of three cows
jor one year 1s worth more than a ton of guano, which would
cost from fifty to sixty dollars! Will you continue to waste
urine and buy guano? Various methods of preserving ana
applying it will suggest themselves to the intelligent farmer.
Stables may be so constructed that the liqiuid discharges of the
cattle, together with the wash of the barn-yard, may be con-
ducted to a tank or cistern, to be pumped out and applied di-
rectly to the land, or absorbed by saw-dust, charcoal dust, turf,
etc., and used in that form. If allowed to stand long in the
ea
384 THE Farm.
tank, in a liquid form, fermentation is liable to take place, and
the ammonia to pass off; but a few pounds of plaster of Paris
occasionally thrown in will cause the formation of the sulphate
of ammonia, which will not evaporate.
But the waste of manures is not confined to thos: of the
liquid form. The solid excrements of the animals are often
left to drain, bleach, or ferment, till the greater portion of their
most valuable elements have disappeared. Stable manures
should be sheltered from the sun and rain, and fermenting heaps
so covered with turf or loam as to prevent the escape of the fer-
tilizing gases. Plaster, as in the case of urine, will aid in re-
taining the ammonia. Boussingault, one of the most accurate
of experimenters in agricultural chemistry, states that while
the nitrogen in fresh horse-dung is two and seven tenths per
cent., that in the fermented and dried dung is only one per cent.
Horse-dung should be mixed at once with other manures, or
with turf or loam, to retain its full value. The manure of sheep
is strong and very active, and, next to that of the horse, is most
liable to heat and decompose,
2. Hog Manure.—The manure of swine is strong and valu-
able. Swamp muck, weeds, straw, leaves, etc., should be thrown
into the sty in liberal quantities, to be rooted over and mixed
with the dung. In this way from five to ten loads of manure
per annum may be ebtained from a single hog.
3. The Manure of Fouwls, ete—The excrements of birds con-
tain both the feces and urine combined, and are exceedingly
rich in nitrogen and the phosphates. The manure of hens, —
turkeys, geese, ducks, and pigeons should be carefully collected
and preserved. Do not think that because the quantity is
small, it is hardly worth the trouble of collection. Professor
Norton says that three or four hundred pounds of such ma-
nure, that has not been exposed to the rain or sun, is equal in
value to from fourteen to eighteen loads of stable manure! It
may be kept dry, reduced to a powder, and applied as a top
dressing, or formed into a compost with muck, turf, decayed
leaves, charcoal dust, or other absorbents. If exposed to the Ee
MANURES. 35
weather uncovered, much of its value is quickly destroyed.
The custom adopted by some farmers of mixing the excrements
of fowls with unleached ashes, quick-lime, etc., is not founded
on correct principles, and inevitably deteriorates the manure.
4, Guano.—Guano is formed from the excrements of sea-
birds, mixed with the remains of the fish on which they prey,
their own carcasses, and other anima! matters. It is found in
tropical latitudes, where it seldom rains, and where immense
numbers of sea-birds have resorted for ages, to build their nests
and rear their young. Here their excrements, etc., have accu-
mulated till beds of from fifteen to thirty feet in thickness have
im some instances been formed. Of its value as a manure there
can be no doubt; but circumstances must determine whether
in any given case it can profitably be purchased and applied at
the prices at which it is held.
Professor Norton gives the composition of a few of the lead-
ing varieties of guano as follows:
6) ie Mat-
VARIETY. Water, per | ‘ter and Am. | Phosphates,
cent. x :
moniacal Salts.
LEO LTTE a cs ih cs I a A 5-7 56-64 25-29
PRO EIEV AMIR hoas stance boca ieie eS @ietaia are oiae «- 7-10 56-66 16-28
(CERI as Se Ae ee eo a a 10-13 50-56 22-30
Welt bOe Nene on eks)- lage Sed avacie das 18-26 86-44 21-29
The guano of commerce is often adulterated, and great cau-
tion should be exercised in buying it. That purchased directly
from the agent in Peru, in New York, may, it is said, be relied
upon as absolutely pure.
In applying guano, care should be taken that it do not come
in contact with any seed, as it might destroy its vitality.
5. Hish Manures.—These are available near the sea-coast
only, where they furnish an important source of fertility, which
should not be neglected. The flesh of fish acts with great
energy in hastening the growth of plants. It decomposes
rapidly, and should be at once plowed under, or made into a
well-covered compost heat.
6. Night Soil_—From the analysis of Berzelius, the exere-
Ny ce akc
86 THE Farm.
J 7 y
ments of a healthy man yielded—water, 733; albumen, 9; bile, _
9; mucilage, fat, and the animal matters, 167; saline matters, — %
12; and undecomposed food, 70, in 1,000 parts. When freed
from water, 1,000 parts left, of ash, 182; and this yielded—ear-
bonate of soda, 8; sulphate of soda, with a little sulphate of
potash and phosphate of soda, 8; phosphate of lime and mag-
nesia, and a trace of gypsum, 100; silica, 16.
Human urine, according to the same authority, gives in every
1,000 parts—of water, 933; urea, 30.1; uricacid,1; free acetie
acid, lactate of ammonia, and inseparable animal matter, 17.1;
mucus of the bladder, .38; sulphate of potash, 3.7; sulphate of
soda, 3.2; phosphate of soda, 2.9; phosphate of ammonia, 1.6;
common salt, 4.5; sal-ammoniac, 1.5; phosphates of lime and — ;
magnesia, with a trace of silica and of fluoride of calcium, 1.1.
Urea is a solid product of urine, and, according to Prout,
gives—of carbon, 19.99; oxygen, 26.63; hydrogen, 6.65; nitro-
gen, 46.65, in 100 parts. The analyses of Wcehler and Liebig
differ immaterially from this. Such are the materials, abound-
ing in every ingredient that can minister to the production of.
plants, which are suffered to waste in the air, and taint its
purity and healthfulness. Boussingault considers the excre-
ments of a single man during a year sutiicient to produce four-
teen and a half bushels of wheat.
Doubtless much of the waste of night-soil, which has been
permitted in this country, has resulted from the offensive odor
it imparts and the supposed difficulty of managing it. These
difficulties are easily obviated in various ways. Allen, in
his ‘ American Farm Book,” recommends that tight wooden
boxes, with hooks on the outer side, to which a team may be at-
tached for drawing them out, be placed under the privy. These
boxes should have a layer of charcoal dust, charred peat, or
plaster of Paris at the bottom, and others successively as they
become filled. These materials are cheap, compact, and read-
ily combine with the volatile gases. Sulphuric acid is more
efficient than either, but more expensive. Quick-lime will neu-
tralize the odor, but it expels the enriching qualities; andifithe
Manurre- 37
intended to use the night-soil, lime should never be mixed with
it. Both the charcoal and peat condense and retain the gases ~
in their pores, and the sulphuric acid of the gypsum leaves the
lime, and like the free acid, combines with the ammonia, form-
ing sulphate of ammonia, an inodorous and powerful fertilizer.
Raw peat, turf, dry tan-bark, saw-dust, and leached ashes are
all good; but as more bulk is needed to effect the object, their
use is attended with greater inconvenience. From its great
tendency to decompose, night soil should be immediately cov-
ered with earth when exposed to the air.
7. Flesh, Blood, Hair, etc.—Dead animals, the blood and of-
fal from slaughter-houses, are among the most powerful of fer-
tilizers—equal to guano and the other costly manures; and yet
it is not uncommon to see horses or cattle that die from disease
drawn out into the wood to decay on the surface of the ground.
Every animal that dies should be made into compost at once.
Covered with a few inches of turf or loam, decomposition goes
on without the loss of the fertilizing element, and a manure of
the most valuable kind is produced. In large animals the flesh
should be separated from the bones, and the latter be subjected
to one of the processes described in the next section.
Hair, woolen rags, leather shavings from the shoe-shops, and
all other refuse animal matters, should be carefully preserved
and composted, as they make very rich manure.
8. Bones.—The value of bones as a manure is just beginning
to be appreciated in this country. ‘They unite,’ Professor
Norton says, ‘‘some of the most efficacious and desirable organic
and inorganic manures.” Boiled bones have lost most of their
organic parts, but are still very valuable, being rich in phos-
phate of lime. They are generally crushed to fine fragments
in mills, and thus applied to the land. Another way of apply-
ing them is in a state of solution, by sulphuric acid (oil of vit-
_ viol). Professor Norton thus describes the process of dissolv-
ing them:
“To every hundred pounds of bones, from fifty to sixty pounds
of the acid is taken; or if bone-dust be used, from twenty-five to
:
hi,
ws
RY
*
38 PR BARM.
forty-five pounds of the acid will be sufficient. The acid must
be diluted with three times its bulk of water. The bones are — b
placed in a tub and a portion of the acid, previously diluted,
poured upon them. After standing a day, another portion ot
the acid may be poured on; and finally the last on the third
day, if they be not already dissolved. The mass should be —
often stirred. It will dissolve into a kind of paste, which may
be mixed with twenty or thirty times its bulk of water, and
applied to the land by means of an ordinary water cart; but a
more convenient method, in most cases, is to thoroughly mix
the pasty mass with a large quantity of coal ashes, earth, saw-
dust, or charcoal dust. It can then be sown by hand or dropped ©
from a drill machine, Two or three bushels of these dissolved
bones, with half the usual quantity of yard manure, will be suf-
ficient for an acre.”
Bones make a cheap as well as a rich manure, and no thought-
ful farmer will suffer one to be wasted about his house.
8. Minerat Manurgs.
1. Lime.—Lime is applied to land in three different states—
as quick-lime, slaked lime, and mild or air-slaked lime. To
cold, stiff, newly drained land, especially if there exist in it
much of acid organic compounds, it is best to apply quick-lime
or caustic hydrate (slaked lime), as it will have a more energetic
effect in ameliorating it. On light soils mild or air-slaked
lime is considered most beneficial. It is best to apply lime
frequently and in small quantities, so as to keep it near the sur-
face and always active.
Lime, as we have seen, is an essantill ingredient in soil, being
constantly needed by the plants in all their parts. It may always
be added with profit wherever it does not already exist in suf-
ficient quantity.
2. Maris.—In true mar] the principal element of fertility is
the lime which it contains; but its value is increased by the
greater or less proportion of magnesia and phosphoric acid a
which are usually combined with it. a
eee eae,
MCANCRES. 39
A yaluable mineral fertilizer generally called marl, but which
contains comparatively little lime, abounds in parts of New
Jersey and Delaware. Its predominant characteristic is a green
granular mineral or sand. The carbonate of lime in shells,
scattered through it, varies from ten to twenty per cent. in some
specimens, while others are almost entirely destitute of it. The
secret of its value lies chiefly in the from ten to twelve per cent.
of potash which the best specimens contain. Magnesia is also
often present. Its effects upon the light sandy soils of New
Jersey are very striking indeed.
3. Gypsum.—Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is a sulphate of
lime, and has been found one of the cheapest and most power-
ful fertilizers derived from the mineral kingdom. In reference
to the manner in which plaster acts there has been some con-
troversy among agricultural chemists; some contending that it
serves as a direct food of certain plants, while others maintain
that its utility is due to its power of absorbing gases and hold-
ing them in contact with the roots of plants. Late experiments
_seem to prove that it acts in both these modes. When scat-
tered over compost heaps, it is known to absorb ammonia and
prevent its escape. On grass lands it is best to sow it in damp
weather or while the dew is on. Sow broadcast at the rate of
a bushel to the acre. Seed potatoes may be wet and rolled in
plaster before planting with decided advantage; and we know
of no better way of applying it to corn than to give the seed a
coat before putting it inthe ground. Hon. A. B. Dickenson’s
mode of applying plaster, lime, etc., is an excellent one. We
insert his directions as given in one of his inimitable agricultu-
ral addresses: ‘I will tell you how you can put a coat of tar
over all kinds of seed as evenly as a painter could put a coat of-
paint over a board with his brush. An iron kettle is the best
to mix the tar and water. Have sufficient boiling water to cut
the tar; mix it with the hot water; then pour in sufficient cold
to make it near blood heat. Have sufficient water to stir what-
ever grain you put in, that the water and tar may come into
eontact with every part and particle; it will then be coated
aie: AGO aaa
Tol x
a 3 Te
40 Tur Farm. Bane ane
evenly and is ready to be taken out. Shovel it intoa ase
for economy the basket may be placed over a tight barrel te
catch the water; us soon as it is done draining, throw into a
tight box, where you can mix and put on whatever your soil
lacks. If wheat or barley, you need not fear to apply lime and
salt. If oats, corn, or buckwheat, plaster and salt. And on
the soils of Yates County it would be beneficial to all of the
above-named grains, to steep in strong brine over night. Every —
species of grass seed I sow with a heavy coat, and fasten as
much plaster as possible, which draws moisture in a dry season,
and prevents rotting in an excessively wet one, and I never fail
to have my grass seed take well.”
4. Common Sali, etc—Common salt or chloride of sodium
has been in use for ages as a fertilizer, and its great value can
not be disputed. As an ingredient in compost, it is of great
service, and operates with an influence upon the soil which can
be produced by no other stimulant, either mineral or vegetable.
As to top dressing for grass lands—especially those of a loamy
texture—it is invaluable. Mixed with wood ashes and lime, in
the proportion of one bushel of salt to three of ashes and five
of lime, it constitutes a very energetic manure for Indian corn
—producing an early and vigorous germination of the seed, and
acting as an eflicier.t protection against the ravages of the vari-
ous insectivorous enemies by which the young plants are too
frequently infested and destroyed.
A very useful and energetic mixture is made by the following
simple process:
‘“Take three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of
salt in as little water as will dissolve it, and slake the lime with
it. Ifthe lime will not take up all the brine at once—-which it
will if good and fresh burned—turn it over and let it lie a day
and add a little move of the brine; and so continue to do till it
is all taken up.”
This mixture will supply plants with chlorine, lime, and soda,
all of which are essential; destroy the odor of putrefying animal
matters, while it retains the ammonia, and promotes the de: o ‘
MANURES. 41
zomposition of vegetable and animal matters in the soil or
compost heap to which it may be applied. The farmer should
keep a quantity of this mixture constantly on hand.
Brine which has been used for salting meat or fish is still
more valuable than that newly made, as it contains a portion
o blood and other animal matter.
Whenever refuse nitrate of potash—that is, common salt-
peter—or refuse liquid in which it has been dissolved for
pickling meat, can be procured, it should be carefully preserved |
and mixed into a compost heap.
There are various other salts which are valuable as manures,
but the high price at which they are sold precludes their use
in ordinary cases.
5. Ashes.—Ashes, as we have seen, compose the entire inor-
ganic parts of plants. Returned to the soil, they may again be
taken up by the growing vegetation. Their great usefulness
as a manure is evident and undisputed. The ashes from differ-
ent trees differ materially in composition and value; but all are
highly useful applications to every kind of soil and crop.
Johnston gives the composition of the ash from oak and beech
as follows:
PER-CENTAGE OF Oak. Beech.
LU QEGIE Sc. 40 Beau CaeC Rs BOGE SED SOS EEE OER aSRsacnBeAoras 8.43 15.83
RO teers py eiote ictcielsiohass more tein wieiaie Seiicieinis Geasieis sisi tes aie 5.64 2.79
Wonimonysaltsess cel sasha cake ws re ecatecsezoe-teeee 0.02 * 0.23
LATTE. 2 oy GAR Os pa OES GUA OOCT SD ORE Aner ee aeee Cees AS 74.63 62.37
PIMPTALCIOL MGS... ctnswiai i= sici= stele vad -iaie mela cietee ints sane ae 1.98 2.31
Magnesia .--- 0-2 -- 2 eee enone ee ne eee 4.49 11.29
DPR CO BATON is tase eralojnie se Slain, 2 ereipteiwiates ators eateries er 0.5T 0.79
HEHOS POLIS SACU a a oictc ears siste are aera doiclalecieme slain oeloane 3.46 3.0T
SURGES, a ee as Riso mists secret oariaaeotceeiee one 0.78 1.32
| 100.00 100.00
“* Ashes,” Allen observes, “‘are to the earthy part of vege-
tables what milk is to the animal system, or barn-yard ma-
nures to the entire crop; they contain every element, and
generally in the right proportions, co insure a full and rapid
growth.”
Leached ashes have lost some of their value, being deprived |
és
bak,
c
oO
Lee
“we
et te
ees
pe ee
-
42 ; Tue Farm. a
of the greater portion of their potash and soda, but are still ie
very useful as manures,
Coal ashes are less valuable than wood ashes, but are bis no
means to be neglected by the farmer.
Soot is exceedingly valuable as a manure, and the small
quantity produced should be carefully saved.
IV.—MANAGEMENT OF MANURES.
Great skill and care are requisite in the management of
manures, in order to preserve them from waste and secure their
greatest efficiency. Some hints on this point have already been
dropped in speaking of the different kinds of manure, We
have room for only a few additional suggestions.
1. Fermentation.—The comparative advantages of using fer-
mented and unfermented manure is still under discussion among ~
scientific agriculturists; but that great loss takes place when
manure ferments uncovered by some absorbent of the fertilizing
gases is clear to every observer and thinker. See to it, then,
that all fermenting manure is covered with turf, muck, charcoal
dust, saw-dust, or plaster, to take up and retain the ammoniacal
gases as they arise.
2. Digging over Manures.—The frequent digging over of
barn-yard manure, practiced by some farmers, while it promotes
decomposition, also leads to great waste.
3. Hauling Manure in Winter.—The opinion is now gaining |
ground that when it can be conveniently done, the best way to
secure to the land the greatest possible benefit from stable and
barn-yard manure is to draw them at once, so fast as they are
produced, to the fields where they are to be used, and either
spread them at once or deposit them in heaps so small that no
putrefactive fermentation will take place. In many cases, ma-
nures may be hauled in the winter with great economy, as the
labor of the teams and hands is in less demand elsewhere. A
correspondent of one of our agricultural journals, who hauled _
and spread a part of his manure in the winter and a part imme-
diately before planting, in May, says: ,
ManovreEs. 43
“Where the manure was applied in the winter, the corn
started earlier and continued ahead through the season; it also
yielded the heaviest growth and the largest, soundest ears. I
have followed this plan at different times, and have always been
pleased with the result. In hot weather, I plow the manure
under immediately after spreading.”
4, A Caution.— Never mix quick-lime with any animal
manure, as it will cause the escape of ammonia and greatly
deteriorate the manure.
5. Burying Manure.—Here again doctors disagree. Some
advocate burying manure very deeply, others slightly, and still
others would leave it upon the surface. The best general rule,
we believe, is to mix it so thoroughly as possible with every
part of the soil. The roots will then be sure to find it. A few
crops—onions and some of the grasses, for instance—must find
their nutriment near the surface, as the roots do not extend
deeply ; for these a top dressing may be best.
6. Importance of Texture.—J. J. Thomas, in an excellent
article on the “‘ Effective Action of Manures,” says:
“Far more important than the mere presence of fertilizing
ingredients, or even the chemical condition of those ingredients,
in many cases, is their mechanical texture and degree of pulver-
ization. We have elsewhere given an instance, furnished by
one of the most eminent scientific and practical cultivators of
our country, where the complete crushing of the clods of an
adhesive soil, and the grinding together with them into powder
the manure applied to the land, produced an effect upon the
subsequent crop jive times as great as the ordinary operation of
manure. How absurd it must be to make strict calculations on
the result of a given quantity of yard manure, without ever
inquiring into the mode of application—whether, on the one
hand, by spreading in large, unbroken lumps, carelessly and
imperfectly plowed under, and in a condition wholly useless for
plants, or even detrimental in case of drouth—or, on the other,
by a thorough harrowing of the soil and manure together,
before turning under and a repetition of the operation when
2 epg SS"
BS ot ee eh SE Ae ey
1
4
ras
a* on .
TS PRR OE SESS Se SAE Mee ee
44 : Tur Farm. s. BSS, a
necessary afterward for complete intermixture. We have @
known the most admirable results by this practice, where —
nothing but fresh, coarse manure could be obtained for succulent
garden crops, and nearly a total failure under like circumstances” a =
without its performanee. Even the time of year that manure ae
has been carted vn the land, has sometimes had an injurious
bearing on the success of its application, simply by the packing —__
and hardening resulting from traveling over its surface when
in a wet and adhesive condition. It is a perfectly self-evident ‘
truth, that a mix¢wze of unburned bricks and clods of manure,
would afford immeasurably Jess sustenance to the fine and
delicate fibers of growing plants, than the same mixture ground
down together iv.tu a fine powder. Hence it may be reasonably
believed that the general introduction and free use of pulver-
izers, as the most effective harrows, clod-crushers, and subsoilers,
assisted by tile-draining, may be of greater benefit to the whole
country than the importation of a million tons of guano.”
V.—COMPOSTS.
Composts of various kinds have already been recommended
und described; but a few words more:
Let nothing that is capable, when decomposed, of furnishing
nutriment to your growing crops be permitted to go to waste
about your premises. A compost heap should be at hand to
receive all decomposed refuse. The best basis for this heap
is well-dried swamp muck; but where this is not readily ob-
tained, procure rich turf scraping from the roadside, leaves and
surface soil from tie wood lands and the sides of fences, straw,
chips, corncobs, weeds, etc., aiding the decay of the coarser
materials by the addition of urine or the lime and salt mixture
mentioned in a previous section. Let this be composted with
any animal matter found about the premises, or in the vicinity:
the carcasses of al] dead animals, large or small, offal of every
kind, woolen rags, bones, old boots, shoes, and waste leather of
every description, the droppings of the hen-roost, soap-suds,
salt, brine, all drainings from the sink spout, slops from the
te
ee Te ra) ht Se
MANURES. 45
chambers, and cleanings from the privy: let all go to the com-
post heap. And whatever will not decay there, with sufficient
rapidity, without assistance, aid its decay by the addition of
such substances as will facilitate the object. Bones, leather,
etc., may be softened so as to pulverize readi’y, by being packed
in ashes and kept moist a few months; and if the whole be
sufficiently covered with muck during the process, there will be
no loss of any element; or they may be packed in an old cask
in a strong solution of potash, or may be prepared with sulphur-
ic acid in the most scientific manner, and when thus prepared
‘in either of these ways, will add greatly to the value of the
compost heap. And if it still is not strong enough, add wood
ashes to any extent, from one to ten or twelve bushels per cord.
When thus prepared, our compost heap should be carefully
worked over, thoroughly mixing all the different ingredients.
It may then be applied to the soil in the same manner with
that from the barn-cellar, or in any other way desirable.
In addition to the foregoing general compost and the various
special compounded manures already referred to, every farmer
who has swamp muck or peat on his farm should compost it
extensively with his stable manure; for it is believed, on the
evidence of careful experiment, that two cords of compost pre-
pared by mixing daily one cord of dry muck with the same
quantity of the solid excrements of animals is fully equal, for all
practical purposes, to two cords of the latter preserved and
applied without the muck ; and also that two cords of compost, ”
prepared by using that quantity of dry muck, to absorb all the
liquid voided by the same animals, during the time required to
obtain one cord of solid excrement, to be equal in value to two
cords of the former compost. Thus we have four cords of equal
value by this process, to every one cord obtained where the
manure is thrown out of doors and left exposed to sun, wind,
and rain, and all the liquid allowed to run to waste.*
These are a few of the ways in which your stock of manures
* W. G. Wyman, in Cowntry Gentleman.
46 Toe Farm.
may be greatly and cheaply increased. Your own experience, aa
observation, and study will suggest others. ;
VI.—IRRIGATION.
Irrigation is manuring by means of water. ‘“‘The manner of
irrigating must depend on the situation of the surface and the
supply of water. Sometimes, reservoirs are made for its recep-
tion from rains or inundations; and at others, they are collected
at vast expense, from springs found by deep excavations, and
led out by extensive subterraneous ditching. The usual source
of supply, however, is from streams or rivulets, or copious
springs, which discharge their water on elevated ground. The
former are dammed up, to turn the water into ditches or aque-
ducts, through which it is conducted to the fields, where it is
divided into smaller rills, till it finally disappears. When it is —
desirable to bring more water on to meadows than is required
for saturating the ground, and its escape to fields below is to be
avoided, other ditches should be made on the lower sides, to
arrest and convey away the surplus water.”
Trrigation contributes to the growth of plants in several ways.
1. It causes the deposit on the surface of the soil of more or
less fertilizing matter brought from a distance by the stream;
2. It brings the gases—oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, to
the roots of plants in different proportions from those in which
they exist in the air (but if the water be permitted to remain
stagnant on the surface this effect ceases); 3. It disposes the
soil to those changes, both mechanical and chemical, which are ~
essential to its greater fertility.
“The advantages of irrigation are so manifest that they should
never be neglected, when the means for securing them are
within economical reach. To determine what economy in this
case is, we have to estimate, from careful experiment, the equiv-
alent needed in annual dressing with manures to produce the
same amount of grass as would be gained by irrigation; and to
offset the cost of the manure, we must reckon the interest on
the permanent fixtures of the dam and sluices, ete,
fold, when the soil, the season, and the water are all favor-
able, and it is seldom less than doubled. Many fields which,
in their natural condition, scarcely yield a bite of grass for
cattle, when thoroughly irrigated will give a good growth for
_ years, and without the aid of any manures.
_ “Tight, porous soils, and particularly gravels and sands, are
_ the most benefited by irrigation. Tenacious and clay soils are
wat slightly improved by it unless first made porous by under-
draining. It is not only important that water be brought on
_ to the ground, but it is almost equally important that it should
: _ pass off immediately after accomplishing the objects sought.’*
-— =
* KR. L. Allen, in the “ American Farm Book.”
48 Ture Farm. i
Ii.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
B manuring is the steam-engine which propels the vessel, rotation is the rudder which guides
% % its progress.—J. J. Thomas.
I.—THEORY OF ROTATION.
r HE following statements and illustrations of
\ the principles on which rotation in cropping
has its foundation, are condensed from Pro-
fessor Norton’s ‘ Elements of Scientific
Agriculture.”
; ‘Suppose the farmer to have a soil which requires,
.) as almost all soils do, the application of manure to
render it fertile. He adds a good coating of manure, and then
takes off a crop of corn or wheat. This crop will carry away —
the largest part of the phosphates that were added in the
manure. In most cases, therefore, a second crop of the same
kind would not be so good as the first; and the third would be
still less. There yet remains, however, from the manure, —
considerable quantities of other substances, which the grain
crops did not so particularly require, such as potash and soda.
With this a good crop of potatoes, turnips, or beets may be
obtained; and after this there is probably still enough lime,
etc., left to produce an excellent crop of hay, if the ground be
seeded down with another crop of grain of a lighter character
than Indian corn or wheat.
Rorartion or Crops. 49
We perceive, then, that any good rotation must be founded
upon the principle that different classes of crops require differ-
ent proportions of the various substances which are present in
soils, and in the numerous fertilizers which are applied for the
purpose of enriching them. Thus the crops may be made to
succeed each other with the least possible injury to the soil, and
with the greatest economy in the use of manures.
It would be useless to recommend here any particular sys-
tem of rotation as dest ; for that must be determined by experi-
ence in each section of country, under the various circum-
stances of climate, location, and value of crops. Attention
may, however, be again called to the fact that there are several
distinct classes of crops, considered with reference to the sub.
stances which they take from the soil, and that these classes of
crops should bear a part in every system of rotation. The
principal of these are grain crops, root crops, and grass crops.
See table and remarks in section 11 of the previous chapter.
IIl.—BENEFITS OF ROTATION.
J. J. Thomas, in speaking of rotation in cropping, says:
“There are other very important requisites in good farming,
but they. are all accomplished with an increase of expenditure
and labor. Manuring, for example, is a most powerful means
for improvement; but both manures and their application are
expensive in proportion to the amount applied. Underdrain-
ing has wrought wonderful results, but the cost is always a
large item, and the same may be said in some degree of deep
_ plowing and subsoiling. But in the arrangement of a rotation,
no additional expenditure or labor is necessary ; it costs no more
to cultivate crops which are made to succeed each other
judiciously, than to cultivate those arranged in the worst man-
ner possible. The former may bring triple the successful results
of the latter—not by the expenditure of five hundred extra
_ days in drawing manure, or five hundred dollars’ worth of ditch-
ing, but simply by making a proper use of one’s brains.
_ “Tt seems surprising, under the circumstances, that so smal]
3
50 Tan ava
a number seize the golden prize thus completely placed within
their reach—that there are so few, even of those reckoned good
farmers, who pursue anything like a systematic succession, to
say nothing of such a rotation that shall accomplish its pecu-
liarly beneficial results, namely, preservation of the riches of —
the soil, destruction of weeds, destruction of insects, and the
most advantageous consumption by each successive crop of all
the means for its growth within reach. As a consequence of
this neglect, we see land overcropped with wheat, the soil
worn out for this particular grain, and those troublesome weeds,
chess and red-root, taking its place. We see pastures, left un-
plowed for a long series of years, become filled with “ butter-
cups” and ox-eye daisy. A disproportion of spring crops facili-
tates the spread of wild mustard, and among insects, grubs and
wire worms increase according to the cultivation that favors
their labors. It appears to be but little understood how great
is the assistance to clean cultivation afforded by a good rotation.
The best example of this sort we ever witnessed, where every
field of the symmetrically laid-out farm, except a wet meadow,
was brought under a regular, unvarying system, scarcely a
weed was ever to be seen; and we ascertained that not one
third of the labor usually expended was required for the hand
dressing of hoed crops.” ;
For something more on this topic, see chapter on “ Farm
Management,”
° ; DRAINING.
IV.
DRAINING.
Tf one of our railroads should be known to pay thirty per cent. dividend annually, from its reg:
Blar earnings, and the stock could be bought at par, what a furious rush would be made for it
Yet there is a way that farmers may invest in stocks at home, on their own lands, that will pay aM
thirty to fifty per cent. yearly. This is in systematic tile-draining. We have known many whe 4
have tried it, and they generally say that it is paid for by the increased crops in two years.
in
They are good farmers, however.— Annual Register of Rural Affairs. wee
There is not one farm out of every seventy-five in this State but needs draining—yes, much j s
draining—to bring it into high cultivation.—Com. Report to N. Y. Rtate Ag. Soc. a
I.—EFFECTS OF DRAINING.
OME of the unfavorable effects of an excess
of moisture in a soil have already been ad-
verted to, and the proper remedy—thorough
drainage—pointed out. Thorough drainage implies
covered drains, and it is to the advantages of these
mainly that we now desire to call the reader’s atten-.
tion; although, as we have said in a previous chapter, open
ditches and water-furrows are very useful in certain situations.
The rain which falls upon a piece of land prepared with prop-
erly constructed covered drains never remains to stagnate or to
run over the surface, washing off the best of the soil, but sinks
gradually down, yielding to the roots of plants any fertilizing -
matter which it may contain, and often washing ovt some
hurtful substances, Asitdescends, air and consequently warmth
a a
/
wo i ee, Se we
ae ea Kh eo
Baer =
io =, ey am “-y*
oe 2
, ¥eo5T
ey eee ee ere he
tis
52 Tue Farm.
follow it. Under these new influences the proper decompo
sitions and preparations of compounds fit for the sustenance otf
plants go on, the soil is warm and sufficiently dry, and plants a “a
flourish which formerly would never grow on it in perfection,
if at all. It is a curious fact, too, that such soils resist drouth
better than ever before. The reason is, that the plants are able
‘o send their roots much farther down in search of food with-
out finding anything hurtful. Every part being penetrated by
the air, and consequently dryer and lighter, these soils do not
bake in summer, but remain mellow and porous. Such effects
can not, in their full extent, be looked for in a stiff clay
in a single season; the change must be gradual, but it is
sure.*
The principal benefits of a system of covered drains are suc
cinetly and clearly stated in the following—
‘““TEN REASONS FOR UNDERDRAINING.
“1, It prevents water which falls from resting on or near
the surface, and renders the soil dry enough to be worked or
plowed at all times.
‘““9, By rendering the soil porous or spongy, it takes in water
without flooding in time of rain, and gives it off again gradually
in time of drouth.
‘“*3. By preventing adhesion and assisting pulverization, it
allows the roots to pass freely through all parts of the soil.
“4, By facilitating the mixture of manure through the pul-
verized portions, it greatly increases its value and effect.
“5, It allows water falling on the surface to pass downward,
carrying with it any fertilizing substances (as carbonic acid and
ammonia), until they are arrested by the absorption of the soil.
‘““6. It abstracts in a similar manner the heat contained in
falling rains, thus warming the soil, the water discharged by
drain-mouths being many degrees colder than ordinary rains.
“7, The increased porosity of the soil renders it a more per
* Norton’s “ Elements of Agriculture.”
DRAINING. 5S
fect non-conductor of heat, and the roots of plants are less —
injured by freezing in winter.
“8. The same cause admits the entrance of air, facilitating
the decomposition of enriching portions of the soil.
“9. By admitting early plgwing, crops may be sown early,
and an increased amount reaped in consequence.
“10. It economizes labor, by allowing the work to go on at
all times without interruption from surplus water in spring,
or from a hard-baked soil in summer.’”*
II.—CONDITIONS REQUIRING DRAINAGE.
The conditions from which arise the principal causes of mis-
chief to undrained land are thus stated by Munn in “The
Practical Land-Drainer :”
“1, Where water has accumulated beneath the surface and
originated springs.
“9. Where, from the close nature of the substrata, it can
not pass freely downward, but accumulates and forms its level,
or water-line, at a short distance below the surface; and
“3. Where, from the clayey or close texture of the soil, it
lies on the surface and becomes stagnant.”
Farmers are apt to consider land in which the second condi-
tion mentioned exists, to be too dry to need draining, yet it is
cold and sour, late in spring, apt to bake hard in summer, and
very liable to suffer from early frosts in autumn. There is no
remedy but underdraining. The necessity of this operation in
the other two cases named is obvious.
III.—PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS.
1. Preliminary.—The first thing to be done is to examine
the field to be drained and determine the plan of drainage best
_adapted to effect the object in view, and the materials which
- may most economically be used in constructing the drains.
2. Draining Springy Soils—Where the wetness to be rem-
edied results from springs having their source in higher grounds
* “ Annual Regis‘er of Rural Affairs.”
Tore Farm.
above the field to be drained, the desired result is generally _
attained by making one or more drains across the declivity —
about where the low grounds of the valley begin to form, thus
intercepting or cutting off the springs. These transverse —
drains must be connected with others, made for the purpose —
of conveying the water collected in them into some brook,
ravine, or other outlet which may be near.
8. Direction of Drains.—In cases characterized by either of
the other conditions specified in the previous section, parallel
drains should be cut directly up and down the inclination of —
the field, and emptying into a main cross drain at the lower
side. ,
4, Depth and Distance Apart.—tin reference to depth and
distance apart, differences of opinion and of practice prevail.
Some cut their drains only about two and a half feet deep and
from twelve to twenty feet apart, while others make them from
three and a half to five feet deep and from thirty to fifty feet
apart. The experience of scme of the most extensive drainers
both in this country and in Europe seems to indicate, however,
that for very heavy, clayey soils, from two and a half to three
feet in depth and from twelve to thirty feet apart, generally
produce the most satisfactory results. More porous and friable
soils may be successfully drained at greater depth and distance,
5. Digging —Having marked out your drains at the distance
apart decided upon, and got your tiles or other materials ready
for laying down the ducts, you may begin to dig, commencing
at the lower end, cutting the main drain into which the others
are to empty, and then working upward on the parallel drains.
Their dimensions must depend mainly upon the material to be
used for the ducts. Where they are to be filled with broken
stone or brush, they are made wider than where the small, oval
tile, tube, or pipe is to be laid. Where tiles of any kind are
to be used, their size must determine the width of the bottom
of the drain. The top must be wider for convenience of dig-
ging. A narrow spade and a peculiar hoe are necessary for
digging and smoothing the bottom of the drain. There must 4
DRAINING. 55
be a gradual fall, of course, from end to end, of which the
regular flow of water will be a test. For the purpose of keep-
ing a uniform grade of descent in cutting drains, a common
mason’s level will answer; but the A or span level, represented
by the accompanying cut, is
better. Such a level may
’ easily be constructed of
wood. The span should be
either sixteen feet six inches,
or half that length. The
two feet being placed on a
’ perfectly level floor, the
plumb-line will hang in the center, where a notch should be
cut in the cross-bar, Then place a block of wood, exactly an
inch thick, under one leg, and mark the place on the cross-bar
that the plumb-line touches. Put a second block of one inch
under the same leg, and mark the place of contact of the line
with the bar as before, and so on so far as is necessary. Then
mark the other side in the same way. When thus prepared,
if the span of the level be sixteen feet and six inches, the
plumb-line will indicate upon the bar, by the number of spaces
at which it hangs from the center, the number of inches per
rod of the descent. If its span be eight feet and three inches.
it will, in the same way, indicate the number of inches of
descent in half a rod.*
6. Materials and Construction.—The ditch thus excavated
must now be furnished with a permanent duct through which
water may at all times freely pass off. This may be constructed
of various substances—brushwood, straw, turf, clinkers from
furnaces, wood, brick, stone, and tiles of burned clay. Of
these, stone and tiles in their various forms, when they can be
procured, are the only materials which we can unconditionally
recommend. a
Brushwood Drams.—Where no better materials are avail-
* Munn.
56 THe Farm.
able these will be found, while they last, quite effective; and
they are far more permanent than might be supposed. An
instance is recorded where they have been found after twenty
years in as good condition apparently as when constructed.
They are formed by laying down branches or brushwood in
the bottom of the drain to form the duct for the passage of the
water. The brush are put into the cutting in a slanting direc-
tion with the descent of the ground, their root or large ends
being toward the bottom. They should be trodden down and
covered with inverted turf before filling in.
Stone Drains.—In reference to their mode of construction,
stone drains are of various kinds. The simplest form is that
in which the ditch or cutting is filled, to the depth of nine or
ten inches, with small stones, covered with inverted turf, shay-
ings, or something
=ai==§) 22 __,, of the kind. The
“4 stones should be
about the size of a
hen’s egg. Where
larger ones are
used, the earth is
apt to fall into the
= cavities, or mice or
rats make their
burrows there, and
a the dvain becomes
==! || — =—~“choked. Some,
= iti i however, make use
THE STONE See ree: of farger stones,
merely covering them with a layer of small stenes or gravel,
before putting on the sod. When the stones are procured,
whether in a natural state or broken, it is desirable to screen
them in order to get them assorted as to size. ‘he accompany-
ing cut represents an excellent portable harp ov svreen for that
purpose. Having filled the ditch to the required depth, and
zovered the surface carefully with inverted sods. the earth
Sos ee
We
» ‘
ee 163 = » rede ¢ e - 2 a
Se ee ae, ee a ee a ey La ee ee eee
DRAINING. 57
should be thrown in and trampled hard upon them. The water
should find its way into
_the drain from the sides,
| and not JSrom the top.
The accompanying cuts
represent other forms of
stone drains, in which
flat stones are used to
Fig. 1. form a regular and con-
tinuous duct. A drain
well constructed in either of these forms may be considered
permanent. Where the
earth is hard and the quan-
tity of water is not large, the
form represented by Fig. 4 is
the best and cheapest in
which a stone drain can be
constructed. In making
Fig.3. stone drains in swampy or Fig. 4.
very soft ground it is sometimes necessary to lay a plank o1
slab on the bottom, before putting in the stones, to prevent
them from sinking before the soil shall become dry enough to
be firm.
But in large portions of the country stones can not be pro-
cured, and where they can be had, and require to be broken and
screened, the expense is considerable; and it is now found that,
in many cases, tiles made of clay and burned are much cheaper.
Tile Drains.—The first form of tile drain used was arched
and made to rest on a sole or flat tile laid
(a= under it; but the more modern tile pipes
Fig. 5. are to be preferred, as they are smaller,
cheaper, and more easily laid. Those with an oval bore (fig.
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
7) are considered better than those with a round one. Tha
g*
58 Toe Farm. Ve
tiles are, of course, placed in the bottom of the ditch, which
must be smooth and straight. They are simply placed end to
end and wedged a little with small stones, if necessary, and
the earth packed hard over them. The water very readily
Jinds its way in through the pores of the material and at the
WS joints. Collars or short outer tiles are
sometimes used to go over the joints, to
secure them against getting displaced.
An inch pipe is sufficient for most situa-
tions. It may seem impossible for the
water freely to reach a tile pipe with the
| earth packed close about it, especially
Fig. 8. where the soil is clayey; but practically
no difficulty occurs. The portion of earth next the drain first
dries; and as it shrinks on drying, little cracks begin to radiate
in every direction, and to spread until they penetrate the whole
mass of the soil within their influence, allowing the superfluous
»oisture to pass off, and rendering the ground, in the course
» a season or two, light, mellow, and wholesome for plants.*
For main drains (where the parallel drains do not discharge
directly into some open ditch, ravine, or brook, and the former
are not constructed of stone or brick), two horse-shoe or arched
tiles may be used, one inverted against the other.
The drains should be connected at the upper end of the field
by a small drain running at right angles with them. It should
be of the same depth as the other drains.
Where the ground is firm and the drain is made in the sum-
mer, and when the length is not great, begin at the upper end
to lay the tiles or put in the stones; but where the ground is
liable to fall down at the sides, the safest way is to build the
conduit or duct immediately after the earth is taken out of the
bottom.t
IV.—WILL UNDERDRAINING PAY?
The Genesee Farmer thus answers this question: This de. ~ _
* Norton. + Munn.
DRAINING. 59.
_ pends on circumstances. If good naturally underdrained land
can be obtained in your neighborhood for from $15 to $20 per
acre, it would not pay in all probability to expend $30 per acre
in underdraining low, wet, or springy land; but in all districts
where land is worth $50 per acre, nothing can pay better than
to expend from $20 to $30 per acre in judicious underdraining.
The labor of cultivation is much reduced, while the produce is
generally increased one half, and is not unfrequently doubled;
and it must be remembered that the increase is net profit. If
we get $15 worth of wheat from one acre and $20 worth from
the other, and the expense of cultivation is $10 in both cases,
the profit from the one is twice as much as from the other.
That judicious underdraining will increase the crops one third,
can not be doubted by any one who has witnessed its effects.
If it should double the crops, as it often does, the profit would
be four-fold.”
It has been remarked, that “‘to apply manure to undrained
land, is to throw money away,” an illustration of which is fur-
nished by a statement in the Transactions of the New York
State Agricultural Society, where seven acres of low, wet land,
manured annually at the rate of 25 loads to the acre, produced
31 bushels of oats per acre; but after being thoroughly under-
drained at a cost of about $60 for the whole, the first crop of
oats without manure was 893 bushels per acre.
Gov. Wright, in his address before the Wayne County Agri-
cultural Society, estimates the amount of marshy lands in Indi-
ana at three million acres. These were generally avoided by
early settlers as being comparatively worthless, but when
drained they become eminently fertile. He says: “I know a
farm of 160 acres that was sold five years ago for $500, that
by the expenditure of less than $200, in draining and ditching,
the present owner refuses now $3,000.”
No estimates of the cost of draining that we could give
would be of much practical value. The character of the soil,
the cost of the materials, the price of labor, and other circum-
_ stances, must be taken into the account, and these vary so much
oD No eae es See
THe Farm.
Bee:
te ee
in different localities that they can not be made the basis
eh
any useful general estimates. The following table, showing i 7
the number of tiles, of the different lengths made, which are
required for an acre, will be useful to those who may desire to _
purchase just enough for a particular piece of ground. We
extract it from Munn’s “ Practical Land-Drainer :”
ny 12-Inch 13-Inch 14-Inch 15-Inch
DISTANCE APART. Tiles. ‘Tiles. Tiles.
_| Drains 12 feet apart require 3,301
iy 15 “ “ce 2,681
“c 18 “c 6c 2,234
“ 21 “ “ 1,914
“ce 94 “ “ 1,675
“ QT “ce aid 1,480
30 us of 1,340
33 os! = 1,218
36 sf s 1,117
In reference to tile-pipe drains, it must be remembered that
the ditch may be much narrower than when stones are used,
thus making a considerable saving in the expense of digging.
The upper part of the earth is taken out with a common spade,
and the lower part with one made quite narrow for the pur-
pose, being only about four inches wide at the point,
Fences. 61
V.
FENCES.
Have an eye upon your fences !—Farmer’s Almaace,
I.—REQUISITES OF A GOOD FENCE.
Ak POR IRC Pt
Geax (3.
Ea 2 N &y % Va, ren —
is ANG, = ~ 4 }
baa ee 3 es DMF SSek CF
HE first essential in a farm fence is perfect
N Va efficiency as a barrier against such animals as
y)
LE it is desired to shut in or exclude. Without
eae this quality it is worse than useless. In the
second place, it must be so cheap that its cost will not
exceed, to say the least, the profit to be derived from
U its existence. Thirdly, it must not require too frequent
renewal. It is desirable, also, that it occupy little space, and
that it do not present an unsightly appearance. The best fence,
therefore, for any given place and time, is the one which com-
bines most perfectly all these qualities. In one place this may
be stone fence, in another one of posts and rails, in a third a
live hedge, etc. In one period of a country’s history it may be
made of logs, in another cf rails, m a third of growing Osage
orange or holly, and in a fourth of wire.
II.—_VARIOUS KINDS OF FENCE.
1. Stone Fence.—Wherever there is plenty of stone, and
especially where loose stones abound, and must be removed
before the land can be properly cultivated, stone fences are the
62 Tur Farm.
best and most economical that can be constructed. When well
built, broad, and high, they are perfectly efficient and very
permanent. In an esthetic point of view they are far less
offensive to the eye of taste than our wooden fences, even of
the least objectionable form, After a few years, as we judge
from the sober livery of moss with which she decks them,
Nature adopts these structures as her own, and they become a
legitimate portion of the landscape.
Where stone is not very abundant, a combination of stone
and rail fence is often economically constructed. A substantial
foundation of stones is laid, reaching two or two and a half feet
above ground, in which posts are placed at proper distances,
with two or three bar holes above the wall, for the insertion
of an equal number of rails, which for convenience should be
put in when the posts are set.
2. The Zig-zag or Worm Fence.—In large portions of our
country, where there is a superabundance of timber, and econ-
omy of space is of little importance, the common zig-zag or
worm fence of the West and South is probably the most eco-
nomical that can be erected. When well built, it is firm and
durable, but unsightly and inconvenient, occupying a great deal
of space, harboring vermin, and encouraging the growth of
weeds and bushes.
8. Post-and-Rail Fences—As timber becomes somewhat
more valuable, it ceases to be economical to use it so lavishly
as the worm fence requires, and the post-and-rail fence takes
its place. This is, in many respects, the best of all the wooden
farm fences.
“The posts,” Allen says, ‘“‘ should be placed from two and a
half to three feet below the surface, in the center of a large
hole and surrounded by fine stone, which must be well pourded
down by a heavy, iron-shod rammer, as they are filled in. The
post will not stand so firmly at first as if surrounded by airt,
put it will last much longer. The lower end should be peinced,
which prevents its heaving with the frost. If the position of
the post while in the tree be reversed, or the upper end of the
FENCES. 63
split section of the trunk which is used for a post, be placed in
the earth, it will be more durable. Charring or partially burn
ing the part of the post which is buried, will add to its dura-
tion. So also will imbedding it in ashes, lime, charcoal, or
clay; or if may be bored at the surface with a large auger,
diagonally downward and nearly through, then filled with salt,
and closely plugged.
“‘ The best timber for posts, in the order of its durability, is
red cedar, yellow locust, white oak and chestnut, for the
Northern and Middle States. I recently saw red cedar posts
in use for a porch which, I was assured, had been standing
exposed to the weather previous to the Revolution, a period of
over 70 years, and they were still perfectly sound. The avidity
with which silicious sands and gravel act upon wood, renders
a post fence expensive for such soils.’”*
In some cases, boards may be economically substituted for
rails, and firmly nailed to suitably prepared posts.
4. The Sunken Fence.—The sunken fence or wall consists of
“a, vertical excavation on one side, about five feet in depth,
against which a wall is built to the surface of the ground. The
opposite side, is inclined at such an angle as will preserve the
sod against sliding, from the effects of frost or rain, and is then
turfed over. A farm thus divided presents no obstruction to
the view, where it is everywhere properly walled in, besides
affording good ditches for the drainage of water.” Such a
fence, properly constructed, might be considered absolutely
permanent; and it would scarcely need repairing at all.
5. Tron Fences—Wire and other forms of iron fence. are
coming into extensive use in some portions of the country.
Where there is a deficiency of both timber and stone, the wire
fence is probably the best and most economical that can be
made. With the improvements lately introduced, especially
those made by the New York Wire Railing Company, these
fences are entirely efficient, and in every way satisfactory.
* The “ Amorican Farm Book.”
G4 Toe Farm.
The fences are made with horizontal wires, tightened by *
means of an effective arrangement, so that the whole tension ne
of the rod is obtained. The posts are furnished with contriv-
ances of different patterns for security in the ground. ‘The size ;
of the rods varies in accordance with the uses for which the ,
fence is designed. No ordinary domestic animal will break
through fences of considerably less than 4-inch wrought wire,
while still larger sizes may be used with the same facility if
required. The bright or hard wire is now generally used.*
; ers Pat es
\
\)
{
\
Joa 89 9 9 0
a
WIRE FENCE, WITH WOODEN POSTS.
# We are indebted for the accompanying illustrations of wire fences to the '
Descriptive Catalogue of the New York Wire Railing Company. John B.
Wickersham, Superintendent. ;
+ As it may be useful to some of our readers, we give the prices per rod at
which this fence may be procured (packed and shipped) at the warehouse of ,
the New York Iron Railing Company, in New York.
For cattle and horses, 8 wires, with iron posts and screws..... Ace fi 66 :
t4 “c “ 4 “a i “ “ catheeee 1 84
: se Ke Ke 5 ee Sy mS s osetinsnepeeen seen ¢
“ Hogs, sheep, ete. 7 G3 “ “ “ saleiethelonialstes lok eoneaat ;
‘6 Turkeys, geese, etc.10 “« ig ue a weiceis eanemince anne ,
Each additional wire, 20 centa per rod.
65
FENCES.
The accompanying cut exhibits the natural size of the wires
most commonly used for farm fences, and shows the manner in
which they pass through and support the post and are supported
by it. The following are the manufacturer’s directions for
putting up the fence:
“Tt is absolutely necessary that the straining pillar, or start-
ing post, of wood or iron, at the extreme ends of the fence,
should be perfectly firm, as the wires can not otherwise be
made tight. Commencing from a tree is recommended, if pos-
sible. Plant the posts 12 feet apart, hook in the rails, and at
the distance of 150 feet place a screw on each wire. Place the
next set of screws at the distance of 300 feet, and so continue.’
BOS SS eS OS OS OS SS<SESS
Soses ss
eSeS Lp
SLSLS<L LPS eS 2S 2S RSC
WIRE NETTING FENOE.
-_The wire netting fence furnishes an admirable barrier against
small animals, poultry, etc. It costs from $1 50 to $2 75 per
66 Tue Farm.
rod, according to the height and the size of the wire and
meshes.
Another style of iron farm fence is called the “ Corrugated
Flat Rail Fence.” It is in some respects preferable to the
round rail or wire, being visible at a greater distance and less
liable to sagging.
6. Hurdle Fence.—Tne hurdle, or light, movable fence is
formed in short panels, and firmly set in the ground by sharp-
ened stakes at the end of each panel, and these are fastened
together. This is a convenient addition to farms where heavy
green crops of clover, lucern, peas, or turnips are required to
be fed off in successive lots, by sheep, swine, or cattle. It is
variously constructed of wood or iron, and is much less expen-
sive than might be supposed, “‘ Wickersham’s Corrugated Hur-
dle Fence” being furnished by the Wire Railing Company at
from $2 50 to $5 per rod, according to weight and quality.
LZN_hh
ZN
WICKERSHAM’S CORRUGATED HURDLE FENCE.
7, Hedges.—The live fence, almost universal in England, is
still an experiment here. There have been a few successes and
many failures in the cultivation of hedges. The causes of fail-
ure have been various—a wrong choice of trees, the dryness
FENCES. 67
of our climate, lack of experience in planting, neglect of proper
after cultivation and pruning, ete. But the few examples of
complete success which may be pointed out prove conclusively
that, under proper and easily attainable conditions, live fences
are perfectly practicable in this country; and in some parts of
it they are doubtless economical. When well kept, they are
certainly very beautiful.
Among the plants employed in this country with more or less
success for hedges are the buckthorn, the hawthorn, the bar-
berry, the althea or rose of Sharon, the Osage orange, the
American arbor vite, the American holly, the hemlock spruce,
the white cedar, the evergreen thorn (Crategus pyracantha),
the Cherokee rose, and the white Macartney rose.
For the Middle, Western, and some of the Northern States,
the Osage orange seems to be, on the whole, the best. It also
succeeds at the South; but there the evergreen thorn, the
Cherokee rose, and especially the single white Macartney rose,
are preferable.
The soil for a hedge row must be deeply plowed or spaded,
and, if poor, manured a little. The space thus prepared should
be at least two feet wide, and with a soil from eighteen inches
to two feet deep. The best way is to open a trench of the
required width and depth, throw some well-rotted manure in
the bottom, and then fill up with the surface earth. Along the
middle of this filled trench stretch a line, and make holes under
it in the soft earth every six or eight inches, with a “dibble”
or pointed stick. Set your plants in the holes precisely as you
would plant cabbages, pressing the earth around the roots, and
leaving only one inch of the top visible above the surface. The
plants may be either one or two years old, and the tops should
be cut off within two inches of the root. The young hedge
must be well cultivated for several years, and cut back once or
twice a year till it shall be four feet high. The conical shape
is best for a hedge, as it admits every shoot to the benefit of
the air and light. Where vacancies occur, vigorous shoots
may be “‘layered”—that is, fastened tc the ground with hooked
Bef a Sco oe Aan ba ee
68 Tue Farm.
pegs, when they will take root and send up sprouts to fill the
open spaces.
The editor of the Country Gentleman very truly says: ‘* Not
one Osage orange hedge in twenty succeeds, simply hecause it is
expected to take care of itself after setting out. Constant cul-
ture and cutting are as essential as air and food to animals.”
Evergreens make the handsomest hedges; and although less
stout, yet by shutting out sight are usually quite safe. The
Norway fir is the fastest grower—the hemlock most beautiful,
and the best of any for the shade of trees; the growth is,
however, rather slow. It shears finely, and its interior is
dense. The Norway fir also does well on these points,
At the South we should choose the single white Macartney
rose for general cultivation; although the Cherokee rose, when
properly treated, the evergreen thorn, the honey locust, the
jujube, and the Spanish bayonet (Yucca gloriosa) all form effi-
cient and beautiful hedges.
Mr. Redmond, one of the editors of the Southern Cultivator,
gives the following directions for the cultivation of rose hedges;
and no one is better qualified to speak on this point:
“ As a general rule, both the Macartney and Cherokee roses
are improperly planted. To succeed with them, it is necessary
to open two parallel ditches or trenches about four feet apart,
heaping the earth along the center in the form of a sloping
bank. At the base of this bank, on each side, plant 12-inch
cuttings in December or January, training the tops over the
bank from each side. Maving this bank as a foundation, they
will constantly layer themselves and grow close at the bottom,
and will interlace their thorny branches so intricately that no
animal can pass through. The ditch on each side forms an
additional obstruction to the passage of animals, and forms a
definite boundary or limit to the hedge—to which limit only
the ends of the branches must be allowed to extend. In trim-
ming, a man passes rapidly along the bottom of the ditch, ~
clipping off even with the inner side all the straggling ends of ©
the plants. In order to explain this system of rose hedges
ee
—
2a
FENocES. 69
more fully, we will endeavor to give a drawing hereafter. In
the mean time, let it be remembered that the cuttings must
always be planted at the bottom, never at the top of the bank
—the latter situation being too dry to make them grow off
vigorously.”
We, tn ¥
Ze
SECTION OF MODEL HEDGE.
A really good and perfect hedge should form a rounded
pyramid, similar to the accompanying cut, branching out
broadly and close to the ground, and tapering up either sharply
or obtuse, as the taste of the cultivator may determine. This
is a fundamental principle in all hedging, and unless it is secured
at the outset by proper trimming, it can never be done after-
ward.
IIJ.—A HINT OR TWO.
But let your fence be of what kind it may, it is necessary, in
the words of our motto, to “keep an eye” upon it. Some acci-
dent may cause a breach in the best fence, and a fence that is
not perfectly efficient is worse than none. A fence, to accom-
plish the purpose of a fence, must not only be able to ‘“‘stand
alone,” but must bear a little jostling. Your cattle may very
innocently rub themselves against it. If it tumble down, who
ean blame them if they walk into the adjoining field, or into
the highway, as the case may be? And you underrate their
sagacity if you suppose that they will not take a hint from the
accident, and rub again for the express purpose of producing
the result obtained before without a purpose. Rail bars are
:
A
p
8
50 Tue Farm.
often slipped out in this way. Gates are much better. “When
bars are used, they should be let down so near the ground that
every animal can step over conveniently; nor should they be
hurried over so fast as to induce any animal to jump. In
driving a flock of sheep through them, the lower bars ought to
be taken entirely out, or they be allowed to go over the bars in
single file. Animals will seldom become jumpers, except
through their owner’s fault, or from some bad example set
them by unruly associates; and unless the fences be perfectly
secure, such ought to be stalled till they can be disposed of.
The farmer will find that no animal will repay him the trouble
and cost of expensive fences and ruined crops.”
IV.—ARE FENCES NECESSARY?
The burden and expense of fence-making is so great that
the question has very naturally been raised whether it would
not be better, in an economical point of view, to dispense with
them entirely. It is said that the greatest investment of capital
in this country is in the common fences which divide the fields
from the highway, and separate them from each other. De
they pay ?
In France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, and other parts of Eu
rope, fences are seldom seen. When cattle or sheep are pas
tured in these countries, they are placed under the care of a
herdsman or shepherd, who, with the aid of his sagacious and
well-trained dog, easily keeps a large herd or flock within pre-
scribed limits, which are marked by a slight ditch, or in some
other simple way. Does the labor of the herdsman and his
dog cost more than the fences which would have been required
without him? In those countries undoubtedly not. In refer-
ence to the United States we have not the necessary estimates
or the exact data on which to base them ; but, according to the
figuies given in the following extract from an article published
in the Ohio Farmer, it appears that fences do not always pay,
even here, where labor costs so much more than in Europe,
After mentioning the fact that the ancients had no fences, and
os Tee ee, ee
sen a
Fences. 71
that there are none in France, and declaring them wholly un-
necessary here, the writer goes on:
““The fences in our State cost more than its railroads. Now,
this huge amount of capital is, to all intents and purposes, dead.
More, it is a decaying capital; annually a large amount of its
depreciated stock must be replaced. These repairs cost im-
mense sums of timber, time, and hard work. But the evil does
not stop here: timber is decreasing in quantity and quality ; for
rails, posts, and stakes require a great deal, and that of the best
kind, while our vast prairies have no timber at all hardly for
fencing.
‘And there are other evils connected with this expensive —
and stupid modern invention. Fences become the refuge of
vermin and all manner of noxious weeds. Then, too, they act
as natural and annual distributors of these weeds. The fence
protects the weed till it is ripe, and then furnishes the seed to
the first high winds of winter and spring.
“Tn addition to these objections to fences, we might mention
that they occupy a great deal of ground.
“Now, what are their advantages? They keep cattle in their
proper places, protecting the farmer against his own and other
people’s cattle. But what need is there for anybody’s cattle to
run at large? There are laws now prohibiting some kinds of
animals from running abroad; why not extend it to all? Itis
our impression that it would be much more economical to hire
help to attend them in the field and in the stable than to pay
for fences, fencing, and waste lands occupied by fences.
““We will append a few figures, from our own experience, in
order to present to the farming community the importance of
looking at this matter. We claim no special accuracy for our
statistics, but they are, in the main, correct; and if they will
call out from one or more of our farmers and agricultural pro-
fessors the facts in the.case, as they exist in our State, we shall
feel that our object has been accomplished.
“Taking our own observations as a guide, these are the fig-
ures: Chestnut rails are worth six dollars per hundred; oak
Tue Farm.
Edema
; stakes, about three dollars per hundred. It takes fourteen wally Ms
and four stakes per rod for a worm fence; in round numbers, — Me
it costs one dollar per rod. This would be three hundred and
id twenty dollars per mile, and there were seven miles of fence, 5
making two thousand two hundred and forty dollars for the —
fencing material. Now, add to this first cost the price of haul- __
ing, of setting up, or keeping in repair, of decay, and of the 4
waste of land occupied. If you pay for bringing these rails to
their proper places and putting them up, the first cost of mate-
rial will be three thousand dollars. First cost of material and
work, three thousand dollars; interest at six per cent., one
hundred and eighty dollars; annual decay, six per cent., one
hundred and eighty dollars; annual repairs, three per cent.,
ninety dollars; loss of land, five per cent., one hundred and
fifty dollars. Annual cost, five hundred dollars.
‘“‘Could not this sum be better used ?”
We suspect that in reference to large portions of the West,
at least, the writer’s closing question may be answered in the
affirmative.
Farm ImMPLEMENTS AND THEIR Use. 7%3
VI.
FARM IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USE.
‘Tis time to clear your plowshare in the glebe.—Graham.
I—THE PLOW.
ISTORY does not inform us when plows were
in), first used; but there are traces of them in the
~ earliest of all written authorities—the Bible.
By consulting the sacred records (Deut. xxii. 10) we
find that in very early times they plowed with two oxen,
and that their plow had a coulter and plowshare (Sam.
xii. 20); and drawings of early Greek plows show that
they were furnished with wheels. The plows of Rome were
of the most simple form. ‘ Nothing,” J. J. Thomas says,
“shows the improvements of modern agriculture more con-
spicuously than the difference between the old and new plows.”
The ‘old plow” is still used in many countries where farmers
do not enjoy the benefit of agricultural periodicals. The accom-
panying cut represents the plow at present used in Morocco,
It would hardly receive the premium of the State Agricultural
Society, and has probably never been patented. It may, how- |
ever, be made very cheaply, the point only being shod with
iron. In the less civilized regions of Morocco the plow consists
only of a crooked limb of a tree, with a projecting branch
: 4
.
74 Tue Farm. fe Bs
sharpened to a point for scratching up the ground. The Moors oY
do not take the agricultural papers.* €
A MOORISH PLOW.
Compare the rude implement of the Moor with the improved
THE EAGLE PLOW. —
is a No. 2, and is a medium-sized two-horse or cattle sod or stub-
ble plow. It is adapted to turn sod furrows from four to seven
inches deep by from twelve to fourteen inches wide, and will work
somewhat deeper in stubble plowing. It is rigged with the lock
coulter, wheel, draft-rod, and dial clevis, as represented by the
cut, and with these fixtures is a very strong, and at the same
time light plow for two cattle or horses, in plowing stony,
stumpy, or rough, uneven land. Or it is rigged with wheel and
cutter, for flat furrows in smooth land. There are other sizes,
both larger and smaller than this, and for general use no plow
has given better satisfaction.
An admirable plow for turning under sward deeply is the
Double Michigan, ‘It has two mold-boards. The forward or
small one skims the surface, taking off a few inches of the top
of the sod, and laying it in the bottom of the previous furrow ;
* Annual Register of Rural Affairs.
Farm IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR Use. %5
- and the second or large mold-board turns up what is left, and
completely buries the former. Three strong horses will draw
this plow when of the smaller size, and will run a furrow eight |
or nine inches deep; but the larger sized plow requires nearly
double this force, and will cut a furrow a foot deep.
“The Michigan plow prepares sod ground in the best manner
for planting corn, the mellow soil which is thrown on the sod
being deep enough to allow a coat of manure to be buried
afterward a few inches by means of a gang-plow.
_“ When the subsoil is of such a nature as not to enrich the
top soil when thrown up and mixed with it, or when it is de-
sirable. to loosen up a deep bed of mellow earth to serve as a
reservoir for moisture, the subsoil plow serves a valuable pur-
pose. It is also useful for loosening the soil to allow the trench
or Michigan plow to enter more fully to a greater depth.
“The subsoil plow merely loosens the earth, but does not
turn it up to the surface. It is made to follow in the furrow
of a common plow. It runs much deeper than the trench plow,
with the same force of team. Four horses attached to a strong
plow, running in a furrow seven inches deep, will loosen the
earth to a depth of fifteen to eighteen inches. The benefit of
subsoiling depends essentially on keeping the ground well
drained; for if the loosened earth is afterward allowed to be-
come thoroughly soaked or flooded with water, it soon becomes
compacted together again, and the operation proves of no per-
manent advantage. This is one fruitful source of failure.”*
The ridging or
double mold-,
board plow is a
very useful im-
plement. It is
used for opening * = :
Re drills to plant DOUBLE MOLD-BOARD PLOW.
SSS
potatoes, corn, etc.; in plowing between narrow rows; in dig:
* J. J. Thomas.
76 Toe Farm.
ging potatoes, etc. No farmer should be without it. It is a
light one-horse plow.
The side-hill or swivel-plow is so constructed that the mold-
board is easily and instantly changed from one side to the other,
which enables the plowman to perform the work horizontally
upon hillsides, going back and forth on the same side, and
turning all the furrow slices downward. This prevents the
washing of the soil by heavy rains, to which all hillsides are
more or less liable when plowed up and down the slope. Such
a plow should be considered indispensable at the South.
IL—THE HARROW.
Next to the plow in the order of description, as well as of
ase, comes the harrow. Like the plow, it was anciently a very
WY a,
/ ff VTS CFT ee
rude implement; and it is only quite recently that it has reached
the high degree of efficiency and facility of action which char-
OE Oe era? py Le
ye’
Farm ImPpLEMENTS AND THEIR Uses. 77%
acterize the best implements of the present day. ‘‘He must
have lived to little purpose who is content to use the clumsy,
coarse harrow of former days.”
One of the best of the improved harrows is the hinge har-
row represented by the accompanying cut. This harrow may
be folded double, or separated into two parts, for the conve-
nience of transportation or other purpose. Either half may be
lifted for any purpose while the implement is in motion; and the
easy and independent play of the parts up and down upon the
hinges enables the instrument to adapt itself to the surface of
the ground in all places, so that whether going through hollows,
or over knolls or ridges, it is always at work, and every tooth
has an operation upon the soil.
The Geddes harrow and the Hanford harrow, triangular in
shape, are also excellent implements; and for light grounds,
free from stones and other obstructions, the Scotch or square
harrow serves its purpose admirably.
Ly
= (I
LADY =z
The accompanying engraving represents a harrow recently
patented by Samuel J. Orange, of Grayville, Ill. It involves
the rotary principle, the rotation being produced by the press-
ure of the rollers g g upon the wheels 4 A. It has the im-
portant advantage, that while it secures the rotation of the
_ wheels, it at the same time avoids side draft.
Se ae
78 fun Farm.
III.—THE CULTIVATOR
This is a useful implement for stirring the soil and killing
weeds. It is generally made to be drawn by one horse, and is
mostly used between the rows of corn, potatoes, cotton, ete.
It is made so as to expand or contract, according to the width
of the rows. It saves a great deal of hard labor; but must
not be allowed to usurp the place of the plow where deep cul-
tivation is required.
IV.—THE HORSE HOE.
Allied to the cultivator is the horse hoe in its various forms.
“Knox’s patent has four teeth. The forward one is simply a
coulter, to keep the implement steady ard in a straightforward
direction; the two side or middle teeth are miniature plows,
which may be changed from one side to the other, so as to turn
the earth from the rows at first weeding, when the plants are
small and tender, or toward them in later cultivation—at the
option of the operator; the broad rear tooth effectually disposes
of grasses and weeds, cutting off or rooting up all that come in its
way. Itis a thorough pulverizer of the surface, sifting the earth
—
HORSE HOE FOR COTTON.
and weeds through its iron prongs or fingers in the rear, leaving — _
the weeds on the surface to wilt and die, and the ground leve:
. 4,
rs
. of ee
Farm ImrLtements Anp TueEtr Usez. 79
and mellow. For hoeing carrots, turnips, etc., where the rows
are narrow, the side teeth are taken out, and the rear tooth,
with the forward one as a director to guide the instrument, hoes —
and mellows the ground between the rows very perfectly.”
Our engraving represents a modification of Knox’s horse hoe,
adapting it particularly to the cultivation of cotton.
V.—THE FIELD ROLLER.
No good farmer will omit this useful implement from his list.
It levels and smooths the plowed land on sowing down to
WOODEN FIELD ROLLER.
grass, forcing sods and small stones into the soft ground, pul-
verizing all lumps of earth, pressing the light, loose soil of the
surface around the seeds of grain, grass, etc., securing a sure
and quick germination and growth of the seeds, and preparing
a smooth, even surface for the reaper, scythe, and rake. By
making the earth compact at the surface, insects are deprived
of shelter; otherwise the sods, loose stones, and lumps of earth
afford them convenient habitations. In spring there is fre-
quently great advantage in rolling lands recently sowed to grain
and grass, as the earth that has been raised by the frost, exposing
the roots of plants, is replaced by the operation, with benefit to
the growing crop. The roller is particularly beneficial on light
lands, of soil too loose and porous to retain moisture and pro-
t
4
s
80 Tue Farm.
tect the manure from the effects of drying winds and a scorch-
ing sun, and too light too allow the roots of plants a firm hold
in the earth ; for on such lands its compressing effect, especially
in dry seasons, very much increases the product of crop as well
as preserves the manure from undue evaporation, thus saving 3
greater portion of its fertilizing properties for the benefit of the
land and succeeding crops.
VI._SEED SOWERS.
Every farmer or gardener needs a seed-sower of some sort 3
but one of the small-
est and simplest of
the many kinds man-
ufactured will serve
the purpose of the
majority of agricul-
turists. The light
hand-drill represent-
ed by the accom-
panying cut will be
found entirely satisfactory where the work to be performed by
such an implement
is limited. The
seed sower repre-
sented by the next
engraving is larger,
and rather moreef-
fective, but still
light and cheap.
With proper care, a em
either of these little _ SEED-SOWER.
implements will do the work required of them, in garden and
field, for many years, without requiring renewal or repair,
——
VIL—THE HORSE RAKE.
The utility of this simple implement is not fully realized, we
ee i i
ia dia es aaa i BS a SR eS de
we
:
Farm Imptements anp THerr Usz. 81
are sure, or it would be more generally employed. One man,
with a horse and a boy (and with some of the implements the
boy is not required), will, upon a favorable surface, perform
the work of eight men with hand-rakes. A horse-rake is not
an expensive implement, and every farmer should have one.
The old revolver is perhaps the best for general use.
VIII—MOWERS, REAPERS, ETC.
Of the expensive labor-saving agricultural implements, like
the mower, the reaper, and the thrasher, it does not fall within
our purpose to speak, further than to recommend our readers
to avail themselves of the grand economies which they afford,
whenever they can, by combinations with their neighbors for
joint ownership of such machines, or by employing those kept
for the purpose of being hired out. The small farmer can not
afford to invest capital, of which he generally has too little, in
these implements for himself alone. Those who are engaged
in cultivation on a large scale, and have adequate capital, should,
of course, own these labor-saving machines,
For a complete list of farm implements, with an approximate
estimate of their cost, see the next chapter.
Bo Beek is nl Ad ote Ut
ree ee eh et ee pee
ze
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aa:
4
82 Tar Farm.
VIL
FARM MANAGEMENT.
A little farm well tilled ;
A little barn well filled ;
A little wife weil willed.
I—INTRODUCTORY.
-
2
Y the permission of our much respected
friend, the author, we here present, un-
abridged, the interesting and valuable Essay
on Farm Management, by J. J. Thomas,
which obtained the prize from the New York State
Agricultural Society, in 1844. The author, in ac-
cording permission to use this document, expresses
his regret that he has not the leisure to rewrite it, as it was
written many years ago, under much disadvantage, and is con-
sequently less perfectly adapted to its purpose than he might
now make it. The reader will, however, find it, in its present
form, worth more than anything else that we could condense
into the same space.
II.—THE PRIZE ESSAY.
ON FARM MANAGEMENT,
BY J. J. THOMAS.
The great importance of performing in the best manner the
different operations of agriculture is obvious to every intelligent
pee eee © oe
Farm MANAGEMENT. 83
mind, for on this depends the success of farming. But a good per-
formance of single operations merely does not constitute the best
farming. ‘The perfection of the art consists not only in doing every-
thing well individually, but in a proper adjustment and system-
atic arrangement of all the parts, so that they shall be done not
only in the best manner and at the right time, but with the most
effective and economical expenditure of laborand money. Every-
thing must move on with clock-work regularity, without inter-
ference, even at the most busy seasons of the year.
As this subject includes the whole routine of farming in a col-
lected view as well as in its separate details, a treatise upon it
might be made to fill volumes; but this being necessarily con-
fined to a few pages, a general outline, with some remarks on its
more essential parts, can only be given.
Capitat.—The first requisite in all undertakings of magnitude
is to ‘‘count the cost.’’ The man who commences a building,
which to finish would cost ten thousand dollars, with a capital of
only five thousand, is as certainly ruined as many farmers are
who, without counting the cost, commence ona scale to which
their limited means are wholly inadequate. One of the greatest
mistakes which young farmers make in this country, in their anx-
ious wish for large possessions, is, not only in purchasing more
Jand than they can pay for, but in the actual expenditure of all
their means, without leaving any even to begin the great work of
farming. Hence, the farm continues for a long series of years
poorly provided with stock, with implements, with manure, and
with the necessary labor. From this heavy drawback on the prof-
its of his land, the farmer is kept long in debt; the burden of
which not only disheartens him, but prevents that enterprise and
energy which are essential to success. This is one fruitful reason
why American agriculture is in many places in so lowastate. A
close observer, in traveling through the country, is thus enabled
often to decide from the appearances of the buildings and premises
of each occupant, whether he is in or out of debt.
In England, where the enormous taxes of different kinds impe-
riously compel the cultivator to farm well or not farm at all, the
indispensable necessity of a heavy capital to begin with is fully
understood. The man who merely rents land there, must possess
_as much tostock it and commence operations as the man who buya
SM th eee Sat
ae J = ee ee
;
—_
84 Tue Farm.
and pays for a farm of equal size in some of our best farzaing dis
tricts. The result is, that he is enabled to do everything in the
best manner ; he is not compelled to bring his goods prematurely
to market to supply his pressing wants; and by having ready
mouey always at command, he can perform every operation at the
very best season for product and economy, and make purchases
when necessary at the most advantageous rate. The English
farmer is thus able to pay an amount of tax often more than the
whole product of farms of equal extent in this country.
The importance of possessing the means of doing everything at
exactly the right season can not be too highly appreciated. One
or two illustrations may set this in a clearer light. Two farmers
had each a crop of ruta-bagas of an acre each ; the first, by hoeing
his crop early while the weeds were only an inch high, accomplished
the task with two days’ work, and the young plants then grew
vigorously and yielded a heavy return. The second, being pre-
vented by a deficiency of help, had to defer his hoeing one week,
and then three days more by rainy weather, making ten days in
all; during this time the weeds had sprung up six to ten inch2s
high ; so as to require, instead of two days, no less than six days to
hoe them ; and so much was the growth of the crop checked at this
early stage that the owner had 150 bushels less in his acre than the
farmer who took time by the forelock. Another instance occur-
red with an intelligent farmer of this State, who raised two fields
of oats on land of similar quality. One field was sown very early,
and well put in, and yielded a good profit. The other was de-
layed twelve days and then hurried ; and although the crop was
within two thirds of the amount of the former, yet that difference
was just the clear profit of the first crop ; so that with the latter
the amount yielded only paid the expenses.
Admitting that the farm is already purchased and paid for, it
becomes an object to know what else is needed and at what cost,
before cultivation is commenced. If the buildings and fences are
what they should be, which is not often the case, little immedi--
ate uutlay will be needed for them. Butif not, then an estimate
must be made of the intended improvements, and the necessary
sum allotted for them. These being all in order, the following
items requiring an expenditure of capital will be required on a
good farm of 100 acres of improved land.
oe
Farm ManaGEemMEnt. 85
I. LIVESTOCK.
‘The amount will vary with the fertility and products of the land,
its quality, and situation with regard to market. The following
will approximate the average on good farms taken at the spring
of the year or commencement of work :*
SeBEROESESopet bath O Osterere ate eucictalor ciate oisials(etccialsieiclalelsleielomunie/oisieiaius cinta
, i Yale On eae anson aes aseapaconooseDoneoED oecconsoos --- 150
es BPONTM CHU CONS, itt BSVose el = ole a o)aicisie) io otpasioieicl=teisyeleiainie daabessones 240
fc 10 Steers, heifers, and calves............... Bisiic sian eae ane 100
ye ROM EeT SEALED i aictas eraia[aiais wis fers vais ls shasoicioyalaialei di e/Siclaejeiaereie Bilsisiniaie Pee OO
ae MEUESHOCD satin 2 Ol) Shes izoc sini eee: Sriej niece cieiap sem ceais eis nis sete . 875
ae IROUTLRY BAYH en eo oeeia: eae eGo sak ecmadlaceeen semis emaen 5
‘ - Otay 5 = 3xscihe sieiseve sess cisriaee Bee Seis Seaisetiere $1,290
a Il. IMPLEMENTS.
2 Plows fitted for work........ SPE a aAN EU Se stan $20 00
1 Small plow, CS Nic cee apcspcucendoroobEnotioorsas IOSAc 6 00
iCultivator, best Kind... .< 4...) cess sec ewe sodndessde -- 100
SPP IM DATO We. oie. ncinisiosc assis eis eis lalepinicc Fe osieg oe sine vwine oisonie 5 00
4 = RE GME Tree es rae iaciiets ocardretiaretans aepisiareae iets pecinicee ales 5 00
% SRMMLARY ER ORVR SR eas cle ae yap cid BNand Steed cuaatel erste Tnte vata woe els 10 00
aa 1 Fanning-mill ................ Biya 5 ating Sen eemeactecies ~ 20 00
ae TSU EGING Son coc ponogocepsnnpbosceoscasG0T oS anc0000 .. 15 00
ib TRC ORS TIC Rees od. Ses Hine Sanen no pos boaseacauore sosdopsedece 8 00
1 Farm-wagon, with hay-rack ete.............. sdoagesses 70 00
HOKE CARE srs Aoi} Sate «N= iste Tze |soiels ake SisIRtOle sleiarsl sie s ee 'sjeies caer 50 00
1 Double farm harness Seaco do wapedsanbn Senn aoasananan a0 30 00
HEPELOESC@=CATUiia\~-ey-i-scisieiais <a seks seiaie w steeelelanl = sis epee cision wants 45 00
HOVE OTSE-CATENATNESS sso \<icie sisicis terse eateries a aclee arcs eeicics 18 00
1 Root-steamer, or boiler............ ABSA AAC ERR O SOS Ses 20 00
1 Shovel and one spade.......... pO esee goosgagsepeacegoos 2 50
= 3 Steel-plate hoes ................. gugd ncaecsadossssan0e6 1 50
a: 2 Dung-forks............ abe tie a mae ROG ANG MEU ropes berets 2 00
SAY LOL KS )s/-,2d/craiaie!se velo aistesiasente Sosocsesane snocaessa0 Sad 2 25
f 2) IEG PEERS Ae ean cheer Sean opocasuo conse senonapadose 5 .
% 1 Revolving horse-rake....... RE nee oem HOGG IOIRS 8 00
ob CTA GGG coe peoeecos nade ssce cs ousSoduy scoocoeeuane 4 00
PRABSCVINES eas sary satis cscs esa gaeyeteilerois Sooscnaeeoassoce0a5 4 00
HEV CEI DALTON Gy. cis seins Scions aie tial sisi seiareseeiaa sl eee yee Osels 4 00
EP OUMLEG SH OVEM ora ..\ataisiapelcisivle existe Hew wyeis cleieus wacielare nicieisiataiciaiere 1 25
1 Grain-shovel, or scoop-ShOVel.........----. see eee e eee eee 1 25
HOPI CHa sae Naan suites ieize ctanineam ete icioe Acinic saisig dete eine 1 50
Carried forward......... Reaydieye eee essay seleauseae $361 50
* We allow the figures to stand as in our first edition. If we add to each
som the Premium on gold, we shall approximate present prices.
: : - eee ar
; 86 © Tur Farm. ,
Brought forward xgivarm sits ssa n c/a serclatee ee $861 50 , F a.
Me Mall andl Wed G68 21.<)si.0a6«js/4'5cislsie e asereleaelalomteie ie Baie fiutod of . 250 7
DUAKES ss ccc cs sidek cote dots een heen ae IE eee 4 00 ;
GER ATMINT « /n:stcease: see bide o/atale fered te eialetatel te le mim eee tata tates 50 §
DR AWVOO GSB, Wi) Jo pido assdls) elas Speeilane wel slerotte oaela ater ste aire pine acts od Oe
A Durnip=hookcj.:.-:+%/.0a)-eesind vata eotsetale teas ae ee eas ms 15
et Aba yok fen sis of aati sis:s.tecme sieeve win sle eictescle se nietce @ Sete 2 LD
4 2 Apple-ladders (for gathering)..........-...---seeee0 ET Os Sisit)
t 2 Larcve baskets! sist SoTetinke eee eoes Ban OMMGnDOCrS strc 1 25 : ;
“4 Pe AN Gs DAS EES «1-1. eiolclelsiesstetas eveleteisiisin frets tatet antes oo heleiiafelaete 50 >
: ; 1 Tape-line (for laying off land)................ BARC ein 2c 2 00
“ ZUSHEED-SHEATS tiie saan cee aces orient ecttelsersisicre eee peeaeens . 200
i 1 Grindstone..............04. Nh Saal ah et Pe tari: 8
7 1 Steel-yard, large, and one small....................2.--. 2 00
c T. StableJanterty 3. coe Ci eee 50
C 1 Curry-comb, and one brush................. «ice staat 15
1¢Half-pushel measure... '. sis. cee cis cele ericson ict ate nietaleleas 1 00
BOG rain=bageu.e<s ce ones a clean 3 Oh cleie’sdtola a oiain bys eae a6/ BORD
i) NGO xaCHANG caure clcleeeilelois a olaamte sine ele ain lst eldy-cntelpveleralealann 8 00
; A CroWeDatcioc.< oss sme i aflafaja ajah din! =°3[okaisicie ep is See ae ogee 2 00
_* 1 Sled and xtures oo. ccs, oie <ie.0 cts ~ a 0 ne ne icreyacisiniplen eee 80 00
Totals ciseras tet cieveg re tveniote tie etesh Winrate WOON Te és + eee $425 75
Other articles might be included, as subsoil plow, sowing ma-
enine, threshing machine, etc. To the preceding amount ought
to be added one-tenth the expense of fencing the farm, as fences
need renewing at least once in ten years. Every farmer should also
be supplied with a small set of carpenter’s tools, which would cost
about $12, for repairing implements in rainy weather and other
useful purposes. This set should include saw, hammer, augers,
planes, adze, mallet, chisel, square, breast-bits, etc., and by the
convenience and economy afforded, would soon repay their cost.
\(t. «PS
e-
—-o .
III. SEEDS.
ene
oe 23} Bushels clover seed for 10 acres.............--000+ eevee $15 00
i 2 os corm). 86 SF Ge os octets oatee aeenn , whoo
“ae 20 § potatoes CE Dh ee acre cattle aera Sagas 10 00 ‘
a 2 “ _ earrot pe eres e ined akc ic Paget os Lee OD
hs : 40 Bushels seed wheat “ 20 “™ ........ oles are-si sialon 40 00
a 10 “ oats ate HAD Sole tat vieenan 3 ctatngeaaS OD!
: 10 ae barley NB eo a saderee ements Sealer 6 00
i otal isc.k sete tone ve, ccee ce tuaek ec ae vase GIT 00
oe IV. LABOR.
Supposing the owner to labor with his own hands, as every
owner should, so far as is consistent with a general superintend
Farm MANAGEMENT. 87
ence of all parts, which would probably amount to one half the
time, he would need besides through the season two men and one
boy, and in the winter one man; during haying and harvest he
would require two additional hands. The men boarding them-
selves, could be had for twenty dollars per month in summer and
sixteen in winter; if boarded, the cost of their meals would make
up the deficiency in the wages to the same amount. ‘The expend-
iture needed, then, would be,
2 Hired men, eight months, $20 per month............... $320 00
eres® i. boy, Co ss 10 oR Rar RARADS aol 80 00
Pl avala DOr im NALV OS laps = clone af <ivtsyseib io sashes tarmernistoorsrele'ctowets 30 00
V. MAINTENANCE OF ANIMALS.
Cattle and sheep would need hay till fresh pasture, and horses
hay, and also a good supply of oats till after harvest. All would
be benefited by a liberal feeding of roots, including swine. The
amount of all these supplies needed would be about,
TROBE OL NAY) a Meee wea aes oak a aE $42 00
QUO UB sh els OtS) 2. ai cejsicidesiejeislelts,+ o\sjelsis Os sbisisis silanes Sot eles 50 00
400 Se BERT OO LSS cee alersiait aiciniai aint ninicis otis aaatslcieteicia a eiahetapne 50 00
TG LAL itera e.t ais Halos cic) a steng aay sible Ge So SIAC OS Haleae o aa $172 00
RECAPITULATION.
TTI GO OG Ro eageeddoosdbic supUpacuds SHUnoGsUbaDOneeoaaas $1,200 00
UMD ISTIGTIS bas coscononcoagcocens asec cogsaecu ssndcano: 425 15
COO Stee a cairm Sau acre ciara ctaretel a sruvahtvalnpel wis) oh siera/atslescin sfesaleh ates 17 00
BRS ARV OT Srapre te oyas fe eis fotateiciose axe sisiol as sega eialersiccsys steiejeimislepsisrm cusicloists 430 00
Meximbenance OL ANTMNAIS . ccs <is\cicisicie msleje(oheie reletorsle’s, secie le 172 00
TUB Ss sede Aosoosason sudccodcodaespodoesooosassua $2,304 75
—the amount of capital needed the first year, in stocking and
conducting satisfactorily the operations of one hundred acres of
improved land, several items being doubtless omitted.
If this isa larger sum than the young farmer can command,
let him purchase only fifty acres, and reserve the rest of the pur-
chase money which would be needed for the one hundred acres,
to commence with on a smaller farm, and he will scarcely fail te
make more than on a larger, with every part subjected to an im-
perfect, hurrying, and irregular management. He may calculate,
_ perhaps, on the return of his crops in autumn, at least to pay his
t
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88 Tue Farm.
hands. But he must remember that the first year of farming 19
attended with many expenses which do not usually occur after-
ward, which his crops may not repay, besides supporting his fam-
ily and paying his mechanics’ and merchants’ bills. The first
year must always be regarded with uncertainty ; and it is better
to come out at the end on a moderately sized farm, well tilled
and in fine order, with money in pocket, than ona larger one, in
debt, and hired hands—a class of men not to be disappointed, and
who ought not to be—waiting for their pay. There are a far
greater number of farmers embarrassed and crippled by placing
their estimate of expenses too low, than of those who swing clear
and float freely by a full previous counting of cost.
Size or Farms.—After what has just been said, the cultivator
will perceive in part the advantages of moderately sized farms for
men in moderate circumstances. The great disadvantage of a su-
perficial, skimming culture is obvious with a moment’s attention.
Take the corn crop as an illustration. There are a great many
farmers, to my certain knowledge, whose yearly product per acre
does not exceed an average of twenty-five bushels. There are other
farmers, whom I also well know, who obtain generally not less than
sizty bushels per acre, and often eighty to ninety-five. Now ob-
serve the difference in the profits of each. The first gets 250
bushels from ten acres. In doing this, he has to plow ten acres,
harrow ten acres, mark out ten acres, find seed for ten acres, plant,
cultivate, hoe, and cut up ten acres, besides paying the interest on
ten acres, worth from three to five hundred dollars. The other
farmer gets 250 bushels from four acres at the farthest; and he
only plows, plants, cultivates, and hoes, to obtain the same amount,
four acres, which from their fine tilth, and freedom from grass and
weeds, is much easier done, even for an equal surface. The same
reasoning applies throughout the farm. Be sure, then, to culti-
vate no more than can be done in the best manner, whether it be
ten, fifty, or five hundred acres. <A friend who owned a four-hun-
dred-acre farm told me that he made less than his next neighbor,
who had only seventy-five. Let the man who applies a certain
amount of Jabor every year to his farm reduce its dimensions until
that labor accomplishes everything in the very best manner. Ha
will doubtless find that the amount of land will thus become much
smaller than he supposed, more so than most would be willing te
Py
Farm ManaGEeMENtT. 89
reduce it; but, on the other hand, the net proceeds from it will
augment to a greater degree than perhaps could possibly Be
believed.
But let me not be misunderstood. Large farmsare by no means
to be objected to, provided the owner has capital enough to per-
form all the work as well as it is now done on the best farms of
small size.
As an example of what may be obtained from a small piece of
land, the following products of fifty acres are given, and are not
more than I have known repeatedly to be taken from good land
by several thorough farmers :
10 Acres wheat, 35 bushels per Bere at $1 00.... $350 00
5 “ corn, 99 «= aeaere 180 00
2 “ potetoes, 300 sf 3 2D 120 00
1 Acre ruta-bagas, 800 “ fe nOscse 89 00
6 Acres winter apples, 250 “ c Pda ees 375 00
6 © hay, 2% tons “ 6 00.... 90 00
ME ccen SN ASENTE: WOKE 22:5’ 2) 0 Sicioidinic pistes js cteis: els prin caeiete 60 00
5 “ barley, 40 bushels per a acre 40... 80 00
Oc OAS, 50 se AVsoos 50 00
Total products of fifty acres of very fine land.... $1,385 00
- This aggregate yield is not greater than that obtained by some
who might be named, from a similar quantity of land. Good
land in most localities could be brought to that state of fertility
very easily, at a total cost of one hundred dollars per acre, and
then it would be incomparably cheaper than many large good
farms at nothing ; for, while the fifty acres could be tilled for
three hundred and eighty-five dollars, leaving one thousand dol-
Jars net profits, large poor farms hardly pay the work spent upon
them. One proprietor of such a farm declared, ‘‘ It requires me
and my hired man all summer hard at work to get enough to pay
him only.’’
Lavine our Farms.—This department is very much neglected.
The proper disposition of the different fields, for the sake of econ-
omy in fencing, for convenience of access, and fer a full command
of pasture and protection of crops at all times, has received com-
paratively little attention from our agricultural writers and from
farmers.
Many suppose that this business is very quickly disposed of; that
_ avery few minutes, or nours at most, will enable a man to plan
90 Tue Farm.
the arrangement of his fields about right. But this is a great
error. Even when a farm is of the simplest form, on a flat, uni-
form piece of ground, many things are to be borne in mind in
laying it out.
In the first place we all know that the fencing of a moderately
sized farm costs many hundred dollars. It is very desirable to do
it well, and use at the same time as little material as possible. To
do this much will depend on the shape of the fields. A certain
length of fence will inclose more land in the form of a square than
in any other practical shape. Hence fields should approach this
form as nearly as possible. Again, the disposition of lanes is a
matter of consequence, so as to avoid unnecessary length and fenc-
ing and occupy the least quantity of ground.
But these rules may be materially affected by other consider-
ations. For instance, it is very desirable that land of a similar
quality may be in the same inclosure. Some may be naturally
too wet for anything but meadow or pasture: some may be much
lighter, and susceptible of plowing, while others are not : some may
be naturally sterile, and need unusual manuring with green crops.
All these should, as far as practicable, be included each in its own
separate boundary. ‘The situation of surface drains, forming the
boundaries of fields, may influence their shape ; facilities for irri
gation may have an essential bearing : convenience for watering
cattle is not to be forgotten. Where, in addition to all these
considerations, the land is hilly, still more care and thought are
required in the subdivision, which may possibly require years of
experience ; but where fixed fences are once made, it is hard to
remove them; hence a previous thorough examination should be
made. A farm road, much used for heavy loads, should be made
hard and firm, and can not easily be altered ; it consequently should
be exactly in the right place, and be dry, level, and short; the
shape of adjoining fields even conforming with these requisitions :
but a road little used should not interfere with the outlines of fields.
2% 2 te ge ws
% % % a & & %
In laying out a farm with a very uneven surface or irregulai
shape, it would be best to draw, first, a plan adapted to smooth
ground, and then vary the size and shape of the fields, the dis-
tance of the lane from the center, its straightness, etc., accord:
ing to the circumstances of the case.
ee ee
; Farm MANAGEMENT. 91
Fences.*—The kind of fence used, and the materials used for
its construction, must depend on circumstances and localities. <A
good fence is always to be preferred to an imperfect one ; though it
will cost more, it will more than save that cost, and three times the
amount in vexation besides, by keeping cattle, colts, and pigs out
of fields of grain. A thriving farmer whose whole land, except a
small part with stone wall, is inclosed by common rail fence,
with upright cedar stakes, and connecting caps to the tops, finds
that it needs renewing once in six years. He accordingly divides
his whole amount of fences into six parts, one of which is built
new every year. All is thus kept systematically in good repair.
Stone walls, if set a foot below the surface to prevent tumbling by
frost, are the most durable fence. Hedges have not been sufficient-
ly tried. The English hawthorn is not well adapted to our hotter
and drier climate, and though sometimes doing well for a time, is
not to be depended on.
Gatrs.—Every field on the farm should be entered by a good
self-shutting and self-fastening gate. A proper inclination in
hanging will secure the former requisite, and a good latch, prop-
erly constructed, the latter. Each field should be numbered, and
the number painted on the gate-post. Let the farmer who has
bars instead of gates, make a trial of their comparative convenience,
by taking them out and replacing them without stopping as often
as he does in one year on his farm, say about six hundred times,
and he can not fail to be satisfied which is the cheapest for use.
Buripines.—These should be as near the center of the farm as
other considerations will admit. All the hay, grain, and straw
being conveyed from the fields to the barn, and most of it back
again in manure, the distance of drawing should be as short as
possible. This will also save much traveling of men and cattle
to and from the different parts of the farm. The buildings should
* Strange as it may seem, the greatest investment in this country, the most
cosily production of human industry, is the common fences which divide the
fields from the highway, and separate them from each other. No man dreams
that when compared with the outlay of these unpretending monuments of art,
our cities and our towns, with all their wealth, are left far behind. You will
Scarce believe me when I say that the fences of ihis country have cost more
than twenty times the specie there is in it. In many of tke counties of the
Northern States the fences have cost more than the farms and finces are worth
—Burnap.
92 Tue Farm. a
not, however, be too remote from the public road, and a good,
dry, healthy spot should be chosen. The dwelling should be com- io
fortable, but not large; or it should rather be adapted to the ex-
tent of the lands. A large, costly house with a small farm and
other buildings, is an indication of bad management. ‘The cen-
sure of the old Roman should be avoided, who, having a small
piece of land, built his house so large that he had less occasion to
plow than to sweep.
The barn and out-buildings should be of ample extent. ‘The
barn should have space for hay, grain, and straw. It is a matter
of great convenience to have tae straw for littering stables housed
and close at hand, and not out of doors, under a foot of snow.
There should be plenty of stables and sheds for all domestic ani-
mals. This provision will not only save one third of the fodder,
but stock will thrive much better. Cows will give much more
milk, sheep will yield more and better wool, and all will pass
through the winter more safely. The wood-house, near or attached
to the dwelling, should never be forgotten, so long: as comfort in
building fires and economy in the use of fuel are of any import-
ance.
A small, cheap, movable horse-power should belong to every
establishment, to be used in churning, sawing wood, driving wash-
ing machine, turning grindstone, cutting straw, and slicing roots.
There should be a large root-cellar under the barn, into which
the cart may be dumped from the outside. One great objection to
the culture of roots, in this country—the difiiculty of winter keep-
ing—would then vanish,
Both barns and house cellars should be well coated, on the bot-
tom and sides, with water-lime mortar, which is a very caeap and
effectual way to exclude both water and rats.
CuoIcr or Impiements.—Of those which are much used, the very
best only should be procured. This will be attended with a gain
in every way. The work will be easier done and it will be better
done. A laborer who, by the use of a good hoe for one month,
can do one quarter more each day, saves, in the whole time, an
entire week’s labor.
Cuorce or Anrmats.—The best of all kinds should be selected,
even if costing something more than others. Not ‘funcy’’ ani-
mals, but those good for use and profit. Cows should be product —
Farm MaANnaGEMENT. 93
fve of milk, and of a form adapted for beef; oxen hardy, and fast-
working ; sheep, kept fine by never selling the best; swine, not
the largest merely, but those fattening best on least food. A Berk-’
shire at 200 pounds, fattened on 10 bushels of corn, is better than
a ‘‘ land pike’’ of 300, fattened on 50 bushels.
Having now taken some notice of the necessary items for com-
mencing farming, it remains to glance a litile at
Sorts, AND THEIR ManaGement.—Soils are of various kinds, as
heavy and light, wet and dry, fertile and sterile. They all require
different management in a greater or less degree.
Heavy soils are often stronger and more productive than light ;
but they require more labor for pulverization and tillage. They
can not be plowed when very wet, nor so well when very dry.
Although containing greater or less portions of clay, they may be
distinguished, as a class, from lighter soils, by the cloddy surface
the fields present after plowing in dry weather, by their cracking
in drouth, and by their adhesiveness after rains.
Sandy and gravelly loams also contain clays, but in smaller
quantity ; so that they do not present the cloddiness and adhesive-
ness of heavy soils. Though possessing, generally, less strength
than clay soils, they are far more easily tilled, and may be worked
without difficulty in wet weather. They do not crack or break in
drouth. Indian corn, ruta-bagas, and some other crops, succeed
best upon them. Sandy soils are very easily tilled, but are gener-
ally not strong enough. When made rich, they are fine for some
succulent crops. Peaty soils are generally light and free, contain-
ing large quantities of decayed vegetable matter. They are made
by draining low and swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian
corn, broom corn, barley, potatoes, and turnips. They are great
absorbers, and great radiators of heat; hence they become warm
in sunshine and cold in clear nights. For this reason they are
peculiarly liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, conse-
quently, be put in late, after spring frosts are over. Corn should
be of early varieties, that it may not only be planted late, but
ripen early.
Each of these kinds of soil may be variously improved. Heavy
soils are much improved by draining ; open drains to carry off the
surface-water, and covered drains, that which settles beneath. An
acquaintance covered a low, wet, clayey field with under-drains,
94. Toe Farm.
and from a production of almost nothing but grass, it yielded the
first year forty bushels of wheat per acre, enough to pay the expense,
and admitted of much easier tillage afterward. Heavy soils are
also made lighter and freer by manuring ; by plowing under coat- —
ings of straw, rotten chips, and swamp muck ; and, in some rare
cases, by carting on sand, though this is usually too expensive for
practice. Subsoil plowing is very beneficial both in wet seasons
and in drouth ; the deep loose bed of earth it makes, receiving
the water in heavy rains, and throwing it off to the soil above,
when needed ; but a frequent repetition of the operation is needed,
as the subsoil gradually settles again.
Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application of
lime, and by frequently plowing in green crops. Leached ashes
have been found highly beneficial in many places. Where the
subsoil is clayey, which is often the case, and especially if marly
clay, great advantage is derived from shoveling it up and spread-
ing it on the surface. A neighbor had twenty bushels of wheat
per acre on land thus treated, while the rest of the field yielded
only five.
Manures.—These are among the first of requisites in successful
farm management. They are the strong-moving power in agri-
cultural operations. They are as the great steam-engine which
drives the vessel onward. Good and clean cultivation is, indeed,
all important; but it will avail little without a fertile soil; and
this fertility must be created or kept up by a copious application
of manures ; for these contribute directly or assist indirectly to the
supply of nearly all the nourishment which plants receive. It is
these which, produced chiefly from the decay of dead vegetable
and animal matter, combine most powerfully to give new life and
vigor; and thus the apparently putrid mass is the very material
which is converted into the most beautiful forms of nature, and
plants and brilliant flowers spring up from the decay of old forms ;
and thus a continued succession of destruction and renovation is
carried on through an unlimited series of ages.
Manures possess different degrees of power, partly from their in-
herent richness, and partly from the rapidity with which they ;
throw off their fertilizing ingredients, in assisting the growth of
plants. ‘These are given off by solution in water, and in the form —
of gas; the one as a liquid manure, which, running down, ia i
=
Farm MANAGEMENT. 95
absorbed by the roots ; and the other, as air, escaping mostly inte
the atmosphere, and lost.
The great art, then, of saving and manufacturing manure con- —
sists in retaining and applying, to the best advantage, those solu-
ble and gaseous portions. Probably more than one half of all the
materials which exist in the country are lost, totally lost, by not
attending to the drainage of stables and farmyards. This could
be retained by a copious application of straw; by littering with
sawdust, when saw-mills are near; and, more especially, by the
frequent coating of yards and stables with dried peat and swamp
muck, of which many parts of our States furnish inexhaustible
supplies. I say dried peat or muck, because, if itis already satura-
ted with water, of which it will often take in five sixths of its own
weight, it can not absorb the liquid portions of the manure. But
if it will absorb five sixths in water, it will, when dried, absorb
five sixths in liquid manure, and, both together, form a very en-
ricking material. The practice of many farmers shows how little
they are aware of the hundreds they are losing, every yea, by suf-
fering this most valuable of their farm products to escape. Indeed,
there are not a few who carefully, and very ingeniously, as they
suppose, place their barns and cattle-yards in such a manner, on
the sides of hills, that all the drainage from them may pass off
out of the way into the neighboring streams ; and some one men-
tions a farmer who, with pre-eminent shrewdness, built his hog-
pen directly across a stream, that he might, at once, get the clean-
ings washed away, and prevent their accumulation. He, of course,
succeeded in his wish ; but he might, with almost equal propriety,
have built his granary across the stream, so as to shovel the wheat
into the water when it increased on his hands.
The loss of manure, by the escape of gas, is often very great
The proof of this was finely exhibited by Humphrey Davy, in an
experiment performed by filling a large retort from a heap of fer-
menting manure, and placing the beak among the roots of some
grass. Nothing but vapor left the vessel, yet in a few days the
grass exhibited greater luxuriance around the beak of the retort
than any of the surrounding portions. Hence the superiority of
unfermented manures; the rich portions are not yet lost. And
hence, too, the importance of preventing this loss by an iinmediate
application, and plo ving into tbe soil, or by mixing it in composts
56 THE Farm.
with muck, peat, swamp mud, and even common earth, inadry
state—and of preventing its escape, from stables and yards, bya
daily strewing with dried peat, lime, or plaster.
Fresh manure is generally in astate not readily mixed with soils.
It is thrown into large lumps over the surface, some of which are
plowed in, others not; but none of them prove of immediate use
to the crops. But, on the other hand, fermented manure, from
its ready pulverization, admits of an easy admixture. But let
fresh manure be thoroughly ground down and worked into the
soil by repeated harrowings and two or three plowings, and its
influence will be like magic.
Swamp muck has often been spoken of as manure; but those
who expect great and striking results from its application will be
disappointed. Even with ashes, it is much less powerful than
stable manure, not only because it possesses less inherent richness,
but because it has less soluble parts, and, consequently, imparts
its strength more slowly to growing plants. But this quality
only makes it the more enduring. By decoction in water, vege-
table mold loses a small portion of its weight by solution ; but if
the remaining insoluble part is exposed to the air and moisture a
few months, another part may be again dissolved. Thus, peat,
muck, and all decayed vegetable fiber, become a slow but lasting
source of nourishment to plants.
But it is when shoveled out and dried, to be mixed with farm-
yard manure, as a recipient for its evanescent parts, that peat or
muck becomes pre-eminently valuable. Some parts of the State
abound with inexhaustible supplies in almost every neighborhood ;
many land-owners have from twenty to a hundred thousand cubic
yards on their farms, lying untouched, while half-starved crops
are growing in the adjacent fields. There are whole counties so
well supplied with it that, if judiciously applied, it would, doubt-
less, double their aggregate products.
All neat farming, all profitable farming, and all satisfactory
farming must be attended with a careful saving of manures. The
people of Flanders have long been distinguished for the neatness
and excellence of their farms, which they have studied tomake _
like gardens. The care with which they collect all refuse materials _
which may be converted into manures, and increase their composts,
is one of the chief reasons of the cleanliness of their towns and 3 q
.
sea) ade
= ae
Farm MANAGEMENT. 9%
residences ; and were this subject fully appreciated and attended
with a corresponding practice generally, it would, doubtless,
soon increase, by millions, the agricultural products of the State.
But there is another subject of scarcely less magnitude. This is
a systematic
Roration or Crops.—If manuring is the steam-engine which
propels the vessel, rotation is the rudder which guides it in its prog-
ress. Unlike manuring, rotation does not increase the labor of
culture : it only directs the labor in the most effective manner by
the exercise of judgment and thought.
The limits of this paper do not admit of many remarks on tne
principles of rotation. The following courses, however, have been
found among some of the best adapted to our State :
I. 1st year—Corn and roots, well manured. 4
2d year— Wheat, sown with clover-seed; 15 Ibs. an acre.
8d year—Clover, one or more years, according to fertility and amount of
manure at hand.
If. 1st year—Corn and roots, with all the manure.
2d year—Barley and peas.
8d year— Wheat, sown with clover.
4th year—Clover, one or more years.
III. 1st year—Corn and roots, with all the manure.
2d year—Barley.
3d year— Wheat, sown with clover.
4th year—Pasture.
5th year—Meadow.
6th year—Fallow.
7th year— W heat.
8th year—Oats, sown with clover.
9th year—Pasture or meadow.
The number of the fields must correspond with the number of
the changes in each course; the first needing three fields to carry
it out, the second four, the third nine. As each field contains a
crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole
number of fields collectively comprise the entire series of crops
every year. Thus, in the list above given, there are two fields of
wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of corn
- and roots, one of barley, one of oats, and one in summer fallow.
OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER Or TimE.— The vital consequence of
doing every thing in the right season is known to every good
farmer.
_To prevent confusion and embarrassment, and keep all things
am 5
ie
98 Tue Farm.
clearly and plainly before the farmer at the right time, he should
have a small book to carry in his pocket, having every item of
work for each week or each half month laid before his eyes. Thiw
can be done to the best advantage, to suit every particular locality
and difference of climate, by marking every successive week in the
season at the top of its respective page. Then as each operation
severally occurs, let him place it under its proper heading ; or if
out of season, let him place it back at the right time. Any pro-
posed improvement can be noted down on the right page. Inter-
esting experiments are often suggested in the course of reading or
observation, but forgotten when the time comes to try them. By
cecording them in such a book, under the right week, they are
brought at once before the mind. Such an arrangement as this
will prevent a great deal of the confusion and vexation too often
attendant on multifarious cares, and assist very essentially in con-
ducting all the farm work with clock-work regularity and satis-
faction.
In reviewing the various items which are most immediately
essential to good farm management, some of the most obvious
will be—capital enough to buy the farm and to stock-it well; to
select a size compatible with these requisites ; to lay it out in the
best manner ; to provide it well with fences, gates, and buildings ;
to select the best animals, and the best implements to be haa
reasonably ; to bring the soil into good condition, by draining,
manuring, and good culture; to have every part under a good
rotation of crops ; and every operation arranged so as all to be
conducted systematically, without clashing or confusion. An
attention to all these points would place agriculture on a very dif-
ferent footing from its present condition in many places, and with
most farmers. The business, then, instead of being repulsive, as
it so frequently is to our young men, would be attended with
real enjoyment and pleasure.
But in all improvements, in all enterprises, the great truth must
not be forgotten, that success is not to be expected without dili-
gence and industry. We must sow in spring and cultivate well
in summer, if we would reap an abundant harvest in autumn.
When we see young farmers commence in life without a strict
attention to business, which they neglect for mere pleasure, well
may we in imagination see future crops lost by careless tillage~ _
fe SAR TELE Ee
Farm MANAGEMENT. 99
‘broken fences, unhinged gates, and fields filled with weeds—tools
destroyed by heedlessness, property wasted by recklessness, and
disorder and confusion triumphant ; and unpaid debts, duns, and
executions already hanging over the premises. But, on the other
hand, to see cheerful-faced, ready-handed industry, directed by
reason and intelligence, and order, energy, and economy, guiding
the operations of the farm—with smooth, clean fields, and neat,
trim fences—rich, verdant pastures, and fine cattle enjoying them ;
and broad, waving meadows and golden harvests, and waste and
extravagance driven into exile, we need not fear the success of
such a farmer ; debts can not stare him in the face, nor \luns enter
his threshold.
Tt is such enterprise as this that must place our country ona
substantial basis. Agriculture, in a highly improved state, must
be the means which, next to the righteousness which truly exalts
a nation, will contribute to its enduring prosperity. All trades
and commerce depend on this great art as their foundation. The
cultivation of the soil and of plants was the earliest occupation of
man. It has, in all ages, been his chief means of subsistence ; it
still continues to furnish employment to the great majority of the
human race. It is truly the great art of peace, as during wars and
- commotions it has languished and declined, but risen again, in
strength and vigor, when men have lived at peace with each other ;
: _ it has then flourished and spread, converted the wilderness into
life and beauty, and refreshed and adorned nature with embellished
culture. For its calm and tranquil pleasures—for its peaceful and
healthful labors—away from the fretful and feverish life of crowd-
ed cities, ‘‘in the free air and beneath the bright sun of heayven’’
—many who have spent the morning andnoon of their lives in
the anxious cares of commercial life, have long sighed for a scene
_ of peace and of quietude for the evening of their days.
es
100 Tur Farm.
VILL
FARM CROPS.
Let it rain potatoes.—Shakspeare.
I.—_THE EDIBLE GRAINS
1. Inpran Corn—Zea Mays.
AIZE or Indian corn is cultivated in all
countries and climates. It is a native of —
America, where the aborigines had cultivated
it from time immemorial. It now forms
the most important grain crop of this country,
growing with luxuriance in every State of the Union,
and yielding ample harvests everywhere.
The varieties of maize in cultivation are almost numberless,
and new sorts are constantly being produced. No plant, per-
haps, is equally susceptible of modification by hybridizing,
cultivation, soil, and climate. At the North it is dwarf in its
habit, and requires but three or four months to bring it to ma-
turity, while at the South it reaches a magnificent height, and
is much longer in maturing. A kind of corn cultivated in
Oregon has a separate sheath or envelop for every distinct ker-
nel; but in the climate of New York it soon loses this charac- —
teristic, and assumes the more comprehensive husk. So the
low growing, early Northern corn, if cultivated for a few yeara — 4
B=
~
Farm Crops. : 101
at the South, becomes taller, larger, and eer thus approxi-
mating to the Southern varieties.
The principal varieties of Indian corn in extensive use for
field culture in the United States are the Big White, Big Yellow,
Little White, Little Yellow, and Virginia Gourd Seed (yellow
and white). Of each of these there are many sub-varieties.
The King Philip or Brown Corn, a very early and small-growing,
but productive variety, is much approved in the more Northern
States; and Peabody’s Prolific or Tillering Corn, said to be a
wonderfully productive sort, is adapted to the Southern and
Middle States; but it has not yet been extensively tested. In
the selection of varieties, choose for general planting those that
have been proved in your own vicinity, as the best sort of one
locality may prove inferior in another. For trial, get new sorts
from a more northern latitude, especially where earliness is
particularly desirable.
The best soil for corn is a rich loam, but good crops are pro-
_ duced, with proper manuring, on light, sandy land. A strong
clay, or a poor, wet soil, will not produce a good crop. Corn is
a gross feeder, and, except on very light, sandy soils, fresh, mn-
fermented manure is best for it. Ashes may be added, or ap-
plied as a top-dressing, with great advantage; also the salt and
lime mixture.
_ Indian corn should always be planted in hills, and in straight
- rows, both ways, for convenience of cultivation. The distance
apart of the hills should be from three to five feet, varying with
the sort of corn and the quality of the land. From three to
five stalks in a hill is better than a larger number. Soak the
seed one or two days in a solution of common salt, or, better
still, of saltpeter, after which apply a coat of tar and plaster,
according to the directions given in Chapter II. This will not
Only accelerate the growth of the plant, but also afford an effi-
cient protection against both worms and birds. As to the
3 proper depth for covering the seed, much difference of opinion
exists. We think a depth of one inch, in soil of medium con-
sistency aud humidity, and of two or two and a half inches in
yn a ~ g’ n ee ot ig [ms
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| 102 THE Farm.
a dry, sandy soil is sufficient. Plant so soon as the ground ia
sufficiently warm and dry, without respect to the day of the —
month. The blossoming or leafing of certain trees may be
taken as a guide, Our time is when the flower-buds on the
apple-trees begin to burst open.
The after-culture of Indian corn may mostly be performed
with a light plow and a good cultivator. It should be com-
menced soon after the plants show themselves above ground;
but deep culture of every kind should be discontinued after the
roots have spread through the soil, as they can not be disturbed
without great injury. Hilling or heaping the earth about the
plants is an absurd and injurious process, which, instead of
helping to support them, as many suppose, greatly weakens the
stalks, by destroying or covering up the prop-roots with which
Nature has supplied them. This compels them to partially -
exhaust themselves by putting forth others, which after all can
not efficiently perform their office. Indian corn requires very
little, if any, earthing.
In reference to harvesting Indian corn, a variety of opinions
prevail. Some advocate topping it soon after the kernels have
become glazed or checked, believing that such a course hastens —
the ripening of the grain, and that the fodder thus cut is much
more valuable than when left till the corn is fully ripened. In
these opinions the advocates of topping are undoubtedly cor-
rect; but, on the other hand, experiments seem to prove that
the weight of the grain and the number of bushels per acre is
considerably lessened by thus cutting the stalks. The more
common practice at present, except at the South, is to let the
crop stand till the kernels are principally glazed, and then cut-
ting all near the surface of the ground, and shocking in the —
field, to remain till dry enough to husk. The grain loses a little —
in weight, no doubt, by this process, but the fodder is more
valuable than when it stands till fully ripened, and the crop —
thus treated is placed beyond injury from frost. This, for the 5
Northern and Middle States, we consider the best way to har-
vest Indian corn; although a somewhat greater bulk and wei sh hi
atk : Farm Crops. 103
_of grain may be obtained, if the frosts be long enough deferred,
_ dy allowing nature to take its course.
Corn should be perfectly dried in the field, husked, and
stored in an airy loft, or in a properly constructed granary or crib.
__ The proper selection and saving of seed is of great import-
ance. It should be selected in the field from the earliest and
largest ears of the most prolific stalks. In this way astonishing
improvements in a variety may be gradually made. Thomas
N. Baden, Esq., of Prince George County, Md., by carefully
selecting the best seed in his field for a long series of years,
having special reference to those stalks which produced the
greatest number of ears, ultimately obtained a variety which
: yields from four to ten ears to the single stalk.
In husking seed corn, leave a few of the husks upon the ears,
_ with which to braid several of them together, for convenience
- in hanging them up. They should be hung in a dry, airy loft.
_ In shelling, reject both extremities of the ear where the kernels
are imperfect or misshapen.
The expense per acre of cultivating corn varies greatly in
different parts of the country, being influenced by soil, climate,
cost of manure, price of labor, etc. For New York, Judge Buel
estimates as follows:
One plowing (suppose a clover lay).............-...20 $2 00
Harrowing and planting .................0.2.--e eee 2 00
PROV OCIIE Ss). f2)e,0«)sfela c.s/stelsieiasicte tr eiajeie wiviele.clsin etelsuivicievere 6 3 15
hs iar GS 5e CA bs ddisasnaann onan bp sodaa sobs ApadwdoGobeG 3 00
pr OMT OLIANG,). 32 cia'c,s a \sjavs/aulajelsiercic s sicishesiageiereieeresieten oiece 5 00
} Pe vhis estimate does not include manure, which is generally —
essential, and would add from five to ten dollars to the expense.
In New England the whole expense varies from twenty-five to
fifty dollars. A farmer near Philadelphia estimates it at
_ twenty-three dollars in his neighborhood; another, at Ripley,
Ohio, gives the following:
_“T subjoin my account with a corn-field of eighteen acres.
i ‘The ground and the corn have been measured—there is no
On guess work about it,
104 Torn FARM.
“Timber—originally walnut, ash, sugar maple, and beech— —
has been under cultivation twenty years—last year was in
wheat, and the year before in corn. Tne soil dark—ten inches
deep, with a clay bottom—was broken up eight inches deep
with a span of horses:
Team and hand, 12} days’ breaking, $2............2-eeceeeceeeereees $25 50
Cost of seed, laying off, and planting............. 62... cece seeeeeeeee 18 05
80% days’ work, harrowing, plowing, hoeing, etc., 872 cents...........+ 26 90
Use of team, equal to 26% days single, 52 cents.............--++-++--e- 13 91
Repairing tools... ......- 0-2 eee eee cnet eee cee eee enceeenceesemenncs 1 00
Entire cost, board, labor, and all..............--sseveceseeeseees $80 36
“The yield is 1,850 bushels, costing before gathering not quite
six cents per bushel.’”*
Here no manure is used, we presume, and the soil requires
less cultivation than at the East, in order to produce good crops.
The expense per acre, exclusive of harvesting, according to
this estimate, is less than $4 50,
But, leaving these estimates out of the
account, the fact that corn is generally
one of the most profitable crops that a
farmer can cultivate, may be set down
as an establishea fact.
2. WuEat—Triticum of species.
The origir of wheat is unknown;
but it is certain that it was cultivated
upward of a thousand years before the
Christian era, and that more than one
sort was known at that time, for it is
stated in the book of Ezekiel (xxvii. 7)
that “Judah traded in wheat of Min-
HEADS OF WHEAT. = nith.” Columella, who wrote about the
time of Christ, observes that, ‘“‘ The chief and the most profitable
corns for men are common wheat ané@ bearded wheat.”
Botanists describe about thirty species of wheat, and some
_—
* “OW, G. A.” in Country Gentleman
Te
me
a
QA
ee, Se
+. suas. =~ oe
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Farm Crops. 105
hundreds of varieties. The species mainly cultivated in the
United States are the Winter Wheat and the Spring Wheat, in
their numerous varieties. ;
In your choice of varieties it is best to be governed, as in
the case of Indian corn, by the experience either of yourself or
others. From the ever-varying character of the various kinds
of seed, their superiority at one time and locality, and their
inferiority at other times and in other situations, it would be
worse than useless for us to recommend any particular variety.
Depend upon known and tried sorts till, by experiments on a
small scale, you are satisfied that you have obtained something
better.
Wheat thrives best on a strong, clayey loam, but many light
and all calcareous soils, if in a proper condition, will give a
good yield. A glance at the table on page 28 will show that
potash, lime, and phosphoric acid enter largely into the compo-
sition of the grain, and that both lime and silica abound in the
straw ; for this reason, rich vegetable soils generally, being de-
ficient in these elements, are not well adapted to wheat. On
such soils there is always a tendency to rapid growth, large but
weak straw, and light grain; and a liability both to lodge and
to rust. A remedy, however, may be found in the applica-
tion of ashes, lime, bone-dust, etc. The soil should be deep
and well pulverized wich the plow and the harrow. Under-
draining and subsoil plowing add greatly to the amount of
the crop.
Select seed that is free from the seeds of weeds and from
smut, if this be possible; but, in any event, it is well, previous
to sowing, to wash it in a strong brine made of salt and water,
taking care to skim off all light and foreign seeds. If the
grain be smutty, repeat the washing in another clean brine,
when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with about one
twelfth of its bulk of pulverized quicklime.
The time for sowing in the Northern States is from tke tenth
to the twentieth of September, but it is often successfully sown
both earlier and later. Sow broadcast, at the rate of from
Be
106 Toe Farm.
three to five pecks to the acre, and harrow thoroughly. Rolling
is beneficial, especially on light soils.
‘““ Wheat is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly, if sown
too early in the fall, and again the ensuing spring, there being
two annual swarms of the fly, early in May and September.
When thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the mag-
gots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of
much avail. Occasionally, other flies, and sometimes wheat
worms, commit great depredation. There is no effectual rem-
edy known against any of these marauders, beyond rolling,
brushing, and harrowing.”
Smut is a parasitic fungus, of a brown or blackish color,
which grows upon the head and destroys the grain. We have
indicated the only remedy with which we are acquainted, in ~
speaking of the preparation of the seed.
“‘The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part
of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the
dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and
finger. Repeated experiments have demonstrated that wheat
cut at this time will yield more in measure, of heavier
weight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early
cut, a longer time is required for curing before storing or
threshing.”
Spring wheat should be sown so early as the ground wil)
admit. The best crops are raised on land that has been
plowed the previous fall, and sown without additional plowing,
but harrowed-in thoroughly.
Propagation may be extended with incredible rapidity by
dividing the plant. The English Philosophical Transactions
give the result of a trial, made by planting a single grain on the
2d of June. ‘On the 8th of August it was taken up and sepa-
rated into eighteen parts, and each planted by itself. These
were subdivided and planted, between 15th of September and
15th of October, and again the following spring. From this
careful attention, in a fertile soil, 500 plants were obtained, some
containing 100 stalks bearing heads of a large size; and the
Ene ae wre rier eee aa be) ) ale t Lip a
’ Farm Croprs. 107
tutal produce within the year was 386,840 grains from the single
one planted.”
3. Ryze—Secale Cereale.
This plant is supposed to be a native of the Caspian Cauca-
sian desert. It is more hardy than wheat, and will flourish on
soils too poor or too destitute of lime for wheat. It has taken
the place of wheat in many portions of the
country, where repeated crops of the latter have
. exhausted the soil of some of the requisite ele-
// ments for its growth. The best soil for it is a
rich, sandy loam, but it grows freely on the
lightest sandy and gravelly soils that are capable
of sustaining any kind of vegetation. The di-
rections for the preparation of soil and seed, and
for cultivation, harvesting, etc., are the same as
for wheat; but it is sometimes sown among
standing corn and hoed in, the ground being left
as level as possible. So soon as the corn is ma-
tured, it is cut up by the roots and removed to
the sides of the field, when the ground is thor-
oughly rolled.
Winter rye and spring rye are varieties of the
same species, and may readily be transformed
into each other. Sow from five pecks to two
bushels to the acre, according to the quality of the soil, the
richest lands demanding most. Winter rye may be sown from
the 20th of August to the 20th of September, and spring rye
so soon as the state of the soil will permit in the spring.
Rye, when ground and unbolted, is much used in New England
to mix with Indian corn meal, for bread-making. The corn
meal is scalded, and the loaves baked for a long time. The
product is known as ‘‘rye-and-Indian bread,” and is much es-
teemed and very wholesome. There ‘is a peculiar aroma and
flavor connected with the husk of the grain, which is lost in
the bolted flour. Dr. Thaer, the distinguished German physi-
cian and agricultural writer, says that ‘this substance has a
EAR OF RYE.
ie
AE AE Ge Pe
108 THE Farm.
singularly strengthening, refreshing, and beneficial effec’ on the
animal frame.”
4. Tot Oat—Avena Sativa.
This grain will grow on any soil and in almost any climate,
It is affected less by disease, and has fewer insect enemies than
most of the cereals. The wire worm,
however, occasionally proves destruc-
tive to it, when sown on fresh sod.
The remedy in this case is to turn
over the sod late in the fall, just be-
fore the severe winter frosts.
There are many varieties and sub-
varieties of the oat. Loudon describes
the following:
“The White or Common Oat is in
most general cultivation in England
and Scotland, and is known by its
white husk and kernel.
“The Black Oat, known by its black
husk, and cultivated on poor soils in the north of England and
Scotland.
“The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red husk, thinner and
more flexible stem, and firmly-attached grains. It is early,
suffers little from winds, meals well, and suits windy situations
and a late climate.
“The Poland Oat, known by its thick, white husk, awnless
chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw.
It requires a dry, warm soil, but is very prolific.
‘The Black Poland Oat is one of the best varieties; it some-
times weighs 50 lbs, to the bushel.
“‘The Friesland or Dutch oat has plump, thin-skinned, white
grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned.
It has longer straw than the Poland, but in other respects re-
sembles it.
“The Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned,
HEAD OF THE OAT,
J
aon de * ee me . : : R y ie ee
ii Stel Mes ge a a 2S) PN el eee
Farm Crops. 109
white grains, double and treble, with longer straw than either
of the two last. It is now almost the only kind raised in the
north of England and south of Scotland, and brings a higher ~
price in London than any other variety.
“The Georgian Oat is a large-grained, remarkably profitable
variety, and on rich soil, in good tilth, has produced more than
~ any other variety.
“The Siberian or Tartarian is by some conceded a distinct
species. The grains are black or brown, thin and small, and
turned mostly to one side of the panicle, and the straw is coarse
and reedy. It is little vultivated in England, but is found very
suitable for poor soils and exposed situations.
“The Winter Oat is sown at the rate of two bushels per acre
in October, the plants are luxuriant and tiller well, and afford
good winter and spring pasture for ewes and lambs, and when
these are shut out, it affords an ample crop of grain in August.”
The heaviest oat cultivated in the United States is the Impe-
rial; and it is preferred by many to all others. It is bright and
plump, and yields a large proportion of nutritive matter. It
has proved very productive in the Northern and Middle States.
But the variety most cultivated is the common White Oat,
which is hardy and a good bearer.
The only oat that will mature with certainty in the Southern
States is the Egyptian. It is sound, hardy, and moderately
productive. It is sown in autumn.
- At the North, oats may be sown from the first of March till
the last of May; but the earliest sown usually yield the best
crops. From two to four bushels to the acre are sown in this
country; but in England they sow from four to six. The land
should be prepared by plowing and harrowing, after which the.
seed should be sown broadcast, and harrowed in. On most
soils rolling is beneficial.
Oats may be mowed or cut with the cradle or the sickle.
They are fit to harvest when they begin to turn yellow.
As an article of diet, the oat is not properly appreciated in
this country, oatmeal being little eaten except by foreigners,
4)
Fi
fieeci as MER ens 3 +4 2 oy ”
: . y ae re
110 Tue Farm.
In Ireland and Scotland it is a common article of diet. It
would be well for us if it were so here. It is wholesome and
strengthening. It is prepared by grinding the kiln-dried seeds,
which have been previously deprived of their husks and outer
skin,
5. Bartey—Hordeum of species.
In Europe this grain ranks next to wheat in importance; but
it is much less extensively
cultivated in the United \\\
States.
Professor Lowe enu-
merates six species of
barley, but two only are
in general cultivation—
the Two-Rowed and the
Six-Rowed. In England,
i
the latter is preferred for ib
its superior hardiness and \
productiveness; but the \ v! '
A }
former is more generally Vi)
cultivated in this country,
the Six-Rowed being, HEADS OF BARLEY.
with us, more subject to the smut.
Like rye, it may be made either a winter or a spring grain;
but in this country it is almost universally sowed in the spring.
Sow so soon as the ground is sufficiently dry, on land plowed
the previous fall. If sown on sod, it may be lightly plowed in,
and afterward harrowed or rolled. Sow about two bushels to
the acre, on soil of medium richness. If sown very early, a
smaller quantity of seed will suffice. A loam of medium con-
sistency, between light and heavy, is best for it. Barn-yard
manures must never be applied directly to this grain. Steeping
the seed twenty-four hours in a weak solution of saltpeter is
beneficial. The roller is sometimes applied to the field, when
the plants are two or three inches high, with great benefit.
It is of great importance to harvest barley at the proper time,
Farm Crops. 111
If cut too early, the kernels shrink very much, and if suffered
to stand too long, the grain wastes at the slightest touch, the
heads breaking off and falling to the ground. It is known to.
be ripe by the disappearance of the reddish cast from the ear,
the drooping of the heads, and the yellowish color of the stalks.
It may be stacked like wheat.
Barley is very useful as an article of human food, but, like
oats, is too much neglected in the United States, being used
principally for malting and brewing. In the form of pearl
barley, which is the small, round part of the kernel that
remains after the skin and a part of the seed are ground off, it
is excellent when cooked in the same way as rice—either simply
boiled or in puddings.
6. Rice—Oryza Sativa.
Rice probably affords food for more human beings than any
other plant. In China, and nearly the
qi} whole length of the southern part of
Asia; throughout the innumerable and
densely populated islands of the Pacific
and Indian oceans; in the southern part
\\\ of Europe, and a large extent of Africa;
and through no inconsiderable portion
of North and South America and the
West Indies, it is extensively grown, and
forms the staple food of the inhabitants.
The varieties of rice most grown in
South Carolina and Georgia, which have
hitherto been the greatest rice-producing
rice, ‘the Guinea, the Common White,
and the White-bearded. There are sey-
eral other varieties, but generally infe-
rior to the foregoing. The best are
produced by careful cultivation on soils
suited to this grain, and by a careful selection of seed.
HEAD OF RICE.
States of the Union, are the Gold-seed_
are ee Th
Bi
‘
is
r
4
4
THe Farm.
The method of cultivation pursued on the rice lands of the
lower Mississippi, as detailed by Dr. Cartwright, a practica,
planter, is as follows:
“The seed is sown broadcast about as thick as wheat, and
harrowed-in with a light harrow, having many teeth; the
ground being first well plowed and prepared by ditches and
embankments for inundation. It is generally sown in March,
and immediately after sowing, the water is let on, so as barely
to overflow the ground. The water is withdrawn on the sec-
ond, third, or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to
swell. The rice very soon after comes up and grows finely.
When it has attained about three inches in height, the water is
again let on, the top leaves being left a little above the water.
Complete immersion would kill the plant. A fortnight pre-
vious to harvest the water is drawn off to give the stalks
strength, and to dry the ground for the convenience of the
reapers. jp
‘The same measure of ground will yield three times as much
rice as wheat. The only labor after sowing is to see that the
rice is properly irrigated; except in some localities, where
aquatic plants prove troublesome, the water effectually destroy-
ing all others. The rice grounds of the lower Mississippi pro-
duce about seventy-five dollars’ worth of rice per acre. The
variety called the Creole white rice is considered to be the best.””*
Upland rice is cultivated entirely with the plow and harrow,
and grows well on the pine barrens. <A kind of shovel plow,
drawn by one horse, is driven through the unbroken pine for-
est, not a tree being cut or belted, and no grubbing being neces-
sary, as there is little or no undergrowth. The plow makes a
shallow furrow about an inch or two deep, the furrows about
three feet apart. The rice is dropped into them and covered
with a harrow. The middles, or spaces between the furrows,
are not broken up until the rice attains several inches in height,
One or two plowings suffice in the piney woods for its cultiive
* The “ A werican Farm Book.”
Farm Ornops. 113
tion--weeds and grass, owing to the nature of the soil, not
being troublesome. ,
Rice prepared according to the following recipe makes a dish -
which we prefer to the richest rice pudding, and which is cer-
tainly far more wholesome:
Slowly simmer the rice in milk three or four hours, or til
- the grains burst and absorb the milk; add a little sugar; put
the whole into a wide dish, and bake till slightly brown. Eat
with milk or butter.
7. BuokwHEat—Polygonum Fagopyrum.
Buckwheat is extensively cultivated in the United States; as
it affords a flour which is
much esteemed as an article
of food. It will grow with
considerable luxuriance on
the poorest land. It comes
to maturity so quickly that it
is frequently sowed upon
ground from which wheat or
some other crop has been
taken. When intended for
seed it should be sown sufii-
ciently early to allow the
\ kernel to become perfectly
ripe—say from the middle of
June to the first of July. In
New York it is often sown
in August with winter wheat,
| affording a ripe crop in the
BUCKWHEAT PLANT. fall, without injury to the
wheat, except so far as it may exhaust the soil. It is sown
broadcast, at the rate of from a bushel to a bushel and a half
per acre. In harvesting it is usually mowed with a scythe, and
made into small stacks.
Buckwheat is often used for plowing under as a green manure,
iy
big
WAZA
ZABAG
114 Tue Farm.
This can be done where the land is too poor to produce clover
for that purpose. When in flower, it should be first rolled, and
then plowed in.
8. Mittet—Panicum of species.
The species generally cultivated for the seed is the P. millia-
ceum. As a forage crop, the German millet (P. Germanicwm)
is preferable, and is coming into extensive use, especially at the
West. The common species is sown, either broadcast or in
drills, from the first of May to the first of July. If for hay, it
is best sown broadcast about five pecks to the acre. In drills,
which is the best way when cultivated for the grain, eight
quarts will suffice.
Of the German millet or Hungarian grass we shall have more
to say, under the head of the grasses,
IL—HOW TO SHOCK GRAIN.
Many a valuable harvest may be preserved from ruin by
taking heed to the following hints from a practical farmer.
They are from that excellent paper, the Ohio Farmer. The
readers of this little manual shall have no excuse for the too
common awkward and inefficient modes of shocking grain.
Here are our sensible farmer’s rules:
“61, Grain should be firmly bound in smaller sheaves than it
is almost universally found. Loosely bound sheaves can not be
well shocked. They also admit more rain than tightly bound
ones.
‘““9. Two men can shock better and more advantageously
{han one.
“3, Let the shocker always take two sheaves at a time, hold-
ing them with his elbow against his side, bringing the heads
together with hands well spread upon them. Lift them as high
as possible, bringing them with force, in as nearly a perpen-
dicular position as can be, to the ground. Never make the
second thrust, if the sheaves stand erect, for every one after
the first, by breaking the butts, makes the matter worse.
Nel ents Oe laden eth Tall a ce atin es BE
Farm Crops. 115
“4. Then let two persons bring down two sheaves each at the
same time, as before described, being extremely careful to keep
them perpendicular. The form of shock at this * * *
period may be represented thus: oS OL
“5. As lastly stated, two more each, thus: er
The reader will perceive we now have ten sheaves, * 2 eee
forming a circle as nearly as can be. x
“6. While one man presses the head of the * *
shock firmly together, let the other break, not bend, the two
cap sheaves, and place them on, well spreading heads and butts.
“The main points are, to have grain well bound, sheaves
made to stand in an erect position, and then to put cap sheaves
on jirmly, and every gust of wind will not demolish your work.
‘Grain is usually shocked in this manner: One sheaf is made
to stand alone, another is /eaned against it, and another, some-
times at an angle of forty-five degrees, ‘to make them stand
up,’ until a sufficient number is thought to be leaned up.
“‘ Now the probability is, that there is but one sheat in the
whole shock that has its center of gravity within its base; as a
matter of course, each depends on some other to hold it up
Consequently they twist; and if the shock does not fall down
before the hands get the next one up, it most certainly will
during the first rain, just when the perpendicular position is most
necessary.”
IIl.—THE LEGUMES.
1. Tue Kipyey Bean—Phaseolus Vulgaris.
The bush or dwarf kidney bean is frequently cultivated as a
field crop. There are many sorts that may be profitably used
for this purpose, but the Small White is generally preferred, as
it is very prolific, quite hardy, will grow in light, poor soil, and
is more delicately flavored than the colored varieties. The
Long White garden bean is also good. See ‘The Garden” for
w list of the best varieties for horticultural purposes.
The bean succeeds best on a light, warm, and moderately
fertile soil, A strong soil, or too much manure, induces a
116 Ture Farm.
tendency to run to vine, without a corresponding quantity of
froit,
Plant either in hills or in drills. If you have a sower, or
drill for putting them in, the latter is the best mode. The drills
may be from two to three feet apart, the hills from eighteen
inches to two feet each way. From five to eight plants are
enough for a hill. They must be kept clear from weeds by the
use of the hoe or cultivator; but should be earthed up very
slightly, if at all. The first of June is sufficiently early to plant
them. They are sometimes planted with corn, putting three or
four beans in each hill. This may be done either at the time
of planting the corn, or at the first hoeing.
The best mode of harvesting beans with which we are ac-
quainted is thus described by a correspondent of the Country
Gentleman:
‘‘ Place a small pole or stick a foot in the ground, and five or
six above ground; around this stick lay some stones, say from
four to six inches high, and from twenty to thirty inches in
diameter; then place your beans, with the stems against the
pole, allowing the roots to be on the opposite side; your next
handful you lay with the top on those last laid roots, and the
roots of this on the pod and leaves, and so on to the top, form-
ing, as you proceed, a sugar-loaf, keeping it round, or as you
would build a stack, tying the top with a straw band. Thus
you throw the water all to the outside, the beans being so com-
pact as not to admit water. You can by this means allow them
to remain in the field until you are ready to thresh them in
November or December, the stones at bottom keeping them
dry. In carting to the barn I loosen the pole by shaking, od
take hold bottom and top, and throw pole and beans into the
wagon; by doing so you do not shell the beans.”
As an article of food, the bean has been undervalued. It is,
when properly cooked, very palatable and exceedingly nutri-
tious. It abounds in legumin, which is analogous to casein, the
animal principle in milk, and is essentially the same as the
jibrin of lean meat.
Farm Crops. 117
Sheep are very fond of beans, and the straw or haulm mnakes
an excellent fodder for them. No other animal, we believe,
will eat beans raw ; but cattle, hogs, and poultry thrive onthem |
when cooked.
2. Toe Pra—Pisum Satioum.
The Marrowfat and Small Yellow peas are the sorts generally
used for field culture. The Marrowfat is the richer and better
pea, and is to be preferred for good soils. The Small Yellow
thrives on poorer soils, and is therefore, in some cases, more
profitably cultivated. In some parts of the South a very prolific
bush pea is cultivated and much esteemed for the table, both
green and dry.
Prepare the ground as for any other spring crop, by plowing
and harrowing, and sow broadcast, at the rate of two or two
and a half bushels to the acre. Cover them with the harrow
or the cultivator, the latter implement being preferable, and
smooth the ground by the use of the roller.
In harvesting the pea, some farmers hook them up with a
scythe, and some rake them up by hand with the common
rake; but the most expeditious and best way, by far, is to use
the horse-rake in gathering this crop.
Peas are easily threshed and prepared for market, and may
be made a very profitable crop; from thirty to forty bushels
per acre being not an uncommon yield. As an article of food,
they are excellent “both for man and beast.”
The great enemy of the pea is the pea-weevil or pea-bug,
which is too well known to require description. It deposits its
ege in the growing pea, by piercing the tender pod. Asa
remedy, some recommend keeping the seed in tight vessels over
one year. This plan, if universally adopted, would probably
lead to the total extermination of this destructive insect; but
as this is not likely to be the case, the only practicable way to
avoid its ravages is by late sowing. It has been ascertained
that it is limited to a certain period for depositing its eggs;
peas, therefore, which are planted sufficiently late in the season
5
ee
ator
oF a
118 Tur Farm. ee ies
to postpone their seeding beyond this period, are not injured,
The time for planting to avoid the bug ranges, in different lati-
tudes where experiments have been made, from May 20th to
June 10tl.
The Chinese Prolific pea and the Japan pea are new sorts,
which seem to promise valuable additions to our leguminous
crops.
The plant called Cow-pea or Indian pea, and sometimes Stock
pea, is extensively cultivated in some of the Southern States,
both as a forage crop and a fertilizer. It is sown broadcast, in
drills, or hoed in among Indian corn, when the latter is laid by
for the season. When intended for cattle, it is harvested before
the seed is fully ripe. It may be harvested in the same way as
the common pea.
3. Ture Pra-Not—Arachis Hypogea.
This is a legume bearing its pods under the surface of the
ground. It was originally brought from Africa.
A North Carolina planter thus describes the mode of cultiva-
tion: “So soon as the frost is out of the ground, the land is
broken up, and about the middle of April laid off with the plow
thirty-three inches each way; two or three peas are then
dropped in the crosses thus made. The plants are kept clean
with hoes and plows until the vines cover the ground; but no
dirt is put on the vines. In October they are dug with a rake
or plow. Hogs are then turned into the field, and they soon
fatten upon the peas left upon the ground. When the vines are
left upon the land for the hogs to feed upon, there is no crop
that improves the land so much.
IV.—ESCULENT ROOTS.
1. Tue Porato—Solanum Tuberosum.
This most valuable of all the esculent roots is a native of the
American continent, and is now found in a wild state in parts
of South America. It was probably introduced into southern
~
Farm Orops. 119
Europe by the Spanish adventurers, and into England by Sir
Walter Raleigh. In this country it has been cultivated from
the first settlement; but until a comparatively recent period ©
only to a limited extent.
In reference to the choice of varieties for planting, the best
advice we can give will be simply a repetition of our recom-
mendations in respect to several other plants: Choose such as
have been well tested by yourself or others, and found adapted
to the soil and purposes for which they are to be cultivated.
Try your experiments with new sorts, on a small scale, and
with close observation of the results. Experiment also, if lei-
sure serve, in the production of new varieties from the seeds
found in the balls. See directions in ‘‘ The Garden.”
A fair crop of potatoes may be produced on almost any soil,
properly manured and prepared and well cultivated, but a rich
loam, of medium humidity, is best. If fresh or unfermented
manures be used, they should be spread on the land, and plowed
under, and not scattered in the drills or hills, as they are apt to
injure the flavor of the potatoes. Lime, crushed bones, gypsum,
salt, and ashes are excellent special manures for the potato.
The soil should be made loose and mellow before planting.
In reference to seed, planting, and cultivation, opinions and
practices differ widely. We have not room to discuss the va-
rious points in controversy between different scientific and
practical agriculturists. All that our plan will permit is to give
our own mode of cultivation, leaving our readers to try it in
connection with other methods, and adopt the best.
We choose for seed good, well ripened, medium-sized pota-
toes, such as we would select for the table. These we should
prefer to plant whole, but, seed being scarce and dear, we think
it economical to cut each into two or four pieces, according to
the size. We cut them three or four days, at least, before they
are wanted for planting, roll them in plaster of Paris, and
spread them on the floor in an airy loft to dry.
We plant in drills from two and a half to three and a half
feet apart, according to the strength of the soil and the’ sort of
iq
;
MY
4
“
120 THE Farm.
potatoes planted, some varieties producing much larger tops .
than others. On some soils we should plant in hills, for conve-
nience of cultivation with the plow and cultivator, but on light
and loamy soils tolerably free from weeds and unobstructed by
stones, we prefer the drills. We drop our sets from six to nine
inches apart in the drills, and cover to a depth of three or four
inches,
When the shoots have fairly made their appearance above
ground, we run a plow between the rows, throwing the earth
well to the plants, and following with a hoe, if necessary. This
plowing, or plowing and hoeing, are repeated once or twice
before the blossoms appear, but not afterward.
The harvesting is commenced so soon as the tops are mostly
dead. We allow only sufficient exposure to the sun to dry the
tubers, and then store them at once in bins or barrels, where
they will be secure against frost, covering them with straw or
dry sand, to prevent the circulation of air.
For au early crop we plant only the seed ends, but for the
earliest possible crop we should proceed as follows:
Select medium-sized or large tubers early in February, and
prepare them by carefully cutting ont all the eyes, except the
crow-eye or eyes (for there are sometimes two of them), and
then place them in a layer, on some dry sand, in a shallow box,
and cover them with sand, chaff, or straw, and keep them in a
warm room, where light can be freely admitted, When the
shoots appear, they must be exposed to the light as much as
possible, by partially removing the covering during the day,
but keeping them carefully coyered at night, when there is any
danger from cold. The leaves soon become green and tolerably
hardy. Early in March they may be planted out in a warm
southern exposure, covering them so as to just expose the leaves
above ground, Give them a covering of straw or litter at night,
whenever there is danger from frost. By this means you may
have potatoes fit for the table two or three weeks earlier than
by planting in the ordinary way. A modification of this plan
is to forward the sets prepared, as before, on a heap of fer-
Farm Crops. 121
- menting manure, in some warm exposure in the open air, cov-
ering them well at night when the weather is cold.
In “The Garden” (page 76) we have given a description of ©
the method pursued by Mr. Peabody, of Georgia, for raising
potatoes under straw. We are convinced that his plan is a
good one for the South, and late experiments seem to prove
that it works well at the North also. A correspondent of the
Ohio Valley Farmer, for instance, says:
“Having a quantity of wheat straw near a piece of ground I
was planting with potatoes, I concluded fo try the straw-cover-
ing process. The soil, if I may so call it, was hard yellow
clay. On the surface, and without any preparation of the
ground, I distributed my potatoes, covering them some six or
eight inches with straw, and did nothing more to them. They
grew finely, and in the fall I took hold of the tops and “‘drawed”
my crop. I found the tubers of a good size, and nice, bright,
and clean enough for the boiler! and the yield much greater
than of those planted in sod ground in the usual way.”
Another correspondent of the same paper makes the follow-
ing strong statement:
‘““ We have the three last years planted our potatoes under
straw, and have got more than double the quantity, on the
same ground, with less work in planting and gathering. Our
plan is to prepare the ground as thoroughly as possible, then
mark it out with the plow, as close as we can; drop the pota-
toes six inches apart in same, cover as lightly as possible with
the soil, then take the wagon containing the straw, and spread
lightly to cover the ground, In this manner the work is done
till harvest-time. We then take the potato-hook, and rake the
straw into winrows, and our crop is nearly all in sight, ready
to be gathered.”
We have not ourself sufficiently tested this mode of planting,
to speak with confidence from our own experience. Let our
thousands of readers try it, and report through the papers!
“Of the potato disease or rot,” as we have remarked in “The
Garden,” “little can profitably be here said. Its cause and
6
122 Toe Farm.
remedy have yet to be made known. As preventives, a dry,
or an underdrained soil; the use of lime, salt, and ashes; the
absence of fresh stable manure; early planting; and new,
healthy varieties, may be confidently recommended.” Thorough
underdraining alone is, we believe, generally effective in pre-
venting the disease.
2. Toe Sweet Potato—Convolvulus Batatas.
This is the potato of the South, and is much cultivated in the
Middle and Western States. In its perfection, as it grows in
South Carolina and the other extreme Southern States, it is the
best of all the esculent roots.
The varieties most cultivated are the Small Spanish, long,
purplish color, grows in clusters, very productive, and of good
quality ; Brimstone, sulphur-colored, long, large, and excellent ;
Red Bermuda, the best early potato; Common Yam, root ob-
long and large, the best keeper, and very productive.
A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best for the sweet po-
tato. The manure should be plowed in, and the ground well
pulverized. A top-dressing of wood ashes is very beneficial.
The Spanish varieties are generally planted where they are
to remain, either whole or cut up into sets. But these may,
and the yams must be, propagated by slips, as they grow larger
and yield more abundantly.
To raise slips, select a sunny spot, sheltered by fences or
buildings, and lay it off in beds four feet wide, with alleys of
the same width between them. Slope the beds a little toward
the sun, and add plenty of well-rotted manure, if the soil be
not already rich. Do this in February or early in March.
Choose large, smooth, healthy-looking potatoes, and lay them
regularly over the bed, an inch or two apart, and cover them
with three or four inches of soil from the alleys. It requires
ten bushels of potatoes, thus bedded, for an acre of ground.
Lay off your ground in low, horizontal ridges or beds, the
crowns of which should be three feet apart, and about six
inches high, on which, when the slips are ready, which will be
Farm Crops. 123
about the middle of April, plant them out eighteen inches
apart, one plant in a place, choosing a wet or cloudy day for
the operation. Draw the slips when from three to four inches
high, by placing the left hand on the bed, near the sprout, to
steady the root and prevent it from being pulled up with the
sprout. This is loosened with the right hand from: the parent;
tuber, which will continue, if undisturbed, to produce a suc-
cession of sliys till the first of July. Stir the soil frequently,
keeping the weeds well subdued. Be careful not to cover the
vines, but if they become attached to the soil, loosen them from
it, so that the whole vigor of the plant may go to the forma-
tion of tubers. Make the hills large and flat. When they have
been laid by, it is a good plan to fill up the spaces between the
rows with litter, when the ground is wet, to retain the moisture.
So soon as the tops are dead or touched by the frost, the
érop should be gathered.
Sweet potatoes are difficult to keep. The following is Mr.
Peabody’s plan:
“Let the small heaps dry during the day. In handling
them, take care not to bruise or injure the skin, as the least
bruise produces rapid decay. Put them up in hills containing
thirty or forty bushels each. Make a circular trench as large
as the hill you wish to make. Elevate the earth surrounded by
it six inches, or at least sufficiently to prevent the access of
moisture. Cover this with straw, and heap the potatoes upon
it in a regular cone. If the weather be good, cover them only
with pine or other straw for two or three days, that the pota-
toes may be well dried before earthing up. The covering of
straw should be three or four inches thick. Cover this with
strips of pine bark, commencing at the base, and covering as in
shingling, leaving a small aperture at the top for the escape of
the heat and moisture generated within. Cover this, except
the aperture, with earth, to the thickness of four or five inches.
Some cover the opening in the top with a piece of pine bark,
to keep out the rain, but a board shelter for the whole heap is
preferable. In the spring take up the potatoes, rub off the
194 Ture Farm.
sprouts, and keep them on a dry floor. If put up with care,
they will keep till July.”*
Baked, or roasted in hot ashes, the sweet potato is one of the
most delicious and nutritive of all vegetables. They are also
used for pies and puddings, and sweet-potato rolls are excellent.
38. THe Turniep—Brassica Repa.
In England the turnip crop is one of the most extensive and
important in the whole compass of agricultural production.
Fields of hundreds of acres are sometimes seen, and inclosures
of fifteen or twenty are common. Here they are cultivated to
a more limited extent, differences of opinion existing in refer-
ence to the profit of their cultivation as a crop for feeding stock.
“Tn the corn-growing regions of the fertile West, from the
facility with which Indian corn can be grown, and the low
price of it in many sections of the country, and its nutritive
value over that of roots is such, that it is doubtless more profit-
able growing corn than roots for feeding purposes. But in the
Northern States, where corn is usually worth from 80 cents to
$1 per bushel, we believe farmers would generally find it for
their interest to grow a certain amount of roots, proportioned
to the number of cattle and other stock they winter. Aside
from the actual amount of nutritive food that roots afford, we
think there can be no doubt that the winter condition of our
farm stock would be greatly improved by a daily feed of succu-
lent food, even if it were but four quarts per day to each animal,
with their dry hay and straw; but with a larger allowance of
roots, cattle can be kept in good condition through our long
winters on hay of poor quality, or on straw, and so they can in
freely feeding Indian meal or oil cake; but in sections of the
country where corn is worth one dollar per bushel, and oil cake
in a similar ratio, it is presumed roots would be found the
cheapest.”’t
The varieties of the turnip are numerous. The flat English
* White's “ Gardening for the South.” + Country Gentlaman.
B
©
Farm Caen. 125
turnip has been longest in cultivation, and still holds its place
among most farmers as a field crop. It thrives best on new
land and freshly turned sod, but will grow wherever Indian
corn can be raised.
The English turnip may be sown from the middle of June to
the first of August, either broadcast or in drills. If sown
broadcast, about two pounds of seed per acre will be required.
The seed should be lightly harrowed or bushed in. Drilling it
in with the seed sower and cultivating with the cultivator or
hoe is the better way. The crop will be materially assisted by
a top-dressing of lime, ashes, and plaster, at the rate of fifteen
or twenty bushels of the first two, and from one and a half to
three of the last.
English turnips are often sowed among Indian corn at the
last hoeing, producing, in many cases, a fair crop.
The Ruta Baga or Swedes turnip is a far more valuable root
than the English, but requires a little more attention in cultiva-
tion. It will grow on a heavier soil, yield as good a crop, fur-
nish a more nutritive root, and keep longer.
“The Swedes turnip is generally sown in drills about two
feet apart, and on heavy lands these should be slightly ridged.
The plants must be successively thinned, to prevent interfering
with such as are intended to mature, but enough should remain
to provide for casualties. Where there is a deficiency, they
may be supplied by transplanting during showery weather.
They should be left six or eight inches apart in the drills. The
Swede turnip is a gross feeder, and requires either a rich soil or
heavy manuring; though the use of fresh manures has been
supposed to facilitate the multiplication of enemies. Bones,
ground and drilled in with the seed, or a dressing of lime, ashes,
gypsum, and salt, are the best applications that can be made.
The Swede should be sown from the 20th May to the 15th
June, and earlier than the English turnip, as it takes longer to
- mature; and two or three weeks more of growth frequently
adds largely to the product. An early sowing, also, gives time
to plant for another crop, in case of failure of the first,
at
126 Tue Farm.
“The turnip is exposed to numerous depredators, of which
the turnip flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks the
plant so soon as the first leaves expand, and often destroys two
or three successive sowings. When the fly or bug is discovered,
the application of lime, ashes, or soot, or all combined, should
be made upon the leaves, while the dew or a slight moisture is
on them.”*
Harvesting should be deferred till the approach of severe
frosts, and at the South the crop may remain in the ground till
wanted in the winter.
The Purple-Topped Swede, Skirving’s Swede, and Ashcroft’s
Swede are approved varieties.
4. Kout Rast—Brassica Oleracea.
Tn England and Ireland, where the turnip has, in some places,
shown signs of degeneracy, the Kohl Rabi has been proposed
as a substitute, and has already come into somewhat extensive
cultivation. It seems to possess all the good qualities of the
turnip, with the addition of some excellences peculiar to itself.
It has been proved to be perfectly hardy, to stand severe frosts
better, and to keep in store for a longer period than the Swedish
turnip. It also resists the attacks of the fly and grub. Its
feeding qualities have been fully tested, and all kinds of stock
are exceedingly fond of it. When fed to milch cows it does
not impart that turnip taste to the milk and butter, as is fre-
quently the case when cows are freely fed-with turnips.
The average weight per statute acre has been from 27 to 31
tons, of tops and bulbs,
The seeds of the Green and Purple-Topped varieties have
been extensively distributed through the agency of the Patent
Office, during the past two or three years. So far as we have
learned, they have fallen short of the Swedes in productiveness
or weight per acre. But in all cases that have come to our
knowledge, the seed of the Kohl were sown at the time of
* Allen.
Farm Crors 127
sowing the turnips. This is too late for sowing Rabi seed.
The Irish Farmer's Gazette says: ‘‘ The seed is sown in a well-.
prepared seed-bed; about the end of February, in drills about
a foot apart; and in May they are transplanted in the field
(when the plants are six or eight inches high), in rows about
two feet asunder, and eighteen inches apart in the rows.”
5. Toe Carrot—Daucus Carota.
The ¢arrot is looked upon with much favor‘as a field crop in
some parts of the United States. It is preferred by many
farmers to every other vegetable for feeding cattle, horses, and
swine. A bushel of carrots cut and mixed with an equal quan-
tity of oats is thought to be equivalent to two bushels of oats;
and five or six hundred bushels may easily be raised on an acre
of good land. Rev. Mr. Coleman, of Massachusetts, says that
he has raised them at the rate of more than a thousand bushels — -
to the acre.
The varieties mostly used for field culture are the Altringham,
the Orange, and the White Belgian. The last-named is very
productive, and, growing high out of ground, is more easily
harvested than the other sorts; but, on the other hand, it is
considered below the others in nutritive value.
“It is very important to have both the soil and the manure
for carrots free from the seeds of weeds and grasses; the plants
in the early stages of their growth are small and feeble, which
makes it a slow and expensive process to eradicate the weeds,
if abundant. Well manured sandy, or light, loamy soils are
best adapted to the carrot crop. The ground should be deeply
worked, and brought to a fine tilth before sowing the seed.
For field crops, the drills should be eighteen inches distant; the
plants in the rows should be thinned to six or eight inches
apart. This ‘thinning out’ is a matter too frequently neglected.
We have frequently seen carrots growing so thickly that they
would average a dozen or more plants to the foot; when left
to grow in this crowded manner, the roots must necessarily be
_ small, and the expense of harvesting greatly increased.”
Bm a a
Die TO ee
re See
128 THe Farm. See)
6. Toe Parsner—Pastinaca Sativa.
This root is nearly equal to the carrot in value, and large
crops may be obtained on deep, rich, well-pulverized soil. The
best variety for field culture is the Isle of Jersey. The cultiva-
tion is similar to that of the carrot. The harvesting should be
deferred till spring, unless the roots may be wanted for winter’s
use, as they keep best in the ground.
The parsnep is one of the best of all our table vegaaens
and is also excellent for cattle, sheep, and swine. The leaves
of both parsneps and carrots are good for cattle, either green
or dried.
7. Tut Beer—Beta Vulgaris.
The varieties most in use for field culture are the Sugar beet
and the Mangold-Wurzel, of both of which there are several
sub-varieties. <
Beets do well in any soil of sufficient depth and fertility, but
they are perhaps most partial to a strong loam. If well tilled,
they will produce large crops on a tenacious clay. We have
raised at the rate of 800 bushels per acre, on a stiff clay, which
had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The soil
can not be made too rich; and for such as are adhesive, fresh
or unfermented manures are much the best.
The beet should be planted in drills from twenty to twenty-
four inches apart, at the rate of six pounds of seed to the acre.
Cover about an inch deep. The seed should be early planted,
or as soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly ; but it must first
be soaked by pouring soft, scalding water on it, allowing it to
cool to blood-heat, and remain for three or four days, then roll
in plaster and drill it in. The culture is similar to that of car-
rots and parsneps.
As an article of human food, the beet is a universal favorite.
Domestic animals are very fond of it, and swine prefer it to
any other root except the parsnep; and on no vegetable can
they be kept in a better condition.
Farm Crops. — 129
8. Cuinus—E Yam—Dioscorea Batatas.
This root was introduced into France seven or eight years
ago, and seems to have won a considerable degree of public
estimation there. It has not had so long a period of trial here,
but has been experimented with more or less in all parts of the
United States, generally with ill or indifferent success. We can
speak of it only as an object of experiment.
The mode of culture required ky the Chinese yam is not yet
well determined. It evidently needs a deeply spaded or trenched
soil, and probably should be cut into sets and planted in rows
three or four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, and
treated like the sweet potato, except that it requires no earth-
ing up. The plants may be forwarded in a hot bed or in a cold
frame under glass,
V.—THE GRASSES.
The grasses cultivated for the food of animals are too nu-
merous to admit of a description in such a work as this. It is
said that no less than two hundred varieties are cultivated in
England. In this country we make use of fewer sorts for cul-
tivation ; but the number and excellence of our natural grasses
are probably unsurpassed in any qaarter of the globe.
We will speak briefly of a few of the leading species culti-
vated among us, noting some of their peculiar excellences and
adaptations.
1. Trvotay—Phleum Pratense.
Allen says: “For cultivation in the northern portion of the
United States, I am inclined to place the Timothy first in the
list of the grasses. It is indigneous to this country, and flour-
ishes in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or sandy;
and it is found in perfection on the rich clays and clay loams
which lie between 38° and 44° north latitude. It isa peren-
nial, easy of cultivation, hardy and of luxuriant growth, and on
- itz favorite soil yields from one and a half to two tons of hay
per acre at one cutting.”
It may be sown either in August or September with the
; gt
130 Tue Farm.
wintor grains, or in the spring. ‘Twelve quarts of seed per
acre on a fine mellow tilth are sufficient ; and twice this quan-
tity on a stiff clay.” This is the Herds grass of New England.
2. Toe Smooru-StatKep Mrapow Grass—Poa Pratensis.
This is one of the best of grasses, both for hay and for pas-
ture. It is a native species, and is found almost everywhere,
but does not grow in its greatest perfection north of the valley
of the Ohio. It is seen in all its glory on the fertile soils of
Kentucky and Tennessee. Every animal that eats grass is fond
of it. ‘‘The seed ripens in June, and is self-sown upon the
ground where the succeeding rains give it vitality and it pushes
out its long slender leaves two feet in length, which in autumn
fall over in thick winrows, matting the whole surface with a
luscious herbage.”
The Roughish Meadow grass (P. trivialis) has the appear-
ance of the smooth variety, but is rough to the touch, and pre-
fers moist situations and clayey soils. This, also, is an excel-
,ent grass.
8. Rep Torp—Agrostis Vulgaris.
A hardy and luxuriant species, much relished by cattle, but
possessing only a moderate nutritive value. It is much culti-
vated in some portions of New England and elsewhere; but
where better grasses will grow, this should be rejected. It is
sometimes called Foul Meadow and Bent Grass.
4, Tart Oat Grass—Avena Hiatior.
An early and luxuriant grass, flourishing in a loamy or
clayey soil, and making good hay. It grows to the height of
four or five feet on good soils. It is well suited to pasture.
5. Toe Fresovr Grasses—Vestuca of species.
The Tall Fescue grass (Ff. elatior), according to some experi-
ments made in England, yields more nutritive matter per acre,
when cut in flower, than any other grass cut either in flower or
Farm Crops. 131
seed. It is an American grass, but has found less favor at
home than abroad.
The Meadow Fescue (F. pratensis); the Spiked Fescue (7.
loleacea); the Purple Fescue (f. rubra); and the Floating
Fescue (Ff. jfluitans), are all indigenous grasses of fine qual-
ities and great value.
6. OrcHarD Grass—Dactylis Glomerata.
The Orchard or Cock’s Foot grass is excellent for shaded sit-
uations. It should be cut before it is ripe, and will furnish
three or four crops a year. Twenty or thirty pounds of the
seed should be sown per acre. It will grow in almost any
climate, being found in this country from the extreme north
to the extreme south.
7. Tun Eeyprian Grass—Sorghum Halpense.
A cane-like grass which grows in profusion in some of the
Southern States. It is a superior stock-sustaining plant; but
as it is difficult to remove when once embedded in the soil, its
introduction into cultivated fields is considered a great evil.
8. German Mittetr—Panicum Germanicum.
This plant, known at the West as Hungarian grass, seems to
have been introduced into Iowa by a Hungarian immigrant,
and to have spread thence to other parts of the country. It
had, however, been previously cultivated in small quantities
under its proper name of German Millet. As a forage crop,
for the West, at least, its value seems to be well proved. It
has been less extensively tested at the East.
An Towa farmer thus describes the mode of cultivation pur-
sued in his viginity :
““ We prepare the ground the same as for oats, and sow about
eleven quarts to the acre when we want grass; but if seed is
_ the object, eight quarts to the acre. Good seed will weigh
fifty pounds to the bushel. I will say in general terms that
wherever a crop of Indian corn will grow, the Hungarian
132 THe Farm.
grass will succeed. It loves warm weather, but it requires but
about six weeks to mature. If cut green, it will put ont an
excellent second growth, making the richest kind of pasturage.
I have seen, this season, one plant that stood rather isolated _
produce seventy shoots, and each shoot produce a head. It is
a great thing to stool, or send out suckers; so if you sow thin
or thick, you are sure of acrop. It usually grows from three
to four and a half feet high with us. The best time for sowing
is about the 20th of May, or when the ground gets warm, on
clean ground, harrowed both ways.
“« The usual yield of this grass with us is from four to six tons
to the acre, according to the pains taken in its cultivation ; but
the premium crop of this county, as returned to our last fall’s
fair, was eight tons and some two hundred pounds to the
measured acre of good, dry hay, suitable to put in stack, duly
sworn to by disinterested parties, to the satisfaction of the
committee, in order to receive the premium.”
9. Tue CLrovers—Trifolium of species.
According to botanical arrangement, the clovers belong
among the legumes, and not among the grasses; but we find it
more convenient to speak of them in connection with the other
common forage plants.
The Common Red clover (7. pratense) is a hardy and easily
cultivated species, of which there are several varieties. It
grows luxuriantly on every well-drained soil of sufficient
strength to afford it nutriment.
It may be sown broadcast either in August or September, or
early in the spring, with most of the grains. Sow from ten to
twelve pounds per acre on well-prepared loams, and from
twelve to sixteen on clayey lands. It should be very slightly
covered. A top-dressing of plaster, at the rate of three or four
bushels to the acre, has a most beneficial and striking effect
upon this plant.
Clover should be cut after having fully blossomed ant as-
sumed a brownish hue.
I ae ee ae Se Le ee Oe See eS tee eT
Farm Crops. 133
Southern Clover (7. medium) is a smaller species than
the common Red, and matures earlier. It succeeds better
on a light soil than the latter, and should be sown more |
thickly.
The White or Creeping clover (T. repens), of which there are
several varieties, is a self-propagating plant, and adds greatly
to the richness of many of our pastures, especially on clayey
soils. It is very nutritious, and cattle, sheep, and horses are all
fond of it.
10. OrHeR GRAssEs.
The Muskeet Grass, found grow‘ng on the plains of Mexico
and Texas, is considered one of the best of the indigenous
grasses. We have seen it growing on the plantations of Lou-
isiana, where it has been successfully transplanted.
Winter Grass is known on the low, moist fertile soils of M.s-
sissippi and adjoining States. It springs up in the autumn,
grows all winter, and seeds in the spring. It fattens all ani-
mals that feed upon it.
Grama (Za Grama, or the grass of grasses) is held in the
highest estimation by the Mexicans. It attains a medium
height, and is deemed the most nutritious of the natural grasses
in our southwestern frontier prairies, in California, and parts
of Mexico. It grows on dry, hard, gravelly soils, on side hills,
and on the swells of the prairies.
The Prairie Grasses abound in the Western prairies, and are
of great variety, according to the latitude and circumstances
under which they are found. They afford large supplies of
nutritive food, both as pasturage and hay. They possess differ-
ent merits for stock, but as a general rule they are coarse when
they have reached maturity, and are easily injured by the early
frosts of autumn. Some of the leguminose or wild pea vines,
which are frequently found among them, yield the richest
herbage. We are not aware that any of these grasses have
been cultivated with success.
Dr. Darlington, of Pennsylvania, gives the following as the
Ree San
134 THe Farm.
Bpecies of grasses most valuable in our meadows and ein
naming them in the order of their excellence:
1. Meadow or green grass (Poa pratensis). 2. Timothy
(Phleum pratense). 8, Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata).
4. Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis). 5. Blue grass (Poa
compressa). 6. Ray grass (Lolium perenne). '. Red top
(Agrostis vulgaris). 8. Sweet-scented vernal grass (Anthoz-
anthum odoratum).*
VI.—MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION.
1. Corron— Gossypium of species,
As cotton is generally cultivated on large plantations, and
does not strictly come under the head of farm crops, we shall
content ourself with a few words only upon this grand object
of culture and commerce.
Cotton can not be profitably cultivated north of Tennessee.
It requires a dry, rich loam to produce the largest and most
profitable crops.
“During the winter, the land intended for planting should
be thrown up in beds by turning several furrows together.
These beds may be four feet from center to center for a mod-
erate quality of upland soil, and five feet for the lowlands.
But these distances should be increased with the increasing
strength of the soil, to seven and eight feet, and in some in-
stances even to a greater distance for the strongest lands.
These may lie until the time of planting, from 20th of March to
20th of April, when no further danger from frost is apprehend-
ed; then harrow, and with a light plow mark the center of the
beds, and sow at the rate of two to five bushels per acre. A
drilling-machine might be made to answer this purpose better,
and save much time. An excess of seed is necessary, to pro-
vide for the enemies of the plant and other contingencies. If
all the seed germinates, there will be a large surplus of plants,
which must be removed by thinning. There is an advantage
* Allen.
Farm Crops. 135
in mixing the seed, before it is sown, with moistened ashes or
gypsum, as it facilitates sowing and germination. It should be
buried about an inch deep, and the earth pressed closely over
tee?
Harvesting is commenced when the bolls have begun to ex-
pand and the cotton is protruded, and is continued as the bolls
successively ripen and burst their capsules.
2. Toe Suear-Cane—Saccharum Officinarum.
This is another plantation crop, and lies beyond the scope of
this little book. It is indigenous both in the Old and the New
World, but is restricted in its cultivation to a belt or zone ex-
tending from 35° to 40° on each side of the equator. In the
United States the cultivation can not be profitably carried on
advantageously higher than about 329.
3. CutnesE Sucar-Cane—Sorghum Saccharatum.
Although the value of this plant as an object of general cul-
tivation is not universally conceded, we think it may be safely
set down as worthy the farmer’s attention, both as a forage
crop and for making syrup. Its habits and mode of cultivation
are similar to those of Indian corn. It may be planted at the
same time as corn, about three feet apart each way, and two
or three plants in a hill; or in drills three feet apart, and the
plants, one in a place, two feet apart in the row. When the
plants are from six inches to a foot high, turn over the earth
on each side of the row with a plow and afterward keep the
weeds down with the hoe. On good soil it will grow from six
to twelve or fourteen feet high, furnishing a very heavy and
nutritious crop of fodder; and one hundred and seventy-five
gallons of syrup, equal to the best molasses, and worth at least
one dollar per gallon, have been made from an acre of the cane,
and that with very imperfect apparatus. A correspondent of
one of the agricultural journals, in closing a narrative of his
experiments, says:
“ The result, therefore, of my experiments lead me to the con-
ee SS ae he
136 THe Farm.
clusion that the accounts heretofore published, as to the value
of the Chinese Sugar-Cane, are not exaggerated; that it may bo
grown upon almost any ordinary soil, reyuiring no more atten-
tion than is profitably bestowed upon a crop of Indian corn;
that as a soiling crop it is far superior both in quantity and
quality to Indian corn, producing as a first crop more than ean
be obtained from any other plant in cultivation; and after once
cut, again producing a valuable crop; and that a superior arti-
cle of syrup can be produced at little cost or trouble.”
An African sorgho, called Jmphee, has been experimented
with both in Europe and America, in connection with the Chi-
nese. It has the advantage of maturing earlier, but in refer-
ence to its value as a sugar-producing plant, in comparison
with the other, opinions, founded probably on imperfect ex-
periments, differ widely, M. Velmarin, of Paris, who has
experimented largely with the various saccharine plants, pro-
nounces it greatly inferior. It has hardly had a fair trial yet
in this country.
4, Broom Corn—Sorghum Saccharatum.
Broom corn requires similar soil to Indian corn, <A green
sward turned over late in the fall is best. Well-rotted horse or
sheep manure and wood ashes may be liberally scattered in the
drills or hills, A situation not subject to early or late frosts
should be chosen, Clayey lands are not suitable.
Plant so soon as danger from frosts will permit, in drills
three feet apart; or in hills from two to two and a half feet
apart each way, from twelve to fifteen seeds in a hill, thinning
out to ten plants at the first hoeing. The after-culture consists
in frequent stirring of the soil with a light plow or cultivator, ©
aud keeping the crop clear of weeds with the hoe.
“‘ Break the tops before fully ripe, or when the seed is a lit-
tle past the milk; or if frost appears, then immediately after
it. This is done by bending down the tops of two rows toward
each other for the convenience of cutting afterward. They
should be broken some fourteen inches below the brush, and
4
4
|
a
=
:
Be
Farm Crops. 137
allowed to hang till fully ripe, when they may be cut and car-
ried under cover, and spread till entirely dry.”
5. Frax—Linum Usitatissimum.
A deep, rich loam or alluvial soil is best for flax. The proper
fertility should be secured by a surplus of manure applied to a
previous crop, as fresh manures are injurious to it. It is sown
broadcast, on well-prepared soil, at the rate of from sixteen to
thirty quarts when wanted for seed, and two bushels when
cultivated for the fiber.
6. Hemep—Cannabis Sativa.
This is a plant of the nettle tribe, and came originally from
India. The Russians are at present its chief cultivators; but
in our Western States, and especially in Kentucky, it is begin-
ning to be widely raised.
A rich loam or a vegetable mold suits the hemp plant. The
ground should be carefully prepared by plowing and harrow-
ing till it is perfectly pulverized, smooth, and even. The seeds
are sown broadcast at the rate of a bushel and a half to the
acre, and plowed or harrowed in. Plowing is best on ground
liable to bake. In Kentucky they sow any time from the first
of April to the tenth of May. It is desirable to sow just before
a rain.
For a full description of the mode of cultivation, harvesting,
and preparing hemp, as practiced in Kentucky, see the “ Amer-
ican Farmer’s Encyclopedia;” article ‘‘ Hemp.”
7. Toe Hop—Humulus Lupulus.
The hop is found growing spontaneously on the banks of
rivers and brooks in various parts of this country.
The best soil for the cultivation of hops is a sandy loam,
rather low and moist; but they will grow on soils very differ-
ent from this. New lands are to be preferred.
The following is the mode of cultivation recommended by
_ Allen in the ‘‘ American Farm Book:”
138 Toe Farm.
“Tf the land has been long in use, it should be dressed with
a compost of alkaline manures; or, what is nearly equivalent,
with fresh barn-yard manures, on a previously well-hoed crop,
and made perfectly free from all weeds, and deeply plowed
and harrowed. Then mark out the ground at intervals of six
feet each way and plant in the intersection of the furrows, and
unless the ground be already rich enough, place three or four
shovels of compost in each hill, The planting is done with the
new roots taken from the old hills, which are laid bare by the
plow. Each root should be six or eight inches long, and must
contain two or more eyes, one to form the root, and the other
the vine. Six plants are put in a hill, all of which should be
within the compass of about a foot, and covered to a depth of
five inches, leaving the ground level when planted. The first
season the intermediate spaces between the hills may be planted
with corn or potatoes, and the ground carefully cleared of
weeds, and frequently stirred. No poles are necessary the first
year, as the product will not repay the cost. The ground
should receive a dressing of compost the following spring, and
the plants be kept well hoed and clean.
“Poles may be prepared at the rate of two or three to each
hill, twenty to twenty-four feet long, and selected from a
straight, smooth undergrowth of tough and durable wood,
from four to seven inches diameter at the butt end. These are
sharpened and firmly set with an iron bar, or socket bar with
a wooden handle in such a position as will allow the fullest
effect of the sun upon the hills or roots. When the plants
have run to the length of three or four feet in the spring, train
them around the poles, winding in the direction of the sun’s
course, and fasten below the second or third set of leaves,
where there is sufficient strength of vine to sustain themselves.
They may be confined with rushes, tough grass, or more easily
with woolen yarn. This operation is needed again in a few
days, to secure such as may have got loose by the winds on
other causes, and to train up the new shoots.
“The gathering of hops takes place when they have acquired
ots a
po our ty , ee eres oe oh EG
a
Farm Crops. 139
a strong scent, at which time the seed becomes firm and
brown, and the lowest leaves begin to change color. This pre-
cedes the frosts in September. The vines must first be cut at
the surface of the ground, and the poles pulled up and laid in
convenient piles, when they may be stripped of the hops,
which are thrown into large, light baskets; or the poles may
be laid on long, slender boxes with handles at each end (to ad-
mit of being carried by two persons), and as the hops are
stripped they fall into the box. Be careful to select them free
from leaves, stems, and dirt.
“ After gathering in the fall, the hops should be hilled or
covered with compost, and all the vines removed. The follow- |
ing spring, when the ground is dry, the surface is scraped from
the hill, and additional compost is added, when a plow is run
on four sides, as near as possible without injury to the plants.
All the running roots are laid bare and cut with a sharp knife
within two or three inches of the main root, and the latter are
trimmed, if spreading too far. It is well to break or twist
down the first shoots and allow those which succeed to run,
as they are likely to be stronger and more productive. Cut-
ting should be avoided, unless in a sunny day, as the profuse
bleeding injures them. The poles will keep much longer, if
laid away under cover till again wanted the following spring.
Drying may be done by spreading the hops thinly in the shade
and stirring them often enough to prevent heating; but when
there is a large quantity, they can be safely cured only in a
- kiln.”
THE Pana:
ub @
4 . THE ORCHARD.
There hang the red-cheeked apples, blushing in the sun,.—Pomus,
4 I—“THE GARDEN.”
B N a previous number of this series of man-
uals (“‘The Garden”) we have devoted a
long chapter to the subject of fruits, giving
instructions for planting, grafting, cultiva-
tion, and gathering; with lists of the best varieties,
etc. As the larger portion of our readers will possess
that volume also, it will not be profitable to go over
the same ground again here; but some additional hints on sey-
eral points not sufficiently dwelt upon in the work referred to
will be useful in this,
ee wnat re Ve
’
II.—LAYING OUT ORCHARDS.
We copy from Tucker’s ‘‘ Annual Register of Rural Affairs,”
for 1857, the following useful directions for laying out orchards:
We have often observed a good deal of inconvenience and
perplexity in measuring off and laying out orchards, from a
want of accuracy at the commencement. If the rows are begun
crooked, stake after stake may be altered, without being able
to form straight lines, and witk only an increase of the confu-
sion. If the first tree, in a row of fifty, be placed only six :
re
*
: .
2
a
Tur OrRcHARD. ; 141
inches out of the way, and be followed as a guide for the rest,
the last one will deviate fifty times six inches, or twenty -five
feet from a right line, even if the first error is not repeated.
We have seen large apple orchards with rows nearly as crooked
as this. To say nothing of the deformed appearance to the eye,
they proved exceedingly inconvenient every time the crooked
space between the rows was plowed, and every time the ground
was planted and cultivated with crops in rows.
a b Cea en fg h a
*
* * * * * * * *
& * * * * * * * %
* * * * * * * ** *
* EY * * * * * % *
* * * * * * * *
b c ad COE tg h
Fig. 1.—Common or Square ARRANGEMENT.
The most simple and convenient arrangements for orchards
in ali ordinary cases is in squares, as shown in fig. 1. But
planters are often puzzled to know how to lay out such orchards,
with trees at equal distances throughout, and in perfectly
straight rows. The easiest and most successful mode is first to
measure off one side along the boundary, with a chain or tape-
line (a chain is best), and drive in a stake perpendicularly at
- equal distances (say two rods or 38 feet), in a straight line, and
at a proper distance from the fence for the first row of trees.
Then measure off each erd in the same way; and between the
last two stakes in these end rows, form another line of stakes
like the first, which will be parallel and opposite to it. The
more accurately the measuring is done, the less labor will be
required in rectifying small errors—no stake should stand half
an inch out of a straight line. These rows are represented by
the letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, 7. Then measure off the distance
between a@ and a, driving in a small stake or peg at each dis:
se ¢.~
142 THe Farm.
tance of two rods, and then in the same way between * 5, ¢ 4,
etc. If accurately done, these will all form perfectly straight.
rows. The holes may then be dug without the least difficulty
or embarrassment, and the trees set out. But a difficulty
arises, as the stakes must be removed in digging the holes; thir
is at once obviated by the plan here proposed, by placing the
tree in a line with the row of stakes on one side, and with the
newly-set trees on the other, as the holes are successively dug
and the trees set.
These directions may seem quite simple, but from want of
being generally understood, a great many crooked lines of trees
are seen through the country.
The second mode of arranging trees is in the old quincune
form (fig 2), which is nothing more than a series of squares laic
off diagonally, and has no special advantage to recommend ¥
except novelty.
* * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * *
Fig. 2.—OxLp Quincunx ORDEE.
The hexagonal or modern quincuna (fig. 3) possesses two im-
portant advantages. One is its more picturesque appearance,
aR ok) eT ORE eo gk ae 0 cane ae
SELON, SR GR ORR ORR BREE SE eee
Fig. 3—HEZAGONAL OR MODERN QuINoUNX.
and its consequent fitness for proximity to ornamental planta-
~~ =
tions; and the other is its greater economy of space, as the la
THE OxRcHARD. 143
trees are more evenly distributed over the gronnd. This is
shown in fig. 4, where each tree stands in the center of a circle,
surrounded at equal distances by six other trees, and each single
circle leaves but little vacant space beyond it. If cultivated
with horses, the furrows may be drawn in three different direc-
tions, instead of only two, as in the square arrangement.
One principal reason why the hexagonal mode is so little
adopted, is the supposed difficulty in laying out the ground,
But like many other apparent difficulties, it becomes very sim-
ple and easy when once understood.
To lay off a piece of ground for this purpose, measure off
one side of the field at equal distances, as already described for
squares, as at a, b, ¢, d, e, fig. 4. These distances must be the
distance apart at which the trees are to stand, because they
form the sides of the equilateral triangles into which the whole
g tS a
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Fig. 4.
ground becomes divided. The next thing is to find the dis-
tances, a, f, g, for the line of trees at right angles to the first-
144 Ture Farm. ,
mentioned row. An arithmetician will easily determine this,
for the triangle, d a f, being a right one, the square of } a
(which is 33 feet) subtracted from the square of 6 f (which is
66 feet) will leave the square of af, the root of which extracted
will give the distances of 7, f, g, etc., which is 57 feet and half
an inch. Divide this and the opposite side of the field, there-
fore, into distances of 57 feet and half an inch, and the side
opposite the first, at 38 feet distances, and proceed to stake off
all intermediate intersections, as described for squares. If the
distances are less than 33 feet, as they would be for any other
kind of fruit-trees, a corresponding proportion is of course to
be taken, and which is easily determined as above.
III—SOIL AND SITUATION.
Downing says that strong loams, by which is meant loams
with only just sufficient sand to render them friable and easily
worked, are, on the whole, by far the best for fruit in this
country. The trees do not come into bearing so soon as on a
light, sandy soil, but they bear larger crops, are less liable to
disease, and are much longer lived. Clayey loams, when wedi
drained, are good, and trees growing on them are generally
free from insects.
It is difficult to give any precise rules in reference to aspect.
Good orchards may be found in all aspects; but a gentle slope
to the southwest is generally to be preferred to any other,
Where fruit is very liable to be killed by late spring frosts, and
the season is long and warm enough to ripen it in any exposure,
planting on the north sides of hills is practiced with advantage.
Deep valleys with small streams of water should be avoided,
as the cold air settles down in such places, and frosts are apt to
prove fatal; but the borders of large rivers and lakes are
favorable for orchards, as the climate is rendered milder by the
presence of large bodies of water.
wr
THe ORCHARD. 145
IV.—PLANTING AND CULTIVATING AN ORCHARD.
At the risk of repeating in part what has already been pub-
lished in “The Garden,” we will add a hint or two under this
head.
The first thing is to prepare the ground by underdraining (if
it require it, as most land does), subsoiling, or trench plowing,
harrowing, manuring, etc.
Choose sound, healthy trees for planting, and set them ont
carefully, as directed in “The Garden.” Apple-trees should be
thirty feet apart in orchard culture. Set the same kind in rows
together. This will facilitate the gathering of the fruit, and
improve the appearance of the orchard.
“Tt is an indispensable requisite in all young orchards to
keep the ground mellow and loose by cultivation; at least for —
the first few years, until the trees are well established. In-
deed, of two adjoining orchards, one planted and kept in grass,
and the other plowed for the first five years, there will be an
incredible difference in favor of the latter. Not only will these
trees show a rich, dark, luxuriant foliage, and clean, smooth
stems, while those neglected will have a sickly look, but the
size of the trees in the cultivated orchard will be treble that of
the others at the end of this time, and a tree in one will be
ready to bear an abundant crop before the other has commenced
yielding a peck of good fruit. Fallow crops are best for or-
chards—potatoes, beets, carrots, bush beans, and the like; but
whatever crops may be grown, it should be constantly borne in
mind that the roots of the tree require the sole occupancy of
the ground, so far as they extend, and therefore that an area
of more than the diamet. of the head of the tree should be
kept clean of crops, weeds, and grass.””*
To keep your trees in a healthy, bearing state, regular ma-
nuring is requisite. They exhaust the soil, like any other crop.
* Downing.
146 THE Farm.
Top-dressings of marl, or mild lime, may alternate with barn-
yard manure, muck composts, etc.
To prevent the attacks of the apple-borer, place about the
trunks early in the spring a small mound of ashes or lime.
Nursery trees may be protected by washing the stems in May,
quite down to the ground, with a solution of two pounds of
potash in eight quarts of water.
V.—THE PROFITS OF APPLE CULTURE,
“There is no question of the propriety and necessity of the
farmer planting apples enough to supply abundantly his own
table with the best of this fruit through the whole year; but —
further than this, we require to know whether a large extent
of land may be usefully applied to raising apples for sale; and
about what returns may he expected from such orchards, with
good management; and what ‘good management’ is.
“There are some varieties, which, although possessing supe-
rior qualities for home use, and therefore necessary in the family
orchard, are not salable, and, of course, worthless for market-
ing. A fruit for sale must at least be fair and good looking; it
ought, also, to be of fine quality, to bring the best price; it
must also be a sure and good bearer, and one that keeps long
enough to insure carriage to market, and a reasonable period
for selling. We find among all the sorts which are known te
our nurserymen and orchardists, that there are few that have
all these qualifications to such an extent that they can safely be
recommended. A close inquiry will show that, in all mixed
orchards, the profit has been derived from a very few sorts.
Other kinds are found to yield some superior specimens, and to
be well worth raising for one’s own satisfaction, but, so far as
money is concerned, the soil would be more profitably employed
if planted with other crops.
‘Soil and situation fit for an apple orchard must always be
valuable for other purposes; and as none but the best of lands
ean be depended upon, the value of such lands is consequently
high. We are safe in assuming that land fit for such use, in
THe ORCHARD. 147
Western New York, is worth, on an average, one hundred dol-
lars per acre, the annual rent of which should be at least ten
dollars per acre.
“This is more than would generally be realized net profit
from the crops for some years after the planting of an orchard
upon it; and at the end of ten years (at which time we might
presume the trees to be in a bearing state), there would be a
balance due from the orchard to the planter. After this time,
the crops from the orchard should not be reckoned worth much,
as the trees will occupy the whole soil with their roots, and the
sun and air with their branches.
“Ten years from planting, Baldwin and Rhode Island Green-
ing apple-trees can be relied upon to bear about three barrels
per tree, each bearing year, which occurs each alternate year
with the Baldwin, and generally so with the Greening. This
gives us sixty barrels of fine winter apples per year, from trees
planted two rods apart, or forty trees per acre. The whole
annual expense of cultivation, and the gathering and barreling,
will scarcely amount to twenty-five dollars, leaving the net
proceeds, if sold at one dollar per barrel, about thirty-five dol-
lars per acre. This sum per acre will soon repay any balance
due the planter, and the rapidly increasing produce of the trees,
for many years, will satisfy any reasonable man of the expedi-
ency of planting large orchards, where the conditions of success
are observed ; but it will readily be seen that an orchard of any
but the best varieties will not pay interest and care.
“Tt is important that the fruit-grower should base his ex-
pectations entirely upon the results to be derived from a series
of years, and not from any less period of time; otherwise he
will be found wide from the truth.”*
# © Rural Annual.”
-perimenting with manures, crops, etc.; but sometimes find difficulty in doing He
it correctly, for the lack of a few simple rules. The following table and ac-
eompanying explanation, which we copy from the New England Farmer
APPENDIX.
A,
MEASURING LAND. rR
Farmers often desire to lay off small portions of land for the purpose of ex-
earefully studied, will make the whole matter perfectly clear.
ONE AORE CONTAINS
160 square rods; 4,840 square yards; 43,560 square feet.
ONE ROD CONTAINS
80.25 square yards; 272.25 square feet.
One square yard contains nine square feet.
THE SIDE OF A SQUARE TO CONTAIN
One acre............
One-half acre......
One-third acre..
Qne-fourth acre....
Qne-eighth acre.... NTBTO LC alae ee
208.71 feet.
12.65 rods.
208.71 feet
208.71 feet.
APPENDIX.
It will be seen by reference to the plan that a practice sometimes followed
by farmers is very erroneous; if the side of a square containing one acre mea- :
sures 208.71 feet, one half that length will not make a square containing one _ 7
half an acre, but only one fourth an acre, and one third the length of line will
inclose a square of one ninth an acre, and one fourth the line, squared, will
contain one sixteenth an acre, and so on.
B.
HOW TO ESTIMATE CROPS PER ACRE.
A friend communicates the following method of making an estimate of the
yield per acre of a growing crop, of wheat, rye, oats, or barley, which he says
= A has been found correct in England. As it seems easy of application, and ap-
Re proximately correct, we give the plan, and hope it will be-tried at the next
: harvest-time.
ES Frame together four light sticks, measuring exactly a foot square inside, and,
with this in hand, walk into the field and select a spot of fair average yield,
ri and lower the frame square over as many heads as it will inclose, and shell out
3 the heads thus inclosed carefully, and weigh the grain. It is fair to presume
. that the product will be the 48,560th part of an acre’s produce. To prove it,
go through the fleld, and make ten or twenty similar calculations, and estimate
by the mean of the whole number of results. It will certainly enable a farmer
i to make a closer calculation of what a field will produce, than he can do by
: guessing.—New York Tribune.
“s C.
4
eee NUMBER OF PLANTS PER ACRE.
f NUMBER OF PLANTS OR TREES THAT CAN BE PLANTED ON AN AORE OF Se
a AT THE FOLLOWING DISTANCES APART, IN FEET.
Distances apart. No, of Plants. | Distances apart. No. of Plant»
Ai sateoie(s'sieibieleinjatctssia -eO O00
Ry 1 9
2
r 2
| 24
4 8
. 8
ve 6
4 1
. o
> 4
; 4
DS 4
: APSA a, ok ater ies QA51
‘| 1596) Pd Ue ARES OR oS chan 8,712
, MeO ie Re een ae 4,856
ARE She kere ciatt Mace ie 6) 2,904
ine Aaa be eho eg 2178
BR rine iat wie eee 1,742 :
2 aa: ae een ae on 1AIT 50: 6 SOs eaten
GSO ie sire tcraisictannghctere ere 1,210 60 "GOs. h52 ee Sieiepel elaine aE
Oh Gh catisce cece 1,031 66 “ os ¢:c\e nt OMS ATCS
APPENDIX. 151
Multiply the distances into each other, and divide it by the square feet in an
acre, or 43,560, and the quotient is the number of plants.
D.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
WEIGHT OF GRAIN, ETO.
2 ,{2\s :
2 a z Belts) et ee
ARTICLES. | 6 Zale les lelslZl2 2/8 /4 ;
al z|a]s S2lelo}slo}sin]s 3
Eis|e(elelf elSlel/elsialels 4
=) fae any eo Lee rss) Pons Set pba btm o | o G) 2
CAP | |r [et-ep al fee Elcrsis OS /FIiMNI|al>S o
Wheat, Ib...... 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 6" | 60] 60 | 60 | 56 | 60 60 60
Vessac 6156 | 56156 | 56 | 56] 54) 56|56156 56 56
(Cathe SSSeeneiee 58 | 56 |56| 56) 56 | 56| 56 | 56| 56/56 56 56
Oaistis css ss 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 35 | 32 | 82/28/30] .. | 33 34
Barley......... 48 | 48 | 47] 48 | 48 | 48| 44/48]... 1/46] .. | 48 48
Buckwheat ....| 48] .. | 48 | 50 | 42 | 52} 40 | 42 | 45) 46] .. | 52 48
Clover-seed....| 60 | 64} .. | 60 | 60 | 60} .. | 60)..]..].. | 60 60
Timothy-seed ..| 44/42] ..|45|..1|45]../mj|..}m].. | 45 48
Flax-seed ..... 59 /56|..|56|..|56|..|/m/..|/m].: | 56 56
Hemp-seed ....| 44] ..].. | 44] .. | 44 oc ae o6
Blue-grassseed.| 14] ..|../14]..]14]..]--].. a0 || Ge Se
Apples, dried..| 22 |25]..| ..|23})24]../28).. 20 22
Peaches, dried.| 32 |83|..| ..|28|83]../28|..]..|..].. 22
Coarse salt..... 56150 | 85/50] .. 150] ..]-.|.. 170] .. | 50 56
Fine salt....... 56 | 50 | 62/50] ..|50}..|-.|..]70} .. | 50 56
Potatoes..... 60|..|../60]-..|60].. | -. |60)60] 60] .. ee
Weage ssc. OH ee an ae aril rales coll eran meet EO OA Wele 60
Beans ......... 62/56] .. | 60 60 --|..|60|.. | 60 60
Castor beans...| 46] .. 46 46 He
Onions......... 7 57 57 50 | 50 aS
Corn meal..... ste 50 50 F
‘Mineral coal...| -- 770 . | :
A law of New York, in force at the present time, adopts the United States
bushel of measure, viz.: 2150.42 cubic inches per bushel, 1075.21 half bushel ;
and the wine gallon, 231 cubic inches.
To reduce cubic feet to bushels, struck measure, divide the cubic feet by 56,
and multiply by 45.
BOX MEASURES,
Farmers and market gardeners will find a series of box measures very use-
ful; and they can readily be made by any one who understands the two-foot
rule, and ean handle the saw and the hammer. The following measurements,
{t will be seen, vary slightly from the United States bushel adopted by some of
the States, but are sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes:
A box 16 by 164 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain a bushel,
2150.4 cubie inches, each inch in depth holding one gallon.
A box 24 by 11.2 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will also contain a pushel
or 215.4 cubic inches, each in depth holding one gallon. A box 12 by 11.2
inches square, ani § inches deep, will contain half a bushel, or 1075.2 cubic
‘inches, each incr in depth holding half a gallon.
APPENDIX.
A box’8 by §.4 inches square, and § inches deep, will contain half a peck, of
298.8 cubic inches. The gallon, dry measure.
A box 4 by 4 inches square, and 4.2 inches deep, will contain one quart, or
67.2 cubic inches.
WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT.
Weights of a Cubic Foot of various Substances, from which the Bulk of a Load
of one Ton may be easily calculated.
CEE Saree enceeraacrinrr 450 lbs. | Common soil, compact, about..124 “
RVisteR oJ Sse dhowick hist ge anlar 62 ~4 | -Glay, about... «4 25. eeeete 135 “
White pine, seasoned, a . 80 “ | Clay with stones, about.......160 “
White oak, b2 (| Brick, about)... 2.5.2. eae 125 “
Loose earth, stot boise deweee 1 95
Bulk of a Ton of different Substances.
28 cubic feet of sand, 18 cubic feet of earth, or 17 cubic feet of clay, make a
ton. 18 eubic feet of gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic feet when
dug ; or the bulk is increased as three totwo. Therefore, in filling a drain two
feet deep above the tile or stones, the earth should be heaped up a foot above
the surface, to settle even with it, when the earth is shoveled loosely in.
E.
UNPROFITABLE FARMING.
Manure is a necessary application, in order to bring an impoverished soil
‘into a productive state. Nothing is more certain, all agree. And yet how
much of the unprofitable farming of the country results from the attempt to
_grow crops on worn-out soils without manure! Plant corn on such land—the
crop is a meager one, both from want of strength in the soil to grow it, and
length of the season to mature it. A rich or well-manured soil will ripen this
crop weeks earlier than a poor one. An acre of land, rich, deeply tilled,
planted in good season, and thoroughly and cleanly eultivated, will produce
more corn than five acres poor, shallow-plowed, late-planted, and half-culti-
vated, and at perhaps one half the expense of the latter.
Stagnant water, either in or upon the soil, is another cause of unprofitable
farming. A soil which has no escape or outlet for the water which falls upon
it Save evaporation, can not be made to produce a paying crop. Ina dry sea-
son it is baked and hard—in a wet one it is often flooded with stagnant water,
and is never in a condition very favorable to the growth of cultivated crops,
-however well suited it may be to the production of wild grass, flag, and rushes.
And partially drained land of this charaeter is little better. Flooded in spring,
the water passes off but slowly; nothing can be done upon it until the “sub-
siding of the waters,” which, as they must in great part go cloudward, is a
tedious process.
Poor manure—made so by exposure and leaching while yet in the yard—is
another s¢uree of loss to the farmer. The contents of the barn-yard are gen-
erally dignified with the name of manure; even if they consist of little more
than a leached mass of straw and excrement, the real strength of which has
long ago passed off into some stream, or floated down the roadside ditch,and
APPENDIX. 153
{nto'some provident neighbor’s: field, it is still “manure,” and. is: carted:to the:
field and offered to the crop, with the expectation that it will find therein. nue:
triment, and the material for large productiveness. One thought will show
how futile this expectation. How doesmanure benefit a plant? By its soluble
constituents—they receive only iqguid food. This leached manure:has lost the.
greater share of the soluble elements of fertility, and acts in great part only
mechanically upon the soil.
Attempting: too. much is another great cause of loss: to the farmer. ‘ Much.
labor on little land” is the secret of sueccess—enough labor, at least, to do every.
thing in the best manner. Look at it—is it good policy to expend the labor of
putting ina crop over six acres, when, at the same cost, a like result may be:
realized from three or four?) Will you be content with thirty bushels of corn
per acre, at an expense of, say $12, when, by adding $3 in manure and better.
culture, you may realize sixty or one hundred bushels? Will you grow infe-
rior stock with the same amount of food, when by a larger outlay at first you
may have the best—those always salable at good prices—while the unimproved
scarcely find purchasers at any price?. Is it. not best, either to concentrate
your labor on less land, or increase your expenditure so as to embrace the
whole farm in a thorough system of cultivation ?
The acknowledged causes of unprofitable farming are not exhausted, and it
is a proper subject for the examination of the farmer. Let him look into the
matter, and see where and why he has failed.—Cowntry Gentleman.
F.
FACTS. ABOUT WEEDS.
Dr, Lindley estimates as a low average the: following number of seeds from:
each of these four plants :
pis plant of Groumiel produces. Boas sonics oie at
1 Wandeliong Oo ee cece soe
ae a 2 Sow. Tiistlo os... ene 11,040 £16;860 plants,
eee wee Spurge Ct UM cies etaanee 540
or enough seed from these four plants to cover three acres and a half; at'three:
fEet apart. To hoe this land, he says, will cost 6s. (sterling) per acre, and.
hence a man throws away 5s. 3d. a time, as offen as he neglects to bend his.
back to pull up a young weed before it begins to fulfill the first: law of nature.
He recommends every farmer, whose vertebral column will not bend, to count
the number of dandelions, sow thistles, etc., on the first square rod he can
measure off. :
This operation may be repeated in this country by applying all the above
estimates to pig-weed, burdock, fox-tail, chick-weed, and purslane.
G.
SUCCESSFUL FARMING.
James Gowen, of Mount Airy, near Philadelphia, raised, in 1845, a ten-acre
field of corn, which averaged 95 bushels of shelled corn per acre. It had been
in grass without manure, five years; it was plowed, and the field manured
7
154 AprEnprix. , : on
with a ton of guano, costing $40. The rows were 3} feet apart, and the plants 4
12inches. (This distance would be too great for small Northern corn.) Judi- z
cious harrowing, in preparation, cleared the ground thoroughly of grass and :
: weeds, and it was kept perfectly clean afterward at little cost. There were 7
acres of winter wheat, and one of spring wheat, the whole computed to avers
age over 40 bushels per acre. The spring wheat was after an acre of carrots,
of 900 bushels, and was followed by an acre of turnips of 1,000 bushels; the
whole worth over $500—from one acre in two years. The carrot crop the same
year was 1,000 bushels per acre; sugar-parsnep, 800 bushels; ruta-baga, over
600 bushels; potatoes, 3 acres, over 200 bushels each. These were only part
of the crops. Besides, there were more than 100 tons of excellent hay, though
the season was unfavorable. All on an upland farm of about 100 acres, which
Maintained during the summer over 60 head of cattle. So much for manure,
“ subsoiling, fine culture, draining, rotation, ete.—Annual Register.
H.
STIRRING THE SOIL.
Every observant farmer must have noticed the crust which forms on the sur-
face of newly-stirred soils, after lying a few days to the action of the dews. A
much heavier crust is formed by each shower of rain which falls. Good and
successful cultivation requires that this newly-formed crust be often and repeat-
edly broken by the hoe, harrow, or other instrument.
A striking instance in proof of the importance of this practice has just been
stated by an extensive farmer. He planted a field of broom corn, and, by way
of banter, told the man who assisted him that each should choose a row as
nearly alike as possible, and each should hoe his row, and the measured
amount of crop on each should be the proof which was hoed best. Our informe
ant stated the result in substance as follows: ‘‘ Determined not to be beaten,
I hoed my row, well, once a week the summer through. I had not seen my
assistant hoe his at all, but had observed that for 3 long time he was up in the
morning before me. At length I found him before sunrise, hoeing his broom-
corn, and I asked him how often he hoed it; he answered, ‘ Once a day, regu-
larly.’ The result of the experiment was, his row beat mine by nearly double
tke amount.”-—Ibid,
a
PEL
Agriculture History of...........
Improvement of.... 11
AGRO wares 5 SoS Rees ve RSS Sa Ue 41
pate Cultare, Profits of ........ 146
B.
Bones, how to prepare them...... 37
PESAT) CVpaeteece ciclo actrees ayes eerciete 110
IBUCKWhealre 5 <)i2<s<\c/<.60,05 Bieereetse 113
CARS Reta Nec cels a soe sicice ease 115
Ge leseiat sais nits Siciaeiciclaie sists aire 128
BGO CORN > sie seis Saisie cinta 136
C.
Crops, WhattheytakefromtheSoil 27
« “Rotation of............. 48, 97
“ Farm
« How to Hsumate
Composts.......................6
Capital.........
Corn, Indian..
WALEOU econ sics fesse ciels msiteie
WOttOMN ee esos) assoc al Seas 6
Chinese Sugar-Cane
D.
Drains, Construction of........... 55
Draini oh Sis GEO ECORI ORC 51
Ten Reasons for. ...... 52
GS Conditions requiring... 53
& Practical Directions for. 53
58
of Will it Pay?...........
F.
BHIGTI COS iets ais sie cis ciclelatesje si eielsve 61, 91
page ET ODS Sa \Siesclaie<oyais cheiesjavsicie oe
pee NLU LOS Se ias, 3, <cere is wisies levees 66
“Are they Necessary ?. 70
Facts about Weeds............... | 153
_ Farm Management, Essay on. 82
PHAM CLOPSs-icts cicieys 21s sieidiciei sie ace) « + 100
Farming, Unprofitable........... 152
se Successful ............ 153
REX oft lsrests ls eieisit ole sie Spoon 1Bx
Grains, Edible.
Grain, How to Shock...........- 114
Grasses ese ation ooiisceeaos eed)
H.
EGOS) asaagtod Goeouseder sons oc
Harrow es) seca aoaeeee Bey ate
Hoes: Horse sso acai <cterociemiccepien
FLOM DP eeeeerscccra nec oa 187
Hop. cooces 180
How to Estimate Crops. Bposnnoad 150
1b
Irrigation .............000 ecleleele
implements erate i l-iseltisiexs coe
ee List and prices of.... 85
se Choice of ..... sono 92
Iprishievn Orne sccascoanceconosncoc 100
K.
Kone Rabigasetetsciersii= aise Sooonoas eu
: L.
Dimer sein. cissev se seeeserle Soocor) is)
Livestock........... Sagoo tw)
w Maintenance of....... 87
Land, How to Measure........... 149
M.
Manures, Necessity of............ 25
6 Classification and- De-
scription of....... 28
i Managemen’ Owscone 42, 94
iE cooancosbscoucdooNecOWD oes 38
WAG Reto ooo Fe on cod coboSoaa Gens
Millet eyecce ec <tc 114, 131
Measuring Land................. 149
Measures, Weights and.......... 151
Maintenance of Livestock........ 8%
Orchards, Laying out...
Soil and Situation for.
13
Plants, Food of.......... 4630
«“’ Number to the Acre..
Rotation, Theory of....
ff Eeeetis at wees 49, 97
Roller, Field... 19
Rake, Horse
Reapers...........
Oren eccccescccesens
WB eterno esas asears sonore ee Tene
PAGE
Soils, Classification of...... tide pital
Analysis of.. seas
Physical Properties Glerrerd
Improvement of. .......
Importance of Seeing the. ba
Subsoils....s-e- . saaee eee nic 238
Sweet Potato. .....sheccsscee cpetetete
Sugar-Cane
Chinese........ « asisiele ace ee aan
Successful Farming.............. 158
Stirring the Soil................. 154
Ans
me.
s
Urine......
Unprofitable amuaged aie were ioes 152
Ww.
Wheat........... eve khewiston sienna
is and Measures ......... 114
Weeds, Facts about......... ... 158
“THE BARN-YARD:
A MANUAL
Cattle, Parse md Sheep PBusbandry;
OR, HOW TO BREED AND REAR
THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS:
EMBRACING
DIRECTIONS FOR THE BREEDING, REARING, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF
HORSES, MULES, OATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE AND POULTRY; THE GENERAB
LAWS, PARENTAGE, AND HERIDITARY DESCENT, APPLIED TO ANI-
MALS, AND HOW BREEDS MAY BE IMPROVED; HOW TO INSURE
THE HEALTH OF ANIMALS; AND HOW TO TREAT THEM
FOE DISEASES WITHOUT THE USE OF DRUGS;
WITH A
Chapter on DBee-Reepying.
By D. H. JACQUES,
AuTHoR or “THE Homz,” “THE Garpen,” “THE Farm,” “How To Wxitz.”
“How to Do BUSINESS,” ETO.
————eEEoOEOOOESOSeSe
Our power ever the lower animals, if rightly exercised, redounds to their elevation and happinesa
no less than to our convenience and profit.—Tum AuTHoR.
Ve SD aD Ear © IN.
NEW YORK:
THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY,
89 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET.
Entered, according to Act of Conzress: in the iad 1910, by
GEO. E. WOODWARD,
fn the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States tn tae
Southern District of New York.
(
PREFACE.
We commenced this little manual with the intention of making
the most useful compilation possible, within the space allowed us,
from the great number of larger works on the subjects treated to
which we had access. In the progress of our work, however, we
found occasion to depart, in some degree, from our original plan,
and introduce more new matter and re-write and condense more
that is, in substance, derived from others, than we at first in-
tended ; but our claims on the score of originality will not be
targe. If the matter and arrangement of our book shall prove
acceptable to the public, and serve the purposes intended, we
shall be satisfied. The humble merit of having presented, in an
attractive and available form a mass of useful information, prac-
tical hints, and valuable suggestions, on a number of important
topics, is all that we purpose to insist upon. This the great pub-
lic, for whose good we have labored, will, we are sure, readily
accord to us.
We have given credit in the body of the work, whenever prac-
ticable, to the authors from whom we have derived aid in the
various departments of our labor; but we here gladly make an
additional record of our indebtedness to the works of Youatt,
Martin, Stuart, Randall, Wingfield, Dixon, Bement, Browne,
Quimby, etc. The Country Gentleman, the American Agriculturist,
the Southern Cultivator, and other agricultural papers, have been
examined with satisfaction to ourselves and with profit te our
readers.
liable, so far as it goes, and to give the largest possible amount
of useful information that can be condensed into so small a num-
ber of pages. We have occupied a large field, we are aware, and
can not hope to have been so full on all points as many readers >:
will desire. We have not aimed, of course, to render the larger _
works on the special topics to which our chapters are devoted un- ;
necessary. We hope rather to create a demand for them; but ;
there are thousands whom this little manual will furnish with all
the information they desire on the subjects on which it treats,
and on whom the details with which the larger and more expen-
sive works are filled would be thrown away. ‘To such, in an es- B
pecial manner, we commend it, hoping that it will not be, fail
to meet their expectations.
GON EE NTS.
I.—THE HORSE.
A Historical Sketch—Range of the Horse in Reference to Climate—Effects of
Climate and Food—Varieties or Breeds—The Race-Horse—Origin and
Characteristics—Half-bred Horses—The Arabian Horse—Wonderful Gene-
alogies—Description—The Arabian “ Tartar’—The Morgan—Opinions in
Reference to the Morgans—Sherman Morgan—The Canadian Horse—The
Norman—“ Louis Philippe’—The Cleveland Bay—The Conestoga—The
Clydesdale Horse—The Virginian—Wild Horses—American Trotting Horses
—Points of a Horse Illustrated—Color, and what it Indicates—Common
Terms Denoting the Parts of a Horse—Stables—Stables as they are—Situation
of Stables—Size— W indows—F loors—Draining—Racks and Mangers—Ven-
tilation of Stables—Warmth, ete.—The best Food for Horses—Work and Di-
gestion—Bulk of Food—Quantity—Water--General Management of the
Horse—Air—Litter—Grooming—Exercise—Vices and Habits—Restiveness
—Backing and Balking-—Biting—Kicking—Running Away—Rearing—Over-
reaching—Rolling—Shying—Slipping the Halter—Tripping—Hints to Buy-
ers—Warranty—Form of a Receipt Embodying a Warranty— What a Ware
ranty Includes—W hat constitutes Unsoundness ................... .. Page 9
Il.--THE ASS AND THE MULE.
Why the Ass has been Neglected and Abused—Hastern Appreciation—The
Ass compared with the Horse—The Ass in Guinea and Persia—The Mule—
Adaptation as a Beast of Burden—Trade in Kentucky—Use on a Farm—
How to have large and handsome Mules........... .......+ sleie/ejsicleleieieiok0)
UI.—CATTLE.
Historical Sketch—Breeds—The Devons—New England Cattle—The Hereford
Breed—The Sussex Breed—The Ayrshire Cattlek—The Welsh Breeds—Irish
Cattle—The Long Horns—The Durham or Short-Horned Breed—Alderney
or Jersey Cattle—The Galloway Breed or Hornless Cattle—Other Polled
Cattle—The Cream-Pot Breed—Points of Cattle—General Management of
Cattle—The Cow-House Feeding--Rearing Calves—Milking—How to Esti-
mate the Weight of Livestock................ ocetconsbagaGS soocces ween. 49
IV.—SHEEP.
Characteristics of the Sheep—Mutton—Breeds in the United States—The Na-
tive Breed—The Spanish Merino—American Merinos—Saxon Merinos—The
New Leicester Breed—The South-Downs—Mr. Taylor's Facts and Figures
—The Cotswold Breed—New Oxfordshire Sheep—The Cheviot Breed—Tha
¥
oe
‘
‘
4
=
Pe ee eee
Tapa
rh
Rees
Sie Ais
Le a ne >
ee
ConTENTS.
Lincoln Breed -On the Choice of a Breed—The Improved English Varieties
as*Mutton Sheep—The Merinos as Wool-Producers—General Management
—Barns and Sheds—Feeding Racks — Feeding — Salt —Water —Shade—
Lambs—Castration—Docking—W ashing—Shearing— Value of Sheep to the
Warmer—An “ANECHOLE. <2 6... 6 's/es «a's «jn s\e «/n\c/ ais emieis) hateipi tee eee . 13
V —SWINE.
Natural History of Swine—The Wild Boar—Opinions Respecting the Hog—
The Hog among the Greeks and Romans—Swine Breeding in Gaul ana
Spain—Abhorrence toward Swine’s Flesh among the Jews, Egyptians, Mo-
hammedans, and Others—Cuvier’s Opinion—Unwholesomeness of Swine’s
Flesh in Warm Climates—Breeds of Swine—The “ Land Pike”—The Chi
nese Hog—The Berkshire Breed—The Suffolk Breed—The Essex Breed--
The Chester Hog—Points of the Hog —Feeding—The Piggery........ Bis cca)
VI.—IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS
Selection of the Sire and Dam—How the Cream Pot Breed was Produced—
In-and-In Breeding—Youatt’s Opinion—Crossing—Origin of La Chamois
Sheep—The best Breeds most Profitable—How to Improve One’s Stock—
How Improvements may be bred Out as well as In ..................8- 108
VIL—DISEASES AND THEIR CURE.
About throwing Physic to the Dogs—Wild Animals seldom Sick—The Reason
why—Causes of Disease among Domestic Animals—How they may be kept
in Perfect Health—Treatment of their Diseases—The Water-Cure for Ani-
LONE SAAB ene HOE nretC Oren eect oe and ae OBOE TOE Sc AGrSSSe cc oovcssyice ene
VIII.—POULTRY.
The Domestic Fowl—Wild Origin Unknown—General Characteristics of the
Domestic Fowl—The Spanish Fowl—The Dorking—The Polish Fowl—The
Hamburg Fowl—The Dominique Fowl—The Leghorn Fowl—The Shang-
hais and Cochin Chinas—The Bantam—The Game Fowl—Mongrels—Choice
of Breed—Accommodations —Incubation—Rearing Chickens—Five Rules—
The Guinea Fowl—The Domestic Turkey—The Principal Requisites in
Turkey Rearing—General Directions—The Domestic Goose —How to Rear
Geese—Shearing instead of Plucking--The Domestic Duck—Best Varicties
—How to Rear Ducks—Fattening—Preparing Poultry for Market...... 118
IX.—BEE-KEEPING.
Wonders of the Bee-Hive—The three kinds of Bees—The Queen and her Du-
ties—Curious Facts—How the Cells are Made—Bee-Bread—Ventilation by
the Bees on Scientific Principles—The Apiary—Bee-Hives—How to Make
them—Sectional Hives—Mr. Luda’s Hive- Swarming—Robbing the Hive—
Wintering—Feeding—Killing the Drones.............--+..-- eae -. 148
APPENDIX.
Horse Taming....... is i ereiaieietemeate eiscatete o 5S ¥ ibis aie e¥e ec gaela nile eine sie ee
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
f.
THE HORSE.
A horse! a horse! My kingdom for a horse !—Shakspeare,
I.— HISTORY.
HE horse is probably a native of the warm coun
tries of the East, where he is found wild in a
considerable state of perfection. Its use, both
as a beast of burden and for the purposes of war,
early attracted the attention of mankind. Thus
when J aces proceeded with his father’s body from Egypt into
Canaan, “‘there accompanied him both chariots and horsemen”
(Gen. xix.) ; and the Canaanites are said to have gone out to fight
against Israel ‘ with many horses and chariots” (Joshua ii. 4).
This was more than sixteen hundred years before Christ.
The horse was early employed on the course. In the year
1450 z. o. the Olympic games were established in Greece, at
which horses were used in chariot and other races.
No horses were found either on the continent or on the
islands of the New Worid; but the immense droves now ex-
isting in parts of both North and South America, all of which
have descended from the two or three mares and stallions left
by the early Spanish voyagers, prove very clearly that the
_ elimate and soil of these countries is well adapted to their
_ propagation.
Professor Low says: “‘The horse is seen to be affected in his
1*
10 Domestic ANIMALS.
character and form by the agencies of food and climate, and it
may be by other causes unknown tous. He sustains the tem- | '
perature of the most burning regions; but there is a degree of
cold at which he can not exist, and as he approaches this limit
his temperament and external conformation are affected. In
Iceland, at the Arctic Circle, he has become a dwarf; im Lapland,
at latitude 65°, he has given place to the reindeer; and in Kamt-
schatka, at 62°, he has given place to the dog. The nature
and abundance of his food, too, greatly affect his character and
form. A country of heaths and innutritious herbs will not
produce a horse so large and strong as one of plentiful herbage;
the horse of the mountains will be smaller than that of the
plains; the horse of the sandy desert than that of the watered —
valley.”’*
II.—BREEDS.
The genus Zyuus, according to modern naturalists, consists
of six different animals—the horse (4. caballus); the ass (Z.
asinus); the quagga (2. guagga) ; the dziggithai (2. hemionus) ;
the mountain zebra (Z. zebra); and the zebra of the plains
(£. burchelli).
Of the horse there are many varieties or breeds. Ineffect-
ual attempts have been made to decide which variety now
existing constitutes the original breed ; some contending for the
Barb and others for the wild horses of Tartary. It is of the
latter that Byron thus speaks in ‘‘ Mazeppa:”
With flowing tail and flying mane,
With nostrils never streaked with pain,
Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein,
And feet that iron never shod,
And flanks unscarred by spur or rod,
A thousand horse—the wild, the free—
Likes waves that follow o’er the sea,
Came thundering on.
The principal breeds of horses now bred in the United States
are the Race-Horse, the Arabian, the Morgan, the Oanadian,
ew
* Tilustrations of the Breeds of Animals,
See Rae, Tue Horse. 12
the Norman, the Cleveland Bay, the Conestoga, the Virginia
Horse, the Clydesdale, and the Wild or Prairie Horse.
1. The Race-Horse.—‘“ There is much dispute,” Mr. Youatt
says, “with regard to the origin of the Thorough-bred Horse.
_ By some he is traced through both sire and dam to Eastern pa-
rentage; others believe him to be the native horse, improved
and perfected by judicious crossings with the Barb, the Turk,
or the Arabian. The Steed Book, which is an authority with
every English breeder, traces all the old racers to some Eastern
origin; or it traces them until the pedigree is lost in the
uncertainty of an early period of breeding.
“Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race-
horse, the strictest attention has for the last fifty years been
paid to pedigree. In the descent of almost every modern racer
not the slightest flaw can be discovered.”
The racer is generally distinguished, according to the same
authority, by his beautiful Arabian head; his fine and finely-
set neck; his oblique, lengthened shoulders; his well-bent
hinder legs; his ample muscular quarters; his flat legs, rather
short from the knee downward, although not always so deep
as they should be; and his long and elastic pastern.
The use of thorough-bred and half-bred horses for domes
tic purposes is becoming common in England. The half-bred.
horse is not only much handsomer than the common horse, but.
his speed and power of endurance are infinitely greater.
““The acknowledged superiority of Northern carriage and
draught stock,” the editor of the New York Spirit of the Times
says, “is owing almost entirely to the fact that thorough-bred
horses have found their way North and East from Long Island
and New Jersey, where great numbers are annually disposed of
that are unsuited to the course.”
For the farm, the pure thorough-bred horse would be nearly
useless. Helacks weight and substance to give value and power
for draught. For road work the same objections will apply,
although not to the same extent, perhaps. The best English
road horse is a cross of the thorough-bred and the Cleveland.
a.
ia 12 Domrstic ANIMALS.
2. The Arabian Horse.—The genealogy of the Arabian —
horse, according to- Arab account, is known for two thousand
years. Many of them have written and attested pedigrees ex-
tending more than four hundred years, and, with true Eastern ;
exaggeration, traced by oral tradition from the stud of Solo- ©
mon. A more careful account is kept of these genealogies than
of those of the most ancient family of the proudest Arab chief,
and very singular precautions are taken to prevent the possi-
bility of fraud, so far as the written pedigree extends.
The head of the Arabian horse is inimitable. The broadness
and squareness of the forehead, the shortness and fineness of the
muzzle, the prominence and brilliancy of the eye, the smallness
of the ears, and the beautiful course of the veins, are its char-
acteristics. In the formation of the shoulders next to the head,
the Arabian is superior to any other breed. The withers are
high and the shoulder-blades inclined backward, and so nicely
adjusted that in descending a hill the point or edge of the ham
never ruffles the skin. The fineness of the legs and the oblique
position of the pasterns may seem to lessen his strength; but
the leg, although small, is flat and wiry, and its bones uncom-
monly dense.*
Richardson says: ‘‘ Often may the traveler in the desert, on
entering within the folds of a tent, behold the interesting spec- -
tacle of a magnificent courser extended upon the ground, and
some half dozen little dark-skinned, naked urchins scrambling
across her body, or reclining in sleep, some upon her neck,
some on her body, and others pillowed upon her heels; nor do
the children ever experience injury from their gentle playmate.
She recognizes the family of her friend, her patron, and toward ‘
oe ge ie are
a oe a a) 2. ee
vail ne See SP ete, ae ae ee.
Ce ee en eae
¢
i
~
‘
\
— Se le Pe ES Sa ne et hs * in i
% them all the natural sweetness of her disposition leans, even to |
: overflowing.”
5 The Arabian horse Tartar, whose portrait we give on the next :
: page, is thus described in the New England Farmer: “This
’ beautiful horse was bred by Asa Pingree, of Topsfield, Mass,
eS * Youatt.
NA IR Nate ae . eee Re
t
r
J
/
‘AVLAV J, ASOT] NVITVAY AMY,
:
Wy),
Aa \
i) \
Ay) ‘\
7 if
Wi
y
yy il
i‘
he ill
et Pe Ft A
rreeva. 9 a
14 Domestic ANIMALS.
He now stands fifteen and one fourth hands high; weighs
nine hundred pounds; is of dark-gray color, with dark mane
and tail. He was sired by the imported, full-blood Arabian
horse ‘Imaum,’ and is seven years old this spring. This
engraving, copied from life, gives the figure of ‘ Tartar,’ but can
not represent the agile action, flashing eye, and cat-like nimble-
ness: of all: his movements. It shows the beantiful Arabian
head and finely-set-on neck; his ample muscular quarters;
his flat legs, rather short from the knee downward; and his
long and elastic pastern. All hismotions are light and exceed-
ingly graceful, and his temper so docile that a child may
handle him,”
3. The Morgan Horse.—This celebrated American breed is
probably a cross between the English race-horse and the com-
mon New England mare. It is perhaps, all things considered,
the very finest breed for general usefulness now existing in the
United States. Mr. S. W. Jewett, a celebrated stock breeder,
in an article in the Cultivator, says:
‘“T believe the Morgan blood to be the best ever infused into
the Northern horse. The Morgans are well known and esteem-
ed for activity, hardiness, gentleness, and docility ; well adapted
for all work; good in every spot except for races on the turf.
They are lively and spirited, lofty and elegant in their action,
carrying themselves gracefully in the harness, They have
clean bone, sinewy legs, compactness, short, strong backs,
powerful lungs, strength, and endurance. They are known by
their short, clean heads, width across the face at the eyes,
eyes lively and prominent; they have open and wide under
jaws, large windpipe, deep brisket, heavy and round body,
broad in the back, short limbs in proportion to size (of body);
they have broad quarters, a lively, quick action, indomitable
‘ spirit, move true and easy in a good, round trot, and are fast
on the walk; color dark bay, chestnut, brown, or black, with
dark, flowing, wavy mane and tail. They make the best of
roadsters, and live to a great age.”
All do not agree, however, with this estimate of the Morgans.
Tue Horse. 15
A distinguished judge of horses in Vermont, quoted by Randall
in his Introduction to Youatt on the Horse, says:
“They [the Morgans] are good for an hour’s drive—for short
stages. They are good to run around town with. They are
good in the light pleasure-wagon—prompt, lively (not spirited),
and ‘trappy.’ There is no question among those who have
had fair opportunities of comparing the Morgans with horses
of purer blood and descended from different stocks, in regard to
‘the relative position of the Morgan. He is, as he exists at the
present day, inferior in size, speed, and bottom—in fact, in all
those qualities necessary to the performance of ‘great deeds’
SHERMAN MORGAN.
on the road or the farm, to the descendants of Messenger, Du-
roc, imported Magnum Bonum, and many other horses of de-
served celebrity.”
Sherman Morgan, whose portrait we are permitted to copy
from Linsley’s “ Morgan Horse,” was foaled in 1835, the prop-
erty of Moses Cook, of Campton, N. H. Sired by Sherman, g
‘sire, Justin Morgan. The pedigree of the dam not fully estab-
‘lished, but conceded to have been a very fine animal, and said to
en ORS
bee
sot
~ in 1
Pe SE) et ee
<a
a—~.
ee
Tee es ae ee
RS
aes
16 Domestic ANIMALS.
be from the Justin Morgan. Sherman Morgan is fifteen hands
high, weighs about 1,050 lbs., is dark chestnut, and very much
resembles his sire Sherman, but heavier, stockier, and not as
much action. A fine horse, and is now kept in the stable at
Lancaster, N. H., where the Sherman died. He is owned by
A. J. Congdon.
4. The Canadian Horse.—This horse abounds in the Cana
dian Provinces and in the Northern States of the Union, and is
too well known to require a particular description. It ismainly
of Norman-French descent. It is a hardy, long-lived animal,
is easily kept, and very useful on a farm, although generally too
small for heavy work. A cross between stallions of this breed
and our common mares produces a superior horse, and such
crosses are finding favor among farmers.
5. The Norman Horse.—The French or Norman horse, from
which the Canadian is descended, is destined to take a more
prominent place than has hitherto been assigned to it among
our working horses. We introduce an engraving of one of this
breed, called Louis Philippe, which was bred by Edward
Harris, of Moorestown N. J., by whom the breed was imported
from France.
The Norman horse is from the Spanish, of Arabian ancestry,
and crossed upon the draught horses of Normandy. Mr.
Harris had admired the speed, toughness, and endurance of the
French stage-coach horses, and resolved to import this valuable
stock, and deserves the thanks of the American public for his
perseverance and sacrifices in this enterprise. The Norman
horses are enduring and energetic beyond description, and keep
their condition on hard fare and brutal treatment, when most
other breeds would quail and die. This variety of horse is
employed in France to draw the ponderous stage-coaches, called
“ diligences,” and travelers express astonishment at the extra-
ordinary performances of these animals. Each of these huge
vehicles is designed for eighteen passengers, and when thus
loaded are equal to five tons weight. Five horses are attached
to the clumsy and cumbrous carriage, with rude harness, and
“~TadTLH SOOT AsXO_ NVWXON XO HONWAY HH
ih
id, ty
————
iL
FSS
s7800P-3
Biss
aS eal
18 Domestic ANIMALS.
their regular rate of speed with this enormous load is seven
miles an horr, and this pace is maintained over rough and
hilly regions. On some routes the roads are lighter, when the
speed is increased to eight, nine, and sometimes to ten miles an
hour.
6. Cleveland Bay.—According to Mr. Youatt, the true Cleve-
land Bay is nearly extinct in Hzgland. They were formerly
employed as a heavy, slow coach-horse. Mr. Youatt says:
“The origin of the better kind of coach-horse is the Cleveland
Bay, confined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with
perhaps Lincolnshire on one side and Northumberland on the
other, but difficult to meet with pure in either county. The
Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourths or through-bred
horse of sufficient substance and height, and the produce is the
coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high ~
action. From the thorough-bred of sufficient height, but not of
so much substance, we obtain the four-in-hand and superior
curricle-horse.
Cleveland Bays were imported into western New York a
few years since, where they have spread considerably. They
have often been exhibited at our State fairs. They are mon-
strously large, and ‘for their size are symmetrical horses, and
possess very respectable action. Whether they would endure
on the road at any but a moderate pace, we are not informed,
and have some doubts. Whether they spring from the genu-
ine and unmixed Cleveland stock, now so scarce in England,
we have no means of knowing. The half-bloods, the produce
of across with our common mares, are liked by many of our
farmers. They are said. to make strong, serviceable farm
beasts—though rather prone to sullenness of temper.*
7. The Conestoga Horse.—This horse, which is found chiefly
in Pennsylvania and the adjacent States, is more remarkable
for endurance than symmetry. In height it sometimes reaches
seventeen hands; the legs being long and the body light.
=.
io Sie Poe oe
Tue Horse. 19
The Conestoga breed makes good carriage aud pare draft
horses.
8. The Clydesdale Horse.—The Clydesdale horse is aesoonded
from a cross between the Flemish horse and the Lanarkshire
(Scotland) mares. The mare is derived from the district on the
Clyde where the breed is chiefly found. Horses of this breed
are deservedly esteemed for the cart and for the plow on >
heavy soil. They are strong, hardy, steady, true pullers, of
sound constitution, and from fourteen to sixteen hands high.
They are broad, thick, heavy, compact, well made for durabil-
Fig. 4.
Yani i i
‘ RII iS
Ky - , ite he
Vi), it ih
WY), ) lp
THE OLYDESDALE HORSE,
ity, health, and power. They have sturdy legs, strong shoul-
ders, back, and hips, a well-arched neck, and a light face and
- head.
9. The Virginia Horse-—This breed predominates in the
State from which it takes its name, and abounds to a greater
or less extent in all the Southern, Western, and Middle States.
Ii derives its origin from English blood-horses imported at
various times, and has been most diligently and purely kept
in the South. The celebrated Shark, the best horse of his day,
ie
Domestic ANIMALS.
was sire of the best Virginian horses, while Tally-ho, son of
Highflyer, peopled the Jerseys.*
10. The Wild or Prairie Horse. —In the Southwesteel
States wild horses abound, which are doubtless sprung from
the same Spanish stock as the wild horses of the pampas and
other parts of the southern continent, all of which are of the
celebrated Andalusian breed, derived from the Moorish Barb.
The prairie horses are often captured, and when domesticated
are found to be capable of great endurance. They are not,
however, recommended by the symmetry or elegance of ap-
pearance for which their type is so greatly distinguished,
| being generally rather small and scrubby.t
- 11. The American Trotting-Horse-—“ We can not refrain,”
= H. §. Randall says, in the Introduction to Youatt on the Horse,
already referred to, “from calling attention to our trotting-
horses, though in reality they do not, at least as a whole, con-
stitute a breed, or even a distinct variety or family. There 7s
a family of superior trotters, including several of the best our
country has ever produced, the descendants of Abdallah and
Messenger, and running back through their sire Mambrino to
the thorough-bred horse, old Messenger. But many of our
best trotters have no known pedigrees, and some of them,
without doubt, are entirely destitute of the blood of the race-
horse. Lady Suffolk is by Engineer, but the blood of Engineer
is unknown (she is a gray mare, fifteen hands and two inches
high). Dutchman has no known pedigree. Other celebrated
' trotters stand in the same category—though we are inclined to
think that a decided majority of the best, especially at long
distances, have a greater or less infusion of the blood of the
race-horse.
“The United States has undoubtedly ince more superior
trotters than any other country in the world, and in no other
country has the speed of the best American trotters been
equaled.”
NEE "yo ng
“ 4
Ee PN en ee
) +> & oF
Te! ow ee! es! ae oe eee Oe?
ee = 4 7) =>
‘ ry. i
es ae se ime
* Farmers’ Register. + Farmers’ Encyclopedia.
Tue Horses. 21
III.—POINTS OF HORSES.
Every one who has anything to do with the horse should
know something of the ‘‘poirts” by means of which a good
animal is distinguished from a bad one. It is necessary to
understand this, no matter for what particular service the horse
may be required; and the qualities indicated by these points
are universal in all breeds.
To illustrate this subject and teach the uninstructed how to
correctly judge the horse, we introduce the accompanying let-
tered outlines.
It is evident that to be a good judge of a horse, one must
have in his memory a model by which to try all that may be
presented to his criticism and judgment.
Fig. 5 represents such a model. It is a thoroagh-bred
horse, in which the artist has endeavored to avoid every fault.
Fig. 6 is designed to represent a horse in which every good
point is suppressed. It may not be common to see a horse
totally destitute of every good point; but injudicious breeding
has so obliterated the good ones, that the cut fig. 6 is not a
caricature, though we confess that its original is little less than
a caricature on the true ideal of a horse. Such a head is com-
mon, so is such a shoulder, such a back, quarters, and legs;
and if they are not very often all combined in one animal, they
are, unfortunately, often found distributed among the common
breeds in such abundance as to mar the beauty and the service
of three quarters of all the horses in ordinary use. The letters
are alike on both figures, and will enable the reader to draw a
comparison between the respective points of each. We copy
the description of the cuts from the Farmer's Companion:
“‘The most important part of all is probably the direction of
the shoulder, from A to B. Next to this, the length from the
hip to the hock, C to D. The point which next to these prob-
ably most contributes to speed and easy going, is the shortness
of the canon bone between the knee and the pastern joint, E
to F, a point without which no leg is good. A horse which
_ has all these three points good will necessarily and infallibly
stand over a great deal of ground, W to X, that is, the distances
between his fore and hind feet will be great; while one which
is deficient in all of them, or, indeed, in the two first, will as
assuredly stand like a goat with all its feet gathered under him,
and will never be either a fast horse or safe under saddle. A
horse, not in motion, may be more speedily judged of by this “<8
feature than by any other. One consequence of a fine receding
shoulder is to give length in the Aumcrus, or upper arm, from
Domestic ANIMALS.
Fig. 5. Jirnige
Fig. 6. ash
/, y wa L
i) ~\N-
A ff] MK } XN
AWWW \\\ Gi fy
W\ = ANTI NTNNTEO \y’ K >
“My 3 a
f XY i
Al nN VY )\ X) |
Ly \ Bs. = \ y i Zj
&
ss
y
a
#s,
fom
- : Tut Horse. 23
B to P, without which a great stride can hardly be attained,
but which will seldom if ever be found wanting if the shoulder-
blade be well placed. A prominent and fleshy chest is admired
by some, probably because they think it indicative of powerful
lungs and room for their use. We object to it as adding to
what it is so desirable to avoid—the weight to be lifted forward
in the act of progression—while all the space the lungs require
is to be obtained by depth instead of breadth, as from A to H,
in which point, if a horse be deficient, he will seldom be fit
for fast work. The other points which we have marked for
comparison are G to E, or the width of the leg immediately
below the knee, which in a well-formed leg will be equal all the
way down; in a bad one it will be narrowish immediately below
the knee, or what is called ‘tied in.’ The shape of the neck
is more important than might at first thought be supposed, as
affecting both the wind and the handiness of the mouth; no
horse with a faulty neck and a head ill-attached to it, as at Q
to K in fig. 6, ever possesses a good or manageable mouth.
The points of the face are not without significance, a feebly
developed countenance generally showing weakness of courage
if not of constitution. We therefore like to see a large and
bony protuberance above the eye, as at L in fig. 5, giving the
appearance of a sinking immediately below, followed by a
slightly Roman or protruding inclination toward the nose.
These when present are generally signs of ‘blood,’ which is in
some proportion or other a quality without which no breed of
horses will ever improve or long entitle itself to rank as other
than a race of drudges, fit only for sand or manure carts.”
Bearing these points in mind, you may, by observing and
comparing the different animals which fall under your eyes,
soon qualify yourself to give an intelligent opinion of a horse.
One can not become perfect in this branch of knowledge in a
week orinayear. Certainly no careful student of this little
book will allow himself to be imposed upon in the purchase of
an animal having many of the bad points represented in fig. 6,
The perfect horse (fig. 5) you will not expect to meet every day.
une San adr I ual Lie yt Tie 20 4
i Ee PN Dag e pT ea de ee =
em ERR Spb) on he aay ale moat 1 eS
a + V5 t ‘ 2 r 7 | ee -
94 Domestic ANIMALS.
A badly formed horse is not profitable for any purpose;
because, if so formed, they are either clumsy, inactive, dull
in mind, or tender and easily broken down. It costs just as
much to breed, raise, and keep a poor horse as a good one, and
the poor one is low in value and unsalable; besides, he is un--
able to do good service in any sphere, or to endure.
We copy from Lavater six heads of horses, which indicate
different temperaments and a great
diversity of character and disposition.
The accompanying remarks are from
the American Phrenological Jour-
nal :
“Fig. 7 has a slow, heavy temper-
! ament; is without spirit, awkward in
motion, lazy, stupid in intellect, diffi-
) . cult to teach, bears the whip and
needs it, though it is soon forgotten. He is too lazy to hold up
his ears or under jip, and is a Fig. 8.
regular hog-necked, heavy-footed
animal.
“Fig. 8 has more intelligence
and spirit, a more active temper-
ament, and is disposed to anger, ¢,
will not bear the whip, and shows @
his anger, when teased or irritated,
in a bold, direct onset with the
teeth.
“Fig. 9 is a very active temperament; is a quick, keen,
Fig. 9. active, intelligent animal, but is sly,
cunning, mischievous, and trickish;
will be hard to catch in the field, in-
clined to slip the bridle, will be a great
shirk in double harness, and will re-
quire a sharp eye and steady hand to
drive him, and will want something
besides a frolicsome boy for a master.”
Tue Horse.
“Fig. 10 is obstinate, headstrong, easily irritated, deceitful,
and savage; will be hard to drive,
unhandy, unvielding, sour-temper-
ed, bad to bick, inclined to balk,
disposed to fight and crowd his
mate, and bite and kick his driver.”
“Fig. 11 has a noble, proud dis-
position, and a lofty, stately car-
riage, but he is timid, restive, and
easily irritated and thrown off his
mental balance. Such horses should
be used by steady, calm men, and on roads and in business
which have little variety, change, or means of excitement.
Fig. 11.
“Fig. 12 is a calm, self-possessed animal, with a noble, eleva-
ted disposition, trustworthy, courageous, good-tempered, well
adapted to family use, but not remarkable for sharpness of
Fig. 13. mind or activity of body.
“Figs. 13 and 14 showa
———e great contrast in shape of
Lily SS = head, expression of coun-
Nt tenance, temperament, dis-
N position, and intelligence.
GY \, The first is a most noble
\ ise NA
tt ie
| | 2
lial att \, animal.
AY wu. \y “Fig. 13 is broad be-
Ss
J tween the eyes, full, round-
S ed, and prominent in the
2
Domestic ANIMALS.
forehead, indicating benevolence and intellect ; broad between
the ears, showing courage; broad between the eyes, evincing
quickness of perception, memory, and capacity to learn, He
can be taught almost anything, can be trusted, and loves and
trusts man; is not timid, will go anywhere, and stand without
Fig. 14. fastening ; never kicks, bites,
or runs away.
“Fig, 14 shows a marked
contrast with fig. 13 in almost
every respect; his narrow and
contracted forehead shows a
lack of intelligence, kindness,
and tractability; is timid and
\ shy in harness, vicious, un-
ay friendly, disposed to kick,
bite, balk, or run away, and
is fit only for a mill or horse-boat. For all general uses he
should be avoided, and by no means should such an organiza-
tion be employed for breeding purposes.”
:
Pt
€
¥
IV.—COLOR.
va W. C. Spooner, author of several veterinarian works, has the
following remarks on color as a sign of other qualities in the
horse:
s ‘““We have found both good and bad horses of every color,
and the only rule we can admit as correct is, that certain colors
denote deficient breeding,and therefore such animal is not
likely to be so good as he looks, but is probably deficient in
bottom or the powers of endurance. These colors are black,
which prevails so much with cart-horses, and sorrel, dun, pie-
bald, etc.; the possessors of which come from the North, and
a possess no Eastern blood. Black horses, unless evidently high
bred, are very often soft and sluggish, with breeding insuf-
ficient for their work; the pedigree of the majority of them
may be dated from the plow-tail, whatever admixtures there
may have been since. White hair denotes a thin skin, which
ey
Tue Horse.
; fs objectionable when it prevails on the Tees of UE as such
=f
es ‘I Fohelicad
Fig. 15.
- Common TERMS DENOTING THE PARTS OF A HORSE.
animals are more disposed to swelled legs and cracked heels
than others. Bay horses with black
legs are greatly esteemed, yet we
have known many determined slugs
of this hue. Their constitution is,
however, almost invariably good.
Chestnut is the prevailing color
with our race-horses, and conse-
quently chestnut horses are gener-
ally pretty well bred, and possess
the good and bad qualities which
obtain most among tharough-breds,
. CO The Suffolk cart-horse is also dis-
4 Rice ce Gr 4 Stondni Woon. tinguished by his light chestnut col-
% 28 Domestic ANIMALS.
4 or; and it is no small recommendation to find that this breed
: has, for several years past, carried away the principal prizes at
the annual shows of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Gray is a very good color, and generally denotes a considerable
Y admixture of Eastern blood.”
V.—STABLES.
We condense from Stewart’s admirable “Stable Book” the
larger portion of the following useful hints and suggestions in
reference to stables and their management.
d 1. Stables as they Are.—Stable architects have not much to
" boast of. When left to themselves they seem to think of little
e beyond shelter and confinement. If the weather be kept out
; and the horse be kept in, the stable is sufficient. If light and
air be demanded, the doorway will admit them, and other
apertures are superfluous.
The majority of stables have been built with little regard to
the comfort and health of the horse. Most of them are too
: small, too dark, too close, or too open; and some are mere
‘ dungeons, destitute of every convenience.
2. Situation of Stables.—When any choice exists, a situation
should be chosen which admits of draining, shelter from the
coldest winds, and facility of access. Damp places are especially
to be avoided. It is in damp stables that we expect to find
horses with bad eyes, coughs, greasy heels, swelled legs, mange,
and a long, dry, staring coat, which no grooming can cure.
Take every precaution, then, against dampness in your stables.
3. Size of Stables.—They are seldom too large in proportion
to the number of stalls; but are often made to hold too many
horses. Horses require pure air as well as human beings; and
the process of breathing has the same effect in their case as in
ours—changing it to that poisonous substance, carbonic acid
gas. With twenty or thirty horses in a single apartment no
ordinary ventilation is sufficient to keep the air pure. Large
stables, too, are liable to frequent and great alterations of tem-
perature. When several horses are out, those which remain
Tue Horses. 29
are often rendered uncomfortably cold, and when the stable is
full the whole are fevered or excited by excess of heat. Effi-
cient ventilation—a very important object—is also much more
difficult in a large than in a small stable.
In width the stable may vary from sixteen to eighteen feet ;
and in length it must have six feet for each stall. Large cart-
horses require a little more room both in length and breadth of
stable. The number of stalls should not exceed sixteen, and it
would be better if there were only eight.
Double-rowed stables, or those in which the stalls occupy
both sides, require least space, and for horses kept at full work
are sufficiently suitable, but for carriage horses single-rowed
stables are better. If the double-rowed are used, the gangway
should be wide, to prevent the horses from kicking at each
other, as they are apt to do when they grow playful from half
idleness.
4, Windows.— Windows are too much neglected in stables, and
where they exist at all are generally too few, too small, and ill
‘placed. Some think horses do not require light—that they
thrive best in the dark; but many a horse has become blind
for the want of light in his stable. When side windows can
not be introduced, a portion of the hay loft must be sacrificed
and light introduced from the roof. Side windows should be
s0 arranged that the light will not fall directly upon the eyes
of the horse.
5. Floors.—Stable floors may be of stone, brick, plank, or
earth. One of the best kinds of stable floor, where the soil is
dry, is made of a composition of lime, ashes, and clay, mixed
up in equal parts into a mortar and spread from twelve to fif-
teen inches deep over the surface of the ground forming the
bottom of the stable. It will dry in ten days and makes a very
smooth, fine flooring, particularly safe, easy, and agreeable for
horses to stand upon, and free from all the objections to stone,
brick, and wood.* *
—
* A. B. Allen.
Domestic ANIMALS.
A the urine should always be made in a stable, otherwise it will
e be foul and damp. It should be conveyed into a tank and care-
oi fully saved as manure.
7. Racks and Mangers.—These should be so placed that the
horse can eat from them with ease. The face of the rack next
the horse should be perpendicular, or as nearly so as possible.
Sometimes the face is so sloping and the rack so high that the
horse has to turn his head almost upside down to get at his food.
The mangers or troughs from which the horse eats his grain
are now sometimes made of cast iron, which we deem a great
improvement over wood. The manger should be concave and
not flat at the bottom. Mangers are generally placed too low.
The bottom should be from three feet and a half to four feet
from the ground, according to the height of the horse.
8. Ventilation of Stables.—Impure air, as we have already
remarked, is hurtful to the horse as well as to the human being
inducing disease and shortening life. To avoid it in our own
our horses healthy we must do the same for the stable. Aper-
tures, one for each stall, should be provided for carrying off the
impure air. These should be so near the top of the building as
practicable. It should be eight or ten inches square. Smaller
apertures near the floor or not far from the horse’s nostrils will
serve to admit fresh air.* ‘
9. Warmth, ete.—If you wish to have your horses thrive
and continue healthy, you can not pay too much attention to
their comfort. Their stables should be warm in winter and
properly constructed. [For plans, see “‘ The House.”] To keep
stables sufficiently warm, no artificial means are required. It
is enough that the outside air, except so much as is required
for ventilation, be excluded during the coldest weather. Warm
blankets should of course be used at the same time,
* See Chapier on Barns and Stables, in “‘ The House ”
6. Draining.—A gutter or other contrivance for carrying off
Pree :
case, we (sometimes!) ventilate our houses. If we would have
cool in summer. To secure these conditions, they should be °
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Tue Horsxz. 31
VI—FEEDING.
1. The Best Food for Horses—Considerable care and system
are necessary in feeding horses, so as to keep them in the best
health and the highest working order.
“The best food for ordinary working-horses in America,”
_ A.B. Allen says, “‘is as much good hay or grass as they will
eat, corn-stalks or blades, or for the want of these, straw, and
a mixture of from sixteen to twenty-four quarts per day, of
about half and half of oats and the better quality of wheat bran.
When the horse is seven years old past, two to four quarts of
corn or hominy or meal ground from the corn and cob is
preferable to the pure grain. Two to four quarts of wheat,
_ barley, rye, buckwheat, peas, or beans, either whole or ground,
may be substituted for the corn. A pint of oil meal or a gill of
flax-seed mixed with the other food is very good for a relish, es-
pecially in keeping up a healthy system and the bowels open, and
in giving the hair a fine glossy appearance. Potatoes and
other roots, unless cooked, do not seem to be of much benefit
in this climate, especially in winter—they lie cold upon the
stomach and subject the horse to scouring; besides, they are
too watery for a hard-working animal. Corn is fed too much
at the South and West. It makes horses fat, but can not give
them that hard, muscular flesh which oats do; hence their
‘softness and want of endurance in general work and on the
road, in comparison with Northern and Eastern horses, reared
and fed on oats and more nutritious grasses.”
2. Work and Digestion.—Slow work aids digestion, empties -
the bowels, and sharpens the appetite. Hence it happens that
on Sunday night and Monday morning there are more cases of
eclic and founder than during any other part of the week.
Horses that never want an appetite ought not to have an un-
liinited allowance of hay on Sunday; they have time to
eat a great deal more than they need, and the torpid state of
_ the stomach and bowels, produced by a day of idleness, renders
an additional quantity very dangerous. Far:n and cart horses
are fed immediately before commencing their labor, and the
Domestic ANIMALS.
; appetite with which they return shows that the stomach is not
o full. ‘ :
During fast work digestion is suspended. In the general
commotion excited by violent exertion, the stomach can hardly
a be in a favorable condition for performing its duty. The blood
Pe circulates too rapidly to permit the formation of gastric juice
i or its combination with the food; and the blood and the nervy-
ous influence are so exclusively concentrated and expended
upon the muscular system, that none can be spared for carry-
ing on the digestive process,
38. Bulk Essential Condensed food is necessary for fast-
working horses. Their food must be in less compass than that
of the farm or cart horse. But to this condensation there are
some limits. Grain affords all, and more than all, the nutri-
ment a horse is capable of consuming, even under the most
extraordinary exertion. His stomach and bowels can hold
more than they are able to digest. Something more than nu-
triment is wanted. The bowels must suffer a moderate degree
of distension; more than a wholesome allowance of grain can
produce.
When hay is very dear and grain cheap, it is customary in
many stables to give less than the usual allowance of hay, and
more grain. The alteration is sometimes carried too far, and
is often made too suddenly. The horses may have as much
grain as they will eat, yet it does not suffice without fodder.
Having no hay, they will leave the grain to eat the litter.
When the ordinary fodder, then, is very dear, its place must
be supplied by some other which will produce a wholesome
distension, though it may not yield so much nutriment. Straw
; or roots, either or both, may be used in such cases. The ex-
3 cessively tucked-up flank, and the horse’s repeated efforts to
eat his litter, show when his food is not of sufficient bulk, and
this indication must not be disregarded. -
4. Quantity of Food.—The quantity of food may be insuffi-
aes cient, or it may be in excess. The consumption is influenced ~
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Pirk Horse. 33
_ form, and health; these circumstances, especially the work,
must regulate the allowance.
When the horse has to work as much and as often as he is ©
able, his allowance of food should be unlimited.
2 When the work is such as to destroy the legs more than it
exhausts the system, the food must be given with some restric-
tion, unless the horse be a poor eater.
When the work is moderate, or less than moderate, a good
feeder will eat too much.
When the weather is cold, horses that are much exposed te.
it require more food than when the weather is warm.
When the horse is in good working condition, he needs less
_ food than while he is only getting into condition.
4 Young growing horses require a little more food than those
of mature age; but, as they are not fit for full work, the dif-
ference is not great.
Old horses, those that have begun to decline in vigor, require
more food than the young or the matured.
Hot-tempered, irritable horses seldom feed well; but those
that have good appetites require more food to keep them in
condition, than others of quiet and calm disposition.
Small-bellied, narrow-chested horses require more food than
those of deep and round carcass; but few of them eat enough
to maintain them in condition for full work.
Lame, greasy-heeled, and harness-galled hurses require an
extra allowance of food to keep them in working condition.
Sickness, fevers, inflammations, all diseases which influence
health so much as to throw the horse off work, demand, with
few exceptions, a spare diet, which, in general, consists of
bran-mashes, grass, carrots, and hay.*
5. Watering—tThis is a part of stable management little
regarded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose morning and
__ night, and they ge to the nearest pond or brook and drink their
fill, and no harm results, for they obtain that kind of water
* Stewart’s Stable Book.
O*
34 Domestic ANIMALS. =
whick nature designed them to have, in a manner prepared
for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as
well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures,
The difference between hard and soft water is known to
every one. There is nothing in which the different effect of
hard and soft water is so evident as in the stomach and di-
gestive organs of the horse. Hard water drawn fresh from the
well will assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to —
it stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure
him. He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of
the well-water as by its coldness—particularly by its coldness
in summer, and when it is in many degrees below the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere. The water in the brook and the
pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as
having become soft, the horse drinks freely of it without-danger,
If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially
in summer, he would often be saved from the sad torture of
thirst, and from many a disease. Whoever has observed the
eagerness with which the over-worked horse, hot and tired,
plunges his muzzle into the pail, and the difficulty of stop-
ping him until he has drained the last drop, may form some
idea of what he had previously suffered, and will not won- —
der at the violent spasms, and inflammation, and sudden
death that often result. There is a prejudice in the minds of
many persons against the horse being fully supplied with water.
They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick
and hard work. If he is galloped, as he too often is, immedi-
ately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured; but
if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst at the intervals
of rest he would be happier and better. Itis a fact unsuspect-
ed by those who have not carefully observed the horse, that
if he has frequent access to water he will not drink so much
in the course of the day as another will do, who, to cool his
parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can and knows not
when to stop. 5
On a journey a horse should be liberally supplied with
Se ee ie Pee: Subs S,
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35_
water. When he is a little cooled, two or three quarts may be
- given to him, and after that his feed. Before he has finished
his corn, two or three quarts more may be offered. He will
take no harm if this is repeated three or four times during along
and hot day.*
VII.—GENERAL MANAGEMENT,
1. Air.—We have spoken of the necessity of ventilation.
Hear what that great authority, Youatt, says:
“Tf the stable is close, the air will not only be hot but foul.
_ The breathing of every animal contaminates it; and when in
the course of the night, with every aperture stopped, it passes
again and again through the lungs, the blood can not undergo
its proper and healthy change; digestion will not be so per-
fectly performed, and all the functions of life are injured. Let
the owner of a valuable horse think of his passing twenty or
twenty-two out of the twenty-four hours in this debilitating
atmosphere! Nature does wonders in enabling every animal
to accommodate itself to the situation in which it is placed,
-and the horse that lives in the stable-oven suffers less from it
than would scarcely be conceived possible: but he does not,
and can not, possess the power and the hardihood which he
would acquire under other circumstances.
“The air of the improperly close and heated stable is still
further contaminated by the urine and dung, which rapidly
ferment there, and give out stimulating and unwholesome
vapors. When a person first enters an ill-managed stable, and
_ especially early in the morning, he is annoyed not only by the
heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling
hartshorn; and can he be surprised at the inflammation of the
eyes, and the chronic cough, and the ;lisease of the lungs, by
which the animal, who has been all night shut up in this vitia-
ted atmosphere, is often attacked; or if glanders and farey
_ should occasionally break out in such stables? It has been
ascertained by chemical experiment that the urine of the horse
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Domestic ANIMALS.
contains in it an exceedingly large quantity of hartshorn; and ;:
not only so, but that, influenced by the heat of a crowded
stable, and possibly by other decompositions that are going for-
wird at the same time, this ammoniacal vapor begins to be
rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine is voided.” _
2. Litter.—The facts just stated in reference to the plenti-
ful escape of ammoniacal gas from the urine, show the necessity _
of frequently removing the litter which is soon saturated with
it. It rapidly putrefies, emitting noisome odors and contami-
nating the air. Everything hastening decomposition should be
carefully removed where life and health are to be preserved.
Litter that has been much wetted and has begun to decay
should be swept out every morning.
No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain
during the day in the corner or any part of the stable.
3. Grooming.—Of this little need be said to the farmer in
reference to his working horses, since custom, and apparently
without ill effect, has allotted to them so little of the comb
and brush. ‘The animal that is worked all day and turned
out at night,” Youatt says, “‘ requires little more to be done to
him than to have the dirt brushed off his limbs. Regular
grooming, by rendering his skin more sensible to the alteration
of temperature and the inclemency of the weather, would be
prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out, needsno ~
grooming. The dandruff or scurf, which accumulates at the —
roots of the hair, is a provision of nature to defend him from
the wind and the cold.
“Tt is to the stabled horse, highly fed and little or irreg-
ularly worked, that grooming is of so much consequence.
Good rubbing with the brush or the curry-comb opens the ~
pores of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of —
the body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands in ~
the recom of exercise. No horse will carry a fine coat without
either unnatural heat or dressing. They both effect thesame
purpose; they both increase the insensible perspiration; but
the first does it at the expense of health and strength, while ‘a
Tuer Horse. 37
the second, at the same time that it produces a glow ou the
skin and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies
of the frame. It would be well for the proprietor of the horse
if he were to insist—and to see that his orders are really obeyed
—that the fine coat in which he and his groom so much delight
is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and
thick clothing, and, most of all, not by stimulating or injurious
spices. The horse should be regularly dressed every day, in
addition to the grooming that is necessary after work.
“When the weather will permit the horse to be taken out,
he should never be groomed in the stable, unless he is an
animal of peculiar value, or placed for a time under peculiar
circumstances. Without dwelling on the want of cleanliness,
when the scurf and dust that are brushed from the horse lodge
in his manger and mingle with his food, experience teaches,
that if the cold is not too great, the animal is braced and invig-
orated to a degree that can not be attained in the stable, from
being dressed in the open air. There is no necessity, however,
for half the punishment which many a groom inflicts upon the
horse in the act of dressing; and particularly on one whose
skin is thin and sensible. The curry-comb should at all times
be lightly applied. With many horses, its use may be almost
dispensed with; and even the brush needs not to be so hard,
nor the points of the bristles so irregular, as they often are.
A soft brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be
equally effectual and a great deal more pleasant to the horse.
A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be
almost sufficient with horses that have a thin skin, and that
have not been neglected. After all, it is no slight task to dress
a horse as it ought to be done. It occupies no little time, and
demands considerable patience as well as dexterity. It will be
readily ascertained whether a horse has been well dressed, by
rubbing him with one of the fingers. A greasy stain will detect
the idleness of the groom. When, however, the horse is chang-
ing his coat, both the curry-comb and the brush should be
used as lightly as possible.
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Domestic ANIMALS.
“Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to
the horse’s skin and to the horse generally, needs only to ob-
serve the effects produced by well hand-rubbing the !egs of a
tired horse. While every enlargement subsides, and the pain- —
ful stiffness disappears, and the legs attain their natural warmth
and become fine, the animal is evidently and rapidly reviving;
he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies down
to rest.”
4. Fxercise.—Of this the farm horse generally has enough.
His work is tolerably regular, not exhausting, and he generally
maintains his health and has his life prolonged to an extent
rare among horses of “leisure.” But agentleman’s or a trades-
man’s horse suffers a great deal more from idleness than he
does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours’
exercise every day, if he is to be kept free from disease. Noth-
ing of extraordinary, or even of ordinary, Jabor can be effected
on the road or in the field without sufficient and regular exercise.
It is this alone which can give energy to the system or devel-
ope the powers of any animal. The animal that, with the
usual stable feeding, stands idle for three or four days, as is the
case in many establishments, must suffer. He is predisposed to __
fever, or to grease, or, most of all, to diseases of the foot; and
if, after three or four days of inactivity he is ridden far and a
fast he is almost sure to have inflammation of the lungs or of __
the feet. 3
VIII—VICES AND BAD HABITS. -
The vices and bad habits of the horse, like those of hismas _
ter, are oftener than otherwise the consequence of a faulty ed- __
ucation. We are convinced that innately vicious horses are
comparatively few. Wecondense from Youatt the following
hints on this subject. :
1. Restiveness.—At the head of all the vices of the horseis
restiveness, the most annoying and the most dangerous of all,
It is the produce of bad temper and worse education; and,
like all other habits founded on nature and stamped by edn« ay
cation, it is inveterate. Whether it appears in the form of —
Tue Horse. 39
- Kicking or rearing, plunging or bolting, or in any way that
__ threatens danger to the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of
eure. A determined rider may, to a certain extent, subjugate
the animal; or the horse may have his favorites, or form his
attachments, and with some particular person he may be com-
_ paratively or perfectly manageable; but others can not long
depend upon him, and even his master is not always sure of
2. Backing or Balking—Some horses have the habit of
backing at first starting, and that more from playfulness than
desire of mischief. A moderate application of the whip will
usually be effectual. Others, even after starting, exhibit con-
siderable obstinacy and viciousness. This is frequently the
effect of bad breaking.
A large and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel be-
fore starting, when the horse, finding it more difficult to back
than to go forward, will gradually forget this unpleasant trick.
It will likewise be of advantage as often as it can be managed,
so to start that the horse shall have to back up-hill. The dif-
ficulty of accomplishing this will soon make him readily go
forward. A little coaxing or leading will assist in aeccomplish-
ing the cure.
3. Biting —This is perhaps sometimes the consequence of
natural ferocity, but is more frequently acquired from the fool-
ish teasing play of hostlers and stable-boys. At first his biting
‘is half playful and half in earnest, but finally becomes habitual
and degenerates into absolute viciousness. It is seldom that
anything can be done in the way of cure. Kindness will aggra-
vate the evil and no degree of severity will correct it. ‘I have
seen,” Professor Stuart says, ‘‘ biters punished until they trem-
bled in every joint and were ready to drop, but have never in
any case known them cured by this treatment or by any other.
The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse is as ready and
determined to repeat the offense as before. He appears unable
to resist the temptation, and in its worst form biting is a spe-
cies of insanity.”
Domestic ANIMALS. Bor 4
a
4 But if biting can not be cured it may almost always be pre-
vented, and every proprietor of horses, while he insists upon
: gentle and humane treatment of his animals, should strictly
. forbid this horse-play.
. 4. Kicking.—This, as a vice, is another consequence of the
3 culpable habit of grooms and stable-boys of teasing the horse.
: That which is at first an indication of annoyance at the pinch-
. ing and tickling of the groom, and without any design to injure,
3 gradually becomes the expression of anger, and the effort to do
mischief. The horse, -likewise, too soon recognizes the least
; appearance of timidity, and takes advantage of the discovery.
There is no cure for this vice after it has become a confirmed
habit, and he can not be justified who keeps a kicking horse
in his stable. Before the habit is inveterately established, a
thorn-bush or a piece of furze fastened against the partition or
post will sometimes effect a cure. When the horse finds that
he is pretty severely pricked he will not long continue to
punish himself.
5. Rearing—This sometimes results from playfulness, car-
ried, indeed, to an unpleasant and dangerous extent; but it is
fi oftener a desperate and occasionally successful effort to unhorse
u the rider, and consequently a vice. The horse that has twice
te decidedly and dangerously reared should never be trusted
again, unless, indeed, it was the fault of the rider, who had
: been using a deep curb and asharp bit. Some of the best
8 horses will contend against these, and then rearing may be
; immediately and permanently. cured by using a snaffle bridle
alone.
6. Running Away.—There is no certainty of cure for this
vice. The only method which affords any probability of suc-
cess is, to ride or drive such a horse with a strong curb and
sharp bit; to have him always firmly in hand; and if he will
run away and the place will admit of it, to give him (sparing
neither curb nor whip) a great deal more running than he likes.
7. Overreaching.—This unpleasant noise, known also by the :
term “clicking,” arises from the toe of the hind-foot knocking 4
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Tuer Horse. 41
against the shoe of the fore-foot. If the animal is young, the
action of the horse may be materially improved; otherwise
_ nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the hind-foot as
_ short and as round as it can safely be, and to bevel off and round
the toe of the shoe, like that which has been worn off by a
stumbling horse, and, perhaps, to lower the heel of the fore-foot
a little.
8. Rolling—Some horses have the habit of rolling in the
stable, by which they are liable to get cast, bruised, and half
strangled. The only remedy is to tie such a horse with just
length of halter enough to lie down, but not allow of his resting
his head on the ground. This is an unpleasant means of cure,
and not always a safe one.
9. Shying.—This vice is often the result of cowardice, or
playfulness, or want of work, but at other times it is the con-
sequence of a defect of sight; and in its treatment it is of great
importance to distinguish between these different causes. For
the last, every allowance must be made, and care must be taken
that the fear of correction is not associated’ with the imagined
existence of some terrifying object. The severe use of the whip
and the spur can not do good here, and are likely to aggravate
the vice ten-fold. A word half encouraging and half scolding
will tell the horse that there was nothing to fear, and will give
him confidence in his rider on a future occasion.
The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different
affair, and must be conquered: but how? Severity is altogether
out of place. If he is forced into contact with the object by
dint of correction, the dread of punishment will afterward be
associated with that object, and on the next occasion his start-
ings will be more frequent and more dangerous. The way to
cure him is to go on, turning as little as possible out of the road,
giving a harsh word or two and a gentle touch, and then taking
no more notice of the matter. After a few times, whatever
may have been the object which he chose to select as the pre-
tended cause of affright, he will pass it almost without notice.
10. Slipping the Halter—Many horses are so clever at thia
Domestic ANIMAaS.
trick that s arcely a night passes without their getting loose. a
;
3 It is a habit which may lead to dangerous results, and should be
F cured at once by some extra means of securing the halter in its
5 place, or by a strap attached to it and buckled securely (but —
a not tight enough to-be a serious inconvenience), around the —
a neck.
11. Tripping.—He must be a skillful practitioner or a mere
pretender who promises to remedy this habit. If it arises from
a heavy fore-hand and the fore-legs being too much under the
horse, no one can alter the natural frame of the animal ; if it
proceeds from tenderness of the foot, grogginess, or old lameness,
these ailments are seldom cured. Also, if it is to be traced to —
habitual carelessness and idleness, no whipping will rouse the
drone. A known stumbler should never be ridden or driven
by any one who values his safety or his life. ,
If the stumbler has the foot kept as short and the toe pared
as close as safety will permit, and the shoe is rounded at the
} ; toe, or has that shape given to it which it naturally acquires in
= a fortnight from the peculiar action of such a horse, the animal
may not stumble quite so much; or if the disease which pro- __
duced the habit can be alleviated, some trifling good may be ~
done, but in almost every case a stumbler should be got rid of,
or put to slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative is
adopted, he may trip as much as he pleases, for the weight of ig
the load and the motion of the other horses will keep him upor
his legs.
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IX.—HINTS TO BUYERS.
1. Warranty—A man should have amore perfect knowledge
of horses than falls to the lot of most men, and a perfect knowl-
edge of the seller also, who ventures to buy a horse without a ei
warranty. This warranty is usually embodied in the recat a
which may be expressed as follows: 2
Received at Louisville, August 10th, 1858, from C. D., one hundred dollars
for a gray horse warranted only five years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet
to ride or drive. AWS
“A receipt, including merely the word ‘ warranted,’ » ex
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Tue Horses. 43
tends only to soundness; ‘warranted sound’ goes no further;
the age, freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and drive,
should be especially named. This warranty comprises every
cause of unsoundness that can be detected, or that lurks in the
constitution at the time of sale, and to every vicious habit that
the animal has hitherto shown. To establish a breach of war-
ranty, and to be enabled to tender a return of the horse and
recover the difference of price, the purchaser must prove that
it was unsound or viciously disposed at the time of sale.
““No price will imply a warranty or be equivalent to one;
there must be an express warranty. A fraud must be proved
in the seller, in order that the buyer may be enabled to return
the horse or maintain an action for the price. The warranty
should be given at the time of sale. A warranty, or a promise
to warrant the horse, given at any period antecedent to the
sale, is invalid; for horse flesh is a very perishable commodity,
and the constitution and usefulness of the animal may undergo
a considerable change in the space of a few days. A warranty
after the sale is invalid, for it is given without any legal con-
sideration. In order to complete the purchase, there must be
a transfer of the animal, or a memorandum of agreement, or
the payment of the earnest-money. The least sum will suffice
for earnest. No verbal promise to buy or to sell is binding
without one of these. The moment either of these is effected,
the legal transfer of property or delivery is made, and what-
ever may happen to the horse, the seller retains, or is entitled
to, the money. If the purchaser exercises any act of owner-
_ ship, by using the animal without leave of the vender, or by
having any operation performed, or any medicine given to him,
he makes him his own. -
“Tf a person buys a horse warranted sound, and discovering
no defect in him, and relying on the warranty, re-sells him,
_and the unsoundness is discovered by the second purchaser,
and the horse returned to the first purchaser, or an action com-
-menced against him, he has his claim on the first seller, and *
- may demand of him not only the price of the horse, or the dif-
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44. Domestic ANIMALS.
ference in value, but every expense that may have been in-
curred.
“« Absolute exchanges of one horse for another, or a sum of
money being paid in addition by one of the parties, stand on
the same ground as simple sales. If there is a warranty on
either side, and that is broken, an action may be maintained:
if there be no warranty, deceit must be proved.”
2. What constitutes Unsoundness ?—“ That horse is sound in
whom there is no disease, and no alteration of structure that
impairs or is likely to impair his natural usefulness. The horse
is unsound that labors under disease, or has some alteration of
structure which does interfere, or is likely to interfere, with
his natural usefulness. The term ‘natural usefulness’ must
be borne in mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is
soon knocked up; another will work ail day, but can not be
got beyond a snail’s pace; a third with a heavy fore-hand is
liable to stumble, and is continually putting to hazard the neck
of his rider; another, with an irritable constitution and a loose,
washy form, loses his appetite and begins to scour if a Itttle
extra work is exacted from him. The term unsoundness must
not be applied to either of these; it would be opening far too ©
widely a door to disputation and endless wrangling. The buy-
er can discern, or ought to know, whether the form of the
horse is that which will render him likely to suit his purpose,
and he should try him sufficiently to ascertain his natural
strength, endurance, and manner of going. Unsoundness, we
repeat, has reference only to disease, or to that alteration of
structure which is connected with, or will produce, disease and
lessen the usefulness of the animal.’*
* Youatt.
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THE ASS AND THE MULE.
Q, that 1 had been writ down an ass !—Dogberry.
I.—THE ASS.
UFFON has well observed that the ass is de-
spised and neglected only because we possess a
| more noble and powerful animal in the horse,
and that if the horse were unknown, and the
= care and attention that we lavish upon him
were transferred to his now neglected and despised rival, the
latter would be increased in size and developed in mental qual-
ities to an extent which it would be difficult to anticipate, but
which Eastern travelers, who have observed both animals in
their native climates, and among nations by whom they are
equally valued, and the good qualities of each justly appreci-
ated, assure us to be the fact.
The character and habits of the horse and the ass are in
many respects directly opposed. The one is proud, fiery, im-
petuous, nice in his tastes, and delicate in his constitution;
subject, like a pampered menial, to many diseases, and having
many wants and habits unknown in a state of nature. The
other, on the contrary, is humble, patient, quiet, and hardy.
For food the ass contents himself with the most harsh and
disagreeable herbs, which other animals will scarcely touch;
in the choice of water he is, however, very nice, drinking only
that which is perfectly clear, and at brooks with which he is
acquainted.
The qualities of the ass as a working animal are almost or
quite unknown in this country, but in other lands he is found
Pe Sees
46 Domestic ANIMALS.
very serviceable to the poor who are not able to buy or tokeep
horses. He requires very little care, bears correction with
firmness, sustains labor and hunger with patience, and is sel-
os dom or never sick. ‘
f The varieties of the ass, in countries favorable to their de-
:: velopment, are great. In Guinea the asses are large, and in
shape even excel the native horses. The asses of Arabia
(Chardin says) are perhaps the handsomest animals in the
world. Their coat is smooth and clean; they carry the head
elevated; and have fine and well-formed legs, which they
throw out gracefully in walking or galloping. In Persia alse
they are finely formed, some being even stately, and much used
in draught and for carrying burdens, while others are more
lightly proportioned, and used for the saddle by persons of
quality ; frequently fetching the large sum of 400 livres; and
being taught a kind of ambling pace, are richly caparisoned
and used by the rich and luxurious nobles.*
Le > see
re
II.—THE MULE.
y oe
The principal objection to the ass, as a beast of burden, being
his small size, the ingenuity of man early devised means to
remedy this defect by crossing him with the horse; thus pro-
ducing an intermediate animal with the size and strength of
the latter, and the patience, hardiness, and sure-footedness cf
the former.
The mule is the offspring of the ass and the mare, or the
a - female ass and the horse. In the latter case the produce is
“ called a jennet, and is much less hardy, and therefore rarely
> bred.
| Mules are much used in warm climates, where they are pre-
ferred to horses for many purposes. They are very numerous
in our Southern States and not uncommon in the Middle and
Western States.
Kentucky is the great mule-breeding State. Many thou-
Sy eee ee Ce OS
* Blane’s Encyclopedia of Rural Sports,
Tue Ass AND THE MULE. 47
sands are annually raised there for the New York and Southern
markets. A correspondent of the American Veterinary Jour- —
nal says:
“The mule trade is one of the largest of Kentucky, and af-
fords one of her chief sources of revenue. The mule is fed from
weaning time (which is generally at the age of five or six
months) to the full extent of its capacity to eat, and that,
too, on oats and corn, together with hay and fodder. In lieu
of the long food, soiling is usually adopted in the summer, as
they are kept confined in a pound or paddock, containing an
acre or two of ground, which is usually partially shaded, in
herds of one hundred or one hundred and fifty. In this way
they are kept until the fall after they are two years old, receiv-
ing a sort of forcing hot-house treatment. At this age they
are taken to the Southern market, not always by the feeder,
but more generally by the speculator or trader; there they are
sold to the planter entirely unbroken. The planters are too
cautious to buy a broken mule, lest it should prove to be an an-
tiquated, broken-down beast, fattened up and sold for a young
one—as it is more difficult to judge of his age than that of a
horse. The external marks of time and service are not gener-
ally so apparent upon him. But it is asmall job to breaka
mule. It is only necessary to have a steady horse to work him,
with a second hand to drive him an hour or two to keep him
up, after which he is considered ready for any service that the
farmer may require of him. He may kick once or twice, but
-is unlike the spirited horse, who when he commences is apt to
kick himself out of the harness before he stops.
_ “Persons who have tried them on the farm are pleased with
them. They never get sick and rarely get lame, will do as
much work as horses which will cost twice as much money,
and at the same time will subsist on less and inferior food ; for
a mule will work very well on wheat straw and corn shucks,
whereas the horse must have grain as well as a good allowance
of long food. They are better for our servants to handle, as
they can stand neglect and violent treatment better than the
horse, and a blemish, such as the loss of an eye, does 3
impair their value so much as that of the horse.”
To have large and handsome mules, the mare should be ee a
sarge breed and well proportioned, with rather small limbs, a
moderate sized head, and a good forehead; and the ass should im
be of the large Spanish breed.
CatTrTLe. 49
III.
CATTLE.
The noble, patient ox and gentle cow
Kind usage claim ; and he’s a brute indeed,
Unworthy of companionship with them,
Who with neglect or cruelty repays
The debt he owes their race.—Knoz.
I.—HISTORY
F the ox tribe (Lovide) there are eight species
—the ancient bison (Gos urus); the bison or
American buffalo (B. bison); the musk ox (B.
moschatus); the gayal (LB. frontalis); the grunt-
ing ox (B. grunniens); the buffalo of Southern
Africa (B. caffer); the common buffalo (B. dubulus); and the
common domestic ox (B. taurus). It is with the last only that
we have to do in the present work.
The ox has been domesticated and in the service of man
from the remotest antiquity. The Bible informs us that cattle
were kept by the early descendants of Adam (Gen. iv. 20).
That their value has been duly appreciated in all ages and in
all climates, is shown by authentic history. Both the Hindoos
and the Egyptians placed the ox among their deities; and no
_ quadruped certainly is more worthy to be thus exalted.
The parent race of the ox is supposed by some to have
been much larger than any of the present varieties. The urus,
in his wild state at least, was an enormous and fierce animal,
and ancient legends have thrown around him an air of mys-
tery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and in
England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have been found
_ far exceeding in size those of the present day ; but these may
_ have belonged to exceptional individuals.
3
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Domestic ANIMALS.
Of the original race of British cattle no satisfactory descrip»
tion occurs in any ancient author; but it is believed that, with
occasional exceptions, they possessed no great bulk or beauty.
They were doubtless numerous, for Cesar tells us, in his Com-
mentaries, that the ancient Britons neglected tillage and lived
on milk and flesh. It was that occupation and mode of life
which suited their state of society. A few specimens of the
pure ancient breed, descendants of cattle which escaped from
their masters centuries since and became wild, may now be
seen in the parks of gentlemen in England. They are very
wild, and are said to be untamable.
The breeds of cattle in England are remarkable for their
numerous varieties, caused by the almost endless crossings of
one breed with another.
The breeds of cattle now found in America are all derived
from Europe, and those of the United States mainly from Eng-
land. The early importations were of inferior grades, as the
grand improvements in British cattle, commenced by Bake-
well, date back no farther than about the time of the Revolu-
tion. In New England the primitive stock is believed to have
undergone considerable improvement, while in parts of the
Middle and Southern States it has undoubtedly deteriorated.
II.— BREEDS.
A strict classification of the numerous breeds of cattle now
existing in the United States would be difficult. Youatt
arranges British cattle under three heads, according to the com~
parative size of their horns—the Long Horns, the Short Horns, __
and the Middle Horns. These classes are all represented here.
The prevailing stock of the Eastern States is believed to be
derived from the Middle Horns or North Devons, most of the
excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. They
have frequently been called the American Devons, and are
highly esteemed. The most valuable working oxen are of this
breed, which also contributes largely to the best displays of __
beef found in the markets of New York, Philadelphia, and Bos
x CaTtTLE 51
ton. The Long Horns or Craven cattle, although not numer-
ous, are occasionally met with. The Short Horns are of more
recent introduction, but this breed, with various crosses, is now
perhaps the predominant one of the country.
It will be profitable to speak somewhat in detail, although
briefly, of the several breeds—at least the more prominent ones
—and we will begin with
Fig. 17.
A Devon Butt.
1. The Devon Breed.—This is a handsome and valuable
breed. The bull should have yellow horns; clear, bright, and
prominent eyes; small, flat, indented forehead; a fine muzzle ;
small cheek; a clear yellow nose; a high and open nostril; a
thick neck, with the hair about the head curled; a straight
' back; and be well set upon the legs. The head of the ox is
smaller, otherwise he does not differ materially in shape from
>
*
52 Domestic ANIMALS.
the bull. He is quicker in his motions than any other ox, and
is generally docile, good tempered, and honest.
The cow is nuch smaller than the bull, but roomy for breed-
ing, and distinguished for her clear, round eye and general beau-
ty of features. With regard to the comparative value of the
Devon cows for the dairy there is much difference of opinion,
it being pretty generally asserted that their acknowledged
grazing qualities render them unfit for the dairy, and that their
milk is rich but deficient in quantity. Many superior judges,
A Devon HeEtrer.
however, prefer them even for the dairy. Both cows and oxen
fatten faster and with less food than most others.* In color
Devon cattle are generally red.
Our New England cattle, as we have said, are generally de-
rived from this breed. Their horns are moderately long,
* Youatt.
CATTLE. 53
smooth, and slender, and their prevailing color deep red; but
sometimes they are dark brown, brindle, or nearly black. The
oxen are remarkable for their docility, strength, and quickness,
The cows are fair milkers. Both oxen and cows fatten readily.
2. The Hereford Breed.—Cattle of the Hereford breed are
larger than those of the North Devon. They are broad across
the hind-quarters; narrow at the sirloin; neck and head well
Fig, 19.
THe HurEerorD But, Tromp.
proportioned; horns of a medium size and turned up at the
points; color a deep red, with the face, throat, and belly gener-
ally white. A spirited contest has been kept up for some time
between the partisans of the Herefords and those of the Short
Horns, both here and in England, each stoutly maintaining the
superiority of their favorite breed. We are not disposed to
take part in the controversy. The experience of persons not
eee ud Fae Be A
ee Se AERA Dr Ege ee oe
stg Oy
Domestic ANIMALS.
engaged in breeding either sort as a special business must finally
settle it; in the mean time, candid people will acknowledge that
both are excellent, each in its way.
Youatt says that the Herefords fatten to a much greater
weight than the Devons, and that a Hereford cow will grow fat
where a Devon would starve. They are very hardy, and will
do well with only the same care required by our native breeds,
3. The Sussex Breed.—The Sussex ox holds an intermediate —
place between the Devon and the Hereford; with much of the
activity of the first and the strength of the second, and the pro-
pensity to fatten, and the beautiful fine-grained flesh of both.
Experience has shown that it combines as many of the good
qualities of both as can be combined in one frame. The Sus-
sex cow does not answer for the dairy, her milk, although of
good quality, is so small in quantity that she is little regarded
for making butter and cheese. The prevailing color of the
Sussex cattle is a deep chestnut red.*
4, Ayrshire Breed.—The Ayrshire breed, which is considered
the most valuable in Scotland, is of the small size and middle-
horned race. In modern times it has been much improved. Mr.
Aiton, in his Survey of Ayrshire, thus describes this fine breed :
“The most approved shapes in the dairy breed are, small
head, rather long and narrow at the muzzle; eye small, but
smart and lively; the horns small, clear, crooked, and their
roots at considerable distance from each other; neck long and
slender, tapering toward the head, with no loose skin below;
shoulders thin; fore-quarters light; hind-quarters large; back
straight, broad behind; the joints rather loose and open; car-
cass deep, and pelvis capacious and wide over the hips, with —
round, fleshy buttocks; tail long and small; legs small and
short, with firm joints; udder capacious, broad, and square, —
stretching forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor loose;
the milk-veins are large and prominent; teats short, al] point-
ing outward, and at considerable distance from each other;
* Youaitt.
ty pe
(as SS oe PO! i ee oem
CATTLE. 55
skin thin and loose; hair soft and woolly; the head, bones,
horns, and all parts of least value, small; and the general fig- ©
ure compact and well proportioned.”
“The qualities of a cow,” adds Mr. Aiton in another place,
“are of great importance. Tameness and docility of temper
X
greatly enhance the value of a milch cow. Some degree of
hardiness, a sound constitution, health, and a moderate degree
of spirits, are qualities to be wished for in a dairy cow, and
what those of Ayrshire generally possess. The most valuable
qualities which a dairy cow can possess are that she yields
much milk, and that of an oily, butyraceous, and caseous na-
ture; and that after she has yielded very large quantities of
milk for several years, she shall be as valuable for beef as any
other breed of cows known; her fat shall be much more mixed
through the whole flesh, and she shall fatten faster than any
other.”
There have been several importations of Ayrshires into the
United States, but they have, up to the present time, failed to
establish themselves in general favor.
5. Welsh Cattle‘ The cattle of Wales are principally of
the Middle Horns, and stunted in their growth from the poverty
of their pastures. Of these there are several varieties. The
Pembrokeshire are chiefly black, with white horns; are shorter
legged than most other Welsh cattle; are larger than those of
Montgomery, and have round and deep carcasses; have a lively
_ look and good eyes; though short and rough, not thick; have
not large bones, and possess, perhaps, as much as possible, the
opposite qualities of being very fair milkers, with a propensity
to fatten. The meat is equal to the Scotch. They will thrive,
says Mr. Youatt, where others starve, and they rapidly outstrip
most others when they have plenty of good pasture. The Pem-
‘broke cow has been called the poor man’s cow. The Pembroke
ox is a speedy and an honest worker, and when taken from hard
work fattens speedily. Many are brought to London, and rarely
‘disappoint the butcher.”
6: Irish Cattle.—Of the Trish cattle there are two breeds—
Domestic ANIMALS. a
the Middle Horns and the Long Horns. The Middle Horns are “
the original breed. ‘“ They are,” Mr. Youatt says, “small
light, active, and wild; the head commonly small; the horns
short but fine, rather upright, and frequently, after projecting
forward, turning backward ; somewhat deficient in hind-quar-
ters; high-boned, and wide over the hips, yet the bone not —
commonly heavy ; the hair coarse and long, black or brindled,
with white faces. Some are finer in the bone and in the neck,
with a good eye and sharp muzzle, and great activity; are
hardy, live upon very scanty fare, and fatten with great rapidity
when removed to a better soil; they are good milkers. The
Kerry cows are excellent in this respect. These last, however,
are wild and remarkable leapers. They live, however, upon —
very little food, and have often been denominated, like those of
Pembroke, the poor man’s cow.” es
The other breed is of a larger size. It has much of the blood 4
of the Lancashire or Craven breed, or true Long Horn. Their — 4
horns first turn outward, then curve and turn inward. Of
each of these kinds, an immense number of both lean and fat
stock are annually exported to England.
7. The Long Horns——The Long Horns of England came —
originally from Craven, in Yorkshire, and derived their name —
from the length of their horns, “ og
“The improved breed of Leicestershire is said to have been aa
formed by Webster, of Cauley, near Coventry, in Warwick- a
shire. Bakewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, afterward got
the lead as a breeder, by selecting from the Cauley stock; and
the stocks of several other eminent breeders have been traced q
to the same source. 3
“The Lancashire breed of long-horned cattle may be distin- 5 ;
guished from other cattle by the thickness and firm texture of
their hides, the length and closeness of their hair, the large —
size of their hoofs, and their coarse, leathery, thick necks. g
They are likewise deeper in their fore-quarters, and lighter in ~
their hind-quarters than most other breeds; narrower in their
shape, less in point of weight than the Short Horns, thie
=
Age
a
bo.
i
os
a °
CATTLE. 57
better weighers in proportion to their size; and though they
give considerably less milk, it is said to yield more cream in
proportion to its quantity. They are more varied in color
than any other breed; but whatever the color may be, they
have in general a white streak along their back, which the
breeders term jinched, and mostly a white spot on the inside of
the hough.”’*
8. The Short Horn or Durham Breed.—Durham and York-
es Saree Fig. 20.
shire, England, have for ages been celebrated for a breed of
short-horned cattle possessing extraordinary value as milkers,
““in which quality,” the Rev. Henry Barry says, ‘taken as a
breed, they have never been equaled. The cattle so distin
guished were always, as now, very different from the improved
race. They were generally of large size, thin skinned, sleek
haired, bad handlers, rather delicate in constitution, coarse in
* Culley.
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Domestic ANIMALS.
the offal, and strikingly defective in the substance of girth in
the fore-quarters. As milkers they were most excellent, but
when put to fatten, as the foregoing description will indicate,
were found slow feeders, producing an inferior quality of meat,
not marbled or mixed as to fat and lean; the latter sometimes
of a very dark hue. Such, toc, are the wnimproved Short
Horns of the present day.”
The improved Short Horns are even more celebrated as
feeders than as milkers, and in other respects differ widely from
the original breed.
“The colors of the improved Short Horns,” Mr. Youatt says,
“are red or white, or a mixture of both;” “no pure improved
Short Horns,” he adds, “are found of any other color but
those above named. That the matured Short Horns are an
admirable grazier’s breed of cattle is undoubted; they are not,
however, to be disregarded as milkers; but they are inferior,
from their fattening qualities, to many others as workers.”
Mr. Dickson, an eminent cattle breeder, thus eloquently de-
scribes the Short Horn:
‘“‘ The external appearance of the short-horned breed is irre-
sistibly attractive. The exquisitely symmetrical form of the
body in every position, bedecked with a skin of the richest
hues of red, and the richest white approaching to cream, or
both colors, so arranged or commixed as to form a beautiful
fleck or delicate roan, and possessed of the mellowest touch;
supported on clean, small limbs, showing, like those of the race-
horse and the greyhound, the union of strength with fineness;
and ornamented with a small, lengthy, tapering head, neatly
set on a broad, firm, deep neck, and furnished with a small —
muzzle, wide nostrils, prominent, mildly-beaming eyes, thin,
targe, biney ears set near the crown of the head and protected
in front with semicircularly bent, white, or brownish colored
short (hence the name), smooth, pointed horns; all these parts +
combine to form asymmetrical harmony, which hasneverbeen __
surpassed in beauty and sweetness by any other species of ~ M.
domesticated ox.”
ES? CATTLE. . 59
The graziers of Kentucky and other parts of the West have
heretofore shown the greatest preference for the Short Horns,
but, in their case, they are found to be subject to one serious
objection. It is this: while they take on fat so readily when
well fed and become so heavy, they are unable to retain it
during the long journeys to the Eastern markets, where they
generally arrive in too meager a condition to command the
price of fat cattle. They require some breed which will be
able to carry their fat along with them.* |
9. The Alderney or Jersey Breed.—This breed of cattle is
from Normandy and the Isle of Jersey, and, although small and
awkwardly shaped, are much esteemed on account of the rich-
ness of their milk, of which, however, the quantity is small.
English noblemen keep Alderney cows in their parks to fur-
nish cream for their coffee.
When dried, the Alderney cow fattens with a rapidity that
would hardly be thought possible from her gaunt appearance.
In color, the Alderney breed is light red, dun, or fawn colored.
10. The Galloway Breed.—The Galloway breed of cattle is
well known for various valuable qualities, and is easily distin-
guished by the want of horns. The Galloways are broad across
the back, with a very slight curve between the head and the
quarters, and broad at the loins, the whole body having a fine
round appearance. The head is of moderate size, the ears
large and rcugh, the chest deep, and the legs short. The pre-
vailing color is black. This breed is highly esteemed, as there
is no other kind which arrives at maturity so soon; and their
flesh is of the finest quality. Their milk is very fine, but is
not obtained ia very large quantities. It is estimated that
30,000 cf these cattle are annually sent out of Galloway.
Anotker valuable breed of polled (or hornless) cows is bred
in Angus, which much resemble, in appearance, those of Gallo-
way; they are, however, rather larger and longer in the leg,
flatter sided, and with thinner shoulders.
* American Farmer’s Encyclopedia,
Wo ee eZ
60 Domestic ANIMALS.
In Norfolk and Suffolk a hornless breed of cows prevails,
which are almost all descended from the Galloways, “ whose
general form,” Mr. Youatt says, “they retain, with some of,
but not all, their excellences; they have been enlarged, but not
improved, by a better climate and soil. They are commonly
of a red or black color, with a peculiar golden circle around
the eye. They are taller than the Galloways, but thinner in
the chine, flatter in the ribs, and longer in the legs; rather
better milkers; of greater weight when fattened, though not
fattening so kindly, and the meat is not quite equal in quality.”
The Suffolk Dun cow, which is also of Galloway descent, is
celebrated as a milker, and there is little doubt is not inferior
to any other breed in the quantity of milk which she yields:
this is from six to eight gallons per day. The butter produced,
however, is not in proportion to the milk. It is calculated that
a Suffolk cow produces annually about 14 cwt. of butter.
The Suffolk Duns derive the last part of their name from
their usual pale yellow color. Many, however, are red, or red
and white. They are invariably without horns, and small in
size, seldom weighing over 700 Ibs. when fattened.*
11. The Cream-Pot Breed.—This is an American breed, and
was originated by Colonel Jaques, of Ten Hills Farm, Somer-
ville, Mass. It is a cross between the Short Horn and the na-
tive breed of New England. Mr. Jaques gives the following
account of the origin of this famous breed:
“Hearing of cows that produce seventeen pounds of butter
each per week, the inquiry arose, why not produce a breed of
such cows that may be depended on? ThisI attempted, and
have accomplished. I have made from one of my Cream-Pot
cows nine pounds of butter in three days on grass feed only.
“The bull Caelebs, an imported thorough-bred Durham, and
Flora, a heifer of the same breed, and imported, and a native
cow, whose pedigree is entirely unknown, comprise the ele-
ments of the Cream-Pot breed of cattle. The native cow was ~
* American Farmer’s Encyclopedia.
CAtTTLe. 61
- bought in consequence of her superior quality as a milker, giv-
ing eighteen quarts a day, and averaging about fifteen. In the
‘month of April the cream of two days’ milk produced two and
three-fourths pounds of butter, made of two and one-sixteenth
quarts of cream, and required but two minutes’ churning. Thus
much for the mother of the Cream-Pots.
“T have bred my Cream-Pots with red or mahogany colored
hair and teats, and gold-dust in the ears, yellow noses and skin,
the latter silky and elastic to the touch, being like a fourteen-
dollar cloth. My Cream-Pots are full in the body, chops deep
in the flank, not quite as straight in the belly, nor as full in the
twist, nor quite as thick in the thigh as the Durhams; but in
other respects like them. They excel in affording a great
quantity of rich cream, capable of being converted into butter
in a short time, with little labor, and with a very small propor-
tion of buttermilk, the cream producing more than eighty per
cent. of butter. I have changed the cream to butter not unfre-
quently in one minute, and it has been done in forty seconds.”
The late lamented Henry Colman, while Commissioner for
the Agricultural Survey of Massachusetts, wrote as follows:
“Mr. Jaques is entitled to great credit for his care and judi-
cious selection in continuing and improving his stock. I have
repeatedly seen the cream from his cows, and its yellowness
and consistency are remarkable, and in company with several
gentlemen of the Legislature, I saw a portion of it converted to
butter with a spoon in one minute. The color of Mr. Jaques’
stock is a deep red, a favorite color in New England; they are
well formed and thrifty on common feed; and if they continue
to display the extraordinary properties by which they are now
so distinguished, they promise to prove the most valuable race
of animals ever known among us for dairy purposes, ae equal
to any of which we have any information.”
III.—POINTS.
Were an ox of fine symmetry and high condition placed be-
fore a person not a judge of livestock, his opinion of its
‘WILLVQ 40 SLUVG IVNYGLIXY FHL ONILONIG SWAN,
zopnoys
eulyg 40 yoo
"18 “a
CATTLE. 63
excellences would be derived from a very limited view, and
consequently from only a few of its qualities. He could not.
possibly discover, without tuition, those properties which had
chiefly conduced to produce the high condition in which he
saw the ox. He would hardly believe that a judge can ascer-
tain merely by the eye, from its general aspect, whether the ox
were in good or bad health; from the color of its skin whether
it were of a pure or a cross breed; from the expression of its
countenance whether it were a quiet feeder; and from the na-
ture of its flesh whether it had arrived at maturity. The
disccveries made by the hand of the judge might even stagger
belief. He understands the “‘ points” of cattle, and experience
enables him to appreciate their individual and aggregate value.
The “points” by which cattle are characterized may profit-
ably be described in detail :
1. The nose or muzzle in the Durhams or Short Horns should
be ofa rich cream color. Inthe Devon, Hereford, and Sussex it
is preferred when a clear golden color. A brown or dark cclor
indicates a cross.
2. The ferehead should be neither narrow nor very broad.
The eye should be prominent, and the nostril between the eye
and the muzzle thin, particularly in the Devons.
8. The Aorns should be small, smooth, tapering, and sharp
pointed, long or short, according to the breed, and of a white
color {throughout in some breeds, and tipped with black in
others. The shape is less essential than the color.
4, The neck should be of medium length, full at the sides, not
too deep in the throat, and should come out from the shoulders
nearly on a level with the chine.
5. The top of the plate bones should not be too wide, but,
rising on a level with the chine, should be well thrown back,
so that there may be no hollowness behind.
6. The shoulder point should lay flat with the ribs, without
any projection.
7. The breast should be wide and open, projecting forward.
8. The chine should lay straight and be well covered with flesh.
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Domestic ANIMALS.
9, The loin should be flat and wide; almost as wide atthe
fore as the hinder part.
10. The hip bones should be wide apart, coming upon a level
with the chine to the setting of the tail. ;
11. The tip of the rump should be tolerably wide, so that
the tail may drop to a level between the two points; and the
tail should come out broad.
12. The thigh should not be too full outside nor behind;
but the inside or twist should be full.
13. The back should be flat and rather thin.
14. The hind leg should be flat and thin; the legs of medium ~
length, and the hock rather turning out.
15. The feet should not be too broad,
16. The jlank should be full and heavy when the animal is fat.
17. The delly should not drop below the breast, but on a line
with it.
18. The shoulder should be rather flat, not projecting.
19. The fore leg should also be flat and upright, but not fleshy,
20. The round should not project, but be flat with the outside
of the thigh.
21. The jaws should be rather wide.
22. The rids should spring nearly horizontally from the chine
and form a circle.
23. The skin should be loose, floating, as it were, on a layer
of soft fat, and covered with thick, glossy, soft hair.
24. The expression of the eye and face should be calm and
complacent.
A writer in the Farmer's Magazine, a number of years ago,
described what are properly considered the good points ofa
cow, as exhibited in the Short Horn breed, in the following _
doggerel lines: Ps:
She’s long in her face, she’s fine in her horn ;
She’ll quickly get fat without cake or corn;
She’s clean in her jaws, and full in her chine;
She’s heavy in flank, and wide in her loin;
She’s broad in her ribs, and long in her rump ;
She’s straight in her back, with never a hump;
: P - ae — opment
Se ae ee ee ie ee el ee eee
CATTLE.
She’s wide in her hip, and calm in her eyes;
She’s fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs
She’s light in her neck, and small in her tail ;
She’s wide in her breast, and good at the pail;
She’s fine in her bone, and silky of skin;
She’s a grazier’s without, and a butcher’s within.
IV.—GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
1. The Cow-house.—The cow-house should be a capacious,
well-lighted, and well-ventilated building, in which the cows
or oxen can be kept dry, clean, and moderately warm. Itisa
mistaken idea that cattle suffer materially by dry cold. It is
the wet and the damp walls, yard, and driving rains and fogs
of winter, that are so injurious to them. In this respect the
Dutch farmers are very particular. They have their cows
regularly groomed, and the walks behind them sprinkled with
sand.*
As a general thing, our farmers pay too little attention to
- the health and comfort of their cattle, and especially the cows.
In many cases they are kept in a shamefully dirty condition.
The floor of their stalls is allowed to be disgustingly filthy, the
floors and walls full of vermin, and the hides of the animals
covered with dust and dung. It is not only at the expense of
their comfort that cattle suffer this neglect, but to the farmer’s
loss also. When ycu see a cow rubbing herself against a post,
you may depend upon it that the animal is ill kept and requires
a good scrubbing. Cattle, as well as horses, are greatly injured
by want of proper attention to the cleanliness and ventilation
of their habitation. They should stand on a slightly raised
platform, which should be well littered with straw, refuse hay, -
leaves, sawdust, or some other dry material.
For tying up cattle, chains, leather straps, wooden bows,
and stanchions are used. The stanchions are the most conve-
_ nient for the person having charge of the cattle, but, we think,
_ less comfortable for the cattle themselves than the other con-
* British Husbandry.
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66 Domestic ANIMALS.
trivances mentioned. A good and cheap stanchion is con-
structed as follows:
“The sills of the stanchions are of oak joist, six by two
inches; the top timbers are of hemlock, of the same dimen-
sions; the stanchions of ash, one and a half by four inches;
one of each set of stanchions is pinned between the sills and
the corresponding top pieces. From the bottom of the sills to
the top of the stanchions is five and a half feet. The slip stan-
chions are of the same size and material as the first named,
but only pinned at the bottom, which allows of their sliding
back at the top about sixteen inches, to admit the animal’s
head; it isthen pushed to an upright position and fastened at
the top by a drop-button or clapper, which is much more
secure than when fastened by pins.
“For oxen and large cows, there is allowed a space for each
of three and a half feet; for younger cattle about three feet to
each. We have frequently seen the sill and top piece for stan-
chions made of solid timber, and mortices made for the stan-
chions. But there is much labor required in morticing, espe-
cially the top timber, so as to allow of the sliding back and for-
ward of the slip stanchions. The kind we have attempted to de-
scribe can be readily and cheaply made by almost any farmer.”*
2. Feeding.—While confined to the barn or cow-house and
barn-yard, during the cold season, cattle should be fed with
the utmost regularity; and a sufficient quantity of nutritious
food supplied to keep them in good condition. In this country,
hay isthe principal common food of our oxen and cows. Roots ~
are too seldom employed in ordinary feeding; and we have no
doubt but that the health and, consequently, the condition and
value of our cattle would be improved by giving them more
turnips, beets, carrots, parsneps, etc., during the winter.
An English writer says: “‘ Supposing a cow to calve early in
April or May, there is no keeping to be compared with a sweet
pasture for affording the best flavored milk and butter; therefore,
* Country Gentleman.
CAavTLE. 67
althougn on a principle of economy I have always recommend-
ed the house feeding of a cow (as one acre of good clover will |
support three cows during the summer, whereas an acre of pas-
ture will but barely suffice for one during the same period, irre-
spectively of the manure saved by the former management), I
make a decided exception where there is no necessity for
minutely regarding economy at the expense of the discomfort
of the cow, and the inferiority in flavor, if not in quantity, of
cream and butter. Yet, even with liberty, and the animal’s
enjoyment of picking her food as she pleases, there will be
necessity in summer for some artificially grown grasses, to sup-
ply any deficiency that may occur in the pasture, and provide
for the house feeding, when the heat of the sun, the stinging
of flies, or the bursting of a storm may render the shade and
security of the cow-shed very grateful to your cows. In the
early and cold spring, and before the grass has sufficiently
sprung up, it is not any kindness to the cow, and it is a decided
injury to the ground and vegetation to turn her out; at that
season she requires the warmth which her stall affords, and the
nourishment that nutritious hay and roots and bran impart.”
The following hints from the pen of Henry Colman should
be well heeded by every farmer. It is their own fault if Amer-
ican agriculturists do not profit by such truthful warnings.
““The farmers prejudice very greatly their own interest in
suffering their milch cows to come out in the spring in low
condition. During the time they are dry, they think it enough ~
to give them the coarsest fodder, and that in limited quantities;
this, too, at a time of pregnancy, when they require the kind-
est treatment and the most nourishing food. The calf itself
under this treatment of the cow is small and feeble. He finds
comparatively insufficient support from his exhausted dam;
_ and the return which the cow makes in milk during the sum-
_ mer is much less than it would be if she came into the spring
in good health and flesh. It requires the whole summer to
recover what she has lost. The animal constitution can not be
trifled with in this way.
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68 Domerstic ANIMALS.
“Tt is so with all livestock, and especially with young ani- a
mals, at the period of their most rapid growth. They should
not be prematurely forced; but, on the other hand, they should
not be stinted or checked.
“In the feeding of cattle for market a great deal of practical
skill is required, and constant observation of their condition,
otherwise they may be surfeited and their appetite destroyed,
or their digestive powers be overtasked, and the feed fail of its
object.
“The articles usually employed in fattening cattle are hay
and Indian meal, or corn and rye meal mixed, or pease and
oats, or oats and corn ground together. Besides this, many
farmers are in the practice of giving their stall-fed cattle occa-
sionally certain quantities of potatoes. An excellent farmer,
of fifty years’ experience in the fatting of cattle, is of opinion
that potatoes are good feed for fatting cattle in the fall and
spring, when the weather is warm; but they do no good in
cold weather unless they are cooked. I rely much upon his
judgment and experience. The value of potatoes is differently
estimated by different individuals; some considering five bush-
els, others rating four bushels, as equivalent to one bushel of
corn.” 3
An extensive cattle-dealer who has tried a variety of mix-
tures of feed, such as oats, brown-corn seed, etc., prefers Indian — E
meal to every other feed. He disapproves of excessive feed- _
ing, and thinks it a great error to give too much. Hedeems
four quarts, with hay, ordinarily enough; and ten quartsaday
sufficient for any animal. He feeds twice a day with great
regularity. His present cattle have never received over eight
quarts per day each; and at first putting up, a much less quan- ;
tity. He deems it best to reduce their feed of provendera few
days before starting for market. He buys his cattle for feeding __
in the fall; and his present stock averaged in the cost seventy-
five dollars per pair.* oa
* American Farmer's Encyclopedia.
CATTLE. 69
“Tt is sometimes asked,” Mr. Colman says, “‘whether oxen
are injured in their growth from being worked. If their
strength is prematurely and too severely taxed, or if they are
subjected to severe usage, undoubtedly it must prove injurious;
but, if otherwise, if reasonably worked and carefully and kindly
attended, there is no doubt that their health and growth are
promoted by it. It is often matter of inquiry, whether fatting
cattle should be kept in close stalls, or be suffered to lie out-
doors. The experience of all the farmers whom I have consult-
ed, who have made any trial, is conclusive in this case, in favor
of the superior thrift of animals kept constantly in the barn, or
turned out only for watering and immediately put up again,
over those which are kept in open sheds, or tied up for feeding
only, and at other times allowed to lie in the yard. No exact
experiments have been made in this country in relation to this
subject; but experiments made abroad lead to the conclusion,
that cattle thrive best in a high and equable temperature, so
warm as to keep them constantly in a state of active perspi-
ration, and that their thrift is much hindered by an exposure
to severe alternations of heat and cold. It is certain, that in
order to thrift, cattle can not be made too comfortable; their
mangers should be kept clean; their stalls be well littered ;
and the cattle protected from currents of air blowing through
crevices or holes in the floors or the sides of the stables, which
prove often much more uncomfortable than an open exposure.”
3. Rearing Calves.—Many different opinions prevail on the
subject of rearing calves. The following plan, detailed by a
Western breeder, we deem an excellent one:
“T have my cows so managed that they come in early in
spring. I wean the calves after they have drawn the milk
two or three times, while I milk at the same time, all clean,
that which the calf may not be strong enough todraw. Then
I allow the calves nearly all the milk the cows give, for four
- or six weeks, which gives them a good start; next, I teach
them, when two or three weeks old, to eat some little of meal
or threshed oats, and lick a little salt; at the same time I let
. chance the first winter, they generally make good thrifty —
f i Win 5
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Pe ala Coe hi ick ia ON ‘ i an A te eee
Domestic ANIMALS.
them have access to some good hay; next, I reduce the quan-
tity of new milk, and give them sweet milk minus the cream,
and by degrees teach them to drink coppered milk, feedingten
or twelve together in a trough. This I consider better than a
milk which is just on a change from sweet to sour. As soon as
practicable after there is a good bite of grass, I turn them into
pasture, even with the cows, for they know not their dams.
I still feed them with milk until about three months old, and a
all through the season if it can be had. In this wise calves are
hearty, learn easy to eat anything which may be offered, and ;
will winter better than calves which have drawn the milk from
cows, and haye received ‘more knocks than nubbins.’ They
are also more gentle, easier turned to the yoke, or to milk, and
are not afraid of their masters; but, on the contrary, learn to
know the hands that feed them. By giving them a good
“
“
,
i
cattle.”
4, Milking.—In reference to milking, Martin Doyle says:
“Cows in general are milked but twice a day, morning and
evening; but some of the Durham cows, particularly when in
full season and abundantly fed, will require to be milked at
noon also. In this case nothing is really gained in the quantity _
of milk, and its quality is weakened, as twelve hours are re-
quired for the due chemical preparation of the milk, There-
fore the tendency to this want of retention in a cow is not to
be encouraged ; the milk should only be drawn off at supernu-
merary times, if the udder be excessively distended, and the —
milk flows spontaneously. At each regular time of milking,
the contents of the udder should be completely drawn off—the _
last drop is the richest: when there are two, three, or more —
cows, the dairy-maid, if she understands her business, will go
with a separate vessel and milk the strippings into it until
each udder is perfectly dry. This small portion of rich milk
will give her more cream than a larger quantity, and she re- — 4
serves it, if she be a prudent person, for her own tea.
“‘ A cow should be handled with exceeding gentleness, other _
CATTLE. 71
wise milking may become an unpleasant or even a painful
operation to her. If a cross-grained man or woman, with a —
vinegar face, handles the teats roughly, and bullies a cow of
sensitiveness, she may refuse to let her milk flow, though she
would yield to the first touch of a good-tempered person. If
the udder be hard, it will require fomentation with lukewarm
water and gentlerubbing. It sometimes happens that the teats
become sore; in this case an application of sweet oil, after
washing the affected part with soap and water, will probably
cure it.
“A cow may be milked until within a month of calving,
provided the milk does not curdle on being slightly warmed, or
possess a salt taste; either would be an indication that no more
milk should be taken.”
VY.—WEIGHT OF LIVE CATTLE.
Experienced drovers and butchers are in the habit, in buy-
ing cattle, to estimate their weight on foot. Long experience
and much practice enables them to judge with considerable
accuracy. They thus have the advantage of the less experi-
enced farmer, who, for this reason, very often comes off
“second best” in a bargain. We recommend to them the
following rule, by means of which the weight of cattle may be
ascertained with a very close approach to the accuracy of the
scales,
Rule.—Take a string, put it around the breast, stand square
just behind the shoulder-blade, measure on a rule the feet and
inches the animal is in circumference; this is called the girth;
then, with the string, measure from the bone of the tail which
plumbs the line with the hinder part of the buttock; direct
the line along the back to the forepart of the shoulder-blade ;
take the dimensions on the foot rule as before, which is the
_— length; and work the figures in the following manner: Girth
of the animal, say 6 feet 4 inches, length 5 feet 3 inches,
which multiplied together, makes 31 square superficial feet,
and that multiplied by 28, the number of pounds allowed to
Domestic ANIMALS.
each superficial foot of cattle measuring less than 7 and ee ’
than 5 feet in girth, makes 713 pounds. When the animal —
_measures less than 9 and more than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the
number of pounds to each superficial foot. Again, suppose a
‘ pig or any small beast should measure 2 feet in girth and 2 q
a along the back, which multiplied together makes 4 square feet, _
= that multiplied by 11, the number of pounds allowed toeach __
a square foot of cattle measuring less than 8 feet in girth, makes
fe 44 pounds. Again, suppose a calf, a sheep, etc., should meas-
a ure 4 feet 6 inches in girth, and 3 feet 9 inches in length,
zs which multiplied together make 154 square feet; that multi-
> plied by 16, the number of pounds allowed to cattle measuring __
‘. less than 5 feet and more than 3 in girth, makes 265 pounds. __
The dimensions of girth and length of horned cattle, sheep,
calves, and hogs, may be exactly taken in this way, as it is all
that is necessary for any computation, or any valuation of
stock, and will answer exactly to the four quarters, sinking ~
offal.* ;
This rule is so simple that any man with a bit of chalk can
work it out, and its application will often save the farmer from
.osses which mere guess work is liable to occasion.
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IV.
SHEEP.
Thy flocks the verdant hillside range—Anon.
FT
I.—CHARACTERISTICS.
S&.%. HE sheep (Ovis aries) is naturally a denizen of
\\, the hills. Its instincts, even in its domesti-
cated state, attach it to the upland slopes; and
when free to do so, it always seeks the highest
grounds, where aromatic plants abound and the
herbage is less succulent than in the valleys. The wild sheep,
like the deer, is found to frequent all those places where saline
exudations abound and to lick the salt earth. In its wild
state it generally has horns, but these have nearly disappeared
in most of the domestic breeds. The female goes with young
twenty-one weeks, and usually produces only one at a birth.
TE 8 ea ae PN ATO eee Oe eA ee Tee MNT
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- Twins, however, are not uncommon.
4 Immense flocks of sheep have been kept by man in all ages,
Be but more generally for their wool and skins than for their flesh ;
for that is by no means generally relished. The Calmucks and
Cossacks still prefer that of the horse and the camel, and the
Spaniard, if he can procure other flesh, rarely eats that of the
Merino. To a majority-of Americans it is an object of dislike,
although it is gaining in favor among us. Englishmen consume
more mutton than any other people, but the taste for it is of om
modern origin with them.
The natural age of the sheep, according to Youatt, is about a
ten years, up to which age they will breed and thrive well;
but there are instances of their breeding at the age of fifteen,
and living twenty years.
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Domestic ANIMALS.
II.—BREEDS. A
Specimens of nearly or quite all the valuable breeds of sheep g
now known may, it is believed, be found in the United States. — “
The principal of these are the Native (so called); the Spanish
Merino; the Saxon Merino; the New Leicester or Bakewell;
the South-Down; the Cotswold, the Cheviot, and the Lincoln.
Between these breeds an almost infinite variety of crosses have
taken place; so that, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the
United States preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of
any one breed, or that can lay claim to purity of blood.*
1. The Native Breed.—This name is applied to the common
coarse-wooled sheep existing here previous to the importation =
of the improved breeds. They are, however, of foreign, and
mostly of English origin, and probably are the result of the ad-
mixture of various breeds. This common stock of sheep, as a
distinct family, has nearly disappeared, having been univer-
sally crossed, to a greater or less extent, with foreign breeds of |
later introduction; and especially with the Spanish and Saxon
Merinos.
2. The Spanish Merino Breed.—Of this excellent breed there
have been many importations from France and Spain. There
are several varieties of the Merino, differing essentially in
form, size, and quality of wool. American Merinos may be
classed under three general heads, and are thus described :
“The jirst is a large, short-legged, strong, and exceedingly
hardy sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to
fine, somewhat inclined to throatiness, bred to exhibit external
concrete gum in some flocks, but not commonly so.
“The second general class of American Merinos are smaller —
than the preceding, less hardy ; wool, as a general’thing, finer,
and covered with a black, pitchy gum on its extremities. The
fleece is about one third lighter than in the first class. -
“The third class, which have been bred mostly at the South, —
are still smaller and less hardy, and carry lighter and finer
* Randall’s Sheep Husbandry.
SHEEP. 75
fleeces, destitute of external gum. The sheep and the wool
bear a close resemblace to the Saxon, and if not actually mixed
with that blood, they have been formed into a similar variety
by a similar course of breeding.
“Class jirst are larger and stronger sheep than those orig-
inally imported from Spain, and in well-selected flocks or indi-
viduals the fleece is of a decidedly better quality.”*
The Merino, although a native of a warm climate, becomes
readily inured to the greatest extremes of cold, flourishing even
so far north as Sweden without degenerating in fleece or form.
Tuer Spanish Merino.
It is patient, docile, hardy, and long lived. Its flesh, in spite
of the prejudice which exists on the subject, is short-grained,
and of a good flavor when killed at a proper age. It is longer
in coming to maturity than most other breeds, and does not
attain its full growth till it is about three years old.t
* Randall. + Transactions of New York State Agricultural Society.
COR hie ge ped
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76 Domestic ANIMALS.
3. The Saxon Merino Breed.—The Saxon Merinos are de-
scended from the Spanish, having been imported from Spain
into Saxony in 1765. They have been considerably modified
by their German breeding, the German shepherds having
sacrificed hardiness, and indeed almost everything else, to fine-
ness of staple.
There are very few flocks of pure Saxon sheep in the United
States, the importations in several instances having been grade
sheep, although sold as pure stock. Most flocks have again
been crossed with Native or Spanish Merino sheep or with
both; but the mixed breed thus produced, which we may call
the American Saxons, have so long been bred toward the Sax-
ons, that their wool equals that of the pure breed. They are
hardier than the parent German stock, but still comparatively
tender, requiring regular supplies of good food, protection from
storms of all kinds, and good shelter in winter. In docility,
patience under confinement, late maturity, and longevity, they
resemble the Spanish Merinos.*
4. The New Leicester Breed.—This celebrated English breed
comprehends the most excellent of the breed of Mr. Bakewell,
their great improver, and of Mr. Culley’s variety or improve-
ment upon it. ‘The principal recommendations of this
breed,” Culley says, “are its beauty and its fullness of form ;
in the same apparent dimensions greater weight than any other
sheep; an early maturity and a propensity to fatten equaled by
no other breed; a diminution of the proportion of offal, and
the return of the most money for the food consumed.”
“The wool of the New Leicester,” according to Randall, ‘is
long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches, and
the fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It
is of a coarse quality, and is little used in the manufacture of
cloths. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and is
used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, ete.”
In England, the mutton of this breed is in great demand, and
Randall.
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78 Domestic ANIMALS.
brings good prices. It is not generally considered a profitable —
breed in this country, except, perhaps, on rich lowland farms
in the vicinity of considerable markets.
5. The South-Down Breed. —The South-Down is an upland
sheep of medium size, and its wool, in point of length, belongs
to the medium class. There has been considerable controversy
in reference to the value of the Downs in comparison with the
other favorite breeds. Mr. Randall does not rate them very
high for wool-bearing. But they are cultivated in England
more particularly for their mutton, which in the English mar-
kets takes precedence of every other sort.
“The Down is turned off at two years old, and its weight at
that age in England is from eighty to a hundred pounds. Not-
withstanding its weight, the Down has a patience of occa-
sional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking equal to
any other sheep. It is hardy, healthy, quiet, and docile. It
withstands our American winters well. A sheep possessing
such qualities must of course be valuable in upland districts in
the vicinity of markets.”*
Mr. J. C. Taylor, of Holmdel, N. J., in a communication
published in the Country Gentleman, says:
“T contend that under a high state of management, the
South-Downs are a very profitable sheep to keep, in proof of
which (for I have the figures) I will cite my now yearling ram.
Last July he was worth five dollars to sell for butchering,
without anything more than good pasture; he served several
ewes from the middle of September to the first of December,
which was much against his growth. At seven cents per
week, from July to December, say $1 50—cost of keep from
December to May 2d, $5 41, making, with his worth in July, a
total of $11 91. Had he been a wether I could have sold him
on May 2d for $22 for butchering, leaving a clear gain of over
$10 at from thirteen to fourteen months old! I ask the stock-
raiser and feeder if this is not as profitable as long wools, or —
* Randall.
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LOCAL ETT ea MONoS
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80 Domestic ANIMALS.
any other stock? Is it not more profitable? But the Downs
: are a superior sheep for crossing with common ewes to pro-
; duce butcher’s lambs, superior to any long wools. a
““ A few years ago a Mr. Beers went to Canada and roomie yi
a large lot of the Canada Leicester, and many of our farmers
were induced by their large size (with their wool on) to buy
them. I expected to be driven out of the market with my
South-Downs; but at the first county fair (South-Downs hay- —
ing to show against long wool) I made a clean sweep of it, and
there has never been one of them shown since. A certain
farmer procured one of Mr. Beers’ bucks, and also a South-
Down; he divided his flock of ewes as nearly as possible be- ie
tween the two bucks; the result was, the half-blood Down
lambs were all fat, and sold before any of the half-blood Leices-
ters were fit for market. This farmer finds the South-Downs
so profitable that he keeps no other than a South-Down buck.”
6. The Cotswold Breed‘ The Cotswold,” Spooner says,
“tis a large breed of sheep, with a long and abundant fleece, and
the ewes are very prolific and good nurses. They have been
extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep, by which their
size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their car-
- casses considerably improved, and their maturity rendered
earlier. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, al-
though rather coarse, from six to eight inches in length, and — .
. from seven to eight pounds per fleece. The quality of the mut-
: ton is considered superior to the Leicester.”
We believe the Cotswolds have not been extensively bred in ©
| the United States, although there have been several importa-
tions. An improved variety of the Cotswolds, under the name
of the New Oxfordshire sheep, have lately attracted consider- —
' able attention, and have frequently been successful candidates
for prizes offered for the best long-wooled sheep at agricultural y
shows. f
a 7. The Cheviot Breed.—The Cheviot sheep are a peculiar
S| breed, which are kept on the extensive range of the Cheviot — i.
Hills, They are described as having “the face and legs gene
SHEEP.
erally white; the eye lively and prominent; the countenance
open and pleasing; the ear large, and with a long space from
the ear to the eye; the body long; and hence they are called
‘long sheep,’ in distinction from the black-faced breed. They
are full behind the shoulder, have a long, straight back, are
round in the rib, and well-proportioned in the quarters; the
legs clean and small-boned, and the pelt thin, but thickly cov-
ered with fine, short wool; they possess very considerable fat-
tening qualities, and can endure much hardship, both from
starvation and cold.”*
We have no acquaintance with this breed. There are prob-
ably but few of them in this country. Mr. Randall speaks very
disparagingly of those which had fallen under his observation,
but which may have not been fair specimens of their breed.
8. The Lincoln Breed.—Culley described the old breed of
Lincolnshire sheep, half a century ago, as having ‘‘no horns,
white faces, long, thin, and weak carcasses; the ewes weighing
from 14 to 20 Ibs. per quarter, the three-year old wethers from
20 to 30 Ibs.; thick, rough, white leg, large bones, thick pelts,
and long wool, from 10 to i8 inches, and weighing from 8 to
14 Ibs. per fleece, and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained
carcass of mutton.” Culley, however, ran into the opposite
extreme; if the Lincolnshire farmers bred only for the wool,
he regarded only the mutton. A cross between the two pro-
duced a very profitable and much improved animal.
IIIl.—CHOICE OF BREED.
“In selecting a breed for any given locality,” Mr. Randall
says, ‘“‘ we are to take into consideration, first, the feed and cli-
mate, or the surrounding natural circumstances ; and second,
the market facilities and demands. We should then make
choice of that breed which, with the advantages posssessed,
and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net ‘
value of marketable product. s
* American Farmer’s Encyclopedia.
4*
Domestic ANIMALS.
“Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to re-
main green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to —
the production of large carcasses. If convenient to markets —
where mutton finds a ready sale at good prices, then all the
conditions are realized which call for a mutton as contradis- —
S tinguished from a wool-producing sheep. Under such cireum- —
stances, the choice should undoubtedly, in my judgment, rest —
2 between the improved English varieties—the South-Down, the E
3 New Leicester, and the improved Cotswold or New Oxford- —
‘i shire. In deciding between these, minor and more specific
s circumstances are to be taken into account.” ‘ys
a For wool-growing purposes he thinks the Merino “ possesses Be
a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and
families of coarse-wooled sheep ;” and its inferiority as a mut- _
ton sheep, he thinks is not so great as is generally supposed.
ae IV —GENERAL MANAGEMENT. :
: The following hints are all condensed from Randall’s excel- |
lent work on Sheep Husbandry, to which the reader who may
desire further details is referred.
x 1. Barns, Sheds, ete—‘t Humanity and economy both dictate %
C that sheep be provided with shelters to lie under nights, and
= to which they can resort at will. In our severe winter storms | r
it is sometimes necessary, or at least by far the best, to feed
under shelter for a day or two. It is not an uncommon cir-— a
cumstance, in New York and New England, for snow to fall to 3
the depth of twenty or thirty inches, within twenty-four or
x forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a strong and in- —
% tensely cold west or northwest wind of two or three days’ con- _
tinuance,* which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling ~ :
7 huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, ete. A flock without
shelter will huddle closely together, turning their backs to the
as storm, constantly stepping and thus treading down the snow a
.° as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated sheep do not “a
a
j * These terrible wind-storms are of much longer continuance in a parte
a of New England. 2
4 3 ‘s
the a
g
Cea. ME
SHEEP. 83
seen) to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as would
be expected; but it is next to impossible to feed them enough
or half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense
waste of hay—entirely impossible, without racks. The hay is
whirled away in an instant by the wind; and even if racks are
used, the sheep leaving their huddle where they were kept
warm and even moist by the melting of the snow in their wool,
soon get chilled and are disposed to return to their huddle.
Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is low-
ered, and at the end of the second or third day the feeble ones
have sunk down hopelessly, the yearlings and oldish ones have
received a shock which nothing but careful nursing will recover
them from, and even the strongest have suffered an injurious
loss in condition. :
“The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles
or rails, the upper ends resting on a strong horizontal pole sup-
ported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may be ren-
- dered rain-proof by pea-haulm, straw, or pine boughs.
““TIn a region where lumber is very cheap, planks or boards
(of sufficient thickness not to spring downward, and thus open
the roof), battened with slabs, may take the place of the poles
and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more durable
roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a
couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them
- the shed will shelter more sheep.
“These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns,
“hay-barracks,’ stacks, or they may surround an inclosed space
with a stack in the middle. In the latter case, however, the
yard should be square, instead of round, on account of the
divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which the
round form would render necessary.”
2, Feeding-Racks.—‘‘ When the ground is frozen, and espe-
cially when covered with snow, the sheep eats hay better on
the ground than anywhere else. When the land is soft, muddy,
or foul with manure, they. will scarcely touch hay placed on it.
It should then be fed in racks.
Domestic ANIMALS.
ive =.
; “These are of various forms. Fig. 25 gives the common —
os box rack in the most general use in the North. It is ten feet
: long, two and a half wide, the lower boards a foot wide, the
a upper ones about ten inches, the two about nine inches apart,
5
hi
B.
a
: and the corner posts three by three, or three and a half by two
4 and a half inches. The boards are spiked on these posts by
large flat-headed nails wrought for the purpose, and the lower
edges of the upper boards and the upper edges of the lower
ones are rounded so they shall not wear the wool off from the
sheep’s necks. The lower boards and the opening for the
oe heads should be two or three inches narrower for lambs. If
made of light wood, as they should be, a man standing in the
inside and middle of one of these racks, can easily carry it
‘ about—an important desideratum. Unless over-fed, sheep
waste very little hay in them.” Sa
An improvement upon the common box rack has holes eight
inches wide, nine inches high, and about eighteen inches apart,
instead of the continuous opening represented in the foregoing —
% cut; but it is a little more expensive.
3. Feeding.— In Germany great stress is laid on variety
m the winter fodder, and elaborate systems of feeding are
x given. Variations of dry fodder are well enough, but hundreds ~
¢ and thousands of Northern flocks receive nothing but ordinary
hay, consisting mainly of timothy (Phleum pratense), some red
and white clover (Zrifolium pratense et repens), and frequently
a sprinkling of June or spear-grass (Poa pratensis), during the
; entire winter. Others receive an occasional fodder of corn-
2 stalks and straw, and some farmers give a daily feed of grain — ’
: : d y
a Se
¥ : 2
: ty» ae an
ty ‘ ks, tee ae *
pe a : . j , ee 7 = eee ¥2
en ie! te ed ge oe ee ee ee WT Sad te ka ie! Ge ei iene we
SHEEP. 85
-
through the winter. Where hay is the principal feed, it may
be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks (or ‘ blades’)
every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day ; or the daily feed,
not of hay, might alternate between blades, pea-straw, straw
of the cereal grains, etc. Should any other fodder besides hay
be the principal one, as, for example, corn-blades or pea-
haulm, each of the other fodders might be alternated in the
same way. It is mainly, in my judgment, a question of conve-
nience with the flock-master, provided a proper supply of pal-
atable nutriment within a proper compass is given. Hay,
clover, properly cured pea-haulm, and corn-blades are palatable
to the sheep, and each contain the necessary supply of nutri-
ment in the quantity which the sheep can readily take into its
stomach. Consequently, from either of these, the sheep can
derive its entire subsistence. Sheep should not run or be fed
in yards with any other stock.
““The expediency of feeding grain to store sheep in the win-
ter depends upon circumstances. Remote from markets, it is
generally fed by the holders of large flocks. Oats are com-
monly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a gill a head
per day. Some feed half the same amount of (yellow) corn.
Fewer sheep—particularly lambs, yearlings, and crones—get
thin and perish, where they receive a daily feed of grain; they
consume less hay, and their fleeces are inereased in weight.
On the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy.
Where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay are given. It is
a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in
the bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay—one at
morning and one at night. A few feed greenish cut peas in the
same way. In warm, thawing weather, when sheep get to the
ground, and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists materially in
keeping up their strength and condition. This may furnish a
useful hint for many parts of the South. When the feed is
shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities
where sheep would get enough grass to take off their appetite
for dry hay, but not guite enough to keep them in prime con-
y
*
md
te
-
86 Domestic ANIMALS.
dition. A moderate daily feed of oats or peas, placed in the
depository racks, would keep them strong, in good plight for
the lambing season, and increase their weight of wool.
“‘Ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, etc., make a good substitute for
grain, as an extra feed for grown sheep. I prefer the ruta-
baga to the potato in equivalents of nutriment. I do not con-
sider either of them, or any other root, as good for lambs and
yearlings as an equivalent in grain. Sheep may be taught to
eat nearly all the cultivated roots; this is done by withholding
salt from them, and then feeding the chopped root a few times
rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root
to obtain it, but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt
before they have acquired a taste for the roots.
“« Tf there is one rule which may be considered more impera-
tive than any other in sheep husbandry, it is that the utmost
regularity be preserved in feeding. First, there should be reg-
ularity as to the times of feeding. However abundantly pro-
vided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour
and sometimes at another—sometimes three times a day and
sometimes twice—some days grain and some days none—they
can not be made to thrive. They will do far better on inferior
keep, if fed with strict regularity. In a climate where they
require hay three times a day, the best times for feeding are
about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an hour before dark
at night. Unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not eat well in
the dark, and therefore they should have time to consume their
food before night sets in. Noon is the common time for feed-
ing grain or roots, and is the best time if but two fodderings of
hay be given. If the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a
matter of much consequence with which feeding the grain is
given, only that the practice be uniform.
“Tt is also highly essential that there be regularity preserved
in the amount fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true,
depend much upon the weather. The keener the cold, the
PS ee eee
+ ‘ » i > \
FP EOL OLE a, PO ee ee eee
more sheep will eat. In the South, much would also depend
upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places a light,
) ee ae |
SHEEP. 87
daily foddering would suffice—in others, a light foddering
placed in the depository racks once in two days would answer
the purpose. In the steady cold weather of the North, the
shepherd readily learns to determine about how much hay will
be consumed before the next foddering time; and this is the
amount whick should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. In
feeding grain or roots there is no difficulty in preserving entire
regularity, and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay.
Of the latter a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the
former it will. And if not fed grain to the point of surfeiting,
but still over-plenteously, it will expect a like amount at the
next feeding, and failing to receive it will pine for it and manifest
uneasiness. The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and
system of any animal is bad, and the sheep suffers more from
it than any other animal. I would much rather that my flock
receive no grain at all than that they should receive it without
regard to regularity in the amount. The shepherd should be re-
quired to measure out the grain to sheep in all instances—instead
of guessing it out—and to measure it to each separate flock.
“In the North the grass often gets very short by the 10th or
15th of November, and it has lost much of its nutritiousness
from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, though no
snow has yet fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily
foddering of bright hay, or a few oats in the bundle. Given
thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of
the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well as at any
other time during the year.”
A, Salt.—“ Salt, in my judgment, is indispensable to the health
of sheep, particularly in the summer; and I know not a flock-
master among the hundreds, nay, thousands with whom I am
acquainted, who differs with me in this opinion. It is common
to give it once a week while the sheep are at grass.
“Tt is still better to give them free access to salt at all times
by keeping it in a covered box, open on one side.”
5. Water. Water is not indispensable in the summer pas-
tures, the dews and the succulence of the feed answering as a
4)
f
ay
Ay 6
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ia
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88 Domestic ANIMALS.
substitute. But my impression is decided that free access to
water is advantageous to sheep, particularly to those having __
lambs; and I should consider it a matter of importance, ona __
sheep farm, to arrange the pastures, if practicable, so as to
bring water into each of them.” )
6. Shade.— No one who has observed with what eagerness
sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and ¢ Z
apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down on their — *
nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of hu-
manity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot
summer months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a
common rail fence. Forest trees are the most natural and best’
shades, and it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to
strip them entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of stone
wall or close board fence on the south and west sides of the
pasture will form a passable substitute for trees; but in the
absence of all these, and of buildings of any kind, a shade can
be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner
as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter already
described.”
7. Lambs.— Lambs are usually dropped in the North from
the first to the fifteenth of May. In the South, they might
safely come earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped
when the weather is cold and boisterous, as they require too
much care; but the sooner the better after the weather has
become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give
the ewes that green food which is required to produce aplenti- __
ful secretion of milk. It is customary in the North tohaye
fields of clover, or the earliest of grasses, reserved for the early
spring feed of the breeding ewes; and if these can be contigu- _
ous to their shelters, it is a great convenience—for the ewes _
should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, i
during the lambing season. :
“If warm and pleasant, and the nights are warmish, I prefer ~ e,
to have the lambing take place in the pastures. Ithink sheep ’
are more disposed to own and take kindly to their lambs thus, ‘
?
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ie
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f
3
By
ly
X
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SHEEP. 89
than in the confusion of a small inclosure. Unless particularly
docile, sheep in a small inclosure crowd from one side to another
when any one enters, running over young lambs, and pressing
them severely, etc. Ewes get separated from their lambs, and
then run violently round from one to another, jostling and
knocking them about. Young and timid ewes get separated
i from their lambs, and frequently will neglect them for an hour
or more before they will again approach them. If the weather
is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, stands a
chance to perish. Lambs, too, when just dropped, in a dirty
-inclosure, in their first efforts to rise, tumble about, and the
membrane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt
and dung—and the ewe refuses to lick them dry, which much
increases the hazard of freezing.
“Lambs should be weaned at four months old. It is better
for them and much better for their dams. The lambs when
taken away should be put for several days in a field distant
from the ewes, that they may not hear each other’s bleatings.
The lambs when in hearing of their dams continue restless
much longer, and they make constant and frequently successful
efforts to erawl through the fences which separate them. One
or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to
teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them,
and eat grain, etc., out of troughs when winter approaches.
“The lambs when weaned should be put on the freshest and
tenderest feed. I have usually reserved for mine the grass and
clover sown, the preceding spring, on the grain fields which
were seeded down. :
“‘The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on
short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked
to once or twice, and should the bags of any be found much
distended, the milk should be drawn and the bag washed for a
little time in cold water. But on short feed they rarely give
much trocble in this particular. When properly dried off they
should be put on good feed to recruit, and get in condition for
winter.”
- a month old, and it is safer to perform the operations when
90 Domestic ANIMALS.
8. Emasculation and Docking.—‘ These should usually whe
cede washing, as at that period the oldest lambs will be hou “
they are a couple of weeks younger. Dry, pleasant weather
should be selected. Castration is a simple and safe process, — ::
Let aman hold the lamb with its back pressed firmly against
his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in
his nands. Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle
from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, or
clip the cord with a knife, if it does not snap off at a proper q
distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles a
at once with their teeth. Itis common to drop a little saltinto
the pouch. Where the weather is very warm, some touch the
end of the pouch (and that of the tail, after that is cut off) —
with an ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. In
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, however, they will do just —
as well, here, without any application. 24
et The tail shoutd be cut off, say one anda half inchesfromthe __
body, with a chisel on the head of a block, the skin being slid
up toward the body with a finger and thumb, so that it will —
afterward cover the end of the stump. Severed with a knife, —
the end of the tail being grasped with one of the hands in tia : ]
ordinary way, a naked stump is left which takes some time to
heal. a
“Tt may occur to some unused to keeping sheep, that it is e
unnecessary to cut off the tail. If left on, it is apt to collect ‘a
filth, and if the sheep purges, it becomes an intolerable nui-
sance. a
9. Washing.—“ This is usually done here about the first of —
June. The climate of the Southern States would admit of its —
being done earlier. The rule should be to wait until the water E
has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold rains -
and storms, and cold nights are no longer to be expected.
10. Shearing.—“ It is difficult, if not impossible, to give intel- Aa
ligible practical instructions which would guide an entire nov=
ice in skillfully shearing a sheep. Practice is qu The
iu
‘
“ON ye
SHEEP. 91
following directions from the American Shepherd* are ccrrect,
and are as plain, perhaps, as they can be made:
““¢The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor
assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture
with one (his right) knee on a cushion, and the back of the animal
resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half-
way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along the
blade, which affords him better command of the points. He
may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and pro-
ceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the ex-
tremity of the ribs, the external sides of both thighs to the
edges of the flanks; then back to the brisket, and thence up-
ward, shearing the wool from the breast, front, and both sides
of the neck—but not yet the back of it—and also the poll or
fore-part, and top of the head. Now the ‘‘jacket is opened” of
the sheep, and its position and that of the shearer is changed, by
being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting
on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore-quarter
of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then resumes
cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the
head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned
on to the other side, in doing which great care is requisite to
prevent the fleece from being torn, and the shearer acts as upon
the other, which finishes. He must then take his sheep near
to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim
the legs, and leave not a solitary lock anywhere as a harbor
for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from
his stand to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs be-
comes intermingled with the fleece wool. In the use of the
shears, let the blades be laid as flat to the skin as possible, not
lower the points too much, nor cut more than from one to two
inches at a clip, frequently not so much, depending on the part
and compactness of the wool.’
“Cold storms sometimes destroy sheep, in this latitude, soon
* Pages 179, 180.
if of 3 + Fi
ae ae. eee tee Tae
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T
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92° Domestic ANIMALS.
after shearing—particularly the delicate Saxons. Ihave known
forty or fifty perish out of a single flock, from one night’s
exposure. The remedy, or rather the preventive, is to house ~
them, or in default of the necessary fixtures to effect this, to
drive them into dense forests. I presume, however, this would —
be a calamity of rare occurrence in the ‘sunny South.’ ”*
V.—VALUE OF SHEEP TO THE FARMER.
The following suggestive remarks are from the Country
Gentleman, and are worthy of every reader’s attention :
““Sheep are profitable to the farmer, not only from the pro-
duct of wool and mutton, but from the tendency which their
keeping has to improve and enrich his land for all agricultural
purposes. They do this:
“1, By the consumption of food refused by other animalsin
summer; turning waste vegetation to use, and giving rough
and bushy pastures a smoother appearance, and in time erad-
icating wild plants so that good grasses and white clover may f
take their place. In this respect sheep are of especial value to
pastures on soils too steep or stony for the plow. In winter,
the coarser parts of the hay, refused by horses and cows, are
readily eaten by sheep, while other stock will generally anne
most of that left by these animals. :
‘For these reasons, among others, no grazing farm should be —
without at least a small flock of sheep, for it has been found —
that as large a number of cattle and horses can be kept with ©
as without them, and without any injury to the farm for other — 3
purposes. A small flock, we said—perhaps half a dozen to —
each horse and. cow would be the proper proportion. A ya- i
SS
* Sheep Husbandry ; with an Account of the Different Breeds and General —
Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding, and
Treatment of Diseases. With Portraits and other Engravings. By HenryS.
Randall. New York: A. O. Moore. This work is bound with ‘‘ Youatt on
the Sheep,” under the general title of ‘‘ The Shepherd’s Own Book,” and th
volume should be in the hands of every one who would make sheep-breeding ;
his principal business.
SHEEP. 93
riety of circumstances would influence this point; such as the
character of the pasturage, and the proportion of the same
fitted and desirable for tillage.
“2. Sheep enrich land by the manufacture of considerable
quantities of excellent manure. A farmer of long experience
in sheep husbandry, thought there was no manure so fertilizing
as that of sheep, and (of which there is no doubt) that none
dropped by the animal upon the land suffered so little by waste
from exposure. A German agricultural writer has calculated
that the droppings from one thousand sheep during a single
night would manure an acre sufficiently for any crop. By using
a portable fence, and moving the same from time to time, a
farmer might manure a distant field with sheep at less expense
than that of carting and spreading barn manure.
“The value of sheep to the farmer is much enhanced by due
attention to their wants. Large flocks kept together are sel-
dom profitable, while small assorted flocks always pay well, if
fed as they should be. To get good fleeces of wool, and large,
healthy lambs from poor neglected sheep, is impossible. It is
also true that the expense of keeping is often least with the
flocks that are always kept in good condition. The eye and
thought of the owner are far more necessary than large and
irregular supplies of fodder. Division of the flock and shelter,
with straw and a little grain, will bring them through to spring
pastures in far better order than if kept together, with double
rations of hay, one half of which is wasted by the stronger
animals, while the weak of the flock pick up but a scanty liv~
ing, and oftentimes fail to get that through the whole winter. ~
““ We commend this subject to the consideration of our corre-
spondents; it is one which needs greater attention on the part
of the farming public.”
VI.—AFFECTION OF THE EWE.
The Ettrick Shepherd tells the following story of the con-
tinued affection of the ewe for her dead lamb:
“One of the two years while I remained on the farm at Wil-
DOr See ae Prt patter eee ae RN AP cae COC YRC eR
Domestic ANIMALS.
| lenslee a severe blast of snow came on by night, about the lat-
BES: ter end of April, which destroyed several scores of our lambs,
z and as we had not enow of twins and odd lambs for the mothers
3 that had lost theirs, of course we selected the best ewes and
" put lambs to them. As we were making the distribution, I
hs requested of my master to spare me a lamb for a ewe which he
4 knew, and which was standing over a dead lamb in the end ot
j the hope, about four miles from the house. He would not let
1% me do it, but bid me let her stand over her lamb for a day or
i two, and perhaps a twin would be forthcoming. I did so, and
e* faithfully she did stand toher charge. I visited her every morn-
ing and evening for the first eight days, and never found her
above two or three yards from the Jamb; and often as I went
my rounds, she eyed me long ere I came near her, and kept
stamping with her foot, and whistling through her nose, to
frighten away the dog. He got a regular chase twice a day asI
é passed by ; but however excited and fierce a ewe may be, she
s, never offers any resistance to mankind, being perfectly and
a meekly passive to them.
i “The weather grew fine and warm, and the dead lamb soon
¥ decayed; but still this affectionate and desolate creature kept _
ae hanging over the poor remains with an attachment that seemed _
i to be nourished by hopelessness. It often drew tearsfrommy
aS eyes to see her hanging with such fondness over a few bones, y
ag mixed with a small portion of wool. For the first fortnight
she never quitted the spot; and for another week she visited
it every morning and evening, uttering a few kindly and heart- —
piercing bleats; till at length every remnant of her offspring :
vanished, mixing with the soil, or wafted away by the win ;
vaiel tae Ka i Se Oi
:
eee A PTS
ae
Wy
:
bs
-
—
ft
vy
nh
SWINE.
Where oft the swine, from ambush warm and dry,
Bolt out and scamper headlong to their sty.—Bloomfuld.
I—NATURAL HISTORY.
HE hog (Swide sus of Linneus), according to
Cuvier, belongs to ‘the class Mammalia, order
Pachydermata, genus Suide or sus.”
Professor Low remarks, that ‘the hog is sub-
ject to remarkable changes of form and charac-
ters, aiboiding to the situation in which he is placed, When
these characters assume a certain degree of permanence, a
breed or variety is formed; and there is no one of the domes-
tic animals which more easily receives the characters we de-
sire to impress upon it, This arises from its rapid powers of
increase, and the constancy with which the characters of the
parents are reproduced in the progeny,
There is no kind of livestock that can be so easily im-
proved by the breeder and so quickly rendered suited to the
purposes required; and the same characters of external form
indicate in the hog a disposition to arrive at early maturity of
muscle and fat as in the ox and the sheep. The body is long in
proportion to the limbs, or, in other words, the limbs are short
ta proportion to the body ; the extremities are free from coarse-
ness; the chest is broad and the trunk round. Possessing
these characteristics, the hog never fails to arrive at early ma-
turity, and with a smaller consumption of food than when he
possesses a different conformation.”
The wild boar, which was undoubtedly the progenitor of all
the European varieties, and also of the Chinese breed, was for-
fa Se
Domestic ANIMALS.
a merly a native of the British Islands, and very common in the —
.. forests until the time of the civil wars in England. a
' The wild hog is now spread over the temperate and warmer
parts of the old continent and its adjacent islands. His color
2: varies with age and climate, but is generally a dusky brown
with black spots and streaks. His skin is covered with coarse
hairs or bristles, intersected with soft wool, and with coarser
end longer bristles upon the neck and spine, which he erects
‘ when in anger. He is a very bold and powerful creature, and
becomes more fierce and indocile with age. From the form of
his teeth he is chiefly herbivorous in his habits, and delights in
roots, which his acute sense of smell and touch enables him to
discover beneath the surface. He also feeds upon animal sub-
stances, such as worms and larve which he grubs up from the
ground, the eggs of birds, small reptiles, the young of animals,
and occasionally carrion; he even attacks venomous snakes with
impunity.
The female produces a litter but ouce a year, and in much
smaller numbers than when domesticated. She usually carries
her young for four months or sixteen weeks.
In a wild state the hog has been known to live more than
; ; thirty years; but when domesticated he is usually slaughtered
. for bacon before he is two years old, and boars killed for brawn
é seldom reach to the age of five. When the wild hog is tamed,
E it undergoes the following among other changes in its conforma-
tion. The ears become less movable, not being required to
ie collect distant sounds. The formidable tusks of the male
diminish, not being necessary for self-defense. The museles of
the neck become less developed, from not being so much exer-
cised as in the natural state. The head becomes more inclined,
the back and loins are lengthened, the body rendered more
capacious, the limbs shorter and less muscular; and anatomy
: proves that the stomach and intestinal canals have also become
proportionately extended along with the form of the body.
Be The habits and instincts of the animal change; it becomes diur-
: nal in its habits, not choosing the night for its search of food;
a tect ee ee
Swine. 97
is more insatiate in its appetite, and the tendency to obesity
increases.
The male forsaking its solitary habits, becomes gregarious,
and the female produces her young more frequently, and in
larger numbers. With its diminished strength and power of
active motion, the animal also loses its desire for liberty. These
changes of form, appetites, and habits, being communicated
to its progeny, a new race of animals is produced, better
suited to their altered condition. The wild hog, after it has
been domesticated, does not appear to revert to its former state
and habits; at least the swine of South America, carried thith-
er by the Spaniards, which have escaped to the woods, retain
their gregarious habits, and have not become wild boars.*
II.—OPINIONS RESPECTING THE HOG.
From the various allusions to the hog in the writings of the
ancient Greeks and Romans, it is plain that its flesh was held
in high esteem among those nations. The Romans even made
the breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study, which they
designated as Porculatio.
Varro states that the Gauls produced the largest and finest
swine’s flesh that was brought into Italy; and according to
Strabo, in the reign of Augustus, they supplied Rome and
nearly all Italy with gammons, hog-puddings, and sausages,
This nation and the Spaniards appear to have kept immense
droves of swine, but scarcely any other kind of livestock... ..
In fact, the hog was held in very high esteem by all the early
nations of Europe; and some of the ancients have even paid it
divine honors.t
On the other hand, swine’s flesh has been held in utter abhor-
rence by the Jews since the time of Moses, in whose laws they
were forbidden to make use of it as food. The Egyptians also
and the followers of Mohammed have religiously abstained from
it. Paxton, in his “Illustrations of Scripture,” says:
—SS— —_——=
* American Farmer’s Encyclopedia. t+ Youatt.
5
: 98 Domestic ANIMALS.
“The hog was justly classed by the Jews among the vilest
‘ animals in the scale of animated nature; and it can not be
| doubted that his keeper shared in the contempt and abhorrence
which he had excited. The prodigal son in the parable had
spent his all in riotous living, and was ready to perish
through want, before he submitted to the humiliating employ-
ment of feeding swine.”
“‘ Swine,” Heroditus says, ‘‘are accounted such impure beasts
by the Egyptians, that if a man touches one even by accident,
he presently hastens to the river and, in all his clothes, plunges
into the water. For this reason swine-herds alone of the
Egyptians are not auowed to enter any of their temples; neither —
will any one give his daughter in marriage to one of that pro-
fession, nor take a wife born of such parents, so that they are
necessitated to intermarry among themselves.”
The Brahminical tribes of India share with the Jews, Moham-
medans, and Egyptians this aversion to the hog. The modern
Copts, descendants of the ancient Egyptians, rear no swine, and
the Jews of the present day abstain from their flesh as of old.
It was Cuvier’s opinion that ‘in hot climates the flesh of
swine is not good;” and Mr. Sonnini remarks that “in Egypt,
Syria, and even the southern parts of Greece, this meat, though
very white and delicate, is so far from being firm, and is so
overcharged with fat, that it disagrees with the strongest
stomachs. It is therefore considered unwholesome, and this
will account for its proscription by the legislators and priests
of the East. Such abstinence was doubtless indispensable to
health under the burning suns of Arabia and Egypt.” How
is it under the burning suns of Carolina and Georgia ?
TII.—BREEDS.
, The various breeds which have been reared by crosses be-
tween those procured from different countries ate so numerous,
that to give anything like a detailed description of them would
fill a large volume. We shall refer to only a few of the more
important of them. 1
<a
‘ ‘7 *
eI ‘oh
Ber cs te po i Rae 2 ’
O&O. Se oe 4 , ae “ar. wt wal Voce 4° “eee 7
a
Swine. 99
1, The Land Pike.—The old common breed of the country,
3 sometimes called “Jand-pikes,” may be described as “large,
. ~ough, long-nosed, big-boned, thin-backed, slab-sided, long-leg-
: Fig. 26.
Tue Lanp Pree Hoe.
ged, ravenous, ugly animals.” Speaking of this race, A. B, Allen
says: ‘‘No reasonable fence can stop them, but, ever restive
and uneasy, they rove about seeking for plunder; swilling
grunting, rooting, pawing; always in mischief and always de-
stroying. The more a man possesses of such stock the worse
he is off.” But this breed is rapidly disappearing. Crosses
between the land-pike and the Chinese or the Berkshire pro-
ducing a fine animal, the original breed is being very generally
improved.
2. The Chinese Breed.—This breed was introduced into this
country from China some forty years ago. The Chinese hog is
small in limb, round in body, short in head, and very broad in
cheek. When fattened, it looks quite out of proportion, the
head appearing to be buried in the neck, so that only the tip of
the nose is visible. It has an exceedingly thin skin and fine
bristles.
The pure-blooded Chinese hog has been bred to only a limited
extent in the United States, on account of the smallness of its
size (it seldom attaining more than two hundred and fifty
pounds), and its lack of hardiness in a cold climate. In thig
last respect, however, it is well adapted to the South. Crossed
100 Domestic ANIMALS.
with the native hog it forms an excellent breed, which we may >
call the improved China breed. Hogs of this mixed breed are —
various in color—black, white, spotted, and gray and white;
they are longer in body than the pure Chinese breed; small in
the head and legs; broad in the back; round in the body; the
hams well let down; skin thin; flesh delicate and finely flavor-
ed. They are easy keepers; small consumers; quiet in dis-
position ; not disposed to roam; and when in condition may be
kept so upon grass only.
3. The Berkshire Breed.—This was one of the earliest im-
proved of the English breeds, and is deemed by many the most
excellent of all the varieties at present known. It is certainly
the most widely distributed and most generally approved. If
is a breed which is distinguished by being, in general, of a
tawny white, or rufous-brown color, spotted with black or
brown; head well placed, large ears, generally standing forward,
though sometimes hanging over the eyes; body thick, close,
and well made; legs short, small in the bone; coat rough and
curly, wearing the appearance of indicating both skin and flesh
of a coarse quality. Such, however, is not the case, for they
Fig. 27.
Tue Berxsnrre Hoe. .:
have a disposition to fatten quickly: nothing can be finer than
the bacon, and the animals attain to a very great size.
SwINe. 101
The Berkshires, from which most of the present American
stock has sprung, were imported in 1822. The breed has spread
_ very rapidly over the country.
ty 4 , Me : GK
Ay i i i,
‘ey A a une
di
Tue SurroLtkK Hoe.
4, The Suffolk Breed.—The improved Suffolk breed originated
in a cross between the original Suffolk hog and the Chinese.
It is a very valuable breed, but much smaller in size than the
Berkshire. The Suffolks are thick through the shoulders, very
handsomely proportioned in body, and possessing beautiful
hams. Their color is either white or light flesh color, when
of the pure breed, and they are indeed an ornament to the
farm.
Tt is said that they are less inclined to cutaneous diseases
than numerous others, and do not, under any circumstances,
produce that strong, musky flavored pork we sometimes find in
market. They are not a gross, unwieldy animal, generally
ranging from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds
ae
7
7
'
weight at twelve months of age, which latter weight they sel- —
_ like appendages of the skin depending from the under part of
102 Domestic ANIMALS.
dom exceed. They are clean feeders, and require much less
than any other breed known.
For large hogs, a cross between these and the Berkshire is
very desirable, and is preferred by Western breeders ; but for a
synall breeder, or for family use, the pure Suffolks are prefer-
able.*
5. The Essex Breed.—The Essex hogs are mostly black and
white, the head and hinder parts being black and the back and
belly white. The most esteemed Essex breeds, Youatt says,
are entirely black, and are distinguished by having small teat-
the neck. They have smaller heads than the Berkshire hogs,
and long, thin, upright ears; short bristles; a fine skin; good
hind quarters, and a deep, round carcass. They are also small
boned, and their flesh is delicately flavored. They produce
large litters, but are reputed bad nurses,
Tue Essex Hoe.
6. The Chester Breed.—This breed originated in Chester
County, Pennsylvania, and is not so widely known as, according
—
a
* Country Gentleman.
SwINeE. 103
to ali x:eax2's, it deserves to be. A correspondent of the Coun-
wry Gentie2an gives the following account of the Chester hog:
“The Chester hog is the result of continued careful breeding
and judicious crossing in this county during the last thirty-five
or forty years. The first impulse to this improvement, it is
said, was the importation of a pair of handsome hogs from
China, some forty years since, by a sea-captain then residing in
this vicinity. Of late years, however, many of our breeders
have been laboring to bring the Chester hog up to an acknowl-
edged standard of excellence—to define its points, and make it
as distinctive in character, and as easily recognized, as a Berk-
shire or Suffolk. Their efforts, we think, have been successful.
“The genuine Chester is a pure white, long body and square
built, with small, fine bone, and will produce a greater weight
of pork, for the amount of food consumed, than any other breed
yet tried among us. A very important characteristic of the
breed is, that it will readily fatten at any age. Many hogs, it
is well known, wiil not fatten whie they are growing, or until
_ they have reached their full size.
‘“‘The average weight of the Chester stock, at sixteen months
old, is from 500 to 600 lbs., and when kept till two years old,
they frequently run up to 700 and 800 lbs. Our spring pigs,
when killed the following fall, weigh from 300 to 400 Ibs.,
which is considered the most desirable weight for pork—pro-
ducing hams of a more salable size and better quality. Asa
general rule, our farmers do not care to have their hogs weigh
over 350 to 400 lbs. To reach this weight at nine months old,
our hogs, of course, must be well fed. The Chester is not dif-
erent from other stock in this respect—to thrive well, it must
be well taken care of.
‘“‘Experiments have been made in crossing the Chester with
other breeds—such as the Berkshire, Suffolk, etc., and the re-
sult has been an inferior stock to the pure Chester. It does
improve the Berkshires to cross them with the Chester, but
we have found no advantage in crossing the Chester with any
other.”
Domestic ANIMALS.
IV.—POINTS. [an
“There is evidently much diversity in swine in different aa
circumstances and situations. Like other descriptions of stock,
they should be selected with especial reference to the nature
of the climate, the keep, and the circumstances of the manage~ b
om ment under which the farm is conducted. The chief pointsto a
be consulted in judging of the breeds of this animal arethe _
form or shape of the ear, and the quality of the hair. The
pendulous or lop ear, and coarse, harsh hair, are commonly
asserted to indicate largeness of size and thickness of skin;
ae while erect or prick ears show the size to be smaller, but the
4 animals to be more quick in feeding.
s “‘In the selection of swine, the best formed are considered
to be those which are not too long, but full in the head and
cheek; thick and rather short in the neck; fine in the bone;
thick, plump, and compact in the carcass; full in the quarters,
fine and thin in the hide; and of a good size according to the
breed, with, above all, a kindly disposition to fatten well and —
expeditiously at an early age. Depth of carcass, lateral exten-
sion, breadth of the loin and breast, proportionate length, mod-
erate shortness of the legs, and substance of the gammons and
fore-arms, are therefore absolute essentials. These are quali-
ties to produce a favorable balance in the account of keep, and
amass of weight which will pull the scale down. In propor-
tion, too, as the animal is capacious in the loin and breast, will
be generally the vigor of his constitution; his legs will be
thence properly distended, and he will have a bold and firm
footing on the ground.’”* ae
x . Y.—FEEDING. |
Have regular hours for feeding your hogs; nothing is more
important. Irregularity irritates the digestive organs, and
ie prevents the system from receiving the full benefit of the meal
when it does come. Do not give them too much food at once,
Se oe ee OS
* American Farmer’s Encyclopedia.
Oe as” PPR OO!
eg ss agte
ES EI ON eRe ee, EI eer) ae ee eee iS okie
SwINeE. 105
as they are apt to gorge themselves; or, if any be left in the
trough, to return to it frequently till it is all gone. In both -
cases their digestive organs, and consequently their ability to
fatten, are impaired.
Swine will eat animal food, but it is not favorable to the
flavor of their flesh, and should always be withheld while they
are fattening.
Pigs always eat more when first put up to fatten than they
do afterward, therefore the most nutritious food should be re-
served till they are getting pretty fat.
In reference to fattening the hog, a writer in the Boston
Cultivator remarks :
“Tf circumstances are favorable, he is inclined to lay up such
a supply of fat during antumn as would render it unnecessary
for him to undergo much exercise or exposure during inclement
weather. With plenty of lard oil to keep his lamp burning,
he would prefer dozing in a bed of leaves in the forest while
the ground is covered with snow, rather than to grub daily for
aliving. He fattens most rapidly in such a state of the atmo-
sphere as is most congenial to his comfort—neither too hot nor
too cold; hence the months of September and October are
best for making pork. The more agreeable the weather, the
less is the amount of food required to supply the waste of life.
“ Against fattening hogs so early in the season, it may be
objected that Indian corn, the crop chiefly depended on for the
purpose, is not matured. Taking everything into considera-
tion, it may be better to begin to feed corn before it is ripe, or
even at the stage of considerable greenness. After the plant
has blossomed it possesses a considerable degree of sweetness ;
hogs will chew it, swallow the juice, and leave nothing but the
dry fibrous matter, which they eject from their mouths when
no more sweetness can be extracted. They thrive on this
fodder, and will continue to eat it till the nutriment is concen-
trated in the ear, and then they will eat the cob and grain
together till the cob gets hard and dry. Farmers who have
practiced this mode of feeding consider it more advantageous
5*
Domestic ANIMALS.
than to leave the whole crop to ripen, unless they have a aie B.
ply of old corn to feed with. Even in the latter case, it is —
questionable whether hogs will not do better on corn some-
what green than they would on hard corn, unground. True,
it is not necessary that corn should be fed unground, but much
is fed in this condition, no doubt at a loss.
“In many parts of the country, swine are fed considerably
on articles which are not readily marketable, as imperfect
fruits, vegetables, etc. Where such articles are used, cooking
them is generally economical. A mixture of squashes (either ~
summer or winter squashes), pumpkins—the nearer ripe the __
better—potatoes, beets, and apples, boiled or steamed, and a
fourth or an eighth of their bulk of meal stirred in while the
mass is hot, forms a dish on which hogs will fatten fast. If
skimmed milk or whey can be had, the cooked food may be
put with it into a suitable tub or vat, and a slight degree of
fermentation allowed to take place before the whole is fed out. —
The animals will eat it with avidity, and probably derive more
benefit from it than if it had not been fermented. Articles
which are of a perishable nature should be used first in fatten-
ing swine, in order to prevent waste and turn all the produets
of the farm to the best account.
“Another quite important advantage of early feeding is the — y
less trouble in regard to cooking the food and keeping it in
proper condition to feed out. The cooking may be done out —
of deors, if convenience of feeding would be promoted by it,
and there is no expense or trouble to guard the food against _
freezing.” a
The manner of fattening hogs, where Indian corn is used, as
at the South and West, is to put them up in large, open pens ‘
on the ground, without litter and without shelter. Here they 4 :
are left to burrow and sleep in mud and mire, exposed to all
weathers, consuming, probably, before they get “ripe fat,” one Re
third if not half more than would be necessary were they shel-
tered in a warm pen, with clean litter, clean water, and rich
food in abundance, free alike from exposure and excitement.
oa | ; Swine. 107.
An ample supply of good drinking water should be kept.
_ within the reach of every animal.
VI.—_THE PIGGERY.
In constructing a piggery, reference should be had to the
comfort of the animals as well as to convenience in feeding
them. It should be large, airy, and well-ventilated, and should
have (at least in a large establishment) conveniences for cook-
ing their food. It should by all means be comfortable and clean.
It has been generally believed that the hog is naturally a filthy
animal, delighting in mud and mire. This is certainly, in part
at least, untrue. No animal more fully appreciates a clean, dry
bed. To illustrate the value of cleanliness, a gentleman in
Norfolk (England) put up six pigs of almost exactly the same
weight, and all in equal health to fatten; treated them all,
except in one particular, exactly alike, giving equal quantities
of the same food to each for seven weeks. Three of these pigs
were left to shift for themselves, so far as cleanliness is con-
cerned, while the other three were carefully curried, brushed,
and washed. The latter consumed, during the seven weeks,
less food by five bushels than the former, and yet, when killed,
weighed more by thirty-two pounds ou an ayerage. [For a
plan for a piggery, see “The House.”]
Bok Pe Mie a chet ere ae ee
me
Ata) ee a Sy
Se =
2 ony,
>
i]
ea a a
tie Y
k *
a
Se
i
q
y
» 108 Domestic ANIMALS.
VI.
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS.
Like produces like,
I._SELECTION.
ITH such examples before us as are furnished
by the English Race Horse, the Durham Cow, —
and the South-Down sheep, where shall we
place limits to the improvability of our various
domestic animals? The ameliorations through __
which these improved breeds have been established were not
accidental. They took place according to the fixed laws of —
animal life, brought to bear by the intelligence of man upon
special points and for special objects. Other breeds even bet- _
ter than these may be produced by similar means, Bakewell,
Culley, Seabright, Jaques, Knight, and other distinguished a
breeders and improvers of stock, have made use of no patented
or secret process. What they have done, any intelligent farmer
may do by the use of the same easily available means. To
furnish a few hints in reference to these means is the purpose 3
of this chapter. i=
In setting about originating a new breed of any particular
species of animal, the first grand point is the selection of sire
and dam. This must be made with reference to the particular _
qualities to which you desire to give prominence, as well as to
the general excellence of constitution, form, and disposition
which should distinguish the species. Thus Colonel Jaques, —
in originating the Cream-Pot breed of cows, already referred — 3
to, had the dairy and not the butcher in view, and took his ve
measures accordingly. The results of a continued selection of
ize
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 109
breeders with reference to their qualities as milkers has been
the establishment of a permanent breed distinguished probably
above all others as dairy cows. So the sheep breeders of
England, having the production of mutton as their principal
object, have produced the New Leicester, the South-Down, and
the New Oxfordshire breeds, distinguished for form, size, flavor,
and fattening qualities; while the Spanish and German breed-
ers of Merinos, caring only for the wool, have given their breeds
pre-eminently excellent fleeces, Breeding carefully for a few
generations with a distinct purpose in view, will not fail to pro-
duce astonishing and satisfactory results.
“The alteration,” Sir John Seabright says, ‘‘ which may be
made in any breed of animals by selection can hardly be con-
ceived by those that have not paid some attention to the sub-
ject.”
To breed in the most successful manner, the male and female
should be taken when they are in the highest state of health,
and when all the powers and attributes which are wished for
and which it is designed to propagate are in the most complete
order and state of perfection.
II.—IN-AND-IN BREEDING.
It is a well-established fact in human physiology that the in-
termarriage of near relatives tends to both physical and mental
degeneracy. Analogy would lead us to infer that the sama
results must follow close breeding among the lower animals;
and facts, we think, prove conclusively that this is the case.
Youatt, high authority on this subject, says:
“‘ Breeding in-and-in has many advantages to a certain ex-
tent. It may be pursued until the excellent form and quality
of the breed are developed and established. It was the source
whence sprung the fine cattle and sheep of Bakewell, and the
superior cattle of Colling; but disadvantages attend breeding
‘in-and-in,’ and to it must be traced the speedy degeneracy,
the absolute disappearance, of the new Leicester cattle, and in
_the hands of many an agriculturist, the impairment of consti-
110 -Domxstic AnIMALs. aoe
is superior to the thorough-bred animal himself,
tution and decreased value of the new Leicester sheep and <3
the short-horned beasts. It has therefore become a kind of © 4
principle with the agriculturist to effect some change in his B:
stock every second or third year; and that change is most
conveniently effected by introducing a new bull or ram, These —
should be as nearly as possible of the same sort, coming from
a similar pasturage and climate, but possessing no relationship, _
or at most a very distant one, to the stock to which heisin-
troduced.” These remarks apply to all descriptions of live-— B
stock. In cattle, as well as in the human species, defects of ©
organization and permanent derangements of function obtain,
and are handed down when the relationship is close.
G
III.—CROSSING.
It is by judicious crossing of breeds that some of our best
varieties of domestic animals have been obtained. A cross
between a superior and an inferior breed results in a progeny
superior to the latter, and, for a particular use, climate, or 4
locality, often better than the former. Thus the cross between __
the English thorough-bred horse and the inferior mare of the __
common breed of New England gave us the Morgan breed,
which for all the common purposes for which a horse is used ic:
ul
nt
a
In breeding from stock with qualifications of different descrip-
tions and in different degrees, the breeder will decide what are
indispensable or desirable qualities, and will cross with animals
with a view to establish them. His proceeding will be of the
“‘give-and-take” kind. He will, if necessary, submit to thein-
troduction of a trifling defect in order that he may profit bya __
great excellence; and between excellences perhaps somewhat
incompatible he will decide which is the greatest, and giveif
the preference. A:
The following account of the way in which the new French
breed of sheep, La Chamois, was originated, throws light upon
an important principle in breeding; namely, that the influence a
of the male upon the offspring will be the stronger the purer
3 _ 4 - od ec)
i wUx =p ety 4h77
a see ese ME OTE
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 111
and more ancient in the first place his own race may be; and
in the next place, the less resistance is offered by the female
through the possession of those qualities of purity and long
descent which are so valuable in the sire.
The French writer says: ‘“‘ With a view to the experiment
proposed, it was necessary to procure English rams of the
purest and most ancient race, and unite with them French
ewes of the modern breeds, or rather of mixed blood forming
no distinct breed at all. It is easier than one might have
supposed to combine these conditions. On the one hand, Ise-
lected some of the finest rams of the New-Kent breed, regen-
erated by Goord. On the other hand, we find in France
many border countries lying between distinct breeds, in which
districts it is easy to find flocks participating in the two neigh-
boring races. Thus, on the borders of Berry and La Sologne
one meets with flocks originally sprung from a mixture of the
two distinct races that are established in those two provinces.
Among these, then, I chose such animals as seemed least defect-
ive, approaching, in fact, the nearest to, or rather departing
the least from, the form which I wished ultimately to produce.
These I united with animals of another mixed breed, picking
out the best I could find on the borders of La Beauce and
Touraine, which blended the Tourangelle and native Merino
blood of those other two districts. From this mixture was ob-
tained an offspring combining the four races of Berry, Sologne,
Touraine, and Merino, without decided character, without
fixity, with little intrinsic merit certainly, but possessing the
advantage of being used to our climate and management, and
bringing to bear on the new breed to be formed, an influence -
almost annihilated by the multiplicity of its component ele-
ments.
“Now what happens when such mixed-blood ewes are put
to a pure New-Kent ram? A lamb is obtained containing
fifty hundredths of the purest and most ancient English blood,
with twelve and a half hundredths of four different French
races, which are individually lost in the preponderance of
Pe
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149%: Domestic ANIMALS.
English blood, and disappear almost entirely, leaving the im-
proving type in the ascendant. The influence, in fact, of ‘hea
type was so decided and so predominant, that all the lambs —
produced strikingly resembled each other, and even Englishmen —
took them for animals of their own country. But what was —
still more decisive, when these young ewes and rams were put _
together they produced lambs closely resembling themselves, oe
without any marked return to the features of the old French
races from which the grandmother ewes were derived. Some “ "a
slight traces only might perhaps be detected here and there by __
an experienced eye. Even these, however, soon disappeared,
such animals as showed them being carefully weeded out of
the breeding flock. This may certainly be called ‘fixing a —
breed,’ when it becomes every year more capable of repro- _
ducing itself with uniform and marked features.”
IV.—ADDITIONAL HINTS. .
Farmers, like men in other branches of business, have an eye
on the profits of their industry; and the more intelligent of
them are now fully convinced of the fact, that with proper care
and protection the improved and finer breeds do give a greater
product with the same amount of food than the inferior and ‘
coarser breeds. It costs but little if any more to keep a cow
that will give a large quantity of rich milk than one that does —
not pay for her food; strong, active horses are far more profit- i. ;
able than poor, lazy ones; a bushel of corn will make twice as
much pork when fed to a Berkshire or a Suffolk as to a Land- < 4
Pike or Racer, and the best sheep will yield double the wool i:
and bring triple the price of the poorer kinds. 4
Now every farmer may, in a few years, make great i inpraea a
ment in his stock by selecting his best animals to breed from,
with an occasional infusion of fresh blood from other flocks — <a
and herds (without reference to any of the celebrated improved
breeds), combined with proper attention to their feeding and
general management; but unless he has a particular taste for pe ;
breeding animals, and unusual facilities for the business, he will — :
ACES Sy eGR SY ile CSD LR I, oe egies a
IMPROVEMENT oF BREEDS. 113
find it more convenient and cheaper to make an infusion of the
improved blood into his stock, choosing such as is best fitted
_ for his purpose. <A bull or a ram of one of the best breeds
will soon, if judiciously managed, make a great change for the
better in his stock.
Another important fact must be bornein mind. ‘ Improved
breeds owe their present degree of perfection, whatever it may
be, only to the skill which has been exercised in their selection,
breeding, and management for a number of generations and a
long series of years. This attention, we learn from the extract
above, must be continued if we wish to retain the valuable
qualities that it has placed within our reach; and careful atten-
tion to the selection, the wants, the comfort, and the health of
one’s stock is thus shown to be not only the dictate of economy
for the time being, but a matter of importance in the future,
from the influence it exerts on the progeny as well as on the
parent. Improvements may be bred owt as fast or faster than
it can be bred in. Until the average of care which our farm
stock now receives becomes much greater, it may be inexpedi-
ent to advise the maintenance of a herd or flock of pure im-
proved blood for ordinary farm purposes; but, by beginning ~
with grades—employing the services of an improved male to
-engraft upon “native” stock—and by degrees acquiring the
habit of paying closer attention to their necessities and com-
forts, not only will our cattle and sheep be gradually and fun-
damentally bettered, but the farmer will be preparing to avail
himself of breeds already rendered capable of giving, with —
proper attention, the greatest product for a specified amount of
food; and animals bred to this point will then come into his
hands to be improved, not to be deteriorated.”’*
——— — ——
* Country Gentleman.
Domestic ANIMALS.
VII.
DISEASES AND THEIR CURE.
Throw physic to the dogs.—Shakspeare,
I.—HYGIENE.
HROW physic to the dogs,” if you will, but,
be assured, they are quadrupeds of too much _
good sense to swallow it; and the other domes- “ed
tic animals will hardly take, except under com-
m pulsion, what their canine companions and pro- _
tectors thus reject. You will find less difficulty in forcing it
down the throats of their more frequently diseased and oftener
doctored masters. "i
A large portion of almost every work on domestic animals
is taken up with directions for the treatment of their diseases. —
Our limits do not permit us to dwell long on this point, nor do _
\ we deem it necessary. ‘g
In their wild state, animals are ordinarily subject to few if
any diseases. They live according to the laws of their being— ks
live naturally and healthfully, and, unless they meet a violent — ;
death at the hands of man or of some of their natural enemies, —
die a natural death. Our domestic animals, as they are gener- _
ally managed, live under conditions less favorable to heal wr
and sometimes, although with comparative infrequency, get sick. 3
The fault is generally in the keeper or breeder, and not in th ms
animal or in the conditions inseparable from its domestic
state. With animals, as with men, disease arises from some —
infringement of the organic laws; but their masters, and not. =
themselves, are responsible for the infringement. When they
5
get sick, however, in consequence of the false conditions under —
DiIsEASES AND THEIR CURE. 115
which they are forced to live, man adds insult. to injury by ©
forcing his nauseous and poisonous drugs down their reluctant
throats. If they recover in spite 9f both the disease and the
remedy, drugs get the credit.
Well, let those use drugs who have faith in them, either in
the treatment of themselves, their families, or their domestic
animals; but the reader who looks in this little manual for
directions for their use will be disappointed. We can not con-
scientiously give them.
Animals born of well developed and perfectly healthy parents
(and none but perfectly healthy and well developed animals
should ever be permitted to become breeders) may almost uni-
versally be kept in perfect health. With asuflicient quantity of
wholesome food, pure water, protection against storms and cold
in winter, complete ventilation and perfect cleanliness in their
habitations, and general attention to their comfort and health,
there will be little call for medical treatment of any kind; and
in the rare cases which may occur, we would trust mainly to
Nature, co-operating with her as we could by means of diet, air,
exercise, and water, on the same principles precisely that are
applied in the treatment of human beings without drugs.
The Water-Cure or Hydropathic system has not yet been ex-
tensively applied to animals; but so far as it has been adopted,
it has produced the most satisfactory results; and for the bene-
fit of such of our readers as may have lost their faith in drugs,
- and desire to make a trial of a more rational method, we lay
_ before them the following essay, kindly furnished for this work
by that distinguished physician and writer, R. T. Trall, M.D.,
Principal of the New York Hygeio-Therapeutic College.
Il.—WATER-CURE FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
BY BR. T. TRALL, M.D.
The habits of domestic animals being, on the whole, less
unphysiological than those of human beings, their diseases are,
as & necessary consequence, less numerous and less complicated,
They may all be grouped under the head of fevers, inflam-
Domestic ANIMALS.
mations, spasms or colics, fluxes, eruptions, and glandular _
affections. And for all of these disorders we are satisfied that _
F proper attention to hygiene, as understood by the term Hy- | Pr,
ag dropathy or Water-Treatment, is as much superior to drug med-
: ication as it has proved to be in the case of human eS
similarly affected.
he Fever is easily known by the languor and lassitude which ~
% the animal manifests, with great indisposition to exercise, fol- 3
lowed by chills or shivering, and this succeeded by preternatu-
ral heat on the surface, loss of appetite, furred tongue, frequent __
or hard or bounding pulse, etc. The animal should be placed _
in a clean, quiet, well-ventilated room, protected from currents 4
of cold air in winter or the scorching rays of the sun in sum- __
mer, and the temperature should be kept at a uniform and —
; moderate degree continually.
Be When the skin becomes very hot, it should be washed or
se bathed all over, and a blanket or two immediately applied, so
as to promote moderate perspiration. Or the wet sheet may
be applied, taking care to cover it well with blankets, so as
to arrest chilliness. When the sheet becomes quite warm, it a
should be removed, and the surface washed with cold water; _
and if the fever heat continues, it may be re-applied for an hour 4
at a time, two or three times a day, until the morbid heat i is a
Bets entirely subdued. 3s
“ The same general plan of treatment, with a slight modifi. a
a cation, applies to all inflammatory complaints. With domestic —
i animals as with human beings, the organs most liable to acute
inflammation are the lungs and the bowels, and the only spe- —
cialty of treatment in these affections, in addition to the gen- —
eral plan applicable to the constitutional disturbance we call
fever, is the continual application of wet cloths well covered —
with dry ones to the chest or bowels, as either is the seat of —
the inflammation, and the employment of copious enemas of
tepid water to free the bowels.
Spasmodic diseases of all kinds, and all the varieties of co ic, i
are the results of local obstruction caused by over-exertiod. —
‘
i
ie
,
o,
ye
DIsEASES AND THEIR OURE. 117
over-heating, or something improper or indigestible in the food.
Grain, and especially Indian meal, fed to a horse while in a
state of great heat or great fatigue from violent exertion, is fre-
quently the immediate cause of colic and spasms. In these cases
_ the animal should have his abdomen fomented with wet cloths
_ applied as warm as can be borne; warm water should be given
the animal to drink, or poured down his throat from a bottle,
and copious enemas of warm water should be administered. _
Fluxes—as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, influenza, catarrh,
etc.—are the indications of a general obstruction of the system
or impurity of the fluids, with an effort at depuration in a par-
ticular direction. The usual practice of checking the discharge
suddenly by pungents, stimulants, and astringents is always
injurious and generally dangerous. On the contrary, the action
of the surface should be restored by bathing, with friction or
the dripping-sheet, and all irritating matters removed from the
stomach and bowels by means of warm and tepid water, as in
the case of colics. There will be no danger from the discharges
if the cause is removed, and if it is not removed, the sudden
suppression of the evacuations may terminate in a worse in-
flammation or speedy death.
_ Affections of the skin and glands are only to be cured by
purifying the whole mass of blood. To repel an eruption from
the surface, or rather a glandular tumor, is not curing the ani-
‘mal; indeed, it is only changing an external disease to an inter-
nal one. Thus attention to a pure diet, to fresh air, and to
_ clean apartments, each and allare essential to recovery. Many
of these cachemies, as they are called in medical books, originate
from the effluvia of their own excretions, as in cases where
the urine and feces are permitted to accumulate in the stalls,
or under the floors of the stables.
ty
Probe
Domestic ANIMALS.
VI.
: POULTRY.
; ae Also fowls were prepared for me.—Nehemiah vy. 18. 4
4
r I—THE DOMESTIC FOWL. me
OBODY knows when or by whom fowls were —
first domesticated. There are at most only two —
@ / or three allusions to them in the Old Testa-
ae ment, and these are of doubtful import. In
. our motto, for instance, the word fowls may
5 mean hay birds. ‘¥
In the time of Aristotle, who wrote three hundred and fifty “3
years before Christ, however, they were evidently common; —
for he speaks of them as familiarly as a naturalist of the pres-
ent day. Everybody is familiar with the beautiful allusions to —
- them in the New Testament. re
- The wild origin of our domestic fowl is entirely unknown. —
The race, like that of the Dodo, is probably extinct. The va §
Turkey will sooner or later share the same fate.
Crested or top-knotted fowls appear to have been unknown
kp to the ancients. The earliest notice of them occurs in Aldro-—
vandi, who speaks o1 4 hen with “‘a crest like a lark.” “+ :
Domestic fowls now abound in all warm and temperate il
climates, but disappear as we approach the poles. They were
found in abundance on the islands of the Pacifie Ocean by their —
earliest discoverers. How they got there nobody knows. —
Probably in the same way that their human inhabitants found
their insular homes. Ellis, in his ‘‘ Polynesian Researches,
says: ‘The traditions of the people state that fowls have
existed on thc islands (Tahiti) as long as the people; that they
Povuutry. - 119
eame with the first colonists by whom the islands were peo-
pled; or that they were made by Taarva at the same time
that men were made.”
The courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry ad-
mirable, his sense of discipline and subordination most exem-
plary. See how a good game-cock of two or three years’ ex-
perience will, in five minutes, restore order into an uproarious
poultry-yard! He does not use harsh means of coercion when
mild will suit the purpose. A look, a gesture, a deep chuck-
ling growl, gives the hint that turbulence is no longer to be per-
mitted; and if these are not effectual, severer punishment is
fearlessly administered... .... . His politeness to females is
as marked as were Lord Chesterfield’s attentions to old ladies,
and much more unaffected. Nor does he merely act the agree-
able dangler; when occasion requires, he is also their brave
defender, if he be good for anything.
“The hen is deservedly the acknowledged pattern of mater-
nal love. When her passion of philoprogenitiveness is disap-
pointed by the failure or subtraction of her brood, she will
either go on sitting till her natural powers fail, or will violent-
ly kidnap the young of some other fowl and insist upon adopt-
ing them.””*
_ The yarieties of the domestic fowl are almost numberless,
but only a few of them are worthy of more than a mere men-
tion here. Among these we give the first place to—
1. The Spanish Fowl.—The thorough-bred Spanish fowl is
entirely black, so far as feathers are concerned, with a greenish
metallic luster. The combs of both the male and the female
are very large and of a brilliant scarlet ; that of the hen droops
over on one side. Their most singular feature is a large white
patch, or ear-lobe, on the cheek, which in some specimens ex-
tends over a large part of the face. It is a fleshy substance,
similar to the wattle, and is small in the hens but large and
sonspicuous in the cocks, giving them a very striking appear-
* Rev. Edmund Saul Dixon.
pte 2 Ze tee Shao
SL a eS ee ears Mee
120 Domestic ANIMALS.
ance. There are few, if any, handsomer fowls than the genuine
Spanish ; although some that are called by that name, but are
really nameless mongrels, are ugly enough for scarecrows.
The hens are great layers, being in this respect, we believe,
superior to every other breed. Their eggs are very large, quite
white, and of a peculiar shape, being quite thick at both ends, —
although tapering off a little at each. A correspondent of the
Country Gentleman, relating his experience with them, says:
“My last year’s June pullets commenced to lay in December,
and the first of February all of my Spanish hens laid more or
Jess. I got, in the six months, from the first of March to the
first of September, eighty-five dozen of eggs from seven pullets,
and I now get from four to six eggs per day; and my honest
Tue Spaniso Fow.u.
conviction is, that the true Black Spanish hen will lay from
‘five to ten per cent.’ more weight of eggs than any other
breed.”
PouttTrRyY. 121
On the other hand, it must be confessed that these Spanish
dames are not good mothers or nurses, even when they do sit,
“which,” as Dixon remarks, “‘ they will not often condescend
- todo.” This last trait of character will prove a recommend-
ation rather than otherwise with those who care for eggs
rather than chickens. When the latter are wanted, it is better
to place the eggs under a hen of another and more motherly
breed—a Dorking, for instance.
The Spanish fowls bear confinement very well; are not
large eaters; grow rapidly; mature early ; and are only excel-
led for the table by the Game fowl and the Dorking. Theaver-
age weight of the mature birds is about six pounds for the male
and five for the female.
It is important, but somewhat difficult at present, to procure
the true, unmixed, white-faced Black Spanish breed.
There is another breed called the Gray or Speckled Spanish,
but, however excellent they may be (and they are highly
spoken of), they are probably a mixed breed.
2. The Dorking Fowl.—The Dorking takes its name from
a town in Surrey County, England, where it is supposed to
- have originated.
The Dorkings are divided into the Colored and the White
_ varieties; the former including the Gray, Speckled, Spangled,
_Japanned, etc. These are not permanent varieties, however,
as they can not be bred true to color. The Gray and Spangled
comprise the more common forms in which the Colored Dork-
ing family is presented to us.
The White Dorking is a smaller-framed bird than the Gray.
and should be perfectly white in plumage, bill, and legs. They
should have rose-combs. They are less hardy than the colored
variety, and not well adapted to a northern climate.
The Dorking is a fowl of rare beauty, large in size, symmet-
rical in form, and often- gorgeous in plumage. Its flesh is
white, firm, and of excellent flavor; and for the general pur-
poses of the table it is inferior to none, although, as regards
flavor alone, the Game fowl would perhaps take precedence.
6
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2
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Domestic ANIMALS.
As layers, the Dorking hens take high rank, but are, we think,
inferior to the Spanish. They are persistent sitters, and make
excellent mothers and nurses. The editor of the American
Tue Dorking Fown. ~
Agriculturist says: ‘‘ A little knowledge in keeping them
[the Dorkings] justified us in pronouneing them entitled to the
same rank among barn-yard fowls that the Short Horns have
taken among cattle; and years of experience in breeding them
have confirmed us in this opinion.” FP
John Giles, a well known poultry breeder of Woodstock,
Conn., expresses the following opinion: ‘“ After forty-odd
years’ experience with the gallinaceous tribes, I say that, in my BY,
humble opinion, no breed of fowls will compare with the true ~ r
Dorking as good mothers, sitters, and layers, giving eggs in
abundance, chickens easily reared, and which come to perfee-
tion sooner than any other poultry. The flesh is of a delicate __
white, fine in the grain, and delicious flavor. The BlackSpan-
Povu.try. 493
ish is only second to the true Dorking, in not raising their own
young, seldom or ever wanting to sit; but what they lose in
that point is more than made up by the abundance of eggs
By some they are called the everlasting layers; eggs large;
flesh and skin beautifully white and juicy; chickens grow rap
idly.”
A cross between the Dorking and the Game fowl is greatly
esteemed, and is thought to be more profitable than the thor-
ough-bred Dorking.
The possession of the fifth claw is generally considered as an
essential characteristic of the Dorking, but it is not always
present, and might and should be “‘ bred out.” The weight of
the Dorking at maturity varies from five to eight pounds.
8. The Polish Fowl.—The origin of this family of fowls is
entirely unknown. They do not exist in Poland at the present
time, and there is no evidence that they were ever known
there; but this is a matter of small moment. Their beauty
SS
li | S
rll s: =
——— Z
THE PouisH Fowt.
x
3
194 Domestic ANIMALS. —-
and excellence are undisputed. The large top-knot is one of
the principal characteristics of the Polish fowl, and is conspic- is
uous in all its varieties. a
The varieties of the Polish or Poland fowl are numerous;
but the principal ones are the White-Crested Black, the Golden
Spangled, and the Silver Spangled. x
In the White-Crested Black Poland cock the plumage, with _
the exception of the crest, should be uniformly black, with rich
metallic tints of green. The shorter crest feathers at the base
of the bill are black, the rest of the purest white. The beak
and legs are generally black. The same colors are required in
the hen. Their form and bearing are remarkably good. The —
cock should weigh from five to five and a half pounds, and the
hen about four pounds.
The Golden Spangled and the Silver Spangled Polands are
splendid birds. ‘‘ The beautiful regularity of their markings,
the vivid contrasts in their colors, together with their unique
appearance generally, entitle them to the first rank among the
more ornamental varieties.”
The Polands, and especially the Black variety, are gener-
ally but not invariably great layers, commencing early in the
spring, and seldom wanting to sit till late in the summer, if
at all. They can not always be depended upon to hatch a
clutch of chickens, even when they manifest a desire to sit, fre-
quently deserting the nest after five or six days’ occupation.* F
They are not quite so hardy as some other breeds, but witha _
fair degree of attention are easily reared. Asa table fowl, the
Polish is among the best. : .
4. The Hamburg Fowl.—Of the Haaaces there are sev-
eral varieties. The Silver Penciled, known also as the Bolton
Gray, have the plumage white, with the exception of the wings
and tail, which are furred with black. The average weight of
the cock is about four and a half pounds. The hen usually
weighs about a pound less. The Golden Penciled Hamburg
* Wingfield.
Pouuttry. 125
differs from the Silver Penciled-chiefly in the ground color of
its plumage, which is a yellowish buff or yellowish bay, and in
being rather larger. The legs of both these varieties should be
blue. The Silver Spangled and Golden Spangled differ from
the Penciled sorts, in having black, circular, oval, or crescent-
shaped spangles on the tail and wing, instead of bars. They
are somewhat larger than the Penciled birds and have darker
YiLes
i
SNK
ee
THE Strver SPANGLED Hampure Fowl:
legs. The Black Hamburg has a plumage of a uniformly rich,
glossy-green black.
All the Hamburgs are beautiful fowls, rich in plumage and
fine in form; great layers (the eggs, however, are small); sel-
dom desire to sit; and are good for the table, falling but little
below the best varieties in this respect, although not so large
as some others.
They are impatient of confinement, and to do well must have
= c =
CMU taaeanwn as"
THE GOLDEN SPANGLED HampurGe Fown.
a wide range of grassy lawn or pasture. Of the different vari-
eties we prefer the Golden Spangled, but others may choose
differently.
5. The Dominique Fowl.—This is a very common breed im
Fig, 85,
Tae Dominique Coox.
Povutry. . ee Oy
this country, but none the less valuable or beautiful on nS
account.
“The prevailing and true color of the Dominique fowl is a
lightish ground, barred crosswise, and softly shaded with a
slaty-blue, as indicated in the portrait of the cock figured on
the previous page. The comb is variable, some being single,
while others are double—most, however, are single. The iris,
bright orange; feet, legs, and bill, bright yellow; and some
light flesh color. We prefer the yellow legs and bill, and con-
sider them well worthy of promotion in the poultry-yard.
‘‘We seldom see bad hens of this variety; and take them
‘all-in-all,’ we do not hesitate in pronouncing them one of the
best and most profitable fowls, being hardy, good layers, care-
ful nurses, and affording excellent eggs, and the quality of their
flesh highly esteemed. The hens are not large, but plump and
full breasted. The eggs average about two ounces each, ang
are of porcelain whiteness,”’*
6. The Leghorn Fowl.—The Leghorns are believed to be
cousins of the Spanish, whom they resemble in general form.
They have been considerably experimented with in this country,
and are highly extolled by some breeders; but the general ver-
dict is that they are inferior to the Spanish.t
7. The Shanghai F'owl.—The Shanghai fowl was originally
brought from the northern part of China, particularly about
the city of Shanghai, from which it takes its name. It is the
common domestic fowl of that part of the country.
The Shanghai cock is a large, bold, upright bird, strongly
distinguished for the length, loudness, hoarseness, and awk-
wardness of his half guttural crow. Most of the sub-varieties
* Country Gentleman.
+ A correspondent of one of the agricultural papers, however, gives the fol-
lowing testimony in their favor: “I have kept in different inclosures six of the
most approved varieties of fowls, for four months (from the 1st of April to the
present)—have registered the number of : ggs laid by each variety every day,
and the Leghorns have laid almost three eggs to any other bird’s one not exs
_ ¢epting the far famed Black Spanish.”—h. W. PEArsauy, Har'em, N ¥
i
ee OL Neat
128 Domestic ANIMALS.
have large, single, serrated combs, the top running considerably
beyond its point of attachment to the head. His neck is about
nine inches long, and is somewhat arched; wings short, round-
ed outward, their shoulders concealed in the breast-feathers,
and their tips covered by the body-feathers and the saddle-
hackle. His breast is broad, but wanting in fullness; the
thighs are wide apart, large, comparatively short, smooth in
Tue SHancuar Fow..
some, in others heavily feathered quite down to the knees;
shanks should be short, and, with the booted, more or less
feathered down the outer edge, quite to the end of the outer
toe; the stern is densely covered with long downy feathers,
technically called “ fluff,” well rounded out; the hackle, both
of neck and saddle, is long and abundant; while the tail is
short and sometimes covered by the long saddle-feathers, Tha
PouutTry. 129
weight of a full-grown bird is from ten to twelve pounds, |
while a few have weighed more. The hen agrees in general
character with that of her liege lord, but is two or three pounds
lighter.
The legs of both sexes should be yellow, though we have
seen sonie very fine white birds with a greenish-blue leg, and
superior black ones with dark legs.
The principal sub-varieties of the Shanghai family are the
White, the Buff, the Cinnamon, the Partridge-colored, the Gray,
or Brahmapootra of a few writers, the Dominique, and the
Black.
About ten years ago there raged among our fowl fanciers a
most alarming Shanghai fever. It had its “run,” and its vic-
tims mostly survived. We presume they will never have a
second attack. :
We can not advise our readers to breed Shanghai fowls, and
regret being obliged to mention them at all.
8. The Cochin China Fowi, ete—A missionary in China
says: “There is no difference at all between the Shanghais
_ and Cochin Chinas. In reality they all are Shanghais. Coch-
in Chinese fowls are a small, inferior kind, not equal to the
natives of the United States, and it is not believed that any
have ever been taken to America;” and the editors of the
“‘ Poultry Book,” lately published in London, quote from a let-
ter they received from Mr. Robert. Fortune, who has passed
many years in various parts of China, as follows: “I firmly
believe that what are called ‘Cochin Chinas’ and ‘ Shanghais’
are one and the same.
Whether this testimony should be considered conclusive or
not we leave the reader to judge, and believing none of the un-
couth, awkward, and coarse-grained Asiatic fowls desirable, we
_ herewith dismiss them.
9. The Bantam Fowl.—The Bantam is the smallest specimen
of fowl, and may with propriety be called the Tom Thumb of
the gallinaceous tribe, and stands comparatively, in size, to the
Malay and Cochin fowl as that of the noble and stately Du»
G*
130 Domestic ANIMALS. ~ 9) ean
ham to the diminutive Alderney cow. Though extremely
small in size, the Bantam cock is elegantly formed, and remark- #
Fig. 37.
Wuitt Bantam Cock AND HEN.
able for us grotesque figure, his courageous and passionate —
temper, his amusing pompousness of manier, his overweening —
assumption and arrogance; and his propensity to make fight,
re and force every rival to “‘turn tail,” has caused him many diffi-
culties, ;
The Bantam must be considered more as an object of curios-
Fig. 38.
Buiack Bantam Cook anp HEN, %
' =
ity than utility, and of course must expect to be received with 4
no peculiar favor, in this country, except as a “pet.” They —
- “5%
POULTRY.
afriye at n.aturity early, are faithful sitters, good mothers, and
will lay more eggs, though small, than any other variety. They
are yery domestic, often making their nests in the kitchen, de-
positing their eggs in the cradle or cupboard of the dwelling
when permitted.*
The most beautiful of the Bantams is the Seabright, of which
there are two sub-varieties—the Gold-laced and the Silver-
laced.
The ground color of the Gold-laced should be a clear, gold-
en, yellow-white ; while in the Silver-laced it should be a pure
silvery-white. The accompanying cut will give the reader a
good idea of the form and bearing of these remarkable and
beautiful fowls, as well as of the markings of their plumage.
The Seabright Bantam is emphatically the English gentle-
man’s Bantam. Even lords and duchesses strive for the mas-
tery in breeding this beautiful bird. This bird was first bred
Tur SEABRIGHT BANTAM.
and introduced to the notice of English fanciers by the late Sir
John Seabrig .t, from whom they received their name.t
el
* Bement. + Country Gentleman.
So ey sgmmekhtrhae® Siete Bin | awe
=
We 132 Domestic ANIMALS. _
= 10. The Game Fowl.—The Game fowl is hardy, easily kept, —
: and extra good for the table. The hens aré fair layers, excel-
; lent sitters, exemp‘ary mothers, and in every way well behaved —
Fig. 40.
pe aM,
4 AM ALELE Ae SE a
nea
Game Cock AND Hen.
fowls. The cocks have the reputation of being quarrelsome ;
and tyrannical; but those who have studied their character —
most closely are of the opinion that, on this ground, they have
been unjustly condemned. They are brave and powerful, but —
not pugnacious or vindictive. Bement says: “For those who
do not wish to give much attention to fowls, there is, accord: —
ing to our opinion, no breed equal to the Game.” a
11. Mongrel Fowls.—The collections usually known under — a
the name of Barn-door fowls or Dunghill fowls are merely rab- —
bles of mongrels, in which the results of accidental or injudi- —
cious crosses have become apparent in all sorts of ways. There
is a tendency among them to revert back to some one of the -
original breeds, and good fowls for all common uses are often —
found among them. bok
12. Choice of Breed.—We have mentioned the leading aul
acteristics of the different kinds of fowls, in order to enable
reader to decide rae is best adapted to his purpose. We
Rami EMMETT | ay Inga gl OO et i eee ea ee
Povuttry. 133
- eipal object, and the Gray Dorking where chickens are wanted
for the table or for market. In reference to merely ornamental
poultry, let “‘fancy” rule.
13. Accommodations.—No one should attempt to keep fowls
without providing for them the proper accommodations to in-
sure their comfort and health. These need not be expensive.
A very simple house with appropriate accessories in the form
of a yard, nests, feeding troughs, water basins or fountains,
roosts, etc., can all be very cheaply furnished; or they may be
more extensive, elaborate, and costly, if the proprietor’s wants
require and his means permit. For plans and descriptions of
these structures we must refer the reader to “The House,”
which forms another number of this series of manuals. We
need only say here that they should be such as to secure
warmth and efficient shelter from storms, without excluding
light or air, both of which are essential to the well-being of
fowls as well as human beings.
“Most farmers,” Mr. Bement truly says, “‘ pay little or no at-
tention to their fowls, suffering them to roam and run about
when and where they please; to lay and hatch where it suits
them best, and to rcost on trees, under sheds, on the wagon,
cart, hay-rigging, etc.—soiling by their droppings plows, har-
rows, or whatever may chance to be within reach. This treat-
ment is no less unprofitable than inhuman. No wonder such
farmers get no eggs during the winter, and generally come to
the conclusion that poultry keeping does not ‘pay.’”
Whatever may be the form or size of your poultry-house, it
should be so constructed as to secure as equable a tempera-
ture as possible. This end is best attained by having the
walls and roof lined, leaving an open space of from four to six
inches between the outer and inner walls, which may be filled
in with chaff, saw-dust, or dry tan. This will make it warm
in winter and cool in summer. In addition tothe inclosed por-
tion, the house should have a broad piazza or shed attached,
to which the fowls may retire for shelter in stormy weather.
Hens always seek to avoid observation when laying, and it is
<1 SPs See
134 — Domestic ANIMALS.
well to gratify this natural feeling in the construction of their
nests. A screen of lattice-work in front of the boxes, or a few —
evergreen boughs properly placed, will secure the requ
seclusion withort preventing the circulating of the air. ae
In reference to the poultry-yard Mr. Bement says: i
‘Where it is intended to keep a large number of fowls, let
the yard be of ample dimensions, which of course must be reg- —
ulated by the number intended to be kept. Those contracted —
seven-by-nine pens which meet our eyes throughout the country —
are not calculated to answer the purpose for which they were —
intended. Half an acre, at least, for every hundred fowls (ond
more than that number should never be kept in one flock), is
little space enough for them to roam in; and in order to unite —
all the advantages desirable in a pole nae it is indispensa- _
ble that it neither be too cold during winter nor too hot during —
summer ; and it must be rendered so attractive to the hens as _
to prevent their laying in any chance place away from it. To —
shield them from the chilling blasts of winter and the scorch-
ing rays of the sun in summer, we would recommend planting ~ Pe
evergreens on the borders of the yard, and shade trees in the —
center. This, with a good covering of grass, would leave little
to be desired on that part. And if the fowls can have access to
a grass field occasionally, and the soil dry, then, so far as the 4
ground and situation are concerned, nothing to be wished for —
remains,
‘“‘ A picket fence, from six to seven feet high, will be ong ;
cient to prevent the fowls from flying over.” a
14. Feeding.—The fowl is as omnivorous as a pig or a man,
and perhaps a little more so; nevertheless grain is their staple, :
Of this they ought to have a variety, as they do not thrive 80
well when fed constantly with one kind. Corn, wheat, barley,
oats, and buckwheat make good feed for them. It is better to A
nave all kinds of grain, intended for feeding fowls, and espe
cially corn, coarsely ground or cracked. It will be found that
they require a smaller quantity in this state. It should
scalded, or at least mixed to the consistency of a stiff hs
PovuutTry. 135
with water, before feeding it to them. Vegetables, such as_
potatoes, carrots, parsneps, beets, etc., boiled and mashed, are
acceptable and wholesome. Lettuce, cabbage, Scotch kale, etc.,
chopped up fine, are excellent for all kinds of poultry in the
winter. A few chopped onions may occasionally be added;
and also a little flesh-meat, either raw or cooked, cut into small
pieces.
The editor of the Country Gentleman thinks that it is better
to feed poultry in winter from three to four times daily, than
twice, which is the ordinary custom. By frequent feeding, the
birds eat but a little at a time, and never injure themselves ;
but when fed but once or twice daily, there is danger of thei
dvereating, which frequently produces fatal results. Our rule
28, to so regulate the quantity given at each time, that each
fowl shall have all it wishes, and have nothing left. Our ex-
perience confirms what many have said, that regular and fre-
quent feeding is better for the health of the fowl, at any season
of the year, than it is to fill a vessel with grain and allow them
access to it at all times. We also think that poultry will eat
less with frequent feeding than by twice feeding daily.
Lime is necessary for the formation of egg-shells, and should
always be accessible. The best form is that of calcined oyster
shells, pounded in small fragments. A box of sand and gravel,
and another of ashes, should be added.
Pure water is another essential that can not be too strenuously
insisted upon, impure water being a grand source of the dis-
eases of poultry.
Cleanliness must be strictly attended to in all your arrange-
ments for fowls; and the inside of the poultry-house should be
whitewashed twice, at least, during the year, as a preventive
against vermin.
15. Incubation, and Rearing Chickens.—For sitting, choose
good-sized hens. Those with short legs, broad body, and large
wings are best adapted to the duty. It is also generally re-
marked that the worst layers are the best sitters. All the
eggs for a brood, which should not exceed thirteen, should be
136 DomMESTIC ANIMALS.
80 nearly as possible of the same age. None of them should ©
be more than ten days old; and the reason why they shoul
be of about the same date is, that they may be hatched simul
taneously. Select eggs of average size and ordinary shape.
Give the hen a quiet place to sit, and take care that she be not —
disturbed. In twenty-one days (sometimes a day or two earlier — -
in warm weather) a good sitter will bring out the chicks. The : a
first day after hatching they do not want food and should be
left in the nest. The next day they may be put into a good :
coop in a dry, sheltered situation, and fed with coarse corn-
meal mixed up with water, hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, or
fresh curd. Feed a little at atime and often, and beware of
overfeeding. When a little older, cracked corn, millet, wheat,
barley, ete., may be fed to them. Have plenty of pure water E 3
ina =e dish (so that they may drink without getting into —
it and wetting their feathers) always before them. After five =a
or six days they may be allowed to range at will outside of the “g
coop, but should not be allowed to come out while the dew is _
on the ground. When two or three weeks old, or, indeed, —
with the hardier breeds much earlier, the hen may be permit- ‘
ted to lead them out. The most important caution now is to.& 2
guard them well against sudden unfavorable changes of tem- __
perature, and especially against cold rain-storms. ge
16. The Poultry Pentalogue-—Somebody in England has a
written a little work which he calls the “ Poultry Pentalogue,” — = +
in which the whole art of fowl-breeding is summed up in five
grand rules: &
1. Pure breed ; ‘A
2. A constant infusion of fresh blood, and the careful avoid- #
ance of in-and-in breeding ; :
3. A varied diet;
4, Equable temperature ; and—
5. Strict cleanliness, ae
Good rules and easily remembered. We commend them to
our readers, who may profitably apply them to other cong
besides fowls. ;
"
a
aS
a
Pouttry. 137
a IL—THE GUINEA FOWL.
| “There is no doubt,” Wingfield says, “‘from the description
given by Columella and Varro, that the Guinea fowl was
reared on the fa*ms of the Romans, and that it was first made
known to them during their wars in Africa.” They have
_ hardly found the favor among poultry keepers that their merits
would warrant. They are prolific layers of excellent eggs, and
as table birds are by no means to be despised. They are
_. shy, and love to make their nests in dark, obscure places, far
a THE GUINEA Fowl.
from home; for which reason their eggs are generally placed
under a common hen to be hatched and fostered. They give
no notice of laying or sitting.
A brood of Guinea fowls is an excellent guard. They love
roosting in the trees; and at night, if any footstep disturb them,
their loud eries are sure to give notice to the farmer that a
- trespass is committing.
The Guinea fowl is delicate eating, and is in fine season about
;
v
J
oe
-
a.
si
ie
‘are required to insure uniform success, Mr. Bement says: :
\ Ly ‘ >
Me a ’ Noe cutee Pore,
7 : : : Pa nS ae
aa * Al ERE, PE LOE a eg ay edd ray f
138 Domestic ANIMALS.
Lent. The young chickens must be treated in the same man-
ner and with the same food as young turkeys, and they must
be kept warm and dry. In fatting, they should be shut up in
a house for a fortnight, and fed fair or five times a day with —
sweet barley-meal, moistened with milk and good lard. They
pine if confined any length of time. 4
The great drawbacks to the rearing of Guinea fowls are the ei
vigilance required to watch for their nest, and the harsh scream=- —
ing of their cry.
Ill.—THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.
The domestic turkey is not so far removed from the wild —
state as the domestic fowl. There is no dispute about his ori- —
gin, the wild turkey not being yet extinct, and not differing so
widely from the tenants of our barn-yards as to give room for
doubt on that point. In fact, as it is stated in the ‘American
Poulterer’s Companion,” if kept in the neighborhood of large
forests they will often stroll thither, without any design to
return, such is the natural wildness of their species. my
We have three varieties of the domestic turkey in eae ”)
country—the Black, the Buff-colored, and the White. The
Black is generally preferred, it being the most hardy. The :
Buff-colored is placed next in the order of merit. The White —
variety is very beautiful, but is smaller and less hardy.
Turkeys are generally considered very difficult to rear; and —
it is undoubtedly true that considerable care, patience, and skill
“If attempts to rear turkeys have not been crowned with suc-
cess, it is entirely owing to the unskillfulness and inexperience i
of those to whom they have been intrusted; and so long as one On
persists in thwarting the females when sitting: in opening the
shells of the eggs in order to help the passage of the tardy —
chicks; in pressing them, so soon as they are born, to
against their will; and in leaving them exposed to intense heat,
or to cold and dampness, so long will their death, in the course
of a month, be the undoubted consequence. It is less tro
Pouttry. 139
to say the breed is difficult to rear, than to acknowledge at once
that negligence, unskillfulness, and barbarity are the causes.” _
The principal requisites for the successful rearing of turkeys,
according to the experienced author of the ‘“‘ Poulterer’s Com-
panion,” are:
1. Good stock to breed from, both male and female. Both
should be large and fully grown. They ought to be at least
two years old.
2. Fresh blood, secured by changing the cock every year.
3. Good keeping through the winter.
4. No unnecessary interference with the process of incuba-
tion, which lasts four weeks.
5. Shelter, protection, and careful feeding of the chicks for a
few weeks, after which the mother may be liberated from the
coop to lead them out.
Curd chopped fine, crumbs of bread softened in water or
milk, are good for their first food; but they will soon eat any-
thing that is fit for the parent turkey, except unbroken grain.
Early in the fall they should be fed night and morning with
dry corn; and when the weather becomes colder they may
profitably be supplied at frequent intervals with boiled potatoes,
mashed with corn meal and skimmed milk, given to them
warm. On this diet they will grow and fatten rapidly.
The turkey is an out-door bird and requires, at most, only an
open.shed for shelter during severe storms, and even this will
seldom be occupied if a good tree be at hand. They have not
yet acquired all the effeminate artificial habits of the domestic
fowl. ;
The critical periods with the turkey are about the third day
after they are hatched, and when they have thrown out the
“red head,” as it is called, which they do when about six weeks
old. To carry them safely through the first, avoid overfeeding,
and secure them against unfavorable changes of temperature.
In the latter case, give them.a plenty of food, and render it as
nutritious as possible by adding boiled eggs, wheaten grits,
bruised hemp seed, or bruised beans.
140 Domestic ANIMALS.
Cobbett says: ‘‘ As to fattening turkeys, the best way is to’
never let them get poor. Barley meal mixed with skimmed
milk and given them fresh will make them fat in a short time.
Boiled potatoes mixed with corn meal will furnish a change of
sweet food which they relish much, and of which they may
eat as much as they can.”
IV.—_THE DOMESTIC GOOSE.
The domestic goose has acknowledged the sway of man for
ages—perhaps since the days of Noah. Homer mentions them,
where Penelope, relating her dream, says: ‘‘I have twenty
geese at home, that eat wheat out of water, and I am delighted
to lookatthem.” Their cackling, it will be remembered, saved
Fig 42.
a ——=—
—S
NA
Wik KG =
EMBDEN OR BREMEN GEESE.
PouutTry. 141
Rome from the Gauls, B.o. 388. Their wild original is unknown,
the wild geese of the present day being of a different species.
Of the common domestic goose there is really but one vari-
ety divided into several sub-varieties, marked by more or less
permanent distinctive characteristics—of these the Toulouse
goose and the Bremen goose are probably the best. The for-
mer is gray and the latter white. The White China goose prob-
ably belongs to a distinct species. It is a beautiful bird, but
comes properly under the head of ornamental poultry, of which
we have little to say. It can be kept with advantage only in
a warm climate.
Where there are facilities for keeping them, geese are consid-
ered the most profitable of all our domestic birds. The chief
requisites for goose keeping are a pond or pool of water and a
pasture for grazing.
The domestic gander is polygamous, but should not, Mormon-
like, be allowed an unlimited number of wives. Three is suf-
ficient, and some recommend to allow only two geese to each
gander. Comfortable and well-ventilated apartments should .
be provided for geese, so constructed as to secure them against
rats, weasels, skunks, etc. A separate room for the sitting
goose is desirable. Her period of incubation is about thirty
days. Thirteen eggs are the usual number given to the goose.
She always covers them when absent from the nest.
“On the first day after the goslings are hatched,” Mr. Bement
says, “they may be let out, if the weather be warm, care being
taken not to let them be exposed to the unshaded heat of the
sun, which might kill them. The food given them is prepared
with some barley or Indian meal coarsely ground, bran, and
raspings of bread, which are still better if soaked and boiled in
milk, or lettuce leaves and crusts of bread boiled in milk. On
the second day a fresh-cut turf is placed before them, and its
fine blades of grass or clover are the first objects wich seem
to tempt their appetites. A little boiled hominy and rice, with
_ bread crumbs, form their food for the first few days, fresh
_ water in a shallow vessel, which they can dabble in and out
142 Domestic ANIMALS.
without difficulty, being duly provided. Afterward advantage — ;
must be taken of a fine warm sun to turn them out on grast
for a few hours; but if cold and damp, they should remain in
their house, in which every attention should be paid to cleanli-
ness by a constant supply of clean straw. After two weeks —
we cease these special precautions against exposure to the
weather, and find them perfectly able to shift for themselves,
in company with their mothers and the others of their race. —
For some weeks, however, extra supplies of food, such as bran &
or corn meal mixed with boiled or steamed vegetables, may be
given them twice a day, morning and evening, continuing to 3
give them this food till the wings begin to cross on the back, —
and after this, green food, which may be mixed with it, such
as lettuce, cabbage, beet leaves, and such like. The pond is
strictly forbidden them under all circumstances for the first two
weeks, and in severer weather for a longer period. Exposure ~ “3
to heavy rain out of doors, and a damp floor in the house where
they are placed at night, are the main hazards to be avoided.”
One of the greatest sources of profit in goose keeping is the _
sale of the feathers; but plucking them from the living geese
is a practice so full of cruelty that we can not conscientiously
give any directions for the process. A writer in one of the —
magazines recommends shearing instead of plucking. He ~
says: “Feathers are but of a year’s growth, and in the moult- R :
ing season they spontaneously fall off, and are supplied by a
fresh fleece. When, therefore, the geese are in full feather, let —
the plumage be removed, very close to the skin, by sharp scis- _
sors, clipping them off as sheep are shorn; they will be renew- _
ed at moulting in the usual course of rititieel The produce —
would not be much reduced in quantity, while the quality —
would be greatly improved, and an indemnification be experi- :
enced in the consciousness of not having tortured the poor bird, ‘
and in the uninjured health of the fowl, and the benefit obtain-_
ed in the succeeding crop. After this operation shall have —
been performed, the down from the breast may be removed
by the same means.” A
PovutTrY.. 143
V.—THE DOMESTIC DUCK.
The origin of the tame duck is not a well settled point.
Dixon supposes it to have been imported from India and China
in or about the year 1493. ;
Of the, numerous. varieties known to the poulterer, Mr.
Giles, of Woodstock, Conn., whom we have already had occa-
sion to quote, recommends, for those who desire to keep ducks
for use and not for ornament merely, the Rouen, the Java, and
the Aylesbury.
The Rouen duck, originally from Rouen, France, is of a
dark-brown plumage; legs and feet a dark dusky red; bill at
the base black, tapering down toward the point a dark green,
sometimes streaked with yellow; long in the body, with a
small neck. The drakes are invariably the color of the wild
Mallard drake, having a white ring around the neck; legs and
feet a bright red; bill a bright yellow ; flesh darker and higher
flavored than the common duck. Very prolific, hardy, and
easy to raise; will weigh at full maturity from eighteen to
twenty pounds a pair.
The Java duck, originally from Java. Plumage a glossy
black; neck long; round body; legs and feet black, and black
bill. Drakes. are black, head and neck bordering on a dark
green; yellow bill; with bright red legs and feet. The Java
ducks will attain to nearly the same weight as the Rouens—
flesh similar.
The Aylesbury duck, originally from the town of Aylesbury,
England. Plumage a beautiful white, with white bill; legs
and feet a bright pink, ornamental in appearance; easy to
propagate; producing white downy feathers, white skin, and
delicate, savory flesh; will weigh from fifteen to eighteen pounds
the pair. Sit the eggs under hens, and have them hatch out
early. With care you can have large ducks.
The Wild Mallard duck is often domesticated. It is a very
beautiful bird and becomes quite tame, rearing broods like the
common duck; but no permanent tame race has yet been de:
rived from them.
144 DomeEstTIc AwiMALe,
The Musk or Brazilian duck is from the trofheahe regions ot ts
South America. It is a singular bird in appearance and i in
habits, but we see little to recommend it, either for use or orna-
ment. a. ‘“
The Wood duck, the most beautiful of its genus, so common
in all parts of the North American continent, is also casi i
domesticated. It also will breed in its domesticated state. ae
Ducks are easily kept where there is access to a pond, pool,
stream, or swamp. They will eat almost anything, animal or % :
vegetable. The refuse of the kitchen garden is always ent
able to them, and where grass is not attainable, something seit
this kind must be regularly supplied.
“The duck-house,” Bement says, “should, if possible, be of —
brick, and paved with the same material, with considerable in %
clination, so that the wet, when the floor is sluiced down, may ~
at once pass off. Wood is seldom secure against rats, and does
not so well suit the cleaning process of water and thelime-
brush, and few places require their application more frequently. | a
Do not crowd your birds, and always arrange for good venti- he
lation. When the flock is large, separate the young ones, that _
they may thus have the advantage of better food, and that no 4
risk may be incurred of finding the eggs of the older ones fo ’
den under foot and broken at your morning visit. On this ac-
count the laying ducks should always have plenty of room, and
be kept by themselves. Ducks, for these reasons, as well as
for the sake of cleanliness, should never share the habitation of aq
fowls, and from geese they are liable to persecution, Yet,
where fowls are kept, a little contrivance will suffice to make F
their berth, even in a fowl-house, tolerably comfortable. In — +
winter, a thin bedding of straw or rushes should be placed on —
the floor, and frequently changed.” . y
The duck is a prolific layer, and her eggs are very rich and
highly flavored, and are much relished by some persons. One
duck’s egg is considered of equal culinary value to two fowl’s
eggs. st:
According to Mr. Parmentier, one drake is sufficient for
eight or ten ducks, but others limit the number to fom for
to six.
Ducks are not so easily persuaded to lay in nests prepared —
for them, but prefer to choose a place out-of-doors to donate
their eggs. If the nest selected be tolerably secure, it is better 3
to allow them to sit there than to attempt their removal. B:
Thirteen eggs are a full allowance for a duck, and these should
be as fresh as possible. The period of incubation varies con-—
siderably, but twenty-eight days is perhaps about the average
time. The treatment of the young brood should be similar to
that recommended for goslings. Boiled potatoes and hominy, — ; ang
or coarse corn meal, make excellent food for them. It is better —
to give them no uncooked food for several weeks after theyare
hatched. we
To fatten ducks you must give them a plenty of good grain
(corn and oats are to be preferred), and not allow them access oat
to too much garbage. All fish and flesh, and especially putrid — >
animal matter, of which they are fond, must be excluded from
their diet, or the flavor of their flesh will be destroyed.
VI.—PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR MARKET. eae
Messrs. Drew & French, extensive dealers in farm and aS
market-garden produce, fruits, eggs, poultry, ete., 85 Barclay
Street, New York, in answer to various inquiries aca to
them, carefully prepared and published, some time ago, the fol-
lowing directions, which should be as carefully followed by all ad
who send poultry to the city markets and wish to get the =
highest price for it : ee
“‘ Pirst—Give no food for twenty-four hours previous to —
killing. Food in the crop is liable to sour, and always injures = :
tle sale. Purchasers object to paying for undigested food.
“ Second—‘ Sticking’ in the neck with a penknife is the best
mode of killing. If the head is cut off, the skin recedes, and — ae
the neck bone looks repulsive. ae
““ Third—Most of the poultry coming to this market is badly Bs a
scalded’ or ‘ wet picked.’ ‘Dry picked’ is preferred, and a: 5
MBC CENSOR Cee oes
ec Be Mie
ee eT a ae a8 OL, SEE TRS Se Pe a ae ee me oe ee
ei Pts ee Recah ia is eh Aland ac
ei r
nee
PouLtry. 147s
a little higher, other things being equal. Great care should
be taken in picking to remove all the pin-feathers, and to avoid
tearing the skin, particularly upon the legs, where it is most
likely to be broken. If properly scalded, it looks best.
“* Fourth—The intestines should not be drawn. After pick-
ing, the head may be taken off, and the skin drawn over the
neck bone and tied. This is best, though much comes with
heads on.
“ Fifth—Next in order, it should be ‘plumped,’ by being
dipped about two seconds into water nearly or quite boiling
hot, and then at once into cold water about the same length of
time. Some think the hot plunge sufficient without the cold.
It should be entirely cold but not frozen, before being packed.
If it reaches market sound without freezing, it will sell all
the better.
“< Sizth—For packing, if practicable, use clean hand-threshed
rye straw. If this can not be had, wheat or oat straw will an-
swer, if clean and free from dust. Place a layer of straw at
the bottom of the box, then alternate layers of poultry and
straw—taking care to stow snugly, backs upward, filling vacan-
cies with straw, and filling the package so that the cover will
draw down snugly upon the contents. Boxes holding not over
300 Ibs. are the best packages.
“ Seventh—Number the packages; mark the contents of
each on the cover; place the invoice of the lot in one package,
marked ‘bill,’ sending duplicate by mail; direct plainly to the a
consignee, placing the name of the consigner in one corner.”
148 Dousered ANIMALS. ey
; IX.
BEE-KEEPING.
Oh, Nature kind! Oh, laborer wise!
That roam’st along the summer ray,
Glean’st ev’ry bliss thy life supplies,
And meet’st prepar’d thy wintry day:
Go—envied, go—with crowded gates,
The hive thy rich return awaits ;
Bear home thy store in triumph gay,
And shame each idler on thy way.—Anon,
I.—_THE WONDERS OF THE BEE-HIVE.
HE accounts given, by naturalists and writers on
bee-keeping, of the instincts and habits of the
bee seem truly fabulous; and yet they are all
founded on observation, and there seems to be
no reasen for calling them in question.
A five of bees, we are told, consists of three kinds—females,
males, and workers. The females are called queens, and only
THE QUEEN BEE. Tue Drone.
one is permitted to live in the same hive; but one is essential
ae to its establishment and maintenance. The males are called
drones, and may exist in hundreds, or even thousands, in a
Bree-Keepine. 149
hive. The workers, or neuters, are the most numerous, and
perform all the labor, collecting the honey, secreting the wax,
and building the cells. The females Fig. 46.
and workers have stings at the end :
of the abdomen, but the drones have
none. The queen lives in the inte-
rior of the hive, and seldom leaves
it except to lead forth aswarm. If
she be removed from the hive, the
whole swarm will follow her. The Tux Worker.
queen is not only the governor, but also the mother of the com-
munity, she being the only breeder out of 20,000 or 30,000
bees, on which account she is loved, respected, and obeyed with
all the external marks of devotion which human beings could
give to a beloved monarch.
The queen deposits her eggs in cells previously prepared by
the workers to receive them. The eggs producing workers are
deposited in six-sided horizontal cells; the cells of the drones
are somewhat irregular; those of the queens are larger than
the others, circular, and hang perpendicularly. The eggs pro-
ducing workers are laid first, the queen laying about two hun-
dred eggs daily. The eggs of the drones afterward laid are less
numerous than those of the workers, in the proportion of about
_one to thirty. Eggs for queens are deposited in their proper cells,
Fig. 47. one in each, at intervals of one or two days.
The eggs and larve of the royal family do not
differ in appearance from those of the work-
ers, but the young are more carefully nurs-
ed, and fed with a more stimulating kind of
food called ‘‘royal jelly,” which causes them
to grow so rapidly that in five days the larva
yi teenth day becomes a perfect queen. But
etl as only one queen can reign in the hive,
A Roya Cert. the young ones are kept close prisoners; and
earefully guarded against the attacks of the queen mother
i a ia Sc eA SS a i:
is prepared to spin its web, and on the six-
When the old queen departs with a swarm, a young one is
liberated, who immediately seeks the destruction of her sisters,
but is prevented by the guards. If she lead forth another
swarm, a second queen is liberated, and so on until further
swarming is considered impossible, when the reigning queen is -
permitted to destroy her sisters. In cases where no new
swarm is to be sent off, the queen mother is permitted to
assume the office of destroyer. If at any time two queens ~
happen to come out simultaneously, it is said that a mortal
combat takes place at once, and the victor is acknowledged te
be the rightful sovereign. On the loss of a queen, the whole
swarm is thrown into the greatest confusion, and if there be
no worker eggs or brood out of which a queen can be made
by the peculiar process of feeding already mentioned, all labo
ceases and the bees soon die. afm
There are three substances for which the bees forage the ;
fields. First, a resin, or gum, which is on trees; next, the 2 rf
pollen, or fine dust, of flowers; and lastly, the saccharine mat-
ter that is in the flowers. When the cells are to be built, they _
tring home the resin, and stop all the cracks or crevices in the —
Fig. 48. hive, so that neither the
rain nor any insect can
get in to trouble them. —
Then they set forth to
bring materials for wax,
to construct their cells.
The wax is made from
pollen. The bees swallow
it, and then hang them-
selves in festoons in the
hive. In the course of
twenty-four hours small
rings make their appear-
ance on the body. Theu
the bee detaches itself from the rest of the group, and, descend:
Brn-Keerine. 151
ing to the bottom of the hive, removes the substance which
Fig. 49. has now become wax. Each bee fol-
= ee lows in its turn, and deposits its con
——— ~~ tribution, which is directly made use
of by the architects in building the
cells.
: A Wax-Worker. The honey-cells are all six-sided, and
of the most perfect regularity. Were they squares, or trian-
gles, or circles, they would Fig. 50.
ni not fit as closely together,
--—s eonsequentily there would
a be a waste of room.
“There is a substance
called bee bread, which is
necessary to the life of the
bee. “It is made from pol-
len, but is entirely unlike
wax. In securing it, the
bee darts into a flower, CrLts.
and covers its body with the yellow dust. Now it must con-
trive some way to get rid of it, and God has made the last joint
but one of each leg like a brush. These brushes are passed all
Fig. 51. over the body, and the pollen is collected
Z in two little heaps. The thighs of the last
pair of the bees’ legs are furnished with
two cavities, and these make nice little bas-
kets to carry home their treasure. The
\ dust collected from a thousand flowers is
‘now kneaded into little balls, and when
these have increased to the size of a grain
of pepper, the bee flies home, and enters
the cell head foremost. The balls are then
Brr’s Lzre Maeniriep, taken from the baskets, and, being moist:
ened with a little honey, become bee bread.” *
es
* Student and Schoolmate.
TE Ser trae ch eee. ae
* 5 M
One of the greatest wonders of the bee-hive is the mode in ‘4
which it is ventilated. Fresh air is no less necessary to bees —
Fig. 52. than to human beings, and as
no provision is made for its sup- :
ply in the construction of their =
dwelling, they secure it in this
way: “They arrange them- —
selves in files along the bottom
of the hive. Those outside
place their heads toward the
entrance, and those within in ‘
an opposite direction. When —
thus stationed, they flap their
= wings so rapidly that we can
Gass Hive, Suowind' mm Amines NOt see that they have any —
ven tae scene wings at all. This rapid motion — ‘
drives a current of air into the hive, to keep the honey and —
comb cool.” “s
‘ie
+
II.—THE APIARY AND HIVES. yy ;
7
BA
The situation selected for an apiary or bee-house should be
well sheltered from strong winds, and should not be near any |
large sheet of water. The hives should face the south, the a f
east, or the southeast. They should be placed in a right line;
and it is better to place them on shelves, one above anottes a
than in rows upon the ground, The distance between the a
hives should be not less than two feet, and their height from x
the ground about the same. Near the apiary should be some
small trees and shrubbery, on which swarms may alight; but —
large trees are objectionable. The grass should be frequently
mowed around the bee-house, to prevent dampness and destroy +
the lurking-places of noxious vermin.
Much difference of opinion exists in reference to the best
form and construction for a bee-hive, and many ingenious plans 3
have been offered by the inventive genius of our country for
their improvement. Some of these have peculiar excellences _
ie
a least.
Bee-Keerrina. 153
and are worthy of a careful trial, but few if any of them are
without some serious objections ; so that practical bee-keepers
generally prefer hives of the simplest construction. One of the
best hives is made of pine boards an inch or an inch and a
quarter thick. The best size is twelve inches square inside and
fourteen inches deep. The top should be made of boards fifteen
inches square. The boards should be joined carefully, and it is
well to apply a coat of paint to the edges before putting them
together. Small notches should be made at the bottom for the
passage of the bees; and cross sticks put in for the support of
the comb. If the inside of the hive be planed and covered with
a thin coating of melted beeswax, it will save the bees much
labor. Boxes for caps or covers may be fitted to these hives.
These may be about seven inches deep and twelve square.
They must fit closely the tops of the hives, and may be furnished
with glass jars or other vessels for the reception of the honey.
Several holes should be made in the top of the hive for the pas-
sage of the bees.
In Poland, where finer honey is produced and bees inore
successfully cultivated than anywhere else, the excavated trunks
of trees are used for hives. Logs a foot or more in diameter
and nine feet long are scooped or bored for the length of six
feet from one end, the bore being from six to eight inches in
diameter. A longitudinal slit is made in this hollow cylinder
nearly the whole length and four inches wide. Into this slit is
fitted a slip of wood with notches on the edges large enough to
admit a single bee. This slip is hung on hinges and forms a
door, by the opening of which the condition of the swarm can
be seen and the honey be taken out. The top being covered,
the trunk is set upright, with the opening toward the south.
Sections of hollow trees are often used in this country for hives.
It is often desirable to carry honey to market without re-
moving it from the hive in which it was made, and as few
persons will purchase the contents of a large hive, one con-
structed in sections has a great advantage in that particular at
ve
r s , tr i ie
(ee ERIE hae a Ree a) ee Cee NP SALY,
Bet, eat
jeg
According to the views of Mr. Harasti, a skillful bee-cultiva-
tor, as quoted in the ‘‘ Farmer’s Encyclopedia,” a good bee-hive
ought to possess the following properties: First, it should be
capable of enlargement or contraction according to the size of
the swarm. Secondly, it should admit of being opened with-
out disturbing the bees, either for the purpose of cleaning it
from insects, increasing or dividing the swarm, etc. Thirdly,
it should be so constructed that the produce may be removed 7
without injury to the bees. Fourthly, it should be internally
clean, smooth, and free from cracks or flaws. All these prop-
erties seem best united in the section-hive, which is constituted
Fig. 53. of two, three, four, or more
square boxes of similar size
as to width, placed over
each other. Such hives —
are cheap, and so simple —
that almost any one can
construct them. Jeuge
The boxes A, B, O, D-
may be made from ten to
fourteen inches square and tee
about five inches in depth,
inside measure. Every —
—————————__ bee-keeper should have his
A Szorrona1 Hive. boxes made of the same
size, so as to fit on to each other. Every hive must have a
common top-board, a, which should project over the sides of the —
hive. The top-board of each section should have about sixteen Bi
holes bored through at equal distances from each other, and not —
larger than three fourths or smaller than four fifths of an inch. _
Or, instead of such holes, chinks of proper size may be cut is
through to allow the bees to pass up and down. At the lower —
part of each box or section, in front, there must be an aperture
or little door, ¢, ¢, ¢, d, just high enough to let the bees pass,
and about an inch and a half wide. The lowermost aperture, —
‘d, is to be left open at first, and when the hive is filled the up
154 Domestic ANIMALS.
Brsr-Keepinea. 155
ones may besuccessively opened. By placing over the holes in
the top of the upper section, glass globes, jars, tumblers, or
boxes, the bees will rise into and fill them with honey. These
may beremoved at any time after being filled. The holes in the
tops of the hive which do not open into the glasses or boxes
should of course be plugged up. ‘These glass jars, etc., must
be covered over with a box, so as to keep them in the dark.
Every box or section, on the side opposite the little door,
should have a narrow piece of glass inserted, with a sliding
shutter, by drawing out which the condi- - Fig. 54.
tion of the hive can always be inspected. | {LIIMMIIIININI/IM})
To make the bees place their combs in par-
allel lines, five or six sticks or bars may be
placed at the top of every section, running
from front to rear. The bees will attach
their combs to these bars, and the interme- ||
diate space will afford sufficient light to see them work. The
slides covering the glasses should never be left open longer than
is just necessary for purposes of inspection.
When one section is removed from the top, a wire or long
thin knife must be previously run between this and the one
immediately below, so as to destroy the attachments. Then
remove the upper section, placing the top upon the one below,
which is now the highest division of the hive. Another section
is to be placed beneath, lifting up the whole hive for the pur-
pose. Sometimes a second section has to be put under during
a good season. If the swarm is not very large, three or even
two boxes will be sufficient for its accommodation. The boxes
or sections may be secured upon each other by buttons, 0, 0,
or rabbets, and the joints closed with cement.
The plan of Mr. Luda, of Connecticut, by which the bees are
made to build their cells and deposit their honey in the cham-
ber of a dwelling-house appropriated for the purpose, in neat
little drawers, from which it may be taken fresh by the owner,
without killing the bees, has obtained deserved celebrity. The
- hive has the appearance of, and is, in part, a mahogany bureau
156 Domestic ANIMALS.
or sideboard, with drawers above and a closet below, wi
glass doors. This case or bureau is designed to be placed
the chamber of a house, or any other suitable building, and
connected with the open air or outside of the house by a tube —
passing through the wall. The bees work and deposit their —
honey in drawers. When these or any of them are full, or it —
is desired to obtain honey, one or more of them may be taken —
out, the bees allowed to escape into the other parts of the hive, a
and the honey taken away. The glass doors allow the work- — a
ing of the bees to be observed; and it is said that the spacious-
ness, cleanliness, and even the more regular temperature of sig
such habitations, render them the more industrious and suc-
cessful.
IIl—GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 4
1. Swarming.—Huish, in his “Treatise on Bees,” says: a
“ The swarming of bees generally commences in June; in some a
seasons earlier, and in cold climates or seasons later. The first
swarming is so long preceded by the appearance of drones and
hanging out of working bees, that if the time of their leaving a
the hive is not observed it must be owing to want of care. —
The signs of the second are, however, more equivocal, the |
most certain being that of the queen, a day or two before
swarming, at intervals of a few minutes, giving out asounda —
good deal resembling that of a cricket. It frequently happens
that the swarm will leave the old hive and return again several
times, which is always owing to the queen not having accom- _ 3
panied them, or from having dropped on the ground, being too
young to fly to a distance. Gooseberry, currant, or other low — .
bushes, should be planted at a short distance from the hives
for oe bees to swarm upon, otherwise they are apt to fly
away.” wey.
When they collect where they can not be shaken off and the
hive can not be placed near them, they may be brushed
into a gauze sack, or any vessel in which they can be kept
carried to the hive, which should be set upon a table al
: 4 : J wr
_ Y hie ,
5 a ? ae Aig py pr ey. 4 A J ®
hg i! oo ys se ty yr ow oe PRS Ga eo Pao
oe
Brer-KEerina. 157
raised on one side to allow their passage. If seen before they
alight, they may often be secured by drawing a large woolen
stocking upon the end of a pole and holding it up among them,
as they are apt to consider it a favorable object on which to
collect.
“When a hive yields more than two swarms, these should
uniformly be joined to others that are weak, as, from the late-
ness of the season and deficiency in number, they will other-
wise perish. This junction is easily formed, by inverting at
night the hive in which they are, and placing over it the one
you intend them to enter. They soon ascend, and apparently
with no opposition from the former possessors. Should the
re le Se ee Ry eS Oe ee te) ae en 5 I A a ese
BAU german ey eee Ny) ate Nn Rg a, nlpeas een Santer ees Birra ey
MAT aati Seog aed F ee MPa 7 2
2a nial Cones Ie eae oa Mee By f 1 oe
EN Seat ps:
weather for some days after swarming be unfavorable for the |
bees going out, they must be fed with care until it clears up,
otherwise the young swarm will run great risk of dying.”
Some recommend drawing off swarms without waiting for
them to set forth of their own accord. We find the process
thus described in the Southern Homestead :
‘Those who are using a common hive when desiring to
draw off a swarm, should let the hive be turned bottom up-
ward, and the new hive set upon it; strike lightly upon the
lower hive, and many of the bees will ascend into the upper
hive; when a sufficient number has collected in the new hive
for a swarm, take it off and set it upon the bench, and return
the old one to its former position. In doing this, to insure
success, it is necessary that one of the queens should accompany
the new swarm, which may be known in the course of a day
or two, for if they have no queen, they will not stay in the
new hive, but will return to the old one; but if they havea
queen, they soon manifest a disposition to commence work, and
in the course of twenty-four hours some of the bees may be
seen standing near the entrance of the hive, amusing themselves
by raising their bodies to the full length of their legs, and giv-
ing their wings a rapid motion, making a steady buzzing
noise. This may be considered as an indication of their satis-
faction and the success of the operation. Some consider mid-
day the most favorable time for doing this; others again prefer
the evening—but either will answer, and the trouble attending
is not greater than that of hiving them when the swarms are —
allowed to come out in the common manner, and the danger of.
having them go off is avoided. Another very great advantage
of this method is, the young swarms commence working early, —
by which they are more likely to lay up sufficient food for the
winter.” %:
2. Robbing the Hives.—The old practice, still followed by —
many, is to kill the bees by suffocation, whenever the most
favorable time has arrived for taking the honey. To suffocate
the bees, the hive is inverted over an empty hive or a hole in
the ground in which some rags smeared with sulphur are burn-
ing. The bees drop down and are buried to prevent resusecita- _
tion. This is believed by some shrewd and experienced bee- :
keepers to be the most profitable if not the most humane plan.
Polish apiarists cut out the comb annually to lessen the
tendency to swarming, and thus obtain the largest amount of __
honey. In sectional hives it is readily taken out without killing .
the bees; and where these improved hives, as they are called, —
are not used, the comb may be cut out by merely stupefying
the bees with sulphur or tobacco smoke. The time for taking —
up hives depends somewhat upon the season and pasturage; —
but the quantity of honey does not generally increase after the —
first of September. ;
3. Wintering.—To winter safely a swarm of bees, thirty
pounds of honey are considered requisite. Only strong swarms
are profitable to winter; therefore those that are foundinthe
fall to be weak in numbers and with little honey had better be
taken up. In the northern portions of the United States means
are generally used to protect the swarms in winter, byremoval _
to some cool and dry out-house or cellar; but many apiarists
contend that this practice is not only useless but hurtful, and —
that hives should not be removed from their usual situations.
4, Feeding.—Bees are sometimes fed, when not able to sup-
ply their own wants, with a syrup made by dissolving brown =
Bure-Keepinea.
‘sugar in water and then boiling it to evaporate the water.
Honey is the best food, but is generally (unless ‘‘ Southern” or
West India honey be used) too expensive; and, in fact, as a
matter of profit, feeding should never be attempted. -
5. Killing the Drones.—Knowing that the drones consume
an immense amount of honey without producing any, and be-
lieving that a few of them will answer all the purposes required,
Mr. P. J. Mahan, of Philadelphia, recommends getting rid of |
them, and thus saving the honey that they would consume. _— es
- His plan for accomplishing this is to cut out the comb contain- a
ing the cells in which they are to hatch. This, he says, is dif- ge
ficult in the common or box-hive and quite impossible in nearly :
all patent hives; but quite easy in Rev. L. L. Langstroth’s
Movable Comb Hive, in which the combs are built in a frame,
similar to a slate or a picture in a frame, which being suspend-
— ed on a narrow rabbet do not touch or come in contact with
the hive at the top, bottom, or sides. Old combs can be put
into the frames and be given to the bees to fill for their own ;
-__use or for breeding combs. “as
““ By cutting out the combs referred to,” Mr. Mahan contin-
ues, ‘‘the bee-keeper makes a saving of all the honey fed to
them before they are matured; the time occupied by the bees
in feeding and nursing them; and last, though not least, assum- oe
ing one foot as the average, which is capable of producing over -
4,000 drones, by destroying this there is space suflicient to build
combs in which 7,200 cells for hatching the workers will be
erected ; which, as we have done away with the drones, is fully
equal to an accession of 14,400 working-bees.”*
This matter is certainly worthy of the attention of Boo kee
ers, and should be fully investigated.t
* Southern Planter.
+ A large portion of the matter in th’s chap er, not credited to other sources,
has been condensed from the excellent articles on ‘‘ Bees and Bee-Keeping,”
in the “ New American Encyclopedia.”
APPENDIX.
HORSE-TAMING—RAREY’S SYSTEM.
1, Tae THrory.
THE one principle which you must establish firmly in your mind, and whick
is so essential in horse-faming that it is almost the corner-stone of the theory
is the law of kindness. Next to kindness you must have patience, and next to
patience indomitable perseverance. With these qualities in us, and not pos-
sessing fear or anger, we undertake to tame horses, with perfect assurance of
success, if we use the proper means. The horse receives instruction in, and
by the use of, four of his senses—namely, seeing, hearing, smelling, and feel-
ing. You must remember that the horse is a dumb brute, has not the faculty
of reasoning on experiments that you make on him, but is governed by instinct.
In a natural state he is afraid of man, and never, until you teach him that you
do not intend to hurt him, will that fear cease—we mean that wild, natural fear
—for you must have him fear you as well as love you, before you can absorb his
attention as much as is necessary to break him to your liking. It is a principle
in the nature of a horse not to offer resistance io our wishes, if made known in
a way that he understands, and in accordance with the laws of his nature.
In subjugating the horse, we must make a powerful appeal} to his intelligence.
This can only be done by a physical operation. It is an undisputed fact that
the battles of all animals (except such as are garnished with horns) are fought
by seizing each other by the throat. A dog that has been thus held by his an-
fagonist for a few minutes, on being released, is often so thoroughly cowed that
no human artifice can induce him to again resume the unequal contest. This
is the principle upon which horse-taming is founded.
2. PRACTICAL RULES.
1. Choking—First Method.—Choking a horse is the first process in taming,
and is but the beginning of his education. By its operation a horse becomes
docile, and will thereafter receive any instruction which he can be made to une
derstand. Teaching the animal to lie down at our bidding, tends to keep him
permanently cured, as it is a perpetual reminder of his subdued condition.
It requires a good deal of practice to tame a horse successful'y ; also a nice
APPENDIX.
judgment to know when he is choked sufficiently, as there is a bare possib:
that he might get more than would be good for him. We advise persons T
perfectly familiar with a horse to resort rather to the strapping and throw
down process (unless he is very vicious) described below; this, in ordin
cases, will prove successful. It is the fault of most people who have owned a ~it
horse to imagine that they are expert in his management; while, on the con- |
trary, many professional horsemen are the very worst parties to attempt a su)
jugation. Unless a man have a good disposition, he need not attempt horse-
taming. 5
In practicing the method exhibited in fig. 55, retire with the animal to be |
operated upon into a close stable, with plenty of litter upon the floor (tan-bark —
or sawdust is preferable). In
the first place fasten up the left
fore-leg with the arm strap, in :
such a manner that it will be
permanently secured. Then
take a broad strap and buckle
and pass it around the neck © Saas
just back of the jaw-bone.
Draw the strap as tight as
possible, so tight as to almo
arrest the horse’s breathing.
The strap must not be buck-
led, but held in this position
toprevent slipping back. The —__
animal will struggle forafew
minutes, when he willbecome
perfectly quiet, overpowered
by a sense of suffocation; the
veins in his head will swell; his eyes lose their fire; his knees totter and b se,
come weak ; a slight vertigo will ensue, and growing gradually exhausted, by :
backing him around the stable, he will come down on his knees, in which po-—
sition it is an easy matter to push him on his side, when his throat should be
released. Now pat and rub him gently for about twenty minutes, when, |
which is described in the account of the fourth method of taming. Noh
can effectually resist the terrible effects of beihg choked. -
It must be constantly borne in mind, that the operator must not be boistero &
or violent, and that the greatest possible degree of kindness is absolutely es
Bential. When the horse is prostrate, he should be soothed until his eyes sh ow
that he has become perfectly tranquil.
represented too long. It will be seen that in this plan the horse is made the
instrument by which the punishment is inflicted. When he attempts to pul a
his foot uown, his head goes with it, and he thus chokes himself. Care should
_ be taken that he does not pitch on his head, and thus endanger his neck.
3, Third Method.—Secure the horse with a stout halter to the manger. If
extremely unruly, muz-
le him. Sooth him
with the hands for a
_ few minutes, until he
becomes somewhat pa-
ecified. Then seize him
by the throat (as in fig.
57), close to the jaw-
bone, with the right
hand, and by the mane
with the left. Now fore-
bly compress his wind-
- pipe until he becomes
so exhausted that, by
lightly kicking him on
ihe fore legs, he will lie
down, after which he
hhould be treated as
“previously described. This process requires courage in the operator, and alse #
great muscular strength. :
_ 4, Fourth Method.—The horse to be operated upon should beled into a close
‘stable. The ope.2tor should be previously provided with a stout leather hal-
; 2 looped strap to slip over the animal’s knee; a strong surcingle, and a
long and short strsp—the first to fasten round the fore-foot which is at liberty.
164 APPENDIX.
and the second to permanertly secure the leg which is looped up. The apph-
cation of the straps will be better understood by reference to fig. 5S.
In the first place, if the horse be a biter, muzzle him; then lift and bend his
left fore-leg, and slip a loop over it. The leg which is looped up must be secur-
ed by applying the short strap, buckling it around the pastern joint and fore-
arm ; next put on the surcingle, and fasten the long strap around the right fore-
foot, and pass the end through a loop attached to the surcingle; after which
fasten on a couple of thick leather knee-pads—these can be put on in the first
place if convenient. The pads are necessary, as some horses in their struggles
come violently on their knees, abrading them badly. Now take a short hold
of the long strap with your right hand; stand on the left side of the horse,
grasp the bit in your left hand; while in this position back him gently about
the stable, until he becomes so exhausted as to exhibit a desire to lie down,
which desire should be gratified with as little violence as possible; bear your
weight firmly against the shoulder of the horse, and pull steadily on the strap
with your right hand ; this will force him to raise his foot, which should be im-
mediately pulled from under him. This is the critical moment; cling to the
horse, and after a few struggles he will lie down. In bearing against the ani-
mal do not desist from pulling and pushing until you have him on his side.
Prevent him from attempting to rise by pulling his head toward his shoulder.
As soon as he is done struggling, caress his face and neck ; also, handle every
part of his body, and render yourself as familiar as possible. After he has lain
quietly for twenty minutes let him rise, and immediately repeat the operation,
removing the straps as soon as he is down; and if his head is pulled toward his
shoulder it is impossible for him to get up. After throwing him from two to
five times the animal will become as submissive and abject as a well-trained
dog, and you need not be afraid to indulge in any liberties with him. A young
horse is subdued much quicker than an old one, as his habits are not confirm-
ed. An incorrigible horse should haye two lessons a day; about the fourth
APPENDIX. 165
lesson he will be permanently conquered. If the operation is repeated several
times, he can be made to lie down by simply lifting up his fore-leg and repeat-
ing the words, “‘ Lie down, sir,” which he must be previously made familiar
with.
5. Additional Hints.—The following rules will serve as a guide to the ama-
teur operator, and should be strictly observed :
First. The horse must not be forced down by violence, but must be tired out
till he has a strong desire to lie down.
Second. He must be kept quiet on the ground until the expression of the eye
shows that he is tranquillized, which invariably takes place by patiently waiting
and gently patting the horse.
Third. Care must be taken not to throw the horse upon his neck when bent,
as it may easily be broken.
Fourth. In backing him, no violence must be used, or he may be forced on
his haunches, and his back broken.
Fifth. The halter and off-rein are held in the left hand, so as to keep the
head away from the latter; while, if the horse attempts to plunge, the halter ig
drawn tight, when, the off-leg being raised, the animalis brought on his knees,
and rendered powerless for offensive purposes.—Wew York Tribune.
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INDEX.
A,
PAGE Fowl, The Domestic
(Nh JUG) Rane nae soondaoocansoee 45 Spamishya cctv yee oie
ANTENA] s54654sa5 5860 GUasoosoeDEed D52 ie DOrKIn ey arson ce teeta ae
nad] EXO) Kits} esepepeMN am eer Nn Se as
DB, * Hamburg
Buyers, Hints to...............+-- 4D) = zy ett
Barns and Sheds .............-6-- Sea ree oa Gh cae
Breeds, Improvement of.......... TDS ae Bar fan nae
Breeding In-and-In .............. LOO! Sipe ee ay one aoe aa
as Teme Oa cHseoeaoe decade TAQ ee See spocsoacoasscoescDSs
ReesWeaping@ens sa sstec ce seees os 148) « aeere SR odasiOnc Tas aaa
Bee-Hive, Wonders of... ........ 148] ¢, qcodins
Bees, Swarming of .-...--...-.--. 156) «phe Ge aS ososecbbpaasco oy oc
General Management of .... 156 © Nene
(oh G.
Cattle, Breeds ES Piao deta Ree eee 49 | Guinea Fowl, The................ 187
TD ENGST a ee pa HielGooses ihe ate ete cee meeenae . 140
SER PSELCTELOLG cores, ajc sic oes Sic inte 53
RP SUBRER see ats\ ice beicicicie sceeins 54 H.
See PAYISMIEC) 2.01-\\etcloleice ele =inie'-i- 54) Horse, The........... Rte he 9
pels. = <2. 2-22. oo 55 Horse, Breeds of 222. sae
Trish ............. ihhevRacers.s.)s oscar 11
“ Long Horn.... “ Arabian..... 12
to Ghon Horn cen eee u
Alderney .............-...- (Canadian 202. 3a, shee Ueeate
2 calovey TiO Oy ites ee SSuINOFMAN nates sone een eee 16
Team-h0 “ Cleveland Bay. ....0..050 18
Seen EXOLU Sy Olu ciate rcisvevale sicretnie chs « “ Conestoga 1s
“ General Management...... 65 “! “Olydesdale.. 0.00. fee 19
ce Weight OL PAV OK Sacre ooeee T1 (3 Virginia PERU ea rune | 19
Walivescoi Garin ete setae ernie eraavene 19 “ Wild cee oi ang Cane oH
Crossing Breeds.........2-........ 110 “American Trotting ........ 20
D So) Points| Of aes kee noe eee 21
: So) CC OlOniOfices ondie see eee 26
Diseases of Animals .............. 114 “ How-to Feed........)....4 31
IDOE, Wiehe reaubopesanodscacodnac 143 “¢ General Management of... 35
« * Vices and Habits .3.:...12. 38
E. ‘ . How to Tame.......-...... 161
Ewe, Anecdotctok meee eee 93 RV ES re oawactad a sore sm atere eaioniaaee 152
F. L.
Feeding TTORSES en chia eles as 31 AIDS se WS eerie cotta hake ae eee 88
fs Sheep reesaia os ce oes 84 M
cs @attleree cman discos se 66 ‘
09 Siwinernsl americana: SOU ible AM e@Goghons sondsadadooooce. - 46
CoH A eBOWAS Haas en ialseine ae eee 134| “ ‘Trade in Kentucky ....... cag
Py
8.
Sheep, PSEGESOL iriaalee ietslole oints ict
Native .
“ Spanish Merino
Saxon Os Tra ssers Pere
KS New Leicester ....... 0.0055
PPS OULD-IOWI (222s Ses aeee we
SC GHeWMOhe \s<.2% 02s 4
S ee aR TE Re ay
“ Choice of Breed..... oer
“ General Management of...
“ Value of to the Farmer....
Swine, Natural History of.........
PAGE
| Raa RES eee
eu
bi ea of for Market .. 946 a
Swine, Opinions Baas ate
Bae ss. ‘Berkshire)14cckemooen
Suffolk. oeeee
660" Wssex <2 Ju. ee coo
Chester. << 2cse5t
Peeding \ is... 02 one
Stables ......-c-.cseceseunsaes
Te
WUrkey, 22100: oinn:ni oon
g1 | Paming Horses ...........
4) ; a
92 WwW. ie
95 ' Water-Cure for Anj:aals.. ane:
Alphabets, Ornamental & Fancy. Geo. E. Woodward. 4to. $6 00
Artistic Drawing Studies. Geo. E. Woodward. Quarto.... 6 00
Breechloader, The. By ‘‘Gloan.’’ Illustrated............ 1 25
Copley’s Alphabets, Plain and Ornamental................ 3 00
Crack Shot (The Rifle). By E.C. Barber. Illustrated... . 1 25
Cupper’s Universal Stair-Builder...............-..-.2---5-- 2 50
Dead Shot (The Gun). By ‘‘Marksman.”? Tlustrated..-.-.. 1 25
Dog, The. By Dinks, Mayhew and Hutchinson............ 3 00
Elliott’s Lawn and Shade Trees. Illustrated.............. 1 00
Eyeleth’s School-House Architecture. Quarto..........-. 4 00
Elepa@ loess apPOre miiewccups evsrsisicrays esas icici aretelofeniaiaysteyes ise s/s 10
Frank Worester’s American Game. _Illustrated........... 1 50
Frank Forester’s Field Sports. 2 vols. MIllustrated---.---- 4 00
Frank Forester’s Fish and Fishing. 100 Illustrations ..... 2 50
Frank Forester’s Horse of America. 2 vols., 8vo........-. 5 00
Frank Frest er’s Young Sportsman’s Manual. Illustrated, 2 00
Fuller’s Forest Tree Culturist. Fully Illustrated 1 00
Gun Rod amd Saddle: Mlustrated 2s ..20 20... se o2 slain = 1 00
Harney’s Barns, Outbuildings, and Fences ......... gsnocod 4 00
Horse Portraiture—Breeding and Training Trotters, etc... 2 00
How to Geta Farm and Where to Find One...............- ~ 100
Husmann’s Grapes and Wine. Ilustrated....... ........ 1 00
Hussey’s National Cottage Architecture. Quarto........ 4 00
Jacques’ Garden, Farm, and Barn-yard...................- 1 50
Jacques’ Manual ofthe House. (126 Designs)......... .-. 1 00
Lewis’ Practical Poultry Book. 100 Ulustrations.......... 1 50
Miner’s Domestic Poultry Book. Illustrated .............. ~ 100
Monckton’s National Carpenter and Joiner. Quarto...... 5 00
Monckton’s National Stair Builder. Quarto.............. 5 00
Our arm Oly HOUR IA CVES 5 1 2TMIO! ceccrns do a/c cele o eieieieeioie. eee 60
Phin’s Open-Air Grape Culture. New edition............. 1 00
| Randall’s PracticalShepherd. New edition. Dllustrated.. 2 00
Rural Church Arehitecture. (20 Designs)...............-.- 4 00
Ten Acres Enough. New edition. Illustrated............ 1 00
Thomery System of Grape Culture. Flexible cloth....... 30
Todd’s Young Farmer’s Manual. 3vols........... Per set, 4 50
Mollet he Harmiand Workshopo- esc /lseeeesen 1 50
Vol. 2. How to Make Farming Pay...........-..-..++ 1 50
Wolgss Wiheat Culture tethers secs sock neice 1 50
route Culvure: By: Jj Ee Slack MaDe et. cone Seles 1 00
Wallace’s American Stud Book. 1,000 pages, 8vo..... .... 10 00
Wallace’s American Trotting Register. 8vo............... 10 00
Wheeler's Homes for the People. Fully Illustrated....... 2 00
Wheeler’s Rural Homes. Fully Iilustrated................ 1 50
Willard’s Practical Butter Book. Illustrated........... .. 1 00-
Willard’s Practical Dairy Husbandry. Iils)................ 3 00
Woodward’s Cottages and Farm-Houses. 188 Designs an
A EAE Wal RMN ey BCE ES eye ager ae ale ara Ber MLA)
Woodward’s Country Homes. 150 Designs and Plans...... 1 00
Woodward's Designs for the Fret Saw........ Fe tote Neeley aula 50
Woodward’s Graperies and Horticultural Buildings....... 1 00
Woodward's National Architect. Vol. 1. (1,00 Designs).. 7 50
Woodward’s National Architect. Vol.2. (100 Quarto Plates) 7 50
Woodward’s Suburban and Country Houses. 70 Designs
UIT CUMEAL DTN actorsicsatel sree sists oiivs Tsiareteloes aeitz ce aime laate Ad os weve ae Boo 2) (00)
FOR SALE AT ALL BOOKSTORES.
JENNY JUNE’S
AMERICAN COOKERY BOOK,
CONTAINING
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REC HIP'TS,;
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AND PRACTICAL FORM, ALSO,
A CHAPTER FOR INVALIDS,
ONE FOR INFANTS, and
ONE ON JEWISH COOKERY.
TOGETHER WITH A
SUPPLEMENT ON CARVING,
Illustrated by over Forty Engravings,
AND A VARIETY OF MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS OF SPECIA&
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——+-2 o—___——_-
BY MRs. J. C. CROLY,
(JENNIE JUNE.)
Author of “ Talks on Woman's Topics,” ete.
One Volume 12mo. Handsomely bound in Black and Gold. Price $1.50.
TO BE HAD AT ALL BOOKSTORES,
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This edition is the Cheapest and Best. It has Numerous Illustrations,
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Dick’s Shakespeare.
Containing all the Plays, the whole of his poems, with Memoir and
Portrait, and $7 illustrations by Gilbert Wilson, &c. Paper...... 60
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Dick’s Byron.
A new edition of the works of Lord Byron. 480 pages, 16 illustrations
by F. Gilbert. Paper.............. Mislssisraletsiowers oro ntetereie i sin ae aoiamees 50
MCIGUB pt ia acicicis e sAsisieveleisis sorscgot Sohogadeeesassancossatece ees 1.60
Dick’s Scctt.
A new edition of the Poetical ERS of Sir Walter Scott. Illustrated by
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CLG Ee eee circa a sinis,o aysicie ss wiersieleiele\cie'sfeiatarecicios seisisiove asiasinisiee 50
Dick’s Goldsmith.
The Works of Oliver Goldsmith, with Memoir and Portrait. New and
coupleie illustrated edition. Paper HD emer Seca SRT MeR eR ais 40
CIOL ee siere aie o sleie Beaeiciaciceiwesseis bclsmocen ts sWeiajai si sreis ciate eatee 80
Dick’s Burns.
This new and complete edition of the Poetical Works of Robert Burns
is elaborately illustrated, and contains the whole of the Poems, Life and
eoerceron dence of the great Scottish Bard. Paper.............. 2D
Dick’s Arabian Nights.
A sew. translation, complete, with numerous illustrations. Paper, 25
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Dick’s Miiton.
Milton’s Works, new edition, with Memoirs, Portrait, and Frontispiece.
PAID Tastes eal atoyats|ata)ciesa ails a = claieic, seis lo}o sisi lola/s) isis « says eisioicia sesclesiels 25
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Wordsworth’s Works, new edition, with numerous illustrations.
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Cloth e553: So see sosgeseodss Sptocksosadsapednoaadencdscousua 50
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A new edition of the Works of Alexander Pope, with notes by Joseph
Nwiartons DD and Others, “Paper... aes cence) ace coe eeieees 590
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A new edition of the Works of James Thomson, with life of the author.
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